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ANNUAL REPORT
BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

SHOWING

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION
OF THE INSTITUTION

Jd Ta Ge SD 6.

yp <0 Ge

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
1898.

en he
FROM THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

ACCOMPANYING

The annual report of the Board of Regents of the Institution for the year
ending June 30, 1896.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, D. C., July 1, 1896.
To the Congress of the United States :

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the
United States, | have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents,
to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expend-
itures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year
ending June 30, 1896.

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. ADLAL EK. STEVENSON,
President of the Senate.
Ill

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR THE
YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

SUBJECTS.

1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January,
1896.

2, Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs
of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and
receipts and expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1896.

3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera-
tions and condition of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1896,
with statistics of exchanges, ete.

4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous memoirs
of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution,
teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. These
memoirs relate chiefly to the calendar year 1896.

IV

CONTENTS.

Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to
COMERGYS: basodd ceag he Ge osseneeNes SGaeons ReSSaSDnoson Sr acse SeUneercroIcaas
General subjects of the Annual Report -----.....-..-....----.----.--------
APES OH WOE) INGO TER oShe Canoes bocecoosESoCOnEeOSuemerauatsocee casousee
MIST OM NIMS tC ATIONS es seis <o' sees cee ae ceec cle ome ieee amen ite averse
Members ex officio of the Establishment...--..-...-.--.-----.---------------
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution..............---..----.------------
JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS ...-..--------
Stated meeting January 22, 1896..........--.-.----.-- ednaccosst sacd ect
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE for the year ending June 30, 1896-
Condition of the fund July I pl89Gse=s ees eae pe celeste heel e ee eee
REGeUpts fOr ONO sy Cara paces ase cers oertierevasteus in eee are eine ne le ayaya rane inte
Fxpenditures-tor the: year ssos 22502 Sloe areca oa ce Smyee ep ee cise Noate
Salestandmepayments oo. esha Sel oe ee see steeee soe se eae eae
Appropriation for International Exchanges..-..-...---.----------------
Detailsiof expenditures of same .-. 25.2 .225255-2552 222-525-225 2- 2-6 =.
Appropriation for North American Ethnology...-...-----.-------------
Details of expenditures of same..-. --....---2.---- 22-52 2-- = ese eons --
Appropriations for the National Museum ..--....-.....---.-----.------
Details of expenditures of same........-...-----2------.------------
Appropriation torre protection: .252-2-\-..-25-.222s2ss-sen- 22s eee
Details of expenditures of same..-..-.--..:-..--2-.-----. ------+------
Appropriation for Astrophysical Observatory --....--------------------
Details of expenditures of Sames--.--.-222- 25222- 2 s225- esses eee eee
Appropriations for the National Zoological Parkes ico nht eee ae So a
Details of expenditures of same....----.-. aes ape es ell Sar Ae Be en
MECCTROT: St) LS CARNLNIR CUTS Vice Parc es IR SE as A ce a age a ye ipa See
Income ayailable for ensuing year... 222.2225 226265522 shee bo ecccesee
ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS relative to the Smithsonian Institu
tion, National Museum, etc., Fifty-fourth Congress, first session......----

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

IRTRRARCEVEM LEG: LRUN TS pepe ie te ee tre hire ae hd) SITE EN SEs Ba tee SUK A ha el
SIRE STITEULING MAT ULIS PULL LOU va he ee Re Eye tO RN EPL ANE Be ee Soe sae
EGR EN USM DISINGM bee ees eres Le FRAG Nak oe EE TD Ree eS

MiesbOandiotMerenis;. 22221 Lath lte nk t cae ees ear Naess menens

POTS UM UULOUMER Re eee Re eee ee tlle bend Gk ee pee Ae eke a
ASR RSR ET CGS erent tie vo etek ea ak Se RIL SLAY oo SL Se ae SE aed A PAN Ee NS EA
PUM O Seat se eee enna s eS! Doe eve e besa o, ie Lee alee Newt
Research ....-.. SC eS ie ae sea eseh Ot aa BRS Sal ae BU AAS Pek Bea Chl ae tase

XXT
XXI
XXII
XXII
XXIV
XXTV
XXXI
XXXI
XXX Vi
XXX V

XXXVI
XXX VI

XLII
XLIII

XLV

wd vo =

or Or

VI CONTENTS.

The Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Xp LOT VblONShacce awa = nc eee cer ass cicle\ eo Seon eee eee ee eee eee
PubliGatlons eso -ceou cee aoe lone Soe sence Cassese eee ee Seer eee eee
Wabtarvinsscs sacs cose scot ee aeas Se eten see ee ee ser eee eee eee
Wodolsins fund ges. tes be Sass sos ies SC eee Ree See ee en eee eee
PAVE TEV MEUM G! toe Sls Bi ie ain ee alone crete ial aie Sere wieye eis eee tee ee
Smithsonian Half-Century ewan fesse ree eeeaseh lve eee eee ee eee
COrkespongence see sss ceoe Soe eae oe cee Meee yee eae See ee eee

Miscellaneous:
Naplesvtable Secs hs- stan nee on Baten cre See eres a en eee
Artic Olle CtiOm Seaeeeeie ois on Bece eee ene beeme eae Ree Renee ee eee
Actlamiba (ox posibion’-saeecees. 2-2 54st ccera sere ce ee eee ease ae
international’ Zoolosicals oneress==s=- ee eaeeneee =e eee ea ae eee
hepsmuithsonyMiemonialalabletsssssesrs= ene esas see ae
AmenicanpeistoricalvAssoclahlonee= cerns: seer er eee eee. era eee
Wnte day Stavesp Ney tion a Mis evi epee p ery see a a
Bure auofeAm erica nett hin oll cay eee ee eter eee ea
imibenmationallekxeiamiciehs erivil Cee pee eae eee
Natronal’ZoolocicalsRark- ras i 22222658 WS Se Ase See ents oe ee See eee
Astrophysical sObservatoLys-saace > cscs hose Sos e eee Bee ene EL ee ER oe eee
ING crolo gies soem Sea later alters decisis ete coe a Se eC ee oe oe eee

Appendixes:

Appendix I. The United States National Museum ...........-....--------
II. Report of the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology.--------
iii heportot the! Curator ots iixechanCese=se ses se = Ee eee
IV. Report of the Superintendent of the National Zoological
EPO e S alr ie ater ea ea oats SOR en AR Pete aaa epee ee
VY. Report upon the Astrophysical Observatory -.----.----.-----
Wieekeport of theslbibraniane 2s sees eee eee eee eee
Vili Reportiof-the Hdihoriss 25 47sec oe oe eee ee eee eee

GENERAL APPENDIX.

The Problems of Astronomy, by Simon Newcomb....-...-..-....-...----.----
The Investigations of Hermann Von Helmholtz on the Fundamental Principles

of Mathematics and Mechanics, by Leo Koenigsberger....---...-----------
Physical Phenomena of the Upper Regions of the Atmosphere, by Alfred

Gormuy so Sse ree Sees, DIR A es Eye ee ea Se 8 ee anya =e eer
New Researches on Liquid Air, by Professor Dewar.----...--------=.------=-
Meteorological Observatories, by Richard Inwards.......--.---.-------------
Color Photography by Means of Body Colors, and Mechanical Color Adapta-

ionmne Nature. DyeO tbo wWhenele 2 are eee) eiaesteee et iay is eee eee ee
Present Status of the Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Energy, by

onissDun Came cease ese a see) elaaroe sa sins See alee opie ceioe ae Se ae ee ee
The Utilization of Niagara, by Thomas Commerford Martin---...---.--------
Earth-Crust Movements and Their Causes, by Joseph Le Conte ..------------
The Physical Geography of Australia, by J. P. Thomson...-.----- feecss a See
Arctic ER =plorabions, by Aji. Marldham.s- 2-2 -ese- See eee neces eee eee eee
RheAnim=-alvasva brime Mover; by kh. He Dhurston s-s5>+ seeee eee eases eee
Recent Advances in Science, and their Bearing on Medicine and Surgery, by

MichaelwBosterasess ih see eed Bee feed tS oh ee Sr te ee nee
Ludwig and Modern Physiology, by J. Burdon-Sanderson .......--.--.-------

Page.
8

83

93

125
135
149

167

207
223
233
245
273

297

339

CONTENTS. VII
Page,

The Processes of Life Revealed by the Microscope; a Plea for Physiological

EMShOlOCye va OlMOM LW enty) Gage ees. -la a sce ecins sciel= an ise aie ale eee ele ae 381
The General Conditions of Existence and Distribution of Marine Organisms,

low di@lin WItihEay 3355 sed sod osdose Sabb cooboneeceeEre S56 Sop loenoodinsusdegeccise 397
The Biologic Relations Between Plants and Ants, by Dr. Heim .......-....---- 411
Some Questions of Nomenclature, by Theodore Gill ...--...---..----..------- 457
The War with the Microbes, by E. A. de Schweinitz ...-...-....---..--------- AR5-
The Rarer Metals and their Alloys, by W. Chandler Roberts-Austen...---..--- 497
Preliminary Account of an Expedition to the Pueblo Ruins near Winslow,

ANIZONA LM 1S9G;, Dy. Walter Hewkes-. foc 2 sc cc ce cecclse a cece eceee scecinie 517
Was Primitive Man a Modern Savage, by Talcott Williams........-..-.------- 541
Bows and Arrows in Central Brazil, by Hermann Meyer ........-...--------- 549

Account of the Work of the Service of Antiquities of Egypt and of the Egyp-
tian Institute during the Years 1892, 1893, and 1894, by J. De Morgan ..-.-.. 591
Report upon the Exhibit of the Smithsonian Institution and the United States
National Museum at the Cotton States and International Exposition, Atlanta,

erste Soo Divs Gx POW GOO CG) oe.2c aes creel cins Cee attare never wre meer uence Mere 613
Memorial of Dr. Joseph M. Toner, by Ainsworth R. Spofford........--..--.-.- 637
William: Bower Laylor by William). Rhees.--52-25.-5--42-ocss22 5. eeeeee see 645
wOseporerestwich, by HB. Woodward: 22-55-20. asec ceeee ce nee cece ce ee 657
HeunvpanucschbyiGe NaSsperoee. sfc. se oma eae s sepa es es) ute ee hae eee 667
A Biographical Sketch of John Adam Ryder, by Harrison Allen ..........-.-- 673

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

SECRETARY’S REPORT: Page. Page.
Hodekins medal... 2. 22-5 10 | PRocEssks OF LIFE REVEALED BY
The Smithson Memorial Tablets. 16 MICROSCOPE:

Map of Zoological Park -....--- 24 Pate aXe ae ee eee ere ae yee 384
Rustic bridge in Zoological Park. 62 Pla toexellge tg ane eee 386
Rock work in Zoological Park.. 64 Platespxelil. XVieva see eee ae 388
Young elk in Zoological Park... 66 BU a te ERaN tees Ae UN 390

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER eba bey Xavi ce sonsecene eae seers 394

ATMOSPHERE: BroLoGic RELATIONS OF PLANTS

Rules cele ce cece a= ee 127 AND ANTS:
Figs. 2,3 ..---.--..------------- 128 | Rlaite exe WINS ae tee eR CE 430
tue ee cacao. os oes asec 132 PlaterXevillle ss. o 9) aon hae 432

New RESEARCHES ON LIQuiID AIR: | Blatey XX 22S 2 sees eee see aa
2) vif trey U1] Pete Ska Me ec a 136 aie XEXes Ss se ee ee eee A38
Pa nbe Miles terse, Seek che. cee ojala 138 | Plate: NOG Sse ee Sens 440
Bre yaee ee es Soa 140 | Plate XX Di # oes See renee 446
RAMAMON Virdee aw aaie coe Seo Sim = == 2 142 | RarER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS:
Oi AL ie SBN cea csoee aera 144 Plate One 0. sees 502
PMC Ueber ote wien sana oma ei = © 146 Plater ROX Ve 2 eae cea cre ee 506

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY: Plate: XGXiV: Sees Ses See eee 508
NU Neale ee errs Sarton oe ee eas 180 Plates SOoxe Ve a ae oe ect 512

UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA: | PuEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW,
aU Ee se Seesoc ees... 294.| -ARIZONAS
EDGR Oe ae Oe ee eee 226 Plate XX Ville s eee ease aol
ELC AE CE SS cSeh woos sos ctis eS 228 | Plate XM Veo ese ses 523

Vill CONTENTS.

Page. | Page.
PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, | PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW,
AriIzona—Continued. | ARIzONA—Continued.
alates PNONODNEOXONOK, SSeS eee DE Plate: SoG Vib. 22st ee se ae eee 536
Plaibe exons sans fanaa sss see ID Plate Vike e eee see 537
abe eXOXeXal AMA ase ee ee we 526 Plates XLVIII, XLIX..--..- anes 538
IHD OW OUB LES e Bee ere ae 527 Plates Tose See 22S eee 540
late eXexONele Vets ss sna Rees te 528 Plate LV (colored, Red ware) .- 540
Plate XXXV (colored, Mosaic Bows AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL
[LOM ose see esate tee eee 529 BRAZIL:
Plates XXX VI-XXXVIII --.---- 530 Plate LVI (colored map)-------- 582
Plates XXXIX-XLI .......----- 531 Plate WW. 222 sees eee 58h
Plahewxclsics see Sante ase es sia eee 532 Platevl Vals Spee aoe eee 586
Plater eliltsscate eee Ree ce 533 Plate GX oe see = oe 583
Plate XLIV (colored, Incrusted lant 6 OX ee 590
OLNAMENLS)) sees -- eer eS 534 | EXHIBIT AT ATLANTA EXPOSITION:

IRI ERHSD-)\ Ss a aaieeee neo mesasee 535 ‘Plate aX ss Sas ee eee ee 614

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE “ESTABLISHMENT.”

GROVER CLEVELAND, President of the United States.
ADLAI E. STEVENSON, Vice-President of the United States.
MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief Justice of the United States.
RICHARD OLNEY, Secretary of State.

JOHN G. CARLISLE, Secretary of the Treasury.

DANIEL 8. LAMONT, Secretary of War.

JUDSON HARMON, Attorney-General.

WILLIAM L. WILSON, Postmaster-General.

HILARY A. HERBERT, Secretary of the Navy.

HOKE SMITH, Secretary of the Interior.

J. STERLING MORTON, Secretary of Agriculture.

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

(List given on the following page. )

OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION.
~ SAMUEL P. LANGLEY, Secretary,
Director of the Institution and of the U. S. National Museum.

G. BROWN GOODE, Assistant Secretary.

REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes,
Title LX XIII, section 5580), and amended March 12, 1894, “The busi-
ness of the institution shall be conducted at the city of Washington
by a Board of Regents, named the Regents of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, to be composed of the Vice-President, the Chief Justice of the
United States, three members of the Senate, and three members of
the House of Representatives, together with six other persons, other
than Members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city
of Washington and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State,
but no two of the same State.”

REGENTS FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

The Chief Justice of the United States:
MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancellor and President of the Board Jan-
uary 9, 1889.

The Vice-President of the United States:
ADLAI EK. STEVENSON.

Term expires.
United States Senators:

JUSTIN S. MORRILL (appointed Feb. 21, 1883, Mar. 23, 1885, and

IDSC ASQ eee re ee RM raise every eae ert Oe, CRO ape ere oie yee Mar. 3, 1897
SHELBY M. CULLOM (appointed Mar. 23, 1885, Mar. 28, 1889, aad

IDXeX open ey SASH) ete eas Uicrenne Me ule rer mes aoa es Sue sata oe Mar. 3,1901
GEORGE GRAY (appointed Dee. 20, 1892, and Mar. 20, 1893)...--- Mar. 3, 1899

Members of the House of Representatives:
JOSEPH WHEELER (appointed Jan. 10, 1888, Jan. 6, 1890, Jan.

115, Wess dein, dh, Weel enndl IDYGs AAD, Ike). co sSeaScee coscec oases oses Dec. 22, 1897
ROBERT R. HITT (appointed Aug. 11, 1893, Jan. 4, 1894, and Dee.

DORI ROSE MTSE Moun te ni Nal ot TOR ania ae et IS Reet ciepanete Dec. 22, 1897
ROBERT ADAMS, JR. (appointed Dec. 20, 1895) --...---.-------- Dec. 22, 1897

Citizens of a State:
JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (appointed Jan. 19, 1887, and

FAMED MOOS ie Aste aces ay ly c tet 8 Sai) Bea Rie Gye Seep iat panei eae ENS Jan. 19, 1899
ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (appointed Feb. 15, 1888, and
Mar 219; cS 945) asec died 2 Verne ia aie eo Cie un acre ee mera Sere rene Mar. 19, 1900
WILLIAM PRESTON JOHNSTON, of Louisiana (appointed Jan.
‘ OJ lol 27) eae eae as ate aes ral aon 3 eS Be asae Se SEM Rao Jan. 26, 1898
Citizens of Washington:
JOHN B. HENDERSON (appointed Jan. 26, 1892) -.....--..------ Jan. 26, 1898
GARDINER G. HUBBARD (appointed Feb. 27, 1895)..----..----- Feb. 27, 1901
WILLIAM L. WILSON (appointed Jan. 14, 1896).......--.-...--- Jan. 14, 1902

Naecutive Committee of the Board of Regents.

J. B. HENDERSON, Chairman. WILLIAM L. WILSON. GARDINER G. HUBBARD.
aK:

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

ANNUAL MEETING OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

JANUARY 22, 1896.

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents, adopted
January 8, 1890, by which its stated annual meeting occurs on the
fourth Wednesday of January, the board met to-day at 10 o’clock a. m.

Present: The Chancellor (the Hon. M. W. Fuller) in the chair; the
Vice-President of the United States (the Hon. A. HK. Stevenson), the
Hon. J. 8. Morrill, the Hon. 8S. M. Cullom, the Hon. George Gray, the
Hon. Joseph Wheeler, the Hon. R. R. Hitt, the Hon. Robert Adams, jr.,
the Hon. Andrew ID. White, the Hon. J. B. Henderson, the Hon. Gardi-
ner G. Hubbard, the Hon. W. L. Wilson, and the Secretary Mr. 8. P.
Langley.

Exeuses for nonattendauce were read from Dr. William Preston
Johnston, on account of illness, and from Dr. J. B. Angell, on account
of an important business engagement.

At the Chanecellor’s suggestion, the Secretary read the minutes of
the last meeting, in abstract. There being no objection, the minutes
stood approved.

The Secretary then announced the following reappointments and
appointments of Regents:

REAPPOINTMENTS.

The Hon. 8. M. Cullom, of Illinois, by the President of the Senate,
on December 18, 1895.

The Hon. Joseph Wheeler, of Alabama, and the Hon. R. R. Hitt, of
Illinois, by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, on December
20, 1895.

The Hon. William L. Wilson, of West Virginia, by joint resolution
of Congress, approved by the President January 14, 1896.

APPOINTMENTS.

The Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard, of Washington, D. C., by joint reso-
lution of Congress, approved by the President February 27, 1895.
The Hon. Robert Adams, jr., of Pennsylvania, by the Speaker of the

House of Representatives, on December 20, 1895,
XI

XII JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

The Chancellor announced that the vacancies existing in the Execu-
tive Committee were customarily filled by the adoption of resolutions,
and General Wheeler introduced the following:

Resolved, That the vacancies in the Executive Committee be filled by the election
of the Hon. William L. Wilson and the Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard.

Resolved, That the Hon. J. B. Henderson be elected chairman of the Executive
Committee.

On motion, the resolutions were adopted.

The Chaneellor announced the death of Dr. Henry Coppée, and
appointed Senator Henderson and the Secretary a committee to draft
suitable resolutions. Senator Henderson. on behalf of the committee,
presented the following:

Whereas the members of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
are called to mourn the death of their colleague, the late Henry Coppée, LL. D.,
acting president of Lehigh University, for twenty years a Regent of the Institution,
and long a member of its Executive Committee:

Resolved, That the Board of Regents feels sincere sorrow in the loss of one whose
distinguished career as a soldier, a man of letters, and whose services in the promo-
tion of education command their highest respect and admiration.

Resolved, That in the death of Dr. Coppée the Smithsonian Institution and the
Board of Regents have suttered the loss of a tried and valued friend, a wise and
prudent counsellor, whose genial courtesy, well-stored, disciplined mind, and sin-
cere devotion to the interests of the Institution will be ever remembered.

Resolved, That these resolutions be recorded in the journal of the proceedings of
the board, and that the Secretary be requested to send acopy to the family of their
departed associate and friend in token of’sympathy in this common affliction.

On motion, the resolutions were unanimously adopted by a rising
vote.

The Secretary presented his annual report for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1895, and said: ‘‘ I may speak of the last year as one of varied
and fruitful activities, which are detailed in this report, which, however,
does not cover some points I desire presently to bring before the
Regents.”

After discussion by the Regents of a report upon the condition of the
Avery fund, the Secretary said: “I may ask the attention of the Regents
to the fact that the Hodgkins fund prizes have been awarded, one of
which—the principal one, of $10,000—was given through the American
embassy in London to Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay for the dis-
covery of a new element in the atmosphere ‘Argon.’ A similar prize
of 50,000 frances was given nearly simultaneously to the same persons
by the Institute of France. The second prize was not awarded, and
the third (of $1,000) was given to M. Varigny for the best popular trea-
tise, in accordance with the terms of the announcement. Morever, three
Silver and six bronze medals have been awarded to the laureates out
of nearly two hundred contestants. Letters had been sent to these, with
the thanks of the Institution, and inviting them to say whether they
would have their memoirs remain here or be sent back. In certain
cases, in accordance with the suggestion made last year by General

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XIII

Wheeler, preparations had been made for the publication of some of
the more meritorious ones. Some of them exhibited such care and pains
in the preparation that it was thought desirable to give some kind of
token of the appreciation of the Institution, and medals of silver and
bronze had been awarded. These medals (of which the Secretary
showed a photograph) were now being struck.”

Mr. Wheeler inquired if it was the papers that had received honorable
mention which it was proposed to print, to which the Secretary responded
that that was the purpose, save where the authors preferred to print
themselves.

The Secretary went on to say:

There has probably been no single event in the history of the Institution which
has drawn more attention to it abroad than the announcement and award of these
prizes, which the Regents will remember were given in accordance with the
expressed desire of the donor that such might be at any rate the first disposition of
the income of the amount especially set apart by him for the study of the atmos-
phere. Having done this, I feel that a sort of pious duty has been accomplished in
fulfilling the wishes of Mr. Hodgkins, but while the money has been well bestowed
for once in drawing the almost universal attention of the scientific world to the
Hodgkins bequest and to the Institution and the fund which it administers, as well
as to its fitness as an administrator of other trusts of this character, it may be
doubted if it is a wise policy to continue the giving of such large prizes, which have
rarely been found efficacious in stimulating discovery. Unless, therefore, I am
instructed by the Regents to do otherwise, the income hereafter will be spent in the
customary channels of the Institution’s activities, through the aid of investigations
in regard to the air which more immediately promote the general welfare.

The large amount required for the great prize to which I have alluded, and which
is not likely to be called for again, has, of course, naturally limited the application
of this fund to the aid of original research in more practical ways, which I hope it
will take hereafter; but I may mention one outcome of it, a valuable investigation
by Dr. Weir Mitchell and Dr. Billings in “The composition of expired air.”

Continuing, the Secretary said:

I now desire to bring before the Regents a matter in which they may see fit to
express some opinion.

The fundamental act creating the Institution, in enumerating its functions, appar-
ently considers it first as a kind of Gallery of Art, and declares that all objects of art
and of foreign and curious research, the property of the United States, shall be
delivered to the Regents, and only after this adds that objects of natural history
shall be so also.

The scientific side of the Institution’s activities has been in the past so much
greater than its esthetic that it is well to recall the undoubted fact that it was
intended by Congress to be a curator of the national art, and that this function has
never been forgotten, though often in abeyance.

In 1849, your first Secretary, Joseph Henry, in pursuance of this function of an
Institution which, in his own words, existed for ‘‘ the true, the beautiful, as well as
for the immediately practical,” purchased of the Hon. George P. Marsh a collection
of works of art—chiefly engravings—for the sum of $3,000, understood then to be
but a fraction of its cost, and which, owing to the great rise in the market value of
such things in the last fifty years, does not in the least represent its value to-day.
It is impossible to state what the present value of the collection is, without an
examination of the engravings and etchings, but experts that I have consulted say
that the rise in all good specimens of engraving and etching during the forty-seven

XIV JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

years which have elapsed since the purchase has been so great that if these had then
the value attributed to them they must be worth from five to ten times that amount
now, or even more.

Immediately after the fire at the Institution, in 1865, doubt was felt that the build-
ing was a place of safety, and a portion of the collection was transferred to the
Library of Congress, and in 1874 and 1879 other portions were lent to the newly
founded Corcoran Art Gallery. The transfer was with the express understanding
that they were there for deposit only, and to be reclaimed by the Regents at any
time.

A portion of the collection is identified by Mr. Spofford asin the charge of the
Library at the Capitol, except a few volumes and engravings which he hopes to find
at the time of the coming transfer to the new building. There is no question made
by the Corcoran Gallery about the fact of the engravings and etchings which they
have on deposit.

In view of the fact of the coming occupancy of the new Congressional Library,
in which it is expected that special quarters will be assigned to the Smithsonian
deposit, both for storing in the ‘‘ East Stack” of its now over 300,000 titles, and of
a suitable room for their consultation, and of the further fact that the Corcoran
Gallery will also shortly move into a new building, I have thought it might be
desirable for the Regents to take action looking to the reclamation of the engray-
ings, etchings, and other works of art.

This building has since been made fireproof, and recent changes have given it
_ Ineans of properly caring for these collections.

Senator Gray offered the following resolution, which was adopted:

Resolved, That the question of the propriety of bringing the works of art belong-
ing to the Institution under thc more immediate control of the Board of Regents be
referred to the Executive Committee and the Secretary, with power to act.

The Secretary proceeded:

The charter of the Smithsonian Institution bears the date of August 10, 1846. For
some years the question has been under consideration how best to celebrate the com-
pletion of the first half century, and the matter was fuily discussed in 1893 with the
Executive Committee. It seems quite impracticable to arrange for a gathering of
delegates from other scientific institutions, such as are often held on similar occa-
sions by universities and academies of science. The simplest and most effective
means seems to be the publication of a suitable memorial volume, which should
give an account of the origin of the Institution, its achievements, and its present
condition.

Arrangements have been made, therefore, for the preparation of such a volume,
and the work is in an advanced state. The editorial supervision has been intrusted
to the Assistant Secretary, and a number of persons, eminent authorities in their own
specialties, have been inyited to contribute special chapters.

SMITHSON MEMORIAL TABLETS.
Continuing, the Secretary said:

in the same connection, I have, under the authority of the Regents, directed two
suitable bronze tablets to be set up at the burial place of Smithson, in Genoa—one
in the English Church and the other on his tomb.

SMITHSONIAN TABLE AT NAPLES.

The Secretary spoke of the Zoological Station at Naples, in connec-
tion with the Tables supported by foreign governments, and stated
that on the petition of American universities and scholars he had

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XV

paid, in 1893, $1,500 for the use of such a Table for three years, the
subscription expiring during the present year. He showed a petition
signed by the leading naturalists of the country asking that the Table
be continued. It had been the means of bringing the Institution into
closer relationship with colleges and universities throughout the coun-
try, and he was favorably inclined to the action. It was mentioned
now, not as needing any additional sanction from the Regents, but to
recall a matter of some possible interest to them, as the Institution
stood in this case in the same position as that occupied abroad by the
governments of such countries as Germany and Italy.

THE NATIONAL MUSEUM.
The Secretary resumed:

I do not think I have occasion to speak at length to the Regents about the inter-
ests of the different Government bureaus under their care, further than I have so
fully done in the report, but in regard to the need of larger quarters for the Museum,
and the dangerous character of the sheds used for storage purposes immediately
under the windows of the Smithsonian building, I ask the particular attention of
the Regents to the significant statement on page 5 of the report that no insurance
company will undertake to insure these shops, the property of the Institution, at
less than ten times the ordinary rate. They are under our walls, almost in contact
with them, and are a constant menace.

The Secretary added :

The complete remedy is to build the necessary quarters, but a partial remedy is
for Congress to give authority to lease warehouses in the vicinity for storage. The
present ones are choked with matter largely inflammable, and the condition can
hardly be worse or more dangerous than it is.

Many valuable gifts have been received during the year. A considerable number
of important scientific memoirs have been published, and many more are in prepa-
ration. More money and room are urgently needed, and the lack of these prevents
the proper utilization of the national collections.

Of the Bureau of Ethnology, I need only say that it has proceeded in its ordinary
path of usefulness under the efficient direction of Major Powell. I have myself,
however, used a certain unexpended balance in sending out an expedition under the
charge of Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, which resulted in the exploration of a very inter-
esting ruin near the town of Moqui, the remains of a town which was destroyed by
hostile Indians before the first visit of the Spaniards. This is the first careful
exploration of a thoroughly pre-Columbian town site, and the collections obtained
throw much new light upon the customs of these ancient peoples. The collections,
it may be added, are of great intrinsic yalue, since the pottery is the finest that has
ever yet been exhumed, and the series obtained being monographic for a special
locality, is unequaled by any other of the kind in the world.

Ihave also authorized another expedition to investigate the Seri Indians, which
has been lately conducted to a successful issue by Mr. McGee.

THE BUREAU OF INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.
The Secretary continued:

The Smithsonian numbers in the records of its Exchange Bureau about 24,000 cor-
respondents, scattered over the entire world.

The appropriation for the service is $17,000, and in addition an average of about
$3,000 a year has been received from Government bureaus and others for transporta-

XVI JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

tion of the exchanges. The service is not altogether satisfactory for lack of funds
to insure fast transportation. Reports and publications that should go promptly
are now compelled to wait because they are free freight. Nearly fifty years ago
some of the lines gave the Institution free transportation in the interest of ‘‘the dif-
fusion of knowledge.” This was once well enough, but the result now is that Goy-
ernment publications, which were not contemplated in the original gift, have to wait
till there is room which can not be used for paid freight. It is doubtful economy.

The United States Government, by treaty made at Brussels in 1886 and proclaimed
by thé President in 1889, is under obligation to maintain an exchange bureau. A
treaty was also nade at the same time for the immediate exchange of the parliamen-
tary proceedings of the countries concerned. For this no appropriation has been
made, though an estimate of the appropriation needed for the purpose, submitted
by me to the honorable the Secretary of State at his request, has been transmitted
by him in due form to Congress for action.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

Proceeding, the Secretary said:

The park under the charge of the Regents is undoubtedly the finest natural site
for such a purpose in the immediate vicinity of any large capital, not only of this
country, but of Europe and the world. But comparatively little can be done under
an appropriation which is barely sufficient to police the park and keep alive and
safely house the animals there, without buying any new ones.

The Regents will remember that the park was intended originally for a national
rather than for a local purpose, and that the prominent feature of it was to be the
preservation of our native fauna from extinction. I want to ask the attention of
the Regents, and especially of those who can influence legislation in Congress, to a
paragraph in the report, on page 30, which, it seems to me, ought to be known to
Congress, and to call out some measure to relieve this threatened extinction. It is
popularly supposed that the remnant of the great body of bison which once covered
this continent is in safety in the Yellowstone Park, under Government control, but
the herd there is being so rapidly depleted that unless some measures are taken it
is doubtful if any will be left at the end of the present year. There is a stockade
there, put up at the expense of the Zoological Park appropriation, to hold those to
be sent to Washington preparatory to their transportation. None have yet occupied
it; but I think that unless the bison are transferred to this or to the Zoological Park
here, which has sufficient space for all that are left, the final extinction of all under
Government control, except the few already here, may be looked for in a few months
more.

The Secretary here read the letter of Captain Anderson, the Super-
intendent of the Yellowstone Park, as follows:

DECEMBER 12, 1895.

I can give you no definite information about the bison in the Hayden Valley, near
your corral. My scouting parties have reported the trails of several small bands
leading in that direction, but as the snowfall has been light they have not as yet
been driven to that narrow area. I do not expect to be able to get an accurate esti-
mate of their number before the latter part of January. I hope there are enough
remaining for a source of supply for your park, and if they can be inclosed the cost
of maintenance will be very small.

The reports made through the newspapers of the slaughter of the bison recently
are, of course, much exaggerated, but, unfortunately, several have been killed, I feel
pretty certain that ten were killed within the past four months. I have now in
custody in the guardhouse a man who was captured in possession of the scalps
of five.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. XVII

I made a pretty thorough tour of their range in October last, and saw very few
signs. I am sure that I have heretofore overestimated their numbers. J doubtif
there are over fifty remaining, and these will not all winter in the Hayden Valley.
They increase but slowly under the best conditions, and here, where they are being
constantly pursued and where the winters are very severe, but small increase can be
looked for. Of course the stockade recently erected will be a great assistance in
their protection, if they can be secured within it.

All of the animals in the park are protected properly and are increasing, with the
exception of the bison, and of these it is difficult to predict as yet.

The Secretary resumed:

7

The park here is, however, fulfilling its functions as ‘‘the lungs of the city” and
for the ‘‘instruction and recreation of the people,” and no better evidence is needed
to corroborate this than the crowds which constantly visit it.

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.

Concerning the Astrophysical Observatory, the Secretary said:

The Regents will remember that five years ago it was resolved: ‘‘ That if an appro-
priation should be made by Congress for the maintenance of an ‘astrophysical
observatory,’ under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, the Regents will
expend for this purpose, from moneys already donated to them, $10,000 for the con-
struction of buildings for said observatory, whenever a suitable site shall be desig-
nated by Congress and obtained for the purpose.” * * *

It was then anticipated that the first step to be taken by Congress in the matter
would be the provision of a suitable site. Congress, however, saw fit to make the
appropriation in terms which provided for the scientific work of an observatory
already in progress, and in order to utilize this appropriation, which would other-
wise have had to be returned to the Treasury, the temporary and inadequate quarters
in the sheds immediately behind the Smithsonian building were provided in 1890.

Ihave had too much personal concern with the work which has been done there
not to perhaps speak of it with a friendly bias, but if I may believe the expressions
of men of science competent in this matter, hardly any more important work in the
spectrum has been done in the century than has been going on and is still going on
here under the Smithsonian Institution, though under such disadvantageous con-
ditions.

Briefly, this research is giving us a knowledge of nearly thrice the amount of the
details of the solar energy that were known to Sir Isaac Newton, and in a region
which remained almost untouched since he left it until our own day, when these
researches took it up.

As has been stated in previous reports, there is an element of uncertainty in the
results, due to the fact that they are all obtained through an excessively delicate
instrument which registers minute vibrations set up by the sun, but which also regis-
ters (whether we will or no) vibrations coming from local causes, such as the tremor
of the ground, which always exists, however imperceptible to the ordinary sense, in
the midst of a great city. There are ways of discriminating between these true and
false effects, but the latter can hardly be eliminated - certainly not in very many
years of labor—in the present altogether unfit site, whereas the work already sketched
out could be pushed to successful conclusion and publication in a single twelvemonth
in a quiet locality.

In view of the delay in providing a site for a building, the Secretary has already
been authorized by a subsequent resolution of the Regents to expend the sum of
$10,000 bequeathed by J. H. Kidder and given by Alexander Graham Bell ‘‘in direc-
tions consonant with the known wishes of the testator and the donor,” but little of it
has been used; and unless some remedy is found against the tremor incident to this bad

sm 96——II

XVIII JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

site, it is contemplated to expend it during the coming year in a new installation, 1n
casé a suitable site can be obtained by Congressional action, such as on the old
Nayal Observatory grounds, or otherwise. The expenditure of this relatively small
sum will, it is hoped, provide the requisite indispensable buildings, which will be of
a very modest character.

On motion, the Secretary’s report was accepted.

At the Chancellor’s suggestion, it was moved and carried—

That the recommendations in the Secretary’s report be referred to the Executive
Committee, with power to act.

Senator Henderson presented the report of the Executive Committee
for the year ending June 30, 1895.

On motion, the report was adopted.

Senator Henderson introduced the following customary resolution
relative to income and expenditure:

Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal yearending June 30, 1897,
bo appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the Secretary,
with the advice of the Executive Committee, with full discretion on the part of the
Secretary as to items.

On motion, the resolution was adopted.

The Secretary then read letters—

From the master of Pembroke (Smithson’s College), Oxford, thanking
the Institution for a set of its publications and asking for a portrait of
Smithson.

From the Royal Institution of Great Britain, returning thanks for a
portrait of Mr. Hodgkins.

From Mrs. J. C. Welling, for a copy of the resolutions passed by the
board on the death of Dr. Welling.

There being no further business to come before the board, on motion
it adjourned.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF
REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

FoR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:

Your Executive Committee respectfully submits the following report
in relation to the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Con-
gress, and the receipts and expenditures for the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, the United States National Museum, the International Exchanges,
the Bureau of Ethnology, the National Zoological Park, and the Astro-
Physical Observatory for the year ending June 30, 1896, and balances
of former years:

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

Condition of the Fund July 1, 1896.

The amount of the bequest of James Smithson deposited in the
Treasury of the United States, according to act of Congress of August
10, 1846, was $515,169. To this was added by authority of Congress,
February 8, 1867, the residuary legacy of Smithson and savings from
income and other sources to the amount of $154,831.

To this also have been added a bequest from James Hamilton, of
Pennsylvania, of $1,000; a bequest of Dr. Simeon Habel, of New York,
of $500; the proceeds of the sale of Virginia bonds, $51,500; a gift
from Thomas G. Hodgkins, of New York, of $200,000 and $8,000, being
a portion of the residuary legacy of Thomas G. Hodgkins, and $1,000,
the accumulated interest on the Hamilton bequest, making in all, as
the permanent fund, $912,000.

The Institution also holds the additional sum of $42,000, received
upon the death of Thomas G. Hodgkins, in registered West Shore Rail-
road 4 per cent bonds, which were, by order of this committee, under
date of May 18, 1894, placed in the hands of the Secretary of the Insti-

tution, to be held by him subject to the conditions of said order.
XIX

xX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Statement of the receipts and expenditures from July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896.

RECEIPTS.
Cashvonviand a juilygl S95 eee seen eee ne eee $63, 001. 74
Therese Om wl Iwby ih, WIS 555 bo5 cashes osen ones $27, 355. 00
Interest on fund January 1, 1896......-..---.---- 27, 360. 00
54, 715. 00
Interest to January 1, 1896, on West Shore bonds........---. 1, 680. 00
—— $119, 396. 74
Cash from sales of publications ....-...--....---.---------- 162.15
Cash from repayments, freight, etc..-......--.----.--------- 6, 312. 46
—- 6, 474. 61
Total receipts.........--...--- BooGdba voseuane abuD SooDEa oosbuoRSE 125, 871. 35
EXPENDITURES.
Building:
Repairs, care, and improvements....-..------ 6, 625. 65
Emrnib ure van de textes) aes ee eee ere 422. 67
— 7, 048. 32
General expenses:
Postage and telegraph ...-...........--.---- 362. 41
S SHBIIMOMEIRY, 656656 So0666 5500 SboSsoe5baep caae65 728.19
Generale printings 62 eee eet eee soos 308. 30
Incidentals (fuel, gas, ete.) -----.--..-------- 7, 095. 54
Library (books, periodicals)....-.-.------.-- 1, 750. 93
SSH eet NCS He eae es ey ee Serene re sea ES GL 19, 326. 89
Gallerycof artless eevee Sees see We oe ee 125. 25
- 29, 697.51
Publications and researches:
Smithsonian contributions. .......-----.----- 2, 952. 51
Miscellaneous collections......-....--------- 2, 036. 63
INGDORUS Ssh csed soon boesos Goeeecebece Sans. coca 614. 08
Special publications. --.......----...-------- 1, 954. 55
Researches acice seee soe Sse Saree li 6, 138. 62
ANDTEMENINS coc Soobsseooucsd coseke opbo ese Soe 127. 92
Mise um eee pee eek eee ia eer ee 298. 72
Ho delcing dundee 2s cree ee ae ee asc se 13, 668. 57
Hxplorationsess2 s-se cs seetias tes ehts cies = 700. 00
——-—— 28, 491.60
Literary and scientific exchanges.-.-....-!.--.-.------------ 3, 568. 14

——--\ , 69 .805noF

Balance unexpended June 30, 1896_..............-.-.-----.-.---- 57, 065.78

The cash received from the sale of publications, from repayments for
freights, etc., is to be credited to the items of expenditure as follows:

SHUM OWUVEHN COMMU NONNIODE sos500scdc00 co56c0 obo sees pooSee Sune $50. 30
Miscellaneousycollectionseeree tee ee ree ere een eee eee oer eee 111. 75
IREPOLUS 2 )2 2a aise Sei ire ahelce ea eee erasing eset eee eae . 10

$162.15
Hodgkins fun disses fa Oni a a eae ere St me PC fe nye ae Se me 25. 82
Minaserins ss oie Ake se Ses CNS Ae Rae PAN Be Be Pe eA We aS Oe ae eps ae nee eam 298. 72

‘In addition to the above $19,326.89 paid for salaries under general expenses,
$11,973.12 were paid for services, viz, $2,115.75 charged to building account, $83.68
to furniture account, $956.42 to Hodgkins fund account, $700.08 to library account,
$5,617.19 to researches account, $1,825 to special publications account, and $675 to
miscellaneous collections account.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXxI

ESR UGINEER ooo cob sooed Sbubdb8sed 645500 cogpoE da becouse ouseec coda sobecer $3, 469. 72
iM@idIOMOTUS 255 egood ben ane Hoos bene Coo oromeeBenononbseEeeicdicocansotcoeen ai (0) Ks 740)
LE MIGHAINIGING — cies GhcbreoauoUobo Deere cou oleauS Uncoueoe se pouocosuETedcS 500. 00

NOU ch66 Bek6 S65. caster Oe NAMM BOBEE Ie GAA Ae: Psa eneinars teas act meena ae 6, 474. 61

The net expenditures of the Institution for the year ending June 30,
1896, including $11,000 paid for prizes awarded from the Hodgkins
fund in accordance with the recommendation of the award committee,
were, therefore, $62,330.96, or $6,474.61 less than the gross expenditures,
$68,805.57, as above stated.

All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from interest,
sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise, are
deposited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the
Secretary of the Institution, and all payments are made by his checks
on the Treasurer of the United States.

Your committee also presents the following statements in regard to
appropriations and expenditures for objects intrusted by Congress to
the care of the Smithsonian Institution:

Detailed statement of disbursements from appropriations committed by Congress to the care
of the Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, and from balances
of former years.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.

Receipts.

Appropriated by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, ‘‘ for
expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United
States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian
Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary em-
MoOVvees (sundry civillsact: Manchy2 SO) veces crecicreta- eimitteiiee aerator $17, 000. 00

Disbursements from July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896.

Salaries or compensation:

(cursor 2 smonthsy ab $225) coo sok ee sect co seis eee ae $2, 700. 00
1 clerk, 44 months 5 days, at $160 ...-....-/....--2.------. 746. 67
inechiebeleria) months, at: $lb50c. sats 222s 22S sa sec Ses ese 300. 00
1 clerk/® MOTUS y Gulp Apacer eters cpatee clots alepmale, aug Ieee 720. 00
Ganon swabs Pl oO ae wep a ceo, Gactevaya eee nae Sue NEL 780. 00
Meloric A emombhss abi PlOO'. fon ses Ste ele nec sete nae cies 200. 00
(6 MLOM US rats noes arcs ees sae. sere eee e MES ea LO ee 510. 00

1 clerk; 54 months 9 days, at $91.66. .......:---.-----.---.- 531.63
C55. COSTA SEER FST Ces a Ae ge a 20. 00
dealer! © TORU Ser UO) pes O area sie orate ava mom a sateen esters, ceisvate siete 480. 00
[oe Tse a ALES) 15 FTG ee ee PUL 510. 00
HEGLEN eM MINOUUUS AU) (Oreos woe oan eases ice coos et, coeseere 900. 00
VRIGE eR OMUOUUNS) cb DIO) .'- cieic es coe i ace fen sew anos ee 375, 00
DANOLer AIS aya at pls. fo. vane Lek Jw be 8 2 sobs Nak 273. 00
1 clerk! ® MONMUS HA UinOo ne eate els Locale es ek os ee eee: 390. 00
OTT A Ot At (0 ee ee CRE BR 420. 00
PROIOLESOMNOUUHSFAtIhOO {se 5ses2s ose ct Deo adh Lee ese 360. 00
BOM VISUTOMMONUNS /AbipOO <5 so, ane aced och rind a earet tenors 300. 00
7 Samo nuls: Od ayay db SS iose aos l ewe Se cele 319. 00
stenographer, 6 days, at $60..-. 0... cecee ccc cee wena ncee- 12. 00

XXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
Salaries or compensation—Continned.
1 packer| months, at $50 ---- . 2ecen cesas9 999005 2a 2202 0525 $300. oy
ABE TeNOIMD HS) (2) CERES) EHH GI). 54555 06 5en6 555 coon a cose 151. 70
clerks smonbhs saith’ omen ee teeta ee eee eee 517.50
iWelerks 2imonths)20 days abipoo) s2e= 22 see ee eae 92.58
[ecopyisi os monthssaitiboo mess ee -nee soe eee eee are 157. 50
1 messenger, 6 months 16 days, at $25 _.....-....----.----- 162. 90
(ee days apo l se soe toe cee ay ee eee 66. 00
lmcarpenber wt day anab tounsee eater ae eee ee ae 36. 75
QOnday Svat: $3ossac saceecs ss eee oe oe eee 60. 00
il Foun, ) Clans, Bi A sooas esos s50sc0 Seon oS5ens 450500 65 10. 00
Oidays, atiSl 50s Reesas sees seine cele aes 118. 50
1 laborer} C2Y8,
ee ALO Od ays at G50) 2 eas fee ee ete 336. 00
igcleane rel oidays sabia. ete seine eee ee 15. 00
Tl Aen, 1A OMNES ANGE) oes eses coasos Sedo 55 conscs BS os 600. 00
(Ginonths atips3 33.8 esse esee eee eee ee eee a 500. 00
1 agent 3
Neanonbusti$9.G62 20a er ee ee eee ees 550. 00
Total salaries of compensation ---.-.---...------------- 14, 519. 73
General expenses:
ERO To: Hit eee ee ercaiaars sarees ere iceioatel er eee ee $1, 502. 32
JAIHMHUINO, Saas Koh kad sap Soe oODG bebo SUO4 SoaG cEDaDr 9. 50
Rostacesand telecrams Sass sean eee eee eee 20. 32
SUPPLIES Hae eee owe ee ees eae eee we tee eeuenice 193. 03
Mraveclimorexpensesaeeesice eee coco ceo 574. 18
2, 299. 35
Total dishursements ss aise ese ars ey ene 2 eee aise eee $16, 819. 08
Balancegullyel, WOb-sce ces 1a eae Seo eee ee aeons ~ 180.92
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1895.
Balance ily so aspen last epoca eeeeceeeeereoe eee eee eeeee $2. O1
Disbursements.
NUPpPli€stere esses Seek eos ehe Siete hee Sees ee es tees con ea eee ees eee 1.80
BalanceWaly 4, 1896-22202 Mos teeet seco cass zee eases eee eee eee -21
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES, 1894.
Balance July 1591895, as per last report -=- 2s. 955+. -2- 2 =e eee $0. 10

Balance carried, under the provisions of the Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the
Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1896.

NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, 1896.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, “for
continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians, under
the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or com-
pensation of necessary employees, $40,000, of which sum not exceeding
$1,000 may be used for rent of building” (sundry civil act, March 2,

1895)

Bae gee oe ee ae ee ena PTR er Gh ee aL Os ae eau $40, 000. 00

The actual conduct of these investigations has been continued by the Secretary in
the hands of Maj. J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXIIT
Disbursements July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896,

Salaries or compensation:

MB DIREChOR LA MONTHS, Ab PSO eicleeselalenins [c's Sie sis encase civiaieieieie Siete cial $4, 500. 00
1 ethnologist in charge, 12 months, at $300 ....-......----.---..----- 3, 600. 00
1 special ethnologist, 7 months, at $200........-....----.------------ 1, 400. 00
1 ethnolocist, 12) months, at $150 .-......--..-.....--...2....-------- 1, 800. 00
Weiimolocish.2-monbhs: at S50 22-2. yee sce ccs ae ce eicice else sas 1, 800. 00
imennnolorist tl 2imonths, vb plo 2) ioc ce ser a, eee oe ole ee wie ices piss 1, 800. 00
1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $125 .........-....---..----------------- 1, 500. 00
1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $125 ..........-...-----.---.------------ 1, 500. 00
1 ethnologist; 12 months, at $116.66 -.....-...----.---2-- ene - wee ces 1, 399. 92
1 ethnologist, 12 months, at $110 ..................---.-2-------2---- 1, 320. 00
} (enmonths ati slOO Same eee em ceeroe se 200. 00
eee eo el onthe at $116.66. 60 we oo Nua ks 1, 166. 60
iclenia lA months, au, S100 eo 2.5 Sate se 2 mayer eineeo Siz/iaie) eee estetets 1, 200. 00
Heelerkeyssmombhs ny tiblOO).. sce sos secisccecicisieie actus stelle seiner 300. 00
1 ane MOLbASy Ab: GSB Go) a. Ler sels aesaja shai Ae eyalee tale ces ee aero 499, 98
[Gbrrenonb lise crt lOO sseee Lakers ta) costes hoe etn Gu ceo ear gecraerse 600. 00
ie MONbHS Hab SlDiae ss saters ate sios = Aeros ota) ae = eels ieee eiaiee 375. 00
MRC lET ES 2IIM ay Sab Sion wsscmieaise eect vetie eS oe eves Seek aoe ete ete Sie cere 70.17
\g MOMS AG SOS tI a oe ere ere ae cin ees Pekar eae e eeu AEN pee 499. 98
ikclerk 1 imonbhsyatis (bikes ccm scle aces joeaece beers ceeeucce ene 900. 00
clerks l2imonthss ati PD iirc Saas ose are ue ale ee emails Stee seers 900. 00
iemessenrers 2 months ati G60) soe cess ae ai clasts ss ear aeleretareroisiel eee 720. 00
iemessencer 2 omonths at $50 ice see aoe scelsee saeaice oe eeeee cece 600. 00
jemodeler a Onmonths jab POO wee cec erent telomere eee cic onan ee aioieer 600. 00
eiedicd labarer| © MONGCHS abi pa0 See oe ler wee eye eee ere a eee 240. 00
(Gimon the at $452 cass: fsa nse eet ee ae = 270. 00
IMCOPYISU OrGays, ab, Bait. -.cvoiainr ae ss vevelacte isle! = ops eth erg ots ate eee raper rere ore 12.00
Total salaries or compensation .....-....----.------.--------- 29, 773. 65
Miscellaneous:
Drawings and illustrations.........-.....-.--...---.+----- $290. 50
OID Dest eneie soe aia cisas.cceae nebo BIN Lats cometaee comes 31. 40
MIScell ama seo cis pee steht yer se ie saiarele mime Caan 92. 10
ROsuA Ee and beleprap hiya escrow es Sociale Ee eee Se eee 35. 91
RUDI GUL OMS rc see sta cielcre taper eg Mas ee aa wayse a ceiieweac peeretie 218. 48
UTE GRAMM LU Oe trarer tartare omen eterna pena slates Seve oe Sarees ere 393. 77
ONC OMe sles tapers, cate terete ee eee eh Chee ae meee 999. 96
Special SOLViCES\s tea, «pices aed Sealand qosicasind vos sesame 440. 00
‘STROH ES ES See Gere emp e e es tee ate eee ie Hie ner eter eye 21, 48
SHOUTING Beaute os SSS ae See ea cle ne eR ee ean eR oe RL 474. 59
SRB | ONESIES Sa NSS 2 hos ele Cae Eat a En eR a ede 617. 81
Mraveling and field .expenses.-.-.....22.0--2 5-05-2056 2 eee 5, 166. 22
ROUMMNNSCOMANGOUS eee eo ccs ci Soe Pelee awiae oto seem senses: 8, 782. 22
IME SIMEEF SUTURES OLHIGH GRE! Stee ee! Sie anh Se 2 9e) t ee eee eae 38, 555. 87

Ex LAC OTOL Vel el SOG sek aiaais <sckte cre oo eal ate mio ten ele came ee foe eel 444i

NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY, 1895.

Ree DULY iodo, AS per last Teport . -- 5.266 ooce5s ca ce as ee ctee as ceus $5, 680. 15

XXIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Disbursements:

Drawinestandallustra tions sere esses se> see eee eee $708. 50
REUSING eee sins emit Sees eas = akin Muha ate a eter e aaa empyema 15. 15
Miscellaneous eee eee ee Oe ek eo eee eae 12. 97
Ofticesturnitwr epee cashes ee eee eas eo sees See etvemioce ye eer 216. 50
Oiticemne nba es se ces SERA mics is on Svar seee ee teem 83. 33
Rostamermtelerrapl st eto~ ates nears cn cn yecc ay eee ets ee 20. 30
HMC ALON Sia ecw a assays eae eet an ara cis 2 eS Oe eee ieee Settee Clee 655. 26
SELVACES eee aoe mies ees ee abate eisne cies aa eel eee 343. 33
SDE CITING Mi Biee yore eee ete Ne eet NE ro ALR i Da eee mace ees 12. 91
Sbast OMe ny esis eye ties Se ee Le a ee ae ae ee Dan 147. 03
SUNOS ereo ae ae SE Oe Suite ans Buus ows. ake wna See ee 301. 98
Rravcline-and teldexpenses 22222 45- see a- ee ese asa 1, 266. 50

TRotalkdisbursements s=c.1ce seo Ne eee a see one eee eee 3, 783. 71

Amount carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, sec-
tion 3090, by the Treasury Department to the credit of the
surplus fund, June 30, 1896, by decision of the Comptroller of

three aSuty sete sre ss is avers oe ee ate Ween noe ee es 1, 796. 36
———_—— $5, 580. 07

Balance uly ds 1896 os sec eccieeyja nines peeniok eee Seer e eee eee 100. 08
NATIONAL MUSEUM.
PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, JULY 1, 1895, TO JUNE 30, 1896.
Receipts.
Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, ‘for
continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the collections
from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Government, and
from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary
employees” (sundry civil act, March 2,1895) ....-.-...-.--..--------- $148, 225. 00
Expenditures.
Salaries or compensation:
DIRECTION.

1 assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, in charge, 12
MONTNS At) PSdorOOs heen ae A eee eer Ae ee Selon See $3, 999. 96

SCIENTIFIC STAFF.

1 executive curator, 7 months, at $225........-.....----.----------- 1, 575. 00
3 curators, 12 months, at $200 ..---..-:--- & sts See oe ede aee Bean 7, 200. 00
it @hurannon, 1A MOMS, Bn HIND. oocood cooosenesons o555ce saeoseasSacece 2, 100. 00
iL @hunrmuorg, 0) TONS, Ain GND). ooo eco ooenoo nodes casos secon Osea =sae 1, 925. 00
1 curator, 1 month, at $166.73; 11 months, at $166.66 ........---..--- i, GRY); SE)
1 curator (acting), Lmonth, at $142; 2 months, at $140; 7days, at $140. 453. 61
1 assistant curator, 12 months, at $150 ...-.-.-.---.-----------.---. 1, 800. 00
1 assistant curator, 11 months, at $133.33; 1 month, at $1353.66. ....-- 1, 600. 29
1 assistant curator, 12) months, at $125 ---.....-:...---------------- 1, 500. 00
1 assistant curator, 11 months, at $125; 1 month, at $126 .-.--...---- 1, 501. 00
1 assistant curator, 11 months, at $100; 1 month, at $103........---. 1, 208. 00
assistant curabor, 2 months ab ps0ees sss see see eens eee eee 960. 00
1 assistant curator, 11 months, at $75; 1 month, at $76.80 ......----- 901. 80
Zea OS el 2M ONtHSs abou) ae sneer ne Bice je eo N ee. ate ere ete earns etme 2, 400. 00
1 aid, 11 months, at $80; 1 month, at $80.80.......-------.---------- 960. 80
paddle AO mMGHS be BeOK Se Sek 2 er ate co een yee ay nt eae 280. 00

Wand SA Ay Sti SOO so iat secu eee ee eee eee ne oreo ree ereeere 65. 80

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Salaries or compensation—Continued.

1 aid, 2 months, at $50; 15 days, at $50 -.-..---.---..---2.----------
1 aid, 7 months, at $40;.15 days, at $40 .........-----.-----2---- eee
IBarCeecmombns a bibl Ose ss se ee US cele te tain ce ae
collectors Months, at G60). oc. cece, cere eee coe eee cle ome ee eat
PREPARATORS.
1 photographer, 12 months, at $158.33........-..------.-.----------
NE UEGISty Lemont sy at Pluss eh re bo ce ee ene ee ak ee
MFOSUEOLOCISt MMOs ab BOOK 22 eet ele see ee aS ee
[PLE PAL Aton Momo Mbnsy abisoOl sc saie one eens see ey ee et eae
InpRepacaubonesnmonths tat bOO ys elec cue Lok ee Be veal ee
1 preparator, 11 months, at $80; 15 days, at $80...-...---.----------
1 preparator, 11 months, at $80; 15 days, at $80 ........-._.....----
1 preparator, 12 months, at $60 ..---. NRO I) AON OU TCR pera
1 preparator, 1 month, at $60; 11 days, at $60........---.-----.----
1 preparator, 10 months, at $50; 16 days, at $50.....-...----..-----
LDL AnULOL ye MNO MUMS abso es see sre aie cle cea la cee DURA Resets
1 preparator, 1 month, at $50; 23 days, at $50..-..--....--..--..----
HG PREPALAvOL yo Way Syaibypo.cl)) See ee eras ee sense keke oe ail eee ll se
MLE PAnAUbOL-p2A Gays Abia a eam are cte ole vse elses tara eee eine ere
1 taxidermist, 10 months, at $100; 324 days, at $100..-.--..----.----
1 taxidermist, 7 months, at $100; 38 days, at $100......-..-- Sere
1 taxidermist, tl PMO MBS at ePID eee ely oie Nie 8) Lela es iNe 7 als OE
1 taxidermist, 2 months, at $75; 14 days, at $75 -.........---.------
1 taxidermist, 10 months, at $60; 29 days, at $60; 29 days, at $60_-..
1 model maker, 5 months, at $100; 9 days, at $100 ..-.....---.-.-----

CLERICAL STAFF.

1 chief TH Sie IPMOMUb HS: Mat GO OOM Gaye see eA Nee eee
1 editor, 8 months, at $187.50 a Glanysy eh GUL 24 obese eeos s5GQRe
1 Bator. 2 months, at $166.66; I TNO, Ap IUGR TB wos csacensdccoocde
HehiGh Ol division, .2 months, atip200i is sass. se eto s seas ee ee
1 registrar, 11 months, at $158.33; 1 month, at $160.06........------
1 disbursing clerk, 12 months, at $116.66....-....--.----------------
1 assistant librarian, 11 months, at $116; 1 month, at $111.40_.....-.
1 stenographer, 10 months, at $110; 2 months, at $120.....-.--...--
1 stenographer, 11 months, at $50; 1 month, at $54..-.......--.----
BALenOoraApher La montis ab ble 22. sche sae ee one eee ae
1 typewriter, 10 months, at $50; 50 days, at $50.......----.---.----
1 typewriter, 309 days, at $1.50; 6 days, at $50 per month ..-...----
PROLOMS el eeTMOMUMS cub) Pui Dt slo cece Se ei aers ates a tc oS ea peel
PECLEGN Lom OMUMS Ub cellist ereys ee oc Se hpcie eres sea ae aceite abies ieeets
i: cebicrel be (EPA ca Vou th ates W rps MOTO Ycecpe ieee eel alee ge aca a eed Aen eed all ete
HClotics SAIMOMbNS, au $905 |\Gidays, ab S906. 22s Ss eek le ee
ih Akers ANS wooo Ne eb NS) 7 a9 Ds aetna ae Ue MR elope ee AS A
i clerk, 10 months, at $60; 2 months, at $90 .-.-..-.------.-2-5.----
Clon Mie MONUN: Ubi Peo. Oow soe we eee es SSGU A eile ee ae
IPC len Kem ITO MDLS EN UMBID S autem: aye et eet mer eho Zhe Ul vane con ara ee

MC Ler mI M Uli nUul as One soe snc) e = yuo etna cel lene Se ena cana
PROG CN LAnI OGL Uti POU saves. eae ko ed Oe A a rn len eee
1eclerk, 4 months, at $60; 3 months, at #50; 15 days, at $50....-..--
2 fierka. PARILOU UMA vero eee es Vee ee eee a Soraya eyes oa
1 clerk, 11 months, at $55; 1 Gree i ce Hats Cee iat pan BON a ras RR iatlp Be

ioletk. LL monuns, ai $55 1month, at $54...02 0. -.- 2 bese oe.

XXV

$125. 00
300. 69
160. 00
180, 00

1, 899. 96
1, 320. 00
720. 00
960. 00
180. 00
918. 71
918. 71
720. 00
81. 29
525. 81
200. 00

,
600. 00
746. 13

1, 080. 00
780. 00
999. 96
825. 00

70. 00

1, 440. 00
415. 00

1, 320. 00

XXVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Salaries or compensation—Continued.

1 clerk, 11 months, at $50; 1 month, at $51.............---.-.-.-.. é $601. 00
1 clerk, 11 months, at $50; 3 days, at $50 ..........-...--...--.---- 554. 84
biclerksyh2 months abi pb0e2 sess eecmee eicisine sae ee ere eeetaa serene 38, 000. 00
iiclerk<6;months. ab $o0esSso-- 2.20. sae 2 ee eee eee ee eee eee 300. 00
ikcopyast el months mat G45 52228 sicse =) eee Oe cect eae ees 540. 00
2 copyists, 2 months, at $45; 15 days, at $45 -.......-..-.----..---- 225. 00
2 copyists, 11 months, at $40; 1 month, at $41... i Sos eerie he eee 962. 00
4 copyists, 12 Tian, DU BAO ou SelS Dees He Seats aS aah Bee eR oe ee 1, 920. 00
1 copyist, 11 months, at $35; 1 month, at $36........-..-.---.------ 421.00

2) COONS, WE) TRONS), EN BBB) a9 = boca ce ossc oo2a55 953555 95 259= 258227 840. 00
1 copyist, 10 months, at $35; 13 days, at $35 .........-------------- 364. 68
1 copyist, 5 months, at $35; 22 days, at $35 ......-..----.-----.----- 199. 84
IL GODT, GB TNOTNONE), GHB AI) | soos oboe Guoosa onan coscos neo ouoacoes 105. 00
PRCOPYVLSUS pl mM OMG NS cab tho teeter eee eer 720. 00
i Gold, Wt aMOMmUNs, Bhi BAD Sagoo ceccoo nsceoe cinco 25 done cncSsosaeese 300. 00
1 copyist, 44 months, at $25; 22 days, at $25 ...........-----..----. 130. 24
1 copyist, 4 months, at $20; 31 days, at $20..............--.-------- 100. 22

BUILDINGS AND LABOR.

1 superintendent, 12 months, at $137.50 .-.....----..--------------- 1, 650. 00
1 assistant superintendent, 3 months, at $100; 9 months, at $110--... 1, 290. 00
One, NA Tin wUlNs, Bw RB. 555255566 ca ocn Gcones soooeo obama saS" 600. 00
1 chief of watch, 12 months, at $65.......--...-...-----.----------- 780. 00
1 chief of watch, 11 months, at $65; 28 days, at $65.......-...----. 775. 67
i chief of watch, 11 months, at $50; 1 month, at $53_--2--..---_--- 603. 00
i wraehinnmin, ND wnamntiiney eth WEHos dos6 sodeas anodes coleon e4oSeqcoeaed = 780. 00
LO watchmen’ l2imonths vat S50 sess eeeeeeeeeees 22 eee eee eee 6, 000. 00
1 watchman, 6 months, at $50; 64 days, StiS50 san eee eee eee 406. 40
Li watchman. Gronombhisvaitsho0 seers. =e crs eee aaa eee 300. 00
1 watchman, 3 months, at $45; 26 days, at $45 .........------------ 172. 74
1 watchman, 5 months, at $45; 18 days, at $45......--..-..--.------ 251.13
ANSUGOUAEM, WA TORN NS, OW) 525665 cena ccos55 caso oa55S5 cooo dasSS- 1, 080. 00
1 watchman, 11 months, at $45; 1 month, at $48........--..--.----- 543. 00
1 watchman, 11 months, at $40; 23 days, at $40..........--.---.---- 470. 67
ILwwarrelarmmeanny, IA) nO MMOS, B18 EO coc sos saan boGoos Gao560 650000 Sa05 Sa5e 480. 00
1 watchman, 11 months, at $45; 13 days, at $45 -.-........-----.--- 513. 87
1 watchman, 4 months, at $45; 23 days, at $45........-.-.....------ 215. 69
1 watchman, 9 months, at $45; 30 days, at $15 .........-..--------- 464. 47
IU \WyEnielmimeha, eb moms, ANG GY) Ss 66 cose coa5 code sonood sdocus cana ceed 180. 00
1 watchman (acting), 3 months, at $35; 36 days, at $35.......-.---- 147. 40
il Wwemnolommeyn, 12) Glas, Gib GND oe S555 bobd6e condone ca5505 Gadd cane case 184. 50
I Wweneneyn, B Glens, ae SNE) so4 655 dono sooces seu 5 bacoce basSoseSsoss 4.50
1 skilled laborer, 2 months, at $62; 9 months, at $50; 1 month, at $40- 614. 00
1 skilled laborer, 3 months, at $60; 31 days, at $60 ........-...----- 240. 00
ILihoallkol lexorsse, Ail Glass, Bis SO coosc6 beccob coobooccuuce adsooca ued 33. 87
lskilledsabotersslemonth statis 5 eee er eee eee eee ee eee eee eerie 495. 00
siksihenby boner, 2Bil Cleiys, Gti SY > cccdosoone Uodosu avec sogece boas ess 462. 00
i eusilieal leyoorerr, 1183 Glenys, Bib GLB cosc conosen boneee csoSce onsoo cece 22.15
1 laborer, 1 month, at $53.50; 1 month, at $47.50; 1 month, at $46; 6

months; at GAO Mer oe Se ee ie ae na ge eel Acree apa 387. 00
tlaborer, month, at/$49:50. 317 days, atisl.50 sss se eens sees 525. 00
it lew axonrere A ray ovs enn ail So ke bes ose Sond omedee cococooéce 540. 00
Ia borerwlhmonthe big besos esas eee ae eee eee 495. 00

1 laborer, 1 month, at $43; 2 months, at $41.50; 8 months, at $40. .-.. 446. 00

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXVII

Salaries or compensation—Continued.
1 Jaborer, 1 month, at $43; 10 months, at $40; 15 days, at $40... -... $463. 00

1 laborer, 1 month, at $41.50; 11 months, at $40......--..-..--.-.-- 481.50
1 laborer, 1 month, at $41.50; 11 months, at $40-.....--.....--.---- 481. 50
PMAVONELS; Lammmom bass ati PhO. (eos! ae ere ce areca) wieicscl en cid Selieelnie einelne 960. 00
1 laborer, 11 months, at $405. 15 days, at $40..._..........--....---- 460. 00
1 laborer, 11 months, at $40; 28 days, at $40.........--...---.-.---. 476. 13
1 ee 11 months, at $40; 24 days, at $40.-...--..-----.+-------- 472. 00
(laborers; 314 days, at$l.50..---- 6-52.22 see cas. pees vane wage ek werie 3, 297. 00
Nelaporers2oo, ays abipl. OO ecco Se cei dere eerie ts cree oo iniee slnelmnietes ersemte 382. 50
One OeaySwabiol OO eases oe ore Seecpecpsald Kea We Cums ele ohe g 138. 00
MLA OLEL ol GuCays, Avi epiles Ole cots Sets e-ei- che e gles Be a sare eta rege 474. 00
1 laborer, 28} days, at $1.50; 281 hours, at 15 cents per hour.....--- 84. 90
IIBDOLEr OUD AVS ab Pl OL ccmcnceisscins ceeisiccisevacioie esis ceeeiae 457. 50
mW OTEL sel Cavs wali. DO sce see Se on wee Sree es yates temiteer pees eae 19. 50
iglaborers ali daysvauhl 50 sos 5 eee ce eae ae Saco nce Me a 406. 50
iglabonrernoGo Gays: abi oie 5O) cca nate ates cs iyo nine eels seis ohare 544. 50
Hea borer poOlkMaysy al ple OO ae asa ccis eo arte siete ersyn teks scene enone miaiste 543. 00
ilaboren, o49 days: ab Pl 502 asec cms oaclense oe eee= se tee saree cae 523. 50
lelborer s2Oiday sat lio Oee cere erce we ee eine neers eee Sern eeneier 493.50
ITA OLEL 20d rays ab SLO mcs Ve Soy eee ke eer Se area le aleve 439. 50
Helaborerwodays. ab Pll OO ico cee oe ce streets Semis aee See ioe eee 9.00
Hb OLrer, Sos HOULS) abel CeMiS soos ose ceo ce acces oeiee see eae 13.43
1 leporee SOF AMOUTS Abi LO rCO mls - 8 fey ye teeta A oe ne eel Sten et re ala 12. 34
ib looney, G0) Joona; ony Gy CEM bee boo Seabee ponombecooabkaeas esddor 13.50
NPL DOner- nol ssn OUMS abel CIGSine ts crore eee oe a eae ae Petey aera 12. 26
il lento ttshe lousy bin sly eeeaeicoosnooeae bas saasees soberaasceor 13. 28
laborer, st hoursyati dls cents sons sae se sacs e cee ses ee einer 21.49
Hglaporer G01 Ours able COM tSeas aan neers cere sean meeerer ree 13.54
I OLeL eos POURS itn 5) CEMbS ass aaa eee eek a teenie eels elute re 42.83
il lela, 108) gp R ane byes ni eee eisSobeb estes chor cossocmessdaue 16. 35
el bOLer-oossourS atl or Centisaesseacse a caa nae Sena e eee ner 13. 01
TeV OLCK ML MOUES Util o i COM Usama sais aah ec caylee pare eee 1.95
MAM Oner ios MOUTS abr Loy COMbS alae keke Sass ose eee ree Sema 11.78
laborer (O;hours: acl orcemts. 45452 ease We yal eee ch eee 1.50
laborers days ath OO ceeen ere. Soe Rass Ae ts ee ee ees 16.50
1 messenger, 10 months, at eu; SOWA Y Shabu SOO see Sate aoe aes 550. 00
1 messenger, 11 months, at $30; 29 days, at $30 .-...----.---.------- 359. 00
1 messenger, 2 months, at $30 a CSR eee eects Cale ae Sere el 60. 00
HUESSONCOL LLG Gays, abi pol sare octtcise cree daeteine Sakai eae seminars cee 16. 00
iemessencerdlmonbhs: atig2p) 2253 oss ssc 5530 ele see eee ee eee 275. 00
1 messenger, 1 month, at $22; 5 months, at $20; F months, at $15 .-.. 212.00
PENTGSSOUP OLS ls MONLNG, duped waa tooo ee. we ee Lee dk sales sete eres 480. 00
1 messenger, 1 month, at $20; 21 days, at $20 ...-....-- SEi abetted ld 33.55
MERRESSEN OED Sli ays, ab P20 ces ois sd oni seins gece ce seeslecwiecs cameee 20. 41
PE NUGHO SUSAR CLUS: Moi PL0! 2.5 .c ayn wc Sc ciatwiee ero dress tbc lers sicietartaeresareiee 480. 00
PELCANGUS LeATMON LOS {Ub HOU! = ac.<cie Scie Seas cee Satie see cle coe ee eae 1, 080. 00
POLS DNODV LIRA S Gh Pls (oe colds emcccecd «tie cc es criereeci aes etate 315. 00
MEG LOMM Glas LOGE Meu hh sein .cc2 ce ales woce sul beloisls sao g slote elem inntecwe sare 315. 00
1 cleaner, 11 months, at $30; 1 month, at $31 ..................----- 361. 00

SG UMIBA URINE Tomer Vate ete Risiae Soe cia® o.a:u'a/ cbc ahe tn ectoralais Seaalen cere ce retet s Sea ae ~ 125, 950. 49
SOR IEMENOIVILCON Gctatsl swale oe co cio. cs ewicis ants, eas See Ban coe eRe eee 2, 916. 25

RGU MUBEMNVNCOS eet oa os ss cede ope a skeen co Ss enncameaect aces 128, 866, 74

XXVIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Miscellaneous:

POUT 0] OM EIS Vases, eRe Aira Re emery ie Here eee Sires mbar $2, 504. 70
SbahlOnmeny ieee ee ami Neewe cise alae me ret Se eee eee 765. 96
SPECT EMS eee aoe ee ee i ye era aie cats een eerste 3, 810. 25
Booksjandyperiodicalseesereess sees eee eee eee Been) 2, 24D Oo
AD eS) Ue ee a Nee ea PD i oes eee 599. 35
Hrerohittandcantac eee enece eee eee seesee eee area areas 1, 586. 08

= $i, 5 ida

Kotaliexpen dibanes a. Aes roe tay at rears Oe ey Sek ye eee Sen eye ae 140, 378. 47
Balance uly de 896" tommect liabilities: = =-se- =) ee sea eee ee see ser eeee 2, 846. 53

NATIONAL MUSEUM: FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, JULY 1, 1895, TO JUNE 30, 1896.
Receipts.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, ‘‘ for
cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition
and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including
salaries or compensation of all necessary employees” (sundry civil act,

AV Dea rs CN ea Oy) RR et Aa LAU oda ree ASE ae eS UU we pa $12, 500. 00
Expenditures.
Salaries or compensation :
i cHlobneimney kere, olds GENS, A SB cocs5coosas on65ocs seob55 soSSes cesses 942. 00
Li CALPEMLER ols Caisyraib Pom ae ciclclsscts cisiele ot ctee Srcres siejeyeeere aise eevee 942. 00
iL CaF DEMIR, IBO GENTE, Oli S8)6oseomooSsoa cend caso Sana asce bacaso soSSSes 468. 00
carpenter Zordayssabibors seccac cece cece eee a eee eee eee ae 369. 00
Ilsceng oer tere, OR Obs Ghiteicg Sees sana asbeedosd Osco edoseoctuesuaccs. 327. 00
iL Gaye demure. IO Gleiws, Bil Sonosaouoosoacoceds coo GadouuEs coeoen ceases 309. 00
HCATLPEMLET Oo, CayiSyabi pone wees sere eevee Sette sieret ys es ee 285. 00
Cane Neues 1 CN WSy CLOG esae codsascuaoos Sooo GG booS doenceccaasseses 216. 00
IL @anFDEIMEIES Hie) Gleivs, BUDS) os bsg gaaooe anouco boduce sauce coco obascaauec 174. 00
IkcaAnpenter wl Gayieciat iba aan. Sa= 0 ysis eo 2 nce ee U8 ile ee ee ee 51.00
I CERFOCMUEIeS IF Glens ANE Gite se. criaao aooesadaooSoseos soLcan sabe assess 37.50
iL Ca nCINIGR, 1 Clenysy BiH EBooo5 cood osco nese osososs5e NUE ee JUSS ee 36. 00
i Cag nsmuese, IO) Glenws, Bn) GBbicasocdccaq bons nos ceo acuS causa snodsoguece 30. 00
icarpenbers Or danSs tab Po ewes asserts ne re os cera et Anan ae pen ay alana 27.00
LU CALPEMILEIY Or Cais. taibipaeets ws sae seam ars Yate lees step LC ene es ees at anes 24. 00
HE CALM OTILE Mies MCA Steeles eye ears sects ag men Eye EE ye aap oy a 6. 00
1 painter, 3 months, at $65; 24 days, at $65 ...._........------------ 245. 95
IL DEM He, 10) TA@MUINE), Ath S150) sooo cescos b66Gc0 canGes oud coed Sons sosese 500. 00
IL lguulel ey orere, AAs} Glanyss Mii Boos o555 Sho0 coo g Sood osesce woes oesbes 436. 00
IkskalledMaloners 26xdany ss tabi easel ee eae ee eee eee 52. 00
liskilledslaborer lOsr daysab G2 meee eee aan sere Seen eee cee aeeee 39. 00
Welalledwlalborersslmlonthesaiy S60)ee eee eye ee eee ee 60. 00
igicthiedl linac, 13%) Clans, Bip Gil s25-56 cocdeo nace pescoos coe sso cece 243. 25
tdaborer.:26 dans abies 5 Ossian Miers seam lien oan Sec hae Ae Leh ergy 39. 00
dScopyist, 6 ays; ats Pl OSes ecm cet eva Are Mpatnee a Nets eee ae eden te eee 8.00
Do tal Palais es eee ee CRA Ee Hh Se PS ALT ere eae ee 5, 866. 70
SPECIAl SELVIGES sis ae Se at TL BEN De SAIN IDE es Ean a 394. 75
MOb MU SErVUCEB is. ae cae Te oy Mere aa ey a ye eta ee a 6, 261, 45
Miscellaneous:

WAS OS eis oo roecitcin: sie eine ese Eee Ee Oe Eee $300. 00

DD raw a Sie se scp NS G02 SS NE a a ee RO 22.88

DT ANVODS free oy sic ap Seah ee eo ee 1, 055. 75

IBIAS! aici ea sts re RI ra een AR aR i eg a 5. 00

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, XXIX

Miscellaneous—Continued.

CS Sieeratete te eats ciate wie niiciniere Maroc eee Sabie Seles ciatsiics vote $223. 57
RAMON OMe eteeie. aia oral we ic wie cintele Sie cisvedia ciclo ne toleeetenietosceiee:- c600"05
PRO OSH ee rae eieicia este coe Rok eew diureee eden ceilonayee 18. 96
WTO Geena a strate oe chia tra ke averted oad ersten eee 111. 73
(IIIS JEWS. cso cosolscns ceabadvadcosecgges cass bansooueEaocud 414. 61
PELE IDO Toe rave tee ea ea aia ate er aicie as eimictarearcie o Sierendietera weet 947, 54.
Pais, OHS acac décacosuquedacds cueaeecusseneuedesussoecesc 346. 30
WMICORUMUGUROne ster cere ciea ane devecis eet econo ee cacame eee 193. 36
Rulbbenandieauhei! seeteeios eee cae tee eke wae we eee es 70. 26
JA DIRURIIS sooccs coseno pce coo ssecoe saeco sceeecoocs coor 6.45
JPME A oop odad cabo agbdesbesssd Goon soudou adonoo cect eT 463. 00
HONE UAC KOUS Haste ciate wrele seat clste Se eee en eos teem Ghar con eye wee 91. 00
co — $4,923.46

MotalWexpendibures -Lo. o.222 20 see crs sfecie a in steels = Sere cess eee = = 11, 184. 91
Balance July 1, 1896, to meet liabilities. .-.....-...-.--.--.--.=..- il, 315. 09

NaTIoNAL MUSEUM: HEATING, LIGHTING, ELECTRIC AND 'TELEPHONIC SERVICE,
JuLy 1, 1895, ro JUNE 30, 1896.

Receipts.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, ‘* for ex-
pense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and telephonic serv-

ice for the National Museum” (sundry civil act, March 2, 1895).....--. $13, 000. 00
EHxpenditures.
Salaries or compensation:

ivenoineerwi2 monvus, at Pllb eons ce cjenc ae eee s alae ees ome 1, 580. 00

1 assistant engineer, 3 months, at $75; 53 days, at $75 --...---.-----. do4. 27

SPUTEMON el ZaMOnGh ss) Ab POO eer tert-talaapeielare Se icieh a emley amis seer fers 1, 800, 00

IS NEM AM OLCL AY Ss) AUK PO lO! sete. oom e)-tercie re aimlaisiereralteletnra ssi a pereteleyele cyeh cys ei 9. 68

(ehreman | owdays, ab $50: sso ecco cele eee oe Seas He eee ee 9. 48

hireman see days; ab gO ot shoot osc siscroe eee eee eee eae 2. 81

islledsaborer, 4 monbhs: ati $id sas. essere sos ee eee eee eee 900. 00

jeskuiled laborer, Gunonbhs, abi S602. 222 jae a sae yee eee 360. 00

telephone clerk, 20idays; ab S602. 2285222 ces cose u eae eee eee see 38. 71

itelepwoneclerk: Gidaysvati $4 2922 2s seen seks aoeieeenemeeinse 6 9. 00

1 laborer, 2 months, at $40; 24 days, at $40; 6 days, at $45....-..-_-. 121. 00

4, 984. 95

RCCLALSOLVICES 3.210 /\ yf) se tise) vo. haste edt eee rans Comoe ts MSS ESE N Bo ares 39. 50

UNG TEAST AN a YTV Rs a ST ee a ra a eA 5, O24, 45

General expenses:

TRAY ec CU WOO (Lert yopese seen shia) cle ou) ara, whale = aS (levclauaeicctanheee $3, 202. 32
si. SU eee a nee ee ae 1, 540. 63
HSEGV NOT OS Coe ER SRC Stes Cea to Re a 412.50
PUOMDILOINUP PILES eae eae te cel soci setelans Saeco eee 1, 482. 44
eELA POM CRUE DOXOS Seco satya 2 oe se acre veces oe slecee 110. 00
Plea S UD PD UGN se ceise seer cccin Gans Jat bse o ecco 167. 72
aera LN een nets foie ie che Sc et Seas Siete, Ui rt are meee 8.61
MME RULTTSORL GUS S eelo cise a a Sey els ela 'cia ad wrminteleri sis -je eke Ge 104, 00

at. 57, 028199

SSL AMERPONCRUNLOLe ce ufos Lee ecco e cee oe eee 12, 052. 67

Balance July 1, 1896, to meet liabilities................. 947, 33

XXX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

NATIONAL MUSEUM: PostTaGE, JULY 1, 1895, TO JUNE 30, 1896.
Receipts.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, “‘ for
postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum”

(sundnyacivalltac bh eM iar Che) 5i13 95) see tayo te eae ee $500. 00
Disbursements.
Washington city post-office, for stamps, etc.--....---.-----.-------.---- 500. 00

NATIONAL MUSEUM: PRINTING, JULY 1, 1895, TO JUNE 30, 1896.
Leceipts.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, ‘‘ for
the Smithsonian Institution for printing labels and blanks, and for the
‘Bulletins’ and annual volumes of the ‘ Proceedings’ of the National
Museum, and binding scientific books and pamphlets presented to and
acquired by the National Museum Library” (sundry civil act, March 2,
SOD) Cs ahi raeee ans be metteuree SERN ae pte 1 ese Ao) OLS ews ere one $12, 000. 00

Hapenditures.

Bulletins, National Museum, Nos. 47, 49, and special bulletins

INOS 2rANMi See e sists Sa See ae See NS Cee ees Sere eeee $7, 036. 64
Proceedings National Museum, Vol. XVIII .-.--...-----.----- 956. 50
Reports National Museum, extras........---.-----..---------- 201. 62
Wahbel sree ae ssc wet an ee aeea ae ays Hee aetna See ae Eee 2, 685. 91
etterheads; pads yandvenvelopesieesses-e ee eases eee eee 205. 09
BlamMkswao sessile Sows lee eee) eine a ies em eet eats e 423.48
Ve Gtrosie esa ee Noe ears waeens elo ible noe eae Ne epee arenes Seatac 9. 25
IB Wi GH Oe ee one eet ea OE ERE eine aoe Sete ee eae 388. 60
ConeresstonalURecord seer ner nee eee ee eee eee 40. 20
Totalexpenditures Sache vse (see es connie palsies Soe seee dee eee 11, 947. 29
Balancerdarly deisGGres eee ee ss ee oe eee Soe eae ee eer 52. 71

NaTIONAL MUSEUM: RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1896.
receipts.
Appropriation by Congress for tbe fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, ‘‘ for
rent of workshops for the National Museum” (sundry civil act, Mareh
PEA} 3) Rate oe aac os <A 5b SOS eR Sa en ASAE P Se acc e nS Oe $900. 00

Disbursements.

Rent, July 1 to May 31, 11 months, at $75...... 2-22. -2--2-2-- 20-2 eee 895. 00

Balancer July. 11896, sr ee eee ae as eee eee en eee eee 75, 00
NATIONAL MUSEUM: BUILDING REPaIRsS, 1896.
Receipts.
Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, “‘ for

repairs to buildings, shops, and sheds, National Museum, including all
necessary labor and material” (sundry civil act, March 2, 1895)..-...--. $4, 000. 00

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. ~ XXXI

Expenditures,
Services or compensation:

3 carpenters, 208 days, at $3..--....--..-.0--. 222-2 --- ee $624. 00
iepaimberomonth vat pO) 5-5-6 scce ese akese ccc ceces eens 65. 00
ispaincer, 16 days at $65... 22. ccce ewes ene cece ceces 33. 55
14 skilled laborers, 364 days at $2...........2.--..-------- 728. 90
1 skilled laborer, 21 days at $1.75... ...-........---.-.--- 36. 75
3 skilled laborers, 1 month at $50 ---...---..----------.--- 150. 00
1 skilled laborer, 74 days at $50............-..-2-.--2.:--- 12.10
1 skilled laborer, 1 month at $52.-.-.....-...--...-------- 52. 00
1 skilled laborer, 24 days at $50, 6 days at $55....---.----.- 51. 00
1 skilled laborer, 21 days at $1.75, 5 days at $2 ...-...----. 46. 75
imlaborer:wamonthy $4050... eee ace as see eee oecoes 41.50
DLADOLELS, Oo Gays at Pl 50) ac usc eer cas cee es oe ele seceer 124. 50

1, 965, 15

Miscellaneous:

GmanwtOspavemMenbes= sec. c seco ee sles see Se cirae $600. 00
PANIES OMS CLG 2 oe se as cinpsas se sis/e cteyats a ates physicians 400. 23
(GGUS cet las a isetaic ois: cineisie cases Seen sc aerseia 28. 00
PACEVO LUIS OS eyes rele avajore) slate nlate hci ioral esis cjete eee 38. 19
IL ivi) SORE SEAS SS See CORSE OAe nee Oe pate ae Ser rser 9. 00
leancbwiale@svee = oeccja\osisGie os /sticsce bce c es eee enlet ais 6. 42
Brick cementjcharcoalyi2.- 2is5 2-3 ceoce see ee 23. 50

1, 105. 34

MOtaveEXpPONCIGULe sens esas stele lore areto chelate ava la /ayerah Susi otal ceases $3, 070. 49

Balance July 1, 1896, to meet liabilities..........-..----..------..---- 929, 51

FIRE PROTECTION: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AND NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1896.
Receipts.

Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896, ‘‘ for
expenses of putting in four additional fire-plugs in the Smithsonian
grounds for the better protection of the Smithsonian Institution,
National Museum, and Astrophysical Observatory, and the purchase
of necessary fire hose.” (Sundry civil act, March 2, 1895.)....-.-.---- $800. 00

Disbursements.

Water Department, District of Columbia, for labor and material

for erecting four fire-hydrants in Smithsonian grounds.----- $646. 89
Fire hose, nozzles, and couplings ..--..---..-----.---------+--- 151. 40
798. 29
PbaniCGrillyl pl SOOm sce c eee sess cicicaiersice cee kees oe Se se see uae 1s Al

APPROPRIATIONS FOR PREVIOUS YEARS—PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, -1894.
Balance July 1, 1895, as per last annual report .--...--.-.--...--------- $235. 27

Expenditures.

SLL TNE ERS Lie COIS Cae a eg a Re a Ee Sn ie AS $13. 50
(PUGH UTR. 2 coogetic Cho S605 C0 SOF RA AP EOS eee ccs 12. 14
lola - 2 decelboee eee e See e e 202. 23
RGU MOS PONGUUUL OG. 2 a7 tio = cea sia tapi la'aln'e cl nem wieletas oan mene ates 227. 87

Dare GES 8 1100 7 BO Uae ee a A ny Sy Sa oye 7.40

XXXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

ToraL EXPENDITURE OF THE APPROPRIATION FOR PRESERVATION OF COLLEC-
TIONS, 1894.

AND OWOU BEND OW sos ceaspeees Se AUGsEe oF oase Been oaSeee coeoues5 Aas ceseoloc $152, 500. 00
Hapenditures.

SHINES OR COMMS AWON 5555 don56555 s65645 452005 aae5cess $118, 406. 94

Specialvor contractawOnlceees sass es-iae eee see eee eee 2, 242. 32
Motalisalavies Vass acsteccs seacice term o osm tenes seers eae 120, 649. 26

Suppliesis2. sh2a05 ser eee see sie eee ee aloes gute Seyones a eee 2, 356. 36

SRNHNOMNG AY sobGoc serosneabooweano Daas ssuonasene spas Seaaesne 496. 05

PDHINGMIG Geet odadonss Hoss SHacoEEe sons yose ossers Hace ao ade 3, 824. 24

JUN OISSC GBS es ie eeearesac lear See ores perme acura aa ene ks 72. 30

eV Obs seis eesers =ypasiene = hee wvelas a clave wales Se ele oe eis tse oe 3, 129. 48

BOOKS soscccc0 da50 occas socc esbesETS c500 Gd000D cosO Boas ORE 1, 464. 91
Motalkexpendibwres ee cee ee ee oe oe See ee eee ee eee 132, 492. 60

Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090,
by the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June
SOM SIG Eee Sao set ase oe wets a ees Sek Sansa Sob eee cee oa bane sarees eee 7.40

PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1895.
Balance July 1, 1895, as per last annual report.._....---.-_...---..---. $4, 950. 88

Kapenditures, July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896.

Specialioricontract sel CeS peers rere eae ee eee ee $683. 09

SHIT UEDA seo ao HGS soon aN bebe noe eSE SSE Gaueesecorsoustase 907. 09

SbabloneTy aso eeeey eis le eee sec sae ee sneer ee dntsuses 264, 38

SPECIMENS | Se caye setae ele tie Pac Sar ofeis a shite bere ale elein Sao 999. 33

IBookstandsp erilodicallSieeecee messes ee ee eee eee 1,518. 14

pi aivie es eleven secre eset ee A amiga Serica oes is sem eva era 90. 61

reishirandscantae Onmere eer eerie = eee ee cee eee 445. 93
Total expenditure, July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896 ---.-.----.----_. 4, 908.57
Balancerdiuliy asl 806 is paleceiae sine eee oa eee see cies 08 Sateen sees 42. 31

TorTaL EXPENDITURE OF THE APPROPRIATION FOR PRESERVATION OF COLLEC-
TIONS, 1895.

ApPLropriavion Mes ws sess nee esa eee ae ete aoe ee se eS See eee $143, 000. 00
Hxpenditures

Salaries or compensation --.------- cies nancies Seema eee $126, 142. 26

SOCIAll Or COMBO WORK -<ce soso 65555505 0555 5505550050 500- 4, 064. 33
To baltSeryvaCestee state eee cae oe cine srs oe eA eee eee 130, 206. 59

SUPPLesia22 Sees ee eee eee bys eee Len ween ee 3, 183. 65

SLAVOMEL Yai oe Sea, oe senso aen eyes em umte coor ae ete lasers 1, 076. 00

Specimens 2.222 ee ee ee eae es RAR eos He ental 3, 366. 47

pRravie lates oa Pees hee anicva site om eee onle sree er eer eon ee 676. 25

IB OVe Nb isce me Se see ee son Bae eS ees Cpe cloee eveeeee es Cees seteee 1, 915. 91

BOOKS a aati coc alh wiles cei eh Sele ee ners eae eee 2, 532. 82
Total.expenditure:: isc: sss. cees casos eae ee Soe eae Soo eat eee 142, 957. 69

Balance: July 1, (896s isc... 2 ses cee sae cecs ae eoeiee eee eee eee 42, 31

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXII

FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1894.

Balance July 1, 1895, as per last annual report.....-.....-.....--_...---- $0. 09
Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the
Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1896.

FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1895.
Balance July 1, 1895, as per last annual report.....-.........-.-.-------- $697. 43

Haependitures.

STREAMS SATO SES OGE tere eis Bae Ee Re Sree nen a Tah ea eae Pu $7. 00

Miscellaneous:
WEAN ELSy LEMS GU OXCR iss Se acasice occa tie ae scence eerie cle 7. 00
TD TREY SED SUEY OURS) OOS Sse per Wate ep eo ana pict) Sentra St pata 1. 25
CCITT Saree meres rg te ielar Oke ula ees SR uma LOT ctier MULg SL Scene 1.25
| HLA OLS TETAS) oo. et na eee ge ee eoea e il RR Uea e pee HR 37. 69
INGONS SeisSce SE Oo Ae BO AER een aee eer re eee een tren el ies ota Na 1.10
CLO UME RGOUUOTI OUCH crac ashes SEI Se siete ase mejnisec ya leyanie | seer 97.78
APU RSS UU S ee crss a ints eel ee WM cee etal cariorrae esis eS Eels sees aa OD, Siz
NTN Pe Toppers ys ee i atc caren ay aco eta way, a Oe vara genes 145. 36
AUS y ONS OUCH esses ade 2 Ae Bae as Sed a ew Sta aie aie Rv ate 38. 24
OINGennTNUGULG 2s Beas an Season oe ce eae Berne 241. 03
Metal sees a cam actes es jac nse sce ee ceese Qoceds Sout tees 6. 24
ebbermandcleath ems sve tte Sle eset ese eee nite 5519
AN OTOME TOS ENG EE NGM CNIS eer 6 Shee Sa ceee meno E anemia gece. 2. 60

Motavexpenditures:<-)22 5 esos = ses = hasan eee ease Se eee a mouse choeiers 696. 90

ALINE MULL SOG ieee kis, cre sw cis sero a nape e mace eminem - bd

TOTAL EXPENDITURE OF THE APPROPRIATION FOR FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1895.

NES LO PULA ULOM: eevee te sins cee ates elena oe We ENE Soe, cae oe ecm $10, 000. 00
SAL MLSs OMCOMMMeNns a tlOl see sess oo hee see nee sene eee 0092 20)
Het ae CONGLACU WOLKE | 055 te. are Seas Soca Ee enema Cou 93.13
“LNG GIL, SS EP VI CT ees can ee eres rE ea 5, 102. 33
ENN Kee N Suter ec Sila cso Suge. Sees 91. 25
BIEANUOLS Lily Sa DORMCS + (Meese k. . Sele ee Sea oh te ee eS 678. 79
MREING SSUCTIU SH OUGH scr: = Nl nee ee he Os Ges mn Ne ee 68. 25
UMGSSISY Sell ANSE Stes le eee en Orcas aoe ge MIR a ere pC 47.15
PPCM ae ere nina et ee eR eed. SEU ae SP ed eee 5L7. 99
UCTS). 22d DOSS ISAC SNEED SE CIES ae So re ey Pe 64. 79
PLU RCOULOM MOL a taert ce shee oe erence oo cia as estas eee eign 117. 78
DTS) TEES le, S 5 Se a eR epee abd. 89
PINDER Meee secs nes SRR eS. hrs Bee ev a eee 1, 251. 58
EINER SURONN Sy tents ere Seo es Ge ae il ss ia Beaten Aaa lls oie eas 488. 38
TE es AERATION 363. 76
woe: .. cede. SSS See eee een len eee ema os 53. 40
Para DLO NO LOM UCD aie oe Siac ee ao cess Selec mee lgchieemes ceiacer 24.59
Lo OL DT GLEG ICIS a MEG ile ire Ae te ee a oe RE SS on 141. 94
Papasan RCC LOTC HIS as cc mini ofee = iainis le em atin nln ys ome eaters 2. 60

UG TET Gxeg fe) GUN TR es Ee Eee Phe Siete ar ne 9, 999. 47
Le i Ter bod SRC | ean i ae ae eS Pie Ee oy ee a Aa SS a -03

sm 96-——IIL

XXXIV REPORT OF THE

HEATING, LIGHTING, ETC., 1894.

Balance July 1, 1895, as per last annual report

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

$0. 76

Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the

Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30,

1896.

HEATING, LIGHTING, ELECTRIC, AND TELEPHONIC SERVICE, 1895.

Balance July 1, 1895, as per last annual report

Huependitures.
Specialiservilcestese shes ee ie stg ce Se ee ea yee ets
General expenses:
Coal-andswoods 3302 22 235.3 2c a ee ee ee pie a eee
Gas URS ake oa eile Bene See Mie ie sa Fe hee
Melephonesis 22252 65 oo tc hb Se eee eset ee oe ee
SE hRICHS Wp PLES ers: evan ees a eI ays see ee eee ees
Rental ot call boxes
Heating supplies
Telegrams

wins elem im) = Slelelele 6) = (=l—l=\|= (= ele lee (= l= i= l= =e l=l= lel = eine

Total expenditurec

Balance July 1, 1896

$1, 445. 07

1, 443. 92

1.15

TorTaL EXPENDITURE OF THE APPROPRIATION FOR HEATING, LIGHTING, ETC., 1895.

APPLOPTIAtlOw sees pce cos ook ee ee ele etin SOO el eS sane eens $13, 000. 00
Hependitures.
SS a EUTH G Shere eerees eas rae ey MN hr os Mp nalts Sa nes cee aplenty $6, 177. 43
Specralaservicegy a. cole cal oe a NS eee eee Peep ee eee 57.50
ANON NSS Big (Esa Geir os eas es pa ee eS iam ante ae ie a as 6, 234. 93
General expenses:
Coaltam di woo deen se eae aerate se ioe ke Oe ee en tere 2, 799. 66
CG eS NS GEE AN ele Sp ee Ah Ms Be igs Ace Bes a I (5 US}
Mele phones eg se he al netes ein ee eae fe = Sate eee SIRE 602. 45
MVectrici suppl ese eee oes core ace Perse cere er aera eae 1, 325. 57
Rentalkotcallsboxesse-= ease ias see oe Se eee ee 120. 00
Heating, Sup ples: sees setae toe ees eter eres ere ree 346. 40
Meleorams ie ev ee eee et yee ete Winer eisai ees eee 12.71

Total expenditure

Balance July 1, 1896

NATIONAL MUSEUM: BUILDING REPAIRS, 1895.

Balance July 1, 1895, as per last report

Disbursements.
Advertising proposals

Balance July 1, 1896

NATIONAL MusEuM: RENT OF WORKSHOPS, 1895.

Balance July 1, 1895, as per last report

Disbursements.
Rent

i ee ad

wo cone se

12, 998. 85

1.15

$13. 29

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTHE.

XXX V

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY—SMITUSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1896.

Appropriation by Congress ‘‘ for maintenance of Astrophysical Observa-
tory under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including sala-
ries of assistants, apparatus, and miscellaneous expenses (sundry civil

act, March 2, 1895)

Disbursements from July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896.

Salaries or compensation:

[GO TENT CTE AER AE ae eT GR EM gees cg Pomc ies A ela $750. 00
Be See ic Asn ae eee Se 499.58
Se Caer ren eee 1, 050. 00

laid

\4 months 7 days, at $100
108 months, at $100
27 days, at $100
- 16 days, at $133.34
aabaiaes ape! months 9 days, at $83.33

\6 days, at $100
1 clerk, 1 month, at $100
1 clerk, 5 months 6 days, at $60
onnonths ath t60beeres eee sere eee e 390. 00

1 assistant:

1 junior

1 instrument maker

Roe latyss tart SO ree ates, sas eee 290. 08

1 instrument maker, 514 days, at $3.50.-.....-..-----2----- 179. 38
1 eters UA GO VaT| A] OVSPEE rst fo Sis i nee ey ee me Manan eR a 70. 00
Upayivonibhayr av bid Oe ees oe eta ran Saurus aor Dene 80. 00

1 computer, 2 months six days, at $50....-.....---.---.---- 110. 00
1 machinist, one-half month, at $83.33.......-..-...-.----- 41. 67
Hemachimist les dans at POyss eyes ss Sen ee eos ee 4.88
1 steam fitter, three-fourths day, at $3.....-.--...-.------- 2.25
MRSC AMM GLOL yO CAS; Ab) Poe steel cota stad See, Se Rs us 15. 00
Wearpenber 30 days, abih3\ oe sos oo Sone kien wienin eeteee ee 90. 00
ikcarpenter, 202: days, at.g3: o2- 5.352522 fae252 2. Secs ce eee 62. 25

1 carpenter, 274 days, at $5
1 carpenter, 184 days, at $3
1 skilled laborer, 74 days, at $2.50
1 laborer, three-fourths day, at $2
1 laborer, 2444 days, at $1.50
1 laborer, 4 days, at $1.50
1 cleaner, 2} days, at $1

Total salaries or compensation

General expenses:

e ov 6O
St Sic TES) TS
ie
S

82

. 50

sie er Poe ate is ere Se nes Ee 366. 75
Speeds Pinetree ws Sees a Mie Pe a 6. 00

Raise cyanate eae an [ete spel aie es ales 2.50

fateh ae kao te ears UR 5, 620. 29

Apparatus

Building
Castings
DPOGIGN etc SCC See ISCO ee ea ae

Books and binding

Heating apparatus

MUM UES ELOUS Si) Seeks <1 os Sek
Lumber

Postage and telegraph
Stationery

S11) UNG Ste ne Sen a ee
Traveling expenses. ............-.

Total disbursements

Balance July 1, 1896............

SD Sa eels $1, 233. 60
sip crane a 54, 89
sree Sls 0h 9. 00

Shao wise 47.53

Bape oases 116. 95

2, 681. 46

$9, 000. 00

XXXVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, 1895.
Balance July 1, 1895, as per last report - .---- nee ee nee ee enn ween $1, 585. O1

Disbursements, July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896.

General expenses :

AY DIAG Socopes po ese obs disco sae Osan coapEoboueesuouEeSESa- $931. 41
IYO Ase ue oe 6H Sogo mes eadaS oo Reem ase as Some Oo raeaes eee 47.56
IGGL SO SReSeeno Coa p a ieeoae ease eon esaboeseasasamse s0ce 9. 80
RIG s 2b beds sbosaadoaocde sacs aaeae coco eoobesssee csc esas 16. 23
IEICE CHO DOMNMIS 3 cogs Gaus bene sUoeEamese oe sau6 So5ae5 6s8e5s 270. 00
IDDDIN EE ae as aoe SOO SEES ose Se eee eee Sere SOs eae sae 1.08
Postacejand stele graphy 2 see ee cee ee oes eee eee 2.48
SUWP PILES eats cep eicise Sere oe aia = renee ws eer ee ot eee eee 284. 43
Thieny@liune @xOOMSOS. ess oboo0000 sSo5es ose 564 Cece as as5> Sess- 17. 60

—— 1,580.59

“balancediully lS 96 ob. seas ee ees See oes Sores eee ee ee eee 4,42

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY, 1894.
BalancerJulysl 1805 aspen lash report <= ess) a ee eae $9. 02
Disbursements.

AD DATALUS se Seva okis eee oe sees ee ee ea it ae ere ee SA ee eee ene 2.75
Balance carried, under the provisions of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by

the Treasury Department to the credit of the surplus fund, June 30, 1896- 6. 27.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PaRk, 1896.

Appropriation by Congress ‘‘for continuing the construction of roads,
walks, bridges, water supply, sewerage, and drainage, and for grading,
planting, and otherwise improving the grounds, erecting and repairing
buildings and inclosures for animals, and for administrative purposes,
care, subsistence, and transportation of animals, including salaries or
compensation of all necessary employees, and general incidental ex-
penses, not otherwise provided for, fifty-five thousand dollars, one-half
of which sum shall be paid from the revenues of the District of Colum-
bia and the other half from the Treasury of the United States, and of
the sum hereby appropriated five thousand dollars shall be used toward
the construction of a road from the Holt mansion entrance (on Adams’
Mill road) into the park to connect with the roads now in existence,
ineluding a bridge across Rock Creek” (sundry civil act, March 2, 1895) $55, 000. 00

Disbursements, July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896.

Salaries or compensation:

1 superintendent, 12 months, at $208.33. ......2...--....-- $2,499. 96
leproperbyaclerk-sl2imyonths-sabpdli25 eee ae eee 1, 500. 00
iclerk 12 months sat bo0 see aee ea eee eee eee nee eee 720. 00
Messen eer fot onithis raibib4 OMe eee aera eee 240. 00
pile Moni his: tart Soke eee eee ee eee On eee 300. 00
[storemane lpm ont hs abi pioneee eee eee eae eee eerie ee 900. 00
1 assistant foreman, 11 months, at $60 .--...---..-.------- 660. 00
. (tit HNOMENS,, Bh Hees canoe saesos sesab0 se5e 958. 29

Didayscabisss sorcerer eee eee se nee eee 25. 00

1 head keeper.
‘g ‘Gilays'. 2b S100 Ss :ssee deal ee en eee 20. 00

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXVII

Salaries or compensation—Continued.

114 months, at $50 ...--........- ee $575. 00
1 under keeper davssrateo0hacascncumrcsees cows |e eaee 15. 00
Geclenyatrateh OOMeem weve pepe ce tays S yer tensa 12. 00
fees TULOMB EAN Sy cbr 0) seen seat sy alee ee 575. 00
imanger Keeper days, ab G50, 20-2. 2.22 2.222 ose eee cee 15. 00
le Can SyrUtRPOO) cic, serve Pete ays erence rere emcee 12. 00
TUES roa CUE, AS ee eee ado sese 4seoe 575. 00
1 under keeper, 9 days, at $50 .........-..-.---.---.------ 15. 00
Gidavee abecO0wess es woes eciiaye se ese 12. 00
es MOMtHS ab GOO mess eve Se ee ee 550. 00
ifunderikeeper aliday ss at poOl soe es occa sence Sa 34. 35
GUA Se ibibo Payee ake See a aes eines 12. 00
pis MOMUNS herbs Olea a ee yam nee 575. 00
ifundersikeeper Oi days; "ab oO) 52 42 Shien se Na geree oeteaes 15. 00
CO} GANVS) CUNO) Geeceniscos Suet oscksuoeth seas 12. 00
ficeener dOnmonths, at $75. .0522...2220s-222 0s nese eeee 750. 00
IL MeKelerTnii, AsO NSS Chi GHC) Soe Gace boookg oon d Saou oboc 900. 00
1 assistant blacksmith, 12 months, at $60 ..-.....-......--- 720. 00
Meannenber 2 Months ation eesaceiesaas se scmeee oaeaee 900. 00
1 pacar oe MOM HS ab OOM. nthe ae ese ae ea elerciees Srey ae terete 175. 00
= SL ole asaneny wits OPS ta 5 mai nelaas nln ets Mapa Je Soe 1.61
1 stenographer, 12 months, at $62.50 ...........-.---.------ 750. 00
COP yISl, SHaaAyerub POU ss econ eRe eee Se 5.83
pags MMOMUN Sabi Sloe es eye ce oper eee 172. 50
1 attendant,9 days, at $15 .---...-2.22 2222 ---- LAR Sid chess 4.50
lo davisanb P20 ioc doen. Soe eee eee steers 4.00
iowatchmeand2 months) go) 2222 12 se. 32 eee eS seieieeee 600. 00
ivacchmeanel 2 months at do0 ean ee eeeiee vee ears Seer 600. 00
dewarochimean. slo nvolbhsy at S60 moses. 2 eee aa seen ae 720. 00
HewatCnMan yo Months atipoOremeer see ae ee eee ee 150. 00
1 night watchman, 12 months, at $50 ........-.....--...--- 600. 00
HiSMOM DHS abi ployee esse ee hee ene eee naye, 495. 00
laborers id ays: ab: $40 o/c sone \eiscu seveoecstece see eee 13.50
l6 Cay Seat POOR tee cesar Ss Ue a ane meen 10. 00
(Pano OMG S sa bebe Dire eestor yaa citarei ise sete ree 90. 00
: tabouer MOTORS at POO Mesa cea mies ee oie cle eee epee ota 300. 00
PID OKe me MMOMUNS ab OO) eae eee oe oe er eee 600. 00
Hel ONE ron GMUNSs Ub poOlere tees mle ae Shire aD 600. 00
MELB OLGL Ee eRINOMUS Ut oO pees ohana elec a 600. 00
I UORGr AAI NONLUS! Ubi POO) sa ence ceo Sepacie eee oes 575. 00
MIU OLEK Mio INOMUUS Lipo. Jota k Voce eden ecincccceeeues 420. 00
iiahorer! ATT ONL its Pid 0) oslo arora noha ain, cyereie eteaeea eee oats ae NS 200. 00
ATES GIES er st ha ea SR es Bl ie 24.57
ABISEOLGT MOUS. MU COO ace siace ccc, acetic ecu eoce cece 12. 00
RoiasslaAries OF COMpPeNSAblON 55 - seine ae sees Mae enemas $21, 821. 11
Miscellaneous:
RUROINI eet aatea te mar eiaiiors cities, od x! diane oie cole Suntec crate 158. 46
RRMA PANT ADO LI pate ete ccs. on a a a's ob one Soa a apnea 1, 042. 88
Wancino ang. Caro Material 622. 3... 25 Setees ba gccnceeees 3, 779. 16
LESTE Gos Sc Sia SS ea RE AL PB ee 5, 686. 31
rerehn and: bransportation..--.-...-..- S222 -l ob. s2e 651. 68
CUR MMEMPRE as GS See dosh <n 40 =e nk /a= hs eee mee Hoe 614. 73
MEPS CIE iets oats EE Sok pai a ain mins in oe eee ones 878. 27

XX XVIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Miscellaneous—Continued.

Wileyelmineny, WOME, GO s6ce5 sescascase s6cces S555 0655e¢ wae Se $442. 49
Miscellaneous suppliesies ose scree enna ea Ea ae ales OOn ag
Paints (Oils iolass 323) 22c2e- se ees = soe ce eelaseeee eae 237. 37
Postage, telephones, and telegraph... .........--.---.------ 182. 12
IROMG meNieeyl aynGl ermnChiner. ceo sekoss seh5 cess 655555 -24555 721. 22
Sumyeyaloe plains: Cb Ci eet ase ays oie fale er eer eerey ee arera pa LENO
Stationery, books, pr cinta, CCl suis ose sche eee ee 236. 41
reese PIANGS eb Cl aeye Sera iayer eke Se haa sia ye rere pe 514. 01
AWeniaie Suna Diy, SeONvEIE, GWG Gane cooses secooc seen aaccos onces 357. 84
Total miscellaneous........----- ho rs a MA de ILI 2 eo oe ai ea $18, 017. 02

Wages of mechanics and laborers and hire of teams in construct-
ing buildings and inclosures, laying water pipes, building roads,
gutters, and walks, planting trees, and otherwise improving the
grounds:

IL es KORE, U7 Clays) OW 4S soo cdo oe conn Baosoceskehs sondSdaacase $54. 00
1 laborer| CHEV Sab Ap 2S Rint SR afl Beare Sas sete eNala ieee Pera 71.00
Sve Niche nits (aol) aee Sik on GAca aa seeees Sem Saaeesi sooo 80. 63

1 laboren oz GUESS sab ePD yee Serie alee ian edad ete an oer ae a en eo 529. 50
XS, Clears onn Galler) de cores eames eee Sp ie Se, Sais 29223900

il Tensor, GS Glenys), Gi HILO ss Go6 sd ouks hos Sooo ods edad boas 289. 50
iAlaboreny Oc days otipil. 50) sees = sae reer ssbeeisen 2222 96. 75
I leporeie, 2aeRe CNS), Gis GUND 3 oe 6 5 sce sd on cosa cous So5cce céccon Ge ic)
plabonrer ale O;danyiss-aiby GOO) eee. ae erg eee eee ener 180. 00
IMaborerd847 days jab pls) ees seen) eg ee nee ease eee Cone
Ie KOs, Ts Glenys Gly MLO) Be secs s-c505 o Caneke cannes sassceas5e 117. 00
il Nenoaneere, NGO ye Glanrsy ay BIL) sos cececo ces acon c500 S055 cease 240. 38
it llenoomrer, 1UISFE Glanvel, ene GSO) ose soo uos seca sesoade cacuso bods 170. 25
i Tevoonaie, Walsee GANS, Ob SLO) cons ssboescoce co6ccGbs =5565e0 coer 2538. 13
i Tevooree, SEY) Clanych, Gi6 SL) oa csos code coco esses Bsoese ocae aeec 508. 50
1 laborer, 42 days, at $1.50..--.....--- ESET E he al Cotten yee eee 63. 00
UL llenborreie, OOP Glens, ain SMG) os ces akee a ceedcn seca eacs secs cos 540. 38
il leniyoreeye, 7S Glenys) ahh SL) osc oo oosn5s coco csesSaoucgese sand 255. 37
il lenoorere, SH) Clans}, Bie GLO) sooo ec ake seb o eo eo Soo bade coos aos 532. 50
Alabonery2o4e. 1 daly Sabi cpills co 0 ees ae eee rs ears 351.75
1 laborer, 464 days, at $1.50 ._2.-.........- eile ests ge es heaves 69. 75
1 lboxorrers, abe WK sh Chu Gn). so oon sondac oseo soos sacu daa secs 48. 38
il len oxoneere, Tats) Cle iysh, AnD GHD oe 34 os Gao con osocGa coun sesudes saaos 207. 00
ilabonerioiedanyjewaibsp ico 0) eee ete ses et eet eee ee 100. 50
Llaborerwlr day sab Si 50 sie ae ee Re eee ears 16.50
Mlaboreryoosd ays abide Oise ae eee es ee eee ee eee 53. 63
Maboner:sliidlany sere ipcbillso () eee erate eee 25. 50
Les orer| 1985 CNS, Bin BNL co osam mone cousoeo cess esos seco dos: 207. 75
iD biddiyswetplnon yc wee ayes ceee ne Ase ee eeeaN aes 156. 25

1 laborer| 1?” daysvab Bil 50) se Aiea e soee ame aera ee peenemere 167. 99
REO Gigas iy GLO ee See ae abana eens 63. 12

1 laborer! 1844 days, at $1.50 ......-....----.-----+ 2-2 +++ =e 276. 38
LO dave ab i@ilsoi sae Wels Lins alesse, Ann eA ee eee 26. 25

1 laborer, 42} days, at $1.25 ......... ee Seen eae ea Aes PN Nee ys 1
1 laborer, 366 days, at $1.25 -..--- 2 cen toa cr A See 457.50
Wik owere WESC EhE eines) Coe oe on coho oopoeusebocoda dees 121.57
PAD ORE T SiC ays, aibiepil sien are tee earn ee 22.50
IDM b Nei BaP ab shen pe bs) es Oe Re ease otcue 15. 94.
1 laborer, 12% days, at $1 95 rea mena yee iG Bets 15. 94

laborer 204 daysrab pilie2 be eee ee eee ete eee 25. 94

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXIX

Wages of mechanics and laborers, ete.—Continued.

fIDUReE SL Mlays, cit Glee 2222 = cs cases tecc ae ceccce sacs ~-- $42. 50
eA ONCT AAO Myst ab pb slO) elie ceive aioe ss ee ciec os wis sn eines acess 25. 00
1 laborer, 25 d: DY SMUD ola Sees = eee eels) aye wees 31. 25
Pel DOLer yori ay Sab ple 2d) a. coe S52 cs Siectes oo ares alee tel eteen 27.50
MU DOReT rose CaySy UU ple 2 vem taione wee cle en ate sree cieferdice ss Staats 42.50
1 laborer, 229? days, at $1.25 .-......---- ge as ees Reece 287.18
ISA boOner SOT Mays @bipl. 2D). ss es Se ee eee be ee isles 100. 31
Pe RGORGE Aa CU Sb ple 2O) eae sei leg anise eye elt else chelevets 93.12
Lei OnerwSO2 dave: abil :2D woo. see coe. eeleoue cee eens 225. 93
HlApOnerrso Mays, aingleghia 2 os. So. et le ose ewe cte as 43.75
1 oe 10 days, at $1.95 SECURES LIE As UES Mean Nee him Selena, 2 nC Be 12.50
I en ayoyiteres Deis inde rates ae aaa ee eee ee 16. 25
Halaborer ele adae ab; Gl. 20. oie aya rue ae eines ae se else mcie 52.19
ilthorer dMOs days at Plo 25i 52 sees ee 2) ae sie ee seit 24. 69
[Rl IDOReTOKUaVS aba lO ene f-osics orate eee neem ae ece as 10. 00
SM ADOLEL MeN ayS Abel .2o)- see ee cane 2 ee eek eiecr see ese ee elo.OO
1 laborer, 714 days, at $1.25 -___-. paltsc cM at Sart lots Slee et octets eels 89. 07
1 laborer| "> GI ER Uh eS Ses aoe ee aia aes eae s 55. 63
BUNT LEVY Sy Meet ote epee 2 aes state ceyists oily a i ce earege aa 112. 00

eg GIES) Rup Gules) Se Beene sates Oeimon Ba hetnea 138. 75

Hela borerd2idayscabigl: 2s. 2. ss OL eee eae eee 12. 00
IY DEG eich Cui Cosi ts) OG cee anes Hoacee Sean eer = 93. 19

Hel AD OLE lo rAGay Sab Cl eee sas iota We anes ase cee ene See 13. 50
MBLMDOLETAORA AVS DU pL Ae vets atta. niaya te sear aes) Stun bcrtens ais Mets 5. 00
Plabonen, 20 ays: auipliscs tac Noam eer nn cites eer 20. 00
z/ laborer, Teeny Ss ratipley Opes aie 1 Ss cece ete e ae eae eaas 18. 75
leaEpentertsolaysatiG2.50 ube mers. i ee as eel olen 97. 50
1/ laborer, Seda svatipill 50ers seer ae eee Se ares Pry 46.50
eRe seniar MOQ AYSatsP2cD Ol sees sme Ne Ne Lae ee ee he ne Oe 17.50
Mearpenter, U2 days atig2 50 se sae. joey ees a eee ayepe nae 30. 00
INCAPDENLEL oOa ays) abib2. 00k ocean ae et voces tee eee 87. 50
MGarpenter, 14 Gays; ati p2.50) 22260 92 eyose ne eee eet) te ape 35. 00
HEN CINE TIS GAyS AbipsO sae alate ath alee ne Ae su areas 32. 50
ienvinecrsciidays: atip2750 5s a So Bie, ose Hoe senses 60. 00
Menmincerm 4 dave, ati paoON see. a Moe ee eek ye ae 35. CO
MB pAIniberOnd ays wah hoe ale vos see a eee pe ch ere sees ates 18. 00
MPAINLerSoa Mays, VSS 2 s- = ssi eae tie Sel nosso ess OSes sete 96. 00
IE AUIMLC LA STORY SVU bi hoe lee crine ce ic cloteiclacrceiciee oe eieie see 17. 25
ASAIN LOR eG NYS. Ubi Po <2. fei tersioela alsa saa ehoe See ser en Eee 42. 00
PESLORECUDLOL OPUS) ab gece eee So alas ee eeu e eee 13. 00
1 wagon and team, 384 days, at $3.50 ..-.--..------+--2---2 ee 134. 75
1 wagon and team), 24 days, at $3.50 ........-.-.-.------+------ 8.75
wacom team, 12 days; at $3.50. 2222. feces Cae 42. 00
1 wagon and team, 88} days, at $3.50 ......-..--2-..-.-+------ 308. 88
IsDOIse andicalt, Gor ALyS, AtiGL: 75-2 scos2c ee eons wesc es 110. 69
1 horse and cart, one-half day, at $1.75 ...........-..----.---- . 88
MOIR and cart, odnys, ab Pl. 75) 22. cs. cc cle cae ese aces 14. 00
HPHOMRG AM (WCaALh Sa ays, ab GIL75 22-02 eee eels SS 14. 88
MOTHS aud Cart, 7b days, ab hls75 2... soc. Se ecl fee Pee gece se. 13.57
PSUDLEG MUM ay Arab: oU CNL ani ss 5.55 S222 ose ee mee ae 35. 00
HENOUSGRainG a yAsab OO CONUS = 0. so ..2 2.2 se noes eeeece ee 20. 50
DwaLet boy,o20aya,ab 75 cents :.2....225. 02 so eens nes 146.50,
PWAteNUOY, o4¢ Cay8, at 50 cents. ...22.-.-0. ssecss -sac25c25e 17.138
iwaceripoy oO:days, at 50'cents ...-- .. 20. sees. ec nceee oe 25. 00

war NOY, d02 Gays, at o0 Gellts 2.502.525. 222 echo eas 25, 38

XL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Wages of mechanics and laborers, ete.—Continued.

slewiaben) Over oOLd aS ab SO NCEM LS ise a ae eee ee errr $15. 00

1 water boy, 1 day, at 50 cents ---2.-2-<-- oS OS ae ea ae eee tere 50

A Waher DOs lad anyrabi OlCEMbS ees ae a ea eee ae - 50

i syyentiene Ionys Ils) Glen yst Aly BO) GSMs) oh 3 5bo5s5555 $5545 5s55555 sess 6.50

TL WyAHEAIE lWOh 7 IL Gey, Alb WO) COMI 2558 pose gee sons soasoo sean ese5 . 50

1 stone breaker, 171;4; cubic yards, at 60 cents ----...---.---- 102. 65

1 stone breaker, 1522 cubie yards, at 60 cents......---..-.---. 91.65

1 stone breaker, 208 cubic yards, arbi GOACenibsl= ase ae seme ee 124. 80

i) GbR RiSNITEN OY Thee ClRNTE BY GY) onesies codecarasc-mesacns saoane Gor 157. 00

iLipn@alalere, AH Glens enOGH) 22 se oecss S5esosce 55 o45455 seo A 93. O01

ikmodelers2 sida svat plOOe oie eee ie ante so eee ee ena

HGmodelergovdays cat SOO se eens eres seis ee eer eyo ie 5. 87
Mobaliee ste) hoes fos ee alee 25s ete o oareiluejs se Sa SO See ees SES eee Osea bee
Rotalkdishursements:..22. 32-002 e c= = season eS aee eee See cee e eee 50, 694. 74
Balance July 1, 1896---.. -- Bisset ois Ss rae ots ea ee ea 4, 305. 26

ENTRANCE AND DRIVEWAY, ZOOLOGICAL PARK, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, 1895

AND 1896.
IBelayaersy Awl Il Tes, ANS FOC NES REVO -LooSe aa sass ee ses oose 26555 ceecoe

Disbursements.
Salaries or compensation:

lassistant engineer, four twenty-sevenths of amonth, at$175 $25.93
it Clngyiinnimann, ©) GENS, CHES PAD) Sosa oaosne se acoo seasons eso> ea S5e5 20. 25
f rodman, 11 days, at $780 per annum --.---..- --2-----.---- 23. 32
assistant woreman-slomonth, at pG0ls sae ee see eee eee 60. 00
1 wagon and team, 212 days, at $3.50) ...222.....5.--2.22--- 76.12
ILin@WASe onal @aucti, 3) Glenys Gh Gils) 2-5 2s5 = cs Coscccesasscce 8.75
1 Jlelbo@irsie, 2) Glenys), CuniGilan) SS et eeeneseoa sages kooose =Sad 37. 50
1 lleanoirein, Be: Glehysh; Bb aE) = oso4 Soc ocs sauscs cacmtosessccs 20. 63
Iaboners4 davs cat bll 50 ce vane ss oes teats See 6. 00
lelahoner eo rdays. vaitipile 0) prea seas a eee ee erent re 34.50
ile boean, Abr Clonyiss, aly SLOSS tan essssGSe a sass 2555 Se 5555 is 37. 88
Ilaboner 24 rdais: subisile50 is es eso oe en oe Sas sees - 36.00
Inaboreryone-naliiemomnbthpsat bo 0tes=eee eee eee eee ee 25. 00
IE MEY KOE: SAPS Cs Minti oes setos ayo Maesaeesedbeane 33.37
I lavoret, cme-lneubt mom), Gi AS) .cscc5 sc sanoscssesesccosEs 22.50
IlaleyNoeey OLE GEAR Chill recone naaode case HaseeTee coSceuS 36. 75
Indaborersladayis y abil 2a, soa e eee sate cee yee Sse ee 26. 25
laborer aloe idaiyis sa tigi Oo ers peteate pe re ers a ayaa ere ree 16. 88
We byoncir, We: Glenys, iG S265 acosoe ease soon + oaedss séeoes 21.56
VM eH yontenns Zieh GlEAyE Ahi Glee) eae eeebael cosa seon seo 5555 asec 34.37
I eMweneies 10). CaaS Ain GLB oe esa eo onu esasae Sa Souccecosene 12.50
IU WAHT Yon, 40 Gls, Aun 7) COMMIS) Soo5a5 Soocns cnsocood basse 20. 25
Total salaries or compensation —---- .--.2.-----.--- feces 636. 31
General expenses:
IDs Resid NE ce Se hemes eee uve ik Saeed ee a Et $1. 70
Graig one ic ease ee eRe sete ee ee I ASUS El
BRD Up ee epee Ws) e ee Noe ee) tee dene NI Sa CE Oo 31.58
Miscellanconsisupplics =- eres eae ae eee eee 10. 92
SULVC VAN Oe NAPS OFC see iene et ea ne 287. 50
—- 1, 492, 87

DMaAnNCe Daly; 1, WSO sor as is Ye ees Sprig ee tre ne ae

$2, 129. 18

95. 49

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XLI

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1895.

Balance July 1, 1895, as per last report..:.----:..2-..-. 2... 2-- 52: s-- ee: $1, 085, 96
Disbursements.

een RA OR NN ALE RL ULe ety ener ee a oie oa lel ie Uiiers Pek oceans i oe $3. 63

TPL SSce. ge Bd CIES CREE STORE oa NR pre AES 449. 36

Beer NOGA PeMNAbOMAL .. 02. S22. /.8 ee ee ct 10, 68

Freight and transportation ..--- ie. gtlgues Seecents Heston cece de ess 338. 41

LL AIUINEE “aes SASS Gea Ses Seg Cee es ES ey EE ape LE es Ue 1.10

SIME Gs HECIN © OUIS hee eter te ee rey eee he are Ni aie ie Main os Aaah 26. 38

EUS MOM Mp LASS OLChe seca nce se ee iss cee os aw ecia eee cseeNs pees 2.40

Post#re; telerraph, and teleplione:--.-:2..-2:..0..0. 2222.22.52. 48.09

DLAMONehY DOOKS, Primtin ge, (tC sass 5- ea ce cee sents ale ace 20. 08

NULVOVIN OE MAS welC ao tsesese Salts qe oe ea Yeo ti eos 130. 00

BLAME L IN OnOXIDCNSES) occ een cose Senos cua nk be ee teen ee ee 39. 65

“TEIREVES|, TOUTS CEN ON eg tees a pM gre ol I pa ct 10. 55

Water supply, sewerage, etc. .-.-...-----.--- Sea Saete ue win aaa Meee 1. 20
NG Tala S MUESCMGMUS: sers.c see eens Sars = pera an eee ee ee Ru ape rete ea 1, 081. 48
1B Wer aera iv lava Rete] sees oe eres SS ns eed bie ee eR oeh Nee naan cs Pa el 2.48

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 1894.

HAlancorwwiyelMs95 a5) per last LEpOrd.-< ss {2 sass ace ce alee acres oe $240. 66
Disbursements.
SUAMONERY, sUOOKS printinG .€UC\.ac cs. teccces aoeece aces se eceeme $0. 71
SHIVER Oe pOlANS CGUC) ascr oistcls nis cto nic etateraicie ccincreleiel aan sane 239. 95
— 240. 66
RECAPITULATION.

The total amount of funds administered by the Institution during the year ending
June 30, 1896, appears from the foregoing statements and the account books to have
been as follows:

Smithsonian Institution.

BrOmptlance Of last year, July L, 1895-2222 228 so esses = $63, O01. 74
(Including cash from executors of Dr. J. H. Kid-
MGT Ne Mares erat i soictelal a Sie caneine beeen. Om einai $5, 000. 00
(Including cash from gift of Alex. Graham Bell)... 5, 000.00
10, 000. 00
From interest on Smithsonian fund for the year...--....--..- 54, 715. 00
BLOM sales of publications -..-. 2... ----=-- aes eat eee e 162. 15
BLoOmMmELepavinentsof trelolit, CbC.2....0.cc.. seas eles eet 6, 312. 46
MELBLCATOUMVVERt SOLE DOMGS).252 265-4002 05ce- ce ces cece 1, 680. 00

-—— $125, 871. 35

Appropriations committed by Congress to the care of the Institution,
ppro} ] f |

International Exchanges—Smithsonian Institution:

LOM LTC CIOL Loo 4s ee ooo ec ees Ceo $0. 10
POM NC) Ole LOGS OD oc so oS oes eee yaie le cee 2.01
Hronvanppropriation tor 1895-96 - 522k eee 17, 000. 00
eee Oe. it
North American Ethnology:
From balance of last year, July 1, 1895 ..-. 222.2. 2.25..2. 5, 680. 15
From appropriation for 1895-96...........--------------. 40, 000. 00

45, 680. 15

XLII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
Preservation of collections—Museum :
From balance of 1893-94 .........-..-.--- JS aS SSS Sees 2222 $235. 27
Hiromi axcerotelsO4— Op meses seis ke ee - 4,950. 88
HromyappLoptiatlonetores | 895-0 6 sees eee ease eee 143, 225. 00
—- $148, 411.15
Printing—Museum:
romubalancerotelsg1 On eee eee eer eee eee 37. 82
From appropriation for 1895-96 ..............---.-------- 12, 000, 00
—— 12,037.82
Furniture and fixtures—Museum:
Ifo Inalayme® Ol UCRBe cos 5 codess seccea sane cone sacacene meri
HLorayb alan ceo fel S04 Soa as er ee eee 697. 43
From appropriation for 1895-96....-.....-.....-.-------- 12, 500. 00
13, 197. 52
Heating and lighting, etc.—Museum :
Itieon [Hewes OIF ICREHCM cosh es seas 1a5565 soso cece so545e5 - 76
lero loeMlenne® Ore WEA 56 onoaes coco caes casuseecne s60c 1, 445. 07
From appropriation for 1895-95 .......-..---.-.....:.---- 13, 000. 00
— 14,445.83
Rent of workshops, etec.—Museum:
iromebailancerotels 195 eee ien eer ae ae 52. 54
From appropriation for 1895-96................---.------ 900. 00
=== 952. 54
Postage—Museum :
Kromvapproprmatlontore!S95—96s ese ee es eeeeee aes eee ee eee eee 500. 00
Building repairs—Museum:
From appropriation for 1894-95... ..-..-.--!.....-2..--.- 13. 29
From appropriation for 1895-96....-..-----...--..-------- 4,000. 00
-—— 4,013.29
National Zoological Park:
romibalancey oglS93-9L eeeene ese een eee 240. 66
romp alancerotils 94 = 95 ieee ee eee ee eee ee eee OSaeob
From appropriation for 1895-96 .--.......---...---.------ 55, 000. 00
———-_ 56, 324. 62
Entrance and driveway, Zoological Park, District of Columbia:
iBalancestrom’ap propria ony SO5—IG) see eee ene eee eae eee 2, 224. 67
Fire protection—Smithsonian Institution and National Museum:
Hromyjapproprtatlom tor 895 —I9Oe ee ees ees eee aes eee 800. 00
Astro-Physical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution:
IDrAoEN, |OAVlanaas) Ort ECR EO oo Ceo bade bod dobcde obosoe Good $9. 02
IMR, LEVINE Oil Wey b)s noses cacooe soc 4506 550500 BS55e 1, 585. 01
Eromyappropriationtonlso5—96 see eee se ee eee eee 9, 000. 00
— 10, 594. 03
SUMMARY.
Simiphsoniansinshiiublonse sees eee eee eee nice eee eer ee 125, 871. 35
Mx CAM GOS eee era roe ee era am Sioa ciate Sea mate Sr ae eae 17, 002. 11
TRY UT OL OG ys ee eye vapor ct Sa ay i oh SE oe ed Nm he ae ean hare 45, 680. 15
Preservation oficollectionseece eee e eee eee ee eee eee 148, 411. 15
Brinbingc. SSeeee as eee mete ae ee isa ee eee Sate oe Sire 12, 037. 82
Burniture:andsiixtunesus-p eer res sate eee eer eee ere ene 13, 197. 52
JalerApboset hate IVAN MINE aso ce doncos dada osbada done coca sodses 14, 445. 83
Réentof, workshopeets sassn ere oe ee eee eee ene eee 952. 54.
POS LAD Ce aise) he Se ie ee Ie aT Tae Al TS a a ts Rm TE 500. 00
National Museum, building repairs'..-..---...----.-----.---- 4, 013. 29
Fire protection, Smithsonian Institution and National Mu-
Soi ee eee sees le Neen a eae nit al ce pene ee 800. 00
National: Zoolopical Parks 022) elee eee ere eer eee 56, 324. 62
Entrance and driveway, Zoological Park ..........---------- 2, 224. 67
ASLLO-biiysicali@ bservatoLlyios oe eressoee een eee eee 10, 594. 03

BRIS

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTER. XLUI

The committee has examined the vouchers for payment from the
Smithsonian income during the year ending June 30, 1896, each of
which bears the approval of the Secretary, or, in his absence, of the
acting secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services
charged were applied to the purposes of the Institution.

The committee has also examined the accounts of the several appro-
priations committed by Congress to the Institution, and finds that the
balances hereinbefore given correspond with the certificates of the dis-
bursing clerk of the Smithsonian Institution, whose appointment as
such disbursing officer has been accepted and his bond approved by
the Secretary of the Treasury.

The quarterly accounts current, the vouchers, and journals have been
examined and found correct.

Statement of reqular income from the Smithsonian fund available for use in the year ending
June 30, 1897.

alan caronehand. Jime) a0; S96 sea eee a siale stele alan Sem eaierere ela oN erat eer $57, 065. 78
(Ineluding eash from executors of J. H. Kidder)......---.---- $5, 000. 00
(Including cash from Dr. Alex. Graham Bell)...---..--- bieioe 5, 000. 00
10, 000. 00
Interest due and receivable July 1, 1896 ....-.:..----.....-.-: 27, 360. 00
Interest due and receivable January 1, 1897 .._-.............. 27, 360. 00
Interest, West Shore Railroad bonds, due July 1, 1896 -_------ 840. 00
Interest, West Shore Railroad bonds, due January 1, 1897. .--. 840. 00

—— 56, 400.00

Total available for the year ending June 30, 1897 ...---.---.-.---- 115, 465. 78

Respectfully submitted.
‘J. B. HENDERSON,

Wm. L. WILSON,
GARDINER G. HUBBARD,
Hrecutive Committee.
WASHINGTON, D. C., January 18, 1897.

Re ee pein ee gt

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, NATIONAL MUSEUM, ETC.

(In continuation from previous reports. )

[Fitty-fourth Congress, first session, December 2, 1895, to June 11, 1896. ]
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That the vacancy in the Board
of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, of the class other than
Members of Congress, shall be filled by the appointment of William
L. Wilson, of the State of West Virginia, in place of Henry Coppée,
deceased. (Joint Resolution, approved January 14, 1596, Statutes of
the Fiftty-fourth Congress, p. 461.)

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.

International Exchanges.—For expenses of the system of international
exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, under the
direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compen-
sation of all necessary employees, nineteen thousand dollars. (Sundry
civil appropriation act, approved June 11, 1896, Statutes of the lifty-
fourth Congress, p. 425.)

United States Geological Survey.—For the purchase of necessary books
for the library, and the payment for the transmission of public docu-
ments through the Smithsonian exchange, two thousand dollars. (Sun-
dry civil appropriation act, approved June 11, 1896, Statutes of the
Fifty-fourth Congress, p. 436.)

War Department.—For the transportation of reports and maps to
foreign countries through the Smithsonian Institution, one hundred
dollars. (Sundry civil appropriation act, approved June 11, 1896, Stat-
utes of the Fifty-fourth Congress, p. 444.)

Naval Observatory.—For repairs to buildings, fixtures, and fences;
furniture, gas, chemicals, and stationery; freight (including transmis-
sion of public documents through the Smithsonian exchange); foreign
postage and expressage; plants, fertilizers, and all contingent expenses,
two thousand five hundred dollars. (Legislative, executive, and judi-
cial appropriation act, approved May 28, 1896, Statutes of the Fifty-
fourth Congress, p. 166.)

XLV

XLVI ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.

Patent Office.—For purchase of professional and scientific books, and
expenses of transporting publications of patents issued by the Patent
Office to foreign governments, two thousand dollars. (Legislative,
executive, and judicial appropriation act, approved May 28, 1896, Stat-
utes of the Fifty-fourth Congress, p. 170.)

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

For cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhi-
bition and safekeeping of the collections of the National Museum,
including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, fifteen
thousand dollars.

For expense of heating, lighting, electrical, telegraphic, and tele-
phonic service for the National Museum, thirteen thousand dollars.

For continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the col-
lections from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Govern-
ment and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all
necessary employees, one hundred and fifty-three thousand two hundred
and twenty-five dollars.

For repairs to buildings, shops, and sheds, National Museum, inelud-
ing all necessary labor and material, four thousand dollars.

For rent of workshops for the National Museum, two thousand dol-
lars. ;

For postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum,
five hundred dollars.

For the erection of galleries in two or more halls of the National
Museum building, said galleries to be constructed of iron beams, sup-
ported by iron pillars, and protected by iron railings, and provided
with suitable staircases, the work to be done under the direction of the
Architect of the Capitol, and in accordance with the approval of the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, eight thousand dollars.
(Sundry civil appropriation act, approved June 11, 1896, Statutes of the
Fifty-fourth Congress, page 425.)

Public Printing and Binding.—For the Smithsonian Institution, for
printing labels and blanks, and for the “ Bulletins” and annual volumes
of the “Proceedings” of the National Museum, the editions of which
shall not be less than three thousand copies, and binding scientific
books and pamphlets presented to and acquired by the National
Museum Library, twelve thousand dollars. (Sundry civil appropriation
act, approved June 11, 1896, Statutes of the Fifty-fourth Congress, p.
453.)

To enable the National Museum to refund to the Honorable A. D.
Straus, consul-general of the Republic of Nicaragua at New York, the
amount expended by him in connection with the transportation of a
collection of antique pottery to Washington city, said collection being
the gift of the President of the Republic of Nicaragua to the National
Museum, being for the service of the fiscal year eighteen hundred and

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XLVII

ninety-five, one hundred and twenty, dollars. (Deficiency appropria-
tiow act, approved June 8, 1896, Statutes of the Fifty-fourth Congress,
p. 279.)

NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

For continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians,
under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries
or compensation of all necessary employees, forty-five thousand dol-
lars, of which sum not exceeding one thousand dollars may be used for
rent of building. (Sundry civil appropriation act, approved June 11,
1896, Statutes of the Fifty-fourth Congress, p. 425.)

Claims allowed by the Auditor of the Treasury Department.—For
North American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, four dollars and
seventy-seven cents. (Deficiency appropriation act, approved June 8,
1896, Statutes of the Fifty-fourth Congress, p. 307.)

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.

For maintenance of Astrophysical Observatory, under the direction
of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries of assistants, appa-
ratus, and miscellaneous expenses, ten thousand dollars. (Sundry
civil appropriation act, approved June 11, 1896, Statutes of the Fifty-
fourth Congress, p. 425.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

For continuing the construction of roads, walks, bridges, water sup-
ply, sewerage, and drainage, and for grading, planting, and otherwise
improving the grounds, erecting, and repairing buildings and inclos-
ures, care, subsistence, transportation of animals, including salaries
or compensation of all necessary employees, and general incidental
expenses not otherwise provided for, sixty-seven thousand dollars;
one-half of which sum shall be paid from the revenues of the District
of Columbia and the other half from the Treasury of the United States;
and of the sum hereoy appropriated five thousand dollars shall be used
for continuing the entrance into the Zoological Park from Woodley
lane, and opening driveway into Zoological Park from said entrance
along the bank of Rock Creek, and five thousand dollars shall be used
toward the construction of a road from the Holt Mansion entrance (on
Adams Mill road) into the park to connect with the roads now in exist-
ence, including a bridge across Rock Creek. (Sundry civil appropria-
tion act, approved June 11, 1896, Statutes of the lifty-fourth Congress,
p. 425.)

For repairs to the Holt Mansion, to make the same suitable for occu-
paney, and for office furniture, including the accounts set forth here-
under in House Document numbered Three hundred and twenty-four
of this session, four hundred and twenty-six dollars and fifty-seven
cents.

XLVIII ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.

To reimburse the Smithsonian fund for assuming the expenses of
labor and materials for repairs urgently necessary for the preservation
of the Holt Mansion, including the accounts set forth hereunder in
House Document numbered Three hundred and twenty-four of this
session, four hundred and ninety-nine dollars and forty-five cents.
(Deficiency appropriation act, approved June 8, 1896, Statutes of the
Fitty-fourth Congress, p. 279.)

OMAHA EXPOSITION.

Cuap. 402.—An Act To anthorize and encourage the holding of a transmississipp1
and international exposition at the city of Omaha, in the State of Nebraska, in the
year eighteen hundred and ninety-eight.
Whereas it is desirable to encourage the holding of a transmississippi

aud international exposition at the city of Omaha, in the State of

Nebraska, in the year eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, for the

exhibition of the resources of the United States of America and the

progress and civilization of the Western Hemisphere, and for a display
of the arts, industries, manufactures, and products of the soil, mine, and
sea; and

Whereas it is desirable that an exhibition shall be made of the great
staples of the transmississippi region which coutributes so largely to
domestic and international commerce; and

Whereas encouragement should be given to an exhibit of the arts,
industries, manufactures, and products, illustrative of the progress and
development of that and other sections of the country; and

Whereas such exhibition should be national as well as international
in its character, in which the people of this country, of Mexico, the
Central and South American Governments, and other States of the
world should participate, and should, therefore, have the sanction of
the Congress of the United States; and

Whereas it is desirable and will be highly beneficial to bring together
at such an exposition, to be held at a central position in the western
part of the United States, the people of the United States and other
States of this continent; and

Whereas the Transmississippi and International Exposition Associa-
tion has undertaken to hold such exposition, beginning on the first day
of June, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, and closing on the first
day of November, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight: Therefore,

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That a transmississippi and
international exposition shall be held at the city of Omaha, in the State
of Nebraska, in the year eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, under the
auspices of the Transmississippi aud International Exposition Associa-
tion: Provided, That the United States shall not be liable for any of
the expense attending or incident to such exposition, nor by reason of
the same. -

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XLIX

SEC. 2. That all articles which shall be imported from foreign coun-
tries for the sole purpose of exhibition at said exposition upon which
there shall be a tariff or customs duty shall be admitted free of payment
of duty, customs fees, or charges, under such reguiation as the Secre- |
tary of the Treasury shall prescribe; but it shall be lawful at any time
during the exhibition to sell for delivery at the close thereof any goods
or property imported for and actually on exhibition in the exhibition
building, or on the grounds, subject to such regulation for the security
of the revenue and for the collection of import duties as the Secretary
of the Treasury shall prescribe: Provided, That all such articles when
sold or withdrawn for consumption in the United States shali be sub-
ject to the duty, if any, imposed upon such article by the revenue laws
in force at the date of importation, and all penalties prescribed by law
shall be applied and enforced against the persons who may be guilty
of any illegal sale or withdrawal.

Sec. 3. That there shall be exhibited at said exposition by the Gov-
ernment of the United States, rom its Executive Departments, the
Smithsonian Institution, the United States Fish Commission, and the
National Museum, such articles and material as illustrate the function
and administrative faculty of the Government in time of peace, and
its resources aS a war power, tending to demonstrate the nature of our
institutions and their adaptions to the wants of the people; and to
secure a complete and harmonious arrangement of such Government
exhibit a board shall be created, to be charged with the selection, prep-
aration, arrangement, safe keeping, and exhibition of such articles and
materials as the heads of the several Departments and the directors of
the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum may respectively
decide shall be embraced in said Government exhibit. The President
may also designate additional articles for exhibition. Such board shall
be composed of one person to be named by the head of each Executive
Department and Museum and by the President of the United States.
The President shall name the chairman of said board, and the board
itself shall select such other officers as it may deem necessary.

Sec. 4. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall cause a suitable
building or buildings to be erected on the site selected for the trans-
mississippi and international exposition for the Government exhibits,
aud he is hereby authorized and directed to contract therefor, in the
same manner and under the same regulations as for other public
buildings of the United States; but the contract for said building
or buildings shall not exceed the sum of fifty thousand dollars. The
Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and required to dispose of such
building or buildings, or the material composing the same, at the close
of the exposition, giving preference to the city of Omaha, or to the said
Transmississippi and International Exposition Association, to purchase
the same at an appraised value to be ascertained in Such manner as may
be determined by the Secretary of the Treasury.

SM 96——IV

L ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS.

Src. 5. The United States shall not be liable on account of said
exposition for any expense incident to, or growing out of same, except
for the construction of the building or buildings hereinbefore provided
for, and for the purpose of paying the expense of transportation, care
and custody of exhibits by the Government, and the maintenance of
the said building or buildings, and the safe return of articles belonging
to the said Government exhibit, and other contingent expenses to be
approved by the Secretary of the Treasury upon itemized accounts and
vouchers, and the total cost of said building or buildings shall not
exceed the sum of fifty thousand dollars; nor shall the expenses of
said Government exhibit for each and every purpose connected there-
with, including the transportation of same to Omaha and from Omaha
to Washington, exceed the sum of one hundred and fifty thousand dol-
lars, amounting in all to not exceeding the sum of two hundred thou-
sand dollars: Provided, That no liability against the Government shall
be incurred, and no expenditure of money under this Act shall be
made, until the officers of said exposition shall have furnished the
Secretary of the Treasury proofs to his satisfaction that there has been
obtained by said exposition corporation subscriptions of stock in good
faith, contributions, donations, or appropriations from all sources for
the purposes of said exposition a sum aggregating not less than two
hundred and fifty thousand dollars.

Src. 6. That the commission appointed under this Act shall not be
entitled to any compensation for their services out of the Treasury of
the United States, except their actual expenses for transportation and
a reasonable sum to be fixed by the Secretary of the Treasury for sub-
sistence for each day they are necessarily absent from home on the
business of said commission. The officers of said commission shall
receive such compensation as may be fixed by said commission, subject
to the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, which shall be paid
out of the sums appropriated by Congress in aid of such exposition.

SEC. 7. That medals, with appropriate devices, emblems, and inserip-
tions commemorative of said transmississippi and international exposi-
tion and of the awards to be made to the exhibitors thereat, shall be
prepared at some mint of the United States, for the board of directors
thereof, subject to the provisions of the fifty-second section of the coin-
age Act of eighteen hundred and ninety-three, upon the payment of a
sum not less than the cost thereof; and all the provisions, whether
penal or otherwise, of said coinage Act against the counterfeiting or
imitating of coins of the United States, shall apply to the medals
struck and issued under this Act.

SEc. 8. That the United States shall not in any manner, nor under
and circunstaices, be liable for any of the acts, doings, proceedings, or
representations of said Transmississippi and International Exposition
Association, its officers, agents, servants, or employees, or any of them,
or for service, salaries, labor, or wages of said officers, agents, serv-

ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. LI

ants, or employees, or any of them, or for any subseriptions to the
capital stock, or for any certificates of stock, bonds, mortgages, or
obligations of any kind issued by said corporation, or for any debts,
liabilities, or expenses of any kind whatever attending such corporation
or accruing by reason of the same.

That nothing in this Act shall be so construed as to create any
liability of the United States, direct or indirect, for any debt or obli-
gation incurred, nor for any claim for aid or pecuniary assistance from
Congress or the Treasury of the United States in support or liquida-
tion of any debts or obligations created by said commission in excess
of appropriations made by Congress therefor.

(Approved, June 10, 1896, Statutes of the Fifty-fourth Congress, first
session, p. 382.)

ek Oa

OF

[oP ANCLEY

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith a report of the
operations of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30,
1896, including the work placed by Congress under its supervision in
the National Museum, the Bureau of Ethnology, the Bureau of Interna-
tional Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, and the Astrophysical
Observatory.

I have, as is customary, given briefly in the body of the report an
account of the affairs of the Institution and of its bureaus for the year,
reserving for the appendix the more detailed reports from those in
charge of the different branches of work.

The full report upon the National Museum by the assistant secre-
tary, Dr. G. Brown Goode, occupies a separate volume (Report of the
Smithsonian Institution, National Museum, 1896).

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.
THE ESTABLISHMENT.

The Smithsonian Establishment, as organized at the end of the fiscal
year, consisted of the following ex officio members:
GROVER CLEVELAND, President of the United States.
ADLAI HE, STEVENSON, Vice-President of the United States.
MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of
the United States.
RICHARD OLNEY, Secretary of State.
JOHN G. CARLISLE, Secretary of the Treasury.
DANIEL 8, Lamon, Secretary of War.
JUDSON HARMON, Attorney-General.
WILLIAM L. WILSON, Postmaster- General.
HILARY A. HERBER’, Secretary of the Navy.
HoKeE Smiru, Secretary of the Interior.
J. STERLING Morton, Secretary of Agriculture.
SM 96—1 1

2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents adopted
January 8, 1890, by which its annual meeting occurs on the fourth
Wednesday of each year, the Board met on January 22, 1896, at 10
o'clock a.m. The journal of its proceedings will be found, as hitherto,
in the annual report of the Board to Congress, though reference is
made later on in this report to several matters upon which action was
taken at that meeting.

On December 18, 1895, Senator S. M. Cullom, of Illinois, was reap-
pointed Regent by the President of the Senate, and on December 20,
1895, the Speaker of the House reappointed Hon. Joseph Wheeler, of
Alabama, and Hon. R. R. Hitt, of Illinois, and appointed Hon. Robert
Adams, jr., of Pennsylvania. Hon. William L. Wilson, of West Vir-
ginia, a former Regent, was again appointed by joint resolution of Con-
gress, approved by the President January 14, 1896, as suecessor to the
late Dr. Coppée.

The Board elected Hon. William L. Wilson and Hon. Gardiner G.
Hubbard as members of the executive committee, with Hon. J. B. Hen-
derson as chairman. :

Formal action in memory of Dr. Coppée, who died on March 21, 1895,
was taken by the Regents at the above meeting, when the following
resolutions were unanimously adopted:

Whereas the members of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution are called to mourn the death of their colleague, the late
Henry Coppée, LL.D., acting president of Lehigh University, for
twenty years a Regent of the Institution, and long a member of its
executive committee:

Resolved, That the Board of Regents feel sincere sorrow in the loss
of one whose distinguished career as a soldier, a man of letters, and
whose services in the promotion of education command their highest
respect and admiration.

Resolved, That in the death of Dr. Coppée the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and the Board of Regents have suffered the loss of a tried and
valued friend, a wise and prudent counsellor, whose genial courtesy,
well-stored, disciplined mind, and sincere devotion to the interests of
the Institution will be ever remembered.

Resolved, That these resolutions be recorded in the Journal of the
Proceedings of the Board, and that the Secretary be requested to send
a copy to the family of their departed associate and friend, in token of
sympathy in this common affliction.

ADMINISTRATION.

I have already remarked that the expenses borne by the Institution
incidental to its administration of Government trusts are not spe-
cifically provided for by any of the present appropriations, and that I
deemed it in the interest of economy that an appropriation be asked to
cover these items, which can not be done under their present terms,
but no decisive action has as yet been taken in this matter.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3

On June 16 the President of the United States directed that the
classified civil service be extended to include the ‘several bureaus of
the Smithsonian Institution, and in accordance therewith the employees
of the National Museum, Zoological Park, Bureau of Exchanges,
Bureau of Ethnology, and Astrophysical Observatory were, on June
30, 1896, made subject to the civil service rules.

FINANCES.

The permanent funds of the Institution are as follows:

Bequest Ol omMlUnNSOn aed Gs cokes Se eee SU We eo i Sees $515, 169. 00
HENOuMyleoAGy On SOUMGHsON, IS6i acct e ce sss. seco eee cee c an eeme ease 26, 210. 63
Deposits from savings of income, 1867 ..-.--.-..-------------2----e. ee 108, 620. 37
Bequest of James Hamilton, 1875......--...----.------------ $1, 000. 00
Accumulated interest on Hamilton fund, 1895........---.-.-- 1, 000. 00
— 2, 000. 00
DBEGUESuOtsIMEON Gavel, L880! 22 ose ceeeesee so ieee on erace eee pene 500. 00
Deposits from proceeds of sale of bonds, 1881........-..----.---------- 51, 500. 00
Gift of Thomas G. Hodgkins, 1891- ws Eda cbcoassocaoosdce AO, OOO, C0
Portion of residuary legacy, T. G. edetanee 1804... sadieieels od eee Se 8, 000. 00
Hotalgnermanenbitun dies satis ae see ne eine eam crvapey olin Cate uaa 912, 000. 00

The Regents also hold certain approved railroad bonds, forming a
part of the fund established by Mr. Hodgkins for investigations of
the properties of atmospherie air.

By act of Congress approved by the President March 12, 1894, an
amendment was made to section 5591 of the Revised Statutes, the fun-
damental act organizing the Institution, as follows:

The Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and directed to receive
into the Treasury, on the same terms as the original bequest of James
Smithson, sech sums as the Regents may, from time to time, see fit to
deposit, not exceeding, with the original bequest, the sum of $1,000,000:
Provided, That this shall not operate as a limitation on the power of
the Smithsonian Institution to receive money or other property by gift,
bequest, or devise, and to hold and dispose of the same in promotion
of the purposes thereof.

Under this section 5591 of the Revised Statutes, modified as above
noted, the fund of $912,000 is deposited in the Treasury of the United
States, bearing interest at 6 per cent per annum, the interest alone
being used in carrying out the aims of the Institution.

At the beginning of the fiscal year July 1, 1895, the unexpended
balance from the income and from other sources, as stated in my report
for last year, was $63,001.74. Interest on the permanent fund in the
Treasury and elsewhere, amounting to $56,395, was received during
the year, which, together with a sum of $6,474.61 received from the
sale of publications and from miscellaneous sources, made the total
receipts $62,869.61.

The entire expenditures during the year, including $11,000 paid for
prizes awarded from the Hodgkins fund, in accordance with the recom-
mendation of the award committee, and referred to in my last report,

4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

amounted to $68,805.57, for the details of which reference is made to
the report of the executive committee. On June 30, 1896, the balance
in the Treasury of the United States to the credit of the Secretary for
the expenses of the Institution was $57,065.78, which includes the sum
of $10,000 referred to in previous reports, $5,000 received from the
estate of Dr. J. H. Kidder, and a like sum from Dr. Alexander Graham
Bell, the latter a gift made personally to the Secretary to promote cer-
tain physical researches. This latter sum was, with the donor’s con-
sent, deposited by the Secretary to the credit of the current funds of the
Institution.

This balance also includes the interest accumulated on the Hodgkins
donation, which is held against certain contingent obligations, besides
relatively considerable sums held to meet obligations which may be
expected to mature as the result of different scientific investigations or
publications in progress.

The Institution has been charged with the disbursement, during the
fiscal year 1895-96, of the following appropriations:

Tor IboniereMen OTOL IOpKClNAINERES) 0 C255 .c555 5565 SSod eso noes soos Shs55% sosSe2 S552 $17, 000
Hor NortheAmae ric anaebht lin OO Saves eee eee ee 40, 000
For fire protection, Smithsonian Institution and National Museum..-..--.- 800
For United States National Museum:
IPRaeVEMOW, Ost COlECMOM.. 56555 ho5555 $555 6050 Sao0 204 bscscdosc0 eee 143, 225
IDB OKD Ayah ibe oooe noes odes Sabu eShocceoes Cees ost PE ASRS SSS 12, 500
Jeieenphayey eal INGAM Gb? poco oad oscGeccdeecs boos soucedooss Joes dese cee sce 13, 000
IPORMABEO cooccs 6095 cs00 3900 onan cae ecs ous5os cedess CoSHOH SaaS esco Sece ses- 500
Repairs stoi ull chim or) 3228 (el es oat a ey ee ore eleven ee a 4, 000
Rent of workshops ...-...-.---. Bidewo coe mses bees Onis sober teen 900
HorsNabional’Zoolosiicalsr aks es. o er eee aoe ane ee ee ee 55, 000
For entrance and driveway, Zoological Park, District Columbia-.----.--..-- 5, 000
HormAstropbysically Olosenyat omar aces. eee ee eee eee he eee 9, 000

AJ] the vouchers and checks for the disbursements have been exam-
ined by the executive committee, and the expenditures will be found
reported in accordance with the provisions of the sundry civil acts of
October 2, 1888, and August 5, 1892, in a letter addressed to the Speaker
of the Hone of Repr enced

The vouchers for all the expenditures from the Smithsonian fund
proper have been likewise examined, and their correctness certified to
by the executive committee, whose statement will be published, together
with the accounts of the funds appropriated by Congress, in that com-
mittee’s report.

The estimates for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1897, for carrying
on the Government interests under the charge of the Smithsonian
Institution, aid forwarded as usual to the Secretary of the Treasury,
were as follows:

Internationaliexchanges ws 22h ees ceo sca nes eee eens O= eee eee eee eer $23, 000
Nort American Ethnolosyeesace eee eee eee eee eee eee eee 50, 000
National Museum:

Preservation ot collections): toon csceeecses coerce eee eeee eee 180, 000

Hurniturevand: 1x tures) o32c.sco2 eae sae ee ee ee ee see ee ee 30, 000

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5

National Museum—Continued.

LGN EVEL CULT ODI OS Ay eerste here aia cima le = eee weve ete wie sere! nie elon $15, 000
IPs SPOS, pater ete eae EE a gl BC oe OU a Aa Et a Ee eh 500
(CONNGHIGS jel AS OSE ee oe ase BOS Se rhs Sear ee See eee na he Bema Nea hee 8, 000
TENG RBEW TAS HOY [ONES LTS ae eo a DE a Na ae ere EI eRe eee 8, 000
eM UvO LM OLMSHOP Swe 5) toc cee eins ae Ree eek UKE eM Wan) Me a Sere) beat 2, 000
SHH NGE NL LA CONS NOM MER HIE Soe Reais he SEE ay Re ere asa ae ene sank ebm aisle 75, 000
EMSULO PUNY SICA OMSELVATOLS © osc see osc cieins!Secetel eyace sey cools once eeieees, SS ONOOO
BUILDINGS.

The crowded condition of the National Museum will be somewhat
relieved by the addition of galleries provided for under an appropria-
tion of $8,000 made by the last Congress, but there is still an extremely
urgent need for a new building, as stated more fully on a subsequent
page. There was also granted an additional appropriation for rent
of storage rooms and workshops for the Museum.

RESEARCH.

The time of the Secretary is almost wholly given to administrative
duties, although in the original plan of the Institution he was expected
by the Regents to personally contribute to the advancement of knowl-
edge.' The Secretary has continued to give what opportunities he could
spare from the administrative duties and what he could contribute
from his private hours to the investigations which have already been
referred to in previous reports.

The first of these, upon the solar spectrum, has been carried on at the
Astrophysical Observatory, and to this reference is made more at length
in another part of this report.

The second, beginning as an investigation of certain physical data of
aerodynamics, has arrived at an important stage in its development.

The possibility of mechanical flight was, until a comparatively few
years ago, considered a visionary one by most men of science. The
writer, who was led to an opposite conclusion, and who had commenced
experiments before he became connected with the Institution, published
under its auspices in 1891 a treatise entitled ‘Experiments in aerody-
namics,” which gave the results of direct experiment on the pressure
of the air on inclined surfaces, showing that rules hitherto relied on,
partly on the faith of the great name of Sir Isaac Newton, were not in
fact supported by a direct study of nature. These new experiments
gave evidence that mechanical flight—that is, not of balloons, but of
bodies heavier than air, impelled and supported by power—was at least
theoretically possible. This, however, was not saying that such machines
could be launched into the air and made to continue a horizontal course
or to descend to the ground with safety, matters to be determined by
trial and further experiment.

' Resolved, That the Secretary continue his researches in physical science, and pre-

sent such facts and principles as may be developed, for publication in the Smith-
sonian Contributions. Adopted at meeting of the Board of Regents, January
26, 1847.

6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The writer has, during the intervals of his official duties, continued
to experiment in this manner, until he has reached a measure of success
which seems to justify him in making the statement here that mechan-
ical flight has now been attained.

On the 6th of May last a mechanism built chiefly of steel and driven
by a steam engine made two flights each of over half a mile.’ In each
case the process was wholly mechanical, there being no support from
gas, but on the contrary the machine being a thousand or more times
heavier than the air in which it was made to move. Of the first of these
flights I beg to give a statement by an eyewitness, Mr. Alexander
Graham Bell, which was communicated in French to the Académie des
Sciences of the Institut de France, and which appeared as follows in
Nature:

EXPERIMENTS IN MECHANICAL FLIGHT.

I have been for some years engaged in investigations connected with aerodromic
problems, and particularly with the theoretical conditions of mechanical flight. A
portion of these have been published by me under the titles, ‘‘ Experiments in aero-
dynamics” and ‘‘The internal work of the wind,” but I have not hitherto at any
time described any actual trials in artificial flight.

With regard to the latter, I have desired to experiment until I reached a solution
of the mechanical difficulties of the problem, which consist, it must be understood,
not only in sustaining a heavy body in the air by mechanical means (although this
difficulty is alone great), but also in the automatic direction of it in a horizontal and
rectilinear course. ‘These difficulties have so delayed the work that in view of the
demands upon my time, which render it uncertain how far I can personally conduct
these experiments to the complete conclusion I seek, I have been led to authorize
some account of the degree of success which has actually been attained, more par-
ticularly at the kind request of my friend, Mr. Alexander Graham Bell, who has
shown me a letter which he will communicate to you. In acceding to his wish, and
while I do not at present desire to enter into details, let me add that the acrodrome,
or “‘flying machine” in question, is built chiefly of steel, and that it is not supported
by any gas, or by any means but by its steam engine. This is of between i and 2
horsepower, and it weighs, including fire grate, boilers, and every moving part, less
than 7pounds. This engine is employed in turning aerial propellers which move the
aerodrome forward, so that it is sustained by the reaction of the air under its sup-
porting surfaces.

I should, in further explanation of what Mr. Bell has said, add that owing to the
small scale of construction no means have been provided for condensing the steam after
it has passed through the engine, and that, owing to the consequent waste of water,
the aerodrome has no means of sustaining itself in the air for more than a very short
time—a difficulty which does not present itself in a larger construction, where the
water can be condensed and used over again. The flights described, therefore, were

necessarily brief.
S. P. LANGLEY.

Through the courtesy of Mr. S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, I have had on various occasions the privilege of witnessing his experiments
with aerodromes, and especially the remarkable success attained by bim in experi-
ments, made on the Potomac River on Wednesday, May 6, which led me to urge him
to make public some of these results.

J had the pleasure of witnessing the successful flight of some of these aerodromes
more than a year ago, but Professor Langley’s reluctance to make the results public

'Since the preparation of this report this result has been nearly doubled.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. q

at that time prevented me from asking him, as I have done since, to let me give an
account of what I saw.

On the date named, two ascensions were made by the aerodrome, or so-called
“flying machine,” which I will not describe here further than to say that it appeared
tome to be built almost entirely of metal, and driven by a steam engine which I
have understood was carrying fuel and a water supply for a very brief period, and
which was of extraordinary lightness.

The absolute weight of the aerodrome, including that of the engine and all appur-
tenances, was, as I was told, about 25 pounds, and the distance, from tip to tip, of
the supporting surfaces was, as I observed, about 12 or 14 feet.

Tho method of propulsion was by aerial screw propellers, and there was no gas or
other aid for lifting it in the air except its own internal energy.

On the occasion referred to, the aerodrome, at a given signal, started from a plat-
form about 20 feet above the water, and rose at first directly in the face of the wind,
moving at all times with remarkable steadiness, and subsequently swinging around
in large curves of, perhaps, a hundred yards in diameter, and continually ascending
until its steam was exhausted, when, at a lapse of about a minute and a half, and at
a height which I judged to be between 80 and 100 feet in the air, the wheels ceased
turning, and the machine, deprived of the aid of its propellers, to my surprise did
not fall, but settled down so softly and gently that it touched the water without the
least shock, and was in fact immediately ready for another trial.

In the second trial, which followed directly, it repeated in nearly every respect the
actions of the first, except that the direction of its course was different. It ascended
again in the face of the wind, afterwards moving steadily and continually in large
curves accompanied with a rising motion and a lateral advance. Its motion was, in
fact, so steady that I think a glass of water on its surface would have remained
unspilled. When the steam gave out again, it repeated for a second time the expe-
rience of the first trial when the steam had ceased, and settled gently and easily
down. What height it reached at this trial I can not say, as I was not so favorably
placed as in the first; but I had occasion to notice that this time its course took it
over a wooded promontory, and I was relieved of some apprehension in seeing that
it was already so high as to pass the tree tops by 20 or 30 feet. It reached the water
one minute and thirty-one seconds from the time it started, at a measured distance
of over 900 feet from the point at which it rose.

This, however, was by no means the length of its flight. I estimated from the
diameter of the curve described, from the number of turns of the propellers as given
by the automatic counter, after due allowance for slip, and from other measures, that
the actual length of flight on each occasion was slightly over 3,000 feet. It is at least
safe to say that each exceeded half an English mile.

From the time and distance it will be noticed that the velocity was between 20 and
25 miles an hour, in a course which was constantly taking it “‘up hill.” I may add
that on a previous occasion I have seen a far higher velocity attained by the same
aerodrome when its course was horizontal.

Ihave no desire to enter into detail further than I have done, but I can not but
add that it seems to me that no one who was present on this interesting occasion
could have failed to recognize that the practicability of mechanical flight had been
demonstrated.

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.
I do not know how far interest in this work may bias my judgment,
but it appears to me that in these things, whose final accomplishment
has come under the charge of the Smithsonian Institution, it has made
a contribution to the utilities of the world which will be memorable.

The results of Prof. E. W. Morley’s investigations on the density of
oxygen and hydrogen, referred to at length in my last report, have been

8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

printed, as have also those of Drs. Billings and Mitchell. The valuable
researches of the latter gentlemen are being continued under an addi-
tional grant.

The subscription for the Astronomical Journal has been continued.

EXPLORATIONS.

The Institution has continued to carry on ethnological and natural
history explorations during the year, to which reference is made in the
reports of the Bureau of Ethnology. I may call special attention to
the explorations among the cliff dwellings of Arizona by Dr. Fewkes,
and in the territory of the Seri Indians in Mexico by Mr. McGee, as
also on the western coast of Florida by F. H. Cushing, where abundant
relics of the prehistoric age were discovered. Dr. William L. Abbott
has continued his contributions of natural history and ethnological
specimens collected by him in Africa and Asia.

PUBLICATIONS.

The publications of the Institution include the Contributions to
Knowledge, the Miscellaneous Collections, and the Annual Reports, the
first two being printed at the expense of the Institution, while the
reports are Government documents. Various publications are also
issued by the National Museum and the Bureau of Ethnology, to which
allusion is elsewhere made.

Contributions to Knowledge.-—Three volumes of the Contributions
were completed during the year, and two separate memoirs. Volumes
XXX and X XXI were the text and plates of an exhaustive illustrated
work by Dr. G. Brown Goode and Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, entitled
“Oceanic ichthyology,” being a treatise on the deep-sea and pelagic
fishes of the world. '

Volume XXXII, on “Life histories of North American birds, parrots
to grackles,” by Maj. Charles Bendire, U.S. A., is a second contribu-
tion on this subject, the first volume, including gallinaceous birds,
pigeons or doves, and birds of prey, having been published by the
Institution several years ago.

The memoir by Prof. E. W. Morley on the density of oxygen and
hydrogen was published early in the year in a volume of 117 pages,
and has been reprinted in full in Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie,
a duplicate set of blocks of the illustrations having been sent to the
publishers at their request. In this memoir Professor Morley describes
in detail the methods employed in his investigations and illustrates
the apparatus employed. The atomic weight of oxygen was studied
by two methods: (1) The synthesis of water, in which he achieved com-
pleteness by actually weighing the hydrogen, the oxygen, and the water
formed; and (2) by the density ratio between oxygen and hydrogen.
By both methods he reached the same result: O=15,879, with variation
in the fourth decimal place as between the two.

The results of the investigation by Drs. Billings, Mitchell, and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9

Bergey on the composition of expired air was published as a memoir
in the Contributions, forming a volume of 81 pages.

Two memoirs submitted in competition for the Hodgkins fund prizes
were in press but not ready for distribution at the close of the year.
One of these was by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay announcing
the discovery of argon and describing the methods of the investigation
leading to their discovery of that new element of the atmosphere. For
this achievement the authors were awarded the first prize of $10,000.

_ The second memoir was on atmospheric actinometry, by Prof. Emile
Duclaux, for which the author was awarded honorable mention.

Miscellaneous Collections.—In this series two works were completed
and four put to press during the fiscal year. The completed publica-
tions were Part II of the Index of the Genera and Species of the
Foraminifera, by Charles Davies Sherborn, and a revised edition of
the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables. The publications in press
are the Smithsonian Physical Tables, by Prof. Thomas Gray; an
illustrated description of the Mountain Observatories of the World,
by Prof. E. 8S. Holden; a paper by Dr. D. H. Bergey, on Methods of
Determination of Organic Matter in Air, and an exhaustive Catalogue
of Scientific and Technical Periodicals of the World, from 1665 to 1895,
compiled by Dr. Bolton.

The prize essay on “ Air and life,” by Dr. Varigny, as also some of
the other essays submitted in the Hodgkins prize competition, have
been put to press and will be issued during the next year.

There is also in preparation a supplement to Bolton’s Bibliography
of Chemistry, an Index of Mineral Springs of the World, by Professor
Tuckerman, and arecaleulation of atomic weights, by Prof. Ff. W. Clarke.

The usual separate edition has been issued of the several papers in
the General Appendix of the Annual Report.

Annual Reports.—The Smithsonian Annual Report is in two volumes,
the first devoted to the Institution proper and the second relating to
the National Museum. The General Appendix of Part I consists of
selected memoirs which have for the most part already appeared else-
where, but which are of such special interest and permanent value as
to appear worthy of republication by the Institution in the ‘increase
and diffusion of knowledge among men.”

The report for 1894 was delivered by the printer after the close of the
fiscal year and some progress had been made on the report for 1895.

Proceedings and bulletin of the National Museum.—The publications
of the Museum are mentioned in Appendix I, and need not be referred
to here further than to say that the several papers of volume 18 of
the Proceedings were published in pamphlet form, and that Bulletin
47, on the Fishes of North and Middle America, by Dr. Jordan and
Professor Evermann, were nearly ready for distribution.

Bureau of Ethnology publications.—The Thirteenth Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology was distributed during the year, and the

10 ‘REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

manuscript of the fourteenth, filteenth, and sixteenth reports had been
transmitted to the Public Printer.

LIBRARY.

in my last report I pointed out that the lists prepared in accordance
with the plans formulated by the Secretary, detailed in my report for
1887-88, had all been written for.

In further continuance of this work, which is never ee I have
accordingly employed the new manuscript list of the learned societies-
of the world in the Bureau of International Exchanges. Letters
have been written with the gratifying result that 299 new exchanges
were entered into, and 155 defective series were entirely or partially
completed.

Ithas been the policy of the Institution from its inception to endeavor
to have as complete a set as possible of the transactions of learned
societies and periodicals, and it is my desire that this collection should
continue to be as complete as the resources of the Institution render
possible.

The project of the Royal Society for the preparing of a bibliography
of science, beginning with the year 1900, referred to in my report for
1895, resulted in the calling by the British Government of a biblio-
graphical conference in London in July, 1596. An invitation to send
delegates to the conference was extended to the United States, along
with the other nations which it was presumed were interested.

The matter having been referred to me by the Secretary of State, I
had much pleasure in suggesting that the United States participate in
the conference, and in recommending Dr. John S. Billings, United
States Army, retired, director of the New York Public Library, and
Prof. Simon Newcomb, United States Navy, Superintendent of the
Nautical Almanac, as the delegates on behalf of the United States.
There is reason to hope that most fruitful results will proceed from
this conference.

The revised edition of the Catalogue of Scientific and Technical
Periodicals (1665-1882), published by the Institution in 1885, which I
stated in my last report was being brought down to 1895, is now com-
pleted and in the hands of the printer. It is expected that it will be
issued during the course of the coming year. Like the first edition, it
has been prepared under the direction of Dr. H. C. Bolton.

It is confidently expected that the new building of the Library of
Congress will be completed during the coming year, and that adequate
provision will be made for the reception of the Smithsonian deposit,
and a special reading room provided.

HODGKINS FUND,

As stated in my last report, the prizes offered by the Institution for
important discoveries in connection with the composition of atmos-

HODGKINS MEDAL OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 11

pheric air, and for essays on the air in relation to human life and
health, resulted in the award of the first prize of $10,000 to Lord Ray-
leigh and Prof. William Ramsay for their discovery of argon, a new
element of the atmosphere. The prize of $1,000 for the best popular
essay was awarded to Dr. Henry de Varigny, of Paris, for his essay
on ‘Air and life.”

Six of the papers submitted in competition for the prizes were
awarded honorable mention, together with medals, as announced in
my last report. The design for the medal is by M. J. C. Chaplain, of
Paris, a member of the French Academy and one of the most eminent
medalists of the world. The obverse bears a female figure carrying a
torch in her left hand and in her right a seroll, emblematic of Knowl-
edge, and the words ‘‘ Per orbem.” The reverse is adapted from the
seal of the Institution, designed by St. Gaudens, the map of the world
being replaced by the words ‘“‘ Hodgkins medal,” as is shown in the
accompanying illustrations, which are the size of the original. The
medals were struck at the Paris mint.

Dr. J. S. Billings and Dr. 8. Weir Mitchell having completed their
investigations on the composition of expired air and its effects on animal
life, their report has been published as a Memoir of the Contributions
to Knowledge. The investigators found that the air in inhabited rooms,
such as the hospital ward in which experiments were made, is contam-
inated from many sources besides the expired air of the occupants, and
that the most important of these contaminations are in the form of
minute particles or dusts, in which there are micro-organisms, including
some of the bacteria which produce inflammatory and suppurative dis-
orders. It is probable that these dust particles are the only really
dangerous elements in the air, and the important conclusion is reached
that it appears improbable that there is any peculiar volatile poisonous
matter in the air expired by healthy men and animals other than car-
bonic acid.

An additional grant has been made to Drs. Billings and Mitchell to
continue other lines of investigation, especially whether the long-
continued breathing of air rendered impure by respiration or by
volatile exhalations from the skin and mucous membranes increases
the susceptibility to infection by certain micro-organisms, especially
those which are now considered to be the specific causes of consump-
tion and croupous pneumonia, the diseases which are most fatal in
crowded and ill-ventilated rooms.

THE AVERY FUND.

The property devised to the Institution by the late Robert Stanton
Avery, of Washington City, consists of lots on Capitol Hill, some
improved by dwelling houses, and certain personal property, chiefly
represented by securities of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company.

The real estate is of an assessed District valuation of $28,931, and
the personal property, at its present market quotation, and after

12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

deducting a legacy to Miss Julia N. Avery, is estimated to be valued
at between $6,000 and $7,000.

SMITHSONIAN HALF-CENTURY MEMORIAL.

The act of Congress establishing the Smithsonian Institution was
signed by President Polk, August 10, 1846, and the first meeting of the
Board of Regents was held on September 7 of that year. In view of
the completion of the first half century, I discussed with the executive
committee, as far back as 1893, the best method of celebrating this
event. It seemed quite impracticable to arrange for a gathering of
delegates from other scientific institutions, such as is often held on
similar occasions by universities and academies of science. The simplest
and most effective means of commemorating the event appeared to be
the publication of a suitable memorial volume, which should give an
account of the institution, its history, its achievements, and its present
condition.

The late Dr. G. Brown Goode, whose acquaintance with the history of
the Institution was unrivaled, drew up a comprehensive plan for the
volume. This plan being settled upon, Dr. James C. Welling, having
at that time just retired from the presidency of Columbian University,
agreed to undertake the editorial supervision of the volume. His
death seemed to put a stop to the proposed work, for there appeared to
be no one sufficiently acquainted with the history of the Institution who
had the ability, the willingness, and the leisure to undertake this very
considerable task. It was then that Dr. Goode told me of his great
desire to undertake the work. Knowing how numerous his duties
already were, I at first refused, and it was only at his earnest solicitation
that I agreed to his editorial supervision of the volume.

At the time of his death the manuscript was so far advanced as to
render possible its completion for the press and publication upon the
lines he laid down. He had not only written many of the chapters
himself and made arrangements for the illustrations, but had almost
settled with the printers, as to the style of the type and form of the
page, and other details of the book. While its appearance has been
slightly delayed, I feel able to say that the volume will be published
early in 1897, and it is sufficiently advanced to allow the statement that
the editorial work is Dr. Goode’s, and to express the confidence that it
will be found as worthy of the Institution as was every other task ever
intrusted to his hands.

The volume will be a royal octavo of about 750 pages and will be
printed from type in an edition of 2,000, with 250 additional copies
on hand made paper. The scope of Part Lis indicated by the following
chapters:

The Founder, James Smithson, by Mr. S. P. Langley.

The acceptance of the Smithson Bequest by the United States, by Mr. G. Brown
Goode.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13

The Establishment and the Regents, by Mr. Goode; and list of Regents with brief
biographical notices, by Mr. W. J. Rhees.

The Secretaries, by Mr. Goode.

The Benefactors of the Institution, by Mr. Langley.

Buildings and grounds, by Mr. Goode.

The Smithsonian Library, by Mr. Cyrus Adler.

The National Museum, by Mr. F. W. True.

The Bureau of Ethnology, by Mr. W J McGee.

The Bureau of Exchanges, by Mr. W. C. Winlock.

The Astrophysical Observatory, by Mr. Langley.

The Zoological Park, by Dr. Frank Baker.

Expeditions and explorations, by Mr. F. W. True.

The Smithsonian publications, by Mr. Cyrus Adler.

Lhave now decided to add to this another chapter, being the biography
of the late Dr. Goode, by Dr. David Starr Jordan, president of Leland
Stanford, Junior, University. .

The second part of the book, which may be described as apprecia-
tions of the work of the Institution in different departments of science,
is almost entirely written by gentlemen not connected with the Insti-
tution. The chapters are as follows:

1. Physics, by T. C. Mendenhall, president of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
Worcester, Mass. ;

2. Mathematics, Robert Simpson Woodward, professor of mechanics, Columbia Uni-
versity, New York City.

3. Astronomy and Astrophysics, by Edward 8. Holden, director of the Lick Observa-
tory, Mount Hamilton, Cal.

4, Chemistry, by Dr. Marcus Benjamin, United States National Museum.

. Geology and Mineralogy, by William N, Rice, professor of geology, Wesleyan Uni-

versity, Middletown, Conn.

6. Meteorology, by Dr. Marcus Benjamin.

7. Paleontology, by Edward D. Cope, professor of zoology and comparative anatomy,
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, and editor of the American Natu-
ralist.

8. Botany, by William G. Farlow, professor of cryptogamic botany, Harvard Uni-
versity, Cambridge, Mass.

9. Zoology, by Dr. Theodore N. Gill, professor of zoology, Columbian University,
Washington.

10, Ethnology and archeology, by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, late director of the Hemen-
way Expedition.

11. Geography, by Gardiner G. Hubbard, president of the National Geographic
Society, Washington.

12. Bibliography, by Dr. H. Carrington Bolton.

13. Cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution with other institutions of learning,
by Daniel Coit Gilman, presidentof Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

14. The influence of the Smithsonian Institution upon the development of libraries,
the organization of the work of societies, andthe publication of scientific lit-
erature in the United States, by Dr. John §. Billings, director of the New
York Publie Library.

15. Relations between the Smithsonian Institution and the Library of Congress, by
Ainsworth R. Spofford, Librarian of Congress.

or

The illustrations will consist of copies of the two known portraits ot
James Smithson and a representation of the memorial tablet erected at

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Genoa; also portraits of the Chancellors (Dallas, Fillmore, Taney, Chase,
Waite, and Fuller), the Secretaries, of Mr. Hodgkins, and of certain of
the earlier Regents who were especially influential in shaping the char-
acter of the Institution during its early days (John Quincy Adams,
Robert Dale Owen, Richard Rush, Louis Agassiz, George Bancroft,
William T. Sherman, Asa Gray, and J. C. Welling), with views of the
Institution and illustrations of its seal and of the Hodgkins medal.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Tn addition to the very voluminous routine and business correspond-
ence of the National Museum, or special correspondence of the Bureau
of Ethnology, of the Zoological Park, and of the Bureau of Exchanges,
a constantly increasing number of letters come directly to the Secre-
tary’s office from all parts of the country, on every imaginable subject
that can by any possibility be supposed to have a relation to science.
Requests for statistics that may be of great value and importance to
the writer, inquiries from teachers and others, are constantly received,
and it is still my aim that this correspondence shall receive the same
careful attention that was bestowed upon it in the early days of the
Institution, when the number of letters formed but a small fraction
of those received at present; but it will be understood that the fulfill-
ment of this aim grows increasingly difficult. An effort is made to
give a full reply to all such inquiries, often involving a large amount
of labor on the part of the curators, as well as of those immediately
occupied with the correspondence of the Institution, out of proportion
to the merits of the case.

Of the more important correspondence of the Secretary’s office, 3,788
entries were made in the registry book of letters received during the
year, while double that number of letters were received and referred to
the different bureaus of the Institution in the same time.

The card index of letters received and written is now complete from
January 1, 1892, to the present day, constituting the current file. The
correspondence prior to the current file has been placed in the
archives, and the index to the files is now practically complete.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Naples tables.—The Institution has renewed for three years the lease
of the Smithsonian Table at the Naples Zoological Station, and the
facilities thus afforded have proved of value to the investigators who
have carried on biological studies there during the year. Dr. J. 8.
Billings, U. 8. A., Dr. E. B. Wilson, Dr. C. W. Stiles, and Dr. Harrison
Allen have continued valuable aid in examining the testimonials of
applicants for the occupancy of the Naples table, as well as in the con-
sideration of various questions in connection with the assignment of
the table, to which I have asked attention.

Among the numerous additional applications for occupancy of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

table the following have been favorably acted upon: W. T. Swingle,
B. Se., Kansas State Agricultural College, 1890, assistant pathologist,
United States Department of Agriculture, appointed for two months in
the winter of 1895-96; and I’. M. McFarland, professor of biology and
geology, Olivet College, Michigan, assistant professor of histology,
Leland Stanford Junior University, appointed for three months during
the spring and summer of 1896. Prof. L. Murbach, who occupied the
table for two months in 1894, has submitted a memoir entitled ‘“‘Obser-
vations on the development and migration of the urticating organs of
sea nettles, Cnidaria,” which has been published in the Proceedings
of the United States National Museum.

The table has been occupied constantly since October 1, 1893, the
date of the first appointment, with the exception of May, 1894. In
several instances Dr. Dohrn, the director of the station, has courteously
arranged for the accommodation of two occupants at the same time.

In order that all investigators may be given an equal opportunity to
avail themselves of the facilities for study at Naples, final action upon
applications is not taken more than six months in advance of the date
for which the table is desired, and when more than one application is
filed for the same period, presumably of equal merit, the assignment
is made according to priority of application. No appointment is made
for a period of more than six months.

Art collection—The fundamental act creating the Institution, in enum-
erating its functions, apparently considers it first as a kind of gallery
of art, and declares that all objects of art and of foreign and curious
research the property of the United States shall be.delivered to the
Regents, and only after this adds that objects of natural history shall
be so, also.

The scientific side of the Institution’s activities has been in the past
so much greater than its esthetic that it is well to recall the fact that it
was intended by Congress to be a curator of the national art, and that
this function has never been forgotten, though often in abeyance.

In 1849 Secretary Henry, in pursuance of this function of an institu-
tion which in his own words existed for ‘‘the true, the beautiful, as well
as for the immediately practical,” purchased of the Hon. George P.
Marsh a collection of works of art, chiefly engravings, of much artistic
merit and now of great commercial value. <A portion of this collection
Was some years ago deposited in the Corcoran Gallery of Art and in the
Library of Congress, subject to recall by the Regents at any time. In
accordance with the terms of the deposit some of these objects have
already been returned to the Institution.

A collection of etchings and engravings was during the past year
presented to the Institution by Mr. Charles William Sherborn, of
London.

Atlanta Hxposition.—Under the provisions of an appropriation made
by Congress for a Government exhibit at the Cotton States and Inter-
national Exposition at Atlanta, during the autumn of 1895, a very

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

satisfactory exhibit was prepared, illustrating every phase of the
activities of the Institution and its bureaus, especially the National
Museum. A detailed description will be printed in the Museum Report
for 1896.

Zoological congress.—Dr. Charles W. Stiles, honorary curator in the
National Museum, was nominated by me, and appointed by the Secre-
tary of State, as United States representative at the International
Zoological Congress at Leyden, Holland, in September, 1895, and Dr.
Herbert Haviland Field was appointed as a second delegate to the same
congress. Dr. Stiles reports that 232 members attended the congress,
representing 22 nationalities. The business of greatest international
importance accomplished was the adoption of resolutions (1) establish-
ing a central bureau of bibliography for zoology, (2) appointing an
international commission upon the code of nomenclature, and (3) in
favor of the repeal of the section of the present internationai postal
laws which prohibits the sending of ‘‘animals living or dead” through
the international mails. Committees were appointed in accordance
with the provisions of these resolutions.

The Smithson Memorial tablets.—The bronze tablets mentioned in my
last report have been completed and will be placed on Smithson’s tomb
and in the English church at Genoa, in memory of the founder of the
Smithsonian Institution. The tablets, which measure 40 by 28 inches,
were designed by Mr. William Ordway Partridge, of New York City.
They bear a portrait of James Smithson, surrounded by a wreath and
on either side a torch, and beneath is the legend “James Smithson, F.
Rh. 8., founder of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington; erected by
the Regents of the Institution, 1896.” The accompanying illustration
of the tablets is from a photograph of the plaster model.

American Historical Association.—The annual report of the American
Historical Association for the year 1895 was transmitted to Congress
through the Secretary of the Institution, in accordance with the act of
incorporation of the association. These reports are Congressional docu-
ments, and the Institution has had no control of their distribution.

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The museum of the Smithsonian Institution, which was formed in
part and for a time entirely maintained at the expense of the Smithson
fund, was the nucleus of the present National Museum, to which the
tegents have continued to contribute matter especially under their
charge, so that the Institution has in it a large pecuniary interest, and
has always maintained with it, on account of this history and owner-
ship, relationships of a more intimate kind than with some bureaus
which have not been at one time a part of itself.

Ever since 1858 Congress has appropriated money for the mainte-
nance of the Museum, but it has scarcely made any special appropriation
for the improvement of the collections by purchase, so that in respect

THE SMITHSON MEmoRIAL TABLET.

Ley
AY
+
~

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

to the means at disposal for this it has been almost at the foot of all
American museums, being surpassed by every municipal museum of note.

In the earlier years of the Museum this was not of very great moment,
as numerous American natural-history specimens came in from the
various Government expeditions. It became evident later that for a
proper understanding of native products it was necessary to compare
them with those of other parts of the world. To obtain these exotic
specimens no adequate means have ever been provided, and it is not to
be expected that valuable, specially-selected specimens from foreign
lands will ever be procured in large numbers except by purchase or by
the sending out of expeditions.

The result of years of accumulation unsupported by purchases has
been that the collections of the National Museum are very unsymmetri-
cal—full and rich in some directions, especially in North American
natural history, surpassing all other museums, and exceedingly poor
in others.

In the meanwhile museums have sprung up in some of the large
cities of the United States, with liberal means for the acquisition of
Specimens by purchase and the sending out of expeditions, and these
are outstripping the National Museum in many of its departments by
the wealth of their collections.

From such causes the National Museum, while truly national in the
sense of possessing very full collections of the natural products of the
United States, maintains, with increasing difficulty, its supremacy in
this special respect over the wealthier private museums, and compares
very unfavorably, as regards the breadth of its collections, with the
national museums of Europe—in London, Paris, Berlin, St. Peters-
burg, Vienna, and Florence.

I called attention to this matter in a former report when I remarked
that the American Museum of Natural History in New York expended
$23,552.89, in 1892, for filling out its natural-history collections alone,
while the National Museum in the fiscal year 1892-93 expended only
$5,769.75 for specimens of all kinds.

The discrepancy has grown greater in succeeding years. In the
past fiscal year, for example, the National Museum expended $3,336
for all collections, while the expenditures of the American Museum of
Natural History, for acquiring natural-history collections alone, were
$41,959.65, or fully thirteen times as much as expended by the National
Museum, although the total amount of money available for the two
was not greatly different, that for the National Museum being in fact
the larger.

The causes of this discrepancy are not far to seek. The income of
the local museum is usually devotable wholly to its collections (which
in the case cited are housed in adequate buildings) and to their increase
and care, which include the services of officers and employees in charge
of them and who are devoted only to them.

SM 96——2

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Congress has laid upon the National Museum quite other and addi-
tional functions. Not to dwell upon the fact (so constantly insisted on
in previous reports) of the entire inadequacy of the buildings here for
the collections, the National Museum, containing all the diverse col-
lections of the Government, has many more departments and a very
much larger necessary expenditure for salaries, owing to the diversity
of its cares. It is also the source of supply which has been succes-
sively depleted for the exhibitions at Louisville, Cincinnati, and New
Orleans in 1884 and 1885, Madrid in 1892, Chicago in 1895, and Atlanta
in 1895; and a Jarge part of the force has thus been engaged in the dis-
arrangement of its own collections, a condition of things under which
no museum, public or private, could prosper.

It is also called upon by Members of Congress to send collections to
every portion of the country, and in the last year, on the request of
individual Members of Congress, collections comprising in all at least
39,000 specimens were sent out. The National Museum is also treated
as a National Bureau for scientific information, and is expected to
answer inquiries from every portion of the country.

These are some of the purposes for which the Museum is compelled
to use money which should go to collections, purposes not perhaps
alien to the objects of a National Museum, but widely diverse from
those of a private one.

The final result is shown in such figures as those above cited, were
museums no larger or even of less extent, paying in many cases higher
salaries to their officers and employees, are able to expend, as in the
instance alluded to, thirteen times the amount on collections.

All these are reasons why, in spite of the most earnest efforts and
self-sacrifice on the part of those in their immediate charge, the collec-
tions of the Government in many most important respects are not
advancing as fast as those of some civic museums.

It seems but justice to the late eminent nan—Dr. G. Brown Goode—
who gave his life to this Museum, and who had entire freedom in his
administration of it, to say that more than he did would have been, it
is believed, impossible under.the conditions just cited. He did more,
in fact, than could be demanded, for he supplemented these defects by
arousing, through his own enthusiasm and his unselfish interest, such
a like spirit in others, that a large portion of all the curatorships are
actually filled by those giving entirely voluntary and unpaid services,
there being, in fact, more exactly, eight curators who are paid (though
inadequately) to seventeen who receive their salaries in other Govern-
ment employment, but give their private time to their respective
departinents, 2 condition of things which it would be hard to parallel
elsewhere, but which alone has made it possible, under the depressing
influences already cited, for the Museum to not have fallen further
behind the progress of others than it has done. The clerical force,
which is relatively larger than it would be under conditions other than

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. . 19

those stated, is paid at rates considerably less than for similar service
in the Executive Departments.

IT again most earnestly commend this most regrettable state of affairs
to the attention of the Regents, and through them to Congress. It is
for them to apply the remedy.

In my previous reports I have called attention to the congested state
of the exhibition halls of the Museum, which prevents the collections
from being seen toadvantage. This condition has been met to a limited
extent by the appropriation of $8,000 for galleries, which will afford. a
temporary relief; but it is evident that a new building must soon be
provided, or the Museum will tend to present the appearance of a place
for storage rather than that of one for commodious exhibition. There
would not be the slighest difficulty in immediately filling a second build-
ing of the same size as the present one with objects of interest from the
collections already accumulated.

It may possibly be a matter of surprise that I should urge the increase
of appropriations for purchases, while the Museum building is thus
crowded; but, as I have stated above, the present collections represent,
in large part, not what is most desirable, but what has come to hand,
leaving everywhere great gaps, or at least, fragmentary series which, to
be properly presented, should be filled out by objects only obtainable
by purchase.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

The researches relating to the American Indians under the direction
of the Smithsonian Institution have been continued. During the year
Special attention has been given to the more precise classification of
the Indians by Maj. J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau, and several
of his collaborators; meantime the customary operations have been
carried forward in such manner as to elucidate the arts, institutions,
beliefs, and languages of the native tribes.

As usual a part of the work of the Bureau was exploratory. An
extended exploration conducted by Mr. W J McGee, ethnologist in
charge of the Bureau, was carried on over the territory of the Seri
Indians, including Tiburon Island, in the Gulf of California, and adja-
cent mainland area in the State of Sonora, Mexico. These Indians are
remarkable for primitive character and warlike disposition, and have
successfully protected their habitat from invasion by white men since
the time of Coronado. An account of this interesting journey will be
found in Major Powell’s report.

Archeologic explorations of considerable extent were carried forward
also in Arizona, and some of the ruins thereby discovered were exca-
vated with great success. The chief result of this work was a remark-
ably rich collection of symbolically decorated prehistoric pottery, made
by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes and transferred to the United States National
Museum,

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Another noteworthy archeologic exploration was made along the
western coast of Florida, south of the twenty-seventh parallel, bringing
to light abundant relics of the prehistoric age. In this case the collec-
tions were taken chiefly from salt-water bogs within coral islands or
atolls, in which domestic and ceremonial objects of wood, bone, shell,
and antler, together with implements and weapons of shark and other
teeth, and even textile fabrics were preserved in wonderful perfection.
Water-color sketches were made of all masks and other wooden speci-
mens liable to deteriorate in drying.

The work on the “Cyclopedia of the American Indians” has been
carried forward, and aconsiderable part of the material has been made
ready for the press.

Researches concerning the social organization and institutions of the
Indians have been continued, and some of the results have been incor-
porated in the reports of the Bureau.

The work in linguistics has gone on steadily. A comparative vocab-
ulary of Algonquian dialects is well advanced, and additions to it have
been made through studies of the Miami and Peoria tongues. The tri-
bal and linguistic development of the Iroquois Indians, or Six Nations,
has been studied with success, yielding a means of determining, within
limits, the prehistoric movements of these tribes. Substantial progress
has been made also in ascertaining the general laws of linguistics and
in applying these laws to the problems of the character and distribu-
tion of the aborigines.

One of the results of researches concerning the Kiowa ceremonials
was the discovery that the Indians deepened tieir trance condition,
and at the same time strengthened their bodies against fatigue, by the
use of the dried tops of a cactus which contains certain alkaloids of
remarkable properties.

The subject of native American mythology has received attention.
It has been found that the myths and ceremonials throw much light on
the origin and development of some of the industries and games of the
Indians, and give an insight into many characteristics of primitive
peoples in general. The ceremonials of the Pueblo Indians have been
studied with care, and new indications have been found of the intimate
connection between rituals and environment. A report dealing with
the operations and ceremonials of the Zuni Indians was practically
completed during the year. -

The Bureau made an exhibit in connection with the National Museum,
under the Smithsonian Institution, at the Cotton States and Interna-
tional Exposition held at Atlanta during the autumn of 1896. This
illustrated the characteristics and habits of the Cherokee Indians of
eastern United States, of the Papago Indians of the far Southwest, and
of the little known Seri of the western coast of Mexico. It received
the highest award—a diploma and a gold medal.

The details of the Bureau’s operations are recounted in a special
report from Director Powell, forming Appendix II.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Pad

THE SMITHSONIAN INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE.

The International Exchange Service was inaugurated half a century
ago aS a means for developing and executing in part the broad and
comprehensive objects paramount in the mind of the founder for the
“increase and diffusion of knowledge.”

The “increase of knowledge,” accomplished only by constant research
and persistent experiments, as prosecuted by the Institution in its vari-
ous branches, would not alone have fulfilled the objects and attained
the results desired by the founder. The knowledge obtained must also
be diffused, and in order that the memoirs, contributions to knowledge,
and annual reports published by the Institution might be systemat-
ically exchanged for publications of other scientific institutions through-
out the world, the exchange system was inaugurated.

The advantages of the service have not been confined to the Institu-
tion alone, but have been shared by scientific societies and educational
institutions everywhere for the ultimate purpose of increasing the
resources of their libraries. That the best results might be attained,
the Institution proceeded to establish relations with various scientific
societies and libraries in England and Germany, where the interchange
of publications was more extensive than in other countries, and it was
found to be not only advisable but necessary that agents should be
employed and paid some salary from the funds of the Institution. With
the exception of the two countries named there is a systematic exchange
of publications with nearly every nation of the civilized world without
any expense to the Smithsonian Institution for the distribution of pack-
ages after the delivery of cases to the authorized agency.

Although the exchange service was originally established in the
interest of science, for many years it has forwarded and received so
many publications of the United States that the latter function has
superseded the original design of the Bureau, both as to the number of
packages and their weight, and especially since it became the official
medium of the National Government for the distribution of parlia-
mentary and scientific publications of the several Bureaus it has
undergone a complete change and necessarily many improvements have
been adopted in the system.

The appropriations made by Congress for the support of the ex-
changes since 1851 have never been adequate, notwithstanding the
fact that treaty obligations made it compulsory for the Exchange
Bureau to forward Government publications and receive the parlia-
mentary documents of other countries for the Library of Congress.
Without mentioning the cost to the Smithsonian Institution of the
transmissions of the United States Government prior to the Exchange
Bureau becoming the official representative of the Government, the
Institution has advanced during that period over $45,000 from its own

22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

income in excess of moneys appropriated by Congress, two-thirds of
which at least was directly. due to the expense of forwarding Govern-
ment publications, and which has never been reimbursed to the Insti-
tution. The benefit derived by the Government from the exchange
system has not been confined to the direct contributions of foreign
governments, but the accumulations of the Smithsonian Institution
have been systematically deposited with the Library of Congress,
known as the ‘‘ Smithsonian Deposit,” and at the close of this fiscal
year the publications thus deposited have reached the great number of
350,000.

By reference to the report, in the Peotine of the acting sips of
exchanges, it will be noticed that the expenditures of the year have
amounted to $20,568.14. Of this amount $17,000 were appropriated by
Congress, $2,727.43 were paid by Government bureaus, $271 by State
institutions, and $461.29 by other contributors. This amount was insuf-
ficient to meet outstanding obligations, and the Institution advanced

the sum of $98.42.
~The number of correspondents of the Exchange Bureau, both foreign
and domestic, has noticeably increased during the past year, and the
total now amounts to 24,914, of which 18, 900 are foreign, some of them
being in the most remote parts of hala

I have before suggested the advisability of adopting some means by
which to increase the store of parliamentary publications for the Library
of Congress as a more adequate return for the large number of publi-
cations of this Government sent to foreign countries, and as the new
Library building will in a few months be ready for cataloguing the books
now on hand, and as ample space will be available for accessions, it
seems most desirable that action should at once be taken to accomplish
this end. Correspondence can do much, but personal solicitation can
do more, and to attain the desired results a special representative in
the joint interest of the Institution and the Library of Congress should
be commissioned to visit the leading countries of the world.

THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK.

In former reports I have called attention to the general policy of
the Institution with reference to the National Zoological Park and the
embarrassments that have arisen in carrying it out. Some of these
embarrassments still remain, especially the absence of authority for
the purchase of animals in the appropriation act. Because of this the
proper growth of the collection is much retarded and many of the rarer
native animals now fast disappearing are not yet represented. Itis not
likely that such animals will often be presented to the park, as they are
rarely obtained and are always readily sold. For several years past
I have recommended to Congress the removal of this restriction by
restoring to the annual appropriation act an item for the purchase of
animals.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

The appropriation made for the park for the fiscal year ending June
30, 1896, was in the following terms:

National Zoological Park: For continuing the construction of roads,

walks, bridges, wi vter supply, sewerage, and drainage; and for grading,
planting, and otherwi se improving the grounds: erecting and rep: uring
buildings and inclosures for animals ; and for administrative purposes,

care, subsistence, and transpor tation of animals, including salaries or
compensation of all necessary employees, and general incidental ex-
peuses not otherwise provided for, fifty-five thousand dollars, one-half
of which sum shall be paid from the revenues of the District of Colum-
bia and the other half from the Treasury of the United States; for con-
tinuing the entrance into the Zoological Park from Woodley Lane, and
opening driveway into Zoological Pp ark, from said entrance along the
west bank of Rock Creek, live thousand dollars, to be immediately
available, which sum is hereby appropriated out of any money in the
Treasury not otherwise appropriated, one-half chargeable to the reve-
nues of the District of Columbia. And of the sum hereby appropri-
ated five thousand dollars shall be used toward the construction of a
road from the Holt Mansion entrance (on Adams Mill road) into the
park to connect with the roads now in existence, including a bridge
across Rock Creek.

The greater part of this sum has necessarily been spent in the main-
tenance of the collection and in the care of the buildings and grounds.
It should not be forgotten that the preservation and maintenance of
the native beauty of the region in which the park is situated was one
of the primary objects had in view at the time of its establishment.
In consequence of this, great care has always been exercised to inter-
fere as little as possible with the natural features, though roads and

ralks following easy gradients and convenient for the public must
necessarily be made through the park.

The adjustment of the boundaries of the park to conform to the
newly devised system of highways that has been proposed for the Dis-
trict of Columbia has not yet been made. Since the date of the last
report the roadways on the western side have received attention, and it
is Supposed that they are now definitely settled about the entire circuit
of the park. It would seem, therefore, that the present is a proper
time to make such final adjustments in the boundary as may seem
desirable. The accompanying map shows the proposed roadways near
the park.

The remarks made in last year’s report with regard to changes upon
the eastern side are still applicable in the main, and may be profitably
repeated :

Plans for a system of roadways for the District have been completed
for that section lying to the eastward of the park. Here a broad street,
to be known as the “Park Drive,” reaches the boundary of the park
at its southeastern corner and thence proceeds along the eastern side
by gentle curves adapted to the topography of the region, as shown
upon the accompanying plan. The establishment of this road will

greatly improve the access to the park, which has always suffered
from the steep grades that are necessary for descent into the valley

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of Rock Creek. It will, however, entail some new difficulties which
should be met at once. The road does not skirt the boundary of the
park at all points, but touches or leaves it according to the contour
of the ground and the practicability of the grade. Some tracts of land
are therefore left between the drive and the park, and if these become
built upon, a succession of private houses will be thrust directly upon
the boundary, marring the air of seclusion that was one of the objects
for which the expenditure of the first purchase was made, and which
is still a principal attraction of the valley.

In order to avoid this the land in question should be added to the
park, the eastern boundary of which would then lie along a broad and
excellent roadway affording access to the park at several convenient
points. The accompanying map shows the land which should be added.
It involves a strip (C) lying immediately south of the bear pits much
needed for the security of the animals confined there. At present the
boundary of the park is so near the pits that the bank is very steep, and
as it is composed in considerable degree of soil and decomposed rock it
constantly crumbles under the action of the weather and precipitates
loose stones and débris into the pits, thus endangering the safety of the
animals and gradually undermining the boundary fence, which must
sooner or later fall inward. It should also include a tract of land lying
on a hillside to the north of the Quarry road and forming a portion of
the property of Mr. H. D. Walbridge. This is an exceedingly impor-
tant tract, as its possession would extend the park toward Kenesaw
avenue, which will doubtless be the principal route of access upon the
eastern side, and it would be desirable to extend the park on the
southern side by taking in the cemetery that now lies near the Adams
Mill entrance and constitutes a serious blot upon the surroundings of
the park.

In one particular it seems desirable to amend these recommendations.
As the cemetery situated to the southward of the park is probably of
considerable value and it would entail considerable expense to add the
entire tract to the park, it is believed that the interests of the Govern- -
ment will be equally well subserved by establishing a roadway through
it along the route marked in dotted lines on the map, and adding to the
park only so much of the land as may lie between such roadway and
the present boundary.

On the western side considerable readjustments of boundary are
desirable. Commencing at Woodley Bridge, it seems proper that a
small strip (marked H) should be added to the park, so that it may
reach the line of a projected roadway shown in dotted lines on the
annexed map. ‘This roadway extends along the natural contours of a
hill that slopes toward Rock Creek, and when it is established the
unsightly embankment made there for the purpose of entering the park
can be removed. It is recommended that the boundary run along the
eastern side of this road to meet the present boundary of the park.

Another extension seems desirable near the present western entrance
to the park upon Connecticut avenue extended. Here the boundary
now runs at no great distance from the avenue and there is no prop-
erly legalized right of way over the property into the park. Notwith-
standing this, the service of the electric cars on the avenue makes

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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

this the most frequented of all the entrances. he ground which it is
proposed to include lies between the park and Connecticut avenue,
extending southward to Cathedral avenue and northward to Klingle
road. It is marked I on the accompanying map. It is represented as
being excellent grazing ground for antelope, elk, deer, or llamas.
Pasturage for these animals is now insufficient owing to the wooded
character of the park. Should the Rock Creek Park be likewise
extended to Connecticut avenue as is proposed, the two public parks
would then have acommon boundary along the Klingle road, which
would form a common avenue of entrance.

It will be noted that there were mentioned in the appropriation act
two roads to be constructed within the park, one entering from Wood-
ley Lane road and continuing along the western bank of Rock Creek,
a second to enter the park from the Adams Mill road and connect witb
the general park system.

The first of these roads is the one mentioned in last year’s report.
The amount of $5,000 appropriated for it, being immediately available,
was nearly all expended before the beginning of the present fiscal year.
Since this. road has to be built within the boundaries of the park, it
became necessary to make a heavy and expensive filling of earth near
the Woodley road. This is at present a very objectionable feature that
ean not be modified except by an additional fill sufficient to modify the
lines of the embankment so that they will simulate natural slopes. If
the modification of the boundary and the exterior road proposed by the
Commissioners is established here, this embankment should be removed
or made to conform to the grades that accommodate such exterior road.

sy consulting the annexed map it will be seen that this road soon
reaches the banks of the creek. At this point it becomes necessary to
cross, owing to the fact that the right or western bank becomes precipi-
tous and would not admit of the construction of a road except at great
expense and destruction of the natural features. It was first thought
that it would be necessary to construct a bridge here, but this seems
objectionable in some respects, as tending to give an artificial character
to a beautiful locality. It is thought that it may be well to try at this
point (marked A on map) the experiment of a ford, so managed that in
ordinary stages of the stream there would be but a few inches of water.
This would give sufficient access for carriages, and foot passengers
could cross upon a series of stepping stones. There would be but few
days in the year when such a crossing could not be used with satisfae-
tion, and upon such days but little traveling would be expected.

The second road is in fact a restoration of the old road which led from
the mill formerly established here by President John Quiney Adams,
and accordingly known on the map of the District as the Adams Mill
road. The mill with its dam has long since disappeared, but traces of
_ the roadway and of the miller’s dwelling still remain. It is believed
that a picturesque driveway can be made here. It must necessarily
be narrow, as otherwise it would deface too much the wooded bank

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

down which it descends. Work was commenced on this road toward
the close of the fiscal year. |

At the edge of the stream near the site of the old mill the two roads
are to unite in one, which a short distance above will cross the creek on
a rustic bridge (marked B on map), thus reaching the main body of the
park near the principal animal house.

Among the most satisfactory of the works undertaken in the park
for beautifying and secluding the grounds is the restoration of the area
between the seal pond and Rock Creek to something approaching its
prinitive wildness. This region had been connected with the body of
the park by high embankments meant to restrain the stream and pre-
vent it from destroying the seal pond. This object has now been
effected by removing the embankments and sinking under the ground
at each end of the pond a substantial wall of masonry.

Through the courtesy of the Fish Commission the park was enabled
during the year to acquire the plant for an aquarium which was used
at the Atlanta Exposition. It is intended to establish this in a suit-
able structure, thereby effecting an important addition to the zoological
resources of the park.

As the Yellowstone National Park is the source from which many
wild animals are supplied to the park here, and as great difficulty has
hitherto been experienced in properly confining and caring for animals
within that preserve, it has seemed desirable that an inclosure of con-
siderable extent should be fenced off in some suitable portion of that
park into which animals could be driven for the purpose of capture and
where they could be preserved indefinitely while becoming partially
tamed and awaiting transportation to the East. A site for such an
inclosure has been selected in the Hayden Valley, and during the sum-
mer of 1895 a strong corral inclosing a considerable tract was erected
there. It was hoped that most of the few bison stili remaining in the
Yellowstone Park might be brought into this corral, and here protected
from marauders. In this particular, however, my expectations have
not been realized. The pursuit of the bison by poachers has continued,
and it is understood from the superintendent of the park that there are
now but very few remaining.

ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.

The operations of the Astrophysical Observatory during the past
year, as detailed more at length in the appendix, have been very success-
ful in reducing prejudicial disturbances tc the work. It is expected
to make within a few months a publication of the results of the long
investigation of the infra-red spectrum which has thus far occupied so
much of the attention of the observatory. In this publication it is
believed that the degree of accuracy in the position of absorption lines,
which was mentioned in the report of last year as the aim of the inves-
tigation, will be fully realized.

Notwithstanding the gratifying progress in removing sources of error

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

which has been made during the past year, it must again be remarked

‘that the full degree of satisfaction to be obtained in the investigation
can not be hoped for in the present site of the observatory. During
the past year plans have been prepared for the construction of a more
suitable building, and some experiments have been made looking to the
determination of a site more free from magnetic and other disturbances,
but no steps have yet been taken to remove to such a situation.

It is proper to add that administrative duties have occupied too much
of my time in the past year to permit my giving the personal attention
I should have wished to the conduct of the observatory, and that for
the improvements above described credit is due chiefly to Mr. C. G.
Abbot, who efficiently aids me in its charge.

NECROLOGY.
GEORGE BROWN GOODE.

Since the close of the fiscal year the Institution has suffered the irrep-
arable loss of its assistant secretary, Dr. George Browu Goode, who
died on September 6, 1896, at his home in this city. A sketch of his
life will more properly be given in my next report, but I can not refrain
from saying a word at this time about one with whom I was not only
officially intimate, but who was a very dear personal friend.

Dr. Goode was born at New Albany, Ind., on February 13, 1851.
He was first associated with the Institution in 1873, and from that time
until his death was thoroughly devoted to the work he so loved—the
building up and development, under the charge of the Regents, of a
great National Museum. In 1887 he was appointed assistant secretary
of the Institution in charge of the National Museum, which, as it exists
to-day, is perhaps the most fitting monument to his memory.

He possessed an exact scientific training that made him eminent as
a zoologist, but it was as a specialist in museum administration that he
was perhaps skilled above all others, and he gave himself with entire
devotion to the care of the Museum, which was practically his charge,
refusing many advantageous offers to go elsewhere, for the peculiar
value of his services was everywhere acknowledged.

Dr. Goode united with his great administrative ability singularly
varied powers in other directions, and the most entire unselfishness in
their use I have ever known. My own trust in him grew with every
evidence of his special fitness for it, while our official relations continued
to be of the most happy character, and so also were those of his asso-
ciates and subordinates, for he possessed the rare art of maintaining an
exact discipline without sacrificing the affections of those over whom
it was administered. He is gone, and his successor is hard to find.

WILLIAM CRAWFORD WINLOCK.

After the conclusion of the transactions of the Exchange Bureau for
the fiscal year, and before the annual report of the Institution was

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ready for the press, the curator of exchanges, William Crawford Win-
lock, passed away.

Mr. Winlock died at Bare Head, N. J., September 20, 1896, having
but a few days before returned en a furans to Loa ilen. Leos and
Paris, whence he had gone in the interest of the affairs of the Bureau.

Mr. Winlock, already well known as an astronomer, having been
attached to the United States Naval Observatory, continued to exer-
cise the functions of his profession after associating himself with the
Institution, and, in addition to his onerous duties as curator of ex-
changes, he was made honorary curator of physical apparatus in the
United States National Museum. At the time of his death he ocen-
pied the chairs of astronomy in the Corcoran and Graduate schools of
the Columbian University.

In the death of Mr. Winlock the Institution has lost not only one of
its most efficient officers, and one to whom the exchange service was
specially indebted, but one whose personal character endeared him in
an uncommon degree to his associates.

GEORGE HANS BOEHMER.

George Hans Boehmer died at Gaithersburg, Md., November 20, 1895.
Mr. Boehmer was born in Berlin, Germany, May 6, 1842, and in 1868
came to the United States.

In 1876 he was appointed on the staff of the Smithsonian Institution,
and after various promotions became chief clerk of the Exchange
Bureau, which position he held at the time of his death. He was an
accomplished linguist, and his efforts aided greatly in bringing the
Hixchange Bureau to its present efficient standing.

Respectfully submitted.

S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX TO SECRETARY’S REPORT.

APPENDIX JI.
THE NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Srr: The following statement constitutes a résumé of the most important opera-
tions of the National Museum during the fiscal year which ended on June 30, 1896:

lccessions.—The records show the receipt of 1,299 separate accessions during the
year. These represent a total of more than 70,000 specimens of all kinds.

The following accessions are of special interest: From Dr. William L. Abbott, to
whom more than any other individual the Museum is indebted for contributions from
Africa and Asia, collections of natural-history specimens, ethnological objects, and
musical instruments, gathered in Kashmir, India, and Madagascar; from Mr. A.
Boueard, Isle of Wight, England, large and exceedingly valuable collections of
birds’ skins from different parts of the world, containing many species and several
fenera new to the Museum collection; from Dr. L. T. Chamberlain, New York City,
a valuable collection of southern gems and gem minerals, native silver from Arizona,
an especially fine specimen of green tourmaline from Mount Mica, Paris, Me., and
shells from New Zealand and various localities in Texas; from John Brenton Copp,
New Haven, Conn., a very interesting addition to the collection of household goods,
wearing apparel, pottery, glass, pewter jewelry, and other specimens transmitted by
him in a previous year; from Dr. A. Fenyés, Hélonan, Egypt, a fine collection of
natural-history specimens, fossils, Greek and Roman coins, and antiquities from
Egypt and the Transvaal; from Mr. R. D. Lacoe, Pittston, Pa., collections of Dakota
croup fossils and Paleozoic animal fossils, also specimens from a Sigillarian stump.
These collections will form part of the famous ‘Lacoe Collection.” Col. Charles
Coote Grant, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, has transmitted a large collection of
Clinton and Niagara group fossils from the vicinity of Hamilton. Dr. William L.
Ralph, Utica, N. Y., to whom the Museum is so deeply indebted, has presented some
very yaluable and interesting collections of birds’ skins. Among them is a skin of a
Philip Island parrot, now an extinct species. Lieut. Wirt Robinson, U. 8. A., Hub-
bard Park, Cambridge, Mass., transmitted collections of birds’ eggs from Virginia,
birds’ skins, including several new species, from Margarita Island and Venezuela, as
well as some natural-history specimens from the West Indies. Some very beautiful
specimens of the Tiffany Favrile glass, made under the personal supervision of Mr.
Charles L. Tiffany, have heen deposited in the Museum by Messrs. Tiffany & Co.
Special mention may also be made of a number of pieces of beautifully decorated
chinaware, pottery, etc., presented by Messrs. William and Edward Lycett, Atianta,
Ga., including yases, cups, and saucers of Japanese eggshell porcelain.

The scientific staf.—The vacancy created by the death of Prof. C. V. Riley, hon-
orary curator, on September 14, 1895, has been filled by the appointment of Mr. L.
O, Howard, who also sueceeded Professor Riley as Entomologist of the Department
of Agriculture. Custodians of special groups in the Department of Insects have
been appointed, as follows: Mr. D. W. Coquillett, custodian of the Diptera; Mr. W.
H. Ashmead, custodian of the Hymenoptera; Mr. E. A. Schwarz, custodian of Coleop-
terous larve, and Mr. O, F. Cook, of Huntington, Long Island, custodian of the
Myriapoda, .

29

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Mr. George C. Maynard has accepted the custodianship of the collection of elec-
trical apparatus. Dr. C. Hart Merriam has been enrolled upon the list of associates
in zoology.

Distribution of specimens.—Nearly 30,000 specimens of all kinds have been distrib-
uted during the year. About four-fifths of this number were donated to institu-
tions. The total also includes a large number of specimens which were transmitted
in exchange to institutions and individuals. Specimens are in no case given to
individuals. Of the entire number of specimens distributed, probably two-thirds
consisted of fishes and invertebrate forms of marine life. More than 2,300 geological
specimens and about half as many casts of prehistoric implements are also included
in tae total number.

Visitors.—The number of visitors to the Smithsonian building during the year was
103,650, and to the Museum building 180,505.

Specimens received for determination.—There has been a noticeable increase in the
number of ‘‘lots” of material received for identification. ‘This is readily accounted
for by the encouragement which the Museum has always given in this direction. A
stone cr insect, actually worthless, but belieyed by the sender to have some scien-
tific or commercial value, is as carefully examined and reported upon as would be a
collection having recognized value, from a correspondent known to be engaged in
scientific work. The number of ‘‘lots” received during the year was 542, or an
increase of 75 over the number received last year.

Foreign exachanges.—Exchanges have been made with a number of foreign museums.
Among them may be mentioned the Royal Zoological Museum, Florence, Italy;
Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo, Brazil; British Museum, London, England; Zoological
Museum, Turin, Italy; Horniman Museum, London, England; Australian Museum,
Sydney, New South Wales; La Plata Museum, La Plata, Argentina; Museuin of
Natural History, Paris, France; Museum of Natural History, Genoa, Italy; Royal
Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark; Imperial Zoological Museum, Vienna,
Austria. Exchanges of importance have also been made with individuals, among
whom may be mentioned Mr. Edward Lovett, Croydon, England; Mr. Edgar J.
Bradley, Happy Valley Water Works, South Australia; Dr. A. C. Haddon, Cam-
bridge, England; Prof. Guiseppe Bellucci, Perugia, Italy; Dr. Herman Credner,
Leipsic, Germany; Dr. A. Pavlow, Moscow, Russia; Col. Charles Scott Grant, Ham-
ilton, Ontario, Canada; Prof. M. Stossich, Trieste, Austria.

Publications.—The Report of the National Museum for 1893 was published early in
the year, and a considerable portion of the Report for 1894 is already in type.

Volume 17 of Proceedings of the National Museum was received from the Govern-
ment Printing Office and distributed in July. All the papers for Volume 18, except-
ing three, appeared as separates. ‘This volume will probably be ready for distribution
in bound form during November. Advance editions of three papers to appear in
volume 18 were also received and distributed. Two of these contained descriptions
of remarkable new genera and species of batrachia and crustacea obtained by the
United States Fish Commission from an artesian well at San Marcos, Tex. The
third contained preliminary diagnoses of new mammals from the Mexican border,
collected by Dr. E. A. Mearns, U.S. A.

Bulletin 47, “The Fishes of North and Middle America,” by Dr. D. 8. Jordan and
Prof. B. W. Evermann, will shortly: be published, and Bulletin 49, “A Bibliography
of the Published Writings of Philip Lutley Sclater, F. R.8.” prepared by Dr. G.
Brown Goode, is now in type.

A second en of Part F of Bulletin 39, ‘‘ Directions for Collecting and eh Ae aere
ing Insects,” by Prof.C. V. Riley, has been printed, to meet the unusually large
demand for this pamphlet.

Special Bulletin No. 2, ‘Oceanic Ichthyology,” by Dr. G. Brown Goode and Dr.
Tarleton H. Bean, is now ready for the press. This is a treatise on the deep-sea and
pelagic fishes of the world, and is based chiefly on the collections made by the steam-
ers Blake, Albatross and Fish Hawk in the Northwestern Atlantic Ocean. It is an
elaborate work, in quarto form, of 553 pages, with an atlas of 417 figures arranged on

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31

123 plates. Special Bulletin No. 3 is also ready for the press. This is the second
volume of ‘‘ Life Histories of North American Birds,” by Maj. Charles Bendire.

In the series of circulars, No. 47 has been issued. The object of the circular is to
indicate the conditions upon which the Musewn will undertake the identification of
mollusks. The necessity of printing such a circular arose from the vast amount of
material of this kind received for examination during recent years. In almost every
instance the return of the material was expected, and thus the Museum was called
upon to do a very large amount of work with little or no return of any kind.

Beplorations.—Dr. William L. Abbott has continued his explorations in Africa and
India, and the Museum is deeply indebted to him for additional collections of ethno-
logical and natural-history objects. Among the latter, a fine series of skins of lemurs
and of the insectivores peculiar to southeastern Madagascar are of conspicuous inter-
est and value,

A yaluable collection, consisting of 1,553 specimens of antiquities, obtained in 1895
from the cliff dwellings and ancient pueblos near Tusayan, Ariz., has been gathered
by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes. This collection will doubtless be supplemented by others
of equal interest, as Dr. Fewkes is continuing his explorations this summer (1896).

A yery acceptable collection of natural-history material was obtained for the
Museum by Lieut. Wirt Robinson, U.S. A., during his travels in the West Indies and
South America.

Additional collections of mammals, birds, and other natural-history specimens,
obtained in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and the Gulf of California, have been received
from Dr. Edgar A. Mearns, U.S. A.

A collection of objects illustrating the manner of life among the Kiowa tribes has
been gathered by Mr. James Mooney, of the Bureau of Hthnology, and transferred
to the National Museum.

As a result of explorations in a cavern near Duffield, Scott County, Va., conducted
by Gen. A. L. Pridemore, of Jonesville, Va., the Museum has received a large col-
lection of human bones.

hnportant collections have been received from the United States Fish Commission,
comprising material collected in various parts of the United States by exploring
parties sent out under the direction of the Commission. The Department of Agri-
culture has been instrumental in adding, through its explorations, to the Museum
collections. A fine collection of Lower Silurian fossils from Valcour Island, Lake
Champlain, and of trilobites from Rome, N. Y., was made by the United States
Geological Suryey, and will in due course be transmitted to the Museum. Several
large and valuable collections have been received from this source during the year.

Prof. R. Ellsworth Call, of Cincinnati, Ohio, has explored some of the caves in
Kentucky, and has transmitted to the Museum a large number of bats from the
Mammoth Cave.

Several of the curators and assistant curators in the Museum have at various times
during the year been engaged in collecting material. The results of these expeditions,
whieh were for the most part very successful, have been incorporated into the
Museum collections.

Cotton States and International Exposition, Atlanta.—The exposition opened on Sep-
tember 18 and closed on December 31. Fourteen departments of the Museum were
represented by special exhibits, and also several sections of the department of arts
and industries. The sum allotted to the Institution and the Museum was $22,000.
The Museum report for this year (1895-96), now in course of preparation, will contain
an elaborate report upon the exhibits of the Institution and the Museum, accompa-
nied by detailed lists of the objects exhibited.

Respectfully submitted.

G. BROWN GOODE,
Assistant Secretary in Charge of the U. S. National Museum.
Mr. 8. P. LANGLrY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
AuGust 1, 1896.

APPENDIX II.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

Sir: Ethnologic researches have been carried forward throughout the fiscal year
in accordance with the act of Congress making provision ‘‘ for continuing researches
relating to the American Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian IJnstitu-
tion.”

As heretofore, the operations have been conducted in accordance with a plan sub-
mitted at the beginning of the fiscal year. Field operations of considerable extent
have been carried on in Arizona, Florida, Indian Territory, Indiana, Maine, New
Mexico, Oklahoma, and Sonora, Mexico. The office researches have been carried
forward by the use of material from most of the States and from various other parts
of the continent.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE WORK.

The immediate purpose of the Congress in instituting the Ethnological Bureau was
to obtain definite information concerning Indian tribes, to the end that they might
be arranged in amicable groups on reservations; and this primary purpose has been
constantly borne in mind and has from the beginning shaped the operations of the
Bureau. In considering the qualities which conduce toward amity or tend toward
enmity among the tribes it was found that differences in mythology or belief com-
monly engender distrust and strife, while similarities in mythology inspire mutual
confidence and thus promote peace; accordingly, it was deemed necessary to inves-
tigate the aboriginal mythology. It was also found that tribes and confederacies
controlled by similar laws and governed by chiefs chosen in the same way, and
organized or regimented on parallel lines, usually associate peacefully, while tribes
or other groups whose institutions are unlike can not associate without friction and
clashing; thus it seemed desirable to take up researches concerning the institutions
of the aborigines, and the early work in this direction proved so fruitful as to
encourage its prosecution. It was found, too, that tribes and other groups whose
industrial arts, sports, and games are of allied character are commonly harmonious,
while Indians whose arts are diverse are suspicious of each other and prone to
animosity; and for this and other reasons it was deemed needful to investigate the
aboriginal arts.

Finally, it was found that there is a relation between the beliefs, institutions, and
arts of the Indians and the languages spoken by them, and as the researches pro-
gressed this relation was found so intimate that the languages may safely be regarded
as indexes to those qualities, and hence that language alone can safely be used as a
basis for the determination of tribal qualities and for the arrangement of the Indians
in amicable groups. Accordingly, much attention was given to linguistic researches,
and gradually most of the tribes of the United States, with some of those in the con-
tiguous territory, were classified on a linguistic basis. Meanwhile investigations
concerning other subjects were carried forward, and were found of much importance.
In this way four primary lines of research were developed. So far as practicable, the
operations of the Bureau have been so conducted as to advance knowledge equally
along the several lines. Practical considerations have, however, led to a somewhat
arbitrary division of the work into the commonly recognized departments (1) ar-
cheology, (2) descriptive ethnology, (3) sociology, (4) linguistics, (5) mythology,

32

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33

(6) psychology, (7) bibliography, and (8) publication, with the necessary adminis-
trative and miscellaneous work. Most of the researches are necessarily carried
forward in the field, while the field material is elaborated in the office. Accordingly,
the field work.and the office work are treated together except in so far as the former
may be considered exploratory, when it commonly relates to different lines of pri-
mary research.

EXPLORATION.

At the beginning of the fiscal year Dr. J. Walter Fewkes was in the field in Arizona,
haying completed during June a reconnoissance of the little-known country includ-
ing the northeastern extension of the Mogollon escarpment about the head waters of
Rio Verde. He repaired early in July to Holbrook, and proceeded to explore the ©
ruined villages of northeastern Arizona. After a more or less successful reconnois-
sance extending over a considerable district, he chose for detailed work the ruin
known as Sikyatki. Here he was joined by Mr. F. W. Hodge. It was ascertained
through tradition and literary record that the rnin represented a wholly prehistoric
village; and excavations were begun with the certainty that all material exhumed
would, for this reason, be of especial value in indicating the aboriginal condition of
the pueblo builders of this district. The anticipations were fully realized in the
results. In all of the abundant material exhumed and duly transférred to the United
States National Museum no trace of intrusive accultural art was found; every piece
was clearly prehistoric; and the collection was the richest both in quantity of mate-
rial and the quality of the ware and its symbolic decoration thus far obtained in this
country. While it is especially rich in decorated pottery, many other articles illus-
trating primitive handicraft and customs were obtained, together with a sufficient
amount of somatologic material—crania, etc.—to reveal the prominent physical char-
acteristics of the ancient people. Extensive collections were made also in the ancient
ruinof Awatobi. Dr. Fewkes’ operations were brought to a close toward the end of
August, when he returned to Washington with his collections, comprising seventeen
boxes from Sikyatki and Awatobi, and three from the ruins on the head waters of
Riv Verde.

Separating from Dr. Fewkes at Holbrook about the end of August, Mr. Hodge
made a reconnoissance of all the inhabited pueblos of New Mexico comprising Zuni,
Acoma, and Laguna in the western part of the territory, Cochiti, San Felipe, Santo
Domingo, Santa Ana, Sia, Jemez, Isleta, Sandia, Taos, Picuris, Santa Clara, San Juan,
San Ildefonso, Pojoaque, Nambe, and Tesuque, in the valley of Rio Grande. At
nearly all of these pueblos he was able to obtain valuable information relating to the
social organization, beliefs, migrations, and affinities of the natives. In several
cases the Indians have remained so completely isolated as to be little known to
students, and accordingly much of the information is essentially new.

The early part of the year was spent by Mr. James Mooney in the field in Okla-
homa in researches concerning the Kiowa Indians, the details of which are set forth
elsewhere.

Noteworthy exploratory work was conducted by Mr. W J McGee in continuation
ard extension of the explorations in Arizona and Sonora, Mexico, begun during the
last fiseal year. Outfitting at Tucson, Ariz., he started southward on November 9,
1895, crossing the frontier at Sasabé and proceeding thence in a different direction
from that already reconnoitered. By the middle of the month he reached the most
elaborate prehistoric works existing in northwestern Mexico, near the rancho of
San Rafael de Alamito, on the principal wash known locally as Rio Altar. The
works comprise terraces, stone walls, and enclosed fortifications, built of loose stones,
nearly surrounding two buttes, of which the larger is three-fourths of a mile in
length and about 600 feet in height.

These ruins are known locally as ‘Las Trincheras,” or as ‘‘Trinchera” and
“Trincherita.” The whole of the northern side of the larger butte is so terraced
and walled as to leave hardly a square yard of the surface in the natural condition;

SM 96 3

-

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

and for hundreds of square rods the ground is literally sprinkled with fragments of
pottery, spalls, and wasters produced in making chipped implements, and other arti-
ficial material. Mr. Willard D. Johnson, who accompanied the party as topographer
(on furlough from the United States Geological Survey), and who carried forward a
route map, made detailed surveys of these ruins; a number of photographs were
taken also, while a considerable collection representing the fragmentary pottery
and stone art of the builders was obtained. After some days spent at this locality
the expeditions pushed on southward, traversing the principal mountain range of
western Sonora in a narrow canyon below Poso Noriega, and thence following for
50 miles the sand wash known as Rio Bacuache, which was not previously mapped.
~Leaying this wash near its indefinite termination on the desert plains, the course
was headed toward Rancho de San Francisco de Costa Rica, where a rancheria of
Seri Indians was found in 1894. On reaching this point it was ascertained that the
Indians had, through a combination of circumstances, become more hostile toward
white men than ever before, so that the prospect for studying their arts, institutions,
~ and beliefs seemed most gloomy. Nevertheless, it was decided to make the effort.

At the rancho a rude boat was built, with the aid of Senor Pascnal Encinas, of
Hermosillo; a preliminary trip was then made oyer the continental portion of Seri-
land, including the Seri Mountains, which were ascended for the first time by white
men, and were carefully mapped by Mr. Johnson. It was expected that the Indians
would be encountered on this trip; but unfortunately there had been a skirmish
between a small party of the Seri and a party of Mexican vaqueros two days before
the expedition entered Seriland proper, and the Indians had apparently withdrawn
to the coast and Tiburon Island. Returning from this side trip, the boat was, with
much difficulty, transported across Encinas desert and launched in Kino Bay, a reen-
trant in the coast of the Gulf of California. The stock, with the teamsters and
guides, were sent back to the rancho, while the main party proceeded up the coast
to the strait separating Tiburon Island from the mainland. It had been estimated
from the best available data that from five to seven days would be required for
crossing the strait, surveying Tiburon Island, and making collections; and ten days’
rations with five days’ water supply were provided. ‘The party, in addition to the
leader, comprised Messrs. W. D. Johnson, topographer, J. W. Mitchell, photographer,
and §. C. Millard, interpreter; Senores Andres Noriega, of Costa Rica, and Ygnacio
Lozania, of Hermosillo; Mariana, Anton, Miguel, Anton Castillo, and Anton Ortiz,
Papago Indians; and Ruperto Alvarez, a mixed-blood Yaki. A military organiza-
tion was adopied! strict regulations were laid down for the protection of life and
property, and watches were instituted and rigidly maintained.

On proceeding up the coast toward the turbulent strait El Infiernillo, severe gales
were encountered, whereby progress was greatly retarded; and on reaching the
strait the winds continued to blow so violently as to fill the air with sand ashore and
spray at sea, and to render it impossible to make the passage. Finally, after five
days, when the water was exhausted, the gale lulled sufficiently to permit a difficult
crossing with a portion of the party and a small part of the scanty food and bedding;
but when Messrs. Johnson and Mitchell set out on the return trip to bring over Senor
Noriega and two of the Indians, who remained with the supplies on the mainland,
the gale rose again and, despite the most strenuous efforts, blew the frail vessel 25
miles down the gulf, where it was practically wrecked on a desert island. On the
following day the wind subsided somewhat, and the two men were able to empty the
boat of the sand with which it had become filled, to repair it, and finally to reach
the rendezvous on the shore of Kino Bay in time to meet the teamsters from the
rancho on their return to bring in the party. Here water was obtained, and Messrs.
Johnson and Mitchell again worked their way up the coast in the face of adverse
winds, usually tracking the boat laboriously along the rocky coast; but it was not
until the end of the fourth day that they rejoined the three men left on the mainland,
who had suffered much from thirst, and again crossed the strait to find the larger
portion of the party with the leader on Tiburon Island. Meantime the group on the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35

island had suffered inconvenience from dearth of food and blankets, and had been
compelled to devote nearly all their energies to obtaining water from a little tinaja,
or water pocket, in the rocks in the interior of the island 6 or 7 miles from the shore.
All hope of return of the boat had been abandoned, and when it finally appeared
the party were collecting driftwood and branches of the palo blanco—a tree grow-
ing sparsely on the mountains in the interior of the island—to build a raft, while
one of the party was engaged in making the necessary ropes from provision-bags
and clothing.

On the reassembling of the party the original plans were resumed; the leader
visited a score or more of Seri house bowers or rancherias, only to find them aban-
doned (though some bore evidence of occupancy within a few hours) while Mr,
Johnson continued the topographic surveys. By this time the food supplies were
practically exhausted, but were eked out by collecting oysters, clams, and crabs and
by a shark taken on the next to the last day of the stay on the island; and, as before,
most of the energies of the party were expended in carrying water from 4 to 15
miles, for which purpose squads of five or more heavily armed men were requisite,
since the danger of ambush was considerable and constant. By these journeys over
the jagged rocks, in which Tiburon Island abounds, the shoes of the white men and
the sandals of the Indians were worn out; and this condition finally compelled the
abandonment of further effort to come into communication with the wary Indians.
Considerable collections representing their crude arts, domestic and maritime, were,
however, made in their freshly abandoned rancherias, and a fine balsa, or canoe-
raft made of canes, was obtained.

After some delay and danger the strait was recrossed, and the party found them-
selves on the mainland, still beset by storms, without food or water, reduced by
arduous labor and insufficient food, and practically barefoot in a region abounding
in thorns and spines and jagged rocks. Moreover, they were still constantly under
the eyes of Seri warriors watching from a distance and awaiting opportunity for
attack. After fully considering the situation, the leader left the party and the boat
in charge of Mr. Johnson and skirted the coast on foot for 25 miles to the rendezvous
on Kino Bay in the hope of reaching the teamster from the rancho with supplies on
the last day of his stay there under the instructions given him by Mr. Johnson, on
last leaving that point after the wreck. He reached the rendezvous early in the
night of December 28, only to find it abandoned by reason of the accidental escape
r of the stock. He at once pushed on across the desert to the rancho, reaching there
early in the morning of the 29th, and immediately returning with food and water.
The entire party arrived at the rancho on the evening of December 31, and two days
later proceeded to Hermosillo, whence the leader returned directly to Washington,
while Mr. Johnson retraversed the country, thence northward to the Arizona bound-
ary, collecting objects and information among the Papago Indians and completing
the triangulation and topographic surveys. He reached Tucson about the end of
January.

While the expedition was, by reason of the hostility of the Indians, unsuccessful
so far as the anticipated studies of the Seri institutions and beliefs are concerned,
considerable collections representing their arts were obtained. Moreover, the whole
of Seriland, the interior of which was never before trodden by white men, was exam-
ined, surveyed, and mapped; and the expedition resulted also in a survey of such
character as to yield the first topographic map of a broad belt in Sonora extending
from the international boundary to Sonora River. The area covered by this survey
is about 10,000 square miles. Forty-seven stations were occupied for control, and a
considerably larger number of additional points for topographic sketching. The
portion of the map comprising Seriland, being essentially new to geographers, has
been published in the National Geographic Magazine (Vol. VII, 1896, Pl. xtv). It
is a pleasure to say that the work of the expedition was facilitated in all possible
ways by the State officers of Sonora.and the federal authorities of the Republic of
Mexico. By special authority of His Excellency Seiior Leal, secretario de fomento,

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the party was permitted to cross the boundary with the outfit and necessary supplies;
while the governor of Sonora, Seiior Ramon Coral, offered to furnish a guard of state
troops, and in other ways displayed constant interest in the work of the expedition.
Much is due, also, to Senor Pascual Encinas, an intrepid pioneer, to whose courage
and energy the extension of settlement in the borders of Seriland must be ascribed,
and a well-known citizen of Hermosillo, without whose assistance the work would
have been crippled.

OFFICE WORK.
ARCHEOLOGY.

Dr. J. W. Fewkes brought his field explorations and excavations to a close toward
the end of August and proceeded to Washington, where he was for several months
employed in unpacking, cleaning, repairing, labeling, and installing in the National
Museum the collections of pottery and other aboriginal material obtained in the
course of his work in Arizona. In connection with this duty he prepared a general
paper on the results of his work for the annual report of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, and began the preparation of a more extended and fully illustrated memoir for
incorporation in the seventeenth annual report of the Bureau; he was occupied on
this memoir during most of December, 1895, and until his departure to the field in
May, 1896. In this report especial attention is given to the symbolic decoration of
the pottery and to its bearing on the mythology of the Pueblo Indians.

Toward the end of the fiscal year Dr. Fewkes returned to the field for the purpose
of making excavations and surveys of ruins brought to light through his previous
reconnoissance. Hewas accompanied by Mr. Walter Hough, of the National Museum,
who was detailed as a field assistant for the season. The operations were commenced
at the ruin known as Homolobi, on Little Colorado River, about 3 miles from Winslow,
Ariz. Asindicated by tradition, this village was the ancient home of a Moki Indian
clan. For a time the results of the work were not encouraging, but toward the
middle of June a productive part of the ruin was reached, and within a few days
400 fine specimens were obtained, including 250 beautiful bowls, dippers, vases, jars,
and other specimens of aboriginal fictile ware, similar to that obtained from Sikyatki
during the preceding season. Examination showed that the ware is typically Tusa-
yan, yet in its form and decoration is archaic and without influence of civilized
culture, thus demonstrating prehistoric character. The work at this point continued
successful until the ruin was exhausted. The party then repaired to another site,
known as Chevlon Pass, on Little Colorado River, also discovered by Dr. Fewkes. There
the excavations were successful almost from the first, so that by the end of June
the field catalogue of specimens had passed the number of 1,000. Several unique
and especially significant objects were brought to light at this ruin. Some of the
pottery found here is remarkably fine in texture, form, and decoration. Numerous
baskets were also recovered, as well as cotton cloth, sandals, pahos (or ceremonial
wands), and marine shells. Although Dr. Fewkes’ collections during the summer
of 1895 were unprecedented in wealth and scientific value, for the United States,
his collections during the first half of the season of 1896 were even richer and more
significant in their bearing on ethnic problems.

Early in December, Mr. Frank Hamilton Cushing proceeded to Florida to resume
the researches relating to the Seminole Indians and to the archeology of that region,
which were commenced several months before and temporarily discontinued by reason
of the inadequacy of the funds at disposal for field work. It was found imprac-
ticable to make the requisite allotment for necessary field expenses, and a tender
was accepted from the Archeological Association of Philadelphia, representing the
Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, for cooperation. Under the terms of
the cooperation the Archeological Association assumed the cost of field work, includ-
ing the subsistence of the party, the salaries of assistants to Mr. Cushing, and inci-
dental expenses connected with the operations, while the material proceeds, in the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

form of collections, became the joint property of the Bureau and the association,
to be divided after examination and use in the preparation of reports, and the
scientific results remain the property of the Bureau for publication. Under this
arrangement Mr. Cushing organized a party, including Mr. Wells M. Sawyer, of the
United States Geological Survey (furloughed for the purpose), as photographer and
artist; Mr. Carl F. W. Bergmann, formerly of the United States National Museum,
as an expert assistant in collecting; Mr. Irving Sayford as clerk; and a number of
workmen, who were engaged in excayation.. Several localities were reconnoitered
and exploited with moderate success. During February the work was pushed into
the region of coral islands in the neighborhood of Punta Rassa, where traces of
extensive aboriginal handiwork were found on the islands, and especially in ancient
atolls and lagoons lined with bogs and saline marl. Here the works were of such
character as to indicate an extensive and well-organized primitive population, sub-
sisting on sea food, and cruising not only the lagoons and bays but also the open
gulf. Their island domiciles were protected by dikes built of large sea shells, evi-
dently collected for the purpose; their habitations, at least in part, were pile struc-
tures, ruins of which still remain. In some cases these structures were occupied so
long that the kitchen refuse accumulated to form mounds (initiating in time the cus-
tom of erecting mounds as sites for domiciles), and within the refuse heaps, or
midden-mounds, extensive traces of handiwork of the people were found.

The most extensive collections were, however, made from the bogs adjacent to the
habitations or beneath habitations occupied too briefly to permit extensive aceumu-
lations of middens. In these bogs were preserved numerous artifacts, comprising
shellwork in large variety ; wooden ware, including utensils, tools, weapons, masks
and other ceremonial objects, often elaborately carved and painted; textile fabrics
and basketry in abundance, though usually in such a state of decay as hardly to be
preservable; implements and other objects partly or wholly of teeth and bone of
sharks, land animals, etc.; and a few stone implements of the usual aboriginal
character. The painting and carving are especially noteworthy, not only as indicat-
ing moderately advanced symbolic art of the native type, but as suggesting com-
munity of culture between the maritime people of Florida and prehistoric peoples
of the western and southern shores of the Gulf of Mexico. The handiwork shows
no trace of accultural influence, and must therefore be regarded as pre-Columbian,
though the mode of life indicated by the relics is similar to that observed on the
Floridian peninsula by the earliest white explorers. The wooden ware, textiles, etc.,
preserved in the salt-water bogs commonly retained their aboriginal appearance
until exposed to the air, when they rapidly disintegrated and fell to pieces, or else
shrunk or warped so greatly as to give little indication of the original form. A
considerable part of the energies of the party were expended in efforts to preserve
these perishable articles by various devices and the use of such materials as could
be obtained at points remote from civilized stores, while Mr. Sawyer was constantly
employed in photographing or in drawing and painting in the original colors all the
more perishable objects; in this way the evidence concerning the prehistoric people
recorded in the better-preserved portions of the collection was greatly amplified and
extended.

In April the Director visited Mr. Cushing and remained with the party, personally
inspecting and directing the work, for several days. The operations in Florida were
brought to a close in May, when the collections were carefully loaded in a car and
transported direct to Philadelphia, where the space and facilities for unpacking were
ample. Mr. Cushing returned to Washington, and on the arrival of the car proceeded
to Philadelphia, where he unpacked that portion of the collection required for imme-
diate study.

Mr. Cushing’s Florida work threw new light on the shell mounds and other aborig-
inal works on the American coasts, and it was accordingly thought desirable to
review the earlier and more superficial examination of these works at different points
along the coast. Carrying out this plan, the Director proceeded about the middle

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of June to the coast of Maine, which has long been known to abound in aboriginal
shell heaps; there he was soon afterward joined by Mr. Cushing, and surveys and
examinations of the prehistoric works were under way at the close of the fiscal year.

DESCRIPTIVE ETHNOLOGY.

As administrative duties permitted, Mr. F. W. Hodge (acting chief clerk) carried
forward the Cyclopedia of the American Indians, his field work among the pueblos
in August and September yielding much information concerning the relations, and
especially concerning the clan organization of the southwestern Indians. In Febru-
ary Dr. Cyrus Thomas, having completed his revision and extension of work on
Indian land treaties, was transferred to the Cyclopedia, and during the remainder of
the fiscal year he was employed in collecting and arranging material relating to the
tribes of the Algonquian stock. The character of this Cyclopedia was set forth fully
in the last report. :

During the earlier part of the year Dr. Thomas revised and brought up to date the
Royce memoir on treaties with the Indian tribes relating to the cession of lands
(also described in the last report). The task proved greater than anticipated, since
extended research was required for bringing the work to date, and since this neces-
sitated the reconstruction of several of the maps. The laborious work was carried
forward energetically by Dr. Thomas, and the requisite additions to and modifiea-
tions in the schedule were made, the maps were prepared, and an introductory and
explanatory chapter was written. The work was completed early in April, and was
prepared for transmission to the Public Printer for issue as Volume VIII of the Con-
tributions to North American Ethnology, when on examination of the statutes it was
found that the public printing law approved January 12, 1895, seems to terminate
that series; accordingly, the document was held for incorporation in a forthcoming
annual report.

In the early part of the year Mr. James Mooney was employed in the field in
researches among the Kiowa and Comanche Indians of Oklahoma and Indian Ter-
titory. One of his lines of research related to the camping circle of the Kiowa-
Comanche group, in which the tents are arranged“in a certain definite order express-
ing the social organization and conveying other symbolic meanings; his studies
extended also to the patriarchial shields attached to the tents, and to the drawings
and paintings by which both shields and tents are decorated. He has found that
all of these decorations are symbolic, and collectively represent a highly elaborate
system of heraldry, and most of his time in the field was devoted to tracing the ram-
ifications and interpreting the details of the heraldic system. Special.attention,
too, was given to the calendars, or ‘‘ winter counts,” of which several were found
among these Indians. These calendars, which represent the beginning of writing,
are long-continued records of current events, represented pictographically by rude
drawings and paintings on skins or fabrics; and from them the important events
in the history of the tribes for many years can be determined with accuracy.

Another line of research related to the use of ‘‘mescal” by several of the southern
plaing’ tribes in their ceremonials as a paratriptic and mild intoxicant; this article,
as used by the Indians, is the upper part of the cactus known botanically as Anhalo-
nium lewinii, or Lophophora williamsii lewintit, which grows in the arid region of
Texas and eastern Mexico, The tops of the plants are collected and dried, when
they form button-like masses an inch or more in diameter and perhaps one-eighth of
an inch in thickness; these buttons are eaten by the Indians in certain protracted
and exhausting ceremonials. Their effect is to stimulate and invigorate the system
to such an extent as to permit active participation in the dance and drama for many
consecutive hours without fatigue, while at the same time mental effects somewhat
akin to those of hashish are produced, whereby the condition of trance or hallucina-
tion, which plays so important a part in all primitive ceremonials, is made more
complete than is customary or even possible under normal circumstances. In addi-
tion to the study of effects produced on the Indians themselves by the use of the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

poison, Mr. Mooney collected a considerable quantity of the material for scientific
examination. By courtesy of the Department of Agriculture, the buttons were ana-
lyzed by Dr. Harvey W. Wiley and Mr. E. E. Ewell, of that Department, and were
found to yield three alkaloids, designated, respectively, as anhalonine, mescaline, and
alkaloid 3, besides certain resinous substances, all possessing peculiar physiological
properties. The physiologic action of the meseal buttons administered entire, and
also of the three alkaloids, has been tested by D. W. Prentiss, M. D., and I*. P. Mor-
gan, M. D., and the results have been found of great interest, leading the experi-
mentalists to consider the extracts as important therapeutic agents and valuable
additions to the pharmacopa@ia. On his return from the field Mr. Mooney began the
preparation of a memoir on the Kiowa calendars, which was nearly completed at the
end of the fiscal year, and has been assigned for publication in the seventeenth
annual report.

As during past years, much attention has been given to photographing Indians
and Indian subjects, and a small photographie laboratory has been maintained,
throagh the aid of Mr. William Dinwiddie. During the winter advantage was taken
of the presence of representative Indians in the national capital, and a number of
portrait photographs were obtained, together with considerable genealogic informa-
tion concerning various chiefs and leading men among several tribes.

SOCIOLOGY.

Except while occupied in administrative work, Mr. W J McGee, ethnologist in
charge of the Bureau, has been carrying forward researches relating to the social
organization of the Indian tribes. His work is based on the voluminous records in
the archives of the Bureau and on observations especially among the Papago and
Seri Indians. It has been the aim to render this work fundamental, and to this
end the primary characteristics of mankind as distinguished from lower organisms
have been considered with especial care, and the studies of the Seri Indians havo
been particularly fruitful. Among the results of the researches there may be men-
tioned (1) an analysis of the beginning of agriculture, (2) the recognition of the
beginning of zooculture, (3) a study of the growth of altruistic motive, and (4) an
examination of early stages in the development of marriage. These results are
incorporated partly in a preliminary memoir on the ‘‘Siouan Indians” printed in
the fifteenth annual report, partly in several administrative reports, and partly in
an address published in the Smithsonian annual report for 1895.

It may be noted summarily that the researches concerning the beginning of agri-
culture indicate that this important art originated independently in different desert
regions, and was at first merely an expression of a solidarity into which men and
lower organisms were forced by reason of the environmental conditions character-
istic of the desert. Later the art was raised to a higher plane through the gradual
development of irrigation, and still later it was extended into areas in which irri-
gation was not required. The researches concerning zooculture serve to define a
Stage antecedent to domestication, as that term is commonly employed, in which the
relations between men and animals are collective rather than individual, and in
which the men and animals become mutually tolerant and mutually beneficial, as
when the coyote serves as a scavenger and gives warning, in his own cowardly
retreat, of the approach of enemies. Later, such of the tolerated animals as are
thereby made more beneficial are gradually brought into domestication, as was the
coyote-dog among many Indian tribes, the turkey among some, and the reindeer
among certain Eskimo. The researches concerning the development of human motive
are involved in the study of primitive law, and indicate that regulations concerning
conduct are framed by the elders in the interest of harmony and collective benefit,
and that these regulations are enforced until their observance becomes habitual,
when the habit in turn grows into motive. In some other directions, also, substan-
tial progress has been made in the study of the organizations and institutions of the
American Indians.

A0 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

LINGUISTICS.

During a considerable part of the year the Director has heen occupied in re-
searches concerning several characteristics of the American Indians, with the view
of developing a system of classification so complete as to indicate not only the affin-
ities of tribes and stocks among each other but the general affinities of the native
American people and their position among the races of men as well as among other
living organisms. In the course of this work much thought has been given to the
subject of Indian language, and the rich collections of linguistic material in the
archives of the Bureau have been scanned anew. It was the immediate purpose of
this study to trace the development of various languages in such manner as to educe
the laws of linguistic evolution. Satisfactory progress was made, and a considera-
ble body of manuscript was prepared, while a preliminary publication was presented
during the year in the form of an address delivered in the United States National
Museum May 23, 1896, entitled ‘‘The Relation Between Institutions and Environ-
ment,” and printed in the Smithsonian Report for 1895. The records indicate that
the four or five dozen distinct linguistic stocks in this country have been ren-
dered more or less composite by the blending of peoples; the researches seem to
show that a still larger number of distinct languages were originally developed
independently, in small, discrete groups, which gradually combined into larger
tribes and confederacies, and sometimes grew so large as again to subdivide and
spread over vast areas; and in various other directions these researches have been
found to throw light on the characteristics and relations of the Indians.

Dr. Albert 8. Gatschet has been continuously employed in the collection and study
of linguistic material pertaining to the Algonquian stock. During July he utilized
the services of Mr. William Jones, a mixed-blood Sauk of exceptional intelligence, a
pupil at Philips Academy, Andover. Although he has been absent from his tribe
for some time, he was able to convey to Dr. Gatschet a large amount of new material.
About the middle of October Dr. Gatschet visited the survivors of the Miami Indians
at Peru, Ind., and afterward proceeded to Miami town on Osage River, Indian Ter-
ritory, now the center of the Peoria confederacy. At both places he was able to obtain
extensive collections relating to the language and mythology of the people. During
the remainder of the fiscal year he was occupied in arranging the new material and
in comparing it with other Algonquian records, and made considerable progress in
the preparation of a comparative Algonquian vocabulary.

Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was employed in the early part of the year in applying the
laws of linguistic development to the Iroquoian stock, and thereby tracing the affin-
ities and prehistoric growth of this extensive and important group of American
Indians. Through this study he was able to ascertain the order in which different
members of the group differentiated, and either separated from the main body or
developed distinct organization. Representing the Iroquoian body as the trunk of
a genealogic tree, it appears that the lowest branch is represented by the Cherokee
and the second and third by the Huron and Seneca-Onondaga, the several tribes
represented by the uppermost branches being but slightly differentiated. Thus the
linguistic history of the Iroquoian stock is one of differentiation and division,
probably combined with assimilation from other stocks. It may be observed that
this history is parallel to that wrought out for the Siouan stock by Dorsey and that
which Gatschet is now tracing in the Algonquian stock; but this apparently aber-
rant course of linguistic evolution in certain instances is in no way inconsistent
with the general course of the development of language, which tends toward unity
through the combination and assimilation of the various tongues. Subsequently
Mr. Hewitt was occupied in analyzing and scheduling the vocabulary of the Tubari
language, collected in northern Mexico by Dr. Carl Lumholtz, and in preparing the
matter for publication. The closing months of the year were spent in cataloguing
manuscripts and other material stored in the fireproof vaults of the Bureau.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. A4l-

MYTHOLOGY.

Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson continued the study and elaboration of her records
concerning the mythology and ceremonials of the Zuni Indians, and practically com-
pleted her monograph on this subject. ‘The Pueblo Indians, and especially the Zuni,
are characterized by an extraordinary subserviency to belief and ritual. Before her
connection with the Bureau Mrs. Stevenson became intimately acquainted with the
Indians of several pueblos and with their peculiar fiducial customs, and has conse-
quently had unprecedented opportunity for the study of observances and esoteric cere-
monials, and it has been her aim to record the details of her observations with pencil
and camera so fully as to perpetuate these mysteries for the use of future students. In
nearly every respect she regards her records concerning the Zuni as complete. At
the end of the fiscal year her monograph was finished with the exception of a single
chapter, the material for which was incomplete. It was planned to haye this mate-
rial collected during July and August, 1896.

During the greater part of the year Mr. Cushing’s work in mythology was sus-
pended, as he was engaged in general archeologic work. During the early part of
the year, however, he spent several weeks in combining the records of archeology,
mythology, and modern custom bearing on the evolution and multifarious uses of the
arrow, and incidentally on the invention of the bow. His researches illustrate well
not only the great importance of the arrow as a factor in human development, but
also the way in which primitive peoples think, act, and evolve. The final report on
this subject is not yet complete, but a preliminary statement of results was made
public in the form of a vice-presidential address before the American Association for
the Advancement of Science at the Springfield meeting, 1895.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Tt has not been found expedient in the Bureau to extend the researches to the
somatology of the Indians, and all the material pertaining to this subject has been
turned over to another branch of the Federal service; but it has been found impos-
sible to trace the development of the arts and institutions, beliefs and languages of
the aborigines without careful study of primitive modes of thought, and much
attention has been given by the Director and some of the collaborators to the sub-
ject of psychology, as exemplified among the Indians. The researches in this direc-
tion have been carried forward during the year in connection with the work in
classification of the Indians, and considerable material has been accumulated for
publication in future reports.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The bibliographic work, which has been continued for several years, practically
closed with the last fiscal year, and finally terminated, so far as the original plan is
concerned, with the death of James Constantine Pilling on July 26. The bibliogra-
phy of the Mexican languages was left in a nearly finished condition; but it has not
yet been found practicable to complete this work and prepare it for the press.

PUBLICATION,

Satisfactory progress has been made during the fiscal year in the editorial work
of the Bureau, which has been conducted chiefly by Mr. F. W. Hodge.

The manuscript of the fourteenth annual report was sent to press toward the close
of the last fiscal year, the first proofs were received on January 25, 1896, and by the
close of the fiscal year the body of the volume was nearly all in type. This report,
which is to be published in two volumes, making about 1,200 pages, comprises, in
addition to the report on the operations of the Bureau and an cxhaustive index, three
memoirs—‘‘ The Menomini Indians,” by Walter J. Hoffman, and ‘‘ Coronado’s Expe-
dition in 1540-1542,” by George Parker Winship, occupying the first part; the second

42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

part containing a paper on the “‘Ghost-Dance Religion,” by James Mooney. This
report, like the preceding volumes of the series, will be amply illustrated, and it is
expected that it will be ready for distribution before the close of the calendar year.

Although the manuscript of the fifteenth annual report was transmitted to the
Public Printer on June 14, 1895, no text proof was received during the fiscal year;
the proofs of the illustrations have, however, been received and approved. The ac-
companying papers of the fifteenth report comprise ‘‘Stone Implements of the
Potomac-Chesapeake Tidewater Province,” by W. H. Holmes; ‘‘The Siouan In-
dians,” by W J McGee, a paper complementary with and introductory to a posthu-
mous memoir on ‘‘Siouan Sociology,” by James Owen Dorsey; ‘‘Tusayan Katcinas,”
by J. Walter Fewkes, and ‘‘The Repair of Casa Grande Ruin, Arizona, in 1891,” by
Comos Mindeleff. The volume contains upward of a hundred plates, in addition to ~
numerous figures in the text, all of which have been engraved.

The manuscript of the sixteenth annual report was sent to the Government Print-
ing Office on September 27, 1895. The illustrations have all been engraved, but no
proof of the text had been received at the close of the fiscal year. The accompanying
papers of thisreport are ‘‘ Primitive Trephining,” by Manuel Antonio Muniz and W J
McGee; ‘‘ Cliff Dwellings of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona,” by Cosmos Mindeleff, and
“The Maya Day Symbol,” by Cyrus Thomas.

The only volume published by the Bureau during the fiscal year was the thirteenth
annual report, which was delivered by the Public Printer in May, and at once trans-
mitted to the numerous correspondents of the Bureau throughout the world. ‘This
volume, for which the demand from students has been unusually large, contains, in
addition to the Director’s report of 59 pages, the following memoirs: (1) Prehistoric
textile art of eastern United States, by William H. Holmes, pages 3-46, Pls. I-IX,
figs. 1-28. (2) Stone art, by Gerard Fowke, pages 47-178, figs. 29-278. (3) Aborigi-
nal remains in Verde Valley, Arizona, by Cosmos Mindeleff, pages 179-261, Pls. X—L,
figs. 279-305. (4) Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements, by James Owen
Dorsey, pages 263-288, figs. 306-327. (5) Casa Grande ruin, by Cosmos Mindeleff,
pages 289-319, Pls. LI-LX, figs. 328-330. (6) Outlines of Zuni creation myths, by
Frank Hamilton Cushing, pages 321-447.

Most of the material for the seventeenth annual report has been prepared for the ~
printer, though the manuscript has not yet been transmitted. The accompany-
ing papers comprise a memoir on ‘‘ The Seri Indians,” by W J McGee; the report by
Dr. Fewkes on decorative pottery and other material from Arizona; Mr. Mooney’s
memoir on ‘‘ Kiowa Calendars ;” a special paper on ‘‘ Navaho Heuses,” contributed by
Cosmos Mindelett, and the memoir on ‘Indian Land Cessions,” prepared by C. C.
Royce and revised by Dr. Thomas. The papers are fully illustrated by maps, photo-
graphs, and sketches. Like the fourteenth report, it will doubtless be bound in two
volumes.

MISCELLANEOUS WORK.

Library.—it is the plan of the Bureau to maintain a small working library for the
use of the collaborators, and it has grown slowly through accessions, acquired
chiefly by exchange for reports, the growth barely keeping pace with the publica-
tion of anthropologic works. At the end of the fiscal year the library numbered
5,501 volumes, having increased by 472 volumes during the preceding twelve months.
In addition, there was a proportionate accession of pamphlets and periodicals.

Illustrations.—The preparation of illustrations for the reports has been continued
under the direction of Mr. DeLancey W. Gill. The drawings have been executed by
a number of artists, while the photographs have been made chiefly by Mr. Dinwid-
die. In addition to the photographic work required for the immediate illustration
of reports, the various collaborators at work in the field are supplied with cameras,
and make considerable numbers of photographs, by which their notes are supple-
mented and enriched, and many of these photographs are incorporated in subsequent

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

reports. Extensive series of photographs were made during the year by Dr. Fewkes
in connection with his collections of pueblo pottery; by Mr. J. W. Mitchell, pho-
tographer for Mr. McGee in the Seriland expedition, and by Mr. Wells M. Sawyer,
artist for Mr. Cushing in his Florida work.

Exhibits.—The Bureau cooperated with the National Museum in arranging the
Smithsonian Institution exhibit in the Cotton States and International Exposition
held at Atlanta during the autumn of 1895. An alcove in the Government building
was allotted to the Bureau, and this was filled by the installation of six wall cases
and four floor cases, together with a number of bulky objects arranged on top of
the wall cases. This exhibit was so arranged as to illustrate the characteristics and
modes of life of three tribes, viz: The Cherokee Indians, who formerly occupied the
country in what is now northern Georgia, and whose descendants still live in
western North Carolina only 150 miles from the site of the exposition; the Papago
Indians, a little known though highly interesting tribe of peaceful Indians, occu-
pying southwestern Arizona and northern Sonora; and the Seri Indians, a fierce
and exclusive tribe of the Gulf of California, part of whom were found on their
borderland and in the course of an expedition by the Bureau during 1894. In
addition to the objects exhibited, there were in two wall cases illustrations of the
physical characteristics and costumary of the Papago and Seri Indians. The former
were represented by a group of life-size figures engaged in the manufacture of
pottery—their typical industry. In the other case a life-size figure of a Seri warrior
was introduced. The collections were supplemented by a series of twelve trans-
parencies, made from photographs, showing the Papago and Seri Indians in charac-
teristic attire, with their habitations and domestic surroundings. Inthe installation
of this exhibit, primary attention was given to fidelity of representation rather
than to artistic finish or grouping; and it is a source of gratification to observe
that the exhibit attracted much attention during the progress of the exposition. It
was awarded a grand prize, diploma, and gold medal.

NECROLOGY.

James Constantine Pilling, who died July 26, 1895, was a native of the national
capital, where he was born November 16, 1846. He was educated in the public schools
and Gonzaga College, and subsequently strengthened his predilection toward books
by taking a position in a leading bookstore of the city; at the same time he studied
the then novel art of stenography, in which he became remarkably proficient. At
the age of twenty he became a court stenographer. His services soon came into
demand among the Congressional committees and in different commissions employed
in the settlement of war claims. In every instance his notable speed and accuracy
were joined with even more notable discretion and straightforwardness that gained
for him the esteem of all with whom he came in contact. His career as stenographer
was in every respect exemplary, and his example served to hasten the general intro-
duction, and at the same time to elevate the standard, of stenographic art as an aid in
the transaction of the public business.

In 1875 Mr. Pilling was employed by the Director, then in charge of the geolog-
ical and topographical surveys of the Rocky Mountain region, to aid in collecting
native vocabularies and traditions, a task for which he was eminently fitted by

‘reason of his phonetic and manual skill. In this service as in his earlier work he
displayed not only high ability but signal strength of character. His connection
with the survey was continued until that organization was brought to an end in
1879 by the institution of the United States Geological Survey to carry forward the
geologic work and the Bureau of American Ethnology to continue the ethnologie
researches; he was then transferred to the Bureau of Ethnology, where his work on
the Indian languages was continued. During this period of connection with ethno-
logic work his studious habits were strengthened, and he developed great interest in

44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the literature relating to the Indians; and he readily adopted the suggestion of the
Director to begin the preparation of a list of books and papers containing Indian
linguistics. In this study the industry and accuracy which characterized his steno-
graphic work were constantly displayed, and ever-increasing confidence was reposed
in his trustworthiness. In connection with his stenographic and bibliographic work,
he was intrusted with the supervision of the editorial work of the reports of the
Rocky Mountain survey and the newly instituted Bureau, and in addition consider-
able clerical work fell to him; yet every duty was performed with alacrity, fidelity,
and wisdom. Despite the multiplication of duties, his literary and bibliographic
methods remained excellent, and even improved with time; and his conscientious
care was so invariably manifested in his bibliographic work that his rapidly growing
list came to be recognized as a standard from which it were bootless to appeal. It
was during these years, from 1875 to 1880, that the foundation for Pilling’s character
as bibliographer was laid and securely established.

In 1881 the Director of the EKthnologic Bureau was made Director also of the
United States Geological Survey, and Mr. Pilling was appointed chief clerk of the
Survey, and the customary administrative duties were devolved on him. These
duties were ever performed energetically yet judiciously, and withal so courteously
and impartially as to gain for him the confidence of every collaborator in that
rapidly growing Bureau. In this position he continued until June 30, 1892. During
this period he served also as chief clerk of the Ethnologic Bureau in an eminently
acceptable manner; and although his administrative work as the second officer in
the two Bureaus might well have been regarded as sufficient to occupy all the ener-
gies of one man, he never forgot his bibliography, and so ordered his duties that
few days passed without some addition to his list of books on Indian linguistics.
Meantime his search for rare and little-known works brought him into correspond-
ence with dealers, bibliophiles, missionaries on the outposts of civilization, travel-
ers in Indian lands, and many others, and he frequently found it necessary to pur-
chase books in order that their contents might be examined and their titles noted;
and in this way he gradually accumulated a unique library—one of the richest col-
lections of rare books relating to Indian tongues now in existence. In 1885 there
was issued for the use of collaborators and correspondents of the Bureau, in a small
edition, a quarto volume of nearly twelve hundred pages, entitled ‘‘ Proof-sheets of
a Bibliography of the Languages of the North American Indians, by James Constan-
tine Pilling.” This volume represented the results of Mr. Pilling’s bibliographic
work up to that date, and served as a basis for the classification, on the part of the
Director, of the North American tribes by linguistic characters. The printing of this
_ volume served to deepen the interest of the bibliographer in his task, and within a
year or two the issue of a series of bibliographies relating to various Indian stocks
or families was begun.

As time passed Mr. Pilling began to develop premonitory symptoms of locomotor
ataxia, and his duties were varied, so far as the legal conditions controlling govern-
mental bureaus permitted, in the hope of bringing relief; but despite every effort
the malady increased. In 1892 he was relieved of his duties as chief clerk of the
Geological Survey and the Bureau of American Ethnology, and was transferred to
the latter Bureau and employed solely in continuing the bibliographic work. For
a time he benefited by the transfer, and his duty was performed with great energy-
and continued skill and success, so that by the end of 1894 his bibliographies of the
Eskimo, Siouan, Iroquoian, Algonquian, Athapascan, Chinookan, Salishan, and Wak-
ashan languages were completed and printed. He was then engaged in the bibli-
ography of the Indian languages of Mexico, and this was carried forward during the
early months of 1895, even after its author had become practically helpless through
the insidious and uncontrollable advance of a hopeless disease. This work was not
finished.

The series of bibliographies prepared by Mr. Pilling are a monument to his memory

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

and a model for students. In thoroughness and accuracy of work they afford a bright
example of American scholarship.

In personal character Mr. Pilling was above reproach. No man was more steadfast
to his moral and intellectual convictions, which were held with that charity for
others which is possible only to those who have strong and well-founded convictions
of their own. The example and influence of his character will long remain on the
institutions with which he was connected.

Respectfully submitted. J. W. POWELL,

Director.

Mr. 8. P. LANGLEY,

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX ITI.

REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE BUREAU OF INTERNATIONAL
EXCHANGES FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

Sir: [ haye the honor to submit the following report upon the operations of the
Bureau of International ixchanges for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896:

The actual number of packages received from all sources for distribution during
the year ending June 30, 1896, was 18,240 less than during the preceding year,
aithough 540 names were added to the list of foreign correspondents and the domes-
tic list was increased by 966.

During the year a large number of Government departmental publications,
being within the weight limited by the postal regulations, have been forwarded
direct by mail, whereas similar transmissions ordinarily pass through the Exchange
Bureau. This fact is accountable in part for the decrease of the number of trans-
missions as compared with the preceding year.

TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE WORK OF THE BUREAU.

The work of the Bureau is succinetly given in the following table, prepared in
accordance with the form used in preceding reports:

Transactions of the Bureau of International Exchanges during the fiscal year 1895-96.

od a4 Correspondents June 30, | S& oS
sa | Sd E Bee eels
Date. Secs eoe be z, |24 an ee ae) 3 |g
ee Poh cae ices |e ene CaS |
So ai ee Ba) eee | ese pe | 58) eS
Saeed) Scr | ie pels (SO Spm | S|
5 i= s ic) o i=) od a Tt A a ~ 5 5
A Ee ica) A is QA AY A ‘e) =| 4
1895 |
Sialiyaeee ne iete ee Mewes kG Sal As SONG ER Lene MoU ena Wee ae ae Gea S cekeiaiale S ceo\crs ne |e peehes ool eae 230 | 215
INWEMSY coesssose0055e ECE Wale tyes eee eneenl Seoaaean Gesees eessenea ance hal ses cec 205) 134
September-.---------- GEOL QD. BOE neers le cesta rcene aio tesinate al) ors eee Slee oes | ee 169 149
Octobeneee ee SOs le Des a cree W er agar asl eaaooca ecsente beSoac 206 | 195
November....-------- SAGO | LBA TSB tres. es ite wcll | MaeSea ak [ee eae sR ne [A 197 | 170
December ---.--.------ By ea || Ah Ws ecsceallbeaseallaasosnodllbsaddallacosoacaisoqopdadllesaoec 184; 210
1896. |
ANU eee eae eee 9; 0927), 20,7874) 52 <5 se eamee heh ce celeace sa) osSecmee eerste ee eee 170; 249
ING RIERAy Uooconoonase B31 AS E038 ie ae Nee eee mee are © earl eet ee ne Pt | ey | er 209 | 154
Mianchiseseece semen ae Fc GOG | MONG (2. il arenes |e a S| mise eye [are ote | erases eee eee ea 192} 205
Aprile eae aeinie bein oe). E215 19 OS Tellier sees |X areca t| serene | es epee ee | Rn 167 | 133
Man yiee reece ceeies se A AMA TRGB OIE Fae all erie rs rare gem sree Sek Fs pe | aap ee 215| 311
AMO mess eee tase ee 12/828). 67 S26 e acimere|| seek mel cere cece | severe ce ee neye sm eee a ee 223 | 246
Motalaeeee eee 88, 878 |258, 731 |8, 022 |2,115 | 10, 878 |3, 899 | 34,091 | 21,783 |1, 043 |2, 367 | 2,371
Increase oyer Se es 168,224 | 729 | 101] 1,269| 865] 4,980 |@5,397 |a321|a76| 112
}

a Decrease.

46

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AT

For comparison with previous years the following table will represent the growth
of the service from 1890 to 1896:

1889-90. | 1890-91. | 1891-92. | 1892-93. | 1893-94. | 1894-95. | 1895-96.
Number of packages received.| 82, 572 90, 666 97,027 | 101, 063 97,969 | 107, 118 88, 878
Weight of packages received..| 202,657 | 237,612 | 226,517 | 200,928 | 235,028 | 326,955 | 258, 731
Ledger accounts:
Foreign societies -..---.--. 5, 131 5, 981 6, 204 6, 896 6, 991 8, 751 8, 022
Foreign individuals -....-- 6, 340 7, 072 7, 910 8, 554. 8, 619 9, 609 10, 878
Domestic societies..--..--- 1,431 1, 588 2, 044 2,414 1, 620 2, 014 2,115
Domestic individuals-..-.-.- 3, 100 4, 207 4, 524 5, 010 2, 993 3, 034 3, 899
Packages to domestic addresses 13,216 | - 29,047 | 26,000 29, 454. 32, 931 29,111 34, 091
Invoices written.-.--..--..----- 16, 948 21,923 ! 23,136 19, 996 20, 869 27, 180 21, 783
Cases shipped abroad..-...-.--- 873 962 1,015 878 905 1, 364 1, 048
Letters received ...-..----...-.- 1, 509 2, 207 | 2, 3238 2, 013 2, 166 2, 443 2, 367
Hetters written....--..---.---. 1, 625 2,417 2, 792 2, 259 1, 904 2, 259 2, 371
EXPENSES.

The expense of the exchange system is provided in part by direct appropriation
by Congress to the Smithsonian Institution for the purpose and in part by appro-
priations made to different Government Departments or Bureaus, either contingent
or specific, for repayment to the Institution for a portion of the cost of transportation.

Sven with the close economy necessarily exercised in the disbursement of the
direct appropriations in support of the exchange service, the Institution would not
have been able to transmit exchanges with requisite promptness or regularity had
it not been for the revenue derived, from the charge of 5 cents per pound weight
made to Government Departments and Bureaus and to State institutions on their
exchanges, both going and coming. This charge was authorized by the Board of
Regents as far back as 1878, and has since been maintained. Though the appropria-
tions have heen increased from time to time, they have not kept pace with the grow-
ing demands of the service, and since its inauguration there has never been a time
that the practice could have been abolished or even temporarily suspended.

The appropriation made by Congress to the Institution for the exchange service
during the fiscal year 1895-96 was in the following language:

“Wor expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States
and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including
salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, seventeen thousand dollars.”

The receipts and disbursements by the accounting officer of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution on account of international exchanges for the year immediately preceding
July 1, 1896, were as follows:

RECEIPTS.
en ae Z -- as
Congres-
sional Other meee
appropria- | sources. Total:

tion.
Direct appropriation by Congress. ....-.-..-.------+-2+-e-es-eees S17; O0OLO0N | eeesee eee ae $17, 000. 00
Repayments from United States Government Departments.--.-..-|.----------- $2, 737. 43 2, 137. 43
Repayments from State institutions............-..---.-------.---|-----+- Sows 271. 00 271. 00
Bemeeierius TTOM Other SOUICES .--------.-=------- eon cee en eee een ee es coon 461.29 461. 29
Balance advanced by Smithsonian Institution ......-.---.--.---.|------------ 98. 42 98. 42

Nes hse oo ened ce vccnresan dace 17,000.00 | 3,568.14 | 20,568.14

48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

EXPENSES.
From
= specific |From other :
appropria- | sources. Total.

tion.
Salariessand «compensation sess eecee sess) heen eeiaeisee eee nae $14, 519. 73 $325.00 | $14, 844.73
TEREWGMUG sdocosocosonoscasoqUsosesensHa QUT adoeoDEBeDISCCBSNDBSsE5IC 1, 502. 32 2, 130. 71 3, 633. 03
JASWANT - soscodt pocscscosnsossopegeSosansobasosadsocenc00sso559¢ 9. 50 4. 00 13. 50
JROMIEISS otocesdesdosc sHoc cope onooasacsoeseasassnonsgoScedbossocsce 20. 32 100. 00 120. 32
Simomaay Hindl uly MOS. dossaconsnosacossecosoaseSHnesenssaoosss 193. 03 605. 44 798. 47
TPAGIKINE DOES) socnoonesospesessossobe Do aseeE das osc SSco RSH SOUS Sol|sconeszecs55 341. 44 341. 44
AMeeH Ce) bbayeR G>:q ESS) 5 so5eu soooedd ae seCs00Oded segdae Ss0e ssa 5ouscon BC WS) |e coscocesons 574. 18
lhnGisleMiA i oocco6 cesnoodossnotsousgoGonSoussS0S SouseaseacDOSSosCe saonagcsoDcS 61.55 61.55
Balance to meet outstanding liabilities June 30, 1896..-.....----- 1803-92),|-52222s2255- 180. 92
SIO cab condodaeoce caoooUboSodoS dass eUSbasannaUSeaboScabose | 17, 000. 00 3, 568. 14 20, 568. 14

The foregoing statement shows that the entire amount received from Government
Bureaus and other sources was $3,469.72, which, added to the direct appropriation
of $17,000, makes the aggregate income $20,469.72. This amount was insufficient
to meet outstanding obligations, and the Institution was therefore called upon to
advance the sum of $98.42.

CORRESPONDENTS.

The total number of correspondents of the Exchange Bureau now aggregates 24,914,
an increase of 1,506 over last year; of this number, 18,900 are foreign and 6,014 are
domestic, about 40 per cent of which being institutions and 60 per cent individuals.
This entire list may be considered active, and for convenience each debit and credit
account is kept on separate cards, easily discernible on account of using different
colors, thus aiding greatly in expediting the work. These cards are assembled in
geographical order, making them at all times accessible for quick reference.

The printing of a revised list of foreign correspondents deserves early considera-
tion. In March, 1895, the Secretary authorized the preparation of a revised list, and
Mr. Boehmer promptly perfected a card catalogue for that purpose, eliminating some
duplications and adding many new names. Action upon the publication of the list,
however, has not been approved for the reason that sufficient means in excess of
amount necessary to meet current expenses have not been available.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS.

The number of official United States Government publications sent to the State
libraries of foreign countries during the year in accordance with the act of Congress
of 1867 and the Brussels treaty of 1886 was 15,458, and the number received from those
sources and deposited in the Library of Congress was 8,038. The United States
Government Departments have forwarded to their foreign correspondents 16,621
packages, and have received in return 10,512. Taken collectively, the packages of
exchanges transmitted for the Government in all its branches aggregate 57 per cent
of the entire number handled.

While the receipts from abroad for deposit in the Library of Congress have been
much larger during the year than those reported for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1895, the increase has evidently been occasioned by large receipts from sources that
made no shipments during the previous year, and the considerable increase can not
therefore be considered permanent in character.

As the new building for the Library of Congress approaches completion and much-
needed space will soon be available for accessions, a special agent should be sent
abroad for the purpose of obtaining contributions, in order, if possible, to make the
receipts more consistent with the shipments,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

The exchange on account of Government Bureaus is shown in detail in the follow-

ing table:
Statement of Government exchanges during the year 1895-96.
Packages. Packages.
Name of Bureau. Received | Real Name of Bureau. Pes che.
for. by. for. by.
Smithsonian Institution. -....---. 7,960 | 1,068 || U.S. Indian Affairs Office ....- Sik eee
Astrophysical Observatory - 2 Nesanooee U.S. Interior Department. - --. 17 1, 487
Bureau of Ethnology ------ 211 741 || U. S. Interstate Commerce
Bureau of International Commission ee-ser=sse= eee 23 247
Exchanges ........---.-.: dae | U.S. Life-Saving Service -.-..- die 5 aes
National Zoological Park .. Sill merseprse _|| U.S. Light-House Board ....-- 2 1
U.S. Agricultural Department. 291 17 || U.S. Marine-Hospital Service - Bes See:
U.S. Botanic Garden.-....-----. il loscaabee || U.S. Mint—Director .......... Suloeeeieete
U.S. Bureau of American Re- U.S. National Academy-....-- 114 1,115
UU Aes oobococssasssbsedesess COE Seseaed U.S. National Board of Health Hy Neco ace
U.S. Bureau of Education ..... SGN emeceerr U.S. National Museum ....... 276 1, 456
U.S. Bureau of Medicine and U.S. Nautical Almanac Office - 18 33
SUED Ao core Ses sec OHOsBeeoeE ele teSocaa U.S. Naval Intelligence Office. aN aera
U.S. Bureau of Navigation ---- il eeeeeee U.S. Naval Museum of Hygiene Aly eee
U.S. Bureauof Ordnance, Navy U.S. Naval Observatory -.---- 125 16
Department=------5-2 =. =... ae ener se U.S. Navy Department -.-...-- Siler
U.S. Bureau of Ordnance, War U.S. Patent Office....--....... 70 4, 250
MBpAruMeNt esc css sens seco ee Sy See eye Wes SEresid entree sermce cetera I neseoone
U.S. Bureau of Statistics .----- oe eee eee We Seu DliCHErinter ss eeaees ees eee eee 15, 458
U.S. Census Office.-..........-. el srratvesare U.S. Signal Service -...-.....- AAS ee ae
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 97 20 || U.S. State Department.-.....-.. AT te eros saree
U.S. Comptroller of the Cur- U.S. Superintendent of Public
NEUES) cosmormosoce sesseducedor 14 anode aae Documents------2-2---o---— = it 3
U.S. Congressional Library .--.. SHOSSi eters U.S. Surgeon-General’s Office
U.S. Department of Labor .-.--. 19 14 (Army) yasetteiaise sleleleseieieie eisiei 151 540
U.S. Department of Steam En- U.S. Surgeon-General’s Office |
gineering, Navy Department - Qillester cake (ONIEINAN) SSane6 osseesonboseso sc Ae rararreieioye
U.S. Engineer Office. ..-.-...--.. 44 79 || U.S. Treasury Department.... LO Aces ees
U. S. Entomological Commis- | U.S. Vice-President-..:.....-- rif Bs BAe
BGT Be es = o.</- 5 = Bi. seers os | Gh esebesos U.S. War Department -....-.. Aiierttsey ees
U.S. Fish Commission ......... 61 560 |] U.S. War Records Office ......|----...--- 199
U.S. General Land Oftice....... rh eerie U.S. Weather Bureau ......... 75 | 1, 025
U.S. Geological Survey ......-. 590 | 3,800 Total nal enies alate ita! 550 | 32, 079
U.S. Hydrographic Office .-.--- | BI Pos eeae |
| |

EFFICENCY OF THE SERVICE.

The exchange relations with Greece are still, as in the past two years, in an unsat-
isfactory condition, and at present no packages are forwarded to that country except
those emanating from Government Bureaus and scientific contributions which as to
size and weight are sufliciently within the requirements of the postal service to admit
of their being forwarded direct by post.

The exchanges with Mexico also continue to be unsatisfactory, and the transmis-
sion of parliamentary documents is suspended pending the result of an effort now
being made through diplomatic correspondence to establish a systematic exchange of
publications by a responsible representative to be duly authorized by the Mexican
Government. Publications of scientific bureaus and societies are forwarded direct
by mail, however, as before stated.

The official exchange of public documents is also temporarily suspended with
Japan, owing to the absence of a systematic provision for the proper conduct of the

SM 96 4

50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

work. The Japanese minister is in correspondence with his Government, and it is
hoped satisfactory arrangements will soon be effected.

The increased appropriation for 1895-96 over previous years has enabled the
Bureau to employ some additional assistance and to more expeditiously transmit the
packages intrusted to it. The foreign service could, however, be made much more
effective if the appropriation was sufficient to admit of forwarding cases by fast
steamers instead of being compelled to rely upon slower conveyance as is now occa-
sioned by forced economy.

No provision has yet been made in Congressional appropriations for the immediate
exchange of parliamentary documents in accordance with the treaty concluded at
Brussels in 1886, and for which the Secretary of State recommended that $2,000 be
appropriated.

It is my pleasure to inform you of the efficiency of the employees of the Exchange
Bureau, and to express my appreciation of the energy with which they uniformly
endeavor to prevent the work from accumulating. I beg also to call your attention
to the interest taken in all affairs of the Institution by its agents in Europe, Dr.
Felix Fliigel in Leipsic and Messrs. William Wesley & Son in London.

Below is a list of transportation companies and others that continue to aid the
Institution to a marked degree in contributing free freight or charging only a mini-
mum, and in otherwise disinterestedly aiding in the diffusion of knowledge:

LIST OF SHIPPING AGENTS AND CONSULS TO WHOM THE EXCHANGE SERVICE IS
INDEBTED FOR SPECIAL COURTESIES.

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Boston.

Anchor Steamship Line (Henderson & Bro., agents), New York.

Atlas Steamship Company (Pim, Forwood & Co.), New York.

Bailey, H. B., & Co., New York.

Bors, C., consul-general for Sweden and Norway, New York.

Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, New York.

Calderon, Climaco, consul-general for Colombia, New York.

Cameron, R. W., & Co., New York.

Baltazzi, X., consul-general for Turkey, New York.

Compagnie Générale Transatlantique (A. Forget, agent), New York.

Cunard Royal Mail Steamship Company (Vernon H. Brown & Co., agents), New
York.

Consul-general for Chile, New York.

Hamburg-American Line (Rk. J. Cortis, manager), New York.

Hensel, Bruckmann & Lorbacher, New York.

Consul-general for Uruguay, Baltimore, Md.

Munoz y Espriella, New York.

Navigazione Generale Italiana (Phelps Bros. & Co.), New York.

Netherlands American Steam Navigation Company (W. H. Vanden Toorn, agent),
New York.

North German Lloyd (agents: Oelrichs & Co., New York; A. Schumacher * Co.,

Baltimore).

Obarrio, Melchor, consul-general for Bolivia, New York.

Pacific Mail Steamship Company (H. J. Bullay, superintendent), New York.

Pioneer Line (R. W. Cameron & Co.), New York.

Perry, Ed., & Co., New York.

Pomares, Mariano, consul-general for Salvador, New York.

Red Star Line (Peter Wright & Sons, agents), New York and Philadelphia.

Rohl, C., consul-general for Argentina, New York.

Royal Danish consul, New York.

Royal Portuguese consul-general, New York.

Ruiz, Domingo L., consul-general for Ecuador.

Stewart, Alexander, consul-general for Paraguay, Washington, D. C.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. sea k

Toriello, Enrique, consul-general for Guatemala, New York.
White Cross Line of Antwerp (Funch, Edye & Co.), New York.

The following is a list of the Smithsonian correspondents abroad acting as dis-
tributing centers, or receiving publications for transmission to the United States:

Algeria: Bureau Frangais des Echanges Internationaux, Paris, France.

Argentina: Museo Nacional, Buenos Ayres.

Austria-Hungary: Dr. Felix Fliigel, No.9 Schenkendorf Strasse, Leipzig, Germany.

Brazil: Bibliotheca Nacional, Rio Janeiro.

Belgium: Commission des iA nea Internationaux, Rue du Musée, No.5, Brussels.

Bolivia: University, Chuquisaca.

British America: MeGill College, Montreal, and Geological Survey Office, Ottawa.

British Colonies: Crown Agents for the Colonies, London, England.

British Guiana: The Observatory, Georgetown.

Cape Colony: Colonial Secretary, Cape Town.

Chile: Universidad de Chile, Santiago.

China: Dr. D. W. Doberck, Government Astronomer, Hongkong; for Shanghai:
Zi-ka-wei Observatory, Shanghai.

Colombia (U.S. of): National Library, Bogota.

Costa Rica: Instituto Fisico-Geografico Nacional, San José,

Cuba: Dr. Federico Poey, Calle del Rayo, 19, Habana, Cuba.

Denmark: Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen.

Dutch Guiana: Surinaamsche Koloniale Bibliotheek, Paramaribo.

East India: Director-General of Stores, India Office, London.

Eeuador: Observatorio del Colegio Nacional, Quito.

Egypt: Société Khédiviale de Géographie, Cairo.

France: Bureau Frang¢ais des Echanges Internationaux, Paris.

Germany: Dr. Felix Fliigel, No.9 Schenkendorf Strasse, Leipzig.

Great Britain and Ireland: William Wesley & Son, 28 Hssex street, Strand, London.

Guadeloupe. (See France.)

Guatemala: Instituto Nacional de Guatemala, Guatemala.

Haiti: Secrétaire d’Etat des Relations Extérieures, Port-au-Prince.

Honduras: Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa.

Iceland: Islands Stiptisbékasafn, Reykjavik.

Italy: Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele, Rome.

Japan: Minister of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo.

Java. (See Netherlands.)

Liberia: Liberia College, Monrovia.

Maderia: Director-General, Army Medical Department, London, England.

Malta. (See Madeira.)

Mauritius: Royal Society of Nets and Sciences, Port Louis.

Mexico: Packages sent by mail.

Mozambique: Sociedade de Geographa, Mozambique.

Netherlands: Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais, Den Helder.

New Caledonia: Gordon & Gotch, London, England.

Newfoundland: Postmaster-General, St. Johns.

New South Wales: Government Board for International Exchanges, Free Public
Library, Sydney.

New Zealand: Colonial Museum, Wellington.

Norway: Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitet, Christiania.

Paraguay: Government, Asuncion.

Peru: Biblioteca Nacional, Lima.

Philippine Islands: Royal Economical Society, Manila,

Polynesia: Department of Foreign Affairs, Honolulu.

Portugal: Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisbon.

Queensland: Registrar-General of Queensland, Brisbane.

Roumania. (See Germany, )

52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Russia: Commission Russe des changes Internationaux, Bibliotheque Impériale
Publique, St. Petersburg. -

St. Helena: Director-General, Army Medical Department, London, England.

Salvador: Museo Nacional, San Salvador.

Servia. (See Germany. )

South Australia: Astronomical Observatory, Adelaide.

Spain: R. Academia de Ciencias, Madrid.

Sweden: Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm.

Switzerland: Central Library, Berne.

Tasmania: Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobarton.

Turkey: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Boston, Mass.

Uruguay: Oficina de Deposito, Reparto y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones,
Montevideo. §

Venezuela: Museo Nacional, Caracas.

Victoria: Public Library, Museum and National Galtery, Melbourne.

Western Australia: Agent General, London.

Transmission of exchanges to foreign countries.

Country. Date of transmission, etc.

Argentina .....--..--...----- September 14, November 22, 1895; February 3, March 26, May 23, June
22, 1896.

Austria-Hungary-.----..----- July 10, 30, September 7, October 28, November 12, 26, December 5, 14,
30, 1895; January 8, 27, February 7, 20, March 7, 16, April 9, 18, 22,
May 1, 14, June 1, 22, 1896.

Belgium -...--..---- grote July 12, August 19, November 4, December 6, 1895; January 10, March
18, 21, May 5, June 9, 23, 1896.

Bolivia ss s-a-/s2e ene c eee es September 14, 1895; May 23, 1896.

IBTAazilase sos ecees Sean as September 14, November 22, December 17, 1895; February 3, March
26, May 23, June 22, 1896.

British colonies...-----.-.--- August 30, October 15, November 14, December 17, 1895; February 6,
April 4, May 7, June 29, 1896.

Cape Colony ..-.---.....----- September 19, December 21, 1895; May 20, 1896.

Chinaeie see cseccceassaweeors September 23, 1895; January 3, May 21, June 24, 1896.

Chileyeeessc sh aoe eee ee September 14, November 22, December 10, 1895; February 3, March 26,

i May 23, June 22, 1896.

Colombiaea-c--ssce eee eee November 22, 1895; March 26, May 23, 1896.

CostatRica ese eeasseresee eee September 17, December 19, 1895; May 25, 1896.

Cray -22csececn ec easeaseeee March 11, 1896.

Denmarkstecsceqeece cence July 12, August 21, November 7, 1895; January 29, March 18, May 20
June 24, 1896.

Dutch Guiana -...-..---..-.- May 23, 1896.

Wastin diatees-aeccee oeee ae September 23, December 10, 1895; May 21, 1896,

Menadore esses ee eee May 23, 1896.

HM oyptpececcsc ne saa September 19, 1895; May 20, 1896.

France and colonies.-.....-.. July 9, 17, 25, September 4, October 21, November 20, December 3, 1895;
January 2, 13, 28, February 7, 18, March 10, 16, April 13, May 2, 16,
June 4, 22, 29, 1896.

Germany ..-..-- Sela smarts July 10, 17, 30, September 7, October 28, November 12, 26, December 5,
14, 30, 1895; January 8, 21, 27, February 7, 19, 20, March 7, 16, April
9, 18, May 1, 14, June 1, 22, 29, 1896.

Great Britain, etc ....... ..--| July 5, 17, 29, August 30, September 4, 23, October 15, November 1, 14,
December 2, 9, 17, 26, 1895; January 7, 25, February 6, 27, March 14,
17, April 4, 17, 22, 28, May 7, 27, June 15, 29, 1896. =

Guatemala. .----.---c<ecccoe September 17, December 19, 1895; May 25, 1896.

18 Et rec cmccenocaCaEToCdeASe September 17, 1895.

Honduras.......---..-------- September 17, December 19, 1895; May 25, 1896.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

53

Transmission of exchanges to foreign countries—Continued.

Country.

Date of transmission, etc.

soni Gee See eases eeropemeoes
PREIS tiererte Sores aielayein 4 ata. leis
IWIGSICO sae aces tani Sa ne's =/'-
New South Wales ...---...--
Netherlands and colonies. - - -

Wew: Zealand ...2.-5.5-.5-5-% |

ENT CALAOT SY cee wait <tere i= = > am|-1nim=
WT WAS aes Sees Seee gee Saseoas

HOMYILOSIS = ose a eae =
Lely) leet SS See bis aes aeeg

Queensland.-- -..-...-------

Lia Eee oe Ce SCR Sees
LCT ES RS See Seana ete eae ge

South Australia ......--....-
SU UTE SEC STA a SIS rae

C0 Ce ee ea
RRLUZOQIANC!: e.0 ose oe inlzcine onic

PRAMS. = 52. les So el os
“CON AG\ oS ae eer ene ere

URES ee
MEMOZNOLAye oS) ocso22chssct |
‘| July 1, November 11,1895; January 13, March 31, June 17, 1896.

July 10, 12, August 8, November 1, December 3, 18, 1895; March 2, 28,
April 20, May 5, June 9, 23, 1896.

September 23, 1895.

May 20, 1896.

(By registered mail.)

July 1, November 11,1895; January 13, March 31, June 17, 1896.

July 12, August 7, November 4, December 12 1895; January 30, March
18, April 18, May 23, June 10, 24,1896.

July 1, November 11,1895; January 13, March 31, June 17, 1896.

December 19, 1895.

July 12, August 21, November 7, 1895; January 29, March 21, May 19,
June 10, 24, 1896.

Septem ber 14, November 22, 1895; February 3, March 26, May 23, June
22, 1896.

July 1, November 11, 1895; January 13, March 31, June 17, 1896.

July 12, August 20, November 7, 1895; January 31, March 21, May 9,
June 24, 1896.

July 1, November 11, December 9, 1895; January 13, March 31, May 7,
June 17, 29, 1896.

(Included in Germany.)

July 11, August 6, October 31, December 4, 1895; January 9, March 4, 24,
April 14, May 4, June 8, 23, 1896.

September 17, December 19, 1895; May 25, 1896.

(Included in Germany.)

July 1, November 11, 1895; January 13, March 31sJune 17, 1896.

July 12, August 19, November 7, December 17, 1895; January 31, March
20, May 16, 1896.

July 11, August 6,15, October 31, December 4, 1895; January 9, March
4, 24, April 14, May 4, June 8, 23, 1896.

July 11, August 13, November 6, December 10,1895; January 3, March
19, April 21, May 18, June 17, 29, 1896.

January 25, 1896.

December 10, 1895, June 24, 1896.

September 14, November 22, 1895; February 3, May 23, June 10, 24, 1896.

September 14, November 22, 1895; March 26, May 23, 1896.

January 25, 1896.

5A

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The distribution of exchanges to foreign countries was made in 919 cases, repre-

senting 218 transmissions, as follows:

FAT POMbIM aye are ae oun erate 20
PATS tela Elum Oye ees ae See 47
Bel erties Seo ee eee ee eye 30
IB Oliva a ase ede See eh ne aly Sap lie 2
1 BEEN creep cosh ee earn arene en 12
Britishycolonies7==--n-= =e eeaa ac 9
Caper olony= as ete ee ee 3
Ga a eas es cael) ee aye SSPE AO 5
(Cat ee Ree ey Seeeeeeows ace 8
Coloma Vang epee neta see eer as 3
Costas Care ne eames see cee eee 4
Cuba (by mail).

AD) eran a eR alee eee 10
IDwnitela, Gane. 565565 come socanc 1
STD EMS|(B es Grave thts es a AP a oe eae 9
Ecuador (by mail).

IM Oyipibessn asa hatose es oat Sis sere es 2
France and colonies =:-- 2-2: -.2_-- 93
Germanys sss eee ee eye 145
Greate rat aneeeeeee eee re ae eee 220
Gulatemrallae cs see fake ees ene 3
1 SW Ua es ea ey ea ee ay A En Ne Ca 1
(EVO CUAS soa setee te Seer are ae eens 3
SUG alive peers aise eee ee cer ae is 48
a euyO RTM hs Soe ess See Se Se Ee 4
dial] OVEN ENE eee esp yr ena a ae are ae 1

Mexico (by mail).

(Natal oor oe ae ee ee ee ree 1
Wey Soma WeNles 355 -555255----- 13
Netherlands) i cane ee ee ae eens 18
New Zealand’ 258 yo aa see 9
Nicarac ayes ton ees 2
NOR Waly See Wee Sao ee ee ae 13
PQ TUL pe ss hs se ee aa eee 6
olivine sta Ses oe) = arte hea eel 5
Portugal 25233 ses ae eee 7
@neens ania ee eee 31
Roumania (included in Germany).
EUS ST ay 8s 2005 Seay eh a ee ee 43
Salvadori .2) sa ea ee ee 3
Servia (included in Germany).
SoutheAaisir.a) lias pees ee 6
SaIN so2 ao Sh ce ee ae 10
Swe densa iain ese nae es eee 30
SiwaibZzer lances tse ee eee 28
Tasmanians sae os = aoe oe ae ee 1
Durkeyaeo223 ee toe Sas eee 2
Wrigayreceai ese es eee 6
Venezuela 022 Soe eee ok ee 4.
Wictonia eso. 5 ee sil eee 14
Western Australia..........-.-..- 2

Shipments of United States Congressional publications were made on October 7,
1895 and January 24 and May 13, 1896, to the Governments of the following-named

countries:

Argentina. Colombia.
Austria. Denmark.
Baden. France.
Bavaria. Germany.
Belginm. England.
Buenos Ayres, Province of. Haiti.
Brazil. Hungary.
Canada (Ottawa). India.
Canada (Toronto). Italy.

Chile. Netherlands.

New South Wales. Spain.

New Zealand. Sweden.
Norway. Switzerland.
Peru. Tasmania.
Portugal. Turkey.
Prussia. Uruguay.
Queensland. Venezuela.
Russia. Victoria.
Saxony. Wiirtemberg.

South Australia.

Shipments to Greece, Japan, and Mexico are withheld for the present.

RECAPITULATION.

Total Government shipments.--.. -

Total miscellaneous shipments..----.-----

Motalishipmentshs-ee-e-eeeeeeeeeeee

LCDS ee eas pean tere 1, 043

Lotal: shipments last year. a2 2225. See ee ee ete ee ee ce eee oe ee ee ee Od.

Decrease from last year......-... --

321

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55

HISTORY OF THE EXCHANGE SERVICE.
By W. 1. ADAMs.

The following history of the exchange service and its methods has been prepared
by Mr. W. I. Adams from the archives of the Institution:

Tt seems altogether appropriate, while the Smithsonian Institution is commemo-
rating the fiftieth year of its usefulness, to succinctly review the progress and
accomplishments of its system for the exchange of the duplicate copies of literary
and scientific publications from the beginning. Though but a subordinate branch
of the Institution, the division of exchanges has done a large part in the increase
and diffusion of knowledge, and materially assisted in the promotion of the object
for which the Institution was established by its founder.

The forwarding by the Smithsonian Institution of its publications and annual
reports to other scientific institutions and to individuals interested in science through-
out the world was inaugurated almost at the very commencement of these publica-
tions, under a plan of procedure adopted by the Board of Regents Deceraber 8, 1847,
upon the recommendation of Professor Henry, and in exchange the Institution
solicited the scientific works published by its correspondents.

The details attendant upon this important function of the Institution were in the
beginning supervised by Professor Henry, and so fully did they command his atten-
tion that not a little of the work was done by him personally, until July, 1850, when
Professor Baird was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Institution, and almost
immediately assumed direct charge of the exchanges.

Mr. George H. Boehmer, in his History of the Smithsonian Exchanges compiled to
1881, recites the fact that other attempts had been made for the exchange of literary
and scientific publications, notably by the Royal Library of France in 1694, and in
the United States early in the present century by the American Philosophical
Society, founded in Philadelphia in 1743, and by the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, founded in Boston in 1780. The prime object in each case cited was the ulti-
mate enrichment of its own library by reciprocal exchange, while the results desired
by the Smithsonian Institution were not solely for the purpose of increasing its
collection, but for the diffusion of knowledge among men.

So favorably did Professor Henry’s plan impress scientists that a committee was
appointed by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences to consider its methods in
detail, and on December 7, 1847, the committee reported as follows:

“Tf can scarcely be doubted that an important impulse would be given by the
Smithsonian Institution in this way to the cultivation of scientific pursuits, while
the extensive and widely ramified system of distribution throughout the United
States and the world would insure them a circulation which works of science could
searcely attain in any other way.”

At the commencement of its exchange system the Institution was much annoyed
by the excessive expense and troublesome delays caused by the requirements of the
United States custom-house service, and no relief was felt until, after earnest and
concerted effort, Congress was led to adopt the enlightened policy of admitting
through the custom-houses free of duty scientific publications from foreign countries
addressed to the Smithsonian Institution, either for its own use or as contributions
to learned societies and institutions throughout the United States.

This appropriate act of the American Congress stimulated foreign scientific soci-
eties to interest their Governments to the same end. Among the first to take active
steps in this direction was England.

On March 19, 1852, Mr. Edward Sabine, vice-president and treasurer of the Royal
Society, wrote Professor Henry, in reply to his letter urging action by the Royal
Society in the same direction, saying:

“The subject has since been brought by the Earl of Rosse under the consideration
of Her Majesty’s Government, who have shown, as might be expected, much readi-

ness to meet in the same spirit the liberal example which has been set by the United
States, inexempting free of duty scientific books sent as presents from this country

56 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

to the Smithsonian Institution, and through that institution to other institutions and
to individuals cultivating science in the United States.”

The sentiments thus expressed, although duly presented to Parliament, did not at
once meet with results entirely satisfactory, though duties were remitted on books
not foreign reprints of British copyrights. It was but a short time, however, before
the generous cooperation of the Royal Society and the course recommended by it to
the Government of Great Britain had its effect, and subsequently all packages from
the Smithsonian Institution were admitted to the English ports free of duty, not only
those bearing addresses in Great Britain, but to many places on the continent of
Europe and the East Indies. ; !

The matter of admitting exchanges free of duty having been satisfactorily ad-
usted with the Governments of the United States and Great Britain, and after thus
establishing a precedent, other Governments, recognizing the desirability of the plan,
soon adopted like measures, and in the Smithsonian Report for the year 1854 the
Secretary stated:

“There is no port to which the Smithsonian parcels are shipped where duties are
charged on them, a certified invoice of contents by the Secretary being sufficient to
pass them through the custom-house free of duty. On the other hand, all packages
addressed to the Institution arriving at the ports of the United States, are admitted,
without detention, duty free. This system of exchange is, therefore, the most exten-
sive and efficient which has ever been established in any country.”

The establishment of the Smithsonian exchange system soon became so widely
known that the increased responsibilities and augmented expense threatened a drain
upon the resources of the Institution to such an extent as to be alarming, and seemed
to indicate a probable necessity of curtailing in some manner the expense of the task
it had undertaken single-handed. :

In 1855, with a view to diminishing, if possible, a part of the expense of the
exchange system, letters were written to the principal transportation companies
setting forth the nature of the undertaking, and, in consideration of the great ben-
efit derived from the service, asking that they consider the subject of a reduction of
rates. The replies received from nearly all the companies addressed were gratifying
in the extreme—some consented to charge merely a nominal rate, while others cheer-
fully offered to transport exchanges free of any charge whatever.

With this generous assistance of the transportation companies, the Institution was
enabled to continue the work and to maintain the system for the time being, not-
withstanding the growing demands upon it.

The cooperation of the Department of State has been of incalculable value in the
furtherance of the aims of the Institution in the diffusion of knowledge, and the
results attained would have been difficult to surmount had it not been for the intel-
ligent and courteous aid contributed by the representatives of the diplomatic and
consular service in all parts of the world. The same consideration is due to the dip-
lomatic representatives of foreign Governments residing in Washington, many of
whom have not only done their utmost to aid their countrymen in obtaining the
most advanced ideas of scientists throughout the world, but have been personaliy
interested in scientific study.

In no field of international exchange of the products of afei is reciprocity so ener-
getically demonstrated as in the promulgation of scientific research and higher edu-
cation. The history of the Smithsonian exchanges demonstrates the far-reaching
influence of study to such an extent as to make it impossible to conceive of the mag-
nitude to which the service may attain and the results that must necessarily follow
to the benefit of mankind.

Although on several occasions subsequent to 1840 special measures were adopted by
Congress for the foreign distribution of special Government publications in exchange
for similar works of other countries to be deposited in the Library of Congress, no
general action was taken until 1867, when the following act was passed:

“‘ Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Unitid States of America
Congress assembled, That fifty copies of all documents hereaiter printed by order

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AM

of either House of Congress, and fifty copies additional of all documents printed in
excess of the usual number, together with fifty copies of each publication ¢ssued
by any Department or Bureau of the Government, be placed at the disposal of the
Joint Committee on the Library, who shall exchange the same, through the agency
of the Smithsonian Institution, for such works published in foreign countries, and
especially by foreign Governments, as may be deemed by said committee an equiva-
lent; said works to be deposited in the Library of Congress.

‘Approved March 2, 1867.”

It will be observed from the text of the law that the primary object of the act
was to secure for the Library of Congress promptly, and with regularity, the official
publications of foreign countries concerning legislation, jurisprudence, commerce,
manufactures, agriculture, statistics, ete.

No appropriation was made, or even intimated, for this service, but as several
months and perhaps a year would elapse before a sufficient number of documents
would accumulate to admit of a systematic transmission, a circular letter was mailed
through the official channel of the Department of State for the purpose of ascertain-
ing what Governments would cooperate in the proposed arrangement. In due course
so many foreign Governments accepted the proposition as to insure its success, though
some countries were derelict in specifying to whom or in what manner the cases
should be forwarded, it being understood that they would be delivered free of freight
charges to any place in Washington or New York that might be designated.

These delays in consummating the desired plan were primarily due to the absence
of concerted action in designating proper officers or establishing bureaus in differ-
ent countries and providing sufficient means for defraying the attendant expenses.
Though supported by the leading men in literature and science throughout the
world, it was a slow process to obtain Government aid in the several countries most
interested in the movement.

Several attempts were made by the Institution to induce Congress to assist in
defraying the expense incurred in the distribution of Government publications, and
also to obtain aid in the distribution of works upon scientific and literary subjects,
the entire expense of which having in the year 1876 exceeded $10,000, or one-fourth
of the income of the Institution, and was threatening a curtailment of expenses and
serious impediment to research in its several scientific branches.

The persistent efforts of scientists and the growing interest manifested by the
various Governments resulted in the holding of an International Congress in Paris
during the months of August and September, 1875, at which were present several
hundred scientists from all parts of the globe, and representing the following National
Governments: Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Chile, Dominican Republic, France, Ger-
many, Italy, Hungary, Norway, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Swiss
Confederation, Turkey, and the United States. As a result of this conference the
following plan for the international exchange of scientific publications was proposed
and unanimously adopted:

“The undersigned delegates propose to request their respective Governments to
organize in e: ich countr y a central bureau, whose duty it shall be to collect such
cartographic, geographic, and other publications as may be issued at the expense of
the State, and to distribute the same among the various nations which adopt the
present programme,

“These bureaus, which shall correspond directly with each other, shall serve to
transmit the international scientific communications of learned societies.

“They shall serve as the intermediate agents for the procurement, on the best pos-
sible terms, of books, maps, instruments, etce., published or manufactured in each
country, and desired by any of the contracting countries.

“Bach country shall transmit at least one copy of its national publications to the
other contracting countries.”

In order to formulate the general plan adopted by the International Congress into
tangible form to admit of more definitely arriving at the desired conclusions by the
different countries interested, Baron de Vatteville was charged by his colleagues
with the duty of forming at Paris a commission of exchanges, which, on January 29,
1876, adopted a code of rules, a copy of which was duly transmitted to Professor

58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Henry through the Department of State, asking for an expression of opinion as to
its feasibility. The plan provided that each Government should designate a repre-
sentative bureau for the administration of all the affairs pertaining to exchanges.

After extensive correspondénce between the commission of exchanges at Paris, the
Secretary of State, and the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution with regard to
the position this country would take in the organization of a proposed exchange
bureau, it was finally made apparent that the Secretary of State was anxious to
make the Smithsonian Institution the Government’s official representative in the
matter, its experience during more than a quarter of a century making it unquali-
fiedly the most efficient agency. The great expense, already burdensome to the
Institution, and which must necessarily be largely increased by assuming the duties
of the official medium of exchange of the Government, caused a renewal of effort in
the direction of obtaining financial assistance from Congress, and the Department of
State recommended that Congress should make an appropriation of $7,000 in aid
of the Institution for the year of 1881. An allowance, however, of $3,000 only was
granted. Even that amount was of great assistance, and admitted of the assump-
tion that annual appropriations would follow in course.

The precedent of making Congressional appropriations in support of international
exchanges thus being established, appropriations were thereafter made yearly, and
in proportion more nearly commensurate with the growing demands of the service.

Although the act providing for the distribution of fifty copies of all Government
publications was approved in 1867, the delay previously noted prevented their ship-.
ment abroad until 1873, since which time cases have been forwarded at comparatively
regular intervals on an average of three cases each year, the parliamentary publica-
tions forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution in exchange being invariably for the
Library of Congress.

Subsequent conferences held at Brussels in 1877 and 1880, and again in 1883, tended
to more fully perfect the plan inaugurated at the Paris congress. The articles of
agreement adopted at the conference in 1883 were referred by the Department of State
to the Smithsonian Institution for review, and on March 15, 1886, another conference
was called at Brussels, at which the articles were signed by duly appointed diplo-
matic delegates and laid before Congress, with the result that the agreement was
approved and made the subject of a proclamation by the President January 15, 1889.
The countries becoming parties to this agreement were Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Por-
tugal, Servia, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States.

The second agreement, adopted by the same convention and by the same countries,
with the exception of Switzerland, provided for the immediate transmission of par-
liamentary journals and documents to the other countries signing the agreement as
soon as they were published. Uruguay and Peru subsequently became parties to
the agreement, making a total of ten States under treaty obligations to maintain
exchange relations.

The first treaty, so far as this country was concerned, did not change the existing
practice of the exchange service as conducted by the Smithsonian Institution. The
second treaty, providing for the immediate exchange of parliamentary journals, has
not been made effective on the part of this Government through lack of action by
Congress, first, by not placing the necessary documents at the disposal of the exchange
bureau, and second, by not providing financial aid for carrying on the work; nor, in
fact, has this treaty been fully complied with by any of the contracting Governments.

Although England, France, Germany, and Russia, it will be noticed, did not become
parties to the Brussels treaties, special exchange arrangements were made between
these countries and the United States under the act of Congress of 1867, and have
since been successfully conducted.

In France and Russia exchange bureaus are supported as a part of the administra-
tive functions of their respective Governments, while between England and Germany
and the United States special arrangements have been made for the exchange of par-
liamentary publications.

Although exchange relations have been established with nearly all civilized

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59

nations, the quantity of publications received has not, with the possible exception
of England, compared favorably with the quantity sent. This inequality may per-
haps be explained by the fact that no country publishes as liberally as the United
States, and hence has fewer duplicate copies to offer in exchange.

During the past ten years an average of about thirty-five boxes of official publica-
tions of the United States Government have been forwarded to each of forty-three
countries, the total number of publications thus sent being 227,400, or an average of
5,300 to each Government, while it is estimated that but 45,169 packages have been
received from all foreign countries for the Library of Congress during the same
period.

It is hardly equitable to use the above figures in comparison, as the outgoing pub-
lications are of actual record, while exchanges from foreign countries are often
received in packages containing several pamphlets or volumes, and the actual num-
ber of publications can not be ascertained, as the packages are not opened in the
exchange bureau, and, furthermore, owing to the crowded condition of the rooms
occupied by the Library of Congress the boxes for several years arriving intact have
not been opened for inspection and classification pending the removal of the Library
to its new building.

As before mentioned, the entire expense of supporting the Smithsonian exchange
service was borne by the Smithsonian fund from 1846 to 1881. The cost of the
service for the five years from 1846 to 1850, inclusive, was $1,603. The next year,
1851, the expense was materially increased, being $2,010.49. In 1868 it had risen to
$4,870.72, and in 1876 to $10,199.10. By the assistance from Congress in appropri-
ating $3,000 in aid of the exchange service in 1881, the expense to the Institution was
reduced to $7,467.84 for that year.

Although free freight had been granted by many transportation companies, both
at home and abroad, and duties had been remitted everywhere, and although learned
societies throughout the world had cooperated with the Institution to a marked
degree, the expense to the Institution to 1881 had aggregated $141,508.96.

The National Government, although increasing its appropriations from time to
time, has not entirely supported the exchange bureau, even in later years. During
the period that Congressional appropriations have been effective the Smithsonian
has been compelled to advance from its limited income an aggregate of $45,175.82
for the transportation of Government documents, which amount has not been
refunded by Congress.

The rules under which the exchange bureau is conducted provide, in addition to
the distribution of official publications of this Government to State libraries of
foreign countries, for the forwarding of publications of literary and scientific socie-
ties and individuals as donations to correspondents in foreign countries and intended
as exchanges, for which like contributions are expected in return.

No reimbursement is exacted from scientific societies, institutions of learning, or
individuals when their contributions for foreign distribution are delivered at the
Institution, domestic charges prepaid. In order to prevent an overtaxation upon the
resources of the Institution, its Regents in 1878 authorized a charge to the bureaus
of the National Government and to State institutions of a part of the expense
incurred, both on incoming and outgoing exchanges, and the uniform rate in such
instances of 5 cents per pound weight was adopted and has since been maintained.

Packages when delivered to duly authorized foreign agents for transmission to
the United States are also forwarded without any expense to the contributor, and
upon arrival at the Institution are entered and forwarded to destination by regis-
tered mail under frank. The franking privilege is not only employed in the United
States, but also in sending packages to Canada and Mexico.

The above is in brief an explanation of the method employed in the transmission
of exchanges between the United States and foreign countries. The procedure
which should be invariably pursued by contributors is more particularly illustrated
in the following:

Packages should be enveloped in stout paper and secured with strong twine, each

60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

package not exceeding one-half of one cubic foot in bulk; they should be addressed
legibly and as fully as possible without using abbreviations, and if an acknowledg-
ment is required a blank receipt should be inclosed. When a consignment is com-
plete all packages should be inclosed in boxes and forwarded by freight to the
Smithsonian Institution, carriage prepaid. Before delivering consignments to trans-
portation companies a list of names and addresses corresponding to those on packages
should be forwarded by mail to the Smithsonian Institution, or to the foreign dis-
tributing agent of the Institution, according as the transaction may be of domestic
or foreign origin. This procedure not only serves as a means for verifying each
package when received, and enables the Institution to trace consignments if not
delivered after a reasonable time has elapsed, but forms a permanent record for
future reference.

Upon the receipt at the Institution of a consignment the entire transaction is given
an invoice number, which serves as a basis for all entries made in connection with
its distribution, and when debiting institutions or individuals to whom packages are
addressed the corresponding invoice number is used, thereby avoiding the necessity
of writing the name of the donor oneach card. After all entries are made the books
are packed in boxes and are forwarded by freight to the agents of the Institution
abroad or to the distributing bureaus in foreign countries that have been designated
toactin such capacity. Ineach package a receipt card is inserted bearing the invoice
number assigned to each particular contribution, and when, as is often the case,
several individual contributions are assembled in one package bearing asingle address,
the card inserted bears all the invoice numbers of the contents of that package. It
is of the utmost importance that these cards should be receipted and returned to the
Institution without delay as evidence of proper delivery, and as each acknowledg-
ment is noted, a habitual failure in this regard may give rise to a doubt of delivery
and subsequent packages may be returned to the contributors as undeliverable.

Packages received from abroad for distribution in the United States are treated
in the same manner, and similar receipts are inclosed in parcels, which are returna-
ble to the Institution under frank. These cards are, for the purpose of preventing
confusion, of a color unlike those forwarded with packages for foreign distribution.

Purchased books, instruments, and natural history specimens (whether purchased
or presented) are not accepted for transmission by the Institution or its agents with-
out special permission in each instance.

Respectfully submitted.
, W. W. KARR,

Acting Curator of Exchanges.
Mr. S. P. LANGLEY, y
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

te

APPENDIX IY.

REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL
PARK.

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report of the operations of the
National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1896:

Considerable attention has been paid during the year to the improvement of the
grounds and the construction of roads authorized by Congress. The principal road
of the park, which runs from the Quarry road westward to Connecticut avenue
extended, has been improved over a part of its course by a good layer of macadam.
It would have been well to have completed the macadamizing, but the funds at the
disposal of the park did not permit this, and it will be deferred until next year.
Work has been continued upon the driveway that proceeds from the Woodley road
into the park. It will be remembered that the Woodley road lies so far above the
level of the park that the construction of this driveway made necessary a heavy
filling of earth. This is very unsightly, as the slopes are abrupt and difficult to
modify by planting. If it is to remain where it now is, a sufficient amount of earth
should be added to make the slopes easy and natural. The amount appropriated
was insufficient to complete the fill so as to make an easy grade and neither mac-
adam nor gutters have been provided, so that the road washes badly during the
winter storms and is impracticable for pleasure driving during wet and freezing
weather. It is, however, passable from the Woodley Bridge as far as Rock Creek.

It has been decided to restore the old-Adams Mill road upon practically its former
line. The configuration of the ground forbids making this the ordinary width of
the roads of the park, the hillside on which it is built being quite steep at certain
places, but a satisfactory driveway can be constructed. The survey of this work
was completed and a contract for it prepared before the close of the fiscal year.
The road will be well macadamized, with a top dressing of pulverized limestone.
Retaining walls will be built where necessary, and the whole will be properly gut-
tered and protected.

A number of interesting features have been added to the park, either for the pur-
pose of beautifying it or for the convenience and accommodation of the animals.
Two small fish ponds have been built near the Quarry road entrance, the banks in
the neighborhood of the seal pond have been dressed and planted, and the débris
from the intercepting sewer has been removed.

The accompanying illustrations show what has been done in preserving the native
beauty of the Park. The {first of these shows a rustic bridge formed of bowlders
thrown across a little chasm cut out by a small stream that falls into Rock Creek.
This has taken the place of an unsightly wooden bridge. Another picture shows
where a small artificial pond for waterfowl empties into Rock Creek. The great
advantage of such treatment is in the fact that it harmonizes with the surround-
ing scenery, and the visitor need not realize that any interference with the natural
features has occurred, while the surface after treatment presents a striking contrast
with the raw and denuded condition of those localities where engineering work has
been carried on without regard to final effect.

The principal animal house has been greatly improved by the construction of com-
modious exterior cages into which the animals can pass whenever the weather is

61

62 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

suitable. Water is provided for each of these, and shade trees, suitably protected,
have been planted in them, so that it is believed that they will add greatly to the
comfort of the animals. Another very important improvement in this house has
been effected by repairing the roof of the extension and rearranging the heating
apparatus so as to adequately warm it. Although more habitable than before, it is
not yet by any means a satisfactory building for tender animals, and it is hoped that
this extension may at no distant day be rebuilt of stone, so as to correspond with the
remainder of the house.

Perhaps the most urgent need of the park at the present time is the erection of
buildings in which animals requiring varied conditions of exposure can be properly
treated. At present there are practically but two conditions provided, those for
animals that live out of doors during the entire winter and those of animals that
require heat but are able to endure considerable changes of temperature. There is
no provision for animals that live in close tropical climates where the heat varies but
little.

Birds and monkeys and other animals from the valleys of the Amazon and the
Orinoco find rapid changes very unfavorable. Besides this, it is impossible to give
proper attention to the natural habits and idiosyncrasies of animals when they are
kept promiscuously within asingle inclosure. Timid animals suffer greatly when put
in a house with large carnivorous beasts. The sight of such animals terrifies them
and the cries of creatures whom they instinctively recognize as their natural enemies
sometimes affects them so that they die from fright. A new building for monkeys
and birds and a new elephant house are greatly needed.

The quarters for hardy animals are not in every respect what they should be.
The principal defect is in the bear yards and dens in the abandoned quarry, near the
main entrance to the park. These are too damp in winter and too hot in summer for
the health of the animals, and are really unsuitable for them. One of the cages has
become dangerous, because of the falling into it of large masses of rock. While
they are picturesque and striking, much better quarters could be devised for
the animals in other parts of the park. Upon some heavily wooded and cool
slope an inclosure of considerable size could be made,so that they could be con-
stantly upon the natural ground. Dry shelters could be provided either in hollow
trees or by adapting crevices of rocks. In such a yard a considerable number of
bears could be placed under conditions very similar to those of their native wilds.
If care were taken to select young animals that were properly tamed before being
placed in the inclosure, they would never have any fear of the public and would form
an attractive exhibit.

The buffalo yards should be much larger than at present. As the animals destroy
every green thing within reach, their paddocks soon present a very bare and forlorn
appearance. This could be partially avoided by having two sets of paddocks, one
of which could be occupied while the other was being allowed to recover from hard
usage. If the paddocks were larger, there would be less danger of the animals
injuring each other in their frequent conflicts, The largest bull of the herd was
killed during the year by the attack of one of the smaller ones, who determined to
contest his supremacy, and the small size of the inclosure prevented him from getting
away from his antagonist.

The need of a proper public comfort house at the park is even more pressing each
year as the number of visitors increases.

Some deaths of animals have occurred from accidental causes. A fine sea-lioness
was killed by the accidental explosion of a large quantity of dynamite near the pond
when she wasswimming. This dynamite was to be used by the workmen employed
in excavating for the intercepting sewer that passes through the park. The shock
of the explosion was heard all over the city. The sea-lioness was not immediately
killed, but died within twenty-four hours of the occurrence.

The beavers of the park are kept in two inclosures, and in both of these have built
themselves dams and shelters. It is found, however, that care must be taken to

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REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

select them from a single family, as otherwise they fight viciously.
died during the year from wounds received from their companions.

63

Four beavers
The fence of

the larger inclosure must be made much stronger, as it is found that they gnaw
through an ordinary wire mesh-work.

There are appended hereto tables showing the animals in the collection at the close
of the fiscal year, and the various accessions during the year.

Animals in the collection June 30, 1896.

Name. No. Name. No.
MAMMALS. MAMMALS—continued.

American bison (Bison americanus) ..----- 6 || Rhesus monkey (Macacus rhesus).-...--.-- 9
EAE) NEL (TES COCCHI) aecseh ceoseseoee aeounces 3 || White-throated capuchin (Cebus hypoleucus) 1
Common guat (Capra hircus)....-.--------- 5 | Black-faced spider monkey (Ateles ater). .-- 1
Cashmere goat (Capra hircus) ....---------- 2 || Owl monkey (Nyctipithecus trivirgatus) ..-.| 2
American elk (Cervus canadensis) ...-.-.-- 13 | FAM bimomartin (Mirus 7:OttUs) ceo esse este ees oe 18
Virginia deer (Oariacus virginianus) ..-.-- 18 || American beaver (Castor fiber) -.----------- | 5
Mule deer (Cariacus macrotis) ------------- 2 || Woodchuck (Arctomys monaa)..-.--------- 4
Solid-hoofed hog (Swsscrofa, var. solidungu- Prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) -------- 25

UGE) Soe becedos dao poseabCEopSrESooueeaoOOe 1 ted-bellied squirrel (Sciwrus aureogaster) - | 1
Peccary (Dicotyles tajagu)..-.-------------- 3 || Fox squirrel (Sciwrus niger).---..-2.------- | 1
Llama (Auchenia glama)......------------- 8 || Gray squirrel (Sciwrus carolinensis) ..----- - | 18
Guanaco (Auchenia huanacos) ..----------- _1 || Crested poreupine (Hystria cristata) ------- 4
Indian elephant (Hlephas indicus) ..-..----- 2 || Canada poreupine (Lrethizon dorsatus) ----. 4
Ibn (JAAS 190) 5 sGae cocnosoobenobsSHeedecsus 5 || Western porcupine (Hrethizon dorsatus
Moers GHELUSNLU MUS) merelalnlela|= (2 afel=1= slainlal eine =inta='m 1 COLRANUNAIS) arena eae sceeesccseece | 1
Leopard (Felis pardus).......-------------- 1 || Capybara (Hydrocheruscapybara)......-- 1
Puma (Felis concolor) .....0---+++-----+---- 7 || Crested agouti (Dasyprocta cristata) ...--.- |
Ocelot|(Melis pardalis).-.--.---.------------ 1 || Hairy-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta prym-
1S}ahy kyu (Wop ine POU jUS) Soecacosenneeeeneoose 1 MOLODRG) see eR ase cee eee eee ease eer 2
Spotted lynx (Lynx rufus maculatus)..--.. 5 || Mexican agouti (Dasyprocta mexicana)... - 2
Spotted hyena (Hycena crocuta)......------ 3 || Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus)..-.-.......... 16
IMECHE YAOUE NAW! so soccacsoscaseesecuas 2 || English rabbit (Lepus cwniculus) ..-.--.---. 8
SHAS Nowa! 5. sooceschosouauescsqoobodans 1 || Peba armadillo (Tatwsia novemeincta) -.---. 10
Ship Jserrnenal COS costco soanooocHnoeseoguecsae 2 || Gray kangaroo (Macropus sp).-.------------ 3
PoMmber dog secs mje cinco ose siancece = scieeisis 2 || Common opossum (Didelphys virginiana) - - 2
Wollietdo omer ep ectercielenrsie ese <eceiziscies seis 4
Chesapeake Bay dog ....--.....------...-.- 2 BIBDE:
SHON LEGELET Sere este lelefaisislemsrcinielssisinreielerarsie 4 || Goldeneagle (Aquila chrysaétos)......---.-. 2
JBM OOS — code sesdocesscosdasoneseogoosbD 24 || Bald eagle (Halicwetus lewcocephalus) ..--- -- 9
Gray wolf (Canis lupus griseo-albus)..-..--- 8 || Red-tailed hawk (Buwteo borealis) .......--.- 1
Black wolf (Canis lupus griseo-albus) .--.-- 2 || Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus)..-.- 1
Coyote (Canis latrans) .........-..--..----- 4 || Turkey vulture (Cathartes CUR ososcdsese< 1
Sve det oxen (VU ESPLULUUS) ne tee a latelai= aisles = 2 || Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus).....- 2
Switt fox (Vulpes velom) ..2--2-.----- 2-2 os 6 || Barred owl (Syrnium nebulosum) .--------- 7
Gray fox (Vulpes virginianus) ....-----.--- 1 || Sereech owl (Megascops asio)..------------ 1
Tayra (Galictis barbara)....----.----------- 1 {| Yellow and blue macaw (Ara araraunea) - - 1
American badger (Tawidea americana) ----. 4 || Red and yellow and blue macaw (Ara ma-
Kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus) ..----- al QUO) an soso oanged ssoa nO soecasosogSossSosec6 1
Gray coati-mundi (Naswa narica) --...---.- 2 || Gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus) ......---- 6
Cacomistle (Bassaris astuta)....--...---..- 1 || Yellow-naped amazon (Amazona auropal-
Raccoon (Procyon lotor) ....----..+----.---- 25 (NGG) 2 o2sos seco adcoacsanmsoengsossesseres 1
Black bear (Ursus americanus) ...--.------ 4 || Green parrakeet (Conurus sp.).------------ al
Cinnamon bear (Ursus americanus).....--- 2 || Sulphur-crested cockatoo(Cacatua galerita) 1
Grizzly bear (Ursus horribilis).-....-..-.-- 2 || Leadbeater’s cockatoo (Cacatua leadbeateri) 1
Macaque monkey (Macacus cynomolgus) ..- 3 || Bare-eyed cockatoo (Oacatua gymnopis) --- 1

64

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Animals in the collection June 30, 1896—Continued.

Name. No | Name. No.
BIRDS—continued. BIRDS—continued.
Common crow (Corvus americanus) ---.-.-- 2 || European white pelican (Pelecanus onoero |
Ravens (OOS) CONMAL) aaa a ee er 1 tGLUS) 2ss2ccies2ke moose hersesae seco eee eee 1
Clarke’s nutcracker (Picicorvus colum- | American herring gull(Larus argentatus
OUTRUD)- asanaososecs Saseoa occas Sec eoseane 15 || smithsonianus)---.---------.------------- 1
Black-headed jay (Cyanocitta stellert an- | REPTILES.
UEC EC TOS) teeta eee 1 || =p tater ei ae
American magpie (Pica pica hudsonica) --. 3 | Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) .-.--- 15
Chachalaca (Ortalis vetula maccallit) ------ 7 | Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) .-.-- | 2
Razor-billed curassow (Mitua tuberosa).--- 1 Painted turtle (QUIET) asa | a
Tee eniledoneacsons (Maraniconiene Musk turtle(Cinosternum pennsylvanicum) . 2
TEIN a Be Ee Rae ES eat 1 Terrapin (Pseudemys sp.) ------------------ | 1
Beoitrell (Bape PAT) ose ace ease cee: 19 || Gopher turtle (Xerobates polyphemus) --.--- 2
Cuneo ING en elon nse ee 2 | Gulp am ee eae suspectum)....--- 3
Domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) .--- 1 } Horued lizard (Pha ynosoma cornutum) ..--- 26
Contenna, (Onimemm Grim) -.<eencnsecs- 1 Diamond rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus) 3
eer enalllerantel (cocusscasiedcrisis eeeeeeee 1 Prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus confluentis) - - - 1
Grcaiblueiherons (Audeaienodias\-sae cee 2 || Copperhead (Ancistrodon contortriz) -..---- 3
svi odeilstay Ullccrit ela Uncen teetcn eae ee 1 | Water moccasin (Ancistrodon piscivorus) - - 2
Black duck (Anas obscura) .-----=--------- 5 || OCB OCU I) 2
Balai GMI (WACO) ooo ce seene ee cease: hil Anaconda (Hunectes murinus) -...--.------ 1
Canada goose (Branta canadensis) --.---.-. 4 TAIT SEES USCIS SHI) costo ee esos 22. :
Chinese goose (Anser cygnotdes) ...-------- 8 || MUGS Sine SOA dolsatus) Tala hares ae :
Moulouse goose (Anser sp!) o-oo eee 2 Black snake (Bascaniuwm constrictor) ..----- 8
Mute swan (Cygnus gibbus) ---------------- 6 | Garcerstialce (Een SUNS) =
Whistling swan (Cygnus columbianus) ----- 1 | NUN SSie SHEL) ONG UDI EP) eas =n sz 57 oe
Black swan (Chenopis atrata)..-..--------- 1|
i
Indigenous.) Foreign. nd Total.
Mammal sio== sc o252 ccs ccsern oseiets ere hee eee aseiseine Seeeae ee 185 | 46 102 | 333
Birds) ses 2k oe oe ae stocae eee ee eee ee eee nee eee 68 | 18 40 126
Me p tiles \sa: es obese eee cee oa ete ees eee a tee es 90 Cle ee Seo se 94
Pobal =) 2 sae seks owe seis ose ah eae Sheree Seen 343 | 68 142} 558
List of accessions.
ANIMALS PRESENTED.
Num-
Name. Donor. ber of
speci-
mens.
Rhesus monkey.....--.-.---- Dr. J.J. Kinyoun, U.S. Marine Hospital, Washington, D. C..-.. 1
W hite-throated cebus........]..... OO) Sars de Fee Stieie 2 Ss seenies seein es ose ee eee epee e otc 1
Capuchinmonkey..-....---.-|.---- ( REE none aCe ceAaoe eee cer rcscacoorhasueeotesceuctacc 1
Tee iene Cope OnOL Sacra Ee Geo: HiiDicesMonero: N\.Mex esses eee nee eee see eee 2
Chesapeake Bay dog..-....-. B. Alton Smith, North Attleboro, Mass.-----.-.---------------- 2
Colligrees seen oucswelines see salon GO’ oie Pe Se era Seto ale aoe Soe ooo eee eee 1
MS KUNO COL occ c ne neen=i\)= | Lieut. R. E. Peary, U.S. IN Shas SI A ee deg acre ae 4
HOXACIVICL =o cases esse cs | John EB. Thayer, Lancaster, Mags. .s3ssesbassce sees eee ee ae 2
Wiiscmecescocescesconndase Dro Meme erry.) Green val lon. © cesiseee ete eee ee ae 1
Old English sheep dog..... onl ocee GOs 5 sud cereale ledee scenes soen ves nie eects sa ceteeee ae eeeme 1

WAYVd I1VOISO1IOOZ NI YYOMMOOY

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

List of accessions—Continued.

ANIMALS PRESENTED—Continued.

65

CO SO so a Cs |

Num.
Name. Donor. ber of
speci-
mens.
POMEL COR -eac = 22 can = darsh Ch Covabench Wig mbt ronl IDL 5 eck Soeaa coor soesecsoaccucesac
St. Bernard dog.......-.-.--- PPE hein oA Oxamarign, Vidisecen-e ese cena Sciecerise eee clase
Stars hou ee ete miele eles aie eee whan ey vwashine bon Dh Cae esestren meme 2mhssm=ia—ce saree eee
Wire-haired fox terrier ---.-.- Dr wey. Hoote. New, Rochelle, Ne Wrs- eee cser oc oeseeceecee
Redhfomses esse oo see ees JOre, IRE, Vis lanennons 10} Oa sseens son noenceeasssstoencossas:
SHWABIN OROPG 565 cee SeSoe ace eae Sedey Sbeplenstoca! COmeEUe DLO VCOlOlE se eene nee see eee ne aaeeee
(Gneihy Wee. coo nessauoesscecses Drawer ek sHubchinsonmWanchester iWasee-eeeeeee eee eee eeeee ner
American badger..-.-------- Hie Mic Georse short Myer HelehtsyiVidiee ae) eae oa eee ee
IREICCOOM Sods abc saecacsaseeane CoMoorenhest;, Vie. ceie ie Scie esse ere eee cS ene eee
NOR RME Rei eee S are oat? Mrs eece Mic elirinial daaWiashine bon: ys Ceeesee ee emiasee cece aces
Hiarbor-sealieecss-acs-2 22-25 AGilnin Isler IM? Moat ING Woes ed sccses concaseorcoossccic
Solid-hoofed hog.-.-.-..-.---- Be Vyalkervindianwlerritorysces. sso ssee reese aeaeice seer eee ee
Canada porcupine. ..--.------ Cereal Varner, IDbIN, INE lae ee deceeseooGaarcbe seedeteecesest
English rabbit..-...-.-.----- Hai ohib es MomnbEe eas anita) sees eeem ee eee see een eee ets
DOR eer ae ek aacsoss': | JOS Ste waLl mW ashinotony Da Ceseecccecese oe ceccecic/seeeceee ee oe
Peba armadillo .--..-...-.--- Hdiwes. Schmid. Wiasiin po: Fon) Cpe ee—seeeeeeeseeseeeeeee neers
Oposstmbes=s sae ete eee IU GIES) URS y nS) N/E, WVU JOH) bee escesdeaosecocdosetoasee
Markey, vulouress---2 1-25. o- Howes Chim d yids hme bo ON Co ve aetna later e ee eee eee
Golden eagle..-.--.------.--- | J We battisonsiwaryihevalle Vier ce = sce a= <lesienie eee eee ee
Baldicdslerreecreee-eenice .se MemiliiBeltaDickersonvMdeeee reese see ae ae were ee eee e eee
Red-tailed hawk...---...-.-- Opa Davison Mock porty New reemeerise ames ia secre nee seers
Great horned owl .----------. F. W.. Bradley and D. C. Cone, Riverton, Va........-..--.-----.-
I OW eee eie inva edie as 2s | Camm Brothers, Lynchburg, Va..----.---<----<------0e-00--e.
Tsnmaaal Owl dedeseaeeseeoeene IM Ges, Iran, V/sebbayenor IW Ch ean soeoscuage pscooososeconensacese
WOeeee esos stances sec. Di Ce Lurnersuanier Heirmhts Os Crs-saaeeeesesers eee ae eee
DO emer eee smnciseciionaad Opsss AoC ATEN We coseacabeonusoscedorccesuccdsageccs
Sereechtowles: =. 222 essence Mars see ieekinin a) deswras hin obor Os © seerse eee cee see reece ee ere
Gray PaLros sess ec -e =e sal Miss Rachel Weems, Upper Falls, Md ..-.........---..-..-..-.-
Blue-fronted amazon......--. Umar bALbleyaeAm ACOstia wD Cree eect emer ee see eee eee re
Clarke’s nutcracker .......-. Eugene Pence, Columbia Falls, Mont ...-......--..---.-.-...--- 11
African ostrich....--.--.---- Woes Sheiisin, \yilonlinney 7s) 1eopoe, We Mocececaadaradasssdanencasqcosu il
Whistling swan .--.----..--. JOO, JOA E JOM OMIT ING 456 boobesocossoaotseascasdseesaccac 1
Black skimmer -.----.------- \ivara, eebbevere, Vivesimboveti@n ID) ©) secodescaesse sare cscanc sagescosss 2
JNUIERY IO oodccdesoscescenscoe Dennis iynehaWiashin stony Cheer e asses ere ee see ee ae 2
DOME Nese emcees mae. Walvepickettm Washing tons Ce eerm esse ete seer a sei alee 1
DORs eer ssen ise ccein sees GES WAI ORIEN A eres NAVEEN) cobaKeR oye) 0 (0) SOO BEE Ane eee eee eee ee 2
MOoTtOIsee = oem ee eae ss Gake Gilbert euweblot Colomecserass eerste eet eee eeee 2
IGE Mo oscacoseeeassesesesuar Ralston Brothers, Galesburg, Ul oo. = oe 22. rece nee eee 1
Horned lizard...--.-.---...-. IbvAe nied Sep Ien es ANG ain, WUE) Sooo so eocosossoeseanoanscossese- 26
Diamond rattlesnake ........ Ralston Brothers, Galesburg, Ill.-.........-.----------..--.---- 1
DORR tian storie sec sien ccis Jas BellGaineswalle WH aeee see cess ae st sey eleles-)-=-) eee eee 2
Prairie ratttlesnake ..-...-.. Is WW, Ie masigMy Iyer ONS) Cagoosehnus sees snoeeoocemecbecucor 3
Water moccasin -...-.......-. Ralston Bros., Galesburg, Tll.....-..-...-.-.--.--------------.0- W2
BES UME 11 yO eter stateseya ate =)eral= eta i==/e)| (=) =1= = LOPE epee cetae cine mt cae) siie se woe Sinereie ae sleeper ee hee cere 1
Black snake -..-.-.....-...-. das. P. Stabler, Sandyspring, Md...............-.-.----.--..-..- 1
WO asecsteescecsceescoetes Jas. W. Magarity, Lewinsville, Va .-----.--.-.-.-.---------.---- 1
IDO) ss yaad oe cueSceeaeee fo JB, Ate nylore, JSeNhimraHE) WIGL peso ee so ce ccecas dee eoozeecesaneoaco ce 1
Garter'snake ---.......-.--.. NAB he iohnisont-Allentowaly baer eee ee ee ee eerie eer cere 1
Milk snake ....-...-....-.-.. Chas: Long, Washington, Di @..-- 2-2 ooo eee en ona ene 1

SM 96——5

66

REPORT OF THE

SECRETARY.

List of accessions—Continued.

ANIMALS LENT.

| Num-
Name. Donor. | ae
| mens.
Macaque monkey. ...-------- | Edw. S. Schmid, Washington, D. C.---.-.-...-..------.--------- 1
Rhesus monkey.------.------- | Dr. J.J. Kinyoun, U.S. Marine Hospital, Washington, D. C--.- | 3
DOS eee see ASSIS Sere | Edw. S. Schmid, Washington, (ONC = sseciees so-eaeeee e eee 10
Black-faced spider monkey --| Mrs. J. L. Waggaman, Washington, D.C ....-.......-.--.------ | 2
TH MN® CO ses coconesoun5ecs Minerawe Bruce s Seatbl ona ias hie eee eae 2
Cashmere goat...--.---.----- @2O;Chenault-sNews Orleans, amass nese see ee eae eee eee eee 2
Waroimiaideer sass. = === AWiA® Smiths Wahitneyseeoint Nee asa: ease eee eee eee eae 2
Hoxds qulrrele sere sseee eee ClONChenanlt eNews Orleans lasses Pere rere ee Eee eee peres 1
iRebararmadill Opes ee sees jabidiwe so schmidwiWashins tons) ) Clem ss=ner see eeee esas eee 9
Goldenieagle-...-...-..------ Jpese=2 (Qeccnosseccoseosdass0c seser ses sseuscsaasaeooseseaoocars=2 1
Bal dieagley-eeee a asseeae ED Eoyles Washington sO © ceeee sae ae =e = eee Ee 3
IBAA Olt cosesoocucodssseDs | Ido Corman, \iveeiannayen royal, 10), (CO) os sacecoce as se sSsscesbesoeSecson: 2
Yellow and blue macaw. .-.---- iHdiwe ssschmid) Washins tony). \@ espe snes e ee esse Ee sere aaa 1
Yellow-naped amazon.....-.. Mis VAs B Walliams Was bine ton) Cae ees eee eee ane ee as 1
Green parrakeet ....---..--.- Ke PMc roy.avViashinetoniD) Cee eeee sete sea ese eeee eee eeee 1
Beat OWwle areas ease mec cereTs ClOjChenanlt NewsOrleans) apes eee eee =e seen eee eee eee 2
Mongolian pheasant......--- Hon. F. T. Dubois, Blackfoot, Idaho .........-.--.-------------- 2
Guinea fowl ses ecc-o-oe se cne CxO) Chenault sNew.Orleans Waseeeee ee eee eee eee eee 2
Whistling swan -.....--..--. EHdw.S. Schmid, Washington, D. @..----..-.-.-..---.--.._--.--- 1
PAtiri¢amlos une herere aes Wi-AQSinith} sWihitney seb ont NERS eee ene e =e eee 1
King snake. 2.2 .--0---2--56- RG. -baine™ Washington Cres se eee ee aeee reese eee 2
ANIMALS RECEIVED IN EXCHANGE.
Num-
Name. From. ber of
Sp ‘ci-
mens.
Diana pmonkeye-s--ee eee eae Edw. 8. Schmid, Washington, D. C...............--:--:2--:---- iL
IEG Ib eeesedc | SaousobsoRededd locages Ose. Sisk es esse sss 5 See esi bas st Seas See e eee eee 2
IRACCO OWE eee ea seeeneeien lene OO) 2 ee P bese ceee ethene 2. op oesa se sees sce eee ee 5
Blackwbeare n-ne cciesisins = <2 Seetetee Cnn Seas Babrore anon co hasan CHaooor OSnetSobeDacaonesseos = i
Wirpimia deer: <<. == Commission of parks and boulevards, Detroit, Mich----..-..-- = 5
IDWS eaaseesenecorOueBOBese Thos. Blagdens Aa myle DNC eee eae: sera ee eee 1
Chinese goose.......-..-----. Edw. S. Schmid, Washington, D. C.....-..--..-.--------------- 3
Toulouse goose ...-..--.--.--|------ GO: 232 ic se ABS ees eR Ses ct de deteeieisls nse ee eee eee 2
Prairie rattlesnake -....--.-- Ralston Brothers, Galesburg, Ill......-..-.---.---..------------ i
Ballisnakews sess ese eres seems (XO) Sipoe qep Spb eaaCe SDE So ecase be SnondasaecoSaeRhaaosbeseosoos 1
Animals born in the National Zoological Park.
ion (felis leo) a eae ee See eae eee an ae ee 4
Puma, (Felis concolor) soe Bae ert ae eto ere te ee 5)
PPOLbed: Lymix (My ofisnvaCwl 11S) eee eee ae ee ee 2
Eskimo dog? <5. 2 cas axes de 8 eS ee ere eee ea eC Sa eee 12
Sb: pernard dogs es el. coos cscs See ees ee Sr Sere Oe eee 4
inaccoon (Procyon lotor):..- 2.02 ase sate eee eee eine eae een eee eee 6
American ell: (Cervus canadensis) == eee see ee oa eee eee eee ene ee ee eee 1
Warciniadecr (Caridcis On ginidiis) meerer eee eee EEE ee EE ee eee eee eee nee 6
ilamian(Anvcheniwiglamnd ee. = 5 sae ee ee oe eee eee BS pe eee 2
Canada porcupine (Hrethizon dorsatus)s-sssece cess eee ee eeeee eeee eee eee i

"MYVd 1VOIDO100Z NI ¥19 DNNOA

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. é7

(Cummeamplon (Caviaporcellws) me Se noes eae osc oc See nees coos boc et sees 6
Pmodisherablonis CEpuUs CUniCUluis) ean - sie. cee ce ale cosh oceans ecee te ce eecek if
(CraivawamoanoorCMacropus Sp.) qeameecc eos. = oe = sac sos) ses cceees Sonloee ceeded ae 2
HMKOpPeAMEswiann (CYGNUSIGLODUS) emee nae me eas Sees ee oe cee eee ce cbse scene 4
brainierattlesnake (Crotalus conjluents))-----222-. -------------sos--------- -- ee 6

Animals collected in the Yellowstone National Park.

aldnedolen CHali@erus: leuwcocepnalws)= sss0 9-255 22-2. 52-22 o52 92 geen eee sea eee 3
vee tall ecalienw: ler (Cleo OnCW1L1S) eaem eso) ha A oo ee cca se clocce ence ee cce ee ae 2
TON CAUCAMMCAMMASONUCH) Bio nais)2 as 23-2 itis = sacle os ee eee eee See cecal ae 10
Clarke’s nutcracker (Picicorvus.columbianus) .-.--.-.-.--.-----.---------------- 3

SUMMARY OF ACCESSIONS.

NTN DISHPLESCOLECWeem Meester tl sae ue a, ta as eS eee ooo 130
EAT Sel Omibepeys se eer ike cera sre ae fy Pace eicicis Scie wwe seein ete eee eames 51
RMIT MISPESCOMV CO sly OXCHAN POR Ceo sks. emia sa cine sieioe ts ane Seas Sose eee eteees 22
Amin alsppornantherZoologicalm bam kara e eee ens) oe seme eee ee eee soles 68
Animals received from the Yellowstone National Park.--...---......-..--..---- 18

PRO ti sail eeeempceer ter rege i parte ed Menken Be fee ae! VES Le oe LE taal lt ee OG

Number of specimens on hand June 30, 1895..........-...---.----------- Soci Se 520
Accessions during the year ending June 30, 1896.........-....----.-.----.----- 289
HIRO Liat emer ete getter epic cle ewan Nam sieye me aisles Soci clnals sah acicine se cicneeloiciare 809
Deduct—_
Dati rere eacecee a ceca oe sepeni= Saieecne Moi weiss Sbecoees deenase 200
Amines GxeR eal Ow Wiseeh els. sosess Sees Coes eoeoeedeebone coon ce 13
NMI a ShexcCh ane Mer semeesye oe eee ete se clowns see eine cook ane seu ae 21
ATTEN TAS DUANE WO) OW ANEWS\525 5 sosuog seee cobb eden sess eseaeccosecssss | 24
— 256

Asmmimenls Gin Inghorel dune a0) IU) sooo5s cose seou booed Sood Sees eecdebeesoeseeco Blab
Respectfully submitted.
FRANK BAKER, Superintendent.
Mr. 8S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX VY.

REPORT ON THE WORK OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY FOR
THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

Sir: The bolometric investigation of the infra-red solar spectrum has, under your
general direction, continued to be the main feature of the work of the Observatory
for the past year. While it has been found necessary to postpone a final account of
the result of this long investigation, yet it is confidently believed that such a pub-
lication can be made before many months more; and that the limit of accuracy
in determining the position of absorption lines, which was mentioned in the report
for the last year as the aim of endeavor, will be reached in the results shortly to be
communicated.

The year’s prosecution of the research will, for convenience, be discussed under
the following heads:

A. Measurement and elimination of ‘“‘the drift”! and other sources of error
in the spectrobolo-metric processes.

B. General spectrobolographic work.

C. Accessions of apparatus.

A. MEASUREMENT AND ELIMINATION OF SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE SPECTROBOLO-
METRIC PROCESSES.

As detailed in the report for the year ending June 30, 1895, it was then evident
that the bolographic curves were so encumbered with minute deflections due to earth
vibrations and extraneous electrical and magnetic disturbances, that the small and,
it was presumed, very numerous deflections corresponding to fine absorption lines
were greatly obscured. One of the means proposed for eliminating false and
retaining true lines has been the process of composite photography. The method
of application of this process had been as follows: 1. All the deflections in a series
of curves of a greater magnitude than a certain arbitrary amount were by the
“‘cylindric process” drawn out into lines. 2. The resulting ‘‘cylindrics” were suc-
cesstvely exposed before a single plate to give a composite.

It must be remarked the process of experiment has shown that this procedure is
not free from objection. While it is unquestionable that deflections great enough to
be surely recognized as genuine will be brought out, owing to the greater prominence
given them in ‘‘blocking in” the curves preparatory to making the ‘cylindrics,”
yet many of the genuine deflections of the same size as the accidental ones (for dis-
tinguishing which the process is chiefly useful) may possibly be eliminated; for
owing to the various sources of error in the bolometric processes, particularly the
superposition of accidental deflections over the true ones, to the personal error in
blocking in, and to the errors introduced in the photographic processes, slight lateral
displacements of the true lines in the separate cylindrics will always occur. Thus
it may frequently happen that in the final composite the less prominent lines, being
thus variable in their position to an amount equal to their own width, or even more,
may be eliminated. Lines corresponding to accidental deflections may, on the other
hand, be retained, since their number is very great in comparison with the number
of cylindrics employed in making composites, for it may thus frequently happen

17% will be remembered that “the drift” has hitherto been a principal source of
trouble in these researches. It consists in a slow progressive movement of the
needle due to a great variety of extraneous causes.

68

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69

that there will be sufficiently close correspondence between such false lines in all the
cylindrics employed, so that they will appear in the final composite.

Of late another method of combining the results to be derived from the separate
curves has come into use at the observatory, which is briefly as follows:

1. Each of the several observers independently superposes the set of curves under
investigation, and from the general appearance and size of the deflections selects
those which he considers to probably correspond to genuine absorption bands, and
marks them relatively to their importance and to the evidence of their genuineness.

2. He then measures upon the comparator the positions of his selected deflections
on each curve separately without sight of the others.

3. The results thus obtained are averaged, throwing out such deflections as appear
from the divergence of the measurements to be accidental.

4, The mean results of the separate observers are compared and reduced, indicat-
ing the extent to which the observers agree with regard to the importance and verity
of the different deflections.

In view of the limitations of the composite process, it is proposed that it be kept
subordinate to that just described, and only used in the preparation of a spectrum
map in which the exact place of each line appearing shall be independently deter-
mined.

The multiplicity and injurious character of the accidental deflections continued
painfully evident throughout the bolographic harvest season of the year (the
months of September, October, and November). Fine days were also frequently lost
after cold weather came on, owing to the rapid ‘‘drift” of the galvanometer needle,
caused by the changing temperature conditions incident to the warming of the
observatory.

In these circumstances the work of taking bolographs was suspended for some
months, and the following important improvements were, after many experiments,
adopted, which have separately and in concert been signally successful in reducing
these sources of error:

1. In extension of the principle introduced at Allegheny, a battery of sixty storage
cells connected in parallel replaced the four cells formerly employed, and effected
great reduction of small accidental deflections of the galvanometer needle.

2, A specially constructed rheostat, entirely surrounded by a water jacket and pro-
vided with a slide wire adjustment operated mechanically from without, replaced
the resistance box before used to balance the bolometer strips. In this instrument
only asingle pair of coils of the same resistance as the particular bolometer employed
is used. The number of contacts between dissimilar metals is reduced to a mini-
mum, and all are kept from fluctuations of temperature by a continuous current of
water. ;

3. The galvanometer, formerly supported upon a system of flat stones and rubber,
has been suspended by three wires from a tripod, after the manner of Julius.! This
method of support is found to decidedly reduce the vibrations of the galvanometer

‘needle due to ground tremors.

4. The double-walled room which surrounds the spectrometer has been extended
to include the galvanometer also; and thus temperature fluctuations about the gal-
vanemeter control magnets have been reduced, to the great diminution of the
“ drift.”

5. The whole observatory has been equipped with an automatic system of temper-
ature regulation, and the heat is supplied both night and day from steam boilers in
the basement of the Smithsonian main building. So successful has this system
proved that during the cold months the whole fluctuations of temperature within
the spectrometer room are reduced to little more than a tenth of a degree.

6. A new galvanometer needle has been constructed with a considerably higher
degree of astaticism and somewhat greater sensitiveness than the one before in use.

As the result of the improvements mentioned above, the ‘‘ drift,” heretofore so

1 Wiedemann’s Annalen, 56, 151.

70 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

vexatious, has been reduced to such a degree that its whole amount for a week’s time
often does not exceed 2 centimeters, or the amount which it had in the early experi-
ments in a single minute. This result, it must be remembered, is reached with the
galvanometer adjusted to such a sensitiveness that a millimeter deflection on the
scale corresponds to six teu-billionths of an ampere in the galvanometer circuit. Not
only is the drift thus practically eliminated, but the small deflections from accidental
causes which heretofore so obscured the deflections corresponding to real absorption
lines, while still very numerous, are now reduced to an amplitude rarely exceeding
two-tenths ofa millimeter. Occasional deflections of a little greater magnitude occur,
but not often, and these can be readily eliminated in a comparison of curves. The
deflections now remaining are almost wholly due to ground tremors not entirely
eliminated by the system of suspension of the galvanometer.

This large decrease of drift and incidental deflections brought out the defects in
the construction of most bolometers hitherto in use, and on analysis it was found
that the enhanced ‘‘ drift” when these were employed was due to the hard rubber
insulation, and that small accidental deflections were caused by imperfect fastening
of the strips atthe ends. A bolumeter frame of metal with mica insulation was filled
at the observatory and has proved very satisfactory.

Another source of drift not before noticed was found to be the falling of the spec-
trum. upon the bolometer case during arun from A to 0, and it was entirely removed
by a suitable diaphragm.

These observations on the drift and false deflections in the record may be suitably
closed by the remark that under your instructions of March, 1896, it has been the
invariable practice to make a short record curve, with no heat falling on the bolom-
eter, both at the beginning and end of each bolograph, to show the instrumental
conditions prevailing. Such records were occasionally taken in former years, and
were included in the report of the number of bolographs taken. So many haye tbis
year been taken, however, that it seemed misleading to include them in the count,
and they are accordingly entirely neglected in the table of photographs given below,
and only those curves which represent some part of the spectrum are there counted
as bolographs.

After the approach of hot weather rendered it impossible to continue uniform
temperature conditions, the work of taking bolographs was again discontinued, and
extensive quantitative experiments were prosecuted to determine the magnitude of
the probable error arising from the many sources attendant upon the complicated
bolometric process. The results of these experiments revealed in several instances
greater error than was suspected, and led to important changes in the apparatus
which are not at the close of the period covered by this report entirely completed.

A detailed account of the methods employed in determining the various sources of
error must be postponed till the appearance of the forthcoming publication; but it
will be proper in this place to give a brief summary of the investigations.

Laying down as in the report for last year ending June 30, 1895, an accuracy of
one-tenth millimeter in position of a deflection upon the bolographic curve (corre-
sponding under the convention of speeds adopted to six-tenths second of are in
the spectrum, or to three-tenths second of arc on the circle) as the limit of accuracy
desired in the final results, this amount of error will be treated as in a sense the unit
of error in this discussion:

I. Sources of error in the optical apparatus.

1. Apparent displacements of the slit—
a. Momentary, from ground tremors and from air currents of different density
Displacements now negligible, as a result of recent improvements.
b. Periodic, from temperature and other changes in the supports of optical
apparatus. Important errors from this cause were within the last month
covered by this report eliminated.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Th

2. Imperfect adjustment of the prism-mirror combination for minimum deviation—

Errors from this cause proved negligible under the assumption of parallel rays.
As steps are now being taken to introduce a system of collimation for the
beam with a view to improve the definition of the optical system, further
discussion for a divergent beam is unnecessary.

3. Changes in the temperature of the prism—

No new data on the change of deviation with the temperature have been
obtained, but referring to those of a preliminary nature contained in your
paper on the ‘‘Temperature of the Moon,’'! it is believed that errors from
this source in curves taken under usual conditions will not exceed 2 seconds
of an arc in deviation. With the attainment vf accurate data such errors
may be corrected,

II. Sources of error which introduce accidental deflections in the record curves.

1. Disturbances primarily affecting the galvanometer needle including (a) earth
tremors; (b) magnetic disturbances.

2. Disturbances secondarily affecting the galvanometer needle through the bolome-
ter circuit including (a) those causing ‘“‘drift;” (b) those causing “ flutter”
in the records.

The whole effect of these four classes of disturbances as shown by the record
curves already mentioned will be, under usually good conditions, to displace
true deflections on an average about one-tenth millimeter on the plate. All
true deflections of a magnitude not greater than two-tenths millimeter are
lost among the false ones.

III. Sources of error from imperfect mechanisms.

1. Irregularities in the motion of the plate.
Errors from this source negligible.
2. Irregularities in the motion of the circle. ~
Errors now occasionally as great as 3 seconds of are; but steps being now
taken which promise to reduce these irregularities to a magnitude of five-
tenths second.
. Difficulty in correctly determining the ratio of plate and circle motions.
A more accurate method of determination now projected will undoubtedly
give sufficient accuracy.

(Ss)

IV. Sources of error in preparing cylindrics.

1. Personal error in “‘ blocking in.”
Experiments show that the mean displacements of lines from this cause vary
with three persons from 0.16 to 0.32 millimeter.
2. Imperfect adjustments of camera.
As a result of recent changes the error from this cause will not exceed one-
tenth millimeter in the length of a 20-centimeter plate, and is within certain
limits proportional to the length of the plate employed.

VY. Errors in comparator measurements.

1. Personal error in the determination of a minimum upon the curves.

Experiments show that the average deviations of the mean of two observations
by one observer from the mean result of six observations on the same curve
by three observers varies with different persons from 0.022 to 0.016 millimeter.

2. Errors peculiar to the comparator.

A new comparator is projected for use in the observatory in which it is

believed these errors will be negligible.

1S. P. Langley, ‘‘Temperature of the Moon.” Memoirs of the National Academy
of Science, Volume IV, 9, Appendix 3.

G2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

VI. Sources of error inherent in the bolometric method.

1. From tardy action of the galvanometer, due to electrostatic causes, damping of
the needle, etc., causing displacement of deflections.
May be eliminated by reversing the direction of motion of the circle between
different runs, as has already been pointed out, and heretofore practiced.

As a general summing up of these investigations it may be said that if the steps
now being taken are successful in their outcome, it will be possible to determine the
difference of deviation between the lines appearing on the bolographs and the A line
in the visible spectrum, with an error not exceeding 1 second of arc.

The number of lines which may be theoretically discriminated with the process
and apparatus employed is very large. With a perfect prism of the size used,
and a galvanometer of somewhat greater sensitiveness, more than a thousand might,
if they exist, be discovered within the region in which we are now working. But
this supposes all minor tremors in the bolographic curves to be eliminated, and it is
certain that this has not yet been done, and that very many of the lines shown in
maps exhibited in illustration of the process will prove to have been due to such
causes. The chief aim at the present stage of the investigation is to give a number
of lines with their positions in the spectrum of a 60° rock salt prism, which may be
regarded as ‘‘standards,” and as many more as may be considered to have been
verified beyond reasonable doubt. Of these it is believed that at least 260 can be
presented in the forthcoming publication.

B. GENERAL SPECTROBOLOGRAPHIC WORK.

In the following table is given the number of photographs of various kinds taken
at the observatory during the year, not including instrumental records taken to show
the magnitude of the accidental galvanometer deflections:

Date. Bolographs. | Cylindrics. ph Sees a
|
1895
AU iy See es ete lei Stara see eae le aya pos cree a ep ah sm Steiner ea 10 7 0
ATI DUS ties sei ik isis Some EIS ote are Saar eenas ERS aoe eee 28 24 3
September say sss. cee etesee oe Sree ee eee oe eee aakieeeis 46 0 3
Octoberiee. essa ae ec eee ned Mana See eS eee eine eee 47 27 2
UNOVeEDIDE RZ -c)s2e neh oes Se Se oe ak naam caro yee eyes nmatae 21 12 10
BDY=(ots inl bys arte ale aes A bers at oie te aE OM at ee aes fi 11 i 7
1896.
Daniarry.n sess cseee eee a ae ee eae eee ee Se eeeee Eee 0 6 | 0
DOC) 1) aby a pee Sect ore SAE a Seris Seen GeSecae Secon 2 0 3
Mareen eS alas ers oe oe ee ee ole nice aoe ce ere a Siaeis men eee ue lele 38 2 3
PA TAs Bi Ses cN Ss BAS en ale als eros tates ie eas eters eres 10 il 15
MB Yi 2 2 assis ai oe See ee ee ee center tae oreo aycloene eae re 0 6 11
TUNE See. So nes ea ea encrosine octane ee Serres ete 0 0 0
Total. 1 SAN une ee ore ed Deen ee ee 209 56 |. Caan

Grand total, 362.

Full comparator measurements on curyes of April. 1894, and March, 1896, have been
made by three observers after the manner already described, and the results have
been reduced to deviation. The curves measured were taken with coarse bolometer
at a rapid rate of speed, and the finer lines were thus eliminated. About 80 promi-
nent or ‘‘standard” lines were verified in each of the sets of curves measured.

It has been repeatedly remarked in these reports that the most satisfactory results
can not be obtained in the site at present occupied by the observatory within the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. (eo

city, subject to all sorts of ground and electric tremors, when the elimination of
these tremors is so vitally necessary to success. While the effects, due to vibration,
have been greatly reduced by means already alluded to, yet they still exist. It may
be incidentally observed that experiment has shown that these small ground tremors
are only about one-third as great at night as in the day, a condition owing to the
difference in the amount of traffic in the neighboring streets. Experiments were
also to be made to compare the magnetic disturbances due to electrical causes with
those at the magnetic station at the United States Naval Observatory without the
city, but only a small difference in favor of the latter site was found. Induction
effects in the bolometer circuit might have been expected to be caused by electric
currents in neighboring street lines; but owing to the special winding of the coils
and careful arrangement of all connections this disturbance has been much smaller
than has been anticipated. When all is said, however, it unfortunately remains
true that the best results can never be reached in the present situation.

C. ACCESSIONS or APPARATUS.

The principal accessions of apparatus during the past year are as follows:

1. A 6-inch telescope with photographic and visual objectives, 4 eyepieces, 2 ampli-
fying lenses, and spectroscopic attachment.

2. Special camera for exposing the moving plate in making bolographs.

3. A slit with 12-centimeter jaws for use in place of cylindric lens in producing
linear translations of bolographs.

4. Special rheostat with slide wire all inclosed by water jacket for use in the
bolometer circuit.

5. Great battery of 60 storage cells for the bolometer circuit, with appropriate
switch for charging and discharging.

6. Temperature controlling apparatus.

7. A new governor for the siderostat.

8. Stereoscopic camera.

9. Telephoto camera.
_ 10. Projection lantern with accessories.

PERSONNEL.

Mr. C. G. Abbot succeeded Mr. R. C. Child as aid acting in charge, January 1,
1896. Mr. R. C. Child left the observatory June 30, 1896. Mr. L. E. Emerson was
appointed as assistant on June 26, 1896.

Imay sum up the results of the last year’s work in saying that an entirely new stage
of accuracy has been reached by the elimination of sources of error of long stand-
ing, and that as a result of this accuracy between 200 and 300 well-determined lines
may be expected to appear in a communication which it is expected in the next year
to publish.

Respectfully submitted.

C. G. ABBOT,
Aid Acting in Charge, Astrophysical Observatory.
Mr. S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary of the Snvithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX VI.
REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

Sir: I have the honor to present herewith a report upon the operations of the
library of the Smithsonian Institution during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1896.

The entry numbers of accessions to the Smithsonian deposit at the Library of
Congress extend from 314,500 to 339,339.

The following table gives an analysis in volumes, parts of volumes, pamphlets,
and charts of the accessions during the year:

Publications received between July 1, 1895, and June 30, 1896.

|
Quarto or | Octavo or
larger. smaller. Total.
WOES 5 5 6S 0bs50s nanan o nb asoSocKSosCosSSECoSoESSagSONSSooceseeses 330 | 1, 350 1, 680
iRarts Of VOlames...-2255-c20osses= sacece se mseelon siese secre epee 17, 504 | 8, 923 26, 427
Bamphlets a3 2b oe Sa qoaseee seen o ace pees sce eee eees eter aee 558 3, 692 | 4, 250
Chants*aseeereea- eel eee eee erereCrrrnice mane riscisentsec eer eeie poonacossses|sosnasossoss 236
ANG RMS Se eeaanosecaodne soban obecE es DUo ODS sodnconnoseabase eee luazcoa dos sa|lbHasesaoonc- 32, 583

In addition to this there have been added to the Secretary’s library, office library,
and the library of the Astrophysical Observatory 276 volumes and pamphlets, and
2,061 parts of volumes, making a total of 2,337, and a grand total of accessions for
the year of 34,920 volumes, parts of volumes, pamphlets, and charts.

These accessions show a gain of 2,967 in volumes and parts of volumes over the
previous year; and in the number of entries, 3,366.

Of these accessions 333 volumes, 759 parts of volumes and periodicals, and 1,047
pamphlets were retained for the use of the United States National Museum, and
993 medical dissertatiens were deposited in the library of the Surgeon-General,
United States Army, the remaining publications being sent to the Library of
Congress on the Monday after their receipt.

The names on the lists, procured in accordance with the plan of the Secretary for-
mulated in 1887, for increasing the library by exchanges, having been exhausted the
Secretary directed that this work for the present be continued by entering into cor-
respondence with all publishing societies on the new lists of the Bureau of Exchanges,
whose publications were not already being received by the Library. In pursuance
of this direction 732 letters were written asking for the publications which were not
on the list or for numbers to complete the series already in the Library, with the
gratifying result that 249 new exchanges were entered into and that 155 defective
series were either completed or added to as far as the publishers could supply the
missing parts.

The following universities have sent complete sets of their academic publications,
including inaugural dissertations:

Basel, Dorpat, Jena, Michigan,
Berlin, Erlangen, Johns Hopkins, Minnesota,
Bern, Freiberg, Kiel, Pennsylvania,
Bonn, Giessen, Konigsberg, Strassburg,
Breslau, Griefswald, Leipzig, Tubingen,
Chicago, Halle, Louvain, Utrecht,
Columbia, Heidelberg, Lund, Wurzburg,
Cornell, Helsingfors, Marburg, Zurich.

Respectfully submitted.
Cyrus ADLER, Librarian.
Mr. S. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
74

APPENDIX VII.
- REPORT OF THE EDITOR FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1896.

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publications of the
Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1896:

I. SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE.

The first memoir of the Contributions to Knowledge was by Messrs. Squier and
Davis on Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, published in 1848. Thirty
quarto volumes and parts of two additional volumes have since been published, com-
prising 129 memoirs pertaining to nearly every branch of knowledge.

Volumes XXX, XXXI, and XXXII were completed during this year, the first
two being the text and plates of an exhaustive treatise on Oceanic Ichthyology by
Dr. G. Brown Goode and Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, and the last volume asecond contribu-
tion by Major Bendire on the Life Histories of North American Birds.

No. 980. On the Densities of Oxygen and Hydrogen, and on the Ratio of their
Atomic Weights, by Edward W. Morley, Ph.D. (Part of Vol. XXIX of Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge.) Octavo pamphlet of 128 pages, illustrated with 40
text figures.

Nos. 981, 982. Oceanic Ichthyology, a Treatise on the Deep-Sea and Pelagic Fishes
of the World, by George Brown Goode and Tarleton H. Bean. Two quarto volumes,
text xxxv (26), 553 pages, and an atlas of 417 figures on 123 plates. (Vols. XXX
and XXXI of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.)

Nos. 983, 984. Volumes XXX and XXXI of Contributions, as above.

No. 985. Life Histories of North American Birds, from the Parrots to the Grackles,
with special reference to their breeding habits and eggs. By Maj. Charles Bendire,
United States Army. Quarto volume of viii, 518 pages, illustrated with seven litho-
graphic plates. (Vol. XXXII of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.)

No. 986. Volume XXXII, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, as above.

No. 989. The Composition of Expired Air and its Effects upon Animal Life, by Drs.
J.S. Billings, 8. Weir Mitchell, and D. H. Bergey. (Part of Vol. XXIX of Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge.) Octavo pamphlet of 84 pages.

II. SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS.

The first volume of the Miscellaneous Collections was published in 1862, and the
series now numbers 35 completed octavo volumes, embracing 167 distinct papers,
besides parts of 4 additional volumes.

The following papers of this series were published during the past fiscal year:

No. 1031. An Index to the Genera and Species of the Foraminifera, by Charles
Davies Sherborn. PartII, Non to Z. (Part of Vol. XXXVII of Smithsonian Mis-
cellaneous Collections.) Octavo pamphlet of 248 pages. Part I of this work was
published in 1894.

No. 1032. Smithsonian Meteorological Tables. Revised edition. Octavo pamphlet
of 333 pages. This revised edition contains an index and the ‘ International Mete-
orological Symbols” not included in the first edition, published in 1893. (Part of
Vol. XXXV of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. The other parts of this volume
are Geographical Tables, published in 1894, and the Physical Tables, now in press. )

15

76 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Ill, PAPERS FROM ANNUAL REPORT.

No. 990. Report of S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for the
year ending June 30, 1895. An octavo pamphlet of 86 pages, with 6 full-page illus-
trations.

No. 993. Proceedings of Regents. Report of executive committee. Acts of Con-
gress. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 30 pages.

No. 994. On the Magnitude of the Solar System, by William Harkness. (From
the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 28 pages.

No. 995. Schiaparelli’s Latest Views Regarding Mars, by William H. Pickering.
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octayvo pamphlet of 15 pages; illustrated
with 1 plate. :

No. 996. Light and Electricity, according to Maxwell and Hertz, by M. Poincaré.
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 10 pages.

No. 997. The Henry, by T. C. Mendenhall. (From the Smithsonian Report for
1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 11 pages.

No. 998. The Age of Electricity, by M. Mascart. (From the Smithsonian Report
for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 19 pages.

No. 999. Terrestrial Magnetism, by Prof. A. W. Riicker. (From the Smithsonian
Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 16 pages. z

No. 1000. Photographic Photometry, by M. J. Janssen. (From the Smithsonian
Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 14 pages; illustrated with 15 plates.

No. 1002. The Waste and Conservation of Plant Food, by Harvey W. Wiley. (From
the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 22 pages.

No. 1003. Four Days’ Observation at the Suunmit of Mont Blane, by M. J. Janssen.
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 10 pages.

No. 1004. Weather Making, Ancient and Modern, by Mark W. Harrington. (From
the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 21 pages.

No. 1005. Variation of Latitude, by J. K. Rees. (From the Smithscnian Report
for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 8 pages.

No. 1006. The Development of the Cartography of America up to the Year 1570,
by Dr. Sophus Ruge. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet
of 15 pages; illustrated with 28 piates.

No. 1007. Antarctica: A Vanished Austral Land, by Henry O. Forbes. (From the
Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 19 pages.

No. 1008. The Promotion of Further Discovery in the Arctic and Antarctic Regions,
by Clements R. Markham. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octayvo pam-
phlet of 24 pages. :

No. 1009. The Physical Condition of the Ocean, by Capt. W. J. L. Wharton, R.N.
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 15 pages.

No. 1010. The Origin of the Oldest Fossils and the Discovery of the Bottom of the
Ocean, by Prof. W. K. Brooks. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo
pamphlet of 17 pages.

No. 1011. The Relations of Physiology to Chemistry and Morphology, by Giulio
Fano. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 12 pages.

No. 1012. The Work of the Physiological Station at Paris, by E. J. Marey. (From
the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 21 pages; illustrated with 8
plates.

No. 1013. The Method of Organic Evolution, by Alfred R. Wallace. (From the
Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 22 pages.

No. 1014. The Part Played by Electricity in the Phenomena of Animal Life, by M.
Ernest Solvay. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octayo pamphlet of 13
pages.

No. 1015. The Influence of Certain Agents Destroying the Vitality of the Typhoid
and of the Colon Bacillus, by John 8. Billings and Adelaide Ward Peckham. (From
the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamplet of 7 pages.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. via

No. 1016. Modern Developments of Harvey’s Work in the Treatment of Diseases of
the Heart and Circulation, by Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, F. R.S. (From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 19 pages.

No. 1017. Ants’ Nests, by Dr. August Forel. (From the Smithsonian Report for
1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 26 pages; illustrated with 2 plates.

No. 1018. The Evolution of Modern Society in its Historical Aspects, by R. D.
Melville. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 14 pages.

No. 1019. Migration and the Food Quest. A Study in the Peopling of America, by
Otis Tufton Mason. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octayvo pamphlet of
17 pages; illustrated with 1 plate.

No. 1020. The Guanches: The Ancient Inhabitants of Canary, by Capt. J. W. Gam-
bier, R. N. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octave pamphlet of 12 pages;
illustrated with 15 text figures.

No. 1021. Psychology of Prestidigitation, by Alfred Binet. (From the Smithso-
nian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 16 pages.

No. 1022. A Discovery of Greek Horizontal Curves in the Maison Carrée at Nimes,
by William Henry Goodyear. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octayvo pam-
phlet of 15 pages; illustrated with 6 plates.

No. 1023. The Methods of Archeological Research, by Sir Henry Howorth, F. R.S.
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 19 pages.

No. 1024. The Art of Casting Bronze in Japan, by W. Gowland, l.S.A. (From
the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 42 pages; illustrated with 7
plates.

No. 1025. Study and Research, by Rudolph Virchow. (From the Smithsonian
Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 13 pages.

No. 1026. Scientific Problems of the Future, by Lieut. Col. H. Elsdale. (From the
Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 13 pages.

No. 1027. The Founding of the Berlin University and the Transition from the
Philosophic to the Scientific Age, by Rudolph Virchow. (Irom the Smithsonian
Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 15 pages.

No. 1028. The Institute of France in 1894, by M. Loewy, president of the Institute.
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 12 pages.

No. 1029. Herman von Helmholtz, by Arthur W. Riicker, F. R.S. (From the Smith-
sonian Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 10 pages.

No. 1030. Sketch of Heinrich Hertz, by Helene Bonfort. (From the Smithsonian
Report for 1894.) Octavo pamphlet of 8 pages.

IV. PUBLICATIONS OF BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.

The annual reports and bulletins of the Bureau of Ethnology published during
the year are mentioned in the Director’s report.

V. PUBLICATIONS OF NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The National Museum has issued several Bulletins and papers of the Proceedings,
which are enumerated on another page.
Respectfully submitted.
A. HOWARD CLARK.
Mr. 8. P. LANGLEY,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

GENERAL APPENDIX

SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1896.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX to the Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific discov-
ery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by collab-
orators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character or on
special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous correspond-
ents of the Institution.

It has been a promiment object of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report
required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more remarka-
ble and important developments in physical and biological discovery,
as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Insti-
tution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history,
been carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would
possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress.

In 1880 the Secretary, induced in part by the discontinuance of an
annual summary of progress which for thirty years previous had been
issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com-
petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the prom-
inent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology,
meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and
anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether
satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888.

In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original)
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus-
sion. This method has been continued in the present report, for 1896.

SM 96 6 81

THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY.!

By Prof. Simon NEWCOMB. .

Assembled, as we are, to dedicate a new institution to the promotion
of our knowledge of the heavens, it appeared to me that an appropriate
and interesting subject might be the present and future problems of
astronomy. Yet it seemed, on further reflection, that, apart from the
difficulty of making an adequate statement of these problems on such
an occasion as the present, such a wording of the theme would not fully
express the idea which I wish to convey. The so-called problems of
astronomy are not separate and independent, but are rather the parts
of one great problem, that of increasing our knowledge of the universe
in its widest extent. Nor is it easy to contemplate the edifice of astro-
nomical science as it now stands, without thinking of the past as well
as of the present and future. The fact is that our knowledge of the
universe has been in the nature of a slow and gradual evolution, com-
mencing at a very early period in human history, and destined to go
forward without stop, as we hope, so long as civilization shall endure.
The astronomer of every age has built on the foundations laid by his
predecessors, and his work has always tormed, and must ever form, the
base on which his successors shall build. The astronomer of to-day
may look back upon Hipparchus and Ptolemy as the earliest ancestors
of whom he has positive knowledge. He can trace his scientific descent
from generation to generation, through the periods of Arabian and
medieval science, through Copernicus, Kepler, Newton, La Place, and
Herschel, down to the present time. The evolution of astronomical
knowledge, generally slow and gradual, offering little to excite the
attention of the public, has yet been marked by two cataclysms. One
of these is seen in the grand conception of Copernicus that this earth on
which we dwell is not a globe fixed in the center of the universe, but is
simply one of a number of bodies, turning on their own axes and at the
same time moving around the sun as a center. It has always seemed
to me that the real significance of the heliocentric system lies in the
greatness of this conception rather than in the fact of the discovery
itself. There is no figure in astronomical history which may more

1An address given by Prof. Simon Newcomb at the dedication of the Flower
Observatory, University of Pennsylvania, May 12, 1897. Reprinted from Science,

May 21, 1897.
; 83

84 THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY.

appropriately claim the admiration of mankind through all time than
that of Copernicus. Scarcely any great work was ever so exclusively
the work of one man as was the heliocentric system the work of the
retiring sage of Frauenburg. No more striking contrast between the
views of scientific research entertained in bis time and in ours can be
seen than that seen in the fact that, instead of claiming credit for his
ereat work, he deemed it rather necessary to apologize for it and, so
far as possible, to attribute his ideas to the ancients.

A century and a half after Copernicus followed the second great
step, that taken by Newton. This was nothing less than showing that
the seemingly complicated and inexplicable motions of the heavenly
bodies were only special cases of the same kind of motion, governed
by the same forces, that we see around us whenever a stone is thrown
by the hand or an apple falls to the ground. The actual motions of
the heavens and the laws which govern them being known, man had
the key with which he might commence to unlock the mysteries of the
universe.

When Huyghens, in 1656, published his Systema Saturnium, where
he first set forth the mystery of the rings of Saturn, which, for nearly
half a century, had perplexed telescopic observers, he prefaced it with
a remark that many, even among the learned, might condemn his
course in devoting so much time and attention to matters far outside
the earth, when he might better be studying subjects of more concern
to humanity. Notwithstanding that the inventor of the penduium
clock was, perhaps, the last astronomer against whom a neglect of
things terrestrial could be charged, he thought it necessary to enter
into an elaborate defense of his course in studying the heavens. Now,
however, the more distant objects are in space—I might almost add
the more distant events are in time—the more they excite the attention
of the astronomer, if only he can hope to acquire positive knowledge
about them. Not, however, because he is more interested in things
distant than in things near, but because thus he may more completely
embrace in the scope of his work the beginning and the end, the
boundaries of all things, and thus, indirectly, more fully comprehend
all that they include. From his standpoint

“‘ All are but parts of one stupendous whole,

Whose body nature is and God the soul.”
Others study nature and her plans as we see them developed on the
surface of this little planet which we inhabit; the astronomer would
fain learn the plan on which the whole universe is constructed. The
magnificent conception of Copernicus is, for him, only an introduction
to the yet more magnificent conception of infinite space containing a
collection of bodies which we call the visible universe. How far does
this universe extend? What are the distances and arrangements of
the stars? Does the universe constitute a system? If so, can we com-
prehend the plan on which this system is formed, of its beginning and

THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY. 85

of its end? Has it bounds outside of which nothing exists but the
black and starless depths of infinity itself? Or are the stars we see
simply such members of an infinite collection as happen to be the
nearest our system? A few such questions as these we are perhaps
beginning to answer; but hundreds, thousands, perhaps even millions
of years may elapse without our reaching a complete solution. Yet
the astronomer does not view them as Kantian antinomies, in the
nature of things insoluble, but as questions to which he may hopefully
look for at least a partial answer.

The problem of the distances of the stars is of peculiar interest in con-
nection with the Copernican system. The greatest objection to this
system, which must have been more clearly seen by astronomers them-
selves than by any others, was found in the absence of any apparent
parallax of the stars. If the earth performed such an immeasurable
circle around the sun as Copernicus maintained, then, as it passed from
side to side of its orbit, the stars outside the solar system must appear
to have a corresponding motion in the other direction, and thus to
swing back and forth as the earth moved in one and the other direc-
tion. The fact that not the slightest swing of that sort could be seen
was, from the time of Ptolemy, the basis on which the doctrine of the
earth’s immobility rested. The difficulty was simply ignored by Coper-
nicus and his immediate successors. The idea that nature would not
squander space by allowing immeasurable stretches of it to go unused
seems to have been one from which medizval thinkers could not entirely
break away. The consideration that there could be no need of any such
economy, because the supply was infinite, might have been theoretically
acknowledged, but was not practically felt. The fact is that magnifi-
cent as was the conception of Copernicus, it was dwarfed by the con-
ception of stretches from star to star so vast that the whole orbit of the
earth was only a point in comparison.

An indication of the extent to which the difficulty thus arising was
felt is seen in the title of a book published by Horrebow, the Danish
astronomer, some two centuries ago. This industrious observer, one of
the first who used an instrument resembling our meridian transit of the
present day, determined to see if he could find the parallax of the
stars by observing the intervals at which a pair of stars in opposite
quarters of the heavens crossed his meridian at opposite seasons of
the year. When, as he thought, he had won success, he published his
observations and conclusions under the title of Copernicus Trium-
phans. But alas! the keen criticism of his contemporaries showed that
what he supposed to be a swing of the stars from season to season
arose from a minute variation in the rate of his clock, due to the differ-
ent temperatures to which it was exposed during the day and the
night. The measurement of the distance even of the nearest stars
evaded astronomical research until Bessel and Struve arose in the
early part of the present century.

86 THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY.

On some aspects of the problem of the extent of the universe light
is being thrown even now. Evidence is gradually accumulating which
points to the probability that the successive orders of smaller and
smaller stars, which our continually increasing telescopic power brings
into view, are not situated at greater and greater distances, but that
we actually see the boundary of our universe. This indication lends a
peculiar interest to various questions growing out of the motions of the
stars. Quite possibly the problem of these motions will be the great
one of the future astronomer. Even now it suggests thoughts and
questions of the most far-reaching character.

I have seldom felt a more delicious sense of repose than when ecross-
ing the ocean during the summer months I sought a place where I
could lie alone on the deck, look up at the constellations, with Lyra
near the zenith, and, while listening to the clank of the engine, try to
calculate the hundreds of millions of years which would be required by
our ship to reach the star a Lyre if she could continue her course in
that direction without ever stopping. It is a striking example of how
easily we may fail to realize our knowledge when I say that I have
thought many a time how deliciously one might pass those hundred
millions of years in a journey to the star a Lyre, without its occurring
to me that we are actually making that very journey at a speed com-
pared with which the motion of a steamship is slow indeed. Through
every year, every hour, every minute, of human history from the first
appearance of man on the earth, from the era of the builders of the
Pyramids, through the times of Cesar and Hannibal, through the period
of every event that history records, not merely our earth, but the sun
and the whole solar system with it, have been speeding their way
toward the star of which I speak on a journey of which we know neither
the beginning nor the end. During every clock beat through which
humanity has existed it has moved on this journey by an amount which
we can not specify more exactly than to say that it is probably between
5 and 9 miles per second. We are at this moment thousands of
miles nearer to a Lyre than we were a few minutes ago when I began
this discourse, and through every future moment, for untold thousands
of years to come, the earth and all there is on it will be nearer to @
Lyre, or nearer to the place where_that star now is, by hundreds of
miles for every minute of time come and gone. When shall we get
there? Probably in less than a million years, perhaps in half a million.
We can not tell exactly, but get there we must if the laws of nature
and the laws of motion continue as they are. To attain to the stars
was the seemingly vain wish of the philosopher, but the whole human
race is, in a certain sense, realizing this wish as rapidly as a speed of
6 or 8 miles a second ean bring it about.

I have called attention to this motion because it may, in the not dis-
tant future, afford the means of approximating to a solution of the
problem already mentioned—that of the extent of the universe. Not-

THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY. 87

withstanding the success of astronomers during the present century in
measuring the parallax of a number of stars, the most recent investi-
gations show that there are very few, perhaps hardly more than a score,
of stars of which the parallax, and therefore the distance, has been
determined with any approach to certainty. Many parallaxes deter-
mined by observers about the middle of the century have had to disap-
pear before the powerful tests applied by measures with the heliometer ;
others have been greatly reduced and the distances of the stars increased
in proportion. So far as measurement goes, we can only say of the dis-
tances of all the stars, except the few whose parallaxes have been
determined, that they are immeasurable. The radius of the earth’s
orbit, a line more than ninety millions of miles in length, not only van-
ishes from sight before we reach the distance of the great mass of stars,
but becomes such a mere point that when magnified by the powerful
instruments of modern times the most delicate appliances fail to make
it measurable. Here the solar motion comes to our help. ‘This motion,
by which, as I have said, we are carried unceasingly through space, is
made evident by a motion of most of the stars in the opposite direction,
just as passing through a country on a railway we see the houses on
the right and on the left being left behind us. It is clear enough that
the apparent motion will be more rapid the nearer the object. We
may therefore form some idea of the distance of the stars when we
know the amount of the motion. It is found that in the great mass of
stars of the sixth magnitude, the smallest visible to the naked eye, the
motion is about three seconds per century. As a measure thus stated
does not convey an accurate conception of magnitude to one not prac-
ticed in the subject, | would say that in the heavens, to the ordinary
eye, a pair of stars will appear single unless they are separated by a
distance of 150 or 200 seconds. Let us, then, imagine ourselves looking
at a star of the sixth magnitude, which is at rest while we are carried
past it with the motion of 6 or 8 miles per second which I have described.
Mark its position in the heavens as we see it to-day; then let its posi-
tion again be marked 5,000 years hence. A good eye will just be able
to perceive that there are two stars marked instead of one. The two
would be so close together that no distinct space between them could be
perceived by unaided vision. It is due to the magnifying power of the
telescope, enlarging such small apparent distances, that the motion has
been determined in so small a period as the 150 years during which
accurate observations of the stars have been made.
The motion just described has been fairly well determined for what,
astronomically speaking, are the brighter stars; that is to say, those
visible to the naked eye. But how is it with the millions of faint tele-
scopic stars, especially those which form the cloud masses of the Milky
Way? The distance of these stars is undoubtedly greater, and the
apparent motion is therefore smaller. Accurate observations upon
such stars have been commenced only recently, so that we have not

88 THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY.

yet had time to determine the amount of the motion. But the indica-
tion seems to be that it will prove quite ‘a measurable quantity and
that before the twentieth century has elapsed it will be determined for
very much smaller stars than those which have heretofore been studied.
A photographic chart of the whole heavens is now being constructed
by an association of observatories in some of the leading countries of
the world. I can not say all the leading countries, because then we
Should have to exclude our own, which, unhappily, has taken no part
in this work. At the end of the twentieth century we may expect that
the work will be repeated. Then, by comparing the charts, we shall
see the effect of the solar motion and perhaps get new light upon the
problem in question.

Closely connected with the problem of the extent of the universe is
another which appears, for us, to be insoluble because it brings us face
to face with infinity itself. We are familiar enough with eternity, or,
let us say, the millions or hundreds of millions of years which geolo-
gists tellus must have passed while the crust of the earth was assuming
its present form, our mountains being built, our rocks consolidated,
and successive orders of animals coming and going. Hundreds of
millions of years is indeed a long time, and yet, when we contemplate
the changes supposed to have taken place during that time, we do not
look out on eternity itself, which is veiled from our sight, as it were, by
the unending succession of changes that mark the progress of time.
But in the motions of the stars we are brought face to face with eternity
and infinity, covered by no veil whatever. It would be bold to speak
dogmatically on a subject where the springs of being are so far hidden
from wortal eyes as in the depths of the universe. But, without
declaring its positive certainty, it must be said that the conclusion
seems unavoidable that a number of stars are moving with a speed
such that the attraction of all the bodies of the universe could never
stop them. One such ease is that of Arcturus, the bright reddish star .
familiar to mankind since the days of Job, and visible near the zenith
on the clear evenings of May and June. Yet another case is that of a
star known in astronomical nomenclature as 1830 Groombridge, which
exceeds all others in its angular proper motion as seen from the earth.
We should naturally suppose that it seems to move so fast because it
is near us. But the best measurements of its parallax seem to show
that it can scarcely be less than two million times the distance of the
earth from the sun, while it may be much greater. Accepting this
result, its velocity can not be much less than 200 miles per second, and
may be much more. With this speed it would make the circuit of our
globe in two minutes, and had it gone round and round in our latitudes
we should have seen it fly past us a number of times since I commenced
this discourse. It would make the journey from the earth to the sun
in five days. If it is now near the center of our system it would prob-
ably reach its confines in a million of years. So far as our knowledge

THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY. 89

of nature goes, there is no force in nature which would ever have set it
in motion and no force which can ever stop it. What, then, was the
history of this star, and, if there are planets circulating around, what
the experience of beings who may have lived on those planets during
the ages which geologists and naturalists assure us our earth has
existed? Did they see at night only a black and starless heaven?
Was there a time when in that heaven a small faint patch of light
began gradually to appear? Did that patch of light grow larger and
larger aS million after million of years elapsed? Did it at last fill the
heavens and break up into constellations as we now see them? As
millions more of years elapse will the constellations gather together in
the opposite quarter and gradually diminish to a patch of light as the
star pursues its irresistible course of 200 miles per second through the
wilderness of space, leaving our universe farther and farther behind it,
until it is lost in the distance? If the conceptions of modern science
are to be considered as good for all time—a point on which I confess to
a large measure of scepticism—then these questions must be answered
in the affirmative.

Intimately associated with these problems is that of the duration of
the universe in time. The modern discovery of the conservation of
energy has raised the question of the period during which our sun has
existed and may continue in the future to give us light and heat. Mod-
ern science tells us that the quantity of light and heat which can be
stored in it is necessarily limited, and that, when radiated as the sun
radiates, the supply must in time be exhausted. <A very simple calcu-
lation shows that were there no source of supply the sun would be
cooled off in three or four thousand years. Whence, then, comes the sup-
ply? During the past thirty years the source has been sought for in a
hypothetical contraction of the sun itself. True, this contraction is
too small to be observed. Several thousand years must elapse before
it can be measurable with our instruments. Granting that this is and
always has been the sole source of supply, a simple calculation shows
that the sun could scarcely have been giving its present amount of
heat for more than twenty or thirty millions of years. Before that time
the earth and the sun must have formed one body, a great nebula,
by the condensation of which both are supposed to have been formed.
But the geologists tell us that the age of the earth is to be reckoned
by hundreds of millions of years. Thus arises a question to which
physical science has not been able to give an answer.

The problems of which I have so far spoken are those of what may
be called the older astronomy. If I apply this title it is because that
branch of the science to which the spectroscope has given birth is
often called the new astronomy. It is commonly to be expected that a
new and vigorous form of scientific research will supersede that which
is hoary with antiquity. But I am not willing to admit that such is
the case with the old astronomy, if old we may call it. It is more

90 THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY.

pregnant with future discoveries to-day than it ever has been, and it is
more disposed to welcome the spectroscope as a useful handmaid, which
may help it on to new fields, than it is to give way to it. How useful it
may thus become has been recently shown by a Dutch astronomer,
who finds that the stars having one type of spectrum belong mostly to
the Milky Way, and are farther from us than the others.

In the field of the newer astronomy perhaps the most interesting
work is that associated with comets. It must be confessed, however,
that the spectroscope has rather increased than diminished the mystery
which, in some respects, surrounds the constitution of these bodies.
The older astronomy has satisfactorily accounted for their appearance,
and we might also say for their origin and their end, so far as questions
of origin can come into the domain of science. It is now known that
comets are not wanderers through the celestial spaces from star to star,
but must always have belonged to our system. But their orbits are so
very elongated that thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, of years
are required for a revolution. Sometimes, however, a comet passing
near to Jupiter is so fascinated by that planet that, in its vain attempts
to follow it, it loses so much of its primitive velocity as to circulate
around the sun in a period of a few years, and thus to become, appar-
ently, a new member of our system. If the orbit of such a comet, or
in fact of any comet, chances to intersect that of the earth, the latter
‘In passing the point of intersection encounters minute particles which
causes a meteoric shower. The great showers of November, which
occur three times in a century and were well known in the years 1866-67,
may be expected to reappear about 1900, after the passage of a comet
which, since 1866, has been visiting the confines of our system, and is
expected to return about two years hence.

But all this does not tell us much about the nature and make-up of a
comet. Does it consist of nothing but isolated particles, or is there a
solid nucleus, the attraction of which tends to keep the mass together?
No one yet knows. The spectroscope, if we interpret its indications in
the usual way, tells us that a comet is simply a mass of hydrocarbon
vapor, shining by its own light. But there must be something wrong
in this interpretation. That the light is reflected sunlight seems to
follow necessarily from the increased brilliancy of the comet as it
approaches the sun and its disappearance as it passes away.

Great attention has recently been bestowed upon the physical consti-
tution of the planets and the changes which the surfaces of those bodies
may undergo. In this department of research we must feel gratified
by the energy of our countrymen who have entered upon it. Should I
seek to even mention all the results thus made known I might be
stepping on dangerous ground, aS many questions are still unsettled.
While every astronomer has entertained the highest admiration for the
energy and enthusiasm shown by Mr. Percival Lowell in founding an
observatory in regions where the planets can be studied under the

THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY. 91

most favorable conditions, they can not lose sight of the fact that the
ablest and most experienced observers are liable to error when they
attempt to delineate the features of a body 50,000,000 or 100,000,000
miles away through such a disturbing medium as our atmosphere. Hven
on such a subject as the canals of Mars doubts may still well be felt.
That certain markings to which Schiaparelli gave the name of canals
exist, few will question. Butit may be questioned whether these mark-
ings are the fine, sharp, uniform lines found on Schiaparelli’s map and
delineated in Mr. Lowell’s beautiful book. It is certainly curious that
Barnard at Mount Hamilton, with the most powerful instrument and
under the most favorable circumstances, does not see these markings
as canals.

I can only mention among the problems of the spectroscope the ele-
gant and remarkable solution of the mystery surrounding the rings of
Saturn, which has been effected by Keeler at Allegheny. That these
rings could not be solid has long been a conclusion of the laws of
mechanics, but Keeler was the first to show that they must consist of
separate particles, because the inner portions revolve more rapidly than
the outer. The question of the atmosphere of Mars has also received
an important advance by the work of Campbell at Mount Hamilton.
Although it is not proved that Mars has no atmosphere, for the exist-
ence of some atmosphere can scarcely be doubted, yet the Mount Ham-
ilton astronomer seems to have shown, with great conclusiveness, that
it is So rare as not to produce any sensible absorption of the solar rays.

I have left an important subject for the close. It belongs entirely to
the older astronomy, and it is one with which I am glad to say this
observatory is expected to especially concern itself. I refer to the
question of the variation of latitudes, that singular phenomenon
scarcely suspected ten years ago, but brought out by observations in
Germany during the past eight years, and reduced to law with such
brilliant success by our own Chandler. The North Pole is not a fixed
point on the earth’s surface, but moves around in rather an irregular
way. True,the motion is small; a circle of 60 feet in diameter will include
the pole in its widest range. This is a very small matter so far as the
interests of daily life are concerned; but it is very important to the
astronomer. It is not simply a motion of the pole of the earth, but a
wabbling of the solid earth itself. No one knows what conclusions of
importance to our race may yet follow from a study of the stupendous
forces necessary to produce even this slight motion.

The director of this new observatory has already distinguished him-
Self in the delicate and difficult work of investigating this motion,
and I am glad to know that he is continuing the work here with one of
the finest instruments ever used in it, a splendid product of American
mechanical genius. I can assure you that astronomers the world over
will look with the greatest interest for Professor Doolittle’s success in
the arduous task he has undertaken.

92 THE PROBLEMS OF ASTRONOMY.

There is one question connected with these studies of the universe
on which I have not touched, and which is, nevertheless, of transcendent
interest. What sort of life, spiritual and intellectual, exists in distant
worlds? Wecan not for a moment suppose that our little planet is the
only one throughout the whole universe on which may be found the
fruits of civilization, warm firesides, friendship, the desire to penetrate
the mysteries of creation. And yet this question is not to-day a prob-
lem of astronomy, nor can we see any prospect that it ever will be, for
the simple reason that science affords us no hope of an answer to any
question that we may send through the fathomless abyss. When the
spectroscope was in its infancy it was suggested that possibly some
difference might be found in the rays reflected from living matter,
especially from vegetation, that might enable us to distinguish them
from rays reflected by matter not endowed with life. But this hope
has not been realized, nor does it seem possible to realize it. The
astronomer can not afford to waste his energies on hopeless speculation
about matters of which he can not learn anything, and he therefore
leaves this question of the plurality of worlds to others who are as
competent to discuss it as he is. All he can tell the world is:

He who through vast immensity can pierce,
See worlds on worlds compose one universe;
Observe how system into system runs,
What other planets circle other suns,

What varied being peoples every star,
May tell why Heaven has made us as we are.

THE INVESTIGATIONS OF HERMANN VON HELMHOLTZ ON
THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS
AND MECHANICS.!

By Dr. LEO KOENIGSBERGER.

Distinguished assembly, we are met to celebrate the anniversary of
that day when an honored and enlightened ruler of this land infused
new life into our university, and. inaugurated that era of great scien-
tific achievements of which we shall shortly commemorate a completed
century.

At such a time our thoughts naturally turn with veneration and
gratitude to our late illustrious rector, Von Helmholtz, who constantly
strove with keenest interest and most energetic effort to broaden and
strengthen the foundations of the prosperity and renown of this insti-
tution. Surely we can express our gratitude no more appropriately
than by revering that great scientist, who during his administration
was the pride and ornament of our university and our fatherland.

Thus we dedicate these festal hours to the memory of one of the great-
est and most profound scientists of this century. I will ask you to
regard his achievements from the standpoint of the mathematician, a
science of which he was thoroughly fond, and which from this very
place thirty-three years ago to-day he so clearly and beautifuily
described in these words:

We see in the science of mathematics the conscious logical activity
of the human mind in its purest and most perfect form. While we are
impressed with the arduous labor of its procedure and the difficulty
of forming and comprehending its abstract conceptions, we at the same
time learn to confide in the security, reach, and fruitfulness of its rea-
sonings.

It is but a short time since the whole world mourned the loss of
Hermann von Helmholtz, who was associated with our university from
1858 to 1871, when at the height of his fame, and who, with Bunsen
and Kirchhoff, made it a great center of scientific research.

1Lecture delivered on the occasion of the distribution of academic prizes, Novem-
ber 22, 1895, the birthday anniversary of the late Grand Duke Karl Friedrich, by
Dr. Leo Koenigsberger, privy councillor of Baden, professor of mathematics and
prorector of the University of Heidelberg. Translated from the original German,
published by the University of Heidelberg. Universitiits-Buchdruckerei von J.
Horning, 1895. pp. 51.
93

94 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

He who attempts to adequately describe the full significance of the
service of Helmholtz to mathematical science must refer to each of
his two or three hundred published writings, for all of them, even
when mathematical language is not employed, excite the highest
interest of the mathematician by reason of their eminently acute log-
ical reasoning. But the difficulty of treating each research with full
justice becomes apparent when we consider that the historian must
follow his unparalleled investigations through all branches of natural
science. In short, physiologist, physicist, mathematician, philosopher,
and master alike of nature and art must he be who would regard so
great a thinker as Helmholtz not merely with wonder and amaze-
ment, but fully and intelligently. It was not the nature of his mind
to pursue mathematical investigations for their own sake, or to delight
in the discovery of purely abstract truths deduced from algebraic or
geometrical conceptions to find possible future use in the exact natural
Sciences. On the contrary, he obtained his mathematical problems
direct from observation of nature, and this is certainly the only true
way, yet fruitful only in the hands of so great a master. His starting
point was the axiom that science, whose aim it is to apprehend nature,
must admit that she is capable of being understood, and for him that
meant no less than what his greatest pupil, Heinrich Hertz, has said:
“The necessary logical consequences of the inner conceptions of outer
phenomena should correspond with the necessary natural consequences
of the phenomena conceived of, which requires that the problems of
nature should be mathematically formulated.” Thus in all his works
appears an inexhaustible richness of results full of interest from a
purely mathematical point of view, that nevertheless find a mechanical-
physical significance, and then lead to the discovery of profound and
general natural laws, which, when divested of their mathematical
exposition, have prepared the way not only in the natural sciences, but
also in the world at large, for essentially new conceptions of the pro-
cedure of natural events. He was interested in mathematical investi-
gations for their own sake only in treating of the axioms and founda-
tions of mathematical science. With this aim he made researches in
each of the three great branches of mathematics—geometry, arithme-
tic, and mechanics—which have marked radical advances both in
philosophy and in the whole development of mathematical physics.
Here also, in contrast with the methods of other distinguished mathe-
maticians engaged in the same or similar investigations, he continually
verified his deductions by references to observation and experience in
proceeding to attain the most abstract mathematical truths.

The science of mathematics in its whole extent, as I shall here regard
it, deals with three independent primary conceptions, those of space, of
time, and of mass. The province of geometry embraces considerations
of space, that of arithmetic embraces time, and the relations of mass
to space and time constitute the subject-matter of mechanics and
mathematical physics. The view brought forward by Kant that space

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 35

and time are transcendental forms of perception which are more exactly
determined by the axioms was almost universally accepted among
mathematicians and philosophers till Helmholtz brought the matter so
far within the scope of his investigations as to raise question with
regard to the a priori existence of these axioms. His objections were
based, not on the ground of abstract mathematical considerations, as
had been the case in part with those of Gauss and Riemann, but
physiological-optical researches had caused him to consider the
source of the general perception of space, and he was very soon led to
the conviction that only the appearance of space relations causes us to
grant as self-evident that which, in reality, is a particular character-
istic of our exterior surroundings, and we therefore regard the axioms
of geometry as laws given by transcendental perception.

As early as 1852, in his academic dissertation, delivered at Konigs-
berg, ‘‘ Upon the nature of human sensations,” he showed by a thorough
physiological-physical comparison of objects and their corresponding
sensations, that light and color perceptions are only symbols for the
actually existing relations; and thus he paved the way for further
progress in the investigation of the nature of sense perceptions.
According to what may be termed the ‘“nativistic” theory of form
perception, it is assumed that the retina itself discerns impressions
with reference to its own surface, particular forms being therefore
distinguished by means of an innate mechanism, and thus the special
localization of each impression is given by the simple perception.
Opposed to this is the empiric theory of which Helmholtz was the
originator. By this theory, on the other hand, the sense-perceptions
serve only as the symbols to our consciousness of outward things
and events, whose significance is referred to our judgment. Follow-
ing this theory it would, for example, be unnecessary that in the
perception of difference of position there should be any similarity
between the local sight-symbol for this interval and the correspond-
ing external difference of position; or that in general an exact cor-
respondence should exist between the laws of thought and percep-
tion and those of the outside world. These physiological-philosophical
views were elaborated in a series of researches, interesting also from a
mathematical standpoint, which appeared in the years 1862 to 1864
under the title ‘Upon the horopter.” The horopter was defined by
him as the geometrical position of those points in space whose images
are formed upon corresponding parts of the two retinas, and therefore
are perceived as single. The general form was found by him to be a
curve in space of the third degree. Designating as a line horopter the
surface upon which right lines of a given direction must lie in order
that during a continuous congruent displacement upon this surface the
images of the whole lines shall correspond, without necessary corre-
Spondence of the separate points, it was shown by Helmholtz that for
the vertical and borizontal horopters, or for lines which in both fields

96 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. |

of vision appear normal or vertical to the retinal horizon, these sur-
faces were of the second degree. An exact mathematical discussion of
them appeared in his Physiological Optics, with the addition of the
assumption of the asymmetry of the retina and a somewhat modified
definition of the identical points in the two retinas. Thus there was
erowing up within him the conviction, based on incontrovertible mathe-
matical-physical reasoning, that since in the act of seeing there are two
channels through which the sensations come separately to the brain,
there to be blended to form a single perception of the material world,
through an act of intelligence dictated by experience, it is altogether
impossible to separate that part of our perception which corresponds to
the simple sensation from that which is the result of experience. It
appeared also that only in the relations of space and of time and of the
function derived from them, number—that is, only in mathematics—is
the outer and inner world the same, and that, therefore, here alone can
a complete correspondence between the images and the things per-
ceived be expected. The questions now arose, In what manner is this
correspondence of space and time perceptions with the things which
give rise to them brought about; what in these perceptions is a priori;
what the result of experience, and what is the origin of space percep-
tions in general?

An investigation of these questions appeared in a memoir published
in 1868, ‘‘On the data which form the basis of geometry.” Helmholtz
guarded himself perhaps from raising objections to Kant’s conception
of space as a transcendental form of perception; but he made himself
clear as regards perception by means of the senses. Thus, for example,
it results from the very organization of our eyes that all which we see
must consist in a distribution of colors upon a surface, and this dis-
tribution of colors does not necessarily condition any particular series
of phenomena of time or space. The question might then be raised
whether for this form of transcendental space perception the assump-
tion is involved that after, or at the same time with a given space per-
ception, another determined by it must appear; or, in other words,
whether the assumption of certain axioms is necessarily implied. In
the endeavor to distinguish between the logical development of geom-
etry and the results derived from experience, which are apparently
necessary to the processes of thought, he recognized as the basis of
all the demonstrations of the geometry of Euclid the proof of the con-
gruence of figures in space, and therewith as a postulate the supposi-
tion that these figures can be brought together without alteration in
their form or dimensions. He was then confronted with the question
whether the assumption of the possibility of free movement, which
we have experienced from our earliest youth, contains no logically
unproved hypothesis, and by profound investigation of the question he
was able to show with a very great degree of certainty that it did not.

Helmholtz depicted geometry limited to two dimensions, as it might

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 97

conceivably be, for example, to beings living on the surface of a
solid body and without the ability to perceive anything outside of this
surface. For us, dwellers in space of three dimensions, it is possible
to conceive what manner of perceptions of space beings limited to two
dimensions would have, though we can not, on the other hand, con-
ceive of space of more than three dimensions, because all our means of
perception extend only to tridimensional space. What would in the
case of dwellers in two dimensions become of these axioms of our
geometry: (a) Between two points only one shortest line, the straight
line, can be drawn; ()) through three points not lying in a straight line a
surface called a plane can be passed, such that all straight lines joining
any pairs of points upon it lie wholly within the surface; and finally,
(c) if two straight lines lying in the same plane, which never meet, how-
ever far produced, be defined as parallel, only one line parallel to these
can be drawn through a point not lying upon either of them. What
would become of these and of all the other axioms that require the con-
tinuity of geometrical figures? The surface dwellers would in general
draw shortest lines between two points, which, however, would not nec-
essarily be straight lines, and which Helmholtz called straightest lines,
But in the simplest case, a sphere, an infinite number of straightest
lines might be drawn between the two poles, though parallel straightest
lines could not be drawn, and the sum of the angles in a triangle would
be different from two right angles. These beings would, like us, find
space endless though of finite extent, and in the development of a geom-
etry they would have other axioms than we, but they could still move
their figures about the sphere at will without altering their dimensions.
Yet this peculiarity would in general be lost upon surfaces of other
forms, since only those surfaces possess it, which have at all points a
constant curvature, and of these, surfaces of a constant positive or
negative curvature other than spherical are such as may be unwrapped
from a sphere without bending or tearing, and may be called pseudo-
spherical. An analytical investigation of surfaces of this latter kind
shows that it is possible for straightest lines to be infinitely extended
without ever returning to the surface, and that, as in the plane, only
one shortest line is possible between two points. But the validity of
the parallel axiom fails here, since through a point outside a straightest
line an infinite number of other straightest lines may be drawn, which
when infinitely extended do not cut the first. Thus the three axioms
mentioned above are necessary and sufficient in order to characterize
the surface for which Euclid’s geometry holds in distinction from all
other figures having two dimensions, as plane. Passing now to space
of three dimensions and considering it as a domain of quantities in
which the situation of any point may be determined by three measure-
ments, we may compare it with other threefold extended subjects
of consideration, such, for example, as the arrangement of systems of
colors affords, in order to investigate whether we may discover special
sM 96——7

98 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

characteristics of our space. Thus it may be shown that such peculiar-
ities do indeed exist which depend on the completely free motion of
solid bodies without change of form, and on the particular value of the
measure of curvature. In the space under consideration this must be
put equal to zero—as it is, among surfaces, for the plane alone and
surfaces derived from it in order to give rise to the axioms of Euclid
concerning the singularity of the shortest line and the essential con-
ditions to parallelism. Ifthe curvature was different from zero, triangles
of great area would, it is true, have for the sum of their angles a value
diiferent from smaller ones; but the result of geometrical and astro-
nomical measurements, which always gives the sum of the angles of a
triangle as very near but never exactly equal to two right angles,
warrants us only in the conclusion that the measure of curvature for
our space is extremely small. It can not be proved that its value is
zero—it is an axiom. Helmholtz went, however, still further. He
showed that the consideration of a spherical or pseudospherical world
developed by analogy from the plane might be extended in all direc-
tions, so that the axioms of our geometry throughout can not be fixed
in their present form by our intuitive faculty. And he even made it
appear plausible that if our eyes were provided with suitable convex
glasses we might come to look upon the pseudospherical space as quite
natural, and that we would be deceived in our estimations of size and
distance only in the first few instances.

These researches formed in part the subjects of some lectures deliy-
ered in Heidelberg in 1868. Twenty years later he referred again in
his article on ‘Shortest lines in the color system” to the results
obtained by himself and Riemann. They found that ali the character-
istics of our particular kind of space may be derived from the fact that
one may express the distance between two neighboring points in terms
of the corresponding increments of their coordinates. To know the
distance between two points of a solid it requires that these end points
shall be completely given, and the distance shall remain constant
through whatever movements and displacements the solid body be
subjected. Analogously, Helmholtz proposed to determine colors by the
quantities of three suitably chosen primary colors required to produce
them, these primary colors taking the place of coordinates. In this
analogy the conception of difference between two colors nearly alike
corresponded to the distance between points in space. He deduced a
very simple analytical expression which he hoped would play the same
role in expressing the difference in hue that the formula for the length
of the linear element does in geometry. This expression determined
the variation in brightness and hue which occurs corresponding to a
simultaneous change in the quantities of the three primary colors
uniting to produce it. Analogously to the shortest line between
two points he defined as the shortest series of colors that series of
intermediate shades between given end colors of different brightness

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 99

and hue for which the sum of the perceptible differences is a mini-
mum. This conception of the field of color sensation led him, in the
memoir on “The extinction of the application of the law of Fechner
in the color system,” to extend this law, which contemplated only
changes of brightness in a light of a constant color, to embrace a
diversity of cases of more than one dimension, and to take into con-
sideration the greatness of successive gradations of the tone and of
the saturation of colors corresponding to change in the brightness.

In one of his last investigations ‘‘On the cause of the correct inter-
pretation of sensory impressions,” he returned again to the question of
space perception, and was led to very acute and significant philosoph-
ical considerations upon the subject. The perception of the stereo-
metric form of a material object played for him the role of one of a
great number of cases of impressions derived through the senses which,
quite independently of the geometrical definition, can only be brought
together by an understanding of the law in accordance with which the
perspective impressions follow each other. Starting with this view, he
recognized our unconscious mental activity as the cause of the merging
together of separate impressions with results essentially like those of
our conscious thinking. According to Helmholtz, the conclusions of
induction are nothing more nor less than the expectation that the phe-
nomena observed in their beginning will proceed in a way correspond-
ing with our previous observations, and false induction is identical
with deceptions of our senses; so that our science is only the expres-
sion in words of such knowledge as, with our natural organization and
with the help of the conclusions of induction depending on the uncon-
scious activity of our minds, we are able to collect.

Long after the publication of his memoirs on the axioms of geometry
he returned again to a similar subject in his investigation of the theory
of the conception of number and measure, in a paper dedicated to
Edward Zeller, in 1887, on the fiftieth anniversary of taking his doc-
tor’s degree. In this paper he opposed the view of Kant, that the
axioms of arithmetic are laws given a priori, which determine the
transcendental perception of time in the same sense that the axioms of
geometry govern that of space. He investigated the significance and
correctness of calculation with pure numbers and the possibility of
their application to physical quantities. As he derived from consid-
ering numeration that we are able to retain in mind the order of sue-
cession in which acts of consciousness are performed, the science of
pure numbers was for him essentially a method built up on physio-
logical facts for the consistent application of a system of signs of
unbounded capacities for extension and improvement, with the purpose
of representing the different methods of combining these signs to reach
the same final conclusion. After deducing from this conception a defi-
nition of the regular series of positive whole numbers and the signifi-
cance of their succession, he proceeded to establish the conception of

100 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

addition of pure numbers, and showed that the axioms of arithmetic of
the equality of two numbers in respect to a third, the association law
of addition, and the commutation law, can only be proved by the agree-
ment of the results arithmetically derived with those which can
be obtained by counting of exterior numerable objects. That the
objects should be numerable, certain conditions must be fulfilled con-
cerning whose presence only experience can decide. Since that objects
which in any particular respect are alike and can be numbered may be
regarded as units of number, the result of their enumeration as a defi-
nite number, and the kind of units which compose it as the denomina-
tion of the number, the conception with respect to the equality of two
groups containing given numbers of objects of the same denomination
is given by these numbers. If we designate as quantities objects or
attributes of objects which, when compared with similar ones, may be
greater, equal, or less, and if we can express these quantities by known
numbers, we call these numbers the values of the quantities, and the
process by which we find them measurement. Thus we measure a force
by the masses and displacements of systems upon which they have
been exercised; or in dynamic measurements by the masses and move-
ments of systems upon which they are working; or in the static method
of measurement by bringing the forces into equilibrium with others
already known. It only remains to consider under what circumstances
quantities may be expressed by numbers and what is thereby attained
in actual knowledge. With this purpose were instituted interesting and
valuable considerations on physical equality and the commutation and
association law for physical combination. Addition was regarded as a
combination of quantities of the same kind, such that the result remained
unchanged when the single elements were exchanged, or when the num-
bers were replaced by equal quantities of the same kind. In introduc-
ing irrational relations Helmholtz placed himself at the standpoint of
the physicist, and in later development of the principles of mechanics
he retained, as we shall see, the same point of view, showing that in
geometry and physics no discontinuous functions are met with for which
it is not enough to know with sufficient accuracy the bounds within
which the irrational values lie. The mathematicians, however, it must
be said, recognize functions of another kind, and the recent investi-
gations of Boltzmann seem to point to a physical application of such
analytical conceptions.

We now come to by far the most difficult part of our task as we
attempt. to describe the service of Helmholtz to analytical mechanics;
for in order to understand the partial reconstruction of the science in
consequence of some of his most brilliant researches it will be neces-
sary to accurately follow him through his great series of wonderful
mathematical-physical investigations and far-reaching physical discoy-
eries in the great fields of hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, and electricity,
which have contributed to the investigation of the axioms of mechanics.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 101

Many physiologists of the time assumed, quite in defiance of the laws
of mechanical natural philosophy, that through the action of the so-
called life force the ordinary natural forces might be generated without
limit. In his “Theory of the physiological heat phenomena” Helm-
holtz, starting from the proposition based on mechanical laws that
a given quantity of a moving force can never by any complication
of mechanism produce more than a definite corresponding quantity of
motion, proceeded to discuss the question of the source of auimal
heat—so weighty in the theoretical consideration of life processes.
The results of this investigation and of that simultaneously instituted
‘¢ Upon the evolution of heat attending muscular action” gave him the
verification of the great law of the conservation of energy which formed
the subject of a lecture before the Physical Society of Berlin in the
year 1847. It was certainly an interesting moment in the history of
the sciences when thirty years ago to-day one of the most distinguished
physicists of this century, Gustav Kirchhoff, in the course of his beauti-
ful and luminous discourse ‘‘On the goal of the natural sciences,”
delivered from this spot, and in the presence of Helmholtz, declared
the discovery of this law undoubtedly the most momentous which has
been made in the province of natural science during the present century.
Hertz also, in his posthumous work, ‘‘The Principles of Mechanics,”
asserts that physics at the end of our century has turned its preference
to an entirely new method of thought, and, influenced by the tremendous
impression made by Helmholtz’s discovery of the constancy of energy,
it is now preferred to refer all phenomena in their analyses to the laws
of transformation of energy. For the sake of a proper appreciation
of this great discovery of Helmholtz, as well as of his later fundamental
researches upon the principles of mechanics, I must here briefly review
the historical development of theoretical mechanies.

From the early investigations of the lever, the pulley, and the
inclined plane, there were soon developed the general conceptions
which are the basis of the science of equilibrium. With the definition
of work as the product of a force by the infinitely small displacement
of amaterial particle along the direction in which the force is measured
arose the principle of virtual velocities, upon which rests the theory of
statics. According to this principle, a material system is in equilib-
rium when for each virtual displacement—that is, a displacement com-
patible with the connection of the system of points—the total work
done within the system is equal to zero. After the discovery of the
inertia of masses by Galileo, and the conception of gravitation by
Newton, the development of mechanics was founded upon the three
famous laws of Newton. These may be stated as follows: (a) Every
body remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled by outside force to change that state; (b) the accele-
ration of a material point by the action of a constraining force takes
place in the direction in which the force acts and is equal to the

102 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

intensity of the force divided by the mass of the material point; and
(c) the actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and
take place in opposite directions. J*rom these laws there follows, for
Newtonian forces at least, and with the assumption of a rigid connec-
tion between the points of the system, the principle of d’Alembert
which holds sway in the whole province of dynamics. If we designate
as supplied forces those which must be made to act at each point in
order that it should move if separated from the system as it actually
does move, then the principle of d’Alembert asserts that all the sup-
plied forces suffice to maintain equilibrium, and thus furnishes the
mathematician a method of determining for any moment the situation
of all points of the system, when the constraints of motion of the
points, the forces which act upon them, and the place and velocity of
one of the points are known for the moment under consideration.

The advance of mechanics in this line was accompanied by the inves-
tigation of all the forces of nature—that is to say, the investigation of
all the properties of matter—for we can know nothing of these except.
to recognize the forces which are there in play. After the discovery of
these principles of equilibrium and of motion, it was the endeavor of
scientists to obtain general laws and relations of motion. One of the
most important and far-reaching of these in its consequences was the
principle of the conservation of the so-called vis viva. If we define as
the vis viva of a material point one-half the product of its mass into the
square of its velocity, and the sum total of the vis viva for all points of
a system in which the separate particles are connected by ties restraining
their free motion as the kinetic energy of the system, then, for any system
subject to the conditions of the d’Alembert principle, the increase of
the kinetic energy attending the motion of the system from one situa-
tion to another is exactly equal to the work done by the various forces
during the time interval in which the displacement occurs. If now
the work done by the forces of the system during the displacement is
dependent only on the initial and final situations, it follows that if the
system returns again from the final to the initial condition the kinetic
energy returns to its original value. This law is called the law of the
conservation of the kinetic energy, and systems to which it applies are
called conservative systems. A simple transformation of this law leads
to the most far-reaching consequences. The fact that a body by its
motion from one place to another does a certain amount of work neces-
sitates that its capacity for performing work, or, in other words, its
potential energy, was in its initial situation greater than in its final sit-
uation; so that for conservative systems the law of the conservation of
kinetic energy goes over into the law of the constancy of energy. This
may be expressed as follows: For any conservative system the sum of
the potential and kinetic energies is unchangeable. It is important to
remember the supposition upon which this is based, namely, that the
work done by the motion of the system is dependent only on the initial

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 103

and final situations and not upon the intermediate positions. For the
Newtonian forces, to which this principle is immediately applicable, the
validity of this law means the impossibility of a perpetual motion; that
is, the combination of natural bodies in such manner as to continually
generate force without expenditure of work. For in the absence of this
law we would be able, by a selection of the method by which we caused
the system to return to its original condition, to save up some of the
work done in its displacement, and thus, by repetition of the process, to
generate mechanical energy out of nothing forever. The impossibility
of such contrivances was long known, and the law of the constancy of
energy established for forces of this kind; but not all the forces of
nature seemed thus controlled. If a system moved through the same
path first without, then with friction, the kinetic energy would, in the
latter case, be diminished, owing to the smaller velocity, and thus it
was necessary, to sustain the law of the constancy of ehergy in its gen-
erality, that the conception of potential energy, which had previously
meant only energy of position, should be extended to other forms of
energy, such as those which exist in heat and other natural phenomena.

In the case just cited, the loss in mechanical energy would require to
be compensated by an equivalent quantity of heat energy developed
by the friction. KR. Mayer, starting with the presumption that the
creation or annihilation of force is a matter lying outside the scope of
human conception or achievement, asserted the equivalence of heat and
mechanical work as the fundamental law of natural phenomena. Helm-
holtz, without knowledge of Mayer’s researches, and including all
natural forces within the circle of his investigations, followed out the
assumption of the validity of the law of the constancy of energy, and
was able to show, experimentally, the impossibility of a perpetual
motion for a great series of physical phenomena where heat, light, elec-
tricity, and chemical affinity enter as acting forces. This is equivalent
to the law that the work done by natural forces of all kinds during the
passage of a system from one condition to another is dependent solely
on the initial and final conditions without regard to the way in which
the change is affected. From this he inferred that in any closed sys-
tem every increase of energy involves an equal loss of energy, and thus
achieved the great and comprehensive result that the energy of the
world is constant.

With his customary remarkable modesty he emphasized the fact that
it was his purpose simply to lay before physicists, in as complete form
as possible, the theoretical and practical importance of the law of the con-
stancy of energy, ‘‘ whose complete verification must be regarded as one
of the chief objects of physics in the immediate future.” It deserves
special emphasis that Helmholtz, in opposition to the foliowers of meta-
physical speculation, who sought to establish the law of the conservation
of energy from a priori considerations, declared the law, like all knowl-
edge of the phenomena of the actual world, to be the result of induction,

104 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

and based upon the negative issue of numerous futile attempts to con-
struct a perpetual motion. This great general law governing the quan-
titative relations which must subsist during all transformations, does
not, however, determine whether work can be changed into heat with-
out reserve, and vice versa, and the same uncertainty exists with
regard to light, electricity, and other forms of energy. These are
questions whose answer shall later exhibit the deep and comprehensive
significance of the energy conception in mathematical physics.

After Helmholtz had investigated the physical aspects of this funda-
mental principle of mechanics from most varied points of view, he
turned his attention to physiological researches growing out of his notice
on the “ Theory of acoustics,” and from this to very general mechanical
problems and special hydrodynamic investigations. In the year 1858
appeared his famous memoir ‘ Upon the integrals of the hydrodynamic
equations which correspond to wave motions.” This research formed
the foundation for an entirely new conception of the motions of fluids,
which was later made fruitful in various branches of physics, notably
by W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) in his theory of vortex atoms, and by
other physicists as well. Upon the assumption that for a perfect fluid—
that is, one in which there is no friction between the particles—the
pressure is equal in all directions, Euler and Lagrange had already
obtained analytical relations between the pressure in the fluid, its
density, the time, the coordinates of the particle under consideration,
and, on the one hand, the velocity components; on the other, the
position of this particle at the beginning of the motion. Further, they
had inferred the so-called continuity equation, which required that the
mass of a given particle of the fluid should not change with the time,
therefore that the surface of the liquid should be continually com-
posed of the same particles.

All these equations form for the perfect fluid the analogue of the
principle of d’Alembert and lead to the determination of the variable
quantities through the time and the original situation as a mathemat-
ical problem whose solution, to use an expression of Kirchhoff, would
describe the motion. The problem can be solved for some particular
cases in which the components of the velocity of each fluid particle
may be placed equal to the differential coefficients of a determined
function, which Helmholtz called the velocity potential, along the corre-
sponding directions. This function, for incompressible fluids at least,
has the same form as the potential of gravitating masses for points out-
side of them. But such a veiocity potential does not always exist, and
so Helmholtz attacked the extremely difficult problem of the forms of
motion with complete generality in the memoir above referred to,
which appeared in the year of his coming to Heidelberg.

First of all, he recognized that the change which an indefinitely
small volume of fluid undergoes in an indefinitely small interval of
time is composed of three different motions—a displacement of the

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 105

particle in space, an extension or contraction along three directions at
right angles, and, finally, a rotation about a temporary axis. The exist-
ence of a rotation is, however, excluded when a velocity potential
exists. Helmholtz designated forms of displacement, for which a
velocity potential is not to be derived, as vortex motions. In deter-
mining the change in the velocity of rotation during the continuance
of motion, he discovered that those particles of fluid which do not
already possess rotation do not have such motions imparted to them in
the progress of the disturbance. Defining a vortex line as a line whose
direction is throughout coincident with the direction of the instantane-
ously existing axes of rotations of the particles along it, a remarkable
law was deduced, which may be expressed as follows: A vortex line
remains continually with the same particles, progressing with these
particles through the fluid. and the value of the resulting velocity of
rotation for any particle of the fluid varies directly with the distance
of this particle from its neighbors in the vortex line. If, further, we
designate as a vortex thread the portion of the fluid inclosed within
an indefinitely thin mantle of vortex lines, the product of the velocity
of rotation by the cross section of the vortex thread is constant through-
out its whole length, and so remains during a progressive motion of
the same. It follows that a vortex thread can never cease within the
boundaries of the fluid, but must be either a closed ring wholly within
the fluid or must continue to its boundaries. In the attempt to deter-
mine from the velocity of rotation the velocity of translation, Helm-
holtz succeeded by methods of great mathematical interest in making
it possible to form a conception of the forms of motion, though the
complete analytical solution of the problem was possible only in the
simplest cases. Under certain preliminary circumstances relative to
the nature of the surroundings, the vortex threads and vortex rings
retain unchanged the same quantity of the fluid and are permanent.
In this case it was shown that two vortex rings whose axes are the
same and which have the same direction of rotation would proceed in
the same direction, the foremost becoming distended and moving slower
and slower, while the follower would concentrate itself and move faster,
till finally—provided the velocities of translation lie within certain lim-
its—the follower would overtake the leader, pass through it, and assume
the role which the other played before. This procedure would, how-
ever, in the actual phenomena of vortex motions be very soon inter-
rupted, owing to the friction.

The regularity and relative stability of vortex phenomena have led
W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) to put forward an interesting hypothesis
in which the atoms are supposed to have the form of vortex rings, with
the aim of uniting the theory of the continuity of matter and the
atomic theory. He has also succeeded in connecting the results of the
theory of vortex-atoms with the motion of solid bodies in fluids, and
thus to join with those investigations which aim to eliminate action at

106 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

a distance from the province of physics. To this latter point I shall
return in discussing later researches of Helmholtz.

Helmholtz soon became dissatisfied with his hydrodynamic investiga-
tions thus far referred to, and in the course of the preparation of his
famous handbook of physiological optics he became convinced that, in
order to eliminate the discordance between the results of theory and
experiment in the investigation of the problems of motion of liquids, it
would be necessary to take into consideration the friction between the
liquid particles and the sides of the vessel. As the problem (due to
some experiment of Bessel) of the vibrations of a pendulum ball under
the influence of a surrounding liquid had already been treated, he
investigated upon the basis of Bessel’s observations, with the help of the
already known equations of motion, the condition of the interior of a
liquid mass which is subjected to the friction produced by the pro-
gressive rotary vibrations about one of its diameters of a pendulum
ball consisting of a liquid producing friction. He succeeded in solving
the problem mathematically, expressing the wave motions of the liquid
produced by friction, and in this way was able to check the experi-
mentally derived constants of viscosity for various liquids.

Two laws, important both theoretically and practically, were discov-
ered by him, according to which, under certain circumstances, the flow
of viscous liquids through cylindrical tubes is so divided into stationary
streams that the loss in kinetic energy caused by the friction is a mini-
mum; and in cases of equilibrium of a body swimming in a slow sta-
tionary stream the friction itself assumes a minimum value. Following
this, in the year 1868, appeared his research, of great interest for the
theory of functions, ‘‘On discontinuous fluid motions,” in which he
investigated still further the discharge of fluids and the formation of
independent streams, and treated of the discontinuity of motion char-
acteristic of fluid discharge and of the formation of vortices. Helm-
holtz assumed that from the nature of the problem—the determination
of the origin of independent fluid streams—a discontinuity must neces-
sarily be met with, and that therefore the fundamental hydrodynamic
equations must admit the possibility of a discontinuous relation
between the quantities appearing in them. In fact, in the motion of
an incompressible fluid the pressure, whose diminution is directly pro-
portional to the kinetic energy, becomes negative when the latter
exceeds a certain value, and the fluid must be then torn asunder. It
was shown that any geometrically completely sharp corner by which
the fluid flows must, with fair velocities, cause a parting of the liquid,
but that a blunted angle will only cause such a separation when the
velocity is considerably greater. With the help of the methods of the —
theory of functions, the extremely difficult problem of the form of the
independent streams was discussed. In this discussion it was assumed
that, except for friction, no outside forces are acting, that the streams
are stationary, that the velocity potential depends only on two coordi-

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 107

nates, and that the vessel and orifice have special forms. Finally, the
value of the earlier results relative to vortices was shown for the
determination of the motion of fluid particles in discharge.

In the early part of his stay at Heidelberg, and while engaged in his
hydrodynamic researches, he was also pursuing acoustic and aerody-
namic investigations. In his articles, “On combination-tones” and
‘Upon the tone color of the vowels,” he again adopted the view of other
physicists which he had abandoned in some of his earlier and less
important works, namely, that each sensation, as it is aroused by the
atmospheric vibrations going out from a single sounding body, is com-
pounded from simple sensations or tones such as are caused by a simple
vibratory motion of the air. This hypothesis he formulated mathe-
matically, proceeding from the theorem of Fourier for the representa-
tion of any periodic motion as the sum of a series of sine-motions.
The pitch of a tone was defined as the height of the lowest of its con-
stituent tones, which is called the fundamental, the others being dis-
tinguished as overtones. Exact experimental investigation showed
that the musical tone color depends only on the presence and strength,
but not on the phase differences, of the overtones which are included
in the sound. The sounds as they penetrate the ear could be resolved
into their simple factors, and these could be again reunited. The
sounds produced by the voice were found to differ from the sounds of
most other musical instruments in that the strength of their overtones
depends not on the corresponding cardinal numbers, but on their abso-
lute pitch. Throughout these researches we may perceive the design
to make a Sharp distinction between the sensations in so far as they
consist in impressions peculiar to our nerve apparatus, such as those
due to overtones, and the perceptions which form our ideas of outside
objects, as, for example, the ideas of the sound combined from the par-
tial tones.

In all the previous considerations of acoustics the very far-reaching
hypothesis had been made that the vibratory motions of the air, and
other elastic bodies which are produced by the simultaneous action of
several sources of sound, are always the exact sum of the motions due
to all the separate sound-sources. Helmholtz, however, showed that
this law only holds in strictness when the vibrations are of indefinitely
small amplitudes, and therefore the density changes are so slight that
they are negligible i comparison with the whole density, and the dis-
placements of the vibrating particles are also negligible compared with
the whole masses. A distinction was made between cases where this
law was followed undisturbed both within and without the ear, but the
Sensations not accurately combined to form the perception, and cases
where the combination tone was different from the summation of its con-
stituents from causes operating before the auditory nerves are reached.

His studies in acoustics were soon pursued much further with the
aid of the most refined analysis. In his famous treatise on the ‘“‘Theory

108 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

of air vibrations in tubes with open ends” (1859) we find researches
analagous to those in hydrodynamics already referred to. The question
is raised in what way plane sound waves, excited within cylindrical
tubes and corresponding to simple tones, are modified upon passing
out into the free air.

This inquiry prepared the way to determine the form of vibration
which finally results when the cause exciting the vibratior operates
regularly and continuously. The most important of the general laws
of the potential function were found to be applicable to sound waves;
for it was shown that when sound waves are excited at a point within
a space filled with air their velocity-potential at any other position is
the same as this quantity would be at the first point were waves of the
same intensity excited at the second, and from this it follows that the
phase difference is the same in both cases. Assuming certain restric-
tions in the dimensions of the opening, Helmholtz obtained the relation
between the plane waves within the tube and the semispherical diverg-
ing waves in the free space at a distance, and thus was able to answer
the inquiry with regard to the influence of the open end on the plane
waves. Further investigation gave the positions of the maximum
and minimum amplitude of vibration and the pitch of the tone of
strongest resonance. He treated the difficult question for which of a
series of forms of tubes the motion of the air in the orifice is charac-
terized by the greatest wave length. In a later memoir it was shown
that the results of calculation agree better with experiment when the
interior friction of the air is taken into consideration.

All these results of his acoustical investigations, among which I have
presented only those of the greatest mathematical interest, are contained
in connected order in his famous work, ‘‘The study of tone perceptions
as the physiological basis for the theory of music.”

Among the many results important for the science of music, it may
be mentioned that he distinguished in exact mathematical way between
melody as the basis of music and harmony which serves only to
increase the effect of melody, and that he found a mathematical foun-
dation for the observation that for an harmonious union of several
tones the rates of vibration must stand in a simple ratio, in the fact
that the partial tones accompanying the fundamentals are disagreeable
to the ear when their relative vibration numbers are not in a small,
simple multiple of the ratio of the fundamentals.

Before proceeding to a short account of the much later aerodynamic
investigations of Helmholtz, so far as they are of interest to mathe-
maticians, some consideration is due a memoir on the border between
hydrodynamics and aerodynamics which appeared in 1873 with the
title, “On a theorem concerning geometrically similar motions of fluid
bodies, together with an application to the problem of governing air
balloons.” Hydrodynamic equations were here employed to enable the
production of results of observation obtained by the use of apparatus

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 109

of a certain size, and having a given velocity in a certain fluid to appa-
ratus of another size and another velocity moving in a mass of another
fluid of a similar geometrical form. The extension of the results
analytically obtained for an incompressible liquid to gases led to a
series of interesting applications. Thus Helmholtz found, among other
things, that there is a limit to the size of birds beyond which the mus-
eles would require to do more work in proportion to the mass than
now. In the great vulture nature has probably reached the limit in
size of a creature which shall be able to sustain itself for a long time
in air, and thus man can have no hope by use of the most suitable
wing-like mechanism, which he could move by muscular effort, to raise
and sustain his weight in air. In applying the principle of comparison
above mentioned to the construction of air balloons and ships the inter-
esting result was reached that when the balloon weighs about half as
much as the person propelling it the relation between working force
and weight would be about the same as we are accustomed to see in
steam war vessels.

In the years 1888-1890 Helmholtz extended his investigations of the
motion of fluids in order to show how in masses of air discontinuous
surfaces may result from the continuous action of forces. In these
researches ‘‘on atmospheric movements” and “the energy of the waves
and the winds” the inner friction of the fluids were taken account of,
as in his former hydrodynamic investigations. After showing, by an
exact mathematical treatment, that the effect of the friction at the
earth’s surface was very inconsiderable in the higher layers of air, that
dissipation of the kinetic energy by friction was accomplished chiefly
at the surface of the earth and at the surfaces of separation caused by
rotary motions; and, further, that heat transference, excepting in the
vicinity of the earth’s surface and at the inner discontinuities, is effected
only by radiation and by the convection of the warmer air particles, he
raised the question why the circulation of the atmosphere is not accom-
panied by higher winds than actually do occur. He assigned as the
reason that different layers of air are mixed by the vortices caused by
the rolling together of discontinuous surfaces. In this way the layers
become broken up and receive such a great extension of their surfaces
that the transference of heat and the equalization of their motion
through friction is much facilitated. A still more important cause of
the breaking up and intermixture of the various layers of air is found
in the regular march of waves through the atmosphere, which, as on
water surfaces, is caused by the superposition of two layers of air of
different specific gravities. The existence of such layers is only visible
when the humidity of the under layer becomes so great that mists
gather on the crests of the waves where the pressure is less, and then
there appear strips of parallel clouds which extend over great regions
of the sky. Helmholtz, therefore, was convinced that it was of the
greatest importance to work ont the theory of waves on the boundary

110 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

between two fluids, but on account of the great mathematical difficulty
restricted the investigation at first to the simplest case of the motion
of a rectilinear wave line which proceeds unchanged in form and with
a constant velocity along the unlimited bounding surface between two
fluids of different density. As a level water surface over which blows
a wind of constant strength is in a condition of neutral equilibrium, and
thus readily permits the creation of water waves, so it is with layers of
air of different densities, except that here the phenomenon progresses
on a vastly greater scale. Helmholtz, therefore, investigated the rela-
tions of energy and its division between air and water, and was led to
very general mechanical speculations whose consideration will form the
conclusion of our account. Very interesting but very difficult deduc-
tions were made, which established the difference between stable and
labile equilibrium, and just as, long before, the condition of stable
equilibrium for stationary bodies was found to be a minimum of the
potential energy so for stationary waves with constant velocity-poten-
tial the condition of stable equilibrium was found to correspond to the
minimum of energy.

I turn now to sketch the last great category of his mathematical
physical labors, which led him finally to discoveries of the greatest sig-
nificance for the principles of nechanics. I refer to his investigations in
electricity, which began practically in 1870 and continued for ten years.
Of these the most conspicuous are entitled, ‘On the equations of
motion of electricity for stationary conductors” (1870); ‘‘On the theory
of electro-dynamies” (1870-1874), and ‘‘Comparison of the laws of
Ampere and of Neumann for the electro-dynamic forces” (1875). Most
German physicists at that time deduced the laws of electro-dynamies
from the hypotheses of Wilhelm Weber. ‘These were founded on the
laws of Newton for gravitational forces, and on Coulomb’s law for
static electricity, according to which the intensity of the electrical
force transmitted with infinite velocity in all directions throughout
space, is directly proportional to the product of the two acting electri-
cal quantities and inversely as the square of the distance between
their points of situation. The force is repulsive when the electrical
charges are of the same kind, and attractive when they are of opposite
kinds. Weber extended the assumptions of Coulomb by introducing
besides the distance the velocity and acceleration with which the two
electrical quantities approached or receded from each other. These
suppositions of forces, which depend not simply on the distance but
also on the motion of the points of action, seem now, to be sure, to
contradict the results attained by Helmholtz in his earlier investiga-
tions, for he had showed that forces which depend on the distance and
velocity in general infringe the general law of the conservation of
energy, which holds as well for electro-dynamie as for other phenomena.
But he had not at that time considered the complicated case of the
laws of Weber, where the acceleration was introduced, and it can,

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. jae

indeed, be shown that no reversible process can be derived from
Weber’s law by which work could be done without expenditure of
energy. Besides the hypothesis of Weber, based on the action between
electrically-charged points, there was the older one of F. E. Neumann,
which considered not the action of one charged point upon another, but
of one linear current element on another. This was regarded by Helm-
holtz as one of the happiest and most fruitful conceptions which the
newer mathematical physics has produced. The law which can be
deduced from the hypothesis of Weber for the mutual action of two
linear current elements differs from the Neumann potential law, and
Helmholtz found himself, in the course of his investigations, confronted
with the question whether this hypothesis did in fact represent the
true state of affairs and how both the law of Weber and that of Neu-
mann were related to the laws of Maxwell, which I shall soon have
occasion to mention.

He found that all these laws may be reduced to a common form and
differ then only in the values of a constant which appears. All phe-
nomena which are presented by the circulation of closed currents
through metallic circuits can be accounted for equally well under any
of the several hypotheses; but in the case of incomplete circuits they
lead to considerably different consequences. For the purpose of decid-
ing between these hypotheses, Helmholtz developed, with the help of
his generalized induction law, the equations of motion of electricity in
an extended conducting solid. He found that for a negative value of
the undetermined constant, such as is required by the assumptions of
Weber, a condition of neutral equilibrium of the electricity results, and
thus there may be generated currents of infinite strength and the con-
dition of infinite electrical density. The value zero required by Max-
well and the positive value required by Neumann for this constant do
not, on the contrary, lead to these difficulties. These conclusions were
subjected to many attacks, and their opponents sought both theoretic-
ally and experimentally to show that the hypothesis proposed by E.
Neumann and extended by Helmholtz to form the fundamental law of
electro-dynamic phenomena was incompatible with observation. There
is, in fact, a difference between the potential law of E. Neumann for
closed circuits when applied to incomplete circuits and the form of the
induction law which Helmholtz had earlier derived. For the potential
law ascribes electro-dynamic effect only to currents of electricity and
their action ata distance, and not to the electrical charges put in
motion with the conductors. Experiments show that this assumption
is contradicted by the fact.

With wonderful acuteness of perception Helmholtz had from the
start seen that the solution of all these questions could only be accom-
plished by the very difficult experimental investigation of incomplete
circuits, and he was indeed uncertain that a solution would ever be
obtained, since there might be no incomplete circuits, as the insulator

112 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

which intercepts the conduction of the current might itself be under-
going changes in the distribution of the electricity, so that apparently
incomplete circuits might in reality be complete.

Faraday, who would not admit the existence of forces atting at a dis-
tance, because it appeared to him unthinkable that an action could take
place between two separated bodies without change in the medium
lying between, sought to find such a medium intervening between elec-
trical or magnetic bodies. He succeeded in showing that in almost all
bodies there exists magnetism or diamagnetism, and that in good insu-
lators under the action of electric forces, a change may be observed,
which he designated as dielectric polarization. If, now, one assumes
with Faraday and with Maxwell, who mathematically stated this
hypothesis, that in insulators there may be set up electro-dynamic
activity by which these become dielectrically polarized, then the poten-
tial law follows from the complete theory without modification.

Partly before, partly during the progress of these important re-
searches on the theory of electro-dynamics, Helmholtz pursued investi-
gations on the laws of the division of electric currents in solid con-
ductors and on electric boundary layers. In these investigations the
theorem of the charging of a surface with electricity was extended
with regard to electromotive forces for which a certain distribution of
electrical potential upon the surface of a conductor may be predicted,
which in all other adjacent conductors produces exactly the same cur-
rents as the given distribution of electromotive forces within the inte-
rior of the conductor. It was further shown that the previous assump-
tion that electricity when in a state of equilibrium on one or more bodies
leaves the interior of the bodies completely and is distributed in an
infinitely thin surface layer, is only correct when we have to do with a
single electrical boundary layer on a conductor which touches neigh-
boring conductors or insulators without sudden changes in the poten-
tial function. In those cases, on the other hand, in which irregularities
in the value of the potential function occur on the boundary between
different bodies, as when two conductors under the influence of a gal-
vanic force working between them touch each other, there is formed
along the boundary surface an electrical double layer, whose signifi-
cance for the phenomena which occur when liquids flow along a solid
wall which they moisten was investigated.

In the meantime the conceptions of Maxwell, who, as already men-
tioned, following Faraday, replaced the notion of action at a distance
by the action of the intervening medium, had become of deciding influ-
ence on the works of Helmholtz. In an investigation published in
1881 with the title “On the forces acting in the interior of bodies sub-
jected to magnetic or dielectric polarization,” Helmholtz showed that
it is possible to determine the mechanical forces which act in the inte-
rior of bodies electrically or magnetically polarized without making
any hypotheses regarding the inner constitution of the bodies. The

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 113

analytical treatment led him to expressions from which the forces at a
distance completely disappeared and were replaced by the reactions of
the polarized medium. He thus verified the conceptions of Faraday
and Maxwell, who regarded the ether as the conveyer of tensions in
Space empty of ponderable substance, and who saw in the motions of
electricity in conductors nothing else than the effects of the arising and
passing away of polarization in the insulators. Helmholtz accepted
these views still more completely in a memoir which appeared in 1882
“On systems of absolute measurement for electrical and magnetic
quantities.” In this investigation the theory of Faraday-Maxwell was
given the preference over all other electro-dynamic theories which
assume direct action at a distance having a magnitude and direction
dependent on the absolute or relative motion of two electrical quanti-
ties. For these latter theories violate either the principle of the finite-
ness and constancy of energy or that of the equality of action and
reaction; and first of all, in order to make the theory the basis only of
conservative processes, exclude those phenomena in which, by reason
of friction, heat is created and electrical or magnetic energy lost.

This research, in which, by reason of the observations of Faraday,
he was confronted with the question whether actions at a distance
really exist and must be taken into consideration, shows the wholly
new train of thought upon which he was engaged and whose results
were shortly to appear in discoveries of the greatest value for the
principles of mechanics. But it was first necessary to pursue investi-
gations in other branches of science in order to build thereon a treat-
ment of the principles of mechanics which should embrace the laws of
all the phenomena of nature. He therefore turned his attention to
theoretical chemistry and published in 1882 a treatise ‘“‘On the thermo-
dynamics of chemical processes.” In this the fundamental principles
of the mechanical theory of heat were applied to chemical processes,
and the generalized conception of the principles of mechanics is plainly
visible, though appearing completely in physical form.

Since the loss of mechanical energy by friction creates heat, and a
gain in mechanical energy implies the loss of heat; and since, further,
the quantity of mechanical energy lost or gained is proportional to the
amount of heat correspondingly gained or lost, it becomes natural to
regard heat as a form of energy. The hypothesis may be made that
each particle of a warm body is continually moving with varying
direction and velocity in such a way that its place in the body remains
sensibly unchanged. If this be the case, a part of the energy of a
warm body must be in the form of kinetic energy, and energy of
whatever kind transformed into heat must be measurable in that form.
But the principle of the conservation of energy gives no indication
whether work may be completely transformed into heat and heat
retransformed into work without limit; and a similar uncertainty exists
for all forms of energy. It was to this point of great theoretical and

SM 96 8

114 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

practical interest that Helmholtz next directed his attention. He
investigated how large a part of the heat developed in a galvanic cell
by chemical processes appears in the work done by the current, and
endeavored to arrange the different forms of energy in’ the order in
which they may more or less completely be transformed into work.
The previous experiments on the work equivalent of chemical processes
had been concerned almost exclusively with the evolution or disap-
pearance of heat accompanying the formation or solution of a com-
pound, though in most chemical changes there are changes also in the
condition of aggregation and density of the bodies, for which, also,
work is performed or required. Since in most chemical processes the
changes of melting, evaporation, etc., abstract heat from the surround-
ings, it becomes necessary to inquire what the work equivalents of
these changes are. When one further considers that the chemical
forces may produce not simply heat, but also other forms of energy
without requiring that any of the change of temperature corresponding
to the operation should enter into their production, it appears neces-
sary that in the chemical processes a separation should be made
between the paris of the forces of affinity which are directly changed
to other forms of energy and those which generate heat. These two
parts of the inner energy were designated by Helmholtz as free and
combined; and he found that a chemical reaction proceeding from a
state of rest, and at a constant temperature without the application of
external work, can only go in such a direction that the free energy —
decreases. Thus, under the assumption of the universal application of
the laws of the mechanical theory of heat, the value of the free energy
decides in what sense chemical affinity shall act.

The calculation is only possible when the changes supposed are in
the thermodynamic sense reversible. Helmholtz was led to consider
under what circumstances, if at all, the latent heat of the gases set
free by the decomposition of water would exert influence on the electro-
motive force of cells, but required, in order to pursue this inquiry, to
first give analytical expression to the principles of thermodynamics.
In previous applications of the conception of potential energy, changes
of temperature had not in general been taken into account, either
because the forces entering into the energy changes under evaluation
did not materially depend on the temperature, such, for example, as
gravitation, or else because the temperature remained constant during
the cycle of events considered, or was a function entering into a mechani-
cal change fully determined, as, for example, in the motion of sound
waves the temperature may be considered as a function of the density
of the gas. But when, as might bein the last case, the density is a
function of the temperature, the arbitrary constant must be redeter-
mined for each new temperature, and one can not make a transforma-
tion from one temperature to another.

Helmholtz showed that the thermodynamic equations require for

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 3 4)

their formation only the differential coefficients of the so-called ergals,
completely determined asa function of the temperature. [or processes
taking place at constant temperature the value of the potential fune-
tion is thus determined, and this value he designated as the free energy.
So that, if we call the difference between the total inner energy and
the ergals the bound energy, this latter, divided by the temperature,
gives the quantity termed entropy, already in use. In order to clearly
distinguish what had. in theoretical mechanics been called the vis viva
or kinetic energy from the mechanical equivalent of heat energy,
which was to be considered for the most part as invisible molecular
kinetic energy, he called the first the kinetic energy of organized motion,
defining organized motion—and this distinction is of fundamental signifi-
cance for later works of Helmholtz—as such that the components of
the velocity of the moving masses may be regarded as the differential
coefficients of the space coordinates. Unorganized motion, on the
other hand, is such that as in heat the motion of a single particle has
no necessary similarity to that of its neighbor, and, on account of the
relatively coarse means at our disposal, can not be directly transformed
into other forms of energy. In this sense Helmholtz designated the
value of the entropy as a measure of the disorganization. Ifa change
of condition proceeding with constant entropy be defined as adiabatic,
the entropy becomes the heat capacity for the heat generated during
adiabatic processes at the expense of the free energy. For all changes
of condition in which the temperature remains constant work is per-
formed only at the expense of the free energy, the bound energy chang-
ing in amount at the expense of the heat entering and proceeding away.
Assembling these results, it appears that all exterior work is done at
the expense of the free energy, all evolution of heat is at the expense of
the bound energy, and finally for each rise of temperature of the system
free energy goes over in definite quantity and becomes bound. From
this Helmholtz derived results on the emission and absorption of heat
in the formation and breaking up of chemical compounds, which were
substantiated by observations with galvanic elements.

In the last ten years of his life, from 1884 to 1894, he was occupied
with his great researches on the principles of mechanics, in which he
verified all the theoretical conclusions which he had derived in the
course of his long and difficult investigations in the whoie range of
physics and physiology.

The general principles of mechanics, the principle of d’Alembert,
the law of the motion of a material point, the law of surfaces, the prin-
ciple of the conservation of kinetic energy, and the principle of least
action were all proved with the assumption of Newtonian forces and
rigid connection. It had later been found by observation that the laws
So derived were much more general in their application in nature than
followed from their proofs, and it had been on the one hand supposed
that certain general characteristics of the Newtonian conservative

116 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

forces of attraction were common to all natural forces, while on the
other hand it had been doubted whether, for example, the application
of the principle of the equality of action and reaction was generally
permissible. As already pointed out, the hypothesis had been made that
action at a distance was resolvable into continuous dynamic reactions
in an invisible intervening medium, thus establishing an analogy with
the role of a spring or cord in the transmission of force. Since, how-
ever, it is the province of physics to refer the phenomena of nature to
the simple laws of mechanics, the question arises first of all what con-
stitute the first principles of mechanics, and what are, as Hertz has
said, the final and simplest laws which each natural motion must obey,
which no motion can ignore whose presence in nature is determined by
our everyday experience, and from which as the fundamental principles
of mechanics the whole science may be deduced without further refer-
ence to observation.

Until the pioneer researches of Helmholtz on the conservation of
energy, mechanics, as has been remarked, following Galileo’s concep-
tion of the inertia of masses, had been developed by application of
the three laws of Newton. When, however, the whole structure was
systematically and critically examined, a want of clearness was appar-
ent in the definition of mechanical quantities, and the proofs of funda-
mental laws of statics, such as the laws of the parailelogram of forces
and of virtual velocities, were found to be not altogether rigorous.
Knowledge of the action of forces at a distance and of molecular,
chemical, electrical, and magnetic forces was purely empirical.

The discovery of the principle of the conservation of energy made
possible a consistent development of theoretical mechanics. The idea
of force became less prominent, while mass and energy came forward as
the indestructible physical quantities. Energy is present in two great
divisions, of which the one—kinetic energy—is in all cases given by a
constant function of the velocity of masses, while the other—the poten-
tial energy—is determined by the relative position of the masses, but
must be derived in each case with consideration of their particular
nature. The discussion of the different forms of energy, as well as of
their mutual transformation, forms the subject of both physics and
chemistry. In expressing the progress of phenomena as a function of
the time, Helmholtz did not, like most of his predecessors, make the
equations of motion the starting point from which to derive the genera
principles of mechanics, because in this method it becomes necessary
to make certain assumptions regarding the forces operating and
regarding the limiting conditions of the problem, and these limi-
tations exclude from the consideration a large number of possible
motions. He proceeded, on the other hand, from the principle of least
action, and by this means brought into the discussion many examples
of relations between forces found in nature, but not occurring in
treatises in which the former method is pursued,

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. LEG

These matters formed the contents of memoirs which Helmholtz pub-
lished in 1886 and 1887 with the titles, “On the physical significance of
the principle of least action,” and “The history of the principle of least
action.” Hertz regarded these works at the time as marking the fur-
thest advance of physics. Defining, after Leibnitz, the quantitative
measure of the action following from the inertia of a moving mass as
the product of the mass into the space traversed into the velocity, or
as the product of the kinetic energy into the time, then the principle of
least action requires that the total amount of the action shall have a
limiting value in the passage from a given position of starting toa
given position of rest. In performing the variation the coordinates of
the points corresponding to intermediate positions of the system are
varied simultaneously with the time in such a manner that the total
energy of the system is not changed. This latter requirement can be
satisfied by the condition that.the energy at a given instant shall be
the same for all variations as at the same instant in the unvaried
motion, without regard to the magnitude of this latter, which it is pos-
sible might change in the course of a normal motion. In this way
Lagrange and Hamilton have treated the problem. Jacobi, however,
made the preliminary condition that the potential energy is independent
of the time, and this requires that the amount of energy shall retain a
definite value, in which case this relation may be used to eliminate the
time increment from the action. Physically, Jacobi’s restricting con-
dition holds for a completely determined and closed system, while the
Lagrange-Hamilton form of the equations of motion also holds true for
an incompletely closed system, upon which variable outside influences
are at work independent of the reaction of the moving system.

Hamilton, keeping the Lagrange conditions, has given the principle
of least action another form in which it is called ‘‘ Hamilton’s principle.”
Defining the principal function of Hamilton as the difference between
potential energy and the kinetic energy of the system, then the principle
which bears his name requires that the negative mean values of the
principal function, reckoned for equal time elements, shall have a
definite value for a normal motion between given points.

But Lagrange, Hamilton, and Jacobi had proved the principle (first
stated, but not proved by Maupertuis in 1744) only under the physical
assumption of Newton’s laws; and the motion of the points of a material
system had been deduced from it under the condition of a rigid con-
nection of the points, and with the express assumption of the principle
of the constancy of energy. When Helmholtz had showed the general
validity of the law of the constancy of energy, this last hypothesis
remained a limitation no longer for cases in which all the forms are
known in which energy equivalents are transformed during the progress
of the change. It now remained to decide whether physical processes
which depend not simply on the motions of determinate masses for
which Newton’s laws are applicable, but in which quantities of energy

118 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

come to consideration, may be treated by the principle of least action.
As the forces of heat had already been referred to the hidden motion
of conceivable masses, and as Maxwell had recognized the source of
electrodynamic actions in the motion of unseen masses, Helmholtz
wished to introduce the motion and energy of such hidden masses gen-
erally in physical problems. He recognized as antecedent to obscure
phenomena motion and masses, which are to our senses invisible.

He chose Hamilton’s principle for the expression of all motion, since
it admits that upon a mechanical system whose inner forces may be
deterinined as differential coefficients of force functions independent of
the time, external forces may be exerted depending on the time. The
work done by such forces is to be independently computed as not
belonging to the conservative process, but dependent on other physical
events.

Since, as Lagrange has showed, the outwardly directed forces of the
moving system may be expressed through the principal function,
Helmholtz called this the “kinetic potential,” and thus by the principle
of least action there follows this general characteristic of the progress
of all physical phenomena: The negative mean value of the kinetic
potential reckoned for equal time elements along the path is a minimum,
or when longer intervals are considered it has a limiting value in com-
parison with all other neighboring paths which lead from the starting
point to the end point in the same time. The kinetic potential goes
over into potential energy for the case of a-body at rest, and from the
Hamilton principle it follows that for equilibrium the potential energy
isaminimum. It was already known that when certain coordinates
are represented in the value of the principal function only by their
differential coefficients, and the corresponding forces are equal to zero,
the Lagrange expression for the forces acting along the other coordi-
nates becomes, analytically, exactly as in the general cases, a trans-
formed principal function, which no longer as before contains the deriv-
itives of the coordinates only in the second, but contains them also in
the first degree. Thus, forms of the kinetic potential may appear in
which the separation of the two forms of energy can not be recognized.
Indeed, the kinetic potential may be any function whatever of the
general coordinates and of the corresponding velocities. These facts
led Helmholtz to inquire what form the principal function must take in
order that the Lagrange expression for the external forces should
remain unchanged. He found at once that this condition is satisfied
when this function is increased by the sum of the products of the coor-
dinates into the exterior forces expressed as a function of the time and
resolved along these coordinates. This expanded expression for the
law of least action gives the Lagrange formula for the forces immedi-
ately on performing the variation.

The importance of Lagrange’s form of the equations of motion had
already been shown by Helmholtz, since it is applicable to cases where

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 119

in addition to the potential and actual energy of weighable masses,
thermal, electrodynamic, and electromagnetic equivalents of work
appear. For he had expressed the laws of reversible heat processes in
the form of Lagrange’s equations of motion, and therefore through the
law of the minimum characteristic value of the kinetic potential. It
was found, however, that the temperature as a measure of the thermal
motions did not, like the velocities in the kinetic energy of a ponder-
able system, enter into the expression only in the second power. Hence
if it is desired to determine the general characteristics of systems which
are governed by the principle of least action, the assumption must be
abandoned that the velocities enter only in the Values of the kinetic
energy, in the form of homogeneous functions of the second degree, and
the principle must be discussed under the supposition that the prinei-
pal function is any function whatever of the coordinates and the veloci-
ties. The immediate occasion. for these general considerations on the
part of Helmholtz was the investigation of the form of the kinetic poten-
tial demanded for Maxwell’s theory of electrodynamics, in which the
velocities of electricity enter as a function of the second degree whose
coefficients are not constants as in the measure of the value of the
kinetic energy for ponderable systems, and where besides these appear
linear functions of the velocity, whenever the action of permanent
magnets comes into account.

Since the phenomena of light may be in the main explained under
the hypothesis that the ether is a medium with properties similar to
those of ponderable elastic solids, the principle of least action must
be looked upon as applicable to the motion of light. Thus Helmholtz
regarded the proper domain of this principle as far outreaching the
bounds within which is included the mechanics of weighable bodies,
and he held it as in the highest degree probable that it is the general
law of all reversible natural processes. It is, moreover, to be noted
that irreversibility rests not in the nature of things but in the limita-
tions of our means of investigation, which do not enable us to reor-
ganize unorganized atomic motions so as, for example, to reverse the
motion of all atoms affected by the motions characteristic of heat.

The general validity of the principle of least action makes it of great
value in formulating the laws of new classes of phenomena, in that it
embraces in a single mathematical expression all the essential condi-
tions of these phenomena. All cases of physical processes in which
the kinetic potential contains the velocities in linear members were
called by Helmholtz instances of hidden motion. It was shown that
the principle of least action, as expressed in the above-mentioned gen-
eral form, embraces the principle of the conservation of energy, and
that the value of the energy may be determined from the values of the
kinetic potential. As it does not, on the other hand, appear that in
ali cases where the constancy of energy is preserved the principle of
least action is obeyed, the latter asserts more than the former, and

120 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

expresses a particular characteristic of the natural forces in considera-
tion not included in the fact that they are conservative forces. The
derivation of the value of the kinetic potential from the energy intro-
duces arbitrary quantities which are homogeneous functions in the first
degree of the velocities. This fact is of significance in that it shows
that it is not possible with a complete knowledge of the relations of
the energy to the coordinates and the velocities to find the kinetic
potential and with it the laws of motion of the system, assuming that
the principle of least action is followed. It is necessary in addition to
these facts to discover the linear functions of the velocities which cor-
respond to the hidden motions.

After developing some general correlated relations between the
forces exerted by a system in different directions, as, for example, the
thermodynamic law that if with rising temperature the pressure of a
material system increases then compression will cause a rise of tempera-
ture, Helmholtz was able to show, at least for a restricted number of
coordinates, that, conversely, the principal of least action is applicable
when these correlated relations exist. Finally he derived both the
total and partial differential equations of motion of Hamilton for the
generalized form of the kinetic potential. Krom them he obtained a
series of results for reversible motions of a system; that is, for such
motions that the series of positions assumed in a positive motion should
be reassumed in a return motion without the action of exterior forces,
and with the same time intervals intervening.

We shall presently discuss further applications of the principle of
least action as generalized by Helmholtz, and it need here only be
remarked that Hertz discovers another generally valid law at the basis
of this principle, which describes the motions of all systems directly.
This law asserts that where the connections of a system can be dis-
solved for an instant all the masses of which it is composed will part
asunder in rectilinear and uniform motions, but when such a dissolu-
tion is impossible the system will approximate to these preferred
motions as nearly as possible.

The derivation of the characteristics of motion from the principle of
least action involved great mathematical and physical difficulties and
led Helmholtz to investigations described in ‘‘Studies upon the staties
of monocyclic systems” (1884), and ‘‘ Principles of the statics of mono-
cyclic systems” (1884). These mark a distinct advance in the method
of treatment of mathematical and physical problems, which has already,
in the hands of Boltzmann, reached a commanding place in the theo-
retical physics.

When a system of bodies is affected with motion there is in general
a change either in the position of the system in space or else in the
condition of the bodies. This, however, is not necessary, as is exem-
plified in the passage of a long-continued current of electricity through
awire. In this case the position, the temperature, the magnetic condi-

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 121

tion sn neighboring masses of iron, all remain at every point unaltered.
Hence the motion which we regard as the cause of the phenomenon
must in a sense be so far stationary that as soon as a particle leaves its
place there must, within an infinitesimal time, be substituted another
moving in the same direction with the same velocity, so that, in spite
of the continual motion, there is at no point in space any apparent
change. Helmholtz designated motions, such, for example, as the
motion of a rotating top or that of a frictionless liquid in a circular
canal, as cyclic. When all the motions of a system of bodies are cyclic,
the system is said to be a cyclic system. Cyclic motions are generally
hidden motions, since they do not alone cause a change in the appear-
ance of the distribution of masses, and, conversely, hidden motions are
usually cyclic. <A coordinate is called cyclic when the whole condition
of the system is not altered by changes in this coordinate. Since the
kinetic energy of the system remains unchanged, it is not a function of
a cyclic coordinate, but in general its differential is, since the kinetic
energy is greater the faster the cyclic motion progresses. The condi-
tion of a system may be determined through other than cyclic coor-
dinates, which Helmholtz called the slowly varying coordinates or
parameters. These change so slowly that their differential coefficients
with respect to time may be neglected, and the kinetic energy is there-
fore a function of the parameters, but not of their differential coefficients.
When the parameters remain constant for a long period of time the
motion taking place during the interval is cyclic. Systems are classi-
fied, according to the number of their cyclic coordinates, as monocyclic,
etc., and are in general polycyclic.

The condition for the existence of a cyclic system can be fulfilled
with any degree of approximation whenever the system possesses
chiefly cyclic coordinates, provided the parts of the energy which are
due to the velocity of change in the parameters are small in compari-
son with the parts which depend on the cyclic intensity, or in other
words, provided the velocity of change of the parameters is negligible
compared with that of the cyclic coordinates. The forces of a cyclic
system are by definition independent of the velocity of change of its
parameters, as follows immediately also from the Lagrange expression
through the kinetic energy. It follows also that when no forces operate
on the cyclic coordinates of a cyclic system the whole cyclic move-
ment of the system, determined by the product of the mass by the veloc-
ity, is constant. In this case the motion is defined as adiabatic. The
motions characterized by Helmholtz are defined in accordance with
their properties as such that the potential and actual energy of the
system are independent of a certain number of coordinates which
would be necessary to completely determine the position of the system,
but which are represented in the values of the energy only by their
differential coefficients with reference to the time. This would also be
the case with motions not strictly stationary when the changes in the

122 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

system were allowed to proceed so slowly that the system is never appre-
ciably removed from conditions in which it might continuously remain.
The motion of heat is not strictly monocyclic, for each atom probably
continually alternates in the direction of its motion, and only in that an
enormous number of atoms represent all stages of motion is the
mechanical] character of a monocyclic motion simulated.

Helmholtz raised the question under what general conditions the
known physical characteristics of heat motion could be produced by
other known classes of motions, and whether there is any special class of
motions understood to be mechanical for which there exist restrictions
to the transformation of work equivalents similar to the second law of
thermodynamics. He extended the definition of a monocyclic system
so as to include, besides those containing only one cyclic coordinate,
others in which several such coordinates appear, but all but one of
these functions are of another order of magnitude from the one under
consideration. The very important and interesting case was discussed
in which certain mechanical means are made use of to correlate the
velocities in two monocyclic systems, these devices being of such a
nature as to exert no influence when the motion proceeds with regu-
larity, as desired, but which oppose with appropriate force any devia-
tions from regularity. Helmholtz called a system of this sort, as for
example two tops whose axes are so connected that they are forced to
rotate with equal velocity, fettered, and the condition, the coupling of
the system. He recognized in the device of coupling the only means
of acting directly on the inner motion of monocyclic systems. Thus
in heat motion we are debarred from influencing particular isolated
atoms, and are forced to act without distinction on all contained within
a given space. When, now, two originally independent monocyclic sys-
tems are by suitable regulation of exterior forces caused to assume a
state corresponding to the conditions of a rigid connection, such a
rigid connection may be inserted without disturbing the motion in
progress, which continues in future as restrained by this linkage. In
a Similar way two bodies at equal temperature may be placed in con-
tact without altering their inner motions, so that they retain equal
temperatures while slow changes of temperature are made, and the
equality is not prejudiced by pressure or action at a distance between
the two systems upon coming together.

With the help of mathematical considerations quite analogous to
those employed in thermodynamical investigations, Helmholtz showed
in general that when monocyclic systems admit only of such mutual
connections that the external forces of each separate system depend
only on the momentary condition of the system, and not upon the
beginning or ceasing of connection with other systems, then the
coupling is a pure coupling of motion, and creates a new monocyclic —
system. When upon the beginning of interchange of internal motions
between two or more systems the equilibrium of internal motion

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS. 123

between them requires that a certain function of the parameters—in
heat, the temperature—should have the same value in all the systems,
then the third property of heat expressed by the law of Carnot, namely,
the restricted capacity for transformation, is here in evidence.

The three last memoirs of Helmholtz are in part in correction and in
part in amplification of these investigations, fundamental for the prin-
ciples of mechanics, on the principle of least action. They rest upon
the conceptions worked out by Faraday, Maxwell, and Hertz, accord-
ing to which the electrical oscillations in the ether are, in their velocity
of propagation, their nature as transverse vibrations, and the conse-
quent possibility of phenomena of polarization, refraction, aud reflection,
exactly analogous to the oscillations of light and heat, and constitute
the method of performance of the apparent actions at a distance by
conveying the force through the intervening medium.

In the memoir on “The principle of least action in electrodynamics”
(1892), Helmholtz investigated whether the empiric laws of electrody-
namics, aS expressed in Maxwell’s equations, may be brought into the
form of a law of minima. Upon the ground of considerations already
referred to, he was able to show that the ponderomotive forces could
in fact be deduced from the generalized Hamilton principle in a form
completely agreeing with Maxwell’s theory. The energy was divided
into two parts which played the same roles toward one another as the
potential and actual energy for ponderable masses. The electrical
energy corresponded to the potential energy of masses at rest so long
as no changes occurred in the moments or electric currents, while the
magnetic energy correspouded to vis viva.

He penetrated still further in the electromagnetic theory of light,
and proceeding from the consideration that the dispersion of light is
brought about only at the boundaries of spaces which contain ponder-
able masses besides the ether, he sought, in an article which appeared
in the year 1892, to explain the color dispersion with the aid of this
theory. The mathematical theory of Maxwell requires that pondero-
motive forces must exist along with the electric oscillations of the ether,
which are capable of setting in motion heavy atoms which lie in the
ether. Helmholtz showed that the material particles must also have
charges of electricity, so that in the equations of motion to be formed
the electric movements due to the electricity of each particle, since
they are of different magnitude and direction, and are also affected by
other than electrical forces—as, for example, inertia, friction, etc.—are
to be distinguished from those in the free ether and particularly inves-
tigated in order to deduce the laws of color dispersion.

His general ‘“‘Consequences of Maxwell’s theory of the motions of
the pure ether” (1893) is of very great interest. Capacity for motion
is ascribed to the ether, and it is represented as receiving motions
imparted to it by ponderable masses which permeate it, and as being
thus moved along with them. Such mixtures occur in all substances

124 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICS.

which are either conducting or refracting with respect to a vacuum, or
have values of the dielectric and magnetic constants different from
those of a vacuum. From the motions of the ponderable parts the
corresponding motions of the ether may be determined. For space
free from ponderable masses and filled only with ether, the question
arises, if pure ether is free from inertia whether it makes way for the
motion of material bodies through it, or penetrates them, remaining in
either case wholly at rest, or whether it in part moves with them and
in part makes way for their passage. Under the assumption that the
ether has, mechanically considered, the properties of a frictionless,
incompressible liquid, but without inertia, Helmholtz showed that the
laws founded by Maxwell and elaborated by Hertz are sufficient to
completely determine the laws of the changes and motions which take
place in the ether. ‘The recapitulation of the laws of electrodynamics
under the principle of least action, as already made by Helmholtz,
required for this purpose only the introduction of the hypothesis of
uncompressibility. This would be accomplished by supplying in the
expression for electrokinetic potential the left-hand member of the
definition equation of incompressibility. In this way important con-
clusions could be drawn concerning the rise and decline of pondero-
motive forces in ether at rest and in motion.

In an incomplete ‘‘ Supplement to the paper: On the principle of least
action in electrodynamics” (1894), Helmholtz returned once more to
his recapitulation of the Maxwell-Hertz laws of electrodynamics in the
generalized form of the principle of least action, in order to decide
whether the observed values of the total energy of electromagnetic
processes required the addition of a linear function of the velocities,
and where this is the case to derive the expression for the.ponderomo-
tive forces from this principle.

Here ended the long series of brilliant mathematical and mathemati-
cal-physical researches of this incomparable investigator, which, so far
as was possible without going deeply into the refinements of his mathe-
matical analyses I have endeavored to outline before you, although
certainly in an incomplete manner. What might have been the con-
tents of the address which Helmholtz was preparing for the quadren-
nial scientific assemblage at Vienna with the title, “On continuous
forms of motion and apparent substances,” and of which he left but a
few pages of manuscript for the introduction, will forever remain
unknown to us. But one may well surmise that the world of science
would have found there the philosophic kernel of the great researches
which he carried out in the last years of his life on the foundations and
principles of mechanics and physics.

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF THE UPPER REGIONS OF THE
ATMOSPHERE!

By Prof. ALFRED CORNU,

D.C. L., F. R. S., Officer of the Legion of Honor, Vice-President of the Academy of
Sciences, Paris.

The primary and effective cause for almost all the physical phe-
nomena that occur in the earth’s atmosphere is the heat of the sun.
The atmosphere may then be considered as an immense heating appara-
tus that has for its fire the sun, for its boiler the earth or the clouds
heated by the solar rays, and for its condenser the radiation that occurs
toward interplanetary space.

The means at the disposal of physicists and meteorologists for study-
ing the different regions of the atmosphere are very limited; they are
usually obliged to content themselves with very indirect observations
and to proceed by induction. Most interesting phenomena do indeed
occur in the upper regions at almost inaccessible heights. The pur-
pose of this paper is to show by a few experiments that physical
meteorologists are beginning to attain a true explanation of natural
phenomena. You will see, indeed, that in certain cases they can not
only exactly produce those phenomena, but often they are able to effect
a true synthesis of them by using means in every way analogous to
those actually operative in nature.

I will commence by enumerating the means in use among meteorolo-
gists for studying the different regions of the atmosphere.

The most direct method is founded upon the use of the aerostat.
The aerostat, or balloon, allows us, in fact, to transport our meteorolog-
ical instruments into the very midst of the atmospheric strata we wish
to study.

Unhappily this method is difficult, expensive, and even dangerous;
therefore it is employed only in exceptional cases. The aerostatic
ascensions most productive of results have been those of Gay-Lussac
(1804), of Glaisher (1862), and recently that of Dr. Berson of Stassfurt
(1894), who ascended more than 9,000 meters.

‘Translated from the Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, Vol.
XIV, pp. 638-648, :

125

126 PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER REGIONS OF ATMOSPHERE.

The most important facts observed from the balloon were entirely
unexpected. I will briefly state them:

1. Clouds formed of ice crystals occur very frequently; they consti-
tute the cirrus clouds that float at very great heights.

2. The direction of the wind changes at different heights.

3. The temperature does not always decrease regularly with the
increase in altitude, cold strata and warm strata often alternating with
each other.

The second method of studying the atmosphere is by the establish-
ment of mountain observatories, upon isolated peaks when possible.
At these stations the unexpected inversion of the temperature at vari-
ous altitudes is daily verified.

The ice clouds are too high to be directly reached by mountain
observatories.

A view of the principal mountain observatories of France will prob-
ably interest you.

Photographs of the following observatories were then thrown on
the screen:

Pic du Midi (altitude 2,800 meters), in the Pyrenees.

Mont Ventaux (altitude 1,900 meters), in Provence.

Puy-de-Dome (altitude 1,900 meters), in Auvergne.

Eiffel Tower (altitude 330 meters), at Paris.

This last observatory, thanks to the lightness of its construction of
open work, may almost be considered as a captive balloon fixed perma-
nently at 300 meters above the ground.

Halos.—Since ice clouds are situated at altitudes (6,000 to 10,000
meters) greater than that of the highest mountain observatories, we
are condemned to the use of the balloon alone for all observations upon
them. Fortunately the presence of ice crystals is revealed by an opti-
cal phenomenon that can be observed even at ordinary levels—the halo.
This is a brilliant circle having a radius of about 22 degrees that sur-
rounds the sun or moon. It has a reddish tint within and is slightly
bluish at its outer border. It is explained, as are many appearances of
a similar kind, by the refraction of the light of the sun or the moon
in passing through icy needles. In fact the ice erystals are hexagonal
prisms, the faces of which are inclined to each other, twe by two, at an
angle of 60 degrees. These, scattered through the air and facing in
every direction, refract the light, but the refracted rays can not pass
beyond the angle of 22 degrees imposed upon them by the minimum of
deviation discovered by Sir Isaac Newton. The limit of the refracted
rays is then a cone of 22 degrees around the line that passes from the
eye to the luminous body. .

Experiment imitating a halo.—By forming crystals in a transparent
medium made by mixing appropriate liquids, there is exactly repro-
duced the mingling of the warm, moist strata of the atmosphere with
the coid ones which produces ice crystals.

To do this place in a glass jar a saturated aqueous solution of potash
alum, and send through the jar a luminous beam projecting the image
of a circular opening like that of the sun upon the dark sky. Then

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER REGIONS OF ATMOSPHERE. 127

add to the contents of the jar a quarter of its total volume of rectified
spirits; the alum, insoluble in the alcoholic mixture, precipitates in
very minute crystals that float within the liquid. The image of the
sun first becomes dim as in a fog, but soon a brilliant and slightly
iridescent circle is seen, simulating very closely the appearance of a
halo. The experiment is brilliant and instructive.

This phenomenon is well known to country people; it is a certain
Sign of rain when it appears during a warm day, even when no other
sign predicts a meteorological disturbance.

Alteration and inversion of temperature. —In neighboring observatories
situated at widely different altitudes, like those of Puy-de-Dome and
Clermont, we often find that warm currents exist in the upper regions.
It is to successive inversions of this character that Mr. Amsler, of
Schaffouse, attributes the beautiful phenomenon known in Switzerland
as the “‘Alpengliihen,” which consists in a renewal of the illumination of
the snowy summits of the Alps some moments after the setting of the
sun has darkened them.

There was thrown on the screen a photograph of the summits of the
- Bernese Oberland, the Jungfrau, the Monch, the Higer; the view being
taken from St. Beatenberg, near the Lake of Thun. <A picturesque
imitation of the phenomenon just cited was given by means of a colored
glass and suitable diaphragms.

The explanation of Mr. Amsler is founded on the change of direction
of curvature that is given to the trajectory of the luminous rays accord-
ing as the air at the bottom of the valleys is warmer or colder than
that of the more elevated regions.

Before sunset, the earth’s surface, heated by the solar rays, gives
the trajectory a curvature, S A M B, like that of a mirage; that is,
convex toward the earth; the sun, while setting at S’, causes the
Shadow of the summit, A, to be projected upon the summit, B, which
it would seem ought henceforward to remain in shadow, since the sun
continues to descend and its last rayis S’ A M’ B’. But if, during the
interval, the air of the valley becomes sufficiently cool, the trajectory
curves in the opposite direction, 8’ A M” B’’, and the summit, B, is
illumined anew.

Haperiments showing the inversion of curves of luminous trajectories.—

By using some care we can place in a transparent jar, 20 em. in diam-
eter, three strata of liquid, a lower one of chloride of zine, heavy but

128 PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER REGIONS OF ATMOSPHERE.

less refringent, and an upper one of diluted glycerin, lighter but also
less refringent than the middle one. A movable mirror, LL, throws a
beam of light through an opening, S, of a diaphragm. By throwing
this beam in appropriate directions, it is reflected either from the upper
or the lower stratum. A little fluorescein lights up the trajectories of
the beams and makes their curvatures quite visible; we can thus
represent the Alpengliihen with some accessory features.

Scintillation of the stars.——This phenomenon is also a proof of the
alterations of temperature and movement that occur in the higher
strata of air. Spectrum analysis shows that the scintillation is pro-
duced by the disappearance of the successive colors of the spectrum
following a somewhat regular course, according to the distance of the
star from the zenith.

Imitation of this phenomenon.—A very striking experiment showing
this can be made by projecting with a lens, L, the image of a luminous
opening, O, upon a small silvered ball, B, 3 to 4 inches in diameter,

placed upon black velvet. We thus obtain the appearance of a fixed
star of remarkable brilliancy.

F B
M P C fo) [Lh
| | DSSree
_--f+--- a ai EA! a
Sas Sea \/ =
\ :
i E CG
Hig. 3:

But the luminous opening, O, is made in a cardboard upon which is
projected the spectral image of a slit, F, dispersed by a prism for
direct vision, P. The cardboard, CO, is not exactly at the focus of
the spectrum; that being formed farther away, in the plane of the lens,
L. It hence results that the iridescent image of the slit in the card-
board has at its middle, where is placed the opening, O, a white region.
The light thrown upon the ball, B, is therefore perfectly colorless. But
on leaving the opening, the beam expands into a spectrum upon the
projection lens, L, which recomposes it at B, as in the celebrated
Newtonian experiment.

Then by shifting before the lens, L, a grating with large meshes,
certain radiations are intercepted, and the star, B, appears colored.

A diverging half lens, D, having the same focus as L, annuls its
effect, and the spectrum of the star, with the artificial bands caused by

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER REGIONS OF ATMOSPHERE. 129

the grating, appears on a white screen beside the ball. This is an
imitation of the spectrum analysis of the scintillation of the stars.

We see by these few examples that the study of the optical phe-
nomena of the atmosphere aided by physical analysis and synthesis,
may and must teach us much concerning the calorific phenomena of
inaccessible regions.

Dynanic phenomena of the atmosphere—The phenomena we have
hitherto studied are due to states of almost complete equilibrium in
the atmospheric strata; we might call them static. But the calorific
action of the sun, combined with the cooling action of radiation into
space, may produce phenomena of movement presenting every degree
of intensity, from the weakest to the most violent. We will call these
dynamic phenomena.

They are manifested under very diverse forms:

1. Under the form of mechanical energy; which results in the forma-
tion of winds, whirlwinds, cyclones, waterspouts, ete.

2. Under the form of calorific energy; which results in the formation
of clouds, rain, and hail, corresponding to the changes of state of water,
the ever variable element of the atmosphere.

3. Under the form of electrical energy; lightning, thunder, ete.

In fact, the transformation of solar energy into mechanical energy
is the fundamental phenomenon and the one that leads to all others.
For the sake of brevity this is the only transformation that we will
consider here.

The most simple mechanical phenomenon that is produced in the
atmosphere is the wind. ‘The wind has for its origin a difference of
pressure between two more or less distant points. We have known
since Pascal that the pressure of air is measured by the barometer.
We might, then, think that the direction of the wind could always be
determined by the indications of that instrument; that is to say, that
the wind ought to go from the point where the barometrical pressure
is greatest to the point where that pressure is least.

But, strange to say, this is almost never the case; the real direction
of the wind is always oblique to that theoretical direction.

This fact has only been known for a few years. It has been put
beyond doubt by the general meteorological charts which, conceived
thirty years ago by Le Verrier, are to-day so widely circulated.

The wind seems to move around the point in the chart where the
minimum is found, its direction, in the northern hemisphere, being the
reverse of that taken by the hands of a watch, or in the same direction
with the hands around the point of maximum pressure. In the south-
ern hemisphere these directions are reversed.

In a word, the most ordinary movement of the atmosphere is a
gyratory one, that which is called cyclonic.

This whirling movement of the air was noted long ago. We see it
occurring quite frequently around us; dust and dead leaves are raised

SM 96 9

130 PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER REGIONS OF ATMOSPHERE.

by the wind in gyrations similar to the eddies of water in rivers.
Sailors are acquainted with cyclones and water spouts, and dread their
dangerous effects. On the American continent there are also observed
terrible hurricanes, called tornadoes. These gyratory movements
might appear to belong only to great tempestuous disturbances, but as
we pursue in detail the study of the atmosphere we find that this kind
of disturbance is met with in all the manifestations of displaced air.
We conclude from this that the cyclonic movement is in some way the
normal state of agitated air. It does not seem possible to use any force
upon a gaseous mass without developing in it more or less rapid rota-
tions that tend to become permanent.

ieperimental proof.—W henever we eject a strong jet of gas there are
found about it one or more cyclonic currents. The cyclone takes the
form of a ring if the ejected column is quite cylindrical, as is seen in
the rings of smoke that occur after the explosion of cannon, guns, etc.

Here was shown the well-known experiment of producing fine
wreaths of vapor by striking the canvas bottom of a box filled with
vapors of ammonium chloride and having a circular opening in its top,
the wreaths being rendered visible by placing them within the range of
an electric light.

Multiple origin of the gyratory movements of the atmosphere.—Almost
all the general causes that affect the movement of the atmosphere are
gyratory influences; when the movement is once set up it continues of
itself and sometimes increases. We ought to mention, in the first
place, the rotation of the earth, which always involves a small com-
ponent of rotation effecting the displacement of a gaseous mass in
latitude or altitude. In the second place, and acting as a controlling
cause, we have the solar heat, which warms the air near the ground or
the clouds. As the ascensional force of the heated gas can not be uni-
form over all the surface exposed to solar radiation (both because of
the nature and the configuration of the surface), there is a disturbance
of the equilibrium at certain points, and columns of air tend to rise.
We have then before us the case of the jets already cited, the condi-
tions being favorable for gyrations around horizontal axes. When the
gyration has once started, the causes that led to it keep it up and
increase it.

The existence of whirlwinds with horizontal axes has been observed
in hailstorms (in particular in the storm of May 20, 1893, at Pitts-
burg) by an American meteorologist, Mr. Frank W. Very, and has
attorded him a very ingenious explanation of the formation of hail.
Such a whirlwind, if it is of sufficient size, transports the warm, moist
air from the surface of the earth into elevated cold regions. The
moisture freezes, and the ice crystals are carried along in the gyratory
movement; they alternately rise and fall, following the spirals of the
whirlwind, and at every passage into the lower regions, charged with
moisture, they increase in size. This explanation accounts for all the
special phenomena that we observe in the fall of hailstones; their zonal

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER REGIONS OF ATMOSPHERE. 131

structure, their very low temperature, the peculiar noise before their
fall, the electric phenomena that accompany them; for a whirlwind of
hail is a true inductive electrical machine—a sort of replenisher.

Artificial reproduction of natural gyratory phenomena.—The phe-
nomena produced by the rapid rotation of air are quite unexpected
because of the singular behavior of the forces set in play. The ordi-
nary laws of mechanies, familiar to us from our daily experience, appear
to be entirely different from those which the cyclonic movements seem
to obey. And this ought not to astonish us. We have reduced
mechanics to its most simple elements; a material particle, a constant
force, rectilinear motion. Thanks to these simplifications, we have well
mastered the motion of spherical projectiles, of a pendulum, of the
rotation of a fly wheel, etc. But as soon as the solid body becomes
complex in form, whenever the movement that it may assume involves
both translation and rotation, our imagination does not well seize it.
If to the complication of form there is further added the resistance of
_the surrounding medium, we then have no longer any idea of the
probable effect that will result. Witness the boomerang. As to the
movements, they are so difficult for us to foresee that we are always
surprised if we succeed in manipulating a vessel filled with water. As
soon as the mass of liquid becomes somewhat considerable the tumultu-
ous disturbance that we involuntarily cause in it always leads us to
commit some awkward act.

You will see, then, how impossible it is that we should be able to
predict the movements of the atmosphere, whose mass is immense, each
cubic meter weighing 1,300 grams. If the energy expended in moving
such masses is considerable, inversely the stability of the controlling
forces 1s very great, since it must last until that energy is dissipated
by passive resistance, almost all of which is due to friction against the
earth’s surface.

We will not seek, therefore, to analyze the forces involved in the
gyratory movements ofthe air. I will confine myself to repeating before
you some of the beautiful experiments of M. Ch. Weyher, who has been
so kind as to come himself to assist me and to set up the apparatus that
4 now place before you.

You see here a sphere composed of 10 semicircular blades, made to
rotate rapidly around the axis AB (fig. 1, Pl. 1). The air attracted by
this rotation produces a general cyclonic movement symmetrical with
reference to the plane of the equator. The air is drawn toward the
revolving sphere from all sides, as may be shown by bringing near to
it smoke or bits of paper. This air is expelled along the equatorial
circumference, as you will see by these paper wreaths, which maintain
themselves concentrically about the equator in a position that reminds
one of the rings of Saturn, the tension of the paper and its rapid vibra-
tion clearly showing that it is the repulsion of the equatorial current
that maintains them.

132 PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER REGIONS OF ATMOSPHERE.

It might be supposed from this that equatorial repulsion only can be
produced by such a revolving sphere; but the complexity of cyclonic
movements baffles our most assured expectations. If we bring near
the sphere a light ball, it is strongly attracted and commences to turn
rapidly about the moving sphere in the equatorial plane. A second,
a third, launched in the same way, follow it with varying velocity and
represent satellites. The planetary similitude is then complete.

This paradox of a repulsion changed into attraction by changing the
form of the body presented is easily understood when we consider the
_resultant of the attractive and repulsive forces on the surface of the
movable body. Cyclonic attraction dominates throughovrt a greater
angular extent around the revolving sphere. This can be easily proved
by placing below the sphere a basin full of hot water. If the air of the
room is quite calm, we see the steam gradually unite into a whirling
column extending from the surface of the water to the revolving sphere.
This is an imitation of a waterspout. The importance of this phe-
nomenon has led M. Weyher to reproduce it in a more striking form,
using a much greater amount of mechanical energy, corresponding
more nearly to that which occurs in nature.

The gyratory movement, which in nature has its source in the upper
regions of the atmosphere, is set up by a fan placed three meters above
a vessel of water 4 meters in diameter (fig. 2, Pl. 1). When the fan is
made to revolve (400 to 500 revolutions per minute) the aerial cyclone
thus formed reaches gradually the surface of the water, which is seen
to be agitated, forming centripetal spirals that unite in a cone several
centimeters in height. Above this cone there forms a sheaf of droplets
that fall back with a whirling metion. This attraction at a distance is
rendered still more striking when the water is slightly heated. The
steam then forms a hollow tube, the empty part of which is distin-
guished by its dark tint and its geometrical regularity. It passes from
the surface of the water toward the fan, raising light objects like bits
of straw that float on the liquid. :

Such is the experiment that was made in the open air at the works
of the Société Weyher et Richmond in 1887. With the smaller appa-
ratus which you see here (fig. 3, Pl. I) we can repeat it under equally
conclusive conditions. The fan is placed at the upper part of this case,
which is 2 meters high and provided with a glass front. The water,
slightly heated and containing a little soap, is placed in a basin at the
bottom of the case. As soon as I set the fan going you observe the
agitation of the water, the soap bubbles rushing toward the foot of a
column of steam. Soon that column takes on the form described above
and simulates exactly the appearance of a natural waterspout. Below
we see the ‘‘ bush”’—that is to say, the sheaf-like arrangement of bub-
bles; above, the hollow funnel of steam. A light ball placed on the
surface of the water is first drawn toward the center of disturbance
and caught at its foot. By increasing the velocity of rotation (which

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PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER ATMOSPHERE.

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA OF UPPER REGIONS OF ATMOSPHERE. 133

increases the power of the cyclone) the ball is raised by the waterspout,
sometimes following the funnel throughout its entire height.

The helicoidal movement of this light ball, as well as the appear-
ance of the nebulous funnel, show very well how the waterspout is
formed. We can see the whorls of helicoidal currents superposed on
each other, some going up, others going down. There is a perpetual
passing and repassing between the fan and the surface of the water.
As all the currents turn in the same direction, if those going up describe
right-hand helices, those going down describe left-hand helices. It
is the failure to recognize this double movement of ascent and descent
that has kept up the misunderstanding between the partisans of the
ascending spouts and those who claim that they are always descending.

The ascensional movement of the light ball drawn into the spout
shows the upward velocity very well. It is more difficult to demon-
strate the downward motion, which some theorists consider the only
one, because the space in which it acts when the experiment is shown on
this reduced scaie is quite contracted, being confined to the very interior
of the nebulous envelope, where a dark color shows a central cavity.
Still I shall be able to demonstrate this movement by means of a very
simple device. I place at the upper part of the spout a body that emits
smoke. We see that this smoke is soon drawn into the spout, is twisted
into a long, pointed cone, and descends toward the surface of the water.
This is exactly what is seen in nature when in a marine waterspout
the clouds descend in the form of a funnel that attaches itself to the
“bush” formed by the water on the surface of the turbulent ocean.
This funnel might be called the safe portion of the spout. The danger-
ous part is invisible, being the envelope of air that whirls about this
funnel. In the experiment you see before you the reverse is the case.
The cyclonic envelope is quite visible, thanks to the steam that has
been supplied. The internal funnel remains dark. By introducing the
smoke we verify its existence and form.

I could proceed to show you that with a similar apparatus it is
possible to reproduce a cyclone with all its peculiarities. The varia-
tions of pressure at the time of its passage—the low barometer, the
central calm, the sudden outburst of the wind, the eye of the storm,
etc.—all these M. Weyher has demonstrated. But time is wanting.
The experiments you have just seen will suffice, I hope, to show how
complete these experimental syntheses are and how they reproduce
natural phenomena even in the most minute details.

I will conclude by merely calling your attention to the great gain, —
both in extent and certitude, that must accrue to meteorology by its —
becoming an experimental science.

WA ne

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P aia eae ‘ ; : ve

NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID ATR!

By Professor DEWAR, M. A., LL. D., F. Rk. 5., M. hk. I.

Of all the forms of engineering plant used in low-temperature
research, the best and most economical for the production of liquid air
or oxygen is one based on the general plan of the apparatus used by
Pictet in his celebrated experiments on the liquefaction of oxygen in
the year 1878. Instead of using Pictet’s combined circuits of liquid
sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide, maintained in continuous circula-
tion by means of compression, liquefaction, and subsequent evapora-
tion, it is preferable to select ethylene (after Cailletet and Wroblewski)
for one circuit, and for the other either nitrous oxide or, better, carbon
dioxide. Further, instead of making highly compressed oxygen to be
liquefied by heating potassium chlorate in an iron bomb directly con-
nected with the refrigerator, it is safer and more convenient to use gas
previously compressed in steel cylinders. The stopcock that Pictet
employed to draw off liquid and produce sudden expansion was in his
apparatus placed outside the refrigerator proper, but it is now placed
inside, so aS to be kept cool by the gases undergoing expansion. This
improvement was introduced along with that of isolating the liquid
gases by surrounding them with their own cooled vapor in the appa-
ratus made wholly of copper, described and figured in the Proceedings
of the Royal Institution for 1886. In all continuously working circuits
of liquid gases used in refrigerating apparatus, the regenerative princi-
ple applied to cold, first introduced by Siemens in 1857, and subse-
quently employed in the freezing machines of Kirk, Coleman, Solvay,
Linde, and others, has been adopted. Quite independently, Prof. Kam-
erlingh Onnes, of Leyden, has used the regenerative principle in the
construction of the cooling circuitsin his cryogenic laboratory.” Apart,
therefore, from important mechanical details and the conduct of the gen-
eral working, nothing new has been added by any investigator to the
principles involved in the construction and use of low-temperature appa-
ratus since the year 1878. Detailed drawings of the Royal Institution

1 Read at weekly evening meeting of Royal Institution of Great Britain, March
27, 1896, Edward Frankland, esq., D. C. L., LL. D., F. R.S., vice-president, in the
chair. Printed in Proceedings of the Institution, Vol. XV, February, 1897, page 133.

2 See paper by Dr. H. Kamerlingh Onnes on the ‘‘Cryogenic laboratory at Leiden,
and on the production of very low temperatures,” Amsterdam Akademie, 1894.

135

136 NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR.

refrigerating plant now in use have not been published, simply because
changes are constantly being made in the apparatus. Science derives
no benefit from the description of transitional apparatus when there is
no secret about the working process and how to carry it into effect.
The Philosophical Magazine of February, 1895, contains a fantastic
claim put forward by Professor Olszewski, of Cracow, that because he
used in 1890 a steel tube combined with a stopcock to draw off liquid
oxygen he had taught the world, to use his own language, ‘‘the
method of getting large quantities of liquid gases.” In addition the
professor alleges, four years after the event, that the experiments made
at the Royal Institution are chiefly borrowed from Cracow, and that he
is entitled to the credit of all low-temperature research. As to such
claims, one can only wonder at the meager additions to knowledge that
in our time are unhesitatingly brought forward as original, and more
especially that scientific men could be got to give them any currency
in this country. Such persons should read the late Professor Wro-
blewski’s pamphlet entitled ‘‘Comment lair a été liquéfié,”! and make
themselves generally acquainted with the work of this most remarkable
man before coming to hasty conclusions on claims of priority brought
forward by his sometime colleague.

Liquefying apparatus.—A laboratory apparatus for the production of
liquid oxygen and other gases is represented in section in Plate II. With
this simple machine 100 ce. of liquid oxygen can readily be obtained,
the cooling agent being carbon dioxide, at the temperature of —79°.
If liquid air has to be made by this apparatus, then the carbonic acid
must be kept under exhaustion of about 1 inch of mereury pressure, so
as to begin with a temperature of —115°. Under such conditions the
yield of the liquid gases is much greater. The gaseous oxygen, cooled
before expansion by passing through a spiral of copper tube immersed
in solid carbon dioxide, passes through a fine-screw stopcock under a
pressure of 100 atmospheres, and thence backward over the coils of
pipe. The liquid oxygen begins to drop in about a quarter of an hour
from starting. The general arrangement of the circuits will be easily
understood from the sectional drawing. The pressure in the oxygen
cylinders at starting is generally about 150 atmospheres, and the best
results are got by working down to about 100. If a small compressor
is combined with the apparatus, the liquefaction can go on contin-
uously. This little apparatus will enable liquid oxygen or air to be
used for demonstration and research in all laboratories.

Vacuum vessels.—It has been shown in previous papers” that a good
exhaustion reduces the influx of heat to one-fifth part of what is con-
veyed when the annular space in such double-walled vacuum vessels is
filled with air. If the interior walls are silvered, or excess of mereury

1 Paris, Librairie du Luxembourg, 1885.
2“ (On liquid atmospheric air,” Proc, Roy. Inst., 1893; ‘‘Scientific uses of liquid
air,” ibid., 1894.

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NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR. one

is left in the vessel, the influx of heat is diminished to one-sixth part of
the amount entering without the metallic coating. The total effect of
the high vacuum and silvering is to reduce the ingoing heat to one-
thirtieth part, or, roughly, 34 per cent. Vessels constructed with
three dry-air spaces only reduced the influx of heat to 35 per cent. An
ordinary mercury vacuum vessel is therefore ten times more economical
for storing liquid air, apart from considerations of manipulation, than
a triple annular-spaced air vessel. It has been suggested that the
metallic coating of mercury does no good, because Pictet has found
that all kinds of matter become transparent to heat at low tempera-
tures. The results above mentioned dispose of this assumption, and
direct experiment proves that no increase in the transparency of glass
to thermal radiation is effected by cooling it to the boiling point of air.'

An ocular demonstration of the correctness of the above statements
can easily be shown by mounting on the same stem three similar
double-walled test tubes, two of which have been simultaneously
exhausted and sealed off from the air pump together, while the third is
left full of air. One of the vacuum test tubes is coated with silver in the
interior. The apparatus is shown in fig. 1, Plate IiI. A has the annu-
lar space filled with air; B and C are exhausted, C being coated with
silver. On filling liquid ethylene to the same height into each vessel
and inserting corks with similar gas jets and igniting the escaping gas,
the relative volumes of the flames is roughly proportional to the influx
of heat, and resembles what is shown in the drawing. It is satisfac-
tory to have independent corroboration of the advantages of the use of
vacuum vessels, and this may be found in a paper by Prof. Kamerlingh
Onnes, of Leyden, communicated to the Amsterdam Academy of Sci-
ences, 1896, entitled ‘‘ Remarks on the liquefaction of hydrogen, on
thermodynamical similarity, and in the use of vacuum vessels,” in
which he says: “In the same degree as it becomes of more importance
to effectuate adiabatic processes at very low temperatures, the impor-
tance of the vacuum vessels of Dewar will increase. It seems to me
that they are the most important addition since 1885 to the appliances
for low-temperature research.” . . . “It is a rejoicing prospect that
practical engineers will doubtless feel the want of such nonconducting
manties. For as soon as this stage is reached numbers of heads and

1At a meeting of the French Academy in 1895 a paper by M. Solvay, of Brussels,
was read, in which my 1892 device of vacuum vessels was attributed to M. Cailletet,
and tacitly accepted by him. In 18751 had already used a highly exhaustive vessel,
of similar shape to the vacuum test tube, in calorimetric experiments. See paper
on “The physical constants of hydrogenium,” Trans. Koy. Soc. Ed., Vol. XXVII.
Even as late as April, 1896, Professor Tilden, D.Sc. F. R.S. of the Royal College of
Science, in a paper entitled ‘“ L’Appareil du Dr. Hampson pour la liquéfaction de
Vair et des gas,” communicated to the Revue Générale des Sciences, thought proper
to write as follows: ‘‘Un manchon de verre, dans lequel on a fait le vide (manchon
semblable a ceux décrits par Cailletet ou Dewar).” Where did Professor Tilden find
Cailletet’s description of a vacuum vessel? This is not the only statement in the
paper requiring correction.

138 NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR.

hands are disposed to take over the problem from the scientific
researcher.”

Solid air.—As Professor Olszewski has recently alleged that air does
not solidify at the lowest pressures,’ the author’s former experiments
were repeated on a larger scale. If a liter of liquid air is placed in a
globular silvered vacuum vessel and subjected to exhaustion, as much
as half a liter of solid air can be obtained and maintained in this con-
dition for half an hour. At first the solid is a stiff, transparent jelly,
which, when examined in the magnetic field, has the liquid oxygen
drawn out of it to the poles. This proves that solid air is a nitrogen
jelly containing liquid oxygen. This statement was made in a paper
“On the refraction and dispersion of liquid oxygen, and the absorption
spectrum of liquid air” (Professors Liveing and Dewar), published in the
Philosophical Magazine for September, 1895, yet Professor Olszewski,
in 1896,” is declaring ‘that Professor Dewar has stated that liquid air
solidifies as such, the solid product containing a slightly smaller per-
centage of nitrogen than is present in the atmosphere. My experiments
have proved this statement to be incorrect.” The Cracow professor may
well have the satisfaction of correcting a statement which was never
made byme. He seems also to forget that in 1893 (Proceedings Royal
Institution, ‘‘ Lecture on liquid air”), it is distinctly stated that “all
attempts to solidify oxygen by its own evaporation have failed.” Solid
air can only be examined in a vacuum or in an atmosphere of hydrogen,
because it instantly melts on exposure to air cooled to the temperature of
its boiling point, giving rise to the liquefaction of an additional quantity
of air. It is strange to see a mass of solid air melting in contact with
the atmosphere, and all the time welling up like a kind of fountain. The
apparatus shown in fig. 2, Plate III, is well adapted for showing the direct
liquefaction of the air of a room and its solidification. A large vacuum
vessel, G, is mounted on a brass stand containing another smaller vessel,
B, of the same kind. By means of the two cocks, C and D, either the
large vessel G or the bulb B can be connected to the air-pump circuit.
Liquid oxygen is placed in A, which can, by opening the stopcock D, be
cooled to —210° by exhaustion. If the stopcock C is shut and a baro-
metric gauge is joined on at F, the dropping of the liquid air from the
outside of A will go on even at as low a pressure as 4 inches of mercury;
which is equivalent to saying that this apparatus would liquefy air if
taken by a balloon 10 miles high. If F is now opened, giving a supply
of air at atmospheric pressure, the cup B soon fills with liquid air.
Unless the air supply is passed over soda lime and strong sulphurie,
the liquid is always turbid from the presence of ice crystals and solid
carbonic acid. Now, on shutting F and opening C the air in B is placed
under exhaustion and soon solidifies to a jelly-like mass. When the
vacuum is about 14 mm. then the temperature of the solid air is —232°
by the platinum resistance thermometer, or —216° C. On allowing
the air to enter, the solid instantly melts and more liquid air is formed.

1 Phil. Mag., Feb., 1895. 2See Nature, Aug. 20, p. 378.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE III.

1 2

1. LiquiD ETHYLENE FLAME CALORIMETER.

2, LECTURE APPARATUS FOR PROJECTING THE LIQUEFACTION OF AIR AT
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND ITS SOLIDIFICATION.

NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID ATR. fad

The same experiment may be repeated many times by simply opening
and shutting the stopeocks. When the liquid air loses too much
nitrogen, then it no longer solidifies. This apparatus may be used to
show that when liquid air is running freely into B liquefaction is
instantly arrested by allowing hydrogen to enter instead of air.

Samples of air liquefied in sealed flasks—In a paper ‘“‘On the
relative behavior of chemically prepared and of atmospheric nitro
gen,” communicated to the Chemical Society in December, 1894, the
plan of manipulating such samples was described. The arrangement
shown in Plate IV, illustrates how oxygen in A under 0.21 of an atmos-
phere pressure, and nitrogen in B under 0.79 of an atmosphere, can be
compared as to the first appearance of liquefaction in each, and finally
as to their respective tensions when the temperature is as low as that
‘of solid nitrogen. The flasks A and B have the capacity of more than
a liter. Each has a manometer sealed on, and in each phosphorie
anhydride is inserted to secure dryness. A large vacuum vessel, C,
holds the liquid air, which is gradually lowered in temperature by
boiling under exhaustion. The moment liquefaction takes place the
tubes D’/ D’”’ begin to show liquid. The tubes must be drawn fine at
the end when accurate observations are being made. In the same
manner two oxygen flasks were compared. One was filled with gas
made from fused chlorate of potash contained in a side tube sealed onto
the flask. The other was treated in the same way, only the chlorate
had a little peroxide of manganese added. The former gave perfectly
clear blue liquid oxygen; the latter was turbid from solid chlorine.
Two flasks of dry air that had stood over phosphoric anhydride were
liquefied side by side, the only difference between the samples being
that one was free from carbonic acid. The one gave a liquid that
was perfectly clear; the other was turbid from the 0.04 per cent of
carbon dioxide.

The temperature was lowered by exhaustion until samples of
liquid air from two flasks placed side by side as in Plate IV, became
solid. The flasks were then sealed off for the purpose of examining
the composition of the air that had not been condensed. The one
sample contained oxygen, 21.19 per cent, and the other 20.7 per cent.
This is an additional proof to the one previously given that, substan-
tially, the oxygen and nitrogen in air liquefy simultaneously, even
under gradually diminishing pressure, and that in these experiments
all the known constituents of air are condensed together. These
results finally disprove the view expressed in “‘A system of inorganic
chemistry,”! by Professor Ramsay, where he says: “ Air has been
liquefied by cooling to —192°, but as oxygen and nitrogen have not the
same boiling points, the less volatile oxygen doubtless liquefies first.”
My old experiments” showed that the substance now known as argon
became solid before nitrogen, but chemical nitrogen and air nitrogen,

11891, p. 70. 2See Proc. Chem. Soe., Dec., 1894.

140 NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR.

with its 0.1 per cent of argon, bebaved in substantially the same way
on liquefaction.

Liquid nitric oxide.—Great interest attaches to the behavior of nitric
oxide at low temperatures. Professor Olszewski has examined the
liquid and describes it as colorless. Samples of nitric oxide have been
prepared in different ways. These have been transferred to liquefae
tion flasks, where they were left in contact with anhydrous potash, sul-
-phurie acid alone, a mixture of sulphate of aniline and sulphuric acid,
or phosphoric acid, for many days before use. Each of the samples,
when cooled, gave a nearly white solid, melting into a blue liquid. The
color is more marked at the melting point than at the boiling point.
Liquid nitric oxide is not magnetic; neither is the solid phosphorescent.
Color in the oxides of nitrogen evidently begins with the second oxide.,
Solid nitric oxide does not show any chemical action when placed in ~
contact with liquid oxygen, provided the tube containing it is completely
immersed; but if the tube full of liquid oxygen is lifted into the air,
almost instantly a violent explosion takes place.

Specific gravities taken in liquid oxygen.—In a good vacuum vessel
specific gravities may be taken in liquid oxygen with as great ease as
in water. The shape of the vacuum vessel which works best is shown
in fig. 1, Plate V. It must contain excess of mercury and be thoroughly
boiled out, so that the inner vessel becomes completely coated with a
mercury mirror as soon as the liquid oxygen is filled in. Instead of a
mereury vacuum, the interior may be silvered and highly exhausted bya
Sprengle pump. The flasks must also be thoroughly clean and free
from dust, otherwise the liquid oxygen will not remain tranquil. Any
superheating is prevented by inserting a long narrow piece of wood for
a moment before the final weighing.

Some twenty substances were weighed in liquid oxygen,' and the
apparent relative density of the oxygen determined. The results were
then corrected, using Fizeau’s values for the variation of the coefficient
of expansion of the solids employed, and thereby the real density of
liquid oxygen calculated. The resulting value was 1.1375, bar. 766.5,
in the case of such different substances as cadmium, silver, lead, cop-
per, silver iodide, cale-spar, rock crystal. The following table gives
some of the observations:

Mean cubical coeficient of Apparent | Real density

expansion between density of liq-| of liquid

15° C.-183° C. | uid oxygen. oxygen.
| Cadmium, 7986 X 10>5....-...| 1.1188 1. 1359
Lead, TUBE OS WO Sscncacc 1.1197 1. 1367
| Copper, 4266 X 10 -5..-.--- 1, 1278 1. 1370
Silver, BH <1) =o. ocooe 1. 1278 1. 1885
Cale-spar, 1123 x 10 5...__.- 1. 1352 1. 1376
Rock crystal, 2769 « 10~5.._._.. 1.1316 1.1376
Silver iodide, 0189 x 10-5_..._.- 1. 1372 1.1376

The liquid oxygen might possibly contain a small proportion of nitrogen.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE !V.

TO EXHAUST

PLAN OF COMPARING RELATIVE TEMPERATURES OF LIQUEFACTION AND
SMALL VAPOR PRESSURES.

NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR. 141

Direct determinations with an exhausted glass cylindrical vessel
displacing about 22 ¢. c. gave 1.1378, Fizeaw’s parabolic law for the
variation of the coefficient of expansion holds down to —1835°. The
solid which showed the greatest contraction was a block of compressed
iodine; the one that contracted least being a compressed cylinder of
silver iodide. Wroblewski gave the density of liquid oxygen at the
boiling point as 1.168, whereas Olszewski found 1.124. The variation
of density is about +0.0012, for 20 mm. barometric pressure. Much
work requires to be done in the accurate determination of the physical
constants of liquid gases.

Tiquid air.—A large silver ball weighed in liquid air gave the
density of the latter as 0.910, and the corresponding density of nitro-
gen at its boiling point 0.850. It is difficult to be quite certain that
the constituents of liquid air are in the same proportion as the gaseous
ones, so that further experiments must be made. Liquid air kept
in a Silvered vacuum vessel gradually rises in boiling point from the
instant of its collection, the rate of increase during the first hour being
nearly directly proportional to the time. As the increase amounted to
1° in ten minutes, the boiling point of oxygen ought to have been

reached within two hours. The density of liquid air, however, does

not reach that of pure oxygen even after thirty hours’ storage. The
large apparatus of the Royal Institution for air liquefaction can be
arranged to deliver liquid air containing 49 per cent of oxygen, which
gives off gas containing 20 per cent of oxygen, rising after six hours to
72.6 per cent.

Combustion in liquid oxygen.—A small ignited jet of hydrogen burns
continuously below the surface of liquid oxygen, all the water produced
being carried away as snow. There is a considerable amount of ozone
formed, which concentrates as the liquid oxygen evaporates. In the
same way graphite or diamond, when properly ignited, burns continu-
ously on the surface of liquid oxygen, producing solid carbonic acid
and generating ozone. If liquid oxygen is absorbed in wood charcoal
or cotton wool and a part of the body heated to redness, combustion
can start with explosive violence.

Gas jets contaiming liquid.—The experiments of Joule and Thomson
and Regnault on the temperature of gas jets issuing under low pres-
sures are well known. The following observations refer to the pressure
required to produce a lowering of temperature sufficient to yield liquid
in the gas jet.

The apparatus used in the study of highly compressed gas jets is
represented in fig. 2, Plate V, where C is a vacuum tube which holds a
coil of pipe about 5 mm. in diameter surrounded with carbon dioxide or
liquid air for cooling the gas before expansion, and A is a small hole in
the silver or copper tube about + mm. in diameter, which takes the place
of astopcock. When carbon dioxide gas at a pressure of 30 or 40 atmos-
pheres is expanded through such an apperture, liquid can be seen

142 NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR.

where the jet impinges on the wall of the vacuum tube, along with a
considerable amount of solid. If oxygen gas escapes from the small
hole at the pressure of 100 atmospheres, having been cooled previously
to —79° in the vessel ©, a liquid jet is just visible. It is interesting
to note, in passing, that Pictet could get no liquid oxygen jet below
270 atmospheres. This was due to his stopcock being massive and
outside the refrigerator. If the oxygen is replaced by air, no liquid
jet can be seen until the pressure is 180 atmospheres, but on raising
the pressure to 300 atmospheres the liquid air collected well from the
simple nozzle. If the carbon dioxide is cooled by exhaustion (to about
1-inch pressure) or —115°, then liquid air can easily be collected in the
small vacuum vessel D, or if the air pressure is raised above 200 atmos-
pheres, keeping the cooling at —79° as before.!. The chief difficulty is
in collecting the liquid, owing to the rapid current of gas. The amount
of liquid in the gas jet is small, and its collection is greatly facilitated
by directing the spray on a part of the metallic tube above the little
hole, or by increasing the resistance to the escaping gas by placing
some few turns of the tube, like B in the figure, in the upper portion of
the vacuum tube, or generally by pushing in more tube in any form.
A vacuum vessel shaped like an egg-glass also works well. This prac-
tically economizes the cool gas, which is escaping to reduce the tempera-
ture of the gas before expansion, or, in other words, it is the cold
regenerative principle. Coleman pointed out long ago that his air
machine could be adapted to deliver air at as low a temperature as has
yet been produced in physical research. Both Solvay and Linde have
taken patents for the production of liquid air by the application of cold
regeneration, but the latter has the credit of having succeeded in
constructing an industrial apparatus that is lowered in temperature to
— 40°, or to the critical point of air, in about fifteen hours, and from
which liquid air containing 70 per cent oxygen is collected after that
time. :

For better isolation, the pipe can be rolled between two vacuum
tubes, the outer one being about 9 inches long and 14 inch diameter, as
shown in fig. 3, Plate V. The aperture in the metal pipe has a little
piece of glass tube over it, which helps the collection of the liquid.
With such a simple apparatus, and an air supply at 200 atmospheres
with no previous cooling, liquid air begins to collect in about five min-
utes, but the liquid jet can be seen in between two and three minutes.
It is not advisable to work below 100 atmospheres.

in fig. 4, Plate V, the metallic tube in the vacuum vessel is placed
in horizontal rings, leaving a central tube to allow the glass tube © to —
pass, which is used to cool bodies or examine gases under compression. —
The inner tube can be filled for an inch with liquid air under a pressure

The liquefaction is taking place in this condition at 14 times the critical tempera-
ature. Hydrogen similarly expanded at the melting point of air (—214° C.) behaves
exactly in the same way.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE V.

;

| 1

. 1. SPECIFIC GRAVITY VACUUM GLOBE.
;

2,3, 4. DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENTS OF REGENERATING COILS.

NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR. 143

of 60 atmospheres in about three minutes. Generally, in the experi-
ments, about 4 to 4 cubic feet of air passes through the different sized
needle holes per minute when the pressure is about 200 atmospheres.
As the small hole is apt to get stopped, for general working it is better
to use a needle stopcock, worked from the outside by a screw passing
through the middle of the coil of pipe.

In testing the individual coils as to the amount of air passed per
minute under different pressures, the arrangement of apparatus shown
in Plate VI was used.

A is a bottle of compressed air, to which the copper pipe B is
attached. This coiled pipe first passes through the vessel C, containing
water, in order to equalize the temperature, and then through the cork
D into the glass vacuum vessel E, when it is led by a large number of
convolutions to the bottom, terminating in a minute pin-hole valve F.
The released air passes from F right up through the coils and out of
the vent by the copper tube G, which in its turn passes through a vessel
H, similar in its object to C, and is then conducted to a measuring
meter J.

The following table gives the results of a series of experiments made
on one coil as to the rate of discharge of air at different pressures:

Cubic feet per
Pressnre in| mints meas
atmospheres. atmosphere |
at 15°.
55 | 0. 22
105 0. 42
155 0). 63
98 0.79
210 0. 84
250 1. 00
287 1.15
290 eps)

The results show that the rate of air discharge through a fine aperture
is directly proportionate to the pressure, or the velocity with which
the gas on the high-pressure side enters the orifice, is independent of
the density. Actual measurements of the size of the needle hole
resulted in proving that the real velocity of the air entering the aperture
on the high-pressure side was about 500 feet per second. In all these
experiments the temperature of the coil was not allowed to get so low
as to produce any visible trace of condensation in the air jet. Just
before liquefaction the rate of discharge of air through the same aper-
ture may be doubled, the pressure remaining steady, owing to change
in the viscosity of the gas and other actions taking place at low
temperatures. The above measurements can only be regarded as rep-
resenting the general working of such regenerating coils.

A double coil of pipe has advantages in the conduct of some experi-

4b. NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR.

ments. The efficiency is small, not exceeding the liquefaction of 2 to
5 per cent of the air passing, but it is a quick method of reaching
low temperatures, and easy to use for cooling tubes and collecting a
few hundred ¢. c. of liquid air, especially if the compressed air is deliy-
ered at the temperature of —79° before expansion. With larger vacuum
vessels and larger regenerating coils, no doubt the yield of liquor could
be increased. The liquid air resulting from the use of this form of
. apparatus contains about 50 per cent of oxygen. If the air is cooled
with solid carbonic acid previous to its reaching the vacuum tube coil
of pipe, the only change is to reduce the percentage of oxygen to 40.
Successive samples of liquid taken during the working had nearly the
same composition. If the arrangement shown in Plate VII is used, with
silver tube, about ;4; inch bore, and a foot or two coiled in upper part
of the vacuum vessel, liquid air containing 25 per cent of oxygen
is obtained. On the other hand, the percentage of oxygen can be
increased by a slight change in the mode of working.

In the above experiments air is taken at the ordinary temperature,
which is a little above twice its critical temperature, and is partially
transformed in a period of time which, in my experiments, has never
exceeded ten minutes, simply and expeditiously into the liquid state
at its boiling point, — 194°, or a fall of more than 200° has been
effected in this short period of time.

Haperiments on hydrogen.—Wroblewski made the first conclusive
experiments on the liquefaction of hydrogen in January, 1884. He
found that the gas cooled in a tube to the boiling point of oxygen, and
expanded quickly from 100 to 1 atmospheres, showed the same appear-
ance of sudden ebullition as Cailletet had seen in his early oxygen
experiments. No sooner had the announcement been made than Ols-
zewski confirmed the result by expanding hydrogen from 190 atmos-
pheres previously cooled with oxygen and nitrogen boiling in vacuo.
Olszewski declared in 1884 that he saw colorless drops, and by partial
expansion to 40 atmospheres the liquid hydrogen was seen by him run-
ning down the tube. Wroblewski could not confirm these results, his
hydrogen being always what he called a “liquide dynamique.” He
proposed to get ‘“‘static” liquid hydrogen by the use of hydrogen gas
as a cooling agent. Professor Ramsay, in his System of Inorganic
Chemistry, published long after the early experiments of Pictet, Cail-
letet, Wroblewski, and Olszewski on the liquefaction of hydrogen had
been made, sums up the position of the hydrogen question in 1891 as
follows (p. 28):

It has never been condensed to the solid or liquid states. Cailletet,
and also Pictet, who claim to have condensed it by cooling it to a very
low temperature and at the same time strongly compressing it, had in
their hands impure gas. Its critical temperature, above which it can
not appear as liquid, is probably not above — 230°.

It has to be remembered that 7 per cent of air by volume in hydro-
gen means about 50 per cent by weight of the mixed gases. Hven 1

Smithsonian Report, 1896 PLATE VI.

{rine
i.

i

| pon ae Ury
| LE TATE GET ON

PLAN OF APPARATUS USED IN MEASURING RATE OF PASSAGE OF GAS AT HIGH PRESSURE
THROUGH A SMALL PIN HOLE.

NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR. 145

per cent by volume in hydrogen is equivalent to some 15 per cent by
weight.

The following table gives the theoretical temperatures reached for
an instant during the adiabatic expansion of hydrogen under different
conditions:

| er Theoretical
Initial pressure (atmospheres). eee | Sees
(absolute). |

° fo}
BOOT CRIGtOt Gms ke ea eee —130 25
300K(Cailletet)macecsesie<s oan see | 0 52
100 (Wroblewski)..-...---.-.--. —184 24
TOMO ZeWSE) meses ciciele ss | -—210 14
Oe cee ae ene eae ie ge=206 19.5
200 Seamer ea A Line es ele | —200 15.7
BOO bese eeeee eee ec cu ch aes ley 200 12.7

The calculations show that little is gained by the use of high pres-
sures. The important inference to be drawn from the figures is to start
with as low a temperature as possible.

From 1884 until his death, in the year 1888, Wroblewski devoted bis
time to a laborious research on the isothermals of hydrogen at low tem-
peratures. The data thus arrived at enabled him, by the use of Van
der Waal’s formule, to define the critical constants of hydrogen, its
boiling point, density, etc., and the subsequent experiments of Olszew-
ski have simply confirmed the general accuracy of Wroblewski’s results.
Wroblewski’s critical constants of hydrogen are given in the following
table:

(Crehini@all (Wein DEEN. poooos conSee Sococe see uad Heese cseeae eEceer degrees... —240
Crriiiicalls iiessintGees ase enneneuomor ene cte Ss besbeeonoees ease atmospheres. - 113%, 8
(Ciriii@all Qlengiin7e See Oar ee Sites Aa eo SeG ec eae ees See eee eam . 027
Is OiliNG OOM soso choc S$6do5gcng0 coed cova sesuso nocaouaeee soueeeas degrees... —250
IDernsiliny aig ponlbtaer jNOVTM DE Goose sbebos Sone soos becouocaones ccoeeeIoeES codade . 063

Ina paper published in the Philosophical Magazine, September, 1884,
“On the liquefaction of oxygen and the critical volumes of fluids,” the
suggestion was made that the critical pressure of hydrogen was wrong,
and that instead of being 99 atmospheres, as deduced .by Sarrau from
Amagat’s isothermals, the gas had probably an abnormally low value
for this constant. This view was substantially confirmed by Wroblew-
ski finding a critical pressure of 13.3 atmospheres, or about one fourth
that of oxygen. The Chemical News (September 7, 1894) contains an
account of.the stage the author’s hydrogen experiments had reached at
that date. The object was to collect liquid hydrogen at its boiling point
in an open vacuum vessel, which is a much more difficut problem than
seeing the liquid in a glass tube under pressure and at a higher temper-

'Tt is probable that the real density of boiling liquid hydrogen may lie between
0.12 and 0.18.
sm 96—10

146 NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR.

ature. In order to raise the critical point of hydrogen to about — 200°,
from 2 to 5 per cent of nitrogen or air was mixed with it. This is sim-
ply making an artificial gas containing a large proportion of hydrogen,
which is capable of liquefaction by the use of liquid air. The results
are summed up in the following extract from the paper:

One thing can, however, be proved by the use of the gaseous mixture
of hydrogen and nitrogen, viz, that by subjecting it to a high com-
pression at atemperature of — 200°, and expanding the resulting liquid
into air, amuch lower temperature than anything that has been recorded
up to the present time can be reached. This is proved by the fact that
such a mixed gas gives, under the conditions, a paste or jelly of solid
nitrogen, evidently giving off hydrogen because the gas coming off
burns fiercely. Even when hydrogen containing only some 2 to 5 per
cent of air is similarly treated the result is a white, solid matter (solid
air) along with a clear liquid of low density, which is so exceedingly
volatile that no known device for collecting has been successful.!

In Professor Olszewski’s paper ‘On the liquefaction of gas,”” after
detailing the results of his hydrogen experiments, he says: ‘‘ The reason
for which it has not hitherto been possible to liquefy hydrogen in a
static state is, that there exists no gas having a density between
that of hydrogen and nitrogen, and which might be, for instance,
7—10 (H=1). Such a gas would be liquefied by means of liquid
oxygen or air as cooling agent, and afterwards used as a recognized
menstruum in the liquefaction of hydrogen. Science will probably
have to wait a very long time before this suggestion of how to get
“static” liquid hydrogen is realized. The proposal Wroblewski made
in 1884, of using the expansion of hydrogen as a cooling agent to effect
the change of state, is far more direct and practicable.

Tiquid hydrogen jet and solid hydrogen.—Hy drogen cooled to —194°
(80° abst. ¢.), the boiling point of air, is still at a temperature which is |
two and a half times its critical temperature, and its direct liquefaction
at this point would be comparable to that of air taken at 60°, and
liquefied by the apparatus just described. In other words, it is more
difficult to liquefy hydrogen (assuming it to be supplied at the tem-
perature of boiling air) than it is to produce liquid air starting from
the ordinary atmospheric conditions. Now, air supplied at such a
high temperature greatly increases the difficulty and the time required
for liquefaction. Still it can be done, even with the air supply at 100°,
in the course of seven minutes, and this is the best proof that hydrogen,
if placed under really analogous conditions, namely, at —194°, must
also liquefy with the same form of apparatus. It is almost needless
to say that hydrogen under high compression at the temperature of
15° C, passed through such a regenerating coil, produced no lowering
of temperature. Hydrogen cooled to —200° was forced through a fine

The compressed gas mixture at above —210° was expanded into a large cooled
vacuum vessel,
2 Phil. Mag., 1895.

“Smithsonian Report 1896. PLaTeE VII.

“al

i

<a

fe)
“i

|
|

i!

APPARATUS USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF THE LIQUID HYDROGEN JET.

ml

Ee nh al

NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR. 147

nozzle under 140 atmospheres pressure, and yet no liquid jet could be
seen. If the hydrogen contained a few per cent of oxygen the gas jet
was visible, and the liquid collected, which was chiefly oxygen, con-
tained hydrogen in solution, the gas given off for some time being
explosive.

If, however, hydrogen, cooled by a bath of boiling air, is allowed to
expand at 200 atmospheres over a regenerative coil previously cooled to
the same temperature and similar in construction to that shown in Plate
VII,! a liquid jet can be seen after the circulation has continued for a few
minutes, along with a liquid which is in rapid rotation in the lower part
of the vacuum vessel. The liquid did not accumlate, owing to its low
Specific gravity and the rapid current of gas. These difficulties will
be overcome by the use of a differently shaped vacuum vessel and by
better isolation. ‘That liquid hydrogen can be collected and manipu-
lated in vacuum vessels of proper construction can not be doubted.
The liquid jet can be used in the meantime (until special apparatus is
completed for its collection) as a cooling agent—like the spray of liquid
Kir obtained under similar cireumstances—and this being practicable,
the only difficulty is one of expense. In order to test, in the first
instance, what the hydrogen jet could do in the production of lower
temperatures, liquid air and oxygen were placed in the lower part of
the vacuum tube, just covering the jet. The result was that in a few
minutes about 50 ¢. c. of the respective liquids were transformed into
hard, white solids resembling avalanche snow, quite different in appear-
ance from the jelly-like mass of solid air got by the use of the air pump.
The solid oxygen had a pale, bluish color, showing by reflection all the
absorption bands of the liquid. The temperatures reached and other
matters will be dealt with in a separate communication. When the
hydrogen jet was produced under the surface of liquid air, the upper
part of the fluid seemed to become specifically lighter, as a well-marked
line of separation could be seen traveling downward. This appearance
is no doubt due in part to the greater volatility of the nitrogen and the
considerable difference in density between liquid oxygen and nitrogen.
In a short time solid pieces of air floated about, and the liquid subse-
quently falling below the level of the jet, hydrogen now issued into a
gaseous atmosphere containing air, which froze solid all round the jet.
There is no reason why a spray of liquid hydrogen at its boiling point
in an open vacuum vessel should not be used as a cooling agent, in
order to study the properties of matter at some 29° or 30° above the
absolute zero.

Fluorine.—This is the only widely distributed element that has not
been liquefied. Some years ago Wallach and Hensler pointed out that
an examination of the boiling points of substituted halogen organic

'Tn the figure, A represents one of the hydrogen cylindres; B and C, vacuum yes-
sels containing carbonic acid under exhaustion and liquid air, respectively; D,

regenerating coil; G, pin-hole nozzle; I, valve.

148 NEW RESEARCHES ON LIQUID AIR.

compounds led to the conclusion that although the atonic weight of
fluorine is nineteen times that of hydrogen, yet it must in the free state
approach hydrogen in volatility. This view is confirmed by the atomic
refraction which Gladstone showed was 0.8 that of hydrogen, and from
which we may infer that the critical pressure of fluorine is relatively
small, like hydrogen.’ If the chemical energy of fluorine at low tem-
peratures is abolished, like that of other active substances, then some
kind of glass or other transparent material could be employed in the
form of a tube, and its liquefaction achieved by the use of hydrogen as
-a cooling agent. In any case a platinum vessel could be arranged to
test whether fluorine resists being liquefied at the temperature of solid
air, and this simple experiment, even if the result was negative, would
be of some importance.

During the conduct of these investigations, I have gratefully to
acknowledge the able assistance rendered by Mr. Robert Lennox, my
chief assistant. Valuable help has also been given by Mr. J. W. Heath.

1On the other hand, the exceptionally small refractivity value observed by Lord@
Rayleigh in the case of helium shows that the critical pressure of this body is pro-
portionately high. It would therefore be more difficult to liquefy than a substance
having about the same critical temperature, but possessing a lower critical pressure,
like hydrogen.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES:!

By RIicHARD INWARDs, F. R. A. S.,
President of the Royal Meteorological Society, London.

As meteorology is essentially a science of observation, the present
discourse will be devoted to giving some scant and scattered details of
a few of the different organized arrangements in various parts of the
world, for carrying on researches into the constitution of the atmosphere,
and the effects of changes in its condition from day to day. The sub-
ject of observatories is a wide one, and I shall not attempt to condense
the account of the whole world’s work in this direction into the talk of
one short hour. There is a map which has been printed by Mr. Scott
to illustrate his address? from this chair in 1885 on the condition of
climatological observations over the globe, which is instructive as show-
ing at one glance the points on the world’s surface from which the
weather was systematically observed ten years ago. The map is shown
to be dotted over in nearly every quarter, but, as might be expected,
the dots are closer together near the great centers of civilization, while
vast portions of the earth’s surface, in desert plains and among moun-
tains, on the oceans and in the polar regions, are practically barren in
this respect, and the movements of the atmosphere there remain almost
unstudied and unrecorded.

' ANCIENT OBSERVATORIES.

In early savage times there is no doubt that keen observations, and
a system of weather guessing, represented the whole science of mete-
orology, and any prominent rock or tree served the purposes of an
observatory from whence the early hunters, fishers, or sailors anxiously
scanned the horizon for signs of the weather to come. Such a primi-
tive arrangement in New Guinea I now show you photographed, and
you will see that it is merely a dwelling in a tree, on the top of which
may be seen the anxious inhabitants peering into space, their sight,

1An address delivered to the Royal Meteorological Society, London, January 15,
1896. Printed in Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, Vol. XXII,
No. 98, April, 1896, pp. 81-98. Theillustrations accompanying the article are omitted
in this reprint.

Quarterly Journal, Vol. XI, pl. 4.

149

150 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES.

no doubt, sharpened by the consideration of the chances which deter-
mine the date of their next meal of fish or game.

NILOMETER.

It is a long step from the lookout tree of the savage to the more
scientific efforts of the Egyptians and Greeks, who certainly had sys-
tematic observations made in special buildings, and which structures
might with truth be called observatories, though not supplied like ours
with means and methods of a high and complicated order. The great
pyramid has been claimed for such an observatory, and some writers
Suppose that from an opening in its side the learned priests watched
the transits of the stars and the rising of the constellations to deter-
mine the march of the various seasons suitable for agriculture or for
the irrigation of their people’s lands. Then they had Nilometers at
various points in the course of their river, by which they took accurate
note of its height at any season. There were many of these structures,
perhaps the oldest being that at Memphis. There is one on the island
of Rhoda, near Cairo, which remains in full operation to this day, hay-
ing been more than eleven centuries in existence; and it may be claimed
as the oldest flood gauge—and therefore rain gauge—in the world.
The older Nilometers are mentioned by Herodotus, Strabo, and others,
while our own Shakespeare thus speaks of this matter in the play of
Antony and Cleopatra:

They take the flow o’ the Nile
By certain scales 1’ the pyramid; they know,
By the height, the lowness, or the mean, if dearth,
Or foison follow. The higher Nilus swells,
The more it promises.!

Although Shakespeare was probably mistaken in placing a Nilometer
in a pyramid, it is very wonderful that he should have known of it
at all. :

Messrs. Symons and Chatterton, in their paper on floods” last year,
deplored the absence of systematic flood marks on the Thames and
Severn, and I commend the authorities to the ancient Egyptians for an

example.
TEMPLE OF THE WINDS, ATHENS.

The Greeks inherited and sifted out all the wisdom of Egypt, and it
therefore does not surprise us to find in the very heart of ancient
Athens, and almost under the shadow of the Acropolis, a building
which may be claimed as an archetype of observatories, and which yet
remains standing in the modern city.

I mean the little marble octagon tower called the Temple of the Winds.
The eight sides of this temple are built to face the eight principal
winds, and on each side is sculptured a human figure in high relief, and

1 Antony and Cleopatra, Act 2, Scene VII.
Quarterly Journal, Vol. XXI, page 189.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 151

which represents, as far as a figure can, the character and qualities of
the particular wind which it faces.

For instance, the north wind, which is cold, fierce, and stormy, is
represented by the sculptured figure of a man warmly clad and blowing
fiercely on a trumpet made out of a seashell.

The northeast wind, which brought, and still brings, to the Athenians
cold, snow, and hail, was figured by an old man with a severe counte-
nance, and who is rattling sling stones in a shield, a good way of express-
ing emblematically the noise and power of a hailstorm.

The east wind, which brought, and still brings, to the Greeks a gentle
rain, favorable to vegetation, is expressed by the image of a young man
with flowing hair and open countenance, having his looped up mantle
filled with fruit, honeycomb, and corn.

Zephyros, the west wind, was indicated by the figure of a slightly
clad and beautiful youth with his lap full of flowers. And so with the
other winds all round the compass; each has its qualities fixed in stone
by its appropriate sculptured figure, and we have here a most interesting
evidence that the climate of Greece has not materially changed, at any
rate in respect of winds, after the lapse of about twenty centuries.

The tower had a vane on the top made to represent a Triton, who
turned with the wind and waved a brazen rod over the figure which
portrayed it. This tower is described by Vitruvius and other ancient
authors, some of whom call it a horologium, and they suppose it con-
tained a water clock, or clepsydra, to mark the hours during the night
and in cloudy weather when the fine sundials with which the building
is decorated would not be in operation. This seems at first confirmed
by certain pools and gutters which have been found in the floor, and
which it would have pleased me very much to claim for some rainfall
or evaporation recording purposes.

The names of the various winds are written upon the faces of the
building in good Greek letters, so that all might read whether Boreas or
Notus, Apeliotes or Sciron—there is a sound and fury in the very
names—were bringing to them comfort or disaster, as the case might be."

For those who could not read there remained the emblematic signs
which told them the story in stone, and which served like fossils in a
rock to carry down the tale even to our own days.

The principal use of the temple was probably in order that the devout
might offer prayers and gifts in view of obtaining the wind and weather
they most required for nautical and agricultural reasons. It must
be confessed that the building was rather badly situated for a mere
observatory.

OBSERVATORIES.

e
About modern observatories it is my intention to give a few descrip-
tive particulars on, first, national observatories, of which our own at

‘Stuart and Revett, Antiquities of Athens, vol. 1, where will be found numerous
illustrations of the tower and its ornamentation.

152 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES.

Greenwich is taken as a type; second, observatories in high places;
and, third, a few notes on private observing stations, with perhaps some
suggestions as to what may still remain to be done.

ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH.

A first-order station is one at which continuous observations are
taken with self-recording instruments; and I will take you, for an
example, to the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, where, by the cour-
tesy of the astronomer-royal, and with the kind help of our past presi-
dent, Mr. W. Ellis, I’. R.S., and Mr. Nash, the present superintendent
of the magnetical and meteorological department, I have been able to
collect a little information. This, although it is not by any means
new to many of our fellows, may interest others who may not have had
the opportunity of visiting the observatory.

On entering the building, after passing the various establishments
devoted to astronomy and horology, we find the meteorological observ-
atory snugly placed among the other edifices, and one’s first notion is
that the situation is much too confined. But it is to be remembered
that most of the surrounding buildings have been erected since the
establishment of the meteorological department, and that owing to the
formation of the bill and the small space at disposal, some crowding
became inevitable. There is room to hope that this will be remedied
some day by removing the magnetical and meteorological part to some
more commanding site.

The building containing the principal meteorological instruments is
of wood, and of only one story in height. On account of the delicate
magnets below in an underground apartment, there is no iron used in
the structure, the place of nails being supplied by pegs of bamboo,
while the stoves, pipes, and locks are all of copper or brass.

The building is in the form of across and contains several rooms;
one is used as a computing room, and in another, larger, is placed the
standard barometer and the electrometer. Of the magnets underneath
we will speak more anon. We shall first consider the outdoor instru-
ments and imagine ourselves personally conducted to take a rapid
view of what is going on in the observatory.

We note first the four thermometers which are sunk in the earth in
order to take the temperature at different depths. No.1 is at a depth
of 24 French feet below the surface of the soil. The long and fragile
stem of this thermometer was successfully placed in a deep hole in the
gravel soil and packed up with sand, adding successfully the 12-foot,
6-foot, and 3-foot thermometers. French feet were used, in order that
the results might compare with continental observations. During the
first two years, 1847 and 1848, the thermometers were read every two
hours; but the diurnal variations were found to be very small, and the
readings have since been taken only once daily—at noon. The observa-
tions have been discussed by Professor Everett and others. As might

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. as

be expected, variations of the deepest thermometer are much less than
those of the thermometer nearest the surface, and also follow the sur-
face variations by a much longer interval. The depth of the longest
thermometer 1s not sufficient to give any valuable results as to the
increase of the temperature of the earth with depth; it is the compari-
son of the changes of the three thermometers with those of the air
thermometer that is the valuable point.

We then approach the two stands, or screens, carrying thermome-
ters employed for taking the temperature of the air, and we look with
some respect on the central dry bulb thermometer—which is the stand-
ard thermometer for Greenwich temperature. It is placed with the
standard wet bulb on the older form of open stand set up in the time
of Sir George Airy and Mr. James Glaisher, and used in its present
form, with some slight modifications, ever since the commencement of
observations in the year 1841. It is commonly known as the ‘ Glaisher
stand,” and it is so contrived that it can be turned round on its verti-
cal axis, and so always be kept with its back to the sun, to secure a
proper shade for the instruments. The other screen, set up in the year
1887, and which is of the form familiar to most of you, is known as the
“Stevenson screen,” and is of the pattern now used by the observers
of our society. Both sereens carry, in addition to the dry and wet
bulb thermometers, ordinary self-registering maximum and minimum
thermometers for eye observation.

We come to the shed under which is placed the apparatus for photo-
graphic registration of the dry and wet bulb thermometers first set up
in the year 1848. Here, in a light-tight box, are the two thermometers
so ingeniously arranged that their indications are continuously photo-
graphed on a sheet of sensitive paper fixed to an upright drum, which
is Slowly carried round by clockwork, so as to bring successively fresh
surfaces under the beam of light which passes through the clear glass
of each thermometer tube, while it is of course impeded by the opaque
columns of mercury, so that when the images are duly brought out
there appear on the sensitive paper two broad traces, each bounded
below by a horizontal wavy line corresponding to the height of the
mercury in the two tubes.

The register of the wet bulb stands immediately below that of the
dry bulb. The light is automatically interrupted for a short time at
every hour, producing on the developed sheet thin white columns, each
for some definite hour, so that any change of temperature may be
known, as well as the exact time at which it occurs. The readings of
these thermometers are reduced by comparison with those of the
standard dry and wet bulbs on the Glaisher or revolving stand.

If there were time, many interesting points could be mentioned, such
as the extremely rapid fall of temperature that will at times take place
on the occasion of sudden changes of wind, notably in squalls. Again,
in frost, it is interesting to remark how, as the temperature passes

154 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES.

below the freezing point, the wet-bulb record will show a fall of a
degree or two below the freezing point, and come back to it with a sud-
den leap when the wetted bulb has acquired a coating of ice, after
which the record again begins to show the true variations due to
evaporation from the frozen surface.

Here there are the solar and grass radiation thermometers for meas-
uring the solar and the night radiation to the sky, and an ozone box
for registering the amount of that form of oxygen in the air, notably
very little in amount in the neighborhood of a great city. Observa-
tions of the water of the river Thames were made for a great many
years, the results being included in the Greenwich annual volumes.
In late years these were made at Deptford, but the series came to an
end in 1891. It seems a pity that some other points in the neighbor-
hood can not be found for continuing such observations.

There are various rain gauges placed on the ground near the ther-
mometer screens, one on the top of the photographic thermometer
shed, one on the top of the magnetic house, one on the roof of the old
building fronting the park, and two at the Osler anemometer, one of
these being self-recording. These two latter are 50 feet above the
ground, and record only about three-fifths of the amount registered on
the surface of the ground below. The self-recording rain gauge acts as
follows: The rain is received in a vessel suspended by spiral springs.
As the vessel becomes heavier it sinks with greater or less rapidity,
according to the rate of the fall of rain. By means of a cord passing
therefrom, over a pulley to a pencil, this rate of fall is recorded on a
sheet of paper driven by clockwork. When 0.25 inch has been col-
lected, the vessel automatically empties itself, the pencil returns to
zero and begins again to record. The amount of rain falling during
any given interval of time is readily ascertained.

With regard to the barometer, eye readings of the standard barome-
ter are taken, and the variations of pressure are registered by
photography.

The standard barometer is a plain-looking instrument, of Fortin pat-
tern, made by Newman, and the tube has a bore of 0.565 inch. It is
fitted with lamps and ground-glass screens to assist the readings. In
the year 1877 a very elaborate comparison was made by the late Mr.
Whipple between this barometer and the Kew standard barometer,
with the result that. the difference between the two was found not to
exceed .001 inch, corresponding to a difference of only about 1 foot of
level, or to that caused by a few grains of impurity in the mereury—
one much less than the usual difference of reading as made by any
two observers. For photographic registration a siphon barometer by
a simple and effective plan, acting from a float in the shorter leg, is
made to raise and depress a slotted screen, so that by a clockwork
and photographic arrangement, similar in principle to that already
described for the thermometers, a permanent pressure curve is con-

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 155

tinuously recorded. The slotted screen is carried by a lever of such
length that the scale on the paper becomes magnified to rather more
than four times the natural scale. This enables the finer oscillations,
as in thunderstorms, to be better studied, and I may mention that this
barometer, in common with all other self-recording barometers through-
out the world, distinctly recorded in 1883 the passage of the air wave
eaused when Krakatoa, an island on the other side of the globe, was
rent in two by a volcanic eruption.

On the top of the magnetic building we find the sunshine recorder,
of the Campbell-Stokes pattern, burning, by means of a lens, a trace
on a card in the usual way. Daily records of sunshine have been
Maintained at Greenwich since the year 1876. Near the sunshine
instrument is a small, open, but well-protected thermometer screen car-
rying a dry bulb and maximuin and minimum thermometers, for the
purpose of comparing the results at this altitude—20 feet from the
ground—with the results of the standard thermometer at 4 feet above
the soil.

On the top of the observatory tower, which has formed a landmark
since the time of Charles II, is found the Osler anemometer, for record-
ing the direction and pressure of the wind and the amount of the rain-
fall. The latter we have described in speaking of the rain gauges
generally. It is interesting to enter the little turret in which is the
recording table carrying forward a sheet of paper moved by clock-
work, and to watch the ever-moving pencils writing down at each
moment the direction and force of the wind, whether it is a mere breeze
or a fierce gale; a zephyr or a hurricane. The time scale usually
employed is about half an inch to an hour, but an arrangement now
exists by which, on a gale of wind springing up, the scale can be at once
increased to twenty-four times this amount, thus giving much more
minute information in regard to the variations of direction and pressure
at such times, This anemometer has been at work since the year 1841.
Ata later datea Robinson anemometer, for registration of wind velocity,
was added. It sometimes happens that the wind force is registered in
an unpleasant way at Greenwich, as elsewhere, by accident, and I show
you a picture of the shutter of the observatory dome which was brought
down by a gale on December 22, 1894. The pressure of the wind
measured at the time was 274 pounds per square foot, and the observer
inside the building narrowly escaped being struck by the suddenly
released counterweight used to balance the shutter. Mr. Nash has
favored me with these particulars.

We should refer to the matter of the registration of atmospheric
electricity. Tor this the electrometer is employed, as designed by
Lord Kelvin (perhaps better known as Sir William Thompson). It is
placed ii the principal room of the magnetic building, and consists of
a carefully insulated cistern, which isin communication with the elec-
trometer, and from which, by means of a pipe passing out into the open

156 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES.

air, a small jet of water is projected into the atmosphere. The electric
potential of this point -is thus communicated to the electrometer and
recorded by a photographic arrangement on a revolving cylinder. In
fine weather the electricity is usually positive in the air as compared
with the earth, but in rainy weather, or in thunderstorms, rapid
variations from positive to negative and back again are experienced.

Going now to the basement of the building we find the apparatus
devoted to the registration of the delicate movements of magnets,
_made of hardened steel and delicately suspended by long silk filaments
or moving on fine knife edges. Each magnet carries a small mirror so
arranged as to reflect a spot of light from a lamp on to a piece of
sensitive paper placed on a cylinder turned round by clockwork, so
that every variation or tremor of the magnets is recorded by a corre-
sponding varying line on the moving paper, making waves of more or
less steepness thereon, according to the amount of movement. :

When there is no movement or disturbance the line is straight, but
this is not the usual state of things. It is scarcely necessary to remind
you that any vibration, as from an earthquake shock, may also disturb
the magnets mechanically, but earthquakes are rare in this country
and it has not been thought necessary to set up special apparatus
more particularly designed for the registration of such phenomena.
On February 23, 1887, I find from the Astronomer-Royal’s Report the
vibration caused by an earthquake as far distant as the south of
France caused a disturbance of the magnet corresponding to 20/ of are
in declination and 0.004 of horizontal force, being one two hundred and_
fiftieth of the whole horizontal force.

There is also the earth current apparatus for registration of the gal-
vanic currents, that to a lesser or greater extent are always present
in the earth. Two wires, each several miles in length, and both having
earth plates at the two ends of the line, are placed in communication
with galvanometers, one to each circuit, each galvanometer carrying a
mirror for photographic registration of the variation of each current
force on one cylinder placed between the two galvanometers. Since the
end of the year 1890 these records have been greatly disturbed during
the day by the trains running on the City and South London Electric
Railway, although the nearest earth plate of the system is distant some
24 miles from the railway.

As a concluding remark we may mention that the time scales of all
the records throughout the observatory, both magnetical and meteoro-
logical, are, with one exception, identical in length, which much facili-
tates any collation of the various registers. The one unavoidable
exception is the sunshine record, which has a somewhat more extended
scale. Those similar in length number in all thirteen.

I have given these somewhat minute particulars of the work done at
Greenwich to serve as an example of that which goes on at all observa-
tories of the first order throughout the world, varying a little under

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. i Way

special circumstances, but in principle the same, though not always
comprising so many subjects of research as pursued in our own Royal
Observatory.

It must not, however, be imagined that I have enumerated all the
various researches now going on there—work which is forming a firm
foundation for the wider meteorology of the future.

KEW OBSERVATORY.

Greenwich is, however, not the only observatory in the vicinity of
London. The other is the establishment of the Kew Observatory,
which, although known by that name, is really to be found in the Old
Deer Park at Richmond, on a small eminence of made ground sur-
rounded by flat park land and situated a few hundred yards south of
the river Thames. The site was occupied during many centuries by an
old Carthusian monastery, which was suppressed in 1541. The present
building dates from about 1769, when George III erected it, after the
designs of Sir William Chambers, to whom we owe also our Somerset
House.

The building then became known by the name of the King’s Obsery-
atory at Kew, though sometimes more correctly called the Royal
Observatory at Richmond. George III provided the establishment
with the best clocks and watches that could be obtained at the time,
and he often visited the place, while his children frequently attended
lectures given there. Our esteemed past president, Mr. R. H. Scott,
was from 1871 to 1876 its honorary secretary, and from his interesting
‘History of the Kew Observatory”! I have gleaned the foregoing
particulars.

About the year 1840 the Government came to the decision that the
establishment should be abolished as an astronomical observatory, and
the building was finally handed over to the British Association in 1842.
The first resolution of the general committee of that body at the Man-
chester meeting in June of that year, with reference to their new
acquisition, was “that Professor Wheatstone, Professor Daniell, and
Mr. Snow Harris be a committee for constructing a self-recording
meteorological apparatus to be employed in the building at Kew.”

In the next year the name of Mr. (afterwards Sir Francis) Ronalds,
F.R.S., first appeared in connection with the establishment. At the
meeting of the British Association at Cambridge in 1845 a conference
was held in connection with a committee which had been appointed to
“conduct the cooperation of the British Association in the system of
simultaneous magnetical and meteorological observations.” This con-
ference, among its recommendations, expressed the wish “that it is
very highly important that self-recording meteorological instruments
should be improved to such a degree as to enable a considerable portion

1 Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. OGD page 37,

158 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES.

of the observing staff of an observatory to be dispensed with.”! This
suggestion attracted the notice of two eminent scientific inventors—
one, Mr. Clarles Brooke, F. R. S., who was my predecessor in this chair
in the years 1865-66; the other, Mr. Ronalds, at the time on the staff
of the observatory of the British Association at Kew, and who became
subsequently its superintendent. Both gentlemen completed their
inventions of self-recording magnetographs and meteorographs. The
Brooke system was adopted by Sir G. Airy at Greenwich, the Ronalds
system at Kew. At the date of the reorganization of the meteorolog-
ical department of the board of trade, under a committee of the Royal
Society, the Ronalds system of photographic barographs and thermo.
graphs was adopted for all their observatories and the Kew was con-
stituted their central and normal observatory.

The verification branch of the observatory was first set on foot in
connection with magnetic apparatus, and subsequently extended to
meteorological and other instruments in the early fifties.

A walk through the building enables one to form but a very dim
estimate of the work carried on there, but by the kindness of Dr.
Chree, the superintendent, I have recently had the opportunity of visit-
ing the place under favorable auspices.

As regards meteorology the institution is of incalculable value, for it
is here that all English thermometers, with any pretensions to accuracy,
are sent for examination and certificate. After being carefully com-
pared with a standard in hot water, which is contained in a cistern
with a transparent side, and also after being submitted to freezing and
boiling temperatures, where necessary, the thermometers, if found cor-
rect, are marked by etching the ‘‘ KO” monogram on the glass, and are
sent out to the world with an established character for accurary.
Barometers, hydrometers, and other instruments are also severely
tested, examined, and marked at Kew, while watches and clronome-
ters, after having been duly baked, frozen, tried in various positions,
and carefully timed for months, are sent out with a certificate of the
number of marks attained in the competition—100 would mean perfec-
tion—and the highest in 1884 reached 88.8. The Kew certificate adds
considerably to the selling price of any instrument or watch. Photo-
graphic lenses are also examined and certified here, and recently a
department has been established for the testing of platinum thermome-
ters, a form of instrument which, though of little use to the meteorolo-
gist, is essential to the chemist or metallurgist who has to deal with
very high temperatures.

It is at this observatory that the researches into the heights of the
various forms of clouds were carried out by the late Mr. Whipple,
whom we all so well remember. [I show you a photograph of the
apparatus he employed, and merely say in passing that the same cloud
was at the same instant observed by two telescopes, one of which was

1 Report of the British Association, 1845, page 71.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 159

at the observatory and the other one some distance away in the park.
A triangie could thus be constructed on a known base and with two
known angles, so that the cloud height could be calculated with suffi-
cient accuracy. Here is also found a glycerin barometer, in which
glycerin is used instead of mercury, and it has, in consequence, a tube
which is as many times the length of an ordinary barometer as the
number of times mercury is heavier than glycerin. This results in an
instrument over 30 feet in height, and with a much extended scale,
so that it is easy to study by its means all the smaller changes in the
density of the air, the surface of the colored liquid in the tube moving
under our eye with unusual disturbances. Magnetic observations are
also made here, much in the same way as those already described in
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, so that the two sets of observations
usually check each other. Most of us remember the weekly weather
curves published in the Times, but now, unfortunately, discontinued.
These emanated from the Kew Observatory.

There are now meteorological observatories in all civilized countries,
but the rough sketch I have given of these two of our own will enable
one to form some idea of the subjects investigated and the instrumental

‘means adopted.
HIGH-LEVEL OBSERVATORIES,

Let us now turn our attention to those observatories which are situ-
ated on the summits of mountains, and which by reason of their alti-
tude attack the problems of air study from a much higher point of
vantage. It must be clear to any person who has looked attentively at
the sky that the motions of the upper air as shown by its clouds are
very different to those of lower levels, and it is with a view of eliminat-
ing as far as possible the effects caused by inequalites of the ground,
by friction, and by local circumstances that mountain peaks have in
various countries been fixed on for the establishment of meteorological

observatories.
MONT BLANC OBSERVATORY.

To begin with the highest in Europe, I must take you in imagination
to Mont Blane, which, as you know, is situated in France, and about
40 miles to the south of the Lake of Geneva.

In 1887 M. Joseph Vallot ascended Mont Blane and made some pre-
liminary studies on the summit, leaving some self-registering instru-
ments there during the summer; and it was then that he formed the
idea of erecting a permanent observatory on the mountain.

There were many difficulties owing to the great number and variety
of the instruments which modern meteorological science demands, and
M. Vallot instances that Saussure, in his famous early ascent (in 1787),
contented himself with proving that carbonic acid existed in the air
at these heights. Now it would be necessary to measure the exact
quantity. M. Vallot pitched his tent at first on the summit, 15,781
feet above the sea, but afterwards, on a more careful survey in 1889,

160 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES.

finally decided,to place his building on the rocks called Les Bosses,
about 1,400 feet below the actual summit. He did this for two reasons,
the first being that he was afraid of movement if he erected his obsery-
atory on the cap of snow, which is really glacial snow covering the sum-
mit; the second, that it seemed to him the highest spot where he could
find a rocky foundation of sufficient size. In addition to these reasons
a resting place and shelter were much needed by those overtaken by
bad weather in making the ascent, and this latter consideration induced
the guides and others in Chamounix not only to bear a large portion
of the expense, but to carry up free of cost the various materials and
instruments for the building.

In the summer of 1890 M. Vallot collected his materials and got
them successfully transported to the ‘‘ Bosses” rock, where he put up
a tent for the workmen and another for himself. He suffered much
from mountain sickness, but he had provided himself with a remedy in
a steel tube full of compressed oxygen, of which he breathed several
quarts, and then found himself with an appetite for food, and all was
well. A storm came on, but by extreme exertion the workmen managed
to put up the walls in one day, although at last it was so cold that
they could scarcely work even in thick woolen gloves. Of course the ~
porters had brought their burdens up as they best could, and M. Vallot —
says that by an unhappy fate all the useless things arrived first, and
he sought in vain for the means of making a cup of coffee, though he
was abundantly supplied with thermometers and other apparatus.
For want of a coffee mill they spread the grains of coffee on a little
table and ground them to powder by means of an empty bottle. He
says that on this table were emptiéd coffee, soup, petroleum, and other
things, so that to this day he does not know what mixture he then
swallowed. They spent some fearfully cold nights, and some of the
workmen fell ill, and M. Vallot had to revive them by giving them
some of his compressed oxygen to breathe.

- By the third day they got the roof on, and lit a triumphal bonfire at
night to tell the folks at Chamounix that the enterprise was a success.

M. Vallot recounts how, in the dead of night, to his great surprise,
he heard violent knockings at his door, and on answering them he
found some of his porters, who had ascended with lanterns, to inform
him that two of his scientific friends were ill with mountain sickness
and sunstroke at the Grands Mulets rocks, 3,000 feet below.

He tells us that he immediately got up, filled an india rubber bag
with three liters of oxygen, and descending to the Grands Mulets in
one hour (though it had taken them six hours to ascend), he arrived at
the cabin, gave his friend the oxygen gas, which enabled him to
descend with a firm step to Chamounix.

Here M. Vallot found many of his packages detained, and after a suc-
cessful forage among them says he emerged, brandishing as trophies
a sphygmograph, a coffee mill, and a broom, the two latter things being

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 161

much wanted at the summit, to which. they returned the same day in
scorching sunshine. The whole narrative, as told by M. Vallot, is
instructive as well as amusing.

On his next ascent he was accompanied by our esteemed Fellow, Mr.
Rotch (of Blue Hill Observatory, Boston, United States), who at once
commenced some important experiments on sunlight. M. Vallot has
ascended many times, and he has published in his interesting Annals
the scientific results of his observations. No one passes the winter on
Mont Blanc, though M. Vallot has had an earnest letter from a lady,
who says she is fond of solitude, and who wishes to pass the winter
there in making observations.

The observatory contains various rooms for beds and a saloon for
the guides, a spectroscopic and photographie observatory, a laboratory,
a kitchen, and a room for the self-registering instruments. It is avail-
able for students of all nations, and already it has been utilized by
observers, there having been, in 1893, four French scientific visitors,
three Swi-s, one German, one Italian, and one American. It is curious
that our nation has not been among the first to make use of this build-
ing, nobly and gratuitously placed at their service by the heroic
founder, who as soon as he knew I was about to read this paper sent
me the photographs you have seen and the following letter, a transla-
tion of which will be interesting to you all:

JANUARY 2, 1896.

My first scientific expedition to the summit of Mont Blane was in
1887, and some of the observations then taken are published in my
Annals of the Observatory.

In 1890 I constructed the observatory on the ‘‘ Bosses” rock at 4,365
meters altitude. Higher than this the summit is capped by a glacier,
except where afew rocky points emerge from the surface, but which
are too small to build upon.

No one lives in the observatory. During the summer only the self-
registering instruments are attended to about every fifteen days. Ihave
no experience of the winter there, but I have devoted three summers
(1890 to 1893) to observations, which will be published in my Annals
(Vol. IL) sometime during this winter.

In 1893 M. Janssen, having announced that he was about to estab-
lish continuous observations, I ceased this class of work, so as not to
do it twice over, and I am now devoting myself above all to the study
of terrestrial physics, and I hope during this winter to publish my
works on actinometry, on atmospheric whirls, on storm clouds, and on
the transformation of snow into glacier ice.

Besides the observatory on the summit I have two meteorological sta-
tions, one on the Grands Mulets rocks at 3,000 meters and the other at
Chamounix at 1,000 meters elevation. The last only is in constant use.
The others are put in action when desired, and as I have said the four
summers’ observations that I already possess will suffice to give us some
knowledge of the march of the ordinary phenomena of the air at such
elevations.

In the summer I reside at Chamounix, and from time to time I goup
to the observatory—about once a week at least—and I have thus made
already twenty-one ascents of Mont Blanc. When at the observatory

SM 96——11

162 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES.

I do my work as much on the actual snowy summit, which is quite near,
as in the study which-I have built. Life is not easy at these heights,
for one has to contend with mountain sickness, but I have become so
accustomed to the conditions that I can work there as well as when
below, even when there are storms going on during the day or night.

Some few scientific men have also made use of the observatory, but
at rare intervals.

After I had construeted my observatory, M. Janssen came here and
worked, but he wished to make another of his own, and he placed it on
the actual snowy summit of the mountain. He began in 1893, and con-
tinued during 1894 and 1895. It is nearly finished, but not yet com-
pletely furnished with instruments, so that up to the present no scientific
work has been done. M. Janssen has abandoned the idea of perma-
nently entertaining observers there. He has had constructed a superb
meteorograph, which has this season been safely placed on the summit.

Uniortunately his observatory is placed on the snow, and has there-
fore no stability, for snow has continual movements of its own, and the
clocks of the instruments are stopped. They have seldom gone for more
than three days at a time. M. Janssen is very much disappointed, but
he has told me that he intends to try other means. It will thus be some
time before this observatory can give any results.

vom an astronomical point of view, not much further progress has
been made. The workmen who ascended to erect the telescope were too
unwell to do the work. Two astronomical expeditions have not been
any more fortunate, for the leaders of the same were seized with illness,
and could do nothing, although they “saved the situation” by working
at the lower level of 3,000 meters at the “Grand Mulet’s” rocks.

To do any work at the summit, it is necessary to have been accus-
tomed to exist at great elevations.

I am happy to be of any use to you, and I am desirous to see some
English students working in my observatory. I offer my services to
you and to your Society, as it is my principle not solely to work for
inyself, but to facilitate the labors of others by all possible means.

Yours, ete.,
JOSEPH VALLOT.

In his Annals, M. Vallot further says on the subject of establishing
observatories on such elevated spots:

It is necessary to have been half-blinded by the snow, to rane felt the
thousand stingings of the atmospheric electricity, to have crawled pros-
trate over the soft snow, to have been blown over by the wind, and to
have couched down before avalanches, ere one can give a correct account
of the terrible intensity of the weather conditions at these great alti-
tudes. It is after this that we comprehend the powerful impulses given
to the upper regions of the air, and which are only feebly transmitted to
the lower levels through an enormous mattress of atmosphere and
vapor which serves to deaden its movements and falsify its indications.

Among the results already to be mentioned as coming from the Mont
Blane observations the following may be here enumerated, though a
much longer list might be made.

The wave of diurnal variation of temperature is about one-third of
the amplitude of that at Chamounix.

The experiences at the Mont Blane Observatory confirm those of Mr.
James Glaisher made in balloon ascents, the cold increases very regu-

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. 163

larly at the rate of about 1° C. for each rise of 200 meters, which cor-
responds to 1° F. to 364 feet rise.

The temperature of the air on mountain slopes is sensibly less than
in a free stratum of air at the same altitude as observed from a balloon.
M. Vallot has given in his Annals, as far as possible, all the results as
regards air pressure, moisture, temperature, wind, and weather gener-
ally, and he must be regarded as having made already, by the publica-
tion of his first volume, a real contribution to knowledge in a direction
in which comparatively little has been done.

I must not leave the summit of Mont Blane without showing you the
observing cabin which has been gallantly pitched by M. Janssen on
the very summit of the mountain, considerably higher, as you will have
seen by the photograph, than the more permanent observatory of M.
Vallot. The snow movements have for the present defeated M. Jans-
sen, but it is not likely he will give up the attempt. M. Hiffel has also
made an observing tunnel or gallery in the ice cap, and sundry timbers
and objects placed therein will in the nature of things slowly sink with
the glacier, and perhaps inform future ages of what has been done.

EUROPEAN MOUNTAIN OBSERVATORIES.

Time will not permit me to describe to you the other mountain
observatcries of Europe. There are many, from the Sonnblick in the
Austrian Alps, where there is a well-found observatory at a height of
over 10,000 feet, to the establishment of our own Ben Nevis, which
only boasts the modest altitude of 4,406 feet.

I show you a few pictures representing this last-named observatory
and its condition in mid-winter, when I think no one will envy the
unfortunate observers who have to stay there, left severely alone.

AMERICAN MOUNTAIN OBSERVATORIES. !

This subject must not be quitted without mention of the observatory
which has been perched on the Andes by the enterprise of the authori-
ties of Harvard College in America.

I show you two views of this by the kindness of Professor Pickering.
One shows the Arequipa station of the observatory at an altitude of
8,000 feet, while the other gives a view of the summit of El Misti in
Peru, with the meteorological shelters erected there for the accommo-
dation of the self-registering instruments, at the height of 19,200 feet
above the sea, constituting this the highest meteorological station in
the world.

Most interesting results can not fail to arise from this gallant attempt
to pierce the clouds in search of knowledge. Mr. A. L. Rotch, of the
Blue Hill Observatory, Boston, United States, has constituted himself

1See Mountain Observatories in America and Europe, by Edward 8. Holden. 8vo,
pp.77. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. XXXVII. Washington City,
1896,

164 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES.

the authority on high-level observatories, and I can refer the fellows
with confidence to his many works, which will all be found in our
library.

I must, however, show you one view of the Pikes Peak Mountain in
Colorado, and I do this partly because in it Mr. Cohen has caught a
very happy effect of cloud. The mountain is over 14,000 feet in height,
and although on the south side it is approached by a gentle slope, yet
on a nearer view from the east or west sides would be found to be inter-
sected by deep gorges with precipitous walls 2,000 feet in height. On
the observatory which surmounts Pikes Peak a wind velocity of 92 miles
an hour was registered in December, 1892.

I also show you views of the observatory on the Brocken Mountain,
and that of the Deutsche Seewarte at Hamburg, which latter enjoys
the distinction of being the largest meteorological observatory in the
world.

EIFFEL TOWER, PARIS.

From mountains to towers is along step downwards, and I must ask
you for a moment to listen to a few particulars about the observations
taken on the Eiffel Tower in Paris, of which I show you a photograph,
and I should have been glad to give you a nearer view of the meteoro-
logical appliances on the top, but, up to the present, it has been found
impossible to get a satisfactory photograph of them on account of their
elevated position.

On the top of the Hiffel Tower is a self-registering barometer, while
in the Bureau Central Météorologique in the rue de l’Université, there
is another, its exact counterpart, and it has been noticed that the first
diurnal minimum of air pressure at 4 to 5 in the morning is much more
evident at the top of the tower than at the base, while the first maxi-
mum at 9 or 10 in the morning is a good deal less marked on the sum-
mit than below. The second minimum of 14" (2 to 5 in the afternoon)
is also less on the summit; the second maximum at 22” (10 in the even-
ing) is sometimes a little more pronounced at the summit, but the dif-
ference is slight. The general corrected average pressure throughout
the year at the top of the tower is lower by 0.12 millimeter, about four
one thousandths of an ineh, a difference not yet satisfactorily explained.

As to temperature, it is generally from 1° to 4° C. colder on the
tower than below, the month of December being the only one where
the temperature is higher at the summit than at the base. The changes
of temperature are less regular, the diurnal variations not so large,
while the smaller oscillations are much more marked at the summit than
at the base, it often happening that some are registered above which
are absolutely inappreciable below. Some of the changes of tempera-
ture recorded in the tower are very remarkable, as for instance a leap
upward of 10°C. (18° F.), which rise of temperature took two days to
communicate itself to the stratum of air below.

All this and much more of great interest to the weather student may

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. ~ 165

be found in M. Angot’s masterly Annals, 1889 to 1892; and I have been
favored by that gentleman with a letter giving some of his most recent
results. It concludes as follows:

The only general result which is not to be yet found in my annual
inemoirs is the following:

The annual variation of temperature on the summit is already found
to be very different from that at the level of the soil. The difference of
temperature between the lower level and the upper amounts to 1.6° C.
(2.9° F.) at its maximum at the end of June, while it is at a minimum at
the end of September, when it only attains 0.3° C. (0.5° F.). The annual
cooling of the air occurs much more rapidly below than in the upper
air, a fact altogether analogous to that shown by the variations of the
daily wave of temperature, and it frequently happens that in the months
of September and October there is a mean temperature higher, in abso-
lute value, at 300 meters altitude than on the ground. The inversion,
therefore, which is constantly shown in the hourly means presents itself
also in the monthly ones, but only in the autumn, and not in the coldest
part of the year.

The society will be grateful to M. Angot for this preliminary note of
some of his important conclusions.

M. Angot also calls attention to the foliowing fact with respect te
humidity:

Sometimes a process the reverse of evaporation has been noticed on
the Kiffel Tower. After a cold period on one oceasion, when a sudden
warming of the air took place accompanied by great humidity, water
rapidly condensed from the atmosphere, so that in three days as much
as 9 millimeters (about three-eighths of an inch) accumulated in the
vessels used for evaporation experiments. Generally speaking, the
atmosphere is nearly 8 per cent drier at the top of the tower than it is
below.

Attempts have been made in our own country to secure observations
on high towers, but as they have been of necessity confined to much
lower altitudes, I must content myself with showing you the picture of
the places where the two most notable experiments have been made,
viz, Lincoln Cathedral and Boston church tower.

PRIVATE OBSERVING STATIONS.

One word about private observing stations. In addition to the tele-
graphic reporting stations of the Government, this society has a great
nuinber of observers in different parts of the British Isles, whose daily
observations are published in our Meteorological Record. I show you
a view of such a private installation, and in it you may recognize Mr.
Mawley, a gentleman of whom you will know more by and by. Mr.
Symons tells me that Mr. Mawley’s station is so well arranged and
conducted as to serve as a type and pattern for all others of the same
order.

CONCLUSION.

I have now endeavored, as much as has been possible in one brief
discourse, to give you some bare information as to observatories in our

166 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES.

own and in foreign countries, and it may be permitted to throw a
glance from ‘“‘the mind’s eye” into the future and imagine an observa-
tory in Great Britain which shall more than rival those of other coun-
tries. One can figure to oneself a tower piercing the sky from any
of the elevated table-lands of this island, Salisbury Plain, the Stray at
Harrogate, or anywhere on the downs between Guildford and Dorking,
from which the most interesting results could not fail to accrue. It is
the opinion of M. Vallot—no mean authority—that a high tower is for
air-observing purposes equivalent to a mountain station of ten times
the altitude, and this is evident when one considers that any mountain
must act as an obstacle which thrusts the layers of the atmosphere
upward into a contour almost like its own, so that some of the effects
are very little different from those observed below. A tower like the
Eiffel Tower, on the contrary, thrusts itself into the air without imped-
ing its movements.

Among the new subjects which might with advantage be studied
from such an observatory are the systematic photography of the clouds
all around the horizon and the effects of observed refraction in the
different air strata, a subject only yet in its infancy; for Mr. H. F.
Newall showed only last Friday to the Fellows of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society how he had observed, in the great telescope of Cam-
bridge, waves of a varying speed and frequency crossing each other at
different angles in the field of view when the telescope was pointed at
the open sky. He says these belong to the upper air 4 or 5 miles from
the earth, and if he is right (which I hope), here alone is a new field of
study which may be fruitful of results in the future.!

It is the boast of our society that it is covering the face of the coun-
try, and indeed of the world, with a network of private observing
stations, and it is collecting together for the enlightenment of all future
time a mass of accurate knowledge on the subject of the thousand
changes in our atmosphere, its varying moods, its beating pulses, its
calms and its convulsions, so that when the philosopher is born who is
destined to unravel all its mysteries he will find the means and instru-
ments made ready to his hand.

The Observatory, 1896, p. 77.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY BY MEANS OF BODY COLORS, AND
MECHANICAL COLOR ADAPTATION IN NATURE.

By OTTO WIENER.

I.—ScCoOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION.

In the investigation of fixed lightwaves’ I came at once upon the
question of the fundamental possibility of color photography. Zenker
had explained the processes then in use by the action of stationary
lightwaves.? Objections to the explanation not as yet overthrown are
offered in an article by Schultz-Sellack.t On this account, and because
I was unacquainted with the possibility of the production of thicker
transparent photographic films, I considered the solution of the ques-
tion must be sought in other directions. These difficulties were, how-
ever, soon after overcome by Lippman,’ and he succeeded in obtaining
a process of color photography by a suitable production of stationary
lightwaves, and thus by the application of Zenker’s theory.

That this theory, however, explained the older processes was not yet
proved, and I was unable to find anything looking to such a proof
thoroughly established. I determined, therefore, to discover by new
experiments the cause of the color production in the older procedures.
These experiments form the point of departure and a considerable
portion of the following communication.

The objections of Schultz-Sellack are by no means to be brushed aside
without further consideration. He disputed the fact of regular fixed
lightwaves in powders. Powdered substances had been used for color
production in the first process of Seebeck, whose observations were

'Translated from Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Neue Folge. Band 55. 1895.
Leipzig.

2 Wiener, Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 40: p. 205, 1890.

3 Zenker, Lehrbuch der Photochromie, Berlin, private publication by the author,
1868. In my earlier investigation I found that Lord Rayleigh also, in connection
with the investigation of wave propagation in a medium of periodic structure (Philo-
sophical magazine (5) 24: p. 158, 1887), had considered the possibility of this expla-
nation. He was, however, unacquainted with the theory of Zenker published nine-
teen years before.

4Schultz-Sellack, ‘‘Upon the coloration of turbid media and the so-called color
photography.” Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 143: p. 449, 1871.

>Lippman. Comptes rendus, 112: p. 274, 1891.

e 167

168 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

published in Goethe’s ‘“‘ Farbenlehre,”! in the year 1810. Seebeck used
moist chloride of silver. which had become gray by the action of light,
spreading this upon paper.

Schultz-Sellack’s objection applies with the greatest force to pro-
cesses where paper is coated with the substance sensitive to light by
soaking it in different solutions, as, for example, in Poitevin’s process.
It does not, on the other hand, apply in those which make use of a
uniform transparent layer of a substance sensitive to light with a good
reflecting background, as the processes of Becquerel, in which bright
silver plates are chlorinized to a determined depth by electrolysis.

A second objection of Schultz-Sellack is raised against the possibility
of the satisfactory production of colors by a mechanical division of the
layer brought about by the exposure, the degree of which would be
determined not by the colors but by the intensity of the light. The
coloring would, under these circumstances, be only accidental. This
explanation is in reality shown to be erroneous in chapter five.

New doubt concerning the general validity of Zenker’s theory is
raised by the investigations of Cary Lea? on the haloid salts of
silver. He showed that the colored substances produced by the action
of colored light on chloride of silver already exposed may be produced
by purely chemical methods in the dark.

H. Krone? also has recently given a series of reactions for the Poite-
vin process which are carried through by the exposure, and by which
different colored bodies may be produced in the sensitive substances
by purely chemical means. He amnounces, therefore,’ ‘* The method
of Poitevin rests upon purely chemical processes,” and is ‘“ totally dif
ferent from that of Lippman.” But he also makes the following
remark:° “This causal connection ”—namely, between the color of the
light and the above-mentioned bodies which may be produced by
chemical means—‘‘is of a purely physical nature, and is only to be
explained with reference to the processes and by the progress of inves-
tigation upon wave motion and the nature of light.”

If, now, the Zenker theory has no application in this case, it is not
expressly stated wherein the verification fails. On the contrary, Krone
asserts ° “that our present knowledge of the method of photographic
production of colors, so far as this has until now been chiefly deduced,

‘Goethe Farbenlehre 2: p.716. The there communicated memoir of Seebeck I
found in none of the editions of the complete works of Goethe which I could com-
mand.

2Carey Lea: ‘‘Onred and purple chloride, bromide, and iodide of siver; on helio-
chromy and on the latent photographic image.” American Journal of Science,
series 3, 33; p. 349, 1887.

*In an address published in the Deutsche Photographen-Zeitung, p. 327, ff. 1891,
and in his book ‘Darstellung der natiirlichen Farben durch Photographie,” pub-
lished by the Deutsche Photographen-Zeitung, p. 43, 1894.

4In the beginning of the same address.

* Loc. cit., p. 49.

‘In his book, p. 38.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 169

rests upon Zenker’s theory.” He implies that the knowledge is not as
yet firmly established, and this may be inferred also from the following
sentence, which finishes the treatise above cited: ‘‘ We may assume,
in consideration of the color processes of which we have been speak-
ing”—those which I have designated as old—‘‘ that the resulting colors
appear the same to us as the colored lights used in the exposure,
because the molecules of the layer exposed continue to vibrate with the
same wave lengths which they encountered in the light to which they
were subjected.”

The assumption thus made in the last sentence leads however to no
explanation of the color results; for since the place exposed does not
become self-luminous, the further vibrations of the molecules must
result in the absorption of the colors before illuminating and the place
would appear of the colors complementary to these.

In this state of affairs the fundamental question must first of all be
proposed: Are the colors appearing in the older processes apparent or
body colors—that is to say, produced by interference or absorption?

In the first case, which is the one required by Zenker’s theory, it
must be further asked: How is it then possible that the same colors
may be produced by chemical means? Is it possible that by chemical
action a body may be produced with a stratified structure which is
capable of producing interference? Krone! indeed alleges this extra-
ordinary possibility; and it becomes clear that in this case one may
distinguish a process as chemical without contradicting Zenker’s theory.

In the second case however Zenker’s theory is not applicable, and
one is confronted by the remarkable, and for my science new, issue,
the fundamental possibility that colored illumination can create cor-
responding body colors. Yet in these circumstances one might perhaps
fall back on the consideration that absorption and interference may not
be fundamentally different. Thus absorption follows from the inter-
ference theory developed by Wrede.? Such an assumption is not how-
ever compatible with the fact that the metals show the characteristics
of absorption at a thickness of about ;35 the wave length of light.
It is fundamentally contradicted moreover, as was shown long ago by
Stokes and Rudberg, by the fact that absorption is connected with a
loss of light whose energy is changed into other forms, as for example,
into heat or chemical energy, while with interference alone no light is
lost, the reflected and transmitted together being always equal to that
incident, and in the case of white light complementary to each other.

But why is it that the question as to the source of the colors in the
older methods of color photography has not already been easilyedecided ?
Zenker® gives the answer to this question. The fundamental substance
in these is chloride of silver or a lower chlorine compound of this salt.

1JIn the address above cited.

2? Wrede’s theory and refutation, see Wiillner, Lehrbuch der Experimental-Physik
2: p. 456, 4th edition, 1883.

*Zenker. Photochromie, p. 85.

170 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

The index of refraction for pure chloride of silver is about 2, and for
compounds poorer in chlorine probably even greater. When therefore
a ray of light falls upon silver chloride even with a considerable angle
of incidence, it would pass within nearly perpendicular to the surface,
on account of the great index of refraction, and the difference in path
for interference as compared with direct incidence is only slightly
changed. The index of refraction of the sensitive layer in Lippmann’s
process on the other hand, which consists chiefly of collodion or gela-
tine, is only about 1.5. Here the angle of incidence becomes of impor-
tance, and the colors change with it in a way not to be desired.

The interference nature of the colors and the stratification of the
Lippman gelatine plates may be recognized in another way. Different
observers! breathed on such plates and saw appear in place of the
original colors others of greater wave-lengths. This showed that the
colors depend on a changeable distance, namely, that between the ele-
mentary mirrors within, which was increased by the swelling of the
gelatin.’ .

I have repeated this experiment, and before large audiences have
replaced the breathing on the plates by the use of a stream of vapor.
In the photograph of the spectrum thrown upon the wall the colors
were transformed with great rapidity in the direction of the violet end
of the spectrum: and returned again as the moisture was driven from
the gelatin film by a Bunsen burner. This experiment can not, how-
ever, be performed with the older processes.

Zenker’ sought to give the light rays in chloride of silver a greater
angle with the normal to the surface by sending them first through a
liquid of high index of refraction, but without result. This expedient
must fail so long as a plane parallel layer of such a substance is used.
For by the refraction in this the original angle of incidence is decreased.
Such a diminution can not occur when the beam of light enters the
bounding surface of the auxiliary substance at right angles. Thus a
new experiment was suggested.

I used a right-angled glass prism with an index of refraction of 1.75
for the D lines. This was laid with its hypotenuse surface upon the
color picture and the intervening air space filled up with a layer of ben-
zine. For light rays entering normal to the side surfaces an angle of
incidence of 45° is thus secured in the strongly refracting medium, and
the ray entering the chloride of silver must, therefore, form a consider-

1Meslin, Ann. de chim. et de phys. (6), 27, p. 381, 1892; Krone, “‘ Darstelling der natiir-
lichen Farben,” p. 66; Valenta, ‘‘Die Photographie in natiirlichen Farben,” p. 68;
Halle a. 8.,published by Wilh. Knapp, 1894.

?Dr. Neuhauss (Photogr. Rundschau, p. 295, 1895) mistakenly believed that he had
found an objection to the applicability of Zenker’s theory to Lippmann’s process in
the observed magnitude of the grains in the undeveloped plates, which was found
to be 0.0003 millimeter. Not the absence of grains, as he supposes, but complete
transparency is requisite for the production of fixed light waves.

* Lenker. Photochromie, p. 85.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 171

able angle with the normal to the surface. The difference of path of
the interfering light waves will, in comparison with vertical incidence,
be greatly changed, and according as the colors are thus altered or not
are they interference or body colors. A description and theory of this
prism experiment follow in Chapter XI, below.

If, now, the spectrum were produced according to the method of
Becquerel, the surprising result appeared that a portion of the spee-
trum observed “arough the prism appeared when compared with that
observed directly through the air to be considerably displaced toward
the extreme red. This is exactly the color shifting which is to be
expected if the theory of Zenker is correct.

Zenker, therefore, deserves the credit of having, in the year 1868,
rightly recognized as the cause of the coloring in the Beequerel proc-
ess the action of fixed light waves.

The photographic substance is in Seebeck’s method the same. The
only difference lies in the form. Seebeck used powder, Becquerel a
homogeneous film of silver chloride mixed with subchlorides. The
color displacement in the prism experiment is to be expected to occur
with the same prominence as with the Becquerel plates. The displace-
ment is in fact, however, not to be observed, and just as little in the
Poitevin process.

The objection of Schultz-Sellack is shown to be valid exactly in those
cases where it would appear plausible from previous considerations;
for in fine powder and in paper one could expect no regularly arranged
stationary light waves.

But the question may properly be asked, Why are there not created
in the Becquerel plates body colors as well, since these plates contain
the same substance as those of Seebeck? It does not appear impossi-
ble that, besides the interference colors demonstrated to be present,
there may also be body colors. I was, indeed, able to show that in the
method of Becquerel body colors also cooperate. The proof of this
may be found in Chapter XI, below. The colors on plates of Seebeck
and Poitevin are, on the contrary, exclusively body colors.

There are, therefore, methods of color photography which can not be
explained through application of the theory of Zenker; and there are
Substances in which colored illumination gives rise to corresponding
body colors, in which the coloring is not due to interference, but to a
characteristic absorption determined by the chemical constitution.

But how is such a phenomenon conceivable? The idea of a possible
answer came to me in reading the above-mentioned memoir of Carey
Lea. The various colored compounds of chlorine and silver which he
mentions are, according to him, molecular compounds of silver chloride
and protochloride, but not to be expressed by definite number relations.
He groups them under the name of ‘“‘photochlorides.” These colored
compounds are also formed by the action of light upon a ground con-
sisting of silver chloride and protochloride, such as is at hand in

2 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

Seebeck’s process, for example. That such compounds are formed
most readily under the action of light is not difficult to suppose.

But why are the compounds formed of the same color as the illumina-
tion? Why, for example, should a red photochloride be formed under
the action of red light in preference to some other?

It has the physical advantage that it reflects this color better than
compounds of other colors. Colored light that is reflected is not
absorbed, and can therefore cause no decomposition, for which the
absorption of light is requisite. Of all possible compounds which can
result from the disturbance of the chemical equilibrium by the action
of the light, the red compound possesses the advantage of stability on .
continuing the exposure. According to the conceptions of the kinetic
and newer chemical theories, we must, however, assume that in the dis-
turbance of the equilibrium all possible compounds are, temporarily,
actually produced by some of the groups of molecules. Among these, _
only the red continue unchanged, while those of other colors absorb the
red light and are by it further decomposed.

This is an explanation of the phenomenon easily deduced from
admitted facts and observations. Its correctness may be readily
tested, for it requires that, for example, the red compound shall be
decomposed by other than red illumination while stable in red light.

Such an experiment appears in the researches of Carey Lea.’ He
threw a spectrum upon the rose-colored photochloride. All the colors
except red changed it in such a way as to impress their own hue upon
it more or less, but “in the red it remained unchanged.”

I myself made experiments to test this explanation, in which the
sensitive plates were exposed to the action of two spectra crossing each
other at right angles. These experiments, which are described in Chap-
ter XIII, confirmed the correctness of the explanation.

A substance which, corresponding with this explanation, has the
characteristic of giving corresponding colors, I call a color receptive
substance. This characteristic is discussed in Chapter XII. |

By this connection a new foundation is laid for further methods of
color photography, for the phenomenon is not restricted to particu-
lar substances. It appears that any coloring matter which can, under
certain conditions, be decomposed by light is suited to use with new
methods.

It must be remarked that the difficulty to fix these colors appears
from the nature of the method of their formation inevitable, for the
capacity of the sensitive substances for reproducing colors is due to
their decomposition by the action of light. Indeed, the colors in the
older processes could only be tixed in a very limited degree. It 1s inti-
mated in Chapter XIV in what manner success may perhaps be reached
in this direction.

Jn connection with the characteristic of color reproduction the aequi-
sition of a capacity for resisting outside actions may be called an

1Carey Lea. American Journal of Science (3) 33, p. 363. 1887.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. Eis

adaptation. Thus colors so produced may be called adaptation colors,
at the same time remembering that a physical chemical, and in the last
analysis a mechanical process,’is in consideration. An adaptation of
such a character may be distinguished as a mechanical adaptation.

The question arises whether there may not be in nature, rich as it is
in color, sensitive substances with the same characteristics as the
ground of these photograms. Can not certain adaptation colors in
nature be thus explained? To be sure one is accustomed to regard the
adaptation in nature in the light of the fundamental law of Darwin of
the natural perpetuation by the selection of advantageously altered
forms of life. I am not, however, concerned with such a biological
adaptation, but only with a mechanical. This conjecture appeared
to be confirmed by observations which I found in biological works lent
me by the kindness of Professor Oltmanns, of Freiburg.

I came first of all on the following remark in the work of Theodcre
Himer: ‘“ Die Entstehung der Arten auf Grund von Vererben erwor-
bener Eigenschaftung nach den Gesetzen organischen Wachsens.
Ein Beitrag zur einheitlichen Auffassung der Lebewelt.”' Himer
opposed a too far-reaching estimation of the effect of biological adapta-
tion in the agreement of the color of an animal with its surroundings,
and pointed out a possible chemical action of light in cases of quick
color changes. It has been observed “ that butterfly pup are during
their development influenced by the color of their surroundings so far
that they assume these colors.” . . . ‘for example the red color of
a cloth enveloping them.” In explanation of this remarkable observa-
tion he assumes that the substance of which the chrysalis is composed
“is of such a character that it serves the purpose so ardently sought
at present of color photography.”? In the possibility of such a con-
nection I am justified in making mention of this circumstance without
having verified the explanation by experiments of my own. It would
be scarcely possible for me to add anything new to the excellent,
thorough, and protracted experiments which Poulton ® has carried out
on the color adaptation of the caterpillars and their pup.

According to these observations, one would not be justified in com.
paring the skin of caterpillars directly with a photographic plate.
These are in addition physiological processes. Nevertheless, I will
attempt to show from the observations of Poulton that the pigment of
the caterpillar’s skin during the sensitive states possesses in some
degree the peculiarities of a color-receptive substance.

But if mechanical adaptation occurs in this case, can it not have a
more general application in the formation of the living world? I found
this supposition confirmed in a paper of August Weismann ‘“ Aeussere
Hinfliisse als Entwicklungsreize.” +

1Himer, Jena, published by Gustav Fischer, 1888.

2 Loe. cit., page 155.

°Poulton. For the citations, see Chapter XV.
+A4.Weismann. Jena. Published by Gustav Fischer, 1894,

174 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

He calls the process here designated as mechanical adaptation, so
far as it plays a part with living beings, ‘‘intra selection,”' and refers
to a work of Wilhelm Roux, which appeared in 1881, ‘‘ Der Kampf der
Theile im Organismus, ein Beitrag zur Vervollstandigung der mecha-
nischen Zweckmiissigkeitslehre.”” The latter designates the process as
“funetional adaptation,” and discusses it in a general way as caused
by the “strife of the molecules,” ‘‘strife of the cells.”’ As “molecules”
he understands the smallest organic process units. In the case at
hand, “molecules” is to be taken literally.

Indeed, the result of colored illumination in a body may be figura-
tively expressed as the victory of the similarly colored molecules over
those dissimilarly colored, won by reason of their capacity of best
reflecting the incident light. Thus the application of the explanation
of the older processes of color photography to the explanation of certain
adaptation-colors in nature leads to the arrangement of these phenom-
ena under general groups, which may be recognized as processes of
mechanical adaptation.

I proceed now to the experimental verification and the exact founda-
tion and working out of the matters above mentioned. First of all, I
must express my thanks to Professors Arzruni, Grotrian, Holzapfel,
and Wiillner, of the technical college of Aachen, for their assistance.
Since, unfortunately, I found it hard to judge of many of the finer
differences of color, | have given no observations of color unless they
had been made or checked by one or more of these gentlemen.

Il.—APPARATUS AND PROCEDURES.

For the phctography of the spectrum a Steinheil spectrum apparatus
was used, in which the ocular was replaced by a small photographic
camera. This could be screwed to a tube which fitted in the telescope
tube. The adjustment was performed by means of a rack and pinion
motion.

The width of the slit was about 1 millimeter when great brightness
was wished and about 0.5 millimeter when a spectrum of greater purity
was desirable. The length of the spectrum from A to H, was 19.2
millimeters. Its height was generally between 15 and 18 millimeters.

The source of light was usually the electric are of a large Schuckert
lamp, used with an average current strength of 30 amperes, and whose
positive carbon had a thickness of about 23 millimeters. The carbons
had an inclination of 45° to the vertical, so that the greatest light
intensity was sent out in a nearly horizontal direction. The time of
exposure varied from a half hour to an hour in general, though under
the most favorable conditions colors were produced after a few minutes.

1 Loc. cit., page 6.

2W. houx, Leipzig. Published by Wilhelm Engelmann.

* The strife of the tissues and the strife of the organs is, as Roux remarks, not to
be included in the same category, because dissimilar *parts then enter into combat.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 175

I designate as the Seebeck process in general that in which the
sensitive material is preliminarily exposed chloride of silver powder.!
I used in this pure chloride of silver precipitated in the dark and then
dried. The powder was then placed between two glass plates and the
edges of these cemented together. The preliminary exposure was
made at first with violet and ultraviolet, but later more quickly with
white light. It was continued until the powder had taken on a not
too dark violet color.

Becquerel” has experimented with various modifications. I used
exclusively and distinguish here as the Becquerel process that peculiar
to him, and employed electrolytically chlorinized silver plates, but with-
out subsequent heating. For their preparation Iused brightly polished
electrolytically silvered copper or brass plates or else thin sheets of silver
themselves. There were dipped in a weak solution of hydrochloric acid
(1:8) as positive electrode, while a current of from two to four amperes
passed between surfaces of about 30 square centimeters area for some
seconds. The thickness of silver chloride deposit recommended by
Becquerel as the most satisfactory was attained by the passage of aquan-
tity of electricity which would suffice to separate 0.067 cubic centimeters
of hydrogen per square centimeter of silver surface. This thickness
is according to an approximate calculation about 0.0016 millimeters.
After coating, the plate is quickly dried between filter papers, and then
rubbed with soft leather.

Poitevin’s? process was used by Zenker and Krone and developed by
them. Following their directions I bathed Rives-Rohpapier in a 10 per
cent solutionof common salt for two minutes, then for one minute in an
8 per cent solution of nitrate of silver. The leaf was then quickly
washed and was exposed in diffused daylight to the action of astannous
chloride solution containing 5 grams of stannous chloride to 100 cubic
centimeters of water, till it had attained a not too dark coloration.
After this it was bathed in a mixture of one part concentrated potassium
chromate solution and two parts concentrated copper sulphate solution
and preserved between filter papers. It is well to moisten the paper
somewhat before exposure if quite dry.

Development is of course unnecessary in any of these processes, as
the colors are formed during the exposure.

Fixing, which in the last of these methods is possible to a slight
extent, I have not undertaken.

'See citation, p. 168. All these processes are described in the books of Zenker
(see p. 225) and Krone (see p. 227).

2Edmond Becquerel, Annales de chimie et de physique (3), 22: page 451, 1848;
25: page 447, 1849; 42: page 81, 1854; see also E. Becquerel, ‘‘La Lumiere,” 2: page
209. Paris, Firmin Didot Freres, Fils et Cie, 1868.

’Poitevin. Comptes rendus, 61: page 1111. 1865.

4See the work already mentioned. mi

176 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

JIJ.—CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF CHLORIDE OF SILVER DURING
EXPOSURE AND ELECTROLYSIS.

It has been lately shown conclusively by Guntz! that in the exposure
of silver chloride to light silver protochloride is formed. Pure silver
chloride not exposed to light appears, according to Becquerel,? to be
appreciably sensitive, when exposed to the spectrum, only to violet and
ultra violet light, and takes on during exposure a violet color. I have
repeated this experiment with the same result. The resulting powder,
composed of silver chloride and protochloride, is, however, sensitive
to all colors of the spectrum and copies them to a certain degree.

It would be desirable to investigate whether pure silver protochlo-
ride is changed in the spectrum. Dr. Hermens, assistant in the tech-
nical chemical laboratory of this institution, has with great friendliness
endeavored to prepare some of this salt for me, following the directions
of Guntz.’ It appears, however, to be very difficult to obtain it free
from silver chloride. Guntz, indeed, secured no pure silver protochlo-
ride.

The chemically prepared silver protochloride behaves in the spec-
trum in the same way as exposed silver chloride. This experiment,
therefore, forms a confirmation of the proof of Guntz of the formation
of silver protochloride by the action of light on silver chloride. The
mixture of silver chloride and protochloride had the violet appearance
of expesed silver chloride.

The electrolytically prepared chloride of silver contains also some
silver protochloride. For it is sensitive to all rays of the spectrum.
It can not, however, be exclusively silver protochloride; for in one
experiment I obtained a plate which was sensitive only to violet and
ultraviolet rays, and which therefore contained only silver chloride.
In its preparation I had not observed the conditions of the experiment.
It was probably produced by too weak a current, for I later prepared a
plate with a current of 0.2 amperes which was very sensitive in the
ultraviolet but only slightly so in the visible spectrum. It must there-
tore be assumed that Becquerel plates thus prepared consist principally
of silver chloride with some protochloride, the quantity of which is
increased with stronger currents. In confirmation of this it may be
remarked that when the layer is lifted from the silver surface it appears
of a bright violet color, by transmitted light.

TV.—THE ACCURACY OF THE COLOR REPRODUCTION IN THE
OLDER PROCESSES.?*

Becquerel’s plates give the colors by far the best. They appear
bright, similarly to those produced by Lippmann’s method, and in the
right places. 3

'Guntz. Comptes rendus, 113: page 72. 1891.

2Becquerel, Annales de chimie et de physique (3), 22: page 452. 1848. See also
Zenker, Photochromie, page 18.

*Guntz. Comptes rendus, 112: page 861, 1891,

4See also Zenker, loc, cit.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 177

In neither of the other processes are the colors so accurately repro-
duced, and they look dull. The Seebeck plates show besides violet
only blue and red distinctly, and the latter is a sort of rose red, the
former being often rather grayish. Green is very indistinct and yellow,
hardly to be distinguished. But there appears in their places a con-
siderable brightening of the violet background. The Poitevin process
is Superior to that of Seebeck. All the colors appear, but there is a
predominating yellowish brown tone. The yellow parts of the spectrum
are, aS reproduced, more of an orange color, similar to the color of a
paper soaked with potassium bichromate solution.

V.—INCORRECTNESS OF THE EXPLANATION OF THE REPRODUCTION
OF COLORS ACCORDING TO SCHULTZ-SELLACK.

A transparent film of silver iodide produced by the action of iodine
on a silver mirror chemically precipitated on glass is, according to
Schultz-Sellack,' not chemically changed by the action of light, since
there is nothing at hand to absorb the iodine. The surface is, on the
other hand, mechanically disintegrated to a very fine powder.

Lobserved such a film under the microscope, and determined the
diameter of the grains to be about 1 (thousandth of a millimeter)
with a space between them of from 0 to3 4. The yellow, unchanged
iodide of silver film was visible through them.

The series of transmitted colors succeeding under the influence of
sunlight is, according to Schultz-Sellack, yellowish brown, dark brown
with stronger illumination, red, green, blue, bright bluish white; finally,
the film is, with slight exposure, almost completely colorless and trans-
parent. I observed also such colors, but since a strong and steady
beam of sunlight was inaccessible to me, I used an electric light, with
which it was impossible to secure uniform action. Parts of the iodide
of silver film exposed equally long to light attained different colors.

But only violet and ultraviolet rays are able to cause this mechanical
disintegration as I found in confirmation of the results of Schultz-
Sellack. Herein lies the possibility of forming different colors by
different intensities and durations of exposure. <A representation in
different colors can therefore apparently be obtained ‘which is able
to distinguish the different intensities of violet light, which are trans-
mitted by red, green, and blue glass.”

These colors are held by Schultz-Sellack to be diffraction colors,
because they appear most strongly when one observes the plates in a
darkened chamber opposite to a small light opening. Indeed, the
colors are very dull when viewed by diffuse light. But they fail to
show the characteristic property of diffraction. They do not appear in
a direction at an angle with the incident ray as with a grating, but
in the direction of the rays passing through and reflected.

1Schultz-Sellack. ‘‘On the chemical and mechanical change of the silver haloid
salts under the action of light.” Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 143; page 439,
1871.

sm 96 12

178 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

The colors of iodide of silver are, however, not those due to thin
films, for they change “‘ when one replaces the air in the interlying
spaces by water or varnish.” It would be consistent with this obser-
vation to suppose that they are caused by the interference of light
passing through the iodide of silver particles and that passing directly
through the intervening spaces.

I refrain, however, for the sake of brevity, from more thoroughly
examining this hypothesis. The question at present considered is this:
Are the methods of color reproduction in the older processes of color
photography satisfactorily explained, according to Schuitz-Sellack, by
supposing the colors to be in consequence of mechanical disintegra-
tion of the film, so that they may be called disintegration colors? A
grave objection occurs to such an explanation, because they are thus
classed as transmission colors while in each of the processes the colors
are reproduced in reflected light. Since, however, the disintegration
colors do not appear in directions at an angle with that of transmis-
sion, it follows, if they are caused by interference, that reflected and
transmitted light must be complementary to each other, leaving out of
consideration the small absorption in the iodide of silver. I actually
found that where a metallic yellowish green was seen in normally
reflected light that passing through was bluish violet and where blue
was reflected yellow was transmitted. Hence, the series of Schultz-
Sellack can not hold for the colors of reflected light, for according to
it the more refrangible occur by increasing the time of exposure or the
intensity of the light.

The simple appearance of the colors of the older color photography
works against the theory of Schultz-Sellack. They appear very well
by diffuse illumination, as from a bright window, while disintegration
colors are here extinguished. These latter require for viewing a light
directly reflected from in front, which would totally destroy colors from
bright plates like those of Becquerel, for the light reflected from the
front surface would overpower that from behind. ;

Disintegration colors, according to his observation, experience also a
change in reflected light with increasing angle of incidence. I was
able in this way to produce change from metallic yellow to bluish gray
and back to metallic yellow. It has not been possibile to produce such
changes with reproductions of colors by the older processes.

The Schultz-Sellack explanation may, however, be subjected to a
crucial test, for the different colors of illumination would produce
no different kinds but only different intensity of action upon the sensi-
tive film, and if the nature of the colors resulting is to be determined
only by the intensity all colors of illumination would in the beginning
produce the same color, and so far as their action proceeded the same
succession of colors.

Such a behavior is contradicted by the observation of Becquerel,
according to which the colors corresponding to those of illumination

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 179

are from the beginning pure, though weak. The beginning of the
action, therefore, causes not the same but different colors.

For a more convenient test I caused to be formed on a sensitive film
a series of spectra with corresponding colors opposite, but giving dif-
ferent exposures to the severai impressions. For this purpose a shutter
was placed across the slit and opened upward. Thus, after the close
of the experiment, one could at a glance observe the action of the dif-
ferently colored illumination. It was shown conclusively in this way
that the several colors did not at the beginning of the exposure give
rise to one but to different colors, which were similar to the colors of
the illumination.

_ The following are the observations of Professor Grotrian, with a
plate prepared by Becquerel’s process:
FIELD 1. Oneminute time of exposure. Traceofred. Yellow and green only noticed
when field 2 is also under observation. Blue absent.
2. Two minutes. Red stronger; yellow and green to be recognized. Blue
absent.
3. Four minutes. Red, yellow, and green stronger. Blue scarcely to be
recognized.
4, Eight minutes. Red, yellow, and green stronger. Blue to be recognized.
5. Sixteen minutes. Red, yellow, and green stronger. Blue still weak.
6. Thirty-two minutes. All colors stronger.

The action in the ultraviolet was first apparent in the second field; hence, after the
red.

Red is here, the first distinetly visible color, and appears under the
influence of red light. This must, therefore, according to Schultz-Sal-
lack, be the most powerful acting color of all, and at the same time red
must be the first stage of the disintegration colors. Other colors, or
lighter stages in the disintegration coloring, can only be caused at first
by red light, and red coloring must be the first result of other colors of
illumination.

Observation shows the reverse. The other colors are caused by other
colored illumination, while the red is not changed by continued red illu-
mination, but on the contrary grows stronger.

The same experiment was performed with Seebeck’s and Poitevin’s
plates with the sameresult. Before the first color to appear had changed
the other colors appeared in their places.

Schultz-Sellack’s explanation of the formation of colors in the older
processes of color-photegraphy by disintegration colors is, therefore,
incorrect.

I do not in this, however, assert that the intensity of illumination is
without influence on the color produced. Such an influence is as appar-
ent as in the Lippmann process.' To disprove his assertion, it is not,
however, necessary to prove a complete independence of the colors from
the intensity of the light, but only to show the error in the relation
between them which his hypothesis requires.

1 See for example Krone, Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 46, p. 428, 1892,

180 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

VI.—THE PRISM EXPERIMENT.

The prism was so placed upon one-half of the photographed spectrum
that the line between the hypotenuse and the side face I (fig. 1) cut
similar color-lines at right angles. The eye of the observer was placed
in the prolongation of the same surface I (the arrow indicates the line
of vision) so that a line S drawn, before the experiment, in the direction
of a single color, as, for example, the yellow appeared straight when
viewed through the air and prism.

It can then be calculated what change the color at the line S under
the prism must experience aS compared with that in the air if the
colored image is caused by stationary light waves. f

That color appears in general whose wave length is equal to the
difference in path between two rays reflected at two adjacent elemen-
tary mirrors.

Fia. 1.

Let I and II in fig. 2 be two such elementary mirrors at a distance d
apart in a medium of an index of refraction n.. The rays are incident
in the general case at the angle a in an equilateral prism of index of
refraction n; and a base angle a;, so that the rays pass through the
sides of the prism at right angles both in entering and leaving.

The plane parallel liquid layer between prism and photographic
film has no influence on the difference of path between the interfering
rays S, and S,, and neither do the phase-changes on reflection at I
and II.

Let 2 a be the excess of distance of S,, over S, in the layer, and a»
the angle which §,, makes within the layer to the normal to the mirror.

Let 2 a, be the excess of 8, over §,, in the prism.

If we denote the wave length in air by A the difference in path
between S, and §,, is then measured in wave lengths as follows:

Lee Le Tepes an ment
D = 2a, 7 — 2a, 7"
But
Ay = - d and a, = d tan a, sin ay;
COS A»
Therefore

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 181

But since
mM, SIN ay = Nz sin Oy

2dn. 2dn. ad Ee
p= a COS ay = aie Pf) Jose a sin” ay.

Generally in observing the ge, An one looks perpendicu-
larly upon it. In this case cos a, =1 and
De 2d»
dX
The difference in path of the two rays is a wave length when D = 1
since D is measured in wave lengths. The color then appears whose
wave length is

Xo a 2dnz;

hence that which is caused by the stationary wave.
In the general case however D = 1 for another wave length:

XK = 2d COS A> = Xo COS ay.

One is thus able to obtain these values by multiplying A, by a factor
f= (€0S Gp = ths
; Xo
The degree of the color change is thus determined, that is the relative
wave lengths of the altered and the original color.
Let these be designated in the case of incidence less than 45° in air
with f, in the prism with /,.

(1) Then
. oEyoaay
Ji Pr a) i Qn?

A 1 nN?
tie Dp 2
Ins

Let ratio f,/f/, be designated as f,;. It determines the color change in
the experiment described in this chapter in which a part of the colored
image is viewed through air, another part through the prism. It is:

(3) pe a re
I
pee nyt

The equations (1) to (3) show also in what ratio the wave lengths of
the colors observed must change if the indices of refraction of the
photographic film and of the prism are known. They can conversely
Serve in the case f and n, suffer a known change to calculate the index
of refraction n2 of the layer. Thus, the question may be answered,
given a value nm, how great an index of refraction the prism should
have in order that f shall have a value markedly different from 1, so
that there shall be a distinct color change. To be sure, one could make
use of greater angles of incidence than 40°; but then the reflection
from the upper surface of the film might easily be so strong as to
destroy the value of the experiment.

132 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

ViII.—PRISM EXPERIMENT WITH COLOR REPRODUCTIONS AFTER
BECQUEREL—FIRST PROOF OF THEIR INTERFERENCE NATURE.

Although the results of the previous chapter do not require experi-
mental verification, yet 1 may say that in a prism experiment with a
photograph of the spectrum by Lippmann’s interference method I
observed a very considerable color change. In a place where for nor-
mally reflected light about the color of the yellow sodium lines.
appeared, the color when viewed through the prism appeared on the:
border between blue and greenish blue, or about at the place of the
hydrogen line He (F). The angle of incidence was less than 45° and
the prism used had a refractive index np, = 1.52.

In the following observations I used exclusively the already men-
tioned prism for which n, = 1.75, and at an angle of incidence of 45°.

When one observed a line drawn in the middle of the yellow on a
Becquerel plate, the ground in its vicinity when viewed through the
prism appeared green. Another line drawn along the border between
green and blue appeared through the prism lying in the middle of the
blue. In another plate the mark was drawn on the boundary between
yellow and green and it formed the boundary between green and blue
as seen through the prism.

The experiment was repeated with homogeneous illumination from a
sodium flame. There was then perceptible in the yellow of the photo-
graphic spectrum a bright strip of about 1.5 millimeters breadth, the
center of which appeared to be shifted about 2.1 millimeters toward
the red when the reference mark was undeviated. This value is the
mean of the measurements of several observers. The magnitude of
the displacement happened to be exactly the distance from the D to
the C line in the spectrum. From this follows:

SS

Jina Gay Ue

From this change in the wave length of the reflected light the index
of refraction of the photographic film may be obtained by substitution
in equation (3) with the value of n, =1.75. Such a computation gives
MN, = 2.4. In a second plate a displacement of 1.2 millimeters was.
observed, from which it followed that /,, = 0.94 and n, = 3.1.

That the index of refraction of the film should vary when they are
not prepared under exactly the same conditions is obvious, for the
value of the reflective index depends on the proportion of silver proto-
chioride to the silver chloride in the film. According to Chapter III the
latter is, however, probably the chief constituent of the film, so that it
would be unlikely that the index of refraction should greatly exceed
that of chloride of silver. This is by the observations of Wernicke,!
nN, = 2.06. It is therefore improbable that the index of refraction

1 Annalen der Physik und Ghene: 142: page 571, 1871.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 183

should exceed 5. In Chapter XI it is, however, shown that there are
other processes in play which would cause a slight color displacement
in the prism experiment with increasing intensity of light. The second
plate had, indeed, a stronger exposure than the first. Besides this, a
small absolute error in determining the displacement would cause a
larger one in the computation of the refractive index. The observations
make no claim to great accuracy. They were not originally intended
for the measurement of n., but only to show the approximate ameount
of the color displacement.

The magnitude of the displacement rendered it probable that it could
be observed in air without the use of a prism by simply changing the
angle of incidence. Indeed, in the case of the second plate, a shifting
of the middle of the bright strip in the sodium flame, amounting to 0.36
millimeters, was observed on changing the angle of incidence from 0°
to 45°, from which it follows that /; = 0.98.

But f, may be calculated from n, and n, by equation (1), if one substi-
tutes for n, the the above-mentioned value 3.1. In this way /, is found
to be 0.97, which agrees with the value observed within the limits of
experimental error.

The possibility of the recognition of a color change with a wave-
length relation 0.98 permits the determination of the limits of the safe
application of the prism experiment. The question arises, How great
the index of refraction of a film may be and still permit the recognition
of interference colors in it by the use of a prism? If one compares the
color at direct incidence in air with that at 45° in the prism, we have
substituting m, =1.75 and f, = 0.98 in equation (2): n.=6.2. If the
comparison is restricted to 45° incidence in both air and prism, it
follows with /,, = 9.98 by equation (3): nz, = 5.2.

So far as I know there have been no greater indices of refraction
than this observed for the D line. That of molecular silver is, accord-
ing to Wernicke,! based on the computation of Drude,’ equal to 4.
Checking his calculation by the molecular refraction from the known
refraction equivalents of a haloid and a haloid compound of silver, a
value less than 3 is obtained.

Thus it is possible by the prism experiment, for example, to test the
assumption recently made by Wernicke, that the colors of silver
observed by Carey Lea are only interference phenomena of molecular
silver. With n.=4 and n, = 1.75, f, becomes equal to 0.95; and thus a
silver plate appearing in air golden yellow (A = 589.) should in the
prism look distinctly greenish yellow (A = 560yu). If such a color
change is not to be observed, then a case of body colors is at hand, and
Carey Lea was right is assuming particular modifications of silver.

Still more certainly can one distinguish between interference and
body colors in any chlorine compounds intermediate between silver

1 Wernicke, Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 52: page 527, 1894.
2 Drude, ibid., 51: page 98, 1894.

184 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

chloride and pure silver. This is done in this research for the proce-
dure of Becquerel. It must be equally possible to distinguish in the
process of Seebeck, where chlorine compounds are also made use of.

I may here offer a remark concerning a conceivable improvement in
color photography by the interference method. Lippmann’s color repro-
ductions have, to be sure, the advantage of the possibility of fixing
and of greater sensitiveness to light over those of Becquerel. They
are, however, inferior, in that the colors are more dependent on the
angle of incidence and in the necessity of observing them in a definite
beam of light. In Becquerel’s method the colors are changed so little
with the angle of incidence that it was not for a long time shown that
any change at all occurred, and they can be observed in diffuse light.
Thus these colors have the characteristics of body colors without being
such. They receive this quality by reason of the high index of refraction
of the film.

Lippmann’s color reproductions would share in this advantage, and
would, indeed, be suitable for copying on paper if it were possible to
make some addition to the gelatine such as to give it a higher index of
refraction or even to replace it by some other substance with such an
index. It cannot, however, be said a priori whether this is possible
without the loss of other advantages of the method.

VIIIL—BECQUEREL’S COLOR-BEARING FILM VIEWED FROM THE
BACK.—SECOND PROOF FOR THE INTERFERENCE NATURE OF THE
COLORS.

For the purpose of Chapter II it was necessary to separate the color-
bearing film of the Becquerel plate from the silver backing. This was
accomplished with gelatine according to the directions of Wernicke.!

In so doing I observed the remarkable phenomenon that the colors of
the reverse side by reflected light were very considerably displaced
from what they were originally when viewed from in front.

The tone of the colors was also somewhat changed. Such a change
of color is not conceivable for body colors and can only be explained
through interference. This observation furnishes, therefore, a second
proof of the interference nature of the colors and at the same time of
the correctness of Zenker’s explanation of them by the assumption
of stationary light waves.

Such color shifting has also been observed with Lippmann plates
when examined from the glass and film sides. I can not, however,
recognize the explanation which I found given for this as correct.

These phenomena are the necessary consequences of facts hitherto
overlooked. It would nevertheless lead me too far from the subject
of this investigation to discuss this matter here. J must reserve the
consideration for another publication.

1 Wernicke, Analen der Physik und Chemie, 30, page 462, 1887.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 185

1X.—PRISM EXPERIMENT WITH SEEBECK’S AND POITEVIN’S COLOR
REPRODUCTIONS.—FIRST PROOF THAT THEY ARE OF THE NATURE
oF Bopy COLORS.

The prism experiment with Seebeck plates is beset with difficulties
which delayed the present investigation very considerably. The silver
chloride powder must be retained between two glass plates. It does
not suffice to pour benzene between the cover plate and the prism in
order to see the colors through the latter, for total reflection occurs at
the boundary of the air space between the cover plate and the particles
of powder. The air must therefore be completely expelled by a liquid
of not too small index of refraction. Benzene was chosen for this pur-
pose. The introduction of the benzene could not, however, take place
after the exposure, for it was found impossible to do this without alter-
ing the position of the particles of powder. Hence the benzene was
first poured between the plates and then the powder was stuffed in
between them.

A square-cornered metallic frame served to support the whole. In-
stead of glass, a mica plate about 0.08 mm. thick was used on the
front side. It was thus possible to avoid a slight displacement of the
reference mark with respect to the spectrum in the prism experiment.

The presence of the liquid did not interfere with the production of
the colors by the action of light. These came as before, only more
quickly, for by absorbing the free chlorine given off the liquid made the
plate more sensitive, but this added considerably to the difficulty of the
prism experiment, as the observation required to be quickly completed
before the action of daylight obliterated the spectrum reproduction.

The experiment was finally repeatedly performed with success. The
reference mark was drawn with a diamond in the red and blackened
with soot. There was no perceptible displacement of colors with respect
toit. At the same time it was worth while to secure greater certainty
by a simple modification. For this purpose pure chloride-of-silver
powder was stirred up with collodion and the mixture poured upon a
glass plate and dried. There was thus obtained a film in which the
chloride of silver was retained by collodion. It was then fixed to a
glass plate. The reference mark was made with a lead pencil on the
film itself and the prism experiment performed without possibility of
error.

The plates in benzene could not be left long in the daylight. The
room was therefore darkened and light was admitted through a hole
covered by a double layer of filter paper. The new process had, how-
ever, the advantage that the colors appeared more distinctly. Under
the prism they were, to be sure, darker; but the result was repeatedly
reached with certainty that no displacement of the colors in the prism
with respect to those in air occurred for an unbended reference mark.

No difference in this respect was found between the coarse-grained

186 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

layer of the silver chloride-collodion mixture and the fine-grained
liquid emulsion. The*diameter of the grains was in the latter case
determined by the microscope to be about 0.001 mm.

Regular stationary light waves are impossible in such grains. The
motion of light among them must be very irregular. This is the case
also in a still higher degree with the Poitevin films on paper. The fact
that they reproduce colors much better determined me to subject them
also to the prism experiment.

It was found undesirable to have the benzene soak through the
whole paper, because the colors were thus made less distinct in air.
The spectrum reproduction was therefore cut in half perpendicularly
to the reference mark after drawing the latter in the yellow. One of
the parts was placed upon the side of an auxiliary prism II (Fig. 3
shows section of the prisms and leaf), and this was fastened to a level
glass plate, upon which the other half of the leaf was so placed that
the marks came together. Finally prism I, with the high refractive
index, was set upon the second half, benzene poured between, and the
eye placed in line with the reference mark and with the surface of
the principal prism. It was noticed that the colors under the prism

~
AXE

FIG. 3.

were a little less bright and the green and blue a little less distinet
This was due to the yellow coloring of the flint-glass prism, for a line
drawn on paper with a blue pencil appeared of a greenish tone through
the prism. A displacement of colors could not, however, be observed
through the prism. é

The sensitive substance in Seebeck’s process is the same as in Bec-
querel’s. In Poitevin’s method other constituents are used, which
probably only lower the index of refraction of the layer. The absence
of color displacement shows that the colors of Seebeck and Poitevin
pictures are, in distinction from those of Becquerel, not interference but
body colors.

X.—SEEBECK’S AND PorrEevins’ CoLoR PIcTURES OBSERVED IN
TRANSMITTED LIGHT.—SECOND PROOF OF THEIR CHARACTER AS
Bopy COLORS.

The films prepared from collodion emulsion of chloride of silver
according to Poitevin’s process show colors after exposure to the spec-
trum illumination when observed from behind, both in reflected and
transmitted light. These colors correspond in position with those

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 187

appearing on the front surface. In transmitted light they appear in
part even more distinctly.

This is a Second proof that the colors are body colors, that is to say,
produced by absorption.

This observation has been repeatedly made by other investigators,
but I have never yet found the conclusion drawn from it with regard to
the nature of the colors. Perhaps this is due to a fundamental error
which Zenker, the founder of the interference theory of color photog-
raphy, made in this connection. In his treatise on photochromie he
Says, on page 81, in reference to the color reproductions through the
formation of stationary light waves:

Similarly, it is natural that the same colors should appear by trans-
mitted light that are observed by reflection, for since the transmitted
light is certainly not the direct continuation of the incident ray, but at
least in part also experiences several reflections, those same colors must
preponderate in it that correspond to the distances apart of the point
layers, that is, colors identical with those in the ray ordinarily retlected.

By point layers are meant the elementary mirrors which are formed
in the sensitive film by the action of the stationary light waves.

The colors, however, which are due to reflections from the elemen-
tary mirrors must be complementary to the reflected colors at the same
parts of the plate as in all pure interference colors, for they must
together make up the incident white light. They can indeed not fail
of this, for by hypothesis they are produced wholly by interference and
not by absorption.

If one inquires how in the same difference of path, that is the double
distance between two neighboring elementary mirrors, different inter-
ference colors can be produced in reflected and transmitted light, he
forgets the phase changes occurring in reflection. At the same geomet-
rical plane where a ray of reflected light at the first elementary mirror
is thrown back in passing into optically denser or rarer parts, respec-
tively, the transmitted and twice-reflected ray is thrown back in pass-
ing into optically rarer or denser parts, respectively, and receives,
therefore, an opposite phase change. That at the second mirror is in
both cases similar. Thus there remains a phase difference of a half-
wave length, which causes the complementary coloring of the trans-
mitted light. There is no change in this relation with a greater number
of reflections. It may be objected that the phase change on reflection
at an elementary mirror must be the same, whichever side the light falls
upon it. That is the case; but it must be remembered that the ele-
mentary mirror is not a geometrical plane, but a layer of finite thick-
ness. Otherwise it could not, in the absence of absorption, reflect
light.

Exactly this objection aids in determining the phase change on
reflection at an elementary mirror and not at a geometrical plane
coincident with its boundary or within, as was discussed above. Since
in transmitted light the twice-reflected ray experiences, with reference

188 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

to that passing directly, a phase change of a half wave length, and
since at each of the two elementary mirrors it receives the same phase
change, the phase change on reflection at an elementary mirror is one-
fourth wave length. In this the phase change is reckoned with refer-
ence to a ray reflected without phase change from the plane at the
middle of the elementary mirror.

The result above described will be deduced in another way in the
connection mentioned on page 184, and difficulties and objections
encountered will also be discussed.

All that has just been said concerns the case when there is no absorp-
tion. Such a case is furnished by the chrom-gelatin process of
Lippmann,! in which the transmitted colors are complementary to those
reflected.

When absorption is present it would readily be decisive in the case
of transmitted light, because each complementary transmission color, as
in the colors of thin plates, must contain much white light and be
therefore faint.

Thus Krone? was able to observe only the characteristic color of the
precipitate formed by development in Lippmann’s haloid-silver plates
by transmitted light, and I have myself made the same observation.
Lippmann himself says that in two silver bromide-albumin plates he
observed complementary colors transmitted.’ The absorption must in
this case have been very slight.

Where the same colors appear by transmitted as by reflected light,
these can not be due to interference, but must be caused by absorption.
Conversely, absorption, when it is not too strong to show surface colors,
must show the same colors by transmitted as by reflected light, for this
is nothing but doubly transmitted light.

We have thus a second proof that the colors in Seebeck’s and Poite-
vin’s processes are body colors.

XI.—THE COOPERATION OF Bopy CoLoRS IN BECQUEREL’S
PROCESS.

I remarked in the general survey (I) that it would be astonishing if
Seebeck’s plates showed body colors under colored illumination and
the plates of Becquerel, which chemically are almost identical, failed
to show them. It was, however, to be expected that these body colors
would be hard to recognize so long as interference colors were very
strong. It is not difficult to suppose that these latter would be weak-
ened by a long time of exposure, in consequence of which the photo-
graphic action must penetrate very close to the vibration nodes of the
stationary waves. This result was observed by Krone‘ with Lippiman’s

‘Lippmann. Comptes rendus, 115: p. 575, 1892.

*Krone. Darstelling der natiirlichen Farben, p. 54.

*Lippmann. Comptes rendus, 114: p. 962, 1892.

4Krone. Deutsche Phographen Zeitung, p. 187, 1892, edited by Valenta.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 189

process. Sufficiently overexposed portions of the spectrum were white.
Beequerel' himself says of his process that the differences of color dis-
appear with prolonged exposure.

I have, therefore, exposed a Becquerel plate twenty hours, and a sec-
ond thirty hours, to illumination by the spectrum. The prism experi-
ment then gave, with the first, a slight color displacement; but with the
second the displacement was hardly noticeable. At the same time the
colors were very indistinct under the prism.

A more thorough demonstration of body colors was to be expected
in examining the color-bearing film by transmitted light. The film
was for this purpose removed from the silver backing (see p. 154).
There then appeared in reality, by transmitted light, red and a trace of
blue in the proper places, the latter, however, being in the first plate
more of a grayish blue, and in the second of a violet-blue tone.

It was, however, to be expected that interference colors would exert
a disturbing action.. Hence, the side which had been next the silver,
and which showed brilliant interference colors by reflected light, was
rubbed with a leather pad till these colors were fainter. The red, in
particular, was now transmitted much more strongly, but it was no
more a spectrum red than in Seebeck’s process. The same was to be
observed in a film exposed only three-quarters of an hour, but less
distinctly.

These experiments show, therefore, that in Becquerel’s plates, also,
body colors are produced and cooperate to a greater extent the longer
the exposure is continued.

XII.—THE THEORETICAL BASIS OF A METHOD OF COLOR PHOTOG:
RAPHY WITH Bopy COLORS.

In order that a substance sensitive to light can be chemically changed
by the action of any kind of light it must absorb it. The converse
proposition is not general. The absorbed light can, for example, be
exclusively transformed into heat. A distinction is therefore made
between thermal and chemical absorption of light.

For the sake of simplicity of expression I shall designate as a regu-
larly absorbing light-sensitive substance one which is sensitive to all
colors which it absorbs, and is affected by each color in proportion to
the capacity for absorption. That there are such substances, at least
to a considerable degree of approximation, is known. Upon their exist-
ence is based the important law of optical sensitizers established by
H. W. Vogel.’

1Becquerel. La Lumiere 2, p. 222, 1868.

2The maximum of sensitiveness is, with respect to the absorption maximum, thus
far continually found to be displaced toward the less refrangible end of the spectrum.
The displacement of these maxima on the same plates has been investigated for a
great number of sensitizers by J. J. Acworth (Annal. der Phys. und Chem., 42, p.
371,1891). He finds not only great but also very small displacements. It is, then,
not impossible that there may be color substances in which the displacement is not
noticeable for the purpose under consideration.

190 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

It is conceivable that the regularly absorbing light-sensitive sub-
stance may be decomposed by the action of light to form colored
substances also regularly absorbing and light-sensitive.

I will designate as a color-receptive substance a black regularly .
absorbing light-sensitive substance, whose products of decomposition
consist only of monochromatic regularly absorbing light-sensitive sub-
stances of at least three radically different colors, and, besides these, of
a white substance which, however, is the least readily formed. These
colors must be radically different in order that by their mixture with
one another and with white all compound colors may be possible. In
distinction from these compound colors the unmixed colors will be cailed
ground colors. The monochromatic substances reflect only one color
well. They must absorb the others the more completely the more they
differ from them. With these preliminaries it may be shown that a color-
receptive substance reproduces the color of the illumination correctly.

First, let the color of illumination agree with a ground color. It
will be absorbed by the black body and produces a decomposition
substance which, by hypothesis, is regularly absorbing and light-sen-
sitive. In this decomposition different colored substances are formed.
Those not agreeing in color with the incident light, absorb it, since, by
the hypothesis, they are monochromatic, and must absorb all illu-
mination different from their color. Since these are regularly absorb-
ing light-sensitive substances, they are also decomposed by the light
which they absorb. On the other hand, the substance of the same
color as the incident light is not decomposed, since it does not absorb.
In the end, therefore, it alone can remain in company with the white
substance. The amount of the latter is, by hypothesis, very slight,
and its effect upon the color is therefore noticeable only under strong
illumination.

Where the color of the illumination differs from that of a ground
color, but is intermediate between two ground colors—as would, for
exawple, be the case with green, were yellow and blue ground colors—
the colored substances would suffer least decomposition which reflect
green best, that is, the yellow and blue. A green mixture would thus
arise besides the small quantity of white.

In white light all the color substances would be decomposed, leaving
white alone.

In the absence of illumination, the substance would remain black.

It may thus be seen that all colors would be correctly reproduced.
The duration or intensity of the exposure must, however, be properly
limited; for, if carried too far, white would begin to predominate, and
the colors must gradually be extinguished.

It is possible that a light-sensitive substance should have only par-
tially color-receptive qualities. Such an one would reproduce colors
but partially. If the substance is not black, then black could not be
reproduced. If not a regularly absorbing light-sensitive substance, it

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. “EOF

would remain unchanged for some color which it absorbs, and hence
can not reproduce this. If the ground colors are not monochromatic,
the monochromatic illumination which such an one reflects would either
be mainly incorrect or inaccurate in tone. Such an error is introduced,
also, if the products of decomposition are not regularly absorbing and
light-sensitive. Finally, if less than three products of decomposition
result, or if their colors are not radically different, not all colors can be
reproduced. This remark has reference, also, to the white product of
decomposition. In its absence white can not be reproduced.

In spite of all such deviations, any light-sensitive substance which
yields colored decomposition products will reproduce colors to a certain
extent; for the colored illumination will leave similarly colored com-
pounds unaltered, since they reflect the light, and will, on the other
hand, decompose other colored substances more readily, since they
absorb it.

It will be thought that the properties of a color-receptive substance
are very complicated and difficult to attain. Nevertheless, this com-
plication is afforded by known natural processes. It is, however, not
necessary, for if it is sought to attain color photography by body colors
in the simplest way, it is possible to make a selection of the absorbed
light which produces decomposition. I will return to this in Chapter
XIV.

XIJII.—EXPLANATION OF THE COLOR REPRODUCTION IN SEEBECK’S
AND POITEVIN’S PROCESSES.

The color reproduction is explained by the fact that the light-sensi-
tive substances used possess to a certain degree of approximation the
qualities of a light-receptive substance; not completely, for the color
reproduction is not complete.

The first deviation consists in that the light-sensitive substance is
not black, but in Seebeck’s process dark violet to gray violet, in Poite-
vin’s a dark gray violet to gray brown. Black can therefore not be
reproduced, and in its place occur the above-mentioned dark hues.
Nevertheless, these substances share with black the characteristic that
they absorb all visible rays to a certain measure and are light sensitive
to all. The products of decomposition are, as remarked in Chapter I,
substances of different colors. They must be, according to the results
of Carey Lea and Krone, either very numerous or very different in
color. But they are not absolutely monochromatic, and in this is to be
found the reason why the reproduction of color tones is partially incor-
rect. (See Chapter IV.)

A white product of decomposition is not present in Seebeck’s process,
hence white can not be thus reproduced.

In Poitevin’s process white can be reproduced. The tendency to the
production of white is, however, less than that for the other decomypo-
sition products, and the colors are made pale only after long exposure.

192 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

It remains now to see for each of these processes whether the decom-
position products are’regularly absorbing light-sensitive substances.
That this is the case only in a measure is shown by the degree of
accuracy of the color reproduction.

In Seebeck’s process the red is the most distinct. In order that it
can be produced with red illumination all the other decomposition col-
ors must be red sensitive so that they may be decomposed by red.
This is the case.

As a test the result of an exposure to illumination by the spectrum
was turned in its plane through 90° so that each color of the picture
was exposed to the illumination of the whole spectrum. The red of
the first exposure was the only color remaining unchanged under the
red of the second exposure. AJl the other colors were destroyed and
the plate took on a red coloring to the borders of the ultra violet.

The other colors behaved similarly, but as they were not so well
marked as the red after the first exposure, so after the second they
were even less distinct. It may, however, be said that the red pro-
duced by the first exposure was destroyed by the green and blue of
the second, though the lightening up of the ground tone in connection
with the red still remained. This agrees with the experiment of Carey
Lea, mentioned on page 172. The green of the first was destroyed by
the blue as well as by the red of the second. The blue of the second
exposure destroyed, therefore, both the red and green resulting from
the first. Violet could naturally do the same, as blue is produced —
from the violet ground color. Since now yellow is scarcely at all repro-
duced in this process, the formation of blue by the action of blue light
is explained from the fact that it is able to alter all other decomposi-
tion products. Blue is, indeed, after red, the most satisfactorily repro-
duced. é

In Poitevin’s process the colors are better marked, and the experi-
ment with crossed spectra was therefore more satisfactorily performed.

In one experiment the exposures were each continued a half hour.
The colors of the first picture remained, as was expected, unchanged
where the same colors fell upon them in the second exposure. Under
different colored illumination they were changed according to the
observation of Dr. Holzapfel in the following manner: The red in the
first picture was in the yellow of the second illumination yellow, and
under the other kinds of illumination correspondingly altered.

The yellow of the first picture was unchanged by the red of the
second illumination, was changed a little by the green, was greenish
in the blue, and was in the violet destroyed.

The green of the first picture was changed to red under the red of
the second illumination, was yellow under yellow, and remained un-
changed under blue and violet.

The blue of the first picture was made red under the red of the
second illumination, yellow under yellow, green under green, and was
in the violet altered and darker.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 193

The dark violet which was produced by the violet of the first ilumi-
nation was made red by the red of the second, and under other colors
took on a rather indistinct color, which, however, inclined toward
theirs.

In general, then, each colored substance remained unchanged under
similar illumination and was under different illumination altered or
destroyed. An exception to this rule occurred in the case of the yellow,
or rather orange, as the color produced by pure yellow illumination
appeared of a more orange color (see page 177). This color was not
changed by the illumination of the neighboring red and green, and
was not easily altered by the blue, since in this case the mixed color,
green, resulted.

These facts would contradict the explanation of the color reproduction
given if there were not a cause for failure which justifies the explana-
tion; if, namely, the orange colored substance is not completely light-
sensitive for red and green it can exist at the same time with red under
red and with green under green illumination, without being again
decomposed. If, however, this substance is the more stable under the
action of light, it will finally gain the ascendancy, and this was in fact
observed.

The originally narrow orange yellow strip broadened out in both
directions with increasing duration of exposure. Its breadth was, for
example, in a field exposed 24 minutes about 1 millimeter and in one
exposed five times as long 3 millimeters. This broadening was in some
experiments more considerable toward the red than toward the blue
part of the spectrum. In other experiments this appeared not to be
the case. This may have been due to slight differences in the method
of preparation of the sensitive film.

The fact that this displacement takes place agrees well with the fol-
lowing phenomenon. An exact investigation showed, namely, that in
short exposures, for example 4 minutes, a red and not a yellow color
results from illumination with sodium light, which gradually takes on
the orange coloring. It therefore appears that the yellow substance is
a produ:t of the decomposition of the red. This process must be
explained chemically, and need be taken in consideration in the present
investigation only as explaining the one-sided displacement of the
orange yellow strip with increasing time of exposure. Tor, in accord-
ance with what has been said, the red preliminary product would more
readily be produced by red than by green illumination.

It must be observed that the deviations of the characteristics of the
photographic substances in use from those of color-receptive sub-
stances lead to deviations from a correct reproduction of colors. For
that color in Poitevin’s process, however, which with prolonged expo-
sure is continually correctly reproduced—namely, orange yellow—the
conditions are fulfilled. All other colored substances produced are
sensitive to orange-yellow light, and are decomposed by it.

sm 96—13

194 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

The color reproduction by the sabstances used by Seebeck and Poi-
tevin and the degree or its accuracy are therefore explained by the fact
that they possess the characteristics of a color-sensitive substance as
approximately as is required byt the degree of accuracy of the color
reproduction.

XIV.—THE STANDING OF COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY WITH BoDY COLORS
WITH REFERENCE TO THE COLOR PRINTING AND INTERFERENCE
PROCESSES—POSSIBILITY OF THE PERFECTION OF COLOR PHO-
TOGRAPHY.

Color photography with the aid of color-receptive substances will be
here distinguished as body-color photography.

It resembles the process recently worked out by H. W. Vogel! of
color printing in so far that the colors in both cases are reproduced by
body colors. Both methods require also the presence of regularly
absorbing light-sensitive substances, which adimit of the application of
the Vogel fundamental law of optical sensitizers. Progress in the dis-
covery of such substances will be advantageous for both processes.

The methods employing body colors lend themselves the more
readily to reproduction of pictures, since the colors appear by trans-
mitted light. For this purpose it would be necessary to use transpar-
ent plates, such as have been of late employed by Veress.” The color-
printing process naturally has the advantage over all others in the
capacity for reproductions. But the method employing body colors is
at least superior to the interference process in this respect.

This method more resembles the interference process, however, in
that the colors are directly produced by the illumination. Since the
resulting colors are, moreover, not apparent, but real body colors this
process may perhaps be looked upon as promising the ideal of color
photography. Its results are, to be sure, at present far removed from
the ideal, but perhaps this will be otherwise after the recognition of
the foundation upon which the process rests.

The Seebeck and Poitevin processes choose a roundabout way.
The properties of a color-receptive substance are very complicated.
But after it is shown that such a substance reproduces colors correctly
one can conversely base his considerations on the capacity for correct
color reproduction, and pursue the inquiry, What are the simplest char-
acteristics which are required for this purpose?

I believe that these are to be found in a black mixture of three regu-
larly absorbing light-sensitive substances which decompose with the
formation of white products. To be sure, however, the greatest variety
in this process is conceivable.

There are Ce ways which may be imagined in which fixing

overt der hye. Gon z. Berlin. Wate der Samet eal Cc iieaanite, 46, page 521, 1892.
2See Elder’s Jahrbuch fiir Photographie, page 46, L891.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 195

can be secured. It appears not impossible that the color substances
produced should by chemical action be converted into similarly colored
stable substances, or by a suitable addition be protected from decompo-
sition. A case of the latter kind is mentioned by Otto N. Witt in a
very excellent memoir.!

There are, he says, fading dyes—that is, light-sensitive substances—
in threads which are made lasting by saturating the thread with copper
salts. According to Witt’s hypothesis these copper salts have no influ-
ence on the dyes, but on account of their easier decomposition absorb
the light energy and make it harmless to the colors.

It is also conceivable that the photographic film might be made light
sensitive by the addition of other substances and again become insen-
sitive after their withdrawal. It may be asked what object there is
in seeking for new processes when excellent ones are already at hand.
Experience, however, shows that where there are different solutions of
a technical problem it is seldom that any one supersedes all the others.
Hach retains that province for which it seems best adapted. Andif
the body-color processes are at present the most incomplete, the future
investigators can not now be told within what limits these imperfec-
tions shall remain any more than future generations can be informed
within what bounds their knowledge will be included, as is exampled
by those who in times past have thought to determine such limits.

XV.—MECHANICAL COLOR ADAPTATION IN NATURE.

A far-reaching influence has been already ascribed to light in the
production of the colors of nature,’ not only in plants, whose green is
attributed to the action of light by all, but also in animals. Such a
direct influence is, however, generally denied, or at least only recog-
nized in a restricted way, most scientists, with Darwin, attributing the
coloring of animals to the action of natural and generic selection.

1Otto N. Witt, ‘‘Ueber Farben und Fiirben. Hine Studie tiber Energieverwand-
lung.” Vortr. geh. bei Gelegenheit des VI. deutsch. Fiirbertages. Prometheus, pp.
625, 641. 1894. He remarks very significantly that theory and practice have ceased
to be strangers to each other, since each theoretical advance is followed by one in
practice. This is certainly true of the development of color photography, and it is
to be hoped in the case at hand. I can not, however, leave unchallenged one state-
ment of the author, namely, his assumption that the chemical action of the long
wave lengths is possible only by their conversion, after absorption, into short waves.
One might with equal justice say that the heating effects of short wave-length
radiations are to be explained by their preliminary conversion into long. The
nature of the action of light is, however, determined, not by the wave lengths, but
by the characteristics of the receiving substance. My experiments with stationary
light waves show that the chemical action is caused by indwelling electric forces,
and these are, of course, independent of the wave length. They can, according to
the nature of the receptive substance, produce either decomposition or heating, just
as the electrical energy of a constant current may produce decomposition of electro-
lytes or heat in a metallic conductor.

2See Karl Semper, Die natiirlichen Existenzbedingungen der Thiere, Leipzig, F. A.
Brockhaus, 1880, page 107.

196 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

Without contradicting this action, Semper! has lately maintained
that this explanation is not complete, and that, for example, the first
appearance of coloring matter in the covering of an animal is unex-
plained. This remark can, of course, not refer to colors which are to
be regarded as the insignificant characteristic of the chemical com-
pounds produced by the organization. It has, on the other hand, ref-
erence to the general lack of color observed in animals which live in
the dark.

Semper” and Himer’ remark that the change in forms of life which
lies at the basis of Darwin’s doctrine was taken by him simply as a
fact, and that it still lacks detailed explanation. Himer* regards as
the causes of these variations the physical and chemical changes which
are brought about by the action of exterior conditions on living beings.
He attributes to the action of light a considerable influence on the
formation and alteration of the colors of animals.°

In such considerations one enters the domain of physical conceptions,
for such demand the regular procedure of an event with the simul-
taneously changing conditions. In contrast to a mechanical explana-
tion of this sort those of Darwin are to be distinguished as statical, and
take somewhat the same relative position with regard to it that the
explanation of the gas law by the kinetic theory of gases bears to the
purely mechanical explanation of the motion of the separate molecules.
The standpoint of observation in the two cases is, however, different.
For gases we consider a phenomenon as a whole, while in nature it is
generally the single items. I go into these general observations to
show that the two kinds of explanation do not exclude each other, but
on the other hand are complimentary.

In this connection the establishment of the direct action of light on
the colors of animals deserves particular attention. Such an action
has been thoroughly investigated for caterpillars and butterfly pupe.
It was discovered by T. W. Wood ® in the year 1867. The caterpillars
inclosed in chrysalises were brought into the sunshine and surrounded
by colored substances. They took the color of these surroundings.
How extensive this receptivity of pup# and caterpillars is has lately
been shown by the extraordinarily thorough and careful experimental
investigations of Edward B. Poulton.”

1Semper, loc. cit., page 122.

2Semper, loc. cit., preface.

*Eimer, Entstehung der Arten, 1: page 1.

‘Loc. cit., page 24.

> Loe. cit., pages 93, 145, 167, et al.

°T. W. Wood. Proc. Ent. Soc., pages 99-101. 1867. Cited by E. B. Poulton, ‘The ~
Colours of Animals,” London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co., 1890, who
himself has described the history of the discovery, page 113 ff. See also Poulton,
Phil. Trans., London, 178: page 312. 1887.

7See besides the above-mentioned writings the comprehensive treatise, ‘‘ Further
experiments upon the colour relation between certain lepidopterous larve, pup,
cocoons, and imagines and their surroundings.” Transactions of the Entomological
Society of London, page 293. 1892.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 197

Wood, the discoverer, assumed as the cause of the phenomenon a
photographic sensitiveness of the skin, but gave no proof. His
assumption was not, however, completely self-evident; for there are
cases of quick color adaptation known which rest upon other grounds,
as, for example, among frogs and fishes. In these animals the color
adaptation is dependent on sight. If they lose the use of their eyes,'
be it at the instance of the experimentor or accidentally, they lose their
capacity for color adaptation. This rests, however, not upon a change,
but only on a different arrangement of the coloring matter through the
shrinking together of the color-bearing cells or so-called chromato-
phores (?), which lend to the chameleon’ the remarkable capacity for
color changing.

Upon these grounds Poulton thought it desirable to seek, first of all,
for a Similar connection in the case of caterpillars. He covered the
eyes of a number of caterpillars with an opaque screen.’ They did not,
however, lose the capacity for color adaptation.

His attention was then directed to the hairy spines* of the cater-
pillars under investigation, to see if they perhaps might hide some
light-sensitive organ. But this supposition proved erroneous. The
shorn caterpillars retained their capacity for color adaptation.

The skin must therefore contain these organs. Poulton® investigated
the physical constitution of the coloring in Amphidasis belutaria, the
birch-moth, which possesses this color receptivity to a high degree. This
moth owes the green color to a coloring matter contained in oil cells in
the fatty layer which lies between the epidermis and the surface
muscles. The epidermis itself may also secrete a dark coloring matter,
which then hides the green pigment and makes the skin appear brown.

The different colorings are here formed, therefore, not by different
layers of unchangeable color substances, but through the formation of
new coloring matter and its alteration under the action of light. The
most effective changes take place in the dark cells in the epidermis,
but the green lying beneath is influenced. The range of colors thus
possible runs from brown, green, and gray on the one side to black and
on the other to white.°

If, now, the color adaptation of caterpillars is connected with the
color reproduction in body-color photography, the dark coloring matter
must be formed in the dark and the lighter colors result from the action
of light upon it. Poulton, indeed, observed that in the dark, dark-
colored caterpillars and pupze were formed by preference, while the

1ixperiments and observations of Lister and Pouchet. See Semper, loc. cit.,
page 117; Poulton, Colours of Animals, page 85.

2See Ernst Briicke, Untersuchungen iiber den Farbenwechsel des Afrikanischen
Chamileons. 1851 and 1852. Ostwald’s Klassiker, 43.

Poulton, Phil. Trans., 178: pages 323, 345 ff. 1887; Colours of Animals, page 128.

4Poulton, Phil. Trans., 178: page 335, 1887; Colours of Animals, page 128.

5Poulton. Trans. Ent. Soc., page 357. 1892.

Poulton. Trans. Ent. Soc., page 359. 1892°

198 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

brighter colors came about in the light.!. It is worth noting that dark
surroundings in a bright light brought out somewhat lighter dark
forms than complete darkness.’ I will return to this point.

How far the above-described characteristics of a color-receptive body
must be assumed for the coloring matter of the skin of caterpillars, in
explanation of their color adaptation, depends on the extent of this adap-
tation. This question is connected with the other, whether the caterpil-
lars are restricted in their adaptation to colors which they might meet
with in nature, or if they can take on also others. Poulton® has in gen-
eral observed only the first case. But he has showed that it is not pe-
culiar situations but the light which exerts the influence; for not only
were green leaves and brown twigs effective, but also green and brown
strips of paper. White strips of paper and different colored glass
windows were similarly active.*

If, however, caterpillars are able to take on other colors than those
of their natural surroundings, these could not be looked upon as pro-
tection colors. An explanation of this kind was rejected by Poulton in
the cases of Pieris brassicwe and Pieris rape, which changed into pup
in a glass cylinder two-thirds covered with orange-colored paper. This
color destroyed the dark coloring matter more than any other except
white and gave rise to bright yellowish-green pup.

A pronounced deviation from natural colors is mentioned by Bed-
dard, who says:° ‘‘Mr. Morris® succeeded in producing white, red, sal-
mon, black, and blue pup of Dandis chrysippus ; they are only green
or pink in nature.” It must therefore be assumed that the coloring
matter of these caterpillars possesses in a high degree the character-
istics of a color-receptive substance, as already defined.

From these examples it follows that the biological explanation of
protection coloring is not satisfactory; but it in no way follows that
natural selection was not in play in the production of the color-receptive
pigments of the caterpillars. For it is easily possible that if these are
capable of reproducing the natural colors of the surroundings, they also
with the same chemical constitution have the capacity of reproducing
other colors.

The assumption that this constitution possesses, in some measure, the -
characteristics of a color-receptive substance is confirmed by another
experiment of Poulton. Since the caterpillar’s skin could readily
assume the color of leaf-green, the light of this color must be particu-
larly active in decomposing the dark pigment that is secreted in the
skin in the absence of light. Poulton investigated, in the case of Pieris

1See, for example, Poulton, Phil. Trans., 178: page 430, 1887; and Trans. Ent. Soc.,
pages 328, 353, 1892.

*Poulton. Trans. Ent. Soc., pages 329,385. 1892.

’Pouiton. Trans. Ent. Soc., page 470. 1892.

‘Poulton. Trans. Ent. Soc. See for example tables, pages 461, 466. 1892.

“Frank EK. Beddard. Animal Coloration. London: Swan, Sonnenschein & Co.,
page 137. 1895. :

‘Morris. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 1890, according to Beddard.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 199

brassice and of Pieris rape, what radiations of the spectrum are most
active in decomposing the dark pigment of the epidermis. The results
were exhibited in a plot! whose abscisse corresponded to the color of
the illumination and whose ordinates gave the estimated degree of
attack upon the dark coloring matter of the epidermis. Besides the
already-mentioned maximum of decomposition by the action of orange-
colored light of wave length between 570 and 650 yy, he found in the
case of Pieris rape a second, though less marked for bright-green light
with wave lengths between 510 and 584 yuyu. Itis particularly the yel-
Jow constituent of the light sent out by green leaves which is able to
destroy the dark coloring matter most effectually. The extreme red
and blue portions of the spectrum are scarcely more active than
darkness.

The similarity with the processes of poly-color photography goes even
further. In the epidermis of green caterpillars of Amphidasis betu-
laria, which is able to secrete the dark coloring matter, Poulton found
instead of this a pale yellow coloring matter, which had a greenish-
yellow appearance under the microscope. “It is therefore clear that
the surroundings determine not only the presence or absence of true
pigment in the epidermic cells, but also its constitution, and therefore
color when present.”

The green coloring matter in the fatty layer can be partially de-
stroyed,” for example, in white light. Therefore, it also receives rays
which it absorbs and therefore act upon it.

A test of the explanation given is formed for color photography by
the crossed spectra experiment. Poulton arranged a similar experi-
ment. He moved caterpillars from dark to light surroundings, and
vice versa, an experiment which he designates “ transference experi-
ment.”* He found that a change of the first color in a sense such as
to cause it to approach the second was to be noticed so long as it was
confined to the time during which the caterpillar was sensitive. Here,
however, occurs a great difficulty to the understanding of the phe-
nomenon, which I must mention in detail.

It must first of all be remarked that in the previously mentioned
phenomena of the skin of caterpillars it appeared as if it secreted a
coloring matter which in the periods of sensitiveness possessed in some
_ degree the character of a color-receptive substance. But in order that
it could be said that the caterpillar’s skin behaved like a photographie
plate, it must be shown that two different parts of the skin which were
subjected to different colored illumination assumed different colors.

One such observation has been made, but it appears to be the only
one. It was communicated by Mrs. Barber in a memoir which was
laid before the Entomological Society of Londen by Darwin.* A pupa

‘Poulton. Phil. Trans., 178, fig.6, page 431. 1887.
2Poulton. Trans. Ent. Soc., page 359. 1892.

° See for example Trans. Ent. Soc., pages 352, 419. 1892.
4Ent. Soc. ‘Trans., page 519.. 1874, according to Ponlton.

200 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

of Papelis nireus was situated before coming out of the cocoon upon
wood which lay next to brick. After shedding the skin its lower side
took on the color of the wood on which it lay, while the upper was of
the color of the brick. Poulton’ remarks, on the other hand, that a dif-
ference between the color of the back and of the abdomen is frequently
to be observed in pup. Yet this may perhaps be attributed to the
fact that these surfaces are usually subjected to different illumination,

The experiments of Poulton led, however, to a contrary conclusion.
He arranged so that the front and rear portions of a caterpillar should
be differently illuminated, an experiment which he designates as the
“conflicting color experiment.” No local coloring was distinguished,
but a uniform average color over the whole body, which depended on
the relative surfaces of the two parts, and without a preponderating
influence being exerted by the front part.

The experiment of Poulton by which he established the facts of states
of greater sensibility also speaks against the simple nature of the pro-
cess. These periods occur at the time of changing into pupex. In the
“Transference Experiments” the change of surroundings occurred
shortly before such changes, and in spite of this the first surroundings
usually appeared more influential than the second upon the coloring
which the caterpillar assumed after the changing into the pupa. The -
second skin is, of course, formed beneath the first and according to
Poulton possesses no coloring matter. The future coloring of this skin
is therefore influenced before it possesses coloring matter.’ One must
agree with Poulton when he rejects for these cases the assumption
of a simple photographic process and supposes complicated physiolog-
ical causes.*

In spite of this I do not regard it as impossible that a relation to
color photography exists in so far that the coloring matter of caterpillars
possesses the characteristics of a color-receptive substance to a certain
degree. Naturally Poulton could not assume such a relation, for the
basis of color photography was not then determined. There was for
him, therefore, a break in the understanding of the color adaptation of
caterpillars, which he expresses as follows:

‘“Some quality in the light reflected from surrounding objects forms

the cause, but the physiological chain which connects the two [color of
illumination and of the skin] has yet to be discovered.”

'Poulton. Phil. Trans., 178: page 315. 1887.

2See, for example, Phil. Trans., 178: page 373. 1887; Colors of Animals, page 131;
Trans. Ent. Soc., pages 420, 446. 1892.

°I have to thank the kindness of the lepidopterologist connected with the institu-
tion, Mr. Omar Wackerzapp, for informing me that the caterpillars of Geometra
vemaria change from green in summer to brown with the dying of the leaves, and in
the next spring return again to their former green color. In neither case, however,
is there a change of skin in connection with the color change. See Stetl. Entom.
Zeit., page 1, 1889. It is, however, not established that the light is here the cause of
the change.

Poulton. Phil. Trans., 178: page 317, 1887; Trans. Ent. Soc., page 391. 1892.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 201

The relation sought is probably the ineffectiveness of light when
reflected and its activity when absorbed, so far as color adaptation is
concerned, which depend on whether it agrees in color with the sub-
stance on which it falls or not.

In order to show that the remarkable influencing of the condition
of the future skin and the effect of the illumination of a part of the
skin are not in contradiction to this supposition, I must remark that
processes are conceivable which are set up in connection with the
commencement of the light absorption.

Poulton thought it possible that the surface colored layer is in a
state of “complete physiological unity.”' and that the nerve system
conducted the light action. It is not difficult to build up from this an
accurate physical conception. I recall phenomena which Ostwald? has
classed under the name of chemical actions at a distance. Amalga-
mated zine can be dissolved by dilute acids acting not directly on the
zine but on a platinum wire which is placed in metallic contact with
the zine, but when the zine and platinum are separated by a clay cell
and the former dipped in a neutral solution. This action is, of course,
by means of an electrical current.

In a similar way the illumination of the coloring matter of a cell may
set up electrical currents in the nerve conductors which cause similar
decomposition in other cells of the caterpillar’s skin, such action being
accompanied, of course, by a diminution of intensity of action in the
exposed cells. In this way there would be caused a uniform change
over the whole body. Such a transference of action may be compared
with an apparatus to see things occurring at a distance or an arrange-
ment to electrically photograph objects far removed.

Since, according to Poulton, not only the illuminated skin, but the
colorless skin lying beneath it, is influenced, it must be assumed that
in some way the decomposition is transferred to this latter, with the
result of reversing the effect in the outer skin. This decomposition
must hinder the later formation of coloring matter. Such peculiar con-
ceptions are, to be sure, as yet premature, and are only made to show
that the relation to color photography is not excluded. They are
indeed complicated, but so is the process itself. Since nature proceeds
from the simple to the complex it would be remarkable if cases should
not yet be found in which the process remained at a less advanced
stage of development and thus showed a direct relation to color
photography.

Poulton’ refers to similar processes the capacity of Halias prasinana
to spin a cocoon agreeing in color with its surroundings.

The transferrence to a distance in caterpillars explains also the
activity where dark surroundings are adjacent to light, for the parts

‘Poulton. Trans. Ent. Soc., page 392. 1892.
2Ostwald. Zeits. fiir Phys. Chem., 9: page 540. 1892.
Poulton. Trans. Ent. Soc., page 392, 1892; Colonrs of Animals, page 145.

202 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

of the skin lying in the dark are then places for the development of
dark pigment, which is of use to the whole body. That this develop-
ment is more rapid than in complete darkness and also more rapid for
caterpillars which were first in light and then in darkness than for
those always remaining in darkness,' is, perhaps, due to the action of
the extreme violet and ultraviolet rays of the daylight. I shall later
refer to a Similar phenomenon in color photography.

Further cases of color adaptation have been above mentioned in
which the eye receives the active impulse. According to Himer’ these
cases are due to the possession by the caterpillars of a long nerve train
extending between the place of reception of the stimulus and the place
of its action, the place of reception of the stimulus being restricted to
the eye. Semper? explains the color adaptation in these cases by the
difference in intensity of action of certain colors and of brightness of
the surroundings on the retina. These create, according to the obser-
vations of Dewar,‘ electrical currents of different strength, and thus
one must attribute to them different capacity for attracting together of
the chromatophores. With increasing strength of attraction the skin
appears brighter. This explanation, it will be observed, is similar to
that given for the caterpillars.

Semper’ describes a remarkable observation, according to which
“white rabbits breed most easily and surely in white reflected light.”
I scarcely believe, however, that this circumstance has to do with the
subject under consideration. Their relatives in the far north are at
least, with some reason,°® supposed to put on their white winter gar-
ment through the influence of the cold. And if each rabbit received
only reflected and not direct sunlight, they probably had their resi-
dence in a, coo] place.

I do not know whether the above-mentioned kind of color adaptation
has an extensive application. Perhaps, however, further examples of it
will be recognized when the attention of biologists is drawn to it.’

It is remarkable that in the strong light of the equatorial regions
more dark than light forms have developed. Here also a connection
with the light has been assumed. Thus Darwin® contrasts the dark
coloring of many birds which inhabit the southern part of the United
States of America with those of the north, and adds: ‘ This appears to

1Trans. Ent. Soc., page 419, 1893.

?Himer. Entstehung der Arten, page 156.

2Semper, loc. cit., page 119.

4Dewar. Nature 15, pages 433, 453, 1877.

Semper, loc. cit., page 265.

"See Poulton. Colours of Animals, page 94 ff., 1890; Beddard, Animal coloration.
page 76, 1895.

“I found later in Vogel’s Handbuch der Photographie, 1: 4 Aufl., 1890, pages 57,
203, the remarkable observation of Herschel (Phil. Trans., page 189, 1842) that cer-
tain vegetable coloring matters are most strongly bleached by the colors complemen-
tary to them. It would be interesting to observe whether in living plants, for
example, certain flowers had the capacity to assume the color of their illumination,

‘Darwin. Abstammung des Menschen; German by V. Carus, 5 Anfl., page 253.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 203

be the direct result of differences between the two regions in respect
to temperature, light, ete.”!

It must be taken into consideration that our judgment upon the
degree of color adaptation is disturbed by the insensitiveness of our
eyes to the extreme violet and the ultraviolet rays on the one hand
and those of the infrared on the other. These cause, however, chiefly
blackening and must, therefore, be avoided.’

In this connection the following experiment deserves consideration,
which I performed with Poitevin plates. These were brighter when
the ultraviolet rays were removed from the undecomposed electric
light employed in illumination by an absorbing solution, and, on the
other hand, darker when these were suffered to pass through unhin-
dered. This is a consequence of the decomposition of the silver proto-
chloride in the first instance and of its new formation in the second.
In similar experiments I recognized the darkening effect of heating
and the favorable changes induced by moisture.

I"inally, there is at least to be recognized a relation between the
color adaptation of caterpillars and color photography in so far that
the caterpillars secrete a coloring matter which to a certain degree
possesses the characteristics of a color-receptive substance. In this
sense the color adaptation of a single caterpillar must be regarded as
mechanical. This is, however, not in contradiction to the conception
that the capacity is attained by biological adaptation in the sense of
Darwin, for those individuals will be best protected whose pigment
is most color receptive.

It can not easily be decided whether this capacity is developed by the
action of light, according to Roux and Himer,’ or only by chance alter-
ations of the protoplasm in the course of time, according to Weismann.
It must, however, be remembered that there are no completely fast
coloring matters, and that all would to a certain degree be color
receptive. Thus the early ancestors of the caterpillars, while not pos-
sessing the color adaptation of the present representatives, would
still be somewhat changed by light. According to Himer, it must be
supposed that this chemical change would not be without influence on
the constitution of the protoplasm and of posterity, and thus their
individual changes would receive a certain directing impluse. ‘These
changes would, therefore, not require an accidental impression. But
even if HKimer’s hypothesis should be untenable such an accidental
impression would be regarded in a physical sense only as an example
of the play of unknown proeesses which still require explanation.

1Mr. O. Wackerzapp gave me the privilege of examining a series of butterflies in
his rich collection for which the influence of the region, or the climate, as, for exam-
ple, on the north and south sides of the Alps, or the elevation, was distinctly visible in
the gradations of color. The else insignificant variations are scarcely to be under-
stood except as they are to be ascribed as the effect of light, heat, and other impulses,

2Zenker. Photochromie, page 59.

’Roux and Kimer. See citations, pages 19, 21.

204 COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY.

XVI.—SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.

I had set before myself the task of determining the causes of the
color reproduction in the older processes of color photography which,
in their main features, were introduced by Seebeck, Becquerel, and
Poitevin.

The explanation of Schults-Sellach, by disintegration colors, was, in
the first place, shown to be erroneous.

A method was required for the discrimination of interference from
body colors which appear in substances of high refractive indices. This
was found in the employment of a right-angled glass prism, also of
high refractive index, through which the colors to be investigated
were observed.

By means of the alteration in color thus produced it was shown that
the Becquerel picture upon an underlying silver mirror was chiefly pro-
duced by interference. Here, therefore, Zenker had correctly ascribed
the cause of the color reproduction to the formation of stationary light
Waves.

In the pictures of Seebeck and Poitevin there was, on the contrary,
no color change. They consist, therefore, of body colors, and Zenker’s
explanation finds here no application.

The fact that these pictures show the same colors by transmitted as
by reflected light leads to the same conclusion.

It was shown that in Becquerel’s pictures body colors cooperate in a
slight degree.

The understanding of the formation of body colors was promoted
for the Seebeck and Poitevin processes by the proof for these processes,
respectively by Carey Lea and by Krone, that the substances present in
the plates are capable of yielding compounds which embrace almost
all the spectral colors, if not all their tones.

The explanation was, however, lacking why the color substances
produced agreed in hue with the illumination-producing decomposition.

This explanation is found, that of all colored substances capable of
being produced only those will be stable which agree in color most
nearly with the incident light, since these will best reflect and least
absorb it, and can therefore be least changed. Decomposition products
of other colors, on the other hand, absorb this light and will be again
decomposed.

A test of this explanation was made by throwing a spectrum at right
angles on a color photograph of the spectrum. It was found, in fact,
that a correctly-reproducible illuminating color was capable of decom-
posing all colors differing from it, but similar colors remained
unchanged.

It is therefore fundamentally possible that colored illumination shall, in
switable substances, produce similar body colors.

I have designated such substances as color receptive.

COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY. 205

This possibility and the recognition of its cause form a new basis for
a kind of color photography which may be distinguished as body-color
photography. The hope seems justified that upon this foundation
there may be built up new processes superior to the old body-color
processes in accuracy and fixedness of the pictures.

Color reproduction can be designated as color adaptation, for it con-
sists in the perpetuity of color substances which best withstand the
action of colored illumination—that is, of similarly colored substances.

This circumstance raises the question whether color adaptation can
be produced in @ similar way in nature, that is through a process of
mechanical adaptation in contradistinction to biological adaptation,
which according to Darwin results by natural selection of individuals.

Such a case is presented by the caterpillars and their pup and has
been thoroughly investigated by Poulton. While his experiments show
the presence of complicated physiological processes, yet they make the
assumption plausible that the coloring matter of these animals within
the sensitive stages of development possesses to a certain degree the
characteristics of a color-receptive substance.

In this case the phenomenon would belong to a general group of
phenomena discovered by Wilhelm Roux and classed under the title
of functional adaptation.

I believe that with the above the work of the physicist in connection
with mechanical color adaptation is chiefly finished, and it is now the
function of the chemist and photographer, on the one hand, and of the
biologist, on the other, to make the physical results practically useful.

Puys. Inst. D. TECHN. HOCHSCHULE AACHEN, April 25, 1895.

oa)

ONE 4

. = m at ee it
dare HOS EE

PRESENT STATUS OF THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRI-
BUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY:

By Louris DUNCAN.

The industrial life of mankind is made up of two things—the trans-
formation and distribution of material, and the transformation and
distribution of energy. The raw material from mines and forests is
-changed to finished products and distributed among the people, while
energy, obtained from water power, coal, or other sources, is changed
from the potential energy of the water, or the energy of chemical com-
bination, to mechanical power, heat, light, ete. Unless we can transmit
this energy economically, we must transform it into the required form
at the place where it is to be utilized. At present a large part of our
mechanical power is obtained from steam plants situated in the fac-
tories themselves, and for heat and light we mainly depend upon stoves
and lamps in our houses.

Before the introduction of electrical transmission it was possible to
distribute energy to limited distances by various methods, but no sys-
tem offered a long-distance transmission for all purposes. By means
of compressed air or steam pipes the energy of coal has been trans-
mitted to produce mechanical power or for heating, and gas mains
have allowed the distribution of gas for lighting or for fuel.

In the case of power obtained from steam plants the economy inci-
dental to large units and a steady load has led to the concentration of
industries. Where steam is used, the plants are situated where it is
most convenient for manufacture; where water power is employed, it
is necessary to bring the factories to the location of the power, irre-
spective of other conditions.

By means of dynamo-electric machines, the energy obtained from
either coal or water power may be transformed into electrical energy;
may be distributed and then transformed again into mechanical power,
light, or heat, or may be used for a number of purposes peculiar to
this form of energy alone. The limits to the distance of this distribu-
tion are imposed by conditions of economy and safety.

‘Inaugural address of the president at the 108th meeting of the institute, New
York, September 23, 1896. Vice-President Steinmetz in the chair. Printed in
Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol. XIII, Nos. 8
and 9, 1896.

207

208 ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

It is my purpose to take up the different methods of transmission
and distribution and to-consider the limits that are actually fixed by
the present status of electrical development. The question is a com-
mercial one, each problem presenting different conditions which must
be considered, but certain general principles govern each case, and our
knowledge and experience makes it possible to judge the practicability
of each particular transmission. .

GENERATING PLANTS.

At the present time practically all of the electrical energy distrib-
uted is generated in plants operated either by steam or water power,
and it is important to consider the conditions of maximum economy in
large generating plants, as this bears directly on the subject of trans-
mission and distribution.

A large proportion of the electrical plants in this country are steam
plants. In the last ten years we have advanced from small stations
using high-speed dynamos for light and power distribution to large
stations, using, aS a rule, low-speed direct-connected machines. The
simple engines that were used some years ago have in many cases been
changed to compound and even triple expansion engines, and where
it is possible condensers have been employed. Some of the latest
plants have machinery of the highest possible efficiency, and yet if we
consider the price per horsepower of the power generated we will find
that it is greater than we expect. This is partly due to the fact that
for both lighting and power purposes the load on the station is, as a
rule, not uniform and the apparatus is not working under the best con-
ditions for economy. In this country electrical energy is principally
generated for electric lighting, for electric traction, and for supplying
stationary motors, these stationary motors, as a rule, being supplied
with current from lighting stations. If we take the load diagram of
such stations in large towns, we will find that the average output is
not greater than 30 to 40 per cent of the maximum output. We have,
therefore, to supply a large amount of machinery corresponding to the
maximum demand on the station, while for distribution a large amount
of copper is required, that is only being used at its maximum capacity
for a comparatively short period of the time. In stations supplying
power for traction purposes we find a variation of load, but the varia-
tion is a different kind from that found in a lighting station. In the
latter the load varies at different hours in the day, but for any partic-
ular instant it is practically constant. In the former the average load
for different hours during which the station is operated will be practi-
cally constant, but there will be momentary variations, depending upon
the size of the station and the type of traffic. Taking, for instance, a
2,000-horsepower station in Baltimore, I find that the average load is
48 per cent of the momentary maximum load. This difference in the
kind of variation for the two types of stations necessitates employment

ELECTRICAL ENERGY. 209

of different apparatus to obtain the maximum economy for each type.
For lighting stations triple-expansion engines may be used, while for
traction work, where the variation in the load is sudden and may occur
after the steam is cut off from the high-pressure cylinder, it is not well
in general to go beyond compound engines, and there is even a question
as to whether simple engines are not more economical when condensing
water can not be obtained. In any case, however, it is of the utmost
importance, as regards economy of operation, that the load should be
made as constant as possible.

Two distinct types of distribution are used for incandescent lighting
in this country—the single-phase alternating current and the direct
. current 3-wire system. At the present time the former does not permit
the supplying of power. As alternating distribution is at high poten-
tial, it does permit the location of the station where the conditions of
maximum economy can be fulfilled. The 3-wire incandescent system,
using low voltages, may be used for supplying motors, but the amount
of copper necessitated by the low pressure has caused such stations to
be located near the center of distribution, irrespective of the best con-
ditions for the economical operation of the plant.

With the alternating system it seems impossible to provide even a
moderately steady output, but with the continuous-current system the
motor load during the day gives an average output greater in propor-
tion to the maximum. Some years ago the question of the relative
values of the alternating and direct-current systems was discussed, and
for a while most of the stations installed were of the alternating type.
At present the tendency seems rather in the direction of continuous-
current stations, especially in towns where there is a large demand for
current within a comparatively small area. There is a great advan-
tage of direct currents, in that they allow the employment of storage
batteries, which equalizes the load on the station. In almost all of the
large lighting plants, both here and abroad, this plan has been adopted
to a greater or less extent, and the results have been so favorable,
that the battery equipments in many of our stations are being increased.
The efficiency of batteries in lighting stations is comparatively high,
while the depreciation has been greatly reduced, and is not now over
5 or 6 per cent per annum. In most systems, however, the full benefit
of the storage batteries is not realized, as the batteries are placed in
the station, and while the advantage of an approximately constant
load is obtained, yet the further advantage offered in distribution is not
secured. I will take this question up later.

In New York, Brooklyn, Boston, and Chicago a large proportion of
the direct-current lighting stations are situated where it is expensive
to handle the coal and ashes, and where the economy, due to condensa-
tion, is not obtained. It is also the custom to use several stations
instead of a single large station, and this increases the cost of produc-
tion both in operating expenses and fixed charges. The question arises

sm 96——14

210 ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

whether we have reached a point where it will be more economical to
consolidate the stations in the best possible location for economical
production of energy, and make use of the means of distribution which
have been developed in the last few years to increase the radius at
which energy can be supplied.

As far as traction stations are concerned, their efficiency and output
would be increased by the use of batteries, both because the machinery
would be steadily loaded, and because the most efficient type of appa-
ratus could be used, as is the case in lighting stations. By the consoli-
dation of railroad properties that has taken place in the last few years
single corporations operate electric lines over extended areas. Itis the
custom to build a number of stations, each running a certain section of
the line, the idea being that the decreased cost of copper and the
decreased possibility of a shut down would more than compensate for
the increased cost of operation and fixed charges. It is, again, impor- _
tant to consider the question whether we have not reached the point
where a single station can be built in such a way that there is little or
no possibility of any accident causing a suspension of the entire traffic
of the system, and where improved methods of distribution will decrease
the amount of copper, so that it will not exceed that required by the
present method of using a number of generating stations.

If storage batteries are used, the two types of variable load belonging
to lighting and power stations demand different types of battery. For
lighting stations a considerable capacity is required, while the momen-
tary variations of power stations do not require any great capacity, but
demand as great a maximum output as battery manufacturers can
obtain. | |

In water-power plants the conditions of economy are different. The
location of the plant is cf course definitely fixed, and the advisability
of obtaining a uniform load by means of batteries depends upon the
local conditions. If the water power is limited and is less than the
demand, then it might be well to use batteries in order to increase the
amount of salable power. Again, if the development is expensive, it
might be cheaper to develop a smaller amount of power, pay for a
smaller amount of machinery, and increase the output by the addition
of batteries. These are questions that can only be decided by a knowl-
edge of the local conditions.

We may conclude that while the practice in large lighting and trac-
tion systems is to multiply stations near centers of consumption, yet
the economy of a single large station makes it important to consider
whether it is not possible to concentrate our power at some point where
the expenses will be aminimum, and distribute by some of the methods
which have in the last few years proved successful and economical.
It is important to make the station load steady, and this may be done
for continuous-current lighting and traction plants by means of storage
batteries,

ELECTRICAL ENERGY. PALA |

ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The distribution of electrical energy to consumers as distinguished
from its transmission to long distances has been largely accomplished
by the agency of continuous currents, although alternating currents
have played an important part in incandescent lighting. As I have
stated, a considerable proportion of current for lighting is distributed
at constant potential on the three-wire system or at constant current
on are-light circuits, while power for traction circuits is distributed at
approximately constant potential at an average of, say, 550 volts.

I shall first consider the condition of affairs in a traction system in
a large city, where a number of suburban lines are operated. If direct
distribution is attempted from a single station, it will be found that
when the distance exceeds 5 or 6 miles a large amount of copper must
be employed to prevent both excessive loss and excessive variation of
potential on the lines. On suburban lines it is the latter consideration
that usually determines the amount of copper used, and this is espe-
cially true on lines where there is a considerable excursion traffic.
Even in the city itself, the supplying of sections at distances 3 or 4
miles from the station may require so much copper that it would be
less expensive to operate separate stations. Several methods other
than the direct method may be employed to remedy these difficulties.
For outlying lines where the traffic is mainly of the excursion order,
being variable both during the day and for different seasons, boosters
may be advantageously used. It is perhaps best from reasons of econ-
omy to run the boosting dynamos from motors. These dynamos are
series-wound, and are connected to feeders of such resistance that the
fallof potential in the wire for a given current is compensated for by
the rise in voltage of the booster. There is a decreased cost of copper
incidental to this system due to the fact that the drop is not limited by
considerations of regulation—the voltage at the end of the feeder being
constant—while the transmission is at an increased potential. If the
average station potential is 600 volts, and it is boosted 300 volts, then
the copper for a given loss would be decreased in the ratio of 36
to 81. The booster system has the advantage of the direct system
when the cost of the additional apparatus, together with the increased
loss on the line, capitalized, is less than the increased cost of the
copper necessary to produce the same result by the direct system.
Whether the balance is in favor of one or the other depends on the
distance and the variation of the load, and it is indifferent whether the
variation in the latter occurs often or not.

If any transforming device is employed to feed a distant section of the
line it must be remembered that the capacity of the device must be
great enough to look out for the maximum demand on this section.
Suppose, now, that we wish to feed some suburban line where the load
has considerable momentary fluctuations, but where the traffic is mod-
erately constant during the year; in this case the booster could be

Zh? ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

used with a storage battery at the end of its feeder, the battery sup-
plying the line. The advantages of this combination are greater than
with the simple booster, and in many cases they will compensate for the
interest and depreciation on the battery and the loss in it. If the
arrangement is properly made the load on the booster and line wire
will be practically constant, thus decreasing the capacity of the booster
to that required for the average load, while less copper will be required
for a given loss. As to the latter point, suppose a given amount of
power is to be distributed in 24 hours, say 200 amperes at 600 volts, if
the load is uniform, the loss will be proportional to 200? x 24 hours. If
it is all distributed in 12 hours, the loss will be proportional to 400? x 12
hours, or twice as much. So, in the case of the steady load, the same
power could be transmitted with the same loss with half the copper.
It makes ne difference whether the variation extends over 12 hours in
24 or occurs every other minute, the result will be the same. It is
apparent, then, that it is of the utmost importance to keep the line
steadily loaded, as well as the station, and this points to the location of
the battery near the points of consumption and not in the station. By
this system—a booster with storage batteries—it is possible, assuming
the same loss, to transmit power to a distance of 10 miles with approx-
imately the same amount of copper that would be required for a
5-mnile transmission on the direct system. It would increase the econom-
ical radius of distribution twice and the area of distribution four times.
A single station could economically supply lines within distances up
to 10 or 12 miles. If it is desired to still further increase the radius
of distribution, it is possible to do this by employing some of the alter-
nating current methods that have come into use. I will discuss these
methods later, but at this point I may remark that the use of stationary
and rotary transformers permits the energy to be transmitted in the
form of alternating currents, and to be changed again into continuous
currents of any required voltage. These rotary transformers supplied
by an alternating current, which is transmitted from the station at a
high voltage, may be used to feed the line directly or they may be used
to supply storage batteries which are connected to the line. In the
latter case we have the advantage of decreased size of apparatus, of
steady load on the station, and of a minimum cost of copper on the line;
which system it would be best to employ would depend upon the
distances and the character of the line and load.

Of the systems that I have proposed for city and suburban distribu-
tion from a single station, three have been successfully employed,
namely, the booster system, the booster system with batteries, and
rotary transformers operating directly on the line. When we consider
the advantages of a single station and a steady load, it seems evident
to me that many of the large traction systems would do well to con-
centrate their stations into one and to use the booster system with bat-
teries for their outlying lines, and if necessary use rotary transformers
for lines beyond the limit of ordinary suburban work. As to the pos-

_ELECTRICAL ENERGY. 213

sibility of the complete shut down of such a station, we have reached
such a point in the construction of machinery, both electric and me-
chanical, that with a proper reserve, a careful system of duplex steam
piping, and with fireproof construction of the station such a possi-
bility may be disregarded; while the batteries would look out for any
momentary interruptioneon the feeders.

CONTINUOUS CURRENT LOW VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION.

Some of the most important stations supplying incandescent lamps
are operated on the three-wire continuous current system. In the last
few years a considerable advance has been made in the sale of power
for motors from these stations, and this has increased the revenue and
has given better average output. The tendency in this country has
been in the direction of using storage batteries in such stations, and
abroad practically every continiious current station uses batteries. As
in the case of traction systems, it has been the custom in large cities to
build a number of separate stations instead of building a single plant
and distributing fromit. The batteries have been placed in the stations
themselves, and no attempt has been made to decrease the amount of
copper used by employing a number of centers of distribution and giv-
ing the main feeders a steady load. Thesame considerations that apply
to stations for traction work will also apply to stations used to supply
lights, and the same methods of distribution may be used. It would
unquestionably be more economical in many instances to use single sta-
tions to transmit power from these stations to centers of distribution,
where batteries may be located and to distribute from these centers on
a three-wire system. A case in point is the system used at Budapest,
where the energy is distributed from the central station to rotary trans-
formers at substations, these rotary transformers feeding batteries, cur-
rent being distributed from these batteries on a three-wire system. The
reports of the operation of this station show that it is both economical
and successful, and it might well be copied by some of the companies
in this country. The gross receipts of some of the large illuminating
companies bear such a large proportion to the company’s stock that a
comparatively small saving in operation would mean a considerable
increase in the dividends, and there is no doubt in my mind that by
using one power station, with battery substations for distribution, the
operating expenses can be considerably decreased.

ALTERNATING CURRENTS FOR LIGHTING.

Alternating currents have been employed for lighting in this country,
and they have been especially valuable where a district is to be supplied
in which the distances are considerable as compared with the number
of customers. It has been almost the universal custom to supply small
transformers for each consumer, and while the average size of trans-
formers is greater now than it was a few years ago, yet they are com-
paratively small. No power has been supplied from such stations, and

214 ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

although alternating arc lamps are used to a limited extent, yet the
number is not increasing, and in some cases continuous-current are
lamps have been substituted for the alternating. Under these condi-
tions the load on the station is even more variable than in the case of a
continuous-current supply where motors may be employed, and the
constant loss due to the large number of small transformers used
places this system at a disadvantage as compared with the continuous-
current system. The great advantage it possesses lies in the increased
area of distribution rendered possible by the high voltages that are
used, together with the possibility of locating the stations where power
can be cheaply made. Abroad in the last few years most of the new
stations that have been built use continuous currents, although some
years ago the greater proportion of them were alternating-current sta-
tions. It is also the custom abroad to use substations with large trans-
formers for distribution, thus doing away with a considerable part of
the constant loss due to the small transformers used here. It is not
possible, at the present time, without greatly complicating the system,
to obtain a steady load on the station, and the only question that arises
is the value of substations, and the possibility of using some form of
alternating current other than the single-phase.

METHODS OF ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION.

Coming to the question of transmission of electrical energy as distin-
guished from the supply to customers from distributing centers, there
have been great advances made in the last few years, and these mainly
through the introduction of multiphase alternating currents. Single-
phase alternating currents permit the transmission of power to long
distances and its distribution for lighting purposes. It is also possible
to supply power from such circuits to large motors working under a
steady load. It is not possible, however, to distribute power eccnom-
ically for ordinary uses. As most long-distance transmission schemes
contemplate the substitution of electric motors for steam engines, and
as their success will, in many cases, depend upon the possibility of such
substitution, single-phase alternating currents are not at present able
to comply with the conditions imposed by the desired service. The |
introduction of multiphase alternating systems, where two or more
alternating currents are employed, the currents differing in phase, has
completely changed the situation with respect to long-distance trans-
mission. I shall consider briefly the possibilities of such systems and
their value as compared with any direct-current system.

CONTINUOUS-CURRENT TRANSMISSION.

The first long-distance transmission plant was operated by the con-
tinuous-current system, and even now plants are being built in which
continuous currents of high potential are used to transmit energy to dis-
tances up to 15 miles. As compared with transmission by means of
alternating currents, we will find that the continuous-current system

ELECTRICAL ENERGY. 215

possesses some advantages and some disadvantages. If we consider
the relative cost of the copper in the line for a given amount of power
transmitted and for a given maximum potential between the conduct-
ors, we will find that the relative amounts for the continuous-current
and the different alternating-current systems will be as follows:

(COMPminMOMIS! CMIAPEMID cna cheese Abadi souasoopanaeeorceaccss bese Sodeae 100
Siinellesolnmist gilieisnanomye 22. 552255850 ee Seo eos os scec coon eaee Seber 200
TGPO-jHOASS BerMAIbMNS. S25) Loe eee oo oes Sees cous eee essnease 200
ilvlareee= ones emai enetet bl Cypser See eee sre fae ei eines ee 150

We see, then, that the continuous-current has a marked advantage
over the alternating-ctrrent system as far as the cost of copper is con-
cerned. There are, however, certain practical disadvantages belonging
to this system. The high voltages necessary for long-distance trans-
mission makes it impossible to distribute the current at the receiving
end without first reducing the voltage. With continuous current this
can only be done by employing a rotary commutator of some kind. A
plan which has been practically and successfully used has been to run
a number of dynamos in series at the generating end of a line, while
at the receiving end are a number of motors, also arranged in series,
which are used to drive other generators to give the required type of
eurrent and the desired voltage. It has not been found possible to
make either dynamos or motors of any great output, as there are prac-
tical difficulties in running dynamos of high potential where the current
taken from them has a considerable value. Mons. Thury has installed
a number of continuous-current transmission plants that have appar-
ently given excellent results. At Biberist a transmission of 15 miles is
employed. At Brescia 700 horsepower are transmitted over 12 miles at
a maximum of 15,000 volts. Mons. Thury states that generators for 45
amperes can be constructed up to 3,000 volts, and he thinks that 4,000
could be successfully used. These machines, however, are small when
compared with the 5,000-horsepower dynamos in use at Niagara, for
instance; and where the transmission is a large one the great number
of machines necessary would be a serious objecticn to this type of trans-
mission. It will be seen that the greatest possibility of trouble in such
a transmission lies at the ends of the line, in the generating and receiy-
ingapparatus. It is necessary, no matter what our voltage is, that both
the dynamos and motors shall be directly subjected to it, and this with
commutated machines will always be a source of danger. If we are to
do any considerable amount of lighting from such a station, our energy
for this purpose undergoes three transformations before it reaches the
lamps, and the efficiency would not be so high as in a corresponding
alternating-current system. It would hardly be possible to supply
motors for ordinary work at the high voltages used for transmission,
and the current for them would have to be transformed in the same
manner as the current for the lamps. It must be recognized, however,
that this system has been successfully used and has given excellent
results in a few cases of transmission. Its great advantage lies in the

216 ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

decreased amount of copper as compared with the alternating systems,
and in the absence of induction effects, which are a drawback to alter-
nating-current transmission.

TRANSMISSION BY ALTERNATING CURRENTS.

A large proportion of the transmission plants that have been installed
in the last few years have been of the alternating current type. These
have, as a rule, given satisfactory results, and the installations that are
now being erected or planned are almost exclusively on an alternating
current basis. The great advantage of this system lies in the fact that
it is possible to change the voltage of the current without the use of
rotating apparatus, and at once economically and safely. Low voltage
dynamos may be used, the voltage may be increased in any desired
ratio by stationary transformers, the energy may be transmitted at
an increased voltage, and at the receiving end the voltage may again
be reduced by transformers. If we compare this method with the
continuous current system we will see that to obtain an alternating
current of the required pressure at the receiving end of the line we
would use the same number of transformations required by the contin-
tous current system. We have the great advantage, however, that our
changes in voltage have been obtained by the agency of stationary
apparatus, which is much cheaper, is more efficient, and is safer than
that required in the continuous current system. It is possible to
increase the voltage by means of transformers to almost any value with
perfect safety and with an efficiency as high as 98 per cent or 99 per
cent. If, then, our alternating current, when it has been reduced at the
receiving end, is as valuable for distribution as the current obtained by
the direct current system, there will be no doubt that alternating trans-
mission has great advantages over continuous currents.

I have spoken of the relative amounts of copper required by the
single-phase, two-phase, and three-phase alternating currents. I do
not think if necessary to explain minutely the difference between these
systems, as they are well understood. Ina single-phase system a single
alternating current is used. In a two-phase system two alternating
currents, whose phases differ by 90 degrees, are employed, while in the
three-phase system there are three currents, differing in phases by 60
degrees. I shall consider the characteristics of these three systems, as
there has been much discussion, especially as to the relative value of
the last two of them, for transmission work. I shall not discuss the
various modifications of the systems, but shall confine myself to general
considerations. There is no single-phase motor in successful commercial
operation that does not require to be started from rest by some outside
means. This prevents a single-phase current from being used at the
present time for power distribution; and as,in most transmission, the
distribution of power is an important item, single-phase currents are
not suitable for this purpose. In a two-phase system the currents are
usually carried on separate pairs of wires, while in the three-phase
system three wires are generally used, a common return being unneces-

ELECTRICAL ENERGY. Pat

sary, as the sum of the currents is zero, unless the circuits are unbal-
anced. In distributing on the three-phase system a fourth wire can be
employed, as it gives an advantage in the amount of copper used.

In all these alternating systems the great difficulty lies in the fact
that the inductance of the circuit causes the current to lag behind the
electromotive force. This decreases the amount of energy transmitted
by a given current at a given voltage; it causes a drop in the voltage
of the line, and it increases the armature reaction of the dynamo for a
given current. The total inductance of the circuit is made up of the
inductance of the transformers, of the dynamos, of the receiving appa-
ratus, and of the line. In the case of transmission to very long dis-
tances the line inductance is a large proportion of the total, while the
inductance of the receiving apparatus depends upon whether lights or
motors are to be supplied and upon the construction of the latter.
When the different wires of the multiphase system are fed from wind-
ings on the same dynamo armature, then the drop in voltage due to any
excess of load on one of these circuits can not be compensated for on
the dynamo itself. If the amount of current and the lag of the current
is the same for all of the circuits of the system, then it is easy, by a com-
pounding winding of the dynamo, or by changing the current in the
field winding, if there is no compounding, to keep the voltage constant
at either the sending or receiving end. When the load on the different
wires of the system is not the same, however, it is,as I have stated,
impossible to keep all of the circuits at the proper voltage. Where a
two-phase transmission with separate circuits is used, then if the sepa-
rate circuits are wound on different armatures each can be regulated
to give a constant voltage at the receiving end. This is the case, for
instance, in the large dynamos built by the Westinghouse Company for
use at the World’s Fair in Chicago. The difficulty due to the uneven
loading of the circuits is specially marked in the case of the three-phase
system, and it is one of the principal objections that have been urged
against the employment of this system for distribution. It should be
pointed out, too, that it is not enough to balance the quantities of cur-
rent for the three branches of the system, but the character of the
current must also be considered. A noninductive load on one wire,
with an inductive load of equal value on the others, would cause an
unbalancing just as if the currents differed in amount. In most of the
transmission plants that are being operated and that are proposed it
is required to run both lamps and motors from the same circuits, and
while a slight variation of potential on the motors would not cause any
particular trouble, yet the successful operation of the lamps requires a
practically constant voltage. I think, however, and the same grounds
have been taken by others, that in any practical transmission of con-
siderable size it is possible to so balance the loads that this difficulty
will not exist to an extent to cause any serious trouble. When the dis-
tributing part of the lines is reached it is usually the custom, when a
three-phase transmission is used, to employ four instead of three wires,

218 ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

As for line inductance in the two-phase and three-phase systems, there
is no question that the latter has an advantage in this respect. By
suitable arrangement of circuits the line inductance can be brought to a
minimum, and this is of the utmost importance in long-distance trans-
mission. I will not take into account the supposed increased efficiency
of three-phase motors and dynamos as against two-phase apparatus, as
there is a question as to whether a superiority exists, but simply con-
sidering the decreased amount of copper required and the decreased
inductance of the line, there is no question in my mind that, for trans-
mission, the three-phase system is superior to the two phase. It is well
known, of course, that the inductance of the circuit can be in some
measure compensated for by the use of condensers or over-excited
synchronous motors. The first of these remedies is, however, a very
uncertain quantity commercially, while the second should be used as
much as possible, that is, as many synchronous motors should be con-
nected as is practicable. The best remedy, as things stand at present,
lies in the careful construction of the line and the apparatus, so that
the effects, although they exist, can be reduced to a minimum.

It has been shown by Mr. Scott and others that it is possible to
transform a two-phase into a three-phase current, to transmit it and to
transform it back again to a two-phase current. This will allow us, if
we wish, to use two-phase dynamos for generating the current, to trans-
mit with the advantage incidental to the use of three-phases, and at
our reducing end to use two-phase circuits for transmission. This has
some advantages as far as balancing the voltage on the circuits go, and
it has been proposed in the ease of several plants whose installation is
being considered.

Looking broadiy at the value of alternating transmission as against
continuous current transmission, we have a gain in the simplicity and
safety in the transmission, and at the distributing end the use of multi-
phase currents enables us to supply both lamps and power with an
economy and success comparable to that of the continuous current sys-
tem. If it is necessary to use continuous currents for certain types of
distribution at the receiving end, they can be obtained by the use of
rotary transformers, by which the alternating current is transformed
into a continuous current. These machines have approximately the
efficiency of corresponding continuous current dynamos, while the out-
put for a given Size is 50 per cent greater.

POSSIBLE VOLTAGES AND DISTANCES OF TRANSMISSION.

A number of calculations have been made as to the possibility of
transmitting electrical energy to very long distances. If the question
of cost of transmission alone is considered, then where water powers
or culm heaps are within distances of 100 miles of some large center of
consumption, it has been shown that it would be profitable to generate
and transmit electrical energy. In these calculations, however, vol-
tages are assumed that have never been employed for commercial
plants, and whose availability is problematic, while sufficient stress is

ELECTRICAL ENERGY. 219

not apparently laid on the question of the reliability of the power. If the
industries of a large city depended upon a single transmission plant, it
is evident that the question of reliability is of paramount importance.
Where energy is supplied to manufacturers, to street-car systems, and
for lighting, a breakdown that would involve the cutting off of current
for a day would mean an enormous pecuniary loss to the community.
As the distance of transmission increases, the possibility of accident is
increased in greater ratio, because we have not only the higher voltages
to control, but the length of the line that must be looked out for is also
increased. The best guide lies in the practical experience which has
been obtained in the present transmission plants and the consideration
of the difficulties that have arisen and the remedies that have been
employed. I have prepared a partial list of the principal transmission
plants that are now in operation:

Name. Type. stance, ena) aoe Remarks.
Ouray, Colo..........-..--. DWirecti=ee esses. 4 800 | 1,200 | Successful, increasing.|
Geneva, Switzerland.......|----- dowezescce 20 | 6, 600 400 Successful.
San Francisco, Cal......--.|.---- GWicecaaass 12 | 8,000} 1,000 | Suecessful, 9 years.
BReSCial ea eater ye etka) foil donee! 12 | 15, 000 700 |
Pomona and San Bernar- | Single phase | 1383 t0 28%) 1,000 800 | Suceessful, increas-
dino. alternating. | ing, 4 years.
Telluride, Colo....-...-----|....- OW sessosne 3 | 3,000 400 | To be increased 3,200
| | HLP.
Bodie wSGlopee see eee eles ace domeacees #2 123) 3,400 160 | Successful.
Rome wltaly-cessssesess ese oas ee doesese. 18 | 6,000 |} 2,000 Increasing to 9,000
H. P., 3 years.
Davos, Switzerland......--|..... Ga aeonene 2 | 3,660 600 | Successful.
Schongeisung, Germany..-..|..-.- oisee sc 45) 2,600 820 Do.
Springfield, Mass .......... 2-phase alter- 63) 3, 600 820 | Do.
nating. |
Quebec, Canada...-......-.|.....do ..------ 8| 5,000] 2,136 Do.
Andersons S:\Cacsessesess-s| cee doers 8 | 5,500 200 | Do.
Fitchburg, Mass...........|..... dome: 241 9150 400 | Do.
Winooski, Vt.-.----...---. 3-phase -...--- 23! 2,500 150 Do.
Baltien Conm sc =e 20 522 ee-- (Oreneenaee 5 | 2,500 700 Do.
St. Hyacinthe, Canada ..--.|....- Gore eke 5 | 2,500 600 | Successful, 2 years.
ConcordNiwheecese sere nee Ge Sebas 4} 2,500 | 5,000 | Do.
reson @alie sie fete cies ete a sllrcelec doweetee 35 | 11,000 | 1,400 Successful, to be in-
| ereased.
Big Cottonwood to Salt |..... GIO) Anseeace 14 | 10,000 | 1,400 | Successful.
Lake City, Utah. |
Lowell, Mass ..........--..|..... doseset ae 6to15 | 5,500 480 Do.
Sacramento-Folsom, Cal -..|....- ClO seacesecn 24 | 10,000 | 4,000 | 1 year.
Redlandsn@alesseres-sceees lone dossesecne 7k| 2,500 700 | 3 years,extending
lines in other towns.
Lauffen to Frankfort, Ger- |....- dow. 2s2555- 100 | 30, 000 300 | (Experimental.)
many.
Lauffen to Heilbronn .....-|....- Ogee sacses 9} 5,000 600 | Successful.
Oerlikon Works, Zurich, |..... Oly Rerncree 154] 13, 000 450 Do.
Switzerland.
Portland, Oreg...-..--...-.|.--.- dots sees 12 | 6,000} 5,000 Do.
Silverton Mine, Colo.......|..... G(Rese neers 4] 2,500 400 | Successful, to be in-
creased.

220 ELECTRICAL ENERGY.

It will be seen that the longest transmission is at Fresno, Cal., the
distance being about 35 miles. The highest alternating voltage used is
13,000 volts, at Zurich, Switzerland. The highest direct potential is
15,000 volts, at Brescia.

All of these plants are working successfully, and this fact will lead
to still longer transmission and higher voltages. No limit of either
distance or potential has yet been reached. If we consider the record
of the present transmission plants, we can safely say that it would not
be going outside of the safe limit of development to transmit at least
50 miles at a potential of 20,000 volts, provided the energy could be
delivered at such a price as to be considerably lower than the cost of a
corresponding amount of energy obtained from a steam plant. This, of
course, is a matter of local condition entirely, and the commercial value
of such a transmission will depend upon local conditions.

LONG-DISTANCE TRANSMISSION FOR RAILROAD WORK.

The possibility of long-distance electric-railroad lines is intimately
connected with the possibility of long-distance transmission of power.
We have seen that it is possible to transmit considerable distances from
a single station. The current so distributed is not, however, such that
it can be applied directly to railroad motors, but it must be transformed
at points along the line, the distance apart of these points of distribu-
tion depending upon the system that is employed. At present con-
tinuous current motors are used, and considerations of safety would
lead us to use line potentials not greater than 700 volts. By distrib-
uting rotary transformers at distances of 5 or 6 miles apart, we would
be able to supply motors with current without any great investment in
copper. The amount of copper required could be still further reduced
by using rotary transformers with storage batteries thus keeping a
constant load on the transmission line. It will be found, however, that
on any long-distance railroad line, the load on any section of the line
is exceedingly variable and the discharge rate of the batteries will have
to be very high in order to prevent excessive cost for our reducing
stations. It is doubtful whether we have reached a point in battery
construction that this system of transmission would be economical. It
is certain, however, that when the distances are comparatively short,
say within 15 miles, and where the traffic is not evenly distributed, that
rotary transformers, with or without batteries, can be economically
employed for railroad work.

CONCLUSIONS.

My conclusions, subject always to the influence of local conditions, are
as follows:

1. In both direct current lighting and traction systems, where the
power is generated in or near the area of «istribution, it is best to use
one station situated at the most economical point for producing power.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY. 221

2. In the case of the traction systems, when the economical area of
direct distribution is passed, boosters should be employed directly or
in connection with batteries, to a distance of 10 or 12 miles from a
Station, and beyond this rotary transformers, whether with or without
batteries, should be used.

3. In the case of direct current lighting systems, the energy should
be transmitted to storage batteries situated at centers of consumption
either directly or by means of a rotary transformer and distributed
from them.

4. Where batteries are used it is best to place them at the end of
feeder wires to obtain the advantage of a constant load on the wire.

5. The best system for the long-distance transmission of energy for
general purposes is the three-phase alternating system.

6. Commercial transmissions are in successful operation for distances
of 55 miles, and for voltages as: high as 15,000 volts.

Experience with these plants shows that the transmission to 50 miles
with a pressure of 20,000 volts is practicable; beyond these limits the
transmission would be more or less experimental.

THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA,

By THOMAS COMMERFORD MARTIN.

The broad idea of the utilization of Niagara is by no means new, for
even as early as 1725, while the thick woods of pine and oak were still
haunted by the stealthy redskin, a miniature sawmill was set up amid
the roaring waters. The first systematic effort to harness Niagara was
not made until nearly one hundred and fifty years later, when the
present hydraulic canal was dug and the mills were set up which dis-
figure the banks just below the stately falls. It was long obvious that
even an enormous extension of this surface canal system would not
answer for the proper utilization of the illimitable energy contained in
a vast stream of such lofty fall as that of Niagara.

Niagara is the point at which are discharged, through two narrowing
precipitous channels only 3,800 feet wide and 160 feet high, the con-
tents of 6,000 cubic miles of water, with a reservoir area of 90,000
square miles, draining 300,000 square miles of territory. The ordinary
overspill of this Atlantic set on edge has been determined to be equal
to about 275,000 cubic feet per second, and the quantity passing is
estimated as high as 100,000,000 tons of water per hour.

The drifting of a ship over the Horse Shoe Fall has proved it to have
a thickness at the center of the crescent of over 16 feet. Between Lake
Erie and Lake Ontario there is a total difference of level of 300 feet
(fig. 1, Pl. VIII), and the amount of power represented by the water at
the falls has been estimated on different bases from 6,750,000 horsepower
up to not less than 16,800,000 horsepower, the latter being a rough eal-
culation of Sir William Siemens, who, in 1877, was the first to suggest
the use of electricity as the modern and feasible agent of converting
into useful power some of this majestic but squandered energy.

It may be noted that the water passing out at Niagara is wonder-
fully pure and “soft,” contrasting strongly, therefore, with the other
body of water, turbid and gritty, that flows from the north out through
the banks of the Mississippi. The annual recession of the American

\Read at extra evening meeting of Royal Institution of Great Britain June 19,
1896, by THOMAS COMMERFORD MARTIN, esq., of New York, American Delegate to the
Kelvin Celebration. The Right Hon. Lord Kelvin, D. C. L., LL. D., F. BR. 8., vice-
president, in the chair. Printed in Proceedings of the Institution, Vol. XV, pp.

269-279.
228

224 THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA.

Fall, of 74 inches, and of the Horse Shoe, of 2.18 feet, would probably
have been much greater had the water been less limpid.

The roar of the falls, which can be heard for many miles, has a deep
note, four octaves lower than the scale of the ordinary piano. The fall
of such an immense body of water causes a very perceptible tremor of
the ground throughout the vicinity. The existence of the falls is also
indicated by huge clouds of mist which, rising above the rainbows,
tower sometimes a mile in air before breaking away.

It was Mr. Thomas Evershed, an American civil engineer, who
unfolded the plan of diverting part of the stream at a considerable
distance above the falls, so that no natural beauty would be interfered
with, while an enormous amount of power would be obtained with a
very slight reduction in the volume of the stream at the crest of the
falls. Essentially scientific and correct as the plan now shows itself to
be, it found prompt criticism and condemnation, but not less quickly
did it rally the able and influential support of Messrs. W. B. Rankine,
Francis Lynde Stetson, Edward A. Wickes, and Edward D. Adams,
who organized the corporate interests that, with an expenditure of
£1,000,000 in five years, have carried out the present work.

So many engineering problems arose early in the enterprise that
after the survey of the property in 1890 an International Niagara
Commission was established in London, with power to investigate the
best existing methods of power development and transmission, and to
select from among them, as well as to award prizes of an aggregate of
£4,400. This body included men like Lord Kelvin, Mascart, Coleman
Sellers, Turrettini, and Dr. Unwin, and its work was of the utmost
value. Besides this the Niagara Company and the allied Cataract
Construction Company enjoyed the direct aid of other experts, such as
Prof. George Forbes, in a consultative capacity; while it was a neces-
sary consequence that the manufacturers of the apparatus to be used
threw upon their work the highest inventive and constructive talent at
their command.

The time-honored plan in water-power utilization has been to string
factories along a canal of considerable length, with but a short tail race.
At Niagara the plan now brought under notice is that of a short canal
with a very long tail race. The use of electricity for distributing the
power allows the factories to be placed away from the canal, and in any
location that may appear specially desirable or advantageous.

The perfected and concentrated Evershed scheme comprises a short
surface canal 250 feet wide at its mouth, 14 miles above the falls, far
beyond the outlying Three Sisters Islands, with an intake inclined
obliquely to the Niagara River. This canal extends inwardly 1,700
feet, and has an average depth of some 12 feet, thus holding water
adequate to the development of about 100,000 horsepower. The mouth
of the canal is 600 feet from the shore line proper, and considerable work
was necessary in its protection and excavation. The bed is now of clay,

PLATE VIII.

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

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THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA. 225

and the side walls are of solid masonry 17 feet high, 8 feet at the base,
and 3 feet at the top. The northeastern side of the canal is occupied
by a power house, and is pierced by ten inlets guarded by sentinel gates,
each being the separate entrance to a wheel pit in the power house,
where the water is used and the power is secured. The water as quickly
as used is carried off by a tunnel to the Niagara River again.

The massive canal power house is a handsome building, designed by
Stanford White, and likely to stand until Niagara, spendthrift fashion,
has consumed its way backward, through its own crumbling strata of
Shale and limestone, to the base of it. This building is outwardly of
hard limestone, and inwardly of enamel brick and ordinary brick coated
with white enamel paint. It is 200 feet in length at present, and has a
50-ton Sellers electric traveling crane for the placing of machinery and
the handling of any parts that need repair. The wheel pit, over which
the power house is situated, is a long, deep, cavernous slot at one side,
under the floor, cut in the rock, parallel with the canal outside. Here
the water gets a fallof about 140 feet beforeit smites the turbines. The
arrangement of the dynamos generating the current up in the power
house is such that each of them may be regarded as the screw at the
end of a long shaft, just as we might see it if we stood an ocean steamer
on its nose with its heel in the air. At the lower end of the dynamo
shaft is the turbine (fig. 2, P]. LX) in the wheel pit bottom, just as in the
case of the steamer shaft we find attached to it the big triple or quad-

ruple expansion marine steam engine. Perhaps we might compare the
- dynamo and the turbine to two reels, stuck one on each end of a long
lead pencil, so that when the lower reel is turned the upper reel must
turn also. You might also compare the dynamos to bells up in the old
church steeple, and the turbines to the ringers in the porch, playing
the chimes and triple bob majors by their work on the long ropes that
hang down. The wheel pit which contains the turbines is 178 feet in
depth, and connects by a Jateral tunnel with the main tunnel running
at right angles. This main tunnel is no less than 7,000 feet in length,
with an average hydraulic slope of 6 feet in 1,000. It has a maximum
height of 21 feet, and a width of 18 feet 10 inches, its net section being
386 square feet. The water rushes through it and out of its mouth of
stone and iron at a velocity of 264 feet per second, or nearly 20 miles an
hour.

More than 1,000 men were employed continuously for more than three
years in the construction of this tunnel. More than 300,000 tons of
rock were removed, which have gone to form part of the new foreshore
near the power house. More than 16,000,000 bricks were used for the
lining, to say nothing of the cement, concrete, and cut stone. The
labor was chietly Italian. The brick that fences in the headlong tor-
rent consists of four rings of the best hard-burned brick of special
shape, making a solid wall 16 inches thick. In some places it is thicker
than that. Into this tunnel discharges also by a special subtunnel the

SM 96 15

226 THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA.

used-up water from the water wheels of the Niagara Falls Paper Com-
pany. Theturbines(fig.3, Pl. 1X) have to generate 5,000 horsepower each,
at a distance of 140 feet underground, and to send it up to the surface.
For this purpose the water is brought down to each by the supply pen-
stock, made of steel tube, and 74 feet in diameter. This water impinges
upon what is essentially a twin wheel, each receiving part of the stream
as it rushes in at the center, the arrangement being such that each
wheel is three stories high, part of the water in the upper tier serving
as a cushion to sustain the weight of the entire revolving mechanism.
These wheels, which have 32 buckets and 36 guides, discharge 430
cubic feet per second, and they make 250 revolutions per minute. At
75 per cent efficiency they give 5,000 horsepower. The shaft that runs
up from each one to the dynamo is of peculiar and interesting construc-
tion. It is composed of steel three-fourths inch thick, rolled into tubes
which are 38 inches in diameter. At intervals this tube passes through
journal bearings or guides that steady it, at which the shaft is narrowed
to 11 inches in diameter and solid, flaring out again each side of the
journal bearings. The speed gates of the turbine wheels are plain cir-
cular rims, which throttle the discharge on the outside of the wheels,
and which, with the cooperation of the governors, keep the speed con-
stant within 2 per cent under ordinary conditions of running. These
wheels are of the Swiss design of Faesch and Picard, and have been
built by I. P. Morris & Co., of Philadelphia, for this work.

The dynamos thus directly connected to the turbines are of the Tesla
two-phase type (fig. 4, Pl. X). Hach of these dynamos produces two
alternating currents, differing 90 degrees in phase from each other, each
current being of 775 ampéres and 2,250 volts, the two added together
making, in round figures, very nearly 5,000 horsepower. This amount
of energy in electrical current is delivered to the circuits for use when
the dynamo is run by the turbine at the moderate speed of 250 revolu-
tions per minute, or, say, 4 revolutions per second. Here, then, we have,
broadly, a Tesla two-phase system embodying the novel suggestions
and useful ideas of many able men, among whom should be specially
mentioned Mr. L. B. Stillwell, the engineer of the Westinghouse Elec-
tric Company, upon whom the responsibility was thrown for its success.

Each generator, from the bottom of the bedplate to the floor of the
bridge above it, is 11 feet 6 inches high. Hach generator weighs
170,000 pounds, and the revolving part alone weighs 79,000 pounds.
In most dynamos the armature is the revolving part, but in this case
it is the field that revolves, while the armature stands still. It is note-
worthy that if the armature inside the field were to revolve in the
usual manner, instead of the field, its magnetic pull would be added to
the centrifugal force in acting to disrupt the revolving mass; but as it
is the magnetic attraction toward the armature now acts against the
centrifugal force exerted on the field, and thus reduces the strains in
the huge ring of spinning metal. The stationary armature inside the

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Smithsonian Report, 1896.

PLATE IX.

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THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA. Dot

field is built up of thin sheets of mild steel. Along the edges of these
Sheets are 187 rectangular notches to receive the armature winding, ip
which the current is generated. This winding is in reality not a wind-
ing, as it consists of solid copper bars 134 by +; inch, and there are two
of these bars in every square hole, packed in with mica as a precaution
against heating. These copper conductors are bolted and soldered
to V-shaped copper connectors, and are then grouped so as to form
two separate independent circuits. A pair of stout insulated cables
connect each circuit with the power-house switchboard.

The rotating field magnet outside the armature consists of a huge
forged steel ring, made from a solid ingot of fluid compressed steel 54
inches in diameter, which was brought to a forging heat and then
expanded upon a mandril, under a 14,000-ton hydraulic press, to the
ring, 11 feet 74 inches in diameter. On the inside of this ring are bolted
12 inwardly projecting pole pieces of mild open-hearth steel, and the
winding around each consists of rectangular copper bars incased in 2
brass boxes. Each pole piece, with its bobbin, weighs about 14 tons,
and the speed of this mass of steel, copper, and brass is 9,300 feet, or
13 miles per minute, when the apparatus is running at its normal 250
revolutions. Not until the ring was speeded up to 800 revolutions, or
6 miles per minute, would it fly asunder under the impulse of centrif-
ugal force. As a matter of fact, 400 revolutions is the highest speed
that can be attained. This revolving field magnet is connected with
the shaft that has to turn it, and is supported from above by a 6-armed
east-steel spider keyed to the shaft, this spider or driver forming a roof
or penthouse over the whole machine. The shaft itself is held in 2
bearings inside the castings, around which the armature is built up,
and at the bearings is nearly 135 inches in diameter. At the lower end
is a flange fitting with the flange at the top of the turbine shaft, and at
the upper end is a taper, over which the driver fits. The driver and
shaft have a deep keyway, and into this a long and massive key fits,
holding them solidly together. The driver is of mild cast steel, having
a tensile strength of 74,700 pounds per square inch. The bushings of
the bearings are of bronze, with zigzag grooves, in which oil under
pressure is in constant circulation. Grooves are also cut in the hub of
each spider to permit the circulation of water to cool the bearings, this
water coming direct from the city mains at a pressure of 60 pounds to
the square inch. The oil returns to a reservoir, and is used over and
over again. Provision has been made against undue heating, and
plenty of chance is given for air to circulate. This is necessary, as
about 100 horsepower of current is going into heat, due to the lost mag-
_netization of the iron and the resistance in the conductors themselves.
Ventilators or gills in the drivers are so arranged as to draw up air
from the base of the machine and eject it at considerable velocity, so
that whatever heat is unavoidably engendered is rapidly dissipated.

In almost all electrical plants the switch board is a tall wall or slab

228 THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA.

of marble or mahogany, not unlike a big front door with lots of knobs,
knockers, and keyholes on it; but at the Niagara power house it takes
the form of an imposing platform, or having in mind its controlling
functions, we may compare it to the bridge of an ocean steamer,
while the man in charge or handling the wheels answers to the navi-
gating officer. The ingenious feature is employed of using compressed
air to aid in opening and closing the switches. The air comes from a
compressor located at the wheel pit and driven by a small water motor.
It supplies air to a large cylindrical reservoir, from which pipes lead
to the various switches, the pressure being 125 pounds to tle square
inch. Another interesting point is that the measuring instruments on
the switch board do not measure the whole current, but simply a derived
portion of determined relation to that of the generators. All told,
less than a thirtieth of a horsepower gives all the indications required.
To the switch board, current is taken from the dynamos by heavy insu-
lated cable, and it is then taken off by huge copper bus bars which are
carefully protected by layers of pure Para gum and vulcanized rubber,
two layers of each being used; while outside of all is a special braided
covering, treated chemically to render it noncombustible. The caleu-
lated losses from heating in a set of four bus bars carrying 25,000 horse-
power, or the total output of the first five Niagara generators, is only
10 horsepower. About 1,200 feet of insulated cable have been supplicd
to carry the current from the dynamos to the switch board in the power
house. It has not broken down until between 45,000 and 48,000 volts
of alternating current were applied to it. There are 427 copper wires
in that cable, consisting ot 61 strands laid up in reverse layers, each
strand consisting of 7 wires. Next to the strand of copper is a wall
of rubber one-quarter inch thick, double coated. Over thisis wrapped
absolutely pure rubber, imported from England and known as cut
sheet. Then come two wrappings of vuleanizable Para rubber, next
there is a wrapping of cut sheet, and on top of that are two more rub-
ber coats. This is then taped, covered with a substantial braid, and
vulcanized. The object in using the cut sheet is to vuleanize it by con-
tact, in order to make it absolutely water tight. This cable weighs
just over 4 pounds to the foot, of which 5 pounds are copper and 1
pound insulation.

We have thus advanced far enough to get our current on to the bus
bars, and the next step is to get it from them out of the power house.
This final work is done by extending our bars, so to speak, and carry-
ing them across the bridge over the canal, into what is known as the
transformer house. It is here that the current received from the other
side of the canal is to be raised in potential, so that it can be sent great
distances over small wires without material loss. Meantime we may
note that the Niagara Falls Power Company itself owns more than a
square mile around the power house, upon which a large amount of
- power will be consumed in the near future by manufacturing establish-

ne!

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE X.

Fic. 4.—NIAGARA 5,000 HORSEPOWER TURBINES, TWO-PHASE ALTERNATOR.

Abad

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THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA. 229

ments of all kinds, and that it is already delivering power in large
blocks electrically for a great variety of purposes. Special apparatus
for this work has been built by the General Electric Company. The
current for the production of aluminum is made “direct” by passing
through static and rotary transformers, while the Acheson carborundum
process uses the pure alternating current Besides this, the trolley
road from Niagara to Buffalo is already taking part of its power from
the Niagara power house by means of rotary transformers. For these
and other local uses the company has constructed subways in which to
earry the wire across its own territory. These subways are 5 feet 6
inches high and 3 feet 10 inches wide inside. They are built up with
12 inches of Portland cement and gravel, backed up with about 1 foot
of masonry at the bottom and extending about 3 feet up each side.

The electric conductors are carried on insulated brackets or insula-
tors arranged upon the pins along the walls. These brackets are 30
feet apart. Atthe bottom of the conduit manholes are holes for tapping
off into side conduits, and along it all runs a track, upon which an
a ee can propel himself on a private trolley car if necessary. Thus

s distributed locally the electric power for which the consumer pays
very modest sum of £3 17s. 6d. per electrical horsepower per annum
delivered on the wire, or about 2 guineas for a turbine horsepower, a
rate which is not to be equaled anywhere, in view of the absolute cer-

tainty of the power, free from all annoyance, extra expense, or bother
of any kind on the part of the consumer.

It is a curious fact that the proposal to transmit fie energy of Niagara
long distances over wire should have been regarded with so much
doubt and scepticism, and that the courageous backers of the enter-
prise should have needed time to demonstrate that they were neither
knaves nor fools, but simply brave, far-seeing men. We have to-day
parallel instances to Niagara in the transmission of oil and natural
gas. Oil is delivered in New York City over a line of pipe which is at
least 400 miles long, and which has some thirty-five pumping stations
enroute, the capacity of the line being 30,000 barrels a day. All that
oil has first to be gathered from individual wells in the oil region, and
delivered to storage tanks with a capacity of 9,000,000 barrels of oil.
Chicago, Philadelphia, and Baltimore are centers forsimilar systems of
oil pipe running hundreds of miles over hill and dale. As for natural
gas, that is to-day sent in similar manner over distances of 120 miles,
Chicago being thus supplied from the Indiana gas fields; and the gas
has its pressure raised and lowered several timeson its way from the gas
well to the consumer’s tap, just as though it were current from Niagara.

We must not overlook some of the fantastic schemes proposed for
transmitting the power of Niagara before electricity was adopted. One
of them was to hitch the turbines to a big steel shaft running through
New York State from east to west, so that where the shaft passed a
town or factory all you had to do was to hitch on a belt or some gear

230 THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA.

wheels and thus take off all the power wanted. Not much less expen-
sive was the plan to have a big tube from New York to Chicago, with
Niagara Falls at the center, and with the Niagara turbines hitched to a
monster air compressor, which should compress air under 250 pounds
pressure to the square inch in the tube.

So far as actual electrical long-distance transmission from Niagara is
concerned, it can only be said to be in the embryonic stage, for the sole
reason that for nearly a year past the power company has been unable
to get into Buffalo, and that not until last year was it able to arrive at
acceptable conditions, satisfactory alike to itself and to the city. Work
is now being pushed, and by June, 1897, power from the falls will, by
contract with the city, be in regular delivery to the local consumption
circuits at Buffalo, 22 miles away. But the question arises, and has
been fiercely discussed, whether it will pay to send the current beyond
Buffalo. Recent official investigations have shown that steam power
in large bulk, under the most favorable conditions, costs to-day in Buf-
falo £10 per year per horsepower and upward. Evidently Niagara
power, starting at £2 on the turbine shaft or say less than £4 on the
line, has a good margin for, effective competition with steam in Buffalo.

As to the far-away places, the well-known engineers Prof. E. J.
Houston and Mr. A. E. Kennelly have made a most careful estimate of
the distance to which the energy of Niagara could be economically
transmitted by electricity. Taking established conditions and prices
that are asked to-day for apparatus, they have shown, to their own sat-
isfaction at least, that even in Albany or anywhere else in the same
radius 330 miles from the falls, the converted energy of the great cata-
ract could be delivered cheaper than good steam engines on the spot
could make steam power with coal at the normal price there of 12s.
per ton.

What this enterprise at Niagara aims to do is not to monopclize the
power but to distribute it, and it makes Niagara, more than it ever was
before, common property. After all is said and done, very few people
ever see the falls, and then only for a chance holiday once in a lifetime;
but now the useful energy of the cataract is made cheaply and imme-
diately available every day in the year to hundreds and thousands,
even millions of people, in an endless variety of ways.

We must not omit from our survey the Erie Canal, in the revival and
greater utilization of which as an important highway of commerce
Niagara power is expected to play no mean part. In competition with
the steam railway, canals have suffered greatly the last fifty years.
In the United States, out of 4,468 miles of canal built at a cost of
£40,000,000, about one-half has been abandoned and not much of the
rest pays expenses. Yet canals have enormous carrying capacity, and
a single boat will hold as much as twenty freight cars. The New York
State authorities have agreed to conditions by which Niagara energy
can be used to propel the canal boats at the rate of £4 per horsepower

THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA. Zon

per year. Where steamboat haulage for 242 tons of freight now costs
about 63d. a boat mile, it is estimated that electric haulage will cost
not to exceed 54d., while with the energy from Niagara at only £4 per
horsepower per year it will cost much less. Some two years ago the
first attempt was made in the United States on the Erie Canal with
the canal boat F. W. Hawley, when the trolley system was used with
the motor on the boat as it is on an electric car, driving the propeller
as if it were the car wheels. Another plan is that of hauling the boat
from the towpath, and that is what is now being done with the electric
system of Mr. Richard Lamb on the Erie Canal at Tonawanda, near
Niagara. Imagine an elevator shaft working lengthwise instead of
vertically. There is placed on poles a heavy fixed cable on which the
motor truck rests, and a lighter traction cable is also strung that is

_ taken up and paid out by a Sheave as the motor propels itself along

and pulls the canal boat to which it is attached. If the boats come
from opposite directions they simply exchange motors, just as they
might mules or locomotives, and go on without delay.

On its property at Niagara the power company has already begun
the deveiopment of the new village called Echota, a pretty Indian
name which signifies ‘“‘ place of refuge.” I believe it is Mr. W. D. How-
ells, our American novelist, who in kindred spirit speaks of the “repose”
of Niagara. It was laid out by Mr. John Bogart, formerly State engi-
neer, and is intended to embody all that is best in sanitation, lighting,
and urban comfort. It does not need the eye of faith to see here the
beginning of one of the busiest, cleanest, prettiest, and healthiest locali-
ties in the Union. The workingman whose factory is not poisoned by
smoke and dust, whose home was designed by distinguished architects,
whose streets and parks were laid out by celebrated engineers, and
whose leisure is spent within sight and sound of lovely Niagara, has
little cause for grumbling at his lot.

The American company has also preempted the great utilization of
the Canadian share of Niagara’s energy. The plan for this work pro-
poses the erection of two power houses of a total ultiniate capacity of
125,000 horsepower. Each power house is fed by its own canal and is
therefore an independent unit. Owing to the better lay of the land,
the tunnels carrying off the water discharged from the turbines on the
Canadian side will have lengths respectively of only 300 and 800 feet,
thus avoiding the extreme length and cost unavoidable on the Ameri-
ean side. With both the Canadian and American plants fully devel-
oped, no less than 350,000 horsepower will be available. The stationary
engines now in use in New York State represent only 500,000 horse-
power. Yet the 350,000 horsepower are but one-twentieth of the
7,000,000 horsepower which Professor Unwin has estimated the falls to
represent theoretically. If the 350,000 horsepower were estimated at
£4 per year per horsepower, and should replace the same amount of
steam power at £10, the annual saving for power in New York State
alone would be more than £2,000,000 per year.

232 THE UTILIZATION OF NIAGARA.

Let me, by way of conclusion, emphasize the truth that this splendid
engineering work leaves all the genuine beauty of Niagara untouched.
It may even help to conserve the scene as it exists to-day, for the ter-
rifie weight and rush of waters over the Horseshoe Fall is eating it
away and breaking its cliff into a series of receding slopes and rapids;
so that even a slight diminution of the whelming mass of wave will
to that extent lessen disruption and decay. Be that so or not so, those
of us who are lovers of engineering can now at Niagara gratify that
taste in the unpretentious place where some of this vast energy is
reclaimed for human use, and then as ever join with those who, not
more than ourselves, love natural beauty, and find with them renewed
pleasure and delight in the majestic, organ-toned, and eternal cataract.

;
4

EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES!

By JOSEPH LE CONTE.

INTRODUCTION—SOURCES OF ENERGY.

Nearly all the processes of nature visible to us—well-nigh the whole
drama of nature enacted here on the surface of the earth—derive their
forces from the sun. Currents of air and water in their eternally
recurring cycles are a circulation driven by the sun. Plants derive
their forces directly, and those of animals indirectly through plants,
from it. All our machinery, whether wind driven, or water driven, or
steam driven, or electricity driven, and even all the phenomena of intel-
lectual, moral, and social activity have still this same source. There
is one, and but one, exception to this almost universal law, namely,
that class of phenomena which geologists group under the general head
of igneous agencies, comprising volcanoes, earthquakes, and more grad-
ual movements of the earth’s crust.

Thus, then, all geological agencies are primarily divided into two
groups. In the one group came atmospheric, aqueous, and organic
agencies, together with all other terrestrial phenomena which consti-
tute the material of science; in the other group, igneous agencies and
their phenomenaalone. The forces in the one group are exterior; in the
other, interior; in the one, sun derived; in the other, earth derived.
The one forms, the other sculptures, the earth’s features; the one
roughhews, the other shapes. The general effect of the one is to
increase the inequalities of the earth’s surface, the other to décrease
and finally to destroy them. The configuration of the earth’s surface,
the distribution of land and water—in a word, all that constitutes
physical geography at any geological time—is determined by the state
of balance between these two eternally antagonistic forces.

PHENOMENA TO BE STUDIED.

Now the phenomena of the first group, lying, as they do, on the sur-
face and subject to direct observation, are comparatively well under-

‘Annual address by the president, Joseph Le Conte, read before the Geological
Society of America, December 29, 1896. Printed in Science, Vol. V, No. 113, pp.
321-330.

233

234 EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES.

stood as to their laws and their causes. While the causes of the phe-
nomena of the second group, hidden forever from direct observation in
the inaccessible depths of the earth’s interior, are still very obscure;
and yet partly on account of this very obscurity, but mainly on account
of their fundamental importance, it is just these which are the most
fascinating to the geologist. The former group, constituting, as it does,
the terrestrial drama enacted by the sun, its interest is shared by
geology equally with other departments of science, such as physics,
chemistry, and biology. The phenomena of the second group are more
distinctively the field of geology.

If we compare the earth with an organism then these interior forces
constitute its life force, while the other group may be likened to the
physical environments against which it eternally struggles, and the
outcome of this struggle determines the course of the evolution of
the whole. Now in biological science nearly the whole advance has
heretofore been by study of the external and more easily understood
phenomena, thus clearing the ground and gathering material for attack
on the interior fortress, and the next great advance must be through
better knowledge of the vital forces themselves. The same is true of
geology. Nearly all the progress has heretofore been by the study of
the exterior phenomena, such as erosion, transportation, sedimentation,
stratification, distribution of organic forms in space, and their succes-
sion in time, etc. Many of the laws of these phenomena have already
been outlined, and progress to-day is mainly in filling in and complet-
ing this outline; but the next great step must be through a better
knowledge of the interior forces. This is just what geological science
is waiting for to-day. Now the first step in this direction is a clear
statement of the problems to be solved. The object of this address is
to contribute something, however small, to such clear statement.

EFFECTS OF INTERIOR FORCES.

As the interior of the earth is inaccessible to direct observation, we
can reason concerning interior forces only by observation of their effects
on the,surface. Now these effects, as usually treated, are of three main
kinds: (1) Volcanoes, including all eruptions of material from the inte-
rior; (2) earthquakes, including all sensible movements, great and
small; (5) gradual small movements affecting large areas, imperceptible
to the senses, but accumulating through indefinite time.

It is certain that of these three the last is by far the most funda-
mental and important, being, indeed, the cause of the other two. YVol-
canoes and earthquakes, although so striking and conspicuous, are
probably but occasional accidents in the slow march of these grander
movements. It is only of these last, therefore, that we shall now speak.

KINDS AND GRADES OF EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS.

The movements of the earth’s crust determined by interior forces are
of four orders of greatness: (1) Those greatest, most extensive, and

EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES. 2900

probably primitive movements by which oceanic basins and continental
masses were first differentiated and afterwards developed to their pres-
ent condition; (2) those movements by lateral thrust by which mountain
ranges were formed and continued to grow until balanced by exterior
erosive forces; (3) certain movements, often over large areas, but not
continuous in one direction, and therefore not indefinitely cumulative
like the two preceding, but oscillatory, first in one direction, then in
another, now upward and then downward; (4) movements by gravita-
tive readjustment, determined by transfer of load from one place to
another. Perhaps this last does not belong strictly to pure interior or
earth-derived forces, since the transfer of load is probably always by
exterior or sun-derived forces. Nevertheless they are so important as
modifying the effects of other movements, and have so important a bear-
ing on the interior condition of the earth that they can not be omitted
in this connection.

Now of these four kinds and grades of movement the first two are
primary and continuous in the same direction, and therefore cumulative,
until balanced by leveling agencies. The other two, on the contrary,
are not necessarily continuous in the same direction, but oscillatory.
They are, moreover, secondary and are imposed on the other two or
primary movements as modifying, obscuring, and often even completely
masking their effects. This important point will be brought out as we
proceed. We will take up these movements successively in the order
indicated above.

1. OCEAN BASIN-MAKING MOVEMENTS.

I have already given my views on this most fundamental question
very briefly in my “‘ Elements of Geology,” a little more fully in my first
paper, “ Origin of Earth Features,” ! and in my memoir of Dana.’ I give
it still more fully now.

We may assume that the earth was at one time an incandescent, fused
spheroid of much greater dimensions than now, and that it gradually
cooled, solidified, and contracted to its present form, condition and size.
Nowif at the time of its solidification it had been perfectly homogeneous
in composition, in density, and in conductivity in every part, then the
cooling and contraction would have been equal on every radius, and it
would have retained its perfect, evenly spheroidal form; but such
absolute homogeneity in all parts of so large a body would be in the
last degree improbable. If, then, over some large areas the matter of
the earth were denser and more conductive than over other large areas,
the former areas, by reason of their greater density alone, would sink
below the mean level and form hollows; for even in a solid—much
more in a semi-liquid, as the earth was at that time—there must have
been static equilibrium (isostasy) between such large areas. This would
be the beginning of oceanic basins; but the inequalities from this cause

1Am. Jour. Sci., 1872.
2 Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 7, 1895, pages 461-474.

236 EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES.

alone would probably be very small but for the concurrence of another
and much greater cause, viz, the greater conductivity of the same areas.
Conductivity is not, indeed, strictly proportional to destiny; but in a
general way it is so. It is certain, therefore, that the denser areas
would be also the more conductive, aud therefore the more rapidly
cooling and contracting areas. This would again increase, and in this
case progressively increase, the depression of there areas. The two
causes—destiny and conductivity, isostasy and contraction—would con-
cur, but the latter would be far the greater, because indefinitely cumu-
lative. The originally evenly spheroidal lithosphere would thus be
deformed or distorted, and the distortion, fixed by solidification, would
be continually increased until now. When the earth cooled sufficiently
to precipitate atmospheric vapor the watery envelope thus formed
would accumulate in the basins of the lithosphere and form the oceans.
It is possible, and even probable, that the depressions were it first so
shallow that the primeval ocean may have been universal, but the proce-
ess of greater downward contraction continuing, the ocean basins
would become deeper and the less contracted portions of the lithosphere
would appear as land. The process still continuing, the land would
grow higher and more extensive and the ocean basins deeper and less
extended throughout all geological time. On the whole, in spite of
many oscillations, with increase and decrease of Jand, to be spoken of
later, and in spite, too, of exterior agencies by erosion and sedimenta-
tion tending constantly to counteract these effects, such has been, L
believe, the fact throughout all geological history.

It is evident, also, that on this view, since the same causes which
originally formed the ocean basins have continued to operate in the
same places, the positions of these greatest inequalities of the litho-
sphere have not substantially changed. This is the doctrine of the
permanency of oceanic basins and continental masses, first announced
by Dana. Some modification of this idea will come up under another
head.

The objection which may be—which has been—raised against this
view is that such heterogeneity as is here supposed, in a fused mass
and therefore in a mass solidified from a state of fusion, is highly
improbable, not to say impossible. This objection, I believe, will dis-
appear when we remember the very small differences in conductivity,
and therefore in contraction, that we are here dealing with; small, I
mean, in comparison with the size of the earth. This is evident when
we consider the inequalities of the earth’s surface. The mean depth
of the ocean is about 24 miles; the mean height of the land about 4 of
amile. The mean inequality of the lithosphere, therefore, is less than
3miles. This is ;.4;, of the radius of the earth—less than ;4, of an inch
(an almost imperceptible quantity) in a globe 2 feet in diameter. I
believe that a perfect spheroidal ball of plastic clay allowed to dry, or
even a spheroidal ball of red-hot copper allowed to cool, would show
more deformation by contraction than the lithospere of the earth in its

A a a TRO IE en a

EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES. 237

present condition. It is true the inequalities are more accentuated in
some places, especially on the margins of the continental areas; but
this is due to another cause, mountain making, to be taken up later.

Another objection will doubtless occur to the thoughtful geologist.
It would seem at first sight on this view that ocean areas cooling most
rapidly ought to be the first to form a solid crust, and the crust (if
there be any interior liquid still remaining) ought to be thickest, and
therefore least subject to volcanic activity, there; but, on the contrary,
we find that it is just in these areas that volcanoes are most abundant
and active. It is for this reason that Dana believed that land areas
were the first and ocean areas the last to crust over. This is probably
true; but a little reflection will show that these two facts—namely, the
earlier crusting of the land areas and the more rapid cooling and con-
traction of the ocean areas—are not inconsistent with one another; for
the more conductive and rapidly-cooling areas would really be the last
to crust, because surface solidification would be delayed by the easy
transference of heat from below, while the less conductive land areas
would certainly be the first to crust, because the nonconductivity of
these areas would prevent the access of heat from below. Observa-
tion of lavas proves this. ‘The most vesicular and nonconductive
lavas are the soonest to crust, but for that very reason the slowest to
cool to great depths.

No doubt many other objections may be raised, especially if we
attempt to carry out the idea into detail; for the physical principles
involved, and especially the conditions under which they acted, are far
too complex and imperfectly understood to admit of such detail. It is
safest, therefore, to confine ourselves to the most general statement.

It may be well to stop a moment to compare with the above view that
of Dana, as interpreted and clearly presented by Gilbert in 1895.! (1)
According to this view the earth is supposed to have at first solidi-
fied at the center. This, on the whole, seems most probable. (2) The
investing liquid, say from 50 to 100 miles thick, might well be supposed
to arrange itself in layers of increasing density from the surface to the
solid nucleus. Now suppose for any cause, less conductivity or other,
certain areas crusted on the surface. These crusts would, of course,
consist of the lighter superficial portions; but since rocks contract
in the act of solidification,’ these solidified crusts would sink to the
nucleus and be replaced by similar lighter material flowing in from the
surrounding surface, which in turn would solidify and sink. Thus
would be built up from the nucleus below a solid mass consisting only
of the superficial, lighter material, to form the land, while the denser
and less rapidly crusting material would form the ocean areas. As in
my view, therefore, the oceanic areas are the denser and the land areas
the lighter material.

1 Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 4, 1893, page 179.
?King and Barus. Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 45, 1893, page 1.

238 EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES.

It is evident that, according to either view, but especially according
to mine, the material of the ocean basin areas down to the center of the
earth must be as much denser than the material of the land areas down
to the center as the subocean radii are shorter than the subcontinental
radii, and therefore that the two areas must be in perfect static equilib-
rium with one another. Thus in the formation of continents the claims
of isostasy are completely satisfied. I say completely, because this is
not a partial equilibrium resisted by rigidity but enforced by pressure;
it is original and without stress.

2. MOUNTAIN-MAKING MOVEMENTS.

i have so recently discussed this subject! that I shall have little
more to say now. Mountain ranges are of two types, namely, the
anticlinal or typical and the monoclinal or exceptional. The one are
mountains of folded structure, determined by lateral thrust, the other
of simpler structure and determined by unequal settling of great crust
blocks. Itis only of the former that I shall speak now. The other or
monoclinal type will come up under another head.

It will not be questioned that mountain ranges of the first type are
formed by lateral thrust, however much we may differ as to the cause
of such thrust; nor will it be questioned that they are permanent
features determined by continuous movement, however much they may
be modified by other kinds of movement or reduced or even destroyed
by subsequent erosion. I have placed them, therefore, among the
effects of primary movements—that is, movements determined by causes
affecting the whole earth. I have done so because until some more
rational view shall be proposed I shall continue to hold that they are
the effects of interior contraction concentrated upon certain lines of
weakness of the crust and, therefore, of yielding to the lateral thrust
thus generated. The reason for, as well as the objections to, this view
I have already, on a previous occasion, fully discussed. I wish now
only to supplement what I have before said by some further criticisms
of the most recent and, some think, the most potent objections to this
contractional theory, namely, that derived from the supposed position
of the “level of no strain.”

It is admitted that the whole force of this objection is based on the
extreme superficiality of this level, and that this, in its turn, depends
on the initial temperature of the incandescent earth and the time
elapsed since it began to cool. Both these are admitted to be very
uncertain. IJ have already discussed these in my previous paper and
shall not repeat here; but, as recently shown by Davison,? there are
still other elements, entirely left out of account in previous calculations,
which must greatly affect the result, and these new elements all concur

1 President’s address, Am. Asso, Ady. Sci., Madison meeting, 1893.
2 Am, Jour. Sci., Vol, 47, 1894, page 480; Phil. Mag., Vol. 41, 1896, page 133.

ee

ee

.

EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES. 239

to place the level of no strain much deeper than previous calculations
would make it.

These neglected elements are the following: (1) The earth increases
in temperature as we go down. Now, the coefficient of contraction
increases with temperature. This would increase the depth of the level
of no strain, and also, of course, the amount of interior contraction,
and, therefore, the lateral thrust. (2) The conductivity increases with
the temperature. This also would increase the rate of cooling and,
therefore, of interior contraction. (3) The interior of the earth is more
conductive not only on account of its greater temperature, but also on
account of its greater density; and this would be true whether the
greater density be due to increased pressure or to difference of material,
as, for example, to greater abundance of unoxidized metals. (4) The
materials of the interior, aside from greater temperature and density,
have a higher coefficient of contraction. (5) The usual calculations go
on the assumption that the initial temperature was uniform for all
depths. It probably increased with the depth then as now. This would
again increase in an important degree both the depth of the level of no
strain and the amount of lateral thrust.

The final result reached by Davison is, that while according to the
usual calculations the level of no strain may be only a little over two
miles (2.17) below the surface, yet, taking into account only the first
element mentioned above, the depth of that level would be increased
to nearly eight miles (7.79), and taking into account all the elements it
would come out many times greater still. The general conclusion
arrived at is that the objections to the contractional theory, based on
the depth of the level of no strain, must be regarded as invalid.

3. OSCILLATORY MOVEMENTS.

The movements thus far considered are continuously progressive in
one (direction as long as they last. The resulting features are therefore
permanent, except in so far as they may be modified by other move-
ments or by degrading influences; but nothing is more certain than
that besides these more steady movements there have been others of a
more oscillatory character—that is, upward and downward—in the
same place, affecting now smaller, now larger areas, and often many
times repeated. These are the most common of all crust movements,
and are shown everywhere and in all periods of the earth’s history by -
unconformities of the stratified series. Every line of unconformity
marks an old eroded land surface, and every conformable series of
strata a sea bottom receiving sediments. We give but two striking
examples of such oscillations.

The Colorado plateau was a sea bottom, continuously, or nearly so,
from the beginning of the Carboniferous to the end of the Cretaceous,
and during that time received about 12,000 or 15,000 feet in thickness
of sediments. During the whole of this time the area of the earth’s

240 EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES.

erust was slowly sinking and thus continually renewing the conditions
of sedimentation. Why did it subside? At the end of the Cretaceous
the same area began torise. What change of conditions caused it now
to rise? It has continued to rise until the present time, and is still
rising. The whole amount of rise can not be less than 20,000 feet; for
if all the strata which have been removed by erosion were again
restored, the highest portion of the arch which was sea bottom at the
end of the Cretaceous would now be 20,000 feet high. This, however,
is only the last oscillation of this area, for beneath the Carboniferous
there are several unconformities showing several oscillations of the
same kind in earlier periods. During the Devonian the area was land,
for the Carboniferous rests uncomformably on the Silurian. During the
Silurian it was sea bottom, receiving sediments of that time. Beneath
the Silurian there are two other uncomformities showing similar oscil-
jations. These earlier oscillations were probably as great as the one
now going on, but we can not measure them as we can the last.

Another striking example, still more recent and widespread, is the
enormous oscillations of the Glacial period. It can not be doubted that
over very wide areas—several millions of square miles—there were at
that time upward and downward movements of several thousand feet,
and therefore producing enormous changes in physical geography and
climate. What was the cause of these movements? They were doubt-
less modified, as will be shown later, by other movements superimposed
on them; but the causes of the latter must not be confounded with that
of the former.

We have given only two striking examples, but they are really the
commonest of all crust movements. They are everywhere marked by
unconforinities of the strata; they are everywhere going on at the pres-
ent time. In some places the sea is advancing on a subsiding land; in
others arising land is advancing on the sea. These movements are
more conspicuous along coast lines, because the sea is a datum level by
which to measure them, but they affect equally the interior of conti-
nents, as shown by the behavior of the rivers, which seek their base
level by erosion in a rising and by sedimentation in a sinking country.

Many theories have been advanced to explain these movements,
especially of certain very local shore-line movements. In volcanic
regions they have been attributed to rise or recession of the voleanic
heat and consequent columnar expansion or contraction of the crust.
On nonvoicanic sedimentary shore lines elevation has been attributed
by some to the rise of the interior heat of the earth and consequent
expansion of the crust produced by the blanketing effect of sedimen-
tary deposit; while others, with more reason, think that regions of
heavy sedimentation sink under the increasing load of accumulating
sediments; but it is evident that, while such theories may explain some
local examples in voleanic regions and along some shore lines, they can
not explain subsidences in the interior of continents, much less the

EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES. 241

wider and more extensive movements spoken of above. We must look
for some more general cause. What is it?

It must be confessed that the cause of these oscillatory movements is
the most inexplicable problem in geology. Not the slightest glimmer
of light has yet been shed on it. I bring forward the problem here, not
to solve it, for I confess my inability, but to differentiate it from other
problems, and especially to draw attention to these movements as mod-
ifying the effects of movements of the first kind, and often so greatly
modifying them as to obscure the principle of the permanency of oceanic
basins and continental areas, and even to cause many to deny its truth.
Nearly all the changes in physical geography in geological times, with
their consequent changes in climate and in the character and distribu-
tion of organic forms—in fact, nearly all the details of the history of the
earth—have been determined by these oscillatory movements; but
amid all these oscillatory changes, sometimes of enormous amount and
extent, it is believed that the places of the deep oceanic basins and of
the continental masses, being determined by other and more primary
causes, have remained substantially the same.

4. MOVEMENTS BY GRAVITATIVE READJUSTMENTS—ISOSTASY.

This very important principle which, though partially recognized by
Herschell, was first clearly enunciated by Major Dutton under the name
isostasy.' The principle may be briefly stated thus: In so large a mass
as the earth, whether liquid within or solid throughout it matters not,
excess or deficit of weight over large areas can not exist permanently.
The earth must gradually yield fluidally or plastically until static equi-
librium is established or nearly so. Thus continuous transfer of mate-
rial from one place to another by erosion and sedimentation must be
attended with sinking of the crust in the loaded and rising of the erust
in the unloaded area, In this way we may account for the sinking of
the crust at the mouths of great rivers and the correlative rising of
interior plateaus and nearly all great mountain regions observable at
the present time. The same seems to have been true in all geological
times, for it is obviously impossible that 40,000 feet of sediments could
have accumulated in the Appalachian region in preparation for the
Appalachian’s birth unless there were continuous pari passu subsidence
ever renewing the conditions of sedimentation.

Now, there can be no doubt as to the value of this principle, but
there is much doubt as to the extent of its application. The operation
of exterior causes, such as transfer of load by erosion and sedimenta-
tion, are so comparatively simple and their effects so easily understood
that we are tempted to push them beyond their legitimate domain,
which in this case is to supplement and modify the more fundamental
movements derived from interior causes. We are thus tempted to gen-
eralize too hastily and to conclude that all subsidence is due to weight-

! Phil. Society of Washington, 1892.

sm 96——16

242 EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES.

ing and all elevation to removal of weight. Probably this is a true
cause, but not the main cause of such movements. Doubtless the prop-
osition is true, but its converse is even much more so. _ It is certain
that thick sediments may cause subsidence, but it is much more certain
that subsidence, however determined, will cause continuous sedimenta-
tion by ever renewing the conditions of sedimentation. It is true that
removal of weight by erosion will cause elevation, but it is more cer-
tain that elevation is the cause of removal of matter by erosion.

Take again the Plateau region as an example. We have seen that
during the whole Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cre-
taceous times this region was subsiding, until at the end of the Creta-
ceous the earth’s crust here had bent downward 12,000 or 15,000 feet.
Shall we say it went down under the increasing load of sediments?
Why, then, did it, from a previous land condition, ever commence to
subside? And why, when the load was greatest, namely, at the end
of the Cretaceous, did it begin to rise? Again, from that time to this
it has risen 20,000 feet. Of this, about 12,000 feet have been removed
by erosion, leaving still 8,000 feet of elevation remaining. Now, if this
elevation be the result of removal of weight by erosion, how is it that
a removal of 12,000 feet has caused an elevation of 20,000 feet? This
result is natural enough, however, if elevation was the cause and ero-
sion the effect, for the effect ought to lag behind the cause. It is evi-
dent, then, that we must look elsewhere—that is, in the interior of the
earth—for the fundamental cause, although, indeed, the effects of this
interior cause may be increased and continued by the addition and
removal of weight.

But perhaps the best illustration of the distinctness of the two kinds
of causes of these movements is found in the oscillations of the Quater-
nary period. I say best because in this case the effects of the two may
be disentangled and viewed separately, and this in its turn is possible
because the loading in this case is not by mere transfer from one place
to another, and therefore is not correlated with unloading. In fact, the
elevation in this case is associated with, and in spite of, loading. The
elevation, as we all know, commenced in late Tertiary and culminated
in early Glacial. This elevation was, at least, one cause, probably the
main cause, of the cold and the ice accumulation, but the elevation con-
tinued in spite of the accumulating load of ice. Finally, however, the
accumulating load prevailed over the elevating force and the previously
rising area began to sink, but only because the interior elevatory forces
had commenced to die out. Then with the sinking commenced a mod-
eration of the climate, melting of the ice, removal of load, and conse-
quent rising of the crust to the present condition, but far below the
previous elevated condition, because the elevating forces, whatever
these were, had in the meantime exhausted themselves. If it had not
been for the interference of the ice load, I suppose that instead of the
double oscillation which actually occurred there would have been a

EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES. 243

simple curve of elevation coming down again to the present condition,
but culminating a little later and rising a little higher than we actually
find it did.

The question arises as to how great an area is necessary for the
operation of the principle of isostasy? What extent and degree of
inequality of surface may be upheld by earth rigidity alone?

The recent transcontinental gravitation determinations by Putnam
and their interpretation by Gilbert! seem to show a degree of rigidity
greater than previously supposed. ‘They seem to show that while the
whole continental arch is certainly sustained by isostasy—that is, by
deficiency of density below the sea level in that part, the continental
area being lighter in proportion as it is higher—yet great mountain
ranges like the Appalachian, Colorado, and Wasatch mountains show no
such means of support, but are bodily upheld by earth rigidity; and
even great plateaus, like the Colorado plateau, 275 miles across, are
largely, though not entirely, sustained in the same way.

MONOCLINAL MOUNTAIN RANGES.

Until recently mountain ranges were supposed to be all made in one
way, namely, by lateral crushing and strata-folding and bulging along
the line of yielding. To Gilbert is due the credit of having first drawn
attention to another type, conspicuously represented only in the
plateau and basin region, especially the latter—that is, those produced
by tilting and irregular settling of the crust blocks between great fis-
sures. The two types of mountains are completely contrasted in all
respects. As to form, the one is anticlinal, the other monoclinal. As
to cause, the one is formed by lateral squeezing and strata-folding, the
other by lateral stretching, fracturing, block-tilting, and unequal set-
tling. As to place of birth, the one is born of marginal sea bottoms,
the other is formed in the land crust. Classified by form, we may
regard the two types as belonging to the same grade of earth features,
namely, mountain ranges; but classified by their generating forces,
they belong to entirely different groups of earth movement. The one
belongs to the second group mentioned above, the other to the third
and fourth groups; for the plateau-lifting, crust-arching, and conse-
quent tension and fracturing belong to the third group or oscillatory
movements, but the mountain-making proper—that is, the subsequent
block-tilting and unequal settling—belongs to the fourth group or
isostasy, for that is wholly the result of isostatic readjustment and is
one of the best illustrations of this principle. It shows on what com-
paratively small scale under favorable conditions (probably unstable
foundation) the principle of isostasy may act. It is evident, then, that
it is impossible to exaggerate the distinction between these two types
of mountains. They belong, as we have seen, to entirely different

‘Gilbert, Phil. Soc. Washington, vol. 13, 1895, page 31; Gilbert, Jour. Geology, vol.
3, 1895, page 331; O. Fisher, Nature, vol, 52, 1895, page 433.

244 EARTH-CRUST MOVEMENTS AND THEIR CAUSES.

categories of interior forces, and, indeed, are not both mountains in the
same sense at all. It was for this reason that, in my paper on moun-
tain structure,! I put these latter in the category of mountain ridges
instead of mountain ranges—of modification, not of formation. JI now
think it better to divide movntain ranges into two types, not forget-
ting, however, the very great distinction between them.

CONCLUSIONS.

To sum up, then, in a few words: There are two primary and per-
manent kinds of crust movements, namely: (a) Those which give rise
to those greatest inequalities of the earth’s surface—oceanic basins and
continental surfaces; and (b) those which by interior contraction deter-
mine mountains of folded structure. These two are wholly determined
by interior forces affecting the earth as a whole, the one by unequal
radial contraction, the other by unequal concentric contraction; that
is, contraction of the interior more than the exterior. There are also
two secondary kinds of movement, which modify and often mask the
effects of the other two and confuse our interpretation of them. These
are: (c) Those oscillatory movemants, often affecting large areas, which
have been the commonest and most conspicuous of all movements in
every geological period, and are, indeed, the only ones distinetly observ-
able and measureable at the present time, but for which no adequate
cause has been assigned and no tenable theory proposed; and (d) iso-
static movements or gravitative readjustments, by transfer of load from
place to place, by erosion and sedimentation, or else loading and unload-
ing by ice accumulation and removal, and also by readjustment of great
crust blocks. If the previous one (¢) or oscillatory movements have
masked and so obscured the effects of (a) continent and ocean basin-
making, this last (d), isostasy, has concealed the effects and obscured
the interpretation of all the others, but especially of (b and c) mountain-
making forces and the forces of oscillatory movements. In fact, in the
minds of some recent writers it has well-nigh monopolized the whole
field of crust movements. We shall not make secure progress until we
keep these several kinds of movements and their causes distinet in our
minds.

1 Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 16, 1878, page 95.

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA!

By J. P. THomson, F. B.S. G.S.

In an anniversary address of this kind, it seems to me a first duty to
acknowledge how deeply sensible-I am of the honor you were pleased
to confer upon me by unanimously electing me to the distinguished
position of president of this society at last annual meeting. True it is
that since the foundation of the society I had always endeavored to
further the interests of our cause in every possible way during many
years of actual self-denial, as honorary secretary, and there was, indeed,
a time during an earlier period of our history when the secretarial
duties were combined with those of treasurer and librarian. But these
labors were lightened and enlivened by the love and enthusiasm that
inspired them, by the support of a few personal friends, and by the
hope that my adopted country and its rising generation would be ben-
efited, both educationally and commercially, by a well-established
national institution for the collation and dissemination of geographical
knowledge. That my fondest hopes were not altogether in vain, nor
the efforts so cheerfully given fruitless is, I think, clearly enough shown
by the recognized position we now occupy among the scientific and
literary institutions of the world, and by the splendid collections of
valuable books and maps with which our library shelves are enriched.
To the honest laborer for love, whether physical or mental, no other
recompense is looked for than an inward consciousness of endeavoring
to do good. Still,in the case of ourselves, we may fairly claim that our
efforts have been amply justified by results. It seems to be a custom,
sanctioned by usage, that the president of a society such as ours should
have conceded to him the privilege of delivering an address to the
members at the end of his term of office. That, in fact, appears to be
the last act of a drama in which he has had to play the leading part—
by no means an easy one, although in this case peculiarly pleasant.
In my own case it must be confessed that a difficuly was experienced
in the choice of a suitable subject, not but that there are several impor-
tant and even interesting ones, more or less connected with the depart-

1 Address to the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Brisbane, July 22, 1895.
By the president, J. P. Thomson, F. R. 8. G.8., F.S. Se. (Lond.). Printed in Pro-
ceedings and Transactions, Vol. X.

245

.

”

246 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

ment of geography, in which I claim to take a deep interest, but it
seemed to me undesirable to retraverse fields already occupied by my
predecessors. At one time a presidential address was supposed to deal
more or less with the work of the society during the preceding year,
pointing out at the same time what had been done in its particular
department in other parts of the world, with a plan for future opera-
tions. In some societies the practice is still followed out, but in my
own opinion the wisdom of such a custom is open to doubt, and it is
well to consider whether it is not better to deal with some local or spe-
cial subject, leaving the operations of the society to be summarized in
the report of the council, and the departmental work in other parts of
the world to the special treatment of the older and larger societies.
In this way the provincial bodies would act as tenders or feeders to the
parent societies in Great Britain and the continent of Hurope, supply-
ing them with trustworthy local material for the department of national
or universal geography. Sucharecognized plan of action would doubt-
less result in universal federation of workers in the field of geograph-
ical science. It would also lead to a more thorough and exhaustive
treatment of the various departmental subjects than they at present
receive, and would result in uniformly organized, concerted, and sys-
tematic action in the field of labor.

On this occasion I shall endeavor to follow in the footsteps of one of
my distinguished predecessors, Sir 8S. W. Griffith, who, in his very
learned and interesting presidential address to this society in 1891,
dealt with the * Political Geography of Australia.”

To the native born, and to those whose homes and family ties natur-
ally bind us all together in a common bond of union under the Scuthern
Cross and the other beautiful constellations of the southern sky, there
is no other country on the face of the earth so dearly beloved as Aus-
tralia. None is certainly more important, and it is not to our credit as
a people that while our school children are crammed with what after
all is only a superficial and inadequate knowledge of all other parts of
the world, little attention is given to our own country, to our industries,
or to our natural and artificial resources. To the credit, be it said, of
a public-spirited journal the subject of our national industries has
recently received special treatment, and it is hoped the Courier, to
which I particularly refer, will devote equal time and attention to other
phases of our partially or wholly undeveloped resources. The Physical
Geography of Australia demands fuller treatment than it has hitherto
received by any society of this kind, for while we are always ready and
anxious to extend our investigations over wide and remote fields the
needs of our own country are too often overlooked. It is no doubt true
that several parts of the interior of Australia are either wholly unknown
or but imperfectly known. Enormous tracts of sterile and waterless
country have baffled the efforts of many travelers to investigate the
inland regions, and it is only quite recently that several important dis-

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 247

coveries have been brought to our knowledge through the enlightened
and patriotic enterprise of two South Australian gentlemen, Sir Thomas
Elder and Mr. Horne, of Adelaide, who with praiseworthy liberality
defrayed the cost of two separate and well-appointed scientific expedi-
tions to Central Australia. The absence or scarcity of reliable infor-
mation concerning the more remote parts of the continent may no doubt
account to some extent for the little attention hitherto bestowed upon
its physical geography as a whole. As an example of how insignifi-
eantly Australia has, until very recent years, been regarded by intel-
ligent and well-informed Iuropeans, I will just quote the concluding
sentence of the introductory paragraph of an article in a standard
work on geography, published in 1885, by Longmans & Co., of London:
“But recent events have conferred upon Australia an importance
which justifies our making it the subject of a distinct chapter.”

A backward glance at what we assume to be the earliest stages of
evolution of our continent, through successive geological ages, will
enable us to realize more fully the distinct peculiarities of its physical
aspect as well as of its past and present climatic conditions, as influ-
enced by the various progressive steps of development. Let us com-
mence with the Paleozoic period, during which we find a few raised
disintegrated fragments of a submerged plateau projecting above the
surface of the ocean. In Western Australia the dry land at this stage is
represented by an elongated area extending from the twentieth parallel
to the neighborhood of Swan River. The western or extreme outer
fringe of this fragment now lies submerged outside of the present coast
line, and consequently it forms a section of the ocean bed within the
limits of the 1,200 to 6,000 foot contour line. A somewhat similar
upheaved tongue-shaped area extended from Melville and Bathurst
islands southward into Central Australia, and, like the former frag-
ment, its northwest edge or shoulder is now submerged in the neighbor-
hood of Anson’s Bay within the 1,200-foot contour line. The remaining
continental patches above water were represented by a few superficially
small and isolated narrow elevations along the eastern seaboard of the
continent, distributed over an extensive northerly and southerly range
from Cape York Peninsula to the Australian Alps. These insulated
fragments were, according to Prof. James Geikie, the Hon. A. C. Greg-
ory, and other well-known authorities, the earliest representatives of
this continent. The climate of this and other continental divisions of
the globe must have possessed a remarkable uniformity of character
throughout the whole area to which reference has been made. The
areas of dry land being comparatively small, offered little impediment
to the free circulation of ocean currents, and thus by the commingling
of polar and equatorial waters an exceedingly mild and equable tem-
perature was maintained. The succeeding stage of evolution was
marked by the somewhat rapid and wide extension and unity of land
areas. Insulated fragments increased in magnitude, assuming more

248 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

truly continental proportions during the Mesozoic era. A narrow belt
of dry land, corresponding to the position of the Great Dividing Range,
extended along the whole seaboard of Australia, uniting Tasmania,
New Guinea, and Borneo. The whole western half of the continent
was likewise raised above the surface of the ocean, curving westward
to Java, Sumatra, and, effecting a junction with the eastern area at
Borneo, stretched northerly to the southeast portion of India.! Owing
to this remarkable process of evolution, an enormous gulf or inland
sea swept the whole central region of Australia, extending northerly
and westerly to the southern shores of Borneo. The climate during
this period was in like manner uniform, though less persistently marked
than in earlier times. In the dawn of Tertiary times, Australia had
become entirely continental or insulated. The connecting belts, which
formerly uited it with neighboring counties, were submerged, and the
inland waters were confined to a tract of submerged country in the
neighborhood of the junction of the Murray and Darling rivers. Besides
this the sea encroached upon the coast districts of the Gulf of Carpen-
taria, also upon a portion of the coast fringe in Western Australia,
between Shark’s Bay and Cape Leeuwyn, and a narrow section along
the head of the Great Australian Bight was also submerged, but in all
other respects the general conformation of our continent was almost
identical then with what it is now. Contemporaneous with this physi-
cal change in the geographical aspect of the country a pronounced
differentiation of climate occurred. Climatic zones possessing marked
and distinctive characteristics existed, and in these mild seasonal
changes prevailed. Although I have already remarked upon the uni-
formity of climate during the two preceding ages, still it seems reason-
able to suppose that the atmospheric air was then more highly charged
with moisture than we can at present. conceive it to be, and that the
rainfall in tropical and extra-tropical regions must have been enormous,
owing to the widely distributed equatorial waters over vast areas of
the globe, and the extensive circulation of ocean currents. It is worthy

1Tt is not by any means improbable that during this age there was actually a land
connection between Australia, New Zealand, the Antarctic Continent, and Patagonia.
On a map accompanying a paper read before the Royal Geographical Society, and
published in the Geographical Journal, January, 1894, Dr. John Murray shows that
these lands are connected by a submerged plateau over which the soundings are
very shallow, compared with the enormous depth of the neighboring ocean bed.
The strongest evidence in support of this theory is, however, to be found among the
fragmentary remains of extinct animals recently discovered in these now widely
separated regions. In the Chatham Islands there have been found the remains of a
large ocydromine rail and the fossil bones of a coote, allied to other extinct families
that formerly inhabited Mauritius, and were probably distributed over a very wide
geographical range of the southern hemisphere. There is also the occurrence of
struthious birds in New Zealand, Queensland, Madagascar, and Patagonia, which
seems to indicate that they were scattered about at a time when there were few
impediments to interfere with their migratory movements over immensely wide
areas, part of which is now occupied by the waters of the South Pacific Ocean.

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. QAI

of note that the predominating topographical features of the continent
do not appear to have undergone any remarkable change during the
successive stages of evolution under review. The dominant areas of
elevation in all cases correspond throughout with the mountain ranges
along the eastern seaboard, the Northern Territory, and Western Aus-
tralia, while the central region is still charaterized by low and extensive
desert-like salt-bush plains, dotted with shallow lakes and salt pans,
and traversed by inland rivers. Configuration and position of land
areas are two of the fundamental agents that operate in establishing —
and controlling the climatic zones of our globe, while their influence
upon the distribution of rainfall is simply enormous. To enable us to
study and understand the people of a country it becomes necessary
and indeed indispensable to investigate the physical features and
climate, for no other known agents exercise so powerful an influence
on the grouping and migrations of the race as these, as well as in
moulding and modifying classes and racial types. As compared with
other countries, there is a decidedly marked defect in the physical
geography of Australia. It possesses no remarkable mountains of high
elevation, although the culminating peak of the Australian Alpsis capped
with snow for nearly all the yearround. The highest ranges border
the east coast line, extending in a more or less continuous chain from
Wilson’s Promontory in the south to Cape York in the north. Except
the McPherson’s Range, this great coastal chain of ranges is practically
of no value in limiting or influencing the political divisions of the
country, nor yet does it afford any very great impediment to or security
against invasion. In most places it is easily accessible from the sea-
board, and it possesses no narrow wild passes such as those that limit
the great commercial inland trade routes in Hurope, Asia, and America.
One remarkable feature associated with the physical condition of the
southeastern part of the continent is that the highest elevations corre-
spond very closely with and occupy a position adjacent to the greatest
depth of the ocean, which approaches closer to the southeast coast line
of Victoria than any other part of the continent.

The general plan or system of this eastern area of elevation may be
briefly put in the following manner: From the main coastal range
there radiate toward the interior numerous offshoots, or lateral spurs, as
it were, and these form the watersheds of the inland rivers, as they
are called, or streams that flow toward the interior. These outliers
bear local designations, more or less appropriate, such as the Liverpool
Range, New England Range, and Blue Mountains in New South Wales.
The eastern face of the range approaches close to the coast line, and
its waters are drained by several comparatively short but rapid rivers
that frequently overflow their banks and inundate large areas of low-
lying country during abnormal rainfalls. In Queensland there is
probably a wider and more uniform distribution of elevated areas than
in any other part of the continent. Here the elevations of the Coast

250 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

or Great Dividing Range, as it is locally known, vary from 2,500 to
4,000 feet above sea level. Barklay’s Tableland and Selby and Kirby’s
ranges separate the Gulf rivers from the Georgina, Hamilton, and
Diamantina streams that flow southwesterly. McPherson’s Range,
which forms a natural boundary common to New South Wales and
Queensland from Point Danger to the junction of Tenterfield Creek
with the Severn River, culminates in Mount Lindesay, 4,064 feet above
sea level, but besides it there are several other high and rugged peaks
along the crown of the range. Gregory Range, a lateral spur of the
Great Dividing Range, divides the waters of the Gilbert and Flinders
rivers. Drummond Range lies between the waters of the Belyando
River and those drained by the Nogoa and Isaac streams. ‘The waters
of the Burnett and Auburn rivers are separated from those drained
into the Dawson by Dawes Range, while the waters of the last stream
are also divided from those of the Comet River by Carnarvon and
Expedition ranges.

The country between the Great Dividing Range and the eastern coast
line mainly consists of undulating and low-lying alluvial areas, with
intervening river valleys abundantly watered and remarkably fertile.
It is within the central and northerly parts of this division the great
industrial enterprise of sugar growing and manufacture is successfully
carried out and developed, it having been found that the soil and
climate are eminently adapted to the growth of sugar cane on some of
the coast lands of New South Wales and Queensland. West of the range
the physical character of the country changes entirely. Here we meet
with extensive plateaux or table-lands extending far into the interior of
the continent. In New South Wales the most important of these are
the Monaro 'fableland; the Great Western Plains, stretching to the river
Darling and into South Australia; and the New England Plateau, in
the northern part of the colony. Some of these table-lands are utilized
for agricultural purposes, but by far the largest portions are held for
pastoral occupation.

In Queensland the western districts comprise the widely known
“Downs” country, consisting of immense table-land plains, interspersed
with comparatively small areas of hilly and undulating country, extend-
ing far and away into South Australia. The Gulf district, or that part
of the country bordering upon the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria,
mainly consists of extensive plains, abundantly watered and luxuriantly
grassed. Except to a very limited extent, agriculture receives but lit-
tle attention within this vast geographic division, extending the whole
length of the colony west of the range, although experience has amply
shown that the soil and climate of the Darling Downs country is nat-
urally adapted for the production of luxuriant crops of almost every
variety of agricultural produce. Nature has endowed it with inex-
haustible resources that await development at the hands of enterprising
colonists. At present the country is mostly held for grazing purposes,

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 251

but its potentialities are undoubtedly great, and as settlement advances
and railway communication extends and increases the whole of the west-
ern districts will doubtless be occupied by flourishing agriculturists,
to whom the soil will yield all the necessary products upon which the
prosperity of a country so much depends, with profit to producers and
immense advantage to the country. This, in my opinion, is a very
moderate and indeed limited forecast of the future of this part of our
continent.

In the northern territory of South Australia there are no lofty ranges
or mountains of high elevation, although the physiography of that
part of the country possesses many features of great interest to geog-
raphers as well as to geologists. About Leichhardt’s description of the
country there seems to be some doubt, owing, it is said, to an error
which unfortunately crept into the transcript of his notes. This, how-
ever, does not apply to the extensive observations made there by the
Hon. A. C. Gregory, who was in a position to obtain a true and very
comprehensive knowledge of the subject. Mr. Gregory’s investigations
show that the physical structure of this northern region consists of a
moderately high and continuous table-land, very broken and extremely
rugged, rising abruptly from the low-lying northern coast lands and
extending southerly to Central Australia. This description is sustained
by Captain Carrington, who, some few years ago, examined the rivers
of the northern territory. On the other hand, exception is taken to
this view by the late Rey. J. E. Tenison- Woods, who examined part of
the country on behalf of the Government in 1886.

In his official report to the Government resident of the Northern
Territory, Mr. Tenison- Woods endeavors to “correct the erroneous idea
which has prevailed as to the physical” character of the region, point-
ing out that where he had been “there is no such thing as a continu-
ous table-land.” ‘Patches of broken table-lands occur frequently at the
sources of rivers and creeks,” but they are nothing more than frag-
ments, seldom exceeding 4 or 5 miles in width and from 120 to 300 feet
in height. Only once did he see a plateau of 370 feet in height. The
broken edge of these table-lands always faces northerly. ‘The coast
country is” generally ‘“‘very low and flat,” rising gently at the rate of
about 5 feet per mile. In places there are low ridges composed of
quartzite, slate, and sandstone that rise almost from the sea level to a
height of 50 feet or more, gradually increasing to 100.. They run
northerly and southerly, trending to the eastward as they are traced to
the south. Small creeks and tributaries emanate from these ridges,
descending toward the permanently watered main valleys. The sources
of all the waters drained to the north are in the elevated lands of the
metalliferous ranges and the springs at the foot of the table-land. The
features of the country change south of Pine Creek, about 150 miles
from Palmerston, where there is a watershed about 800 feet above low
water sea level, beyond which the water courses flow southerly and

PAT THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

westerly until the Katherine River is reached. This large stream then
flows northwesterly, debouching into the sea as the Daly River.

The mountain system, if such it can be called, comprises the ranges
in which the principal mines are found, no part of which seems to
exceed 1,000 feet above sea level. The system is an isolated one, cul-
minating in Mount Wells on the north and the country between the
Union Mines and the Mary River on the south. The River Finniss cuts
it off to the north.

This is the conclusion arrived at by the late Rev. J. E. Tenison-
Woods, and it is no doubt a correct one in so far as it applies to that
part of the country over which his examination extended, but it is
believed by those who are alone competent to speak with undoubted
authority upon the subject that he did not penetrate farther inland
than the disintegrated coastal fringe of the great central plateau, which,
according to the Hon. A. C. Gregory, undoubtedly occupies the interior
of the northern and northwestern territory. This country was tray-
ersed and minutely examined by Mr. Gregory during his expedition in
northwestern Australia, and to those who know how keen and careful
an observer our veteran explorer is, nothing more conclusive will be
required than his clear and simple statement concerning the physical
structure of the country, as set forth in the Journals of Australian
Exploration.

To pastoral and agricultural enterprises this Northern Territory offers
most tempting inducements; the average rainfall is over 5 feet; the soil
in the river valleys is remarkably rich and fertile, and immense plains
carpeted with luxuriant grasses and other forms of vegetation await
occupation. This description particularly applies to the country drained
by the Victoria and Fitzmaurice rivers and Stuart Creek, representing
an area of about 100,000 square miles. Captain Carrington, in his
report upon the examination of the rivers in this part of the continent,
says that “the agricultural future of this great country can only be
limited by the limited faculties of mankind. Nature has apparently
done everything possible.”

The western part of the continent is not remarkable for high moun-
tain ranges or for rugged peaks, although Several elevated and isolated
masses occur in some parts of the country, presenting a somewhat
striking appearance. The Darling, Roe, and Blackwood are the prin-
cipal ranges in the southwest, the first extending north and south
parallel with the coast for a distance of about 300 miles from Yatheroo,
in the north, to its most southern limit at Point D’Entrecasteaux. It
is from 18 to 20 miles from the coast line, and its culminating point is
about 1,500 feet above the sea level. East of and parallel to the Dar-
ling lies the Roe Range, whose crowning eminence is denoted by Mount
William, in the Murray District. The highest peak of the Blackwood
Range is only some 2,000 feet, although its average elevation is higher
than that of the other neighboring ranges. The Stirling Range is the

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 253

highest natural feature in the settled districts of the colony. It rises
abruptly from a low-lying coastal country, and owing to its isolated
position may be seen a long way off. Ellens Peak and Mount Tool-
brunup, some 2,320 and 3,341 feet respectively above sea level, mark
the culminating points of this range. To the southwest of it the Poron-
gorup Range is situated. The Leopold and Mueller ranges constitute
the principal heights in the Kimberly District. Mount Amherst, the
loftiest peak in the latter, is elevated some 2,533 feet above sea level.
Between the Panton and Elvire rivers there is situated a hill known by
the name of Mount Barratt, whose height is 2,297 feet, and Mount
Coglan, on the watershed of the Margaret and Ord rivers, has an ele-
vation of 2,084 feet.

In the settled districts the country is generally level; in places undu-
lating, but seldom mountainous. The land on the western seaboard is
also flat and the soil sandy. East of the Darling Range there is a
remarkable change in the character of the country, which continues to
improve as it extends inland. Vast forests of Jarrah and white and
red gums occupy the whole of the uncultivated portion of the south-
west districts, except a few sand plains that are here and there scat-
tered over the face of the country.

From Israelite Bay, in the neighborhood of which is situated the
Russell Range, to Spencers Gulf no high ranges or even mountains of
moderate elevation exist, the only distinctive physical feature in the
topography of that enormous stretch of territory along the periphery
of the Great Australian Bight being a succession of sandstone cliffs
from 300 to 600 feet vertical. Most of the country within this exten-
sive region, especially north of the thirtieth parallel and west of the
one hundred and thirty-third meridian, consists of immense stony and
sandy desert, whose repulsive and inhospitable aspect is a signifi-
cant warning to the traveler who dares to step on the border and scan
the enormous expanse of eternal wildness beyond. Thick mallee scrub,
spinifex sandhills, claypans, dry salt lakes (as they are strangely
called), and bare, sandy plains invest the whole tace of the country
with a dull and painful monotony. The soil is dry and the scanty veg-
etation usually parched and withered, for there is little water; indeed,
there is one stretch of country between Queen Victorias Spring and
the Boundary Dam, a distance of 525 miles, entirely destitute of water.

The belt of country south of this region to the coast line improves
vastly in character, both as regards soil.and vegetation. This is espe-
cially applicable to the extensive Nullabor Plains, at the head of the
bight, which are believed to be “eminently adapted in every way for
pastoral purposes and probably for the growth of cereals.” ‘The large
clayey deposits that exist in many places here will probably enable
settlers to conserve the water, and this feature in the physical structure
of the locality will, doubtless, greatly increase the value of the country as
settlement advances. The Nullabor Plains extend for about 250 miles

254 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

from east to west, their northern limit being unknown. They are luxuri-
antly grassed and have been crossed at times when “the long line of
camels left a track behind them in many places as there would beif
they had passed through a cornfield.” The map of the coastal district
west of these plains is annotated with such brief descriptions as “Low
level country covered with dense thickets and scrub, and apparently
salt lakes and marshes, the horizon appearing from the southward level
and uniform as the sea.” ‘Clear open grassy country.” “From this
point vast plains of grass and saltbush with scarcely a tree on them,
extending as far as the eye can reach in every direction.” ‘Very gently
undulating grassy country. Limestone formation 300 feet above the
sea.” Northerly and easterly of these plains the geological formation
appears to be granite covered with sand. The granite outcrops occur
in many places, and it is interesting to note that the only permanent
water for many miles in any direction seems to be at a range where the
granite ends and the limestone formation begins.

In the southeastern districts of South Australia the general physical
aspect of the territory affords a pleasant contrast to that of the coun-
try to the north and northwest. Here are located several prominently
marked areas of elevation, denoted by the Mount Lofty, Flinders, Hum-
mocks, and Gawler ranges. Of these, the first extends from Cape
Jervis northerly about 80 miles to the Little Para River, its culminat-
ing point, Mount Lofty, being 2,334 feet above sea level. This range,
which follows the general course of the Murray River to the thirty-
fourth parallel of latitude, is flanked on the eastward for about 20
miles by a chain of ranges of less prominence, extending from Encoun-
ter Bay in broken masses to Ulooloo, a distance of nearly 200 miles,
and including the following conspicuous points: Mounts Magnificent
(1,372 feet), Barker (1,681 feet), Gould (1,753 feet), Rufus (1,807 feet),
and Bryan (3,065 feet); the Burra Hill (2,018 feet), Kaiserstul (1,973
feet), and Razorback (2,835 feet). Smaller ranges, Barossa, Julia,
Princess Royal, and Never Never, lie to the north of Mount Lofty
Range. | ;

The Hummocks or Barunga Range commences on the west side of
Gulf St. Vincent, about 10 miles from the head, and runs northerly
for 60 miles to the Broughton River. South Hummock, Black Point,
and Barn Hill are its most prominent features, the first being 1,064
feet high.

Flinders Range commences on the Broughton, a little southeast of
the termination of the previously named range, and runs northerly by
way of Mount Remarkable (3,178 feet), The Bluff (2,300 feet), Mount
3rown (2,200 feet), Mount Arden (2,750 feet), and St. Marys Peak
(3,900 feet) for about.200 miles, having steep spurs to the west and
less elevations on its eastern side. Among the last are the Wonoka,
Wilpena, Elder, Chace, and Druid ranges. It then continues in a
northeasterly direction by Mount Serle (3,000 feet) and Freeling
Heights (3,120 feet) to Mount Distance for 120 miles farther.

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 255

The Gawler Range is an irregular group of hills, commencing about
50 miles west of Port Augusta and extending westerly for about 150
miles more. The highest points in it are Mounts Miccolo, Nonning,
Sturt, Double, Yardea, and Yarlbrinda, none of which exceed 2,000
feet above sea level.

Under the name of Musgrave Range are usually included the Everard,
Mann, and Tomkinson ranges and the Deering Hills, all situated in
Central Australia between the one hundred and twenty-ninth and one
hundred and thirty-third meridians, and forming a belt 250 miles by
25 miles, lying east and west along the twenty-sixth parallel. The high-
est points are Mounts Woodroft and Morris (each about 4,100 feet
high), Ferdinand (4,000 feet), and Everard (3,850 feet). To the north
of these is another central belt lying northeast of Lake Amadeus and
known as the McDonnell ranges, extending east and west along the
twenty-third parallel. Besides these principal highlands there are
several isolated volcanic peaks at the head of Discovery Bay and many
other hills of less prominence in the central portion of the country.

From the preceding remarks it will be readily understood that most
of the South Australian territory consists of vast grassy plains, some
of which are flanked by the mountain ranges for fully 300 miles north
and south, and extensive belts of undulating timbered country, the
latter comprising some of the richest agricultural land in the colony,
especially that situated between St. Vincent’s Gulf and the Murray
Scrub and in the fertile district of Mount Gambier. <A very large
portion of the country stretching along both sides of the Murray River
is an immense waterless scrub, occasionally interspersed with open
grassy plains, while enormously large areas of sandy desert and salt-
bush country occupy the far interior in the neighborhood of Lakes
Amadeus and Eyre.

In the foregoing an attempt has been made to describe briefly the
dominant areas of elevation as indicated by the mountain systems of
our continent. These are certainly unique in their way, and the some-
what remarkable features that they possess invest the topography of
the country with a striking peculiarity which does not occur elsewhere.
As I have already remarked, the mountain ranges are, with one single
exception, practically of no value whatever as natural national bounda-
ries, nor even for the purpose of forming provincial lines of demarca-
tion. On the other hand, their influence upon the commercial develop-
ment of the country is great, for they limit settlement in a large
measure to the coastal districts, offering few facilities for the extension
of agricultural and industrial enterprises to the central regions. This
is especially the case along the eastern part of Australia, where the
massive vapor clouds, impinging upon the seaward face of the ranges,
deposit most of their moisture before the western and central districts
are reached, and consequently the latter do not enjoy an adequate
rainfall. True, the future holds out more encouraging prospects to
intending settlers than the past, for we are assured on the authority of

256 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

Mr. R. L. Jack, Government geologist for Queensland, that to the arte-
sian water supply of the western part of that colony there is practi-
cally no limit. In his recent elaborate investigations into the geolog-
ical structure of that part of the country Mr. Jack appears to have
satisfied himself that the ‘‘ water-bearing beds of the Lower Cretaceous
formation” are far more extensive than had formerly been anticipated.
The superficial area in which they occur is estimated at 5,000 square
miles of Queensland territory alone, and more extensive examination
will very probably show that they are far more widely distributed in
other parts of the interior of the continent than Mr. Jack’s recent
investigations have shown them to be. The physical structure of the
country is certainly favorable to this view, and if it be found that these
water-bearing beds actually occur over the whole area formerly occu-
pied by the great inland sea by which our continent was severed from
north to south, the barren desert country of Central Australia will
no longer bid defiance to the extension of British enterprise and
settlement.

As far back as 1863 the late Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, in a paper
read at the meeting of the British Association at Newcastle on-Tyne,
on ‘The rivers of the interior of Australia,” drew attention to the favor-
able conditions of the central basin for the formation of artesian wells,
and in 1866 the same view was strongly advocated in a series of papers
which that well-known authority contributed to the Australasian. Later
ou Mr. Tenison- Woods pointed out that—

“In the central depression of the Continent and in North Australia
there is a line of groups of thermal and cold springs covering several
hundred square miles. These send forth water from great depths, and
are no doubt derived from a central underground reservoir whose
sources are on the slopes of the tableland. That the waters come from
great depths is seen from the fact of the temperature and the mounds
of sinister or travestine around them.”

Of course no artesian water supply, however extensive, can equal in
value a natural one, nor yet will it ever take the place of a regular and
abundant rainfall; still, it will operate as an enormously powerful factor
in the development of the natural and artificial resources of the coun-
try, and it is hoped that recent investigations will be followed up with
equal success in other parts of the Continent, to the manifest advantage
of our pastoral and agricultural industries and national prosperity.

In addition to what I have said regarding the influence of our conti-
nental highlands upon the distribution of rainfall and settlement, it
must also be pointed out in this connection that the only true river sys-
tem of the country is so regulated and controlled by the peculiar phys-
ical structure of the mountain ranges of the southeastern part of the
Continent that few of the rivers themselves are of any value as great
commercial highways from the sea to the interior. On the eastern coast
most of the streains are short and traverse areas of steep declivity.
During periods of heavy rains their capacity is inadequate to carry off the

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 257

‘surface waters and consequently they overflow their banks, inundating
the low-lying country and causing great destruction of property—some-
times even loss of life. The larger rivers flow inland from the coast
range and disembogue on the eastern shores of the Great Australian
Bight; while some actually discharge their waters in the interior of the
country into large shallow lakes or wide marshes.

The Murray, with its giant tributary, the Darling, is preeminently
king of Australian rivers, and in point of “navigable length” it is,
according to the estimate of Mr. H. C. Russell, entitled to rank ‘third
amongst the navigable rivers of the world.” It is, however, only right
and proper to point out that this is not a fair comparison. From a
geographical standpoint it errs greatly on the side of exaggeration, for
while it may be true that the Darling River is navigable from Walgett
to its junction with the Murray River and thence by that stream to the.
sea, a total length of some ‘2,345 miles,” the assertion itself furnishes
no adequate estimate of the actual capacity of the channel for the pur-
pose of navigation. As an inland stream for navigation the Murray
River! is of considerable importance, and the immense value of its water
supply for irrigation canals can scarcely be overestimated, but at present
itcan not be utilized as a great commercial highway from the sea to the
interior, and for this reason alone no comparison can be drawn between
it and many other shorter and minor streams of the world. The shallow
entrance to the river and the comparatively insignificant volume of
water that passes through the channel in dry seasons are enormous
obstacles which may possibly be removed at some future time when the
country is more closely settled and its commercial and industrial re-
sources more generally developed. Freeand uninterrupted navigation
from the sea to Walgett and from the sea to Albury would exercise a
greater and more permanent influence upon the future prosperity of the
country and its potentialities than it is within the power of anyone to
conceive, and if that were once accomplished the Murray would rightly
be entitled to rank among the first navigable streams of the globe.
The total drainage area of the Murray River as recently determined by
Mr. H. G. McKinney, M. Inst. C. E., is 414,253 square miles, equal to
about a seventh of the area of the entire continent, and as large as the
combined areas of France and Germany. This is the twelfth largest
river basin of the world. Of this enormous area 234,362 square miles
are situated in New South Wales, 104,575 in Queensland, 50,979 in

1The Murray River is here referred to as the primary water course with which are
united the Darling, Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and other tributary streams, with their
numerous affluents, the whole constituting the Murray River system. In speaking
generally of the first, the others are, therefore, included unless otherwise stated. In
a published diagram showing the comparative lengths of the great rivers of the
world the Darling is indicated as the primary stream and the Murray as one of its
principal tributaries. This is certainly erroneous, for so long as the channel from
the sea to Wentworth is known as the Murray River the Darling, which unites with
it at the latter place, can not be otherwise described than as a tributary of it.

sm 96 17

258 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

Victoria, and 24,387 in South Australia. The whole basin is divided into
two unequal areas—an effective or contributing area of 159,889 square
miles, with a mean annual rainfall of 25.03 inches, and a noncontribut-
ing area, or that which either contributes nothing to the river system or
which contributes only during exceptional floods, of 254,364 square
miles. The mean annual rainfall over the latter does not exceed 17.15
inches. The largest noncontributing area of 158,863 square miles lies
within the colony of New South Wales, comprising a tract of country
east of the Bogan and Darling, an extensive region bounded by the
Darling, Murray, Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Bogan, and the territory
west of the Darling. The whole drainage area of 24,387 square miles
within the territory of South Australia contributes nothing to the river
system; here the mean annual rainfall is only 16.83 inches. The delta
lands and other noncontributing areas of 36,835 square miles in Queens-
land lie chiefly along the southern boundary of the colony within the
counties of Belmore, Carnarvon, Cassillis, and along the middle basin
of the Warrego River, the mean annual rainfall over that part of the
country being about 18.97 inches. The area of 34,279 square miles in
Victoria that contributes nothing to the river system is a strip of
country south of the Murray and west of Morong, where the mean
annual rainfall is something like 17.85 inches. Most of these non-
effective areas consist of immense alluvial plains and gently undula-
ting country where the rainfall is very small and uncertain; the soil is
remarkably rich, and, if irrigated, would be highly productive. There
iS a mean annual rainfall of 20.19 inches over the whole drainage area
ot the Murray River. Considering the enormous extent of the water-
shed, the sectional areas of the primary river and its chief tributary
are insignificant. The mean average discharge of the River Darling
at Bourke is equal to about 6,557 cubic feet per second, and the approxi-
mate mean height of water level tor a period of twelve years was 10
feet. The mean average discharge of the Murray River equals 2,791
cubic feet per second at Euston, 6,336 at Modina, and 3,516 at Albury.
The approximate mean height cf water level at the same places for
1879-1890 was 15.6, 16.10, and 12.10 feet, respectively. At Albury the
discharge of the Murray very rarely falls below 1,000 cubic feet per
second, even in the driest seasons.

The primary source of the Murray River proper is in the western
face of the Australian Alps at the union of two lateral spurs, by which
it is flanked on the east and west, about 20 or 30 miles north of Mount
Kosciusko, whose peak of 7,256 feet above sea level marks the culmi-
nating point of the great southern cordillera. It flows southerly
between these spurs or mountain ranges, skirting the northwestern
base of Kosciusko, where it sweeps toward the northwest and joins
the Indi River, whose source is within the Victorian territory. The
entire length of the Murray is about 1,700 miles, but there is a remark-
able discrepancy between writers upon this subject—it being indeed

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 259

almost safe to state that no two authorities agree upon the point at
issue. The head of the upper valley of the river is characterized by
the presence of a network of tributary streams or feeders, spreading
out like the branches of a great tree, through whose sharply sloping
and precipitous channels the thawed waters of the snow-capped ranges
sweep in mighty torrents to the lower regions of the valley. Chief
among these are the Mitta Mitta, Ovens, and Goulburn water courses.
The physical aspect of this part of the country is wild and rugged,
heavy snowstorms, violent gales, and blinding sleet being the ruling
climatic features of this great Alpine chain, whose western and north-
ern waters cut deep into the granitic and metamorphic rocks of the
range, forming steep and precipitous gorges, yawning chasms, and tor-
tuous channels, ever deepening by the erosive action of the troubled
waters of many streams. The Murrumbidgee, although one of the
tributaries of the Murray, is little inferior to that stream itself. Ema-
nating from its source in the elevated table-land at the base of Pepper-
corn Hill, some 5,000 feet above sea level, it traverses a tract of country
possessing some remarkable features of natural beauty, especially in
its upper valley, where the mountains are steep and rugged and the
lateral valleys deep and precipitous.!. Below this region the river flows
through the celebrated Riverina district, where its flood waters often
spread out over large level areas in the neighborhood of numerous shal-
low water courses which act as local distributors. In seasons of severe
drought it is nearly dry in some parts of the channel, even as far down
as Hay, where the bottom is sandy and consequently highly absorbent.
The total length of the Murrumbidgee is 1,350 miles. Its principal
affluent is the Lachlan, a stream of about 700 miles in length, rising in
the rugged western spurs of the Great Dividing Range, north of Lake
George. The highest part of its watershed is about 3,000 feet above
sea level, where snow seldom falls in sufficient quantity to materially
influence the flow of the river. The lower valley embraces long
stretches of level plains, interspersed with belts of stunted gum,
mallee, and saltbush, and in dry seasons the channel of the stream is
indicated by a mere chain of water holes.

With outspread arms of unequal length that extend far and away to
sources remote from the parent stream, the river Darling drains the
western and southern waters of the Great Dividing Range from the
head waters of the Lachlan to a place slightly north of the twenty-fifth
parallel, where it is met by Buckland’s table-land. Here the water-
shed inclines in a somewhat irregular curve westerly and southwesterly,
following the Warrego Range to a point northeast of Mount Edin-
burg, which marks its northwestern limit. Within the periphery
of this circumscribed region are included the waters of the Bogan,

1 About a year’s sojourn in this part of the country and on the head waters of the
Snowy River gave the writer an excellent opportunity of observing the physical
structure of the locality and its climate.—J. P. T.

260 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

Macquarie, Castlereagh, Namoi, Gwyder, Macintyre, Weir, Moonie,
Condamine, Mungallala, Maranoa, Warrego, and Paroo sources. The
Warrego unites with the Dariing about 65 miles below, and the others,
except the last, about 10 miles above Bourke. Although included
within the drainage area of the Darling, the Paroo terminates in
Swamps some two score miles northwest of Wilcannia, consequently its
waters never reach the main stream, and it is only during exception-
ally heavy floods that the latter receives any of the Warrego River
waters. Including its longest tributary, the Culgoa or Condamine,
whose source is in the western flank of Wilsons Peak (4,052 feet), in
the neighborhood of Killarney, the total length of the Darling River
is about 1,953 miles to its junction with the Murray at Wentworth,
thence to the sea through Lake Alexandrina for 587 miles. In his
paper upon ‘The rivers of the interior of New South Wales,” Mr. F. B.
Gipps estimates the length of the Darling River at 1,953 miles, and
Mr. H. C. Russell states that it is 3,282. The discrepancy is certainly
remarkable, and in the interests of correct geographical information it
is here pointed out.

I have already drawn attention to the importance of the water sup-
ply of the Murray River system for irrigation purposes, and to the
enormous extent of country within its basin that could be rendered
highly productive by irrigation. This matter, 1 am happy to say, is
now engaging the attention.of the Government of New South Wales,
where a water conservation department has recently been established,
and in a few years we may expect to see the beneficial results of this
wise and enlightened policy everywhere apparent in the country west
of the Dividing Range.

Along the southern and eastern continental seaboard are numerous
rivers, few of which are, however, of any great commercial importance
as compared with those of other parts of the world.' In Victoria the
Glenelg drains the western waters of the Grampians and those of the
Victoria Range. From its source in the northeastern spurs of the latter
it flows westerly and southerly through a most devious channel for
205 miles, discharging its waters in Discovery Bay, near the western
boundary of the colony. It drains an area of about 4,500 square miles.
At the southeastern corner of the continent the Mitchell and Snowy
rivers flow into the Pacific Ocean. The former rises in the southern
face of the Great Dividing Range, emptying itself into Lake King, and
the sources of the latter are within the colony of New South Wales in
the lofty Kiandraranges. The length of its channel is about 400 miles,
aud its drainage area some 5,000 square miles. Next in point of geo-
graphical position and importance are the Hunter and Clarence rivers,
north of Port Jackson. The former from its source in the Liverpool
Range flows south and east for 200 miles to the port of Newcastle. It

‘As most of these streams are too insignificant to merit separate treatment here,
reference will only be made to such as are of special importance.

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 260

drains an exceedingly fertile basin of 7,900 square miles of the finest
pastoral and agricultural land in the whole colony, and large steamers
and other vessels navigate its waters for a distance of some 35 miles,
besides one or two of its tributaries, which are also navigable. The
Clarence is certainly one of the finest streams of eastern Australia,
although the entrance is obstructed by a bar. From its source in the
Obelisk Mountains to the sea in Shoal Bay it flows through a channel
of 240 miles in length, draining a fertile valley of 8,000 square miles.
It is navigable from the sea up to Copmanhurst for 67 miles. The dis-
trict is famous for its mineral areas and. for its rich agricultural and
pastoral Jands. The Brisbane, Fitzroy, and Burdekin rivers are such
as to merit something more than mere passing notice. From a com-
mercial standpoint the first, taken in order of position, is undoubtedly
the most important stream with which we have to deal on the eastern
coast of the continent. It rises in the most northerly extension of
Cooyar Range, north of Mount Stanley, and flows in a general south-
erly and easterly direction through a very crooked channel for 210
miles to Moreton Bay. It combines with its own the united waters of
the Stanley, Bremer, Cooyar, and other tributary streams, by which it
is so greatly augmented during periods of heavy rain that many of the
low-lying areas within its basin are seriously flooded. It drains an
area of 5,300 square miles, including that part of the Kast Moreton dis-
trict bounded on the northwest by the Main and Cooyar ranges; on the
southeast by the watershed of the Logan River; and on the northeast
by the D’Aguilar Range. The flourishing and rapidly rising capital of
the great northern colony of Queensland is situated on the banks of
this river, about 15 miles from its mouth. It is navigable to Brisbane
for the largest steamers, and for small vessels as far up as Ipswich.
The Fitzroy is a large and important stream 180 miles long, with about
twelve tributaries. It is navigable for large vessels for 40 miles, to the
town of Rockhampton, and drains an area of some 55,600 square miles
of country. The Burdekin River is a large stream of 425 miles in
length, draining an area of 55,529 square miles, whose tropical waters
are discharged in the Pacific Ocean at Upstart Bay. It is not, how-
ever, navigable, except for small vessels, a few miles only, and during
heavy floods the channel is liable to undergo much alteration. The
delta lands are exceedingly fertile, but the river itself is of little value
for commercial purposes. The subsoil is porous and the surface soil
very rich. The whole of the lower basin is eminently adapted for
tropical agriculture, and the areas of the delta are highly productive
sugar lands, most of which are under cultivation and yielding remark-
ably heavy crops of cane of a high density. In times of heavy floods
the low-lying lands are inundated by the overflow of the river waters,
but the deposit of sediment left on the surface considerably increases
the fertility of the soil. In the northern part of the continent there
are several remarkably fine rivers, some of which are of considerable

262 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

importance, especially the Victoria and Roper. The former is a splen-
did stream, the Murray of this side of the continent, disemboguing into
the Indian Ocean, latitude 14° 40’ south; longitude, 129° 21’ east. Its
mouth is 26 miles wide, the main entrance being Queens Channel,
through which it is navigable for the largest ships for fully 50 miles
from the sea, and for light-draft river vessels some 60 miles farther,
to a place where our veteran explorer (Hon. A. C. Gregory) at one time
camped for several months. The river is easy to navigate, even by
strangers, the principal channel being wide and deep, with few impedi-
ments. The Victoria drains an extensive tract of magnificent pasto-
ral country of the richest quality, comprising an area of about 90,000
square miles; of this it has been observed by early travelers that
there is a greater luxuriance of grass than had been met with in any
other part of the world. The whole of the basin is abundantly
watered by a copious tropical rainfall, and there are no elements of
uncertainty in the climatic features of the region. In comparing this
magnificent commercial highway with other famous streams of the
world, Captain Carrington, who surveyed it in the Government steamer
Palmerston in 1884, writes that, ‘in view” of “its capability as a harbor
and its easiness of access,” he has ‘‘no hesitation in saying that the
Victoria is far superior to the Thames, Mersey, or Hooghley.” No
stream in the northern part of the continent is perhaps more widely and
better known to early colonists than the Roper River; it has been
oftener frequented than any of the other streams, especially at the time
when the overland telegraph line was being constructed, the stores and
material for the northern portion of which were landed there. Itis a
long river penetrating far into the interior and is navigable for vessels
drawing from 10 to 12 feet for over 90 miles from the sea. Its waters
are discharged into the southwest part of the Gulf of Carpentaria, in
the immediate neighborhood of Maria Island, the coast being at this
place very flat, with a wide fringe of mangroves and extensive shallow
patches of mud and sand. From the sources of its more distant tribu-
taries, in the central portion of the Northern Territory, it flows almost
due east to the sea. Besides these there are several other large and
important northern streams, especially the Adelaide and Daly rivers.
The former flows through a splendid pastoral country, luxuriantly
grassed, and is navigable for 80 or 90 miles by vessels of 10 or 12 feet
draft. It takes its rise in the neighborhood of Pine Creek Railway Sta-
tion, on the overland telegraph line, and discharges its waters into
Adam Bay at Clarence Strait. The latter stream may be navigated by
river boats for some 60 miles from the sea, into which its waters are
discharged at Anson Bay. Itis along river with several widely expand-
ing tributaries, and it traverses an extensive tract of country, including
some fine agricultural and pastoral lands, and there are valuable copper
mines near the navigable portion of its channel.

Owing to the absence of high mountain ranges and on account of the

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 263

peculiar physical structure of the country, there are no rivers of impor-
tance in the western part of the continent. True there are some of the
streams of from 300 to even 500 miles in length, such as the Fitzroy,
Ashburton, Gascoyne, and Blackwood rivers—the first three flowing
into the Indian Ocean and the last into Flinders Bay. But these are
only developed into true continental streams during periods of very
heavy rains, when enormous volumes of water rush through their chan-
nels to the sea, sometimes overflowing the banks and flooding extensive
areas of low-lying country. in dry seasons they are greatly diminished
in size, the main channels being quite shallow and of little value as
commercial highways. The Fitzroy drains an extensive tract of coun-
try, comprising considerable large areas of very fertile land. The Ord
River is a large stream; its source is in the ravines of the Albert
Edward Range, near the western edge of the Great Antrim Plateau
and Denison Plains, in the neighborhood of Kimberley; thence it flows
almost due north to the shores of Cambridge Gulf, a short distance west
of the mouth of the Victoria River. The country in the neighborhood
of the head waters of the Ord is very rugged and exceedingly difficult
to travel. None of the rivers are navigable except the Swan for about
20 miles.

The whole coast line along the entire periphery of the Australian
Bight is the most remarkable region with which we have to deal in this
description of the river systems of the continent. There are no promi-
nent or conspicuous physical features along this part of the coast line,
and the geographer may look in vain for anything approaching a well-
defined stream of water. Nor is this at all singular when we glance at
a general map of the country and see the enormous extent of level
plains and desert areas by which it is chiefly characterized. Except a
long narrow belt of sandstone cliffs with which the coast line is dis-
tinguished there are no prominent features to relieve the eternal
monotony of this dry and uninhabited region. The rainfall here is very
light, uncertain, and capricious, and falling on an intensely hot and
loose sandy surface it evaporates with remarkable rapidity before soak-
ing any great depth into the soil. For this reason there is an almost
entire absence of surface water, and consequently nothing to form or
maintain running streams.

Most of the so-called rivers of South Australia are torrents in winter,
but mere creeks or successions of water holes in summer. In the set-
tled portions of the province many of them take a westerly course to
St. Vincent aud Spencer gulfs, and a few by a southerly course empty
themselves into Encounter Bay, and have their sources in ranges trend-
ing in a northerly direction. In the northern portion, Lake Eyre, an
enormous basin below sea level, receives the surplus water brought
down from the east by the Cooper or Barcoo; from the northeast by the
Warburton and Diamentina; from the northwest and west by the
Macumba and Neales, respectively, and from the south by the Frome.

264 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

All these large water courses are filled to their utmost capacity during
wet seasons, but in dry years they have only a little permanent water
in them.

Lakes.—Most of the so-called lakes of Australia are insignificant
depressions filled with the storm waters of widely expanding river
channels during heavy rains. In the central regions these are spread
out over extensive shallow basins, usually surrounded by a thick deposit
of mud, whose surface is characterized by a hard and treacherous
saline crust. Located in vast, rainless,-saltbush country, where the
heat is intense, the flood waters evaporate with astonishing rapidity,
and for most part of the year these lakes are simply enormous mud
basins, where salt is deposited in large quantities. During the rainy
season they are again filled by the flood waters of inland rivers. The
largest are lakes Eyre, Amadeus, Gardiner, Torrens, Frome, and Greg-
ory, all more or less salt. The configuration of the continent is not
favorable to the formation or existence of large natural reservoirs for
the storage of permanent fresh water in the inland regions, such as
are to be found in New Zealand and other countries where deep lake
basins occur in mountain regions and on high table-lands. Formed, as
Australia is, like the inverted half of a gigantic bivalve, with the east-
ern part high and dipping more rapidly toward the center than the
western half, which gradually and imperceptibly slopes inward, most
of the inland basin is flat, the soil and upper stratum highly absorbent,
while the lower portion of the bed in several parts is not much, if
indeed at all, above sea level. For this reason, and in view of the
general physical structure of the continent as a whole, I regard the
theory of subterranean channels, through which it is believed that large
volumes of rain water find their way to the sea, as altogether erroneous.
No leakage of sufficient magnitude to compensate for the somewhat
rapid disappearance of the flood waters of some of our inland rivers,
in my opinion, exists, and the convenient supposition, for such it really
is, that the few and insignificant submarine springs between Cape
Otway and the mouth of the Murray River are indicative of such,
arises more from a preternaturally excited imagination than from a
just conception of the fundamental law of hydrology. Several so-called
leakages no doubt occur along some parts of the coast line, oozing
through the porous strata or in the form of bubbling springs, such as
may be met with along the shores of most of the Pacific islands, but
the necessary evidence to sustain the theory that large volumes of
fresh water are discharged into the ocean through subterranean chan-
nels is not at present available. 4

Flood waters are usually highly charged with sediment that is held
more or less in suspension while they pass through channels of steep
declivity, but which is rapidly deposited over areas where the minimum
velocity occurs. The primary effect of deposition is experienced in the
rapid or gradual silting up of water channels, and consequent diminu-

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 265

tion in their carrying capacity. Viewed in this light, it seems to me
improbable that any system of subterranean channels could always
remain effective along comparatively low levels. Against this opinion
it may be stated that the flood waters filter through the upper strata
and are thus freed from sediment before the lower levels are reached.
But this is not by any means conclusive, for the efficiency of filter beds
is liable to become impaired or altogether ineffective by heavy deposi-
tion of sediment and superincumbent or internal pressure. As previ-
ously remarked, the central basin of our continent is characterized by
an almost uniformly low depression, in places actually below sea level,
over which the flood waters of our inland rivers spread out in immense
shallow sheets, but through which it is scarcely possible they can
gravitate to the sea in opposition to the local hydrographical conditions.
Throughout these central catchment areas an absolute deposition of
sediment occurs, and most of the waters rapidly disappear by the simple
process of evaporation. On higher levels, where the waters pass over
or are collected on highly absorbent cretaceous beds, some are retained,
from which our artesian supplies are probably derived; but even here
a very large percentage is lost by evaporation, which, in my opinion, is
of itself sufficient to compensate for the speedy drying up of shallow
water holes and river beds.

Along the eastern seaboard there are several natural reservoirs of
fresh water, such as Lakes George and Bathurst and other smaller
basins, inappropriately called lakes, but which in reality are merely
lagoons. These are, however, comparatively shallow; even the largest
has been known to be quite dry in times of severe and protracted
droughts. The most remarkable and at the same time unique of all
the Australian lakes is that which occurs in the alpine regions of
Gippsland. Situated in one of the recesses of a lofty range culmi-
nating in Mount Wellington, 5,000 feet above sea level, is a beautiful
lakelet known by the native name of Tali-karng, whose height above
sea level is about 3,000 feet. Mr. A. W. Howitt, who examined it in
1890, concluded that the basin of the lakelet has been formed by an
accumulation of rock fragments that fills the valley of Nigothoruk
Creek, and thus dams up the water, which does not overflow the
embankment even in times of flood. It is about 100 feet in depth in
the deepest part; the surface is pear-shaped, and it covers an area
estimated at about twenty-six acres.

Climate.—The potent influence of climate upon the inhabitants of a
country as well as upon its natural and artificial resources renders its
consideration essential in dealing with the subject of physical geogra-
phy. Notwithstanding the rapid development of Australian meteor-
ology during recent years, resulting chiefly from the widely scattered
ramifications of the Queensland weather office, under the enthusiastic

direction of Mr.Clement Wragge, the climate of our country as a whole

has not yet been satisfactorily elucidated, although the older estab-

266 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

lished offices at Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide have for many years
given much attention to the subject. Thanks to the enlightened policy
of the Queensland government, much indeed has been done in record-
ing atmospheric phenomena at numerous stations spread out over an
enormously wide field, extending even outside of what is usually con-
sidered the geographical limits of Australasia proper. But no funda-
mental law has yet been established by which the meteorologist can
foretell any remarkable seasonal changes by which our pastoral and
agricultural industries are so largely influenced; nor yet, indeed, has
any Satisfactory explanation been given of the probable cause of pro-
tracted droughts or seasons of maximum rainfall. Meteorology, it is
true, is yet in its infancy, in this part of the world at least, and if an
elucidation of our climatic changes is to depend upon an accumulation
of recorded data rather than upon abstract scientific principles based
upon deductive premises, then a generation of observers must pass
away before we can hope for any satisfactory results. In this connec-
tion an interesting and vitally important subject awaits consideration.
I refer to the influence of our Australian climate upon the European
inhabitants of the country, and more especially upon the native-born
Anglo-Australian. In this land a distinct austral branch of the race
has been planted, and nothing can be more interesting than to note
the extent of climatic influence upon the physique and natural charac-
teristics of that race. The geographical position of Australia places it
within the influence of two powerful atmospheric zones of unequal
temperature. Two thirds if not the whole of the continent is more or
less affected by the widely circulating equatorial air currents that fre-
quently sweep down upon our shores with rapidly developing energy
across the Indian Ocean. These strike our seaboard with enormous
cyclonic force, carrying with them great dense masses of vapor clouds
that condense and empty themselves in the form of heavy precipita-
tions, which cause abnormal floods over the low-lying face of the coun-
try. As it is natural to suppose, the northern or tropical division of
Australia is more largely influenced by these equatorial disturbances
than the other portion, although at times their extreme southern limit
reaches a high parallel of latitude. On the other hand, we are some-
times, although less frequently, visited by the cold antarctic disturb-
ances that overlap extensive southern areas of our country. That the
climate of this part of the continent is influenced by the south polar air
and ocean currents there can not, I submit, be the slightest doubt, and
an exhaustive investigation of this subject is of the most vital impor-
tance to science and commerce. Toward the solution of this interesting
problem much will doubtless be done by a more extended acquaintance
with the antarctic regions when further exploration of far southern
latitudes is accomplished. The presence of enormous masses of polar
ice in Australian waters in close proximity to the shore is not by any
means ah uncommon occurrence, and when it is considered how com-

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 267

paratively narrow the belt is that separates us from the actual northern
limit of the antarctic ice drift we will probably admit that there is some
affinity between our own climate and that of far southern lands. There
is also a probability that the recently discovered traces of so-called
glaciation in our own country is not an indication of a true glacial period
at all, but simply isolated fragments of southern ice masses which, hay-
ing drifted far away into northern regions when there were much smaller
and fewer land areas to impede the circulation of Antarctic Ocean cur-
rents, stranded on the southern shores of a partially submerged conti-
nent during a period of rapid evolution, when the predominant physical
conditions would favor the preservation of traces for ages. Be this as
it may, the significant fact remains that the only traces discovered have
been found in the extreme southern portion of our continent and on the
neighboring island of 'Tasmania—a circumstance which, in my opinion,
strongly favors the theory of ice drift. The great extent of our conti-
nent and compactness of its land mass invest it with a very wide range
of climate. There are three distinct and primary zones—tropical, sub-
tropical, and temperate, and these may be subdivided into local divi-
Sions, representing the climates of our seaboard, the mountains, table-
lands, and the great central desert area. On the whole the tropical
climate of Australia is not by any means unhealthy to Europeans. On
some of the low-lying coastal areas in the immediate neighborhood of
swampy and marshy lands malarial fever is readily contracted by people
who are not acclimatized and by those who rashly expose themselves.
The subject is a difficult one with which to deal; so many contributing
causes have to be considered—physical condition, food, clothing, mode
of life, and other predisposing factors require special elucidation before
the extent of absolute climatic influence can be properly estimated.
Individual opinion, and indeed individual experience, is not by any
means a satisfactory guide in investigating this subject, for men’s
opinions, like their physical conditions, rarely harmonize. Mr. EH. A.
Leonard, who spent some time in the Cardwell district land surveying,
says: “The climate is very trying to white men, who must rapidly
deteriorate in physique should they live there continuously.” There
are many people who concur in this opinion. On the other hand, Mr.
A. Meston, who has had a long experience in widely different parts
of the country and who gives an interesting chapter upon the subject
in his recently published valuable work, regards the tropical climate of
northeastern Australia in the most favorable light, maintaining that
it is exceptionally healthy to Europeans. Unjustifiable prejudice has
much to do in a ease of this kind, but taking all things into considera-
tion I am inclined to believe that continuous domicile in any tropical
climate is not favorable to perfect health, viewed from an Anglo-Saxon
standpoint; and this is especially so in the case of females. There are
certainly periods of uncomfortable inertia that seem to insinuate them-
selves even upon those who are physically healthy, and these have a

268 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

tendency to increase rather than diminish. Many of the old troubles
associated with early pioneer colonization have partially or almost
wholly disappeared with the advance of settlement, and many localities
that were formerly considered unhealthy are not so now, and Euro-
peans of temperate habit can live in tropical Australia in the enjoy-
ment of very good health with little discomfort. It should, however,
be borne in mind that a tropical climate is never salubrious, except on
elevated positions.

Within the temperate zone the climate varies greatly with the lati-
tude, and it is, moreover, governed very much by extent of elevation
and other local configuration of physical conditions. In the southern
and southeastern portion of the continent the climate is cool and
remarkably healthy throughout the year, except two or three months
of the summer, when the temperature is abnormally high and hot winds
more or less prevalent. Along the seaboard of this division the atmos-
phere is rarely free from moisture, and this element of discomfort is
experienced more keenly on the low-lying and deltaic lands of river
valleys, where the alluvial soils absorb and retain a larger percentage
of the rainfall than on the neighboring undulating tracts of country
where a good natural drainage exists. On the table-lands of the New
England, Monaro, and other districts the climate is at all times salubri-
ous; and in the upland mountain regions of the southern Alpine chain,
the Blue Mountains, and Liverpool Range the cold is acutely felt in
winter, and during the summer months the atmosphere is sharp and
bracing. In the great central basin of the continent the atmosphere is
dry and intensely hot; there is little or no rainfall, and most of that
part of the country is a vast, arid desert, altogether uninhabitable.
The western plains of New South Wales are remarkably fertile for
grazing purposes, notwithstanding the scanty rainfall, and with a good
supply of artesian water the soil is eminently suitable for agriculture.
The Riverina climate is famous for its healthfulness, especially for
those with weak chests, the atmosphere being exceedingly dry and the
temperature uniformly high. In Queensland the Darling Downs and
western districts possess the finest climate of Australia. For con-
sumptives and those with weak respiratory organs it is unequaled any-
where, and there are numerous instances on record of cures having
been effected in this part of the country where cases were considered
hopeless. In summer the atmosphere is extremely dry and hot, but
neveroppressive. The winter months are delightfully cool and bracing—
light frosts sometimes occurring, but never severe nor of long dura-
tion. The climate here is in all respects on a parallel with that of
Italy. For some unaccountable reason, most probably arising frem
prejudice and ignorance combined, the climate of the East Moreton
district is often supposed to be uncomfortably hot and enervating.
That such is not the case may easily be proved by reference to the
records of the chief weather bureau and to the vital statistics of this

—

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 269

part of the colony. The three or four summer months are naturally
hot, but there are no sudden changes at any time; there is a remark-
able uniformity of temperature; the nights are comparatively cool and
hot winds entirely unknown. In winter the weather is most delight-
ful, the climate then being even superior to that of Naples; beautifully
clear sky and dry atmosphere are the ruling climatic features of this
season of the year in southeastern Queensland. The only slight dis-
comfort felt is during the westerly winds, which are seldom of longer
duration than three days. From the early days of settlement on the
shores of Moreton Bay the climate of the district has always been con-
sidered exceptionally healthy. In The Geographic History of Queens-
land the author quotes an interesting extract bearing upon this subject
from areport written in 1845 by Dr. Keith Ballow to the Rev. Dr. Lang.
Dr. Ballow, who had spent some eight years in Moreton Bay as Goy-
ernment medical officer, says: ‘The district of Moreton Bay is alto-
gether an extremely healthy one, there being only a few deaths from
disease of any kind. The climate in the winter season is one of the
finest in the world. This district is not a profitable field for doctors.”
This seems to be the general verdict of those who are qualified to
express an opinion upon the subject. The most important factor of our
Australian climate is that of rainfall. Land without an adequate rain-
fall is useless for either pastoral or agricultural purposes unless arti-
ficially watered by irrigation. Although the total area of the continent
is about 2,944,628 square miles, a vast portion of that area has an
annual rainfali of less than 10 inches, and consequently it is of little or
no value whatever in its present state. This is notably the case with
the great central depression where immense areas of waterless desert
country obtain. Considering its compactness and wide climatic range,
the rainfall of Australia is very unequally distributed over the whole of
the territory, even in places where there is aregular wet and dry season.
A glance at the rainfall map will readily show that this is indeed very
marked along the eastern Pacific slope, where the greatest pluvial
measures have been recorded. The Cardwell and Mackay districts top
the score, the former with an average annual rainfall of some 150 inches;
Arnhems Land follows with about 63 inches; the Australian Alps, the
Tweed and Mary rivers come next, each with 50 inches. These isolated
and somewhat limited areas are, however, distributed over a wide geo-
graphic range, extending from the most northern to the southern limits
of the continent, and they are separated by extensive tracts of country
or climatic zones, over which the average annual rainfall is not greater
than 30 inches. In the Cardwell and Mackay districts, which lie
wholly within the tropical rain belt, the former between the parallels of
15 and 20 degrees, the isopluvoise lines of 40 to 70 inches are very
closely packed together, so that the heavy rains in these zones seldom
extend beyond the Coast Range, but are mostly precipitated over the
deltaic lands of the river and valleys and on the Pacifie slope of the

270 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA,

Dividing Range. In these districts there is a regular wet and dry sea-
son—the former occurring in the mouths of December, January, and
February, when the atmosphere is heavily laden with moisture and the
shade temperature, of from 80 to 90 degrees, exceedingly oppressive.
During this period there is a prevailing northeast wind, which changes
to southeast and continues in that quarter throughout the remaining
nine months of the year. In the Cardwell district the tropical serubs
sometimes ascend the ranges to a height of over 2,000 feet, where the
temperature is lower than that to which they properly belong, but such
cases only occur where the yoicanie soils are exceptionally rich. In
Arnhem’s Land, or all that high table-land portion of the Northern
Territory of South Australia north of the sixteenth parallel, the annual
rainfall averages about 60 inches, and is more equally and generally
distributed than in any other part of the continent; the climate is, of
course, tropical, but the mornings and evenings are generally cool, and
the usual discomforts of the moist atmosphere of the low lying eastern
and northern coast lands are not felt here on the dry upland zone of
the plateau. A remarkable feature of the prevailing Australian cli-
mate is found in the rapidly diminishing rainfall after crossing the
Great Dividing Range of the southern and eastern cordillera. There
is an immense belt of country comprising the western plains of New
South Wales and Queensland; Cape York Peninsula; the whole of the
country bordering upon and extending far south from the head of the
Gulf of Carpentaria; most of the southern portion of the Northern
Territory of South Australia, and the Glenelg and Kimberley districts
of the western portion of the continent, where the average annual
rainfall does not exceed from 10 to 30 inches. Except in the extreme
southwest corner of Australia, where the isopluvoise lines of 20 and 30
inches are fairly well established, the rainfall of the western division
is very scanty, being limited to a narrow belt along the seaboard, where
it only averages from 10 to 20 inches. In the Murchison and Gascoyne
districts extremely heavy dews occur, which, no doubt, compensate ‘to
some extent for the lack of an adequate rainfall. In the northern part
of western Australia the wet season commences in December and
usually ends in March, and it is during this period the destructive
cyclonic storms are experienced. These are of the true equatorial type
and move along with enormous velocity, often causing great destruction
to property and not infrequently loss of life. The wet season of the
southern district is from April till October, during which time most of
the annual rainfall is recorded. ‘The climate here is temperate and in
every respect congenial to Europeans; fruits and agricultural produce
are plentiful, and the forests yield an abundance of very valuable tim-
bers. In the Kimberley district the heat of the summer months is
intense, but during the cool season the climate is agreeable. In some
of the northern districts the temperature, although very high, is not by
any means inimical to health, as the atmosphere is remarkably free

THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA. 2UL

from moisture and the heat less oppressive than in other parts where
the humidity is great and the thermometer lower. On the table-lands
of the interior of this part of the country the climate during the greater
portion of the year is delightful, but of the far eastern or central
districts little is known beyond mere report, which in most cases is
unreliable.

South Australia is not by any means anabundantly watered colony,
the rainfall being probably less than in any other part of the continent.
In the neighborhood of Adelaide there is some 20 to 30 inches annually,
the average record being about 22 inches only, in the wettest districts;
while the country occupied by the Flinders Range, Hyre’s Peninsula,
and that along the shores of Spencer’s Gulf enjoys but a scanty rain-
fall of little more than from 10 to 20 inches annually. In this country,
too, the excessive heat and persistent droughts are keenly felt during
the summer months of the year. Augmented by the heat from the
sandy desert plains of the interior the atmosphere is sometimes oppress-
ive and hot winds very trying both to animal life and vegetation.
From these, which usually occur in the months of December, January,
and February, there is absolutely no escape, the temperature being
abnormally high and not infrequently the thermometer rises 110° to
115° F. in the shade. Luckily these only occur during three months
of the year, the winter season being mild and agreeable.

Some interesting and useful information might be given concerning
the pastoral and agricultural resources of our continent did time and
Space permit. In bothrespects I have, I fear, already exceeded reason-
able limit; I will therefore merely offer a few remarks which, if they do
nothing more, may call attention to these vitally important subjects.
A good pastoral country requires an adequate water supply, either
derived from rainfall or from artesian sources. ‘The former is natural,
inexpensive, and permanent; the latter costly and limited. The wants
of the pastoralist and agriculturist are unequal, although both are
equally dependent upon the products of the soil. Grass or any other .
form of vegetation can only grow in soil where there is sufficient moist-
ure to sustain it, and this necessary want can only be supplied, naturally,
by rainfall. The more uniformly it is distributed throughout the year
the better will the country be for pastoral occupation. On the other
hand the agriculturist requires sufficient rainfall during six months of
the year, but his crops of grain and his vines would be little affected
if the other six months were rainless. But too much rain is injurious
to grain crops, for while it requires more than 20 inches of rainfall in
the summer for maize, such a climate would be unsuitable for the suc-
cessful cultivation of wheat. To the agriculturist nothing is more
important than climate, and reliable information upon this vital subject
is essential to the successful cultivation of the soil, both here and else-
where. Although Australia is preeminently a grazing country, there
are nevertheless extensive agricultural areas where grain crops may be

272 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AUSTRALIA.

profitably raised. In the eastern part especially there is a long belt
stretching northerly from Jervis Bay along the coast to Broadsound,
where the rainfall is more than 20 inches during the summer months,
which is there the rainy season. Here there is an extensive climatic
zone, lying between the twenty-second and thirty-fifth parallels, favor-
able to the cultivation of maize. Outside of this region, including all
the coastal country from Adelaide north to Toowoomba, the rainfall is
more than 10 inches during the six winter months, which represent the
agricultural season there. These are simply the natural agricultural
regions in eastern extra-tropical Australia, or that part of our territory
where the climate is favorable to the cultivation of maize and wheat.
In many other districts there are enormous areas of rich soil whose
highly productive qualities could be profitably utilized by irrigation were
adequate means provided for the conservation of water. But this is a
subject upon which little attention has hitherto been bestowed, although
it is of the most vital importance to the nation and one which can not
be much longer neglected if the resources of our country are to be
adequately developed.

In this address I have attempted to give as concise and, at the same
time, comprehensive an account of the physical geography of our con-
tinent as it is possible for me to do under the circumstances. The
subject is a vast one with which to dealin any form, and the smallest
of our colonies could easily have furnished abundant material without
exhausting the rich source of supply. Its chief merit is that it is based
upon the most recent information, derived from official sources, and in
this respect it is reliable and trustworthy, the writer having aimed at
these rather than mere literary style or elegance of diction. Appended
is a Selection of what will no doubt be considered useful information,
but which could not be conveniently included in the narrative portion
of this address without making it unnecessarily ponderous. It consists
of schedules of our principal rivers and mountains; the lengths, drain-
age areas, ete., of the former, and heights of the latter. The prepara-
tion of these has entailed a great deal of labor, but it was thought that
the data would be useful for educational purposes and serviceable to
my successors, who will thus be supplied with available information
to enable them to follow up this interesting and vitally important
subject.! .

In conclusion I desire to acknowledge my obligations to the Hon. A.
R. Richardson, M. L. A., commissioner of crown lands, Western Aus-
tralia; to Mr. William Houston, under secretary for lands, Sydney, and
to Mr. William Strawbridge, surveyor-general of South Australia, for
valuable information specially prepared by them for this address.

1 The schedules referred to are here omitted.—Editor.

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.!

By Rear-Admiral A. H. MARKHAM.

The subject on which I have been deputed to address you to-day is
that connected with arctic explorations. It is, | venture to assert, a
very fitting and appropriate one to discuss before an International Geo-
graphical Congress such as this, because the question of polar research,
more especially in the north, is, and has been for more than three hun-
dred years, one of world-wide, and consequently of international inter-
est. Nations have vied with each other in their laudable endeavors to
further the great cause of geographical discovery, and a very friendly
rivalry has existed, and I am pleased to think still continues to exist,
between various countries, with the view of advancing their respective
flags over the threshold of the known region into the interesting and
mysterious unknown. This is a spirit that should be fostered and
encouraged, for it is one that has done much in the past to promote
the interests of geographical science all over the world.

It is not my intention to occupy your time and attention with a
detailed narrative of geographical events connected with the arctic
regions as they have occurred in regular chronological order, or of the
results that have been achieved by the various successive expeditions
that have been dispatched with the object of exploring those regions,
for these are oft-told tales, and are sufficiently well known to those
who are interested in polar research. My object to-day will be briefly
to survey the threshold of the unknown region—a region, let me
remind you, that embraces nearly a million and a half square miles, to
dwell lightly on the latest work that has heen accomplished up to that
line of demarcation that separates the known from the undiscovered
area, and to review generally the prospects of success of future arctic
exploration, concluding with a short summary of the various scientific
results likely to accrue by the continuance of such work.

I will preface my remarks by alluding briefly to those nations which
have in the past particularly interested themselves in north polar dis-
covery. They are Great Britain, the United States of America, Austria-
Hungary, Sweden, Germany, Russia, Holland, and Norway.

‘Address before the Sixth International Geographical Congress, London, July 26-
August 3, 1895. Printed in Report of the Congress, pp. 177-201.
sm 96—-18 273

274 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

Perhaps the merit of having delineated the greatest amount of coast
line on our north polar maps rests with this country, but it is only fair
to add that this satisfactory result is, in a very great measure, due to
the excellent geographical work that was achieved by those various
expeditions that were dispatched by England, during the period em-
braced between the years 1849 and 1859, with the object of searching
for the missing Franklin expedition.

The United States of America have, principally through the munifi-
cence and patriotism of its citizens (nobly supported as they have been
by the energy of those who have been employed), been wonderfully
successful in their laudable efforts to reveal the hidden secrets of the
unknown north.

To Austria-Hungary we are indebted for the discovery of a large
extent of territory which has been called Kaiser Franz Josef Land.

To Sweden, thanks to that distinguished scientist and arctic
explorer Baron Nordenskiold, belongs the undying honor associated
with the successful accomplishment of the northeast passage along the
north coast of Europe and Asia from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Germany has successfully traced the east coast of Greenland to as
far north as Cape Bismarck, in latitude 77°.

Russia has done admirable work by a very complete survey of the
seaboard of Novaya Zemlya, as well as by the delineation of the coast
of the mainland from the Kara Sea, around Cape Chelyuskin, to Bering
Strait.

Holland has, by successive expeditions sent up year after year (the
dispatch of which was mainly due to the active exertions of the late
Admiral Jansen), done much to familiarize us with the condition and
drift of the ice in the Barents Sea, even as far as the shores of Franz
Josef Land. %

And, finally, Norway claims Fridtjof Nansen as a countryman, who
won his spurs as an arctic traveler by the indomitable pluck and
energy he displayed during his marvelous journey on snowshoes
across the icy continent of Greenland, and who is now combating, and
let us hope successfully, with the almost insuperable difficulties attend-
ing an enterprise the main object of which is to carry his vessel across
the extreme northern point of our globe.

It will thus be seen that many nations have shared in the glorious
work of arctic discovery, and all of them have written their names,
some with perhaps a stronger hand than others, on the pages of arctic
history.

A glance at the map will at once reveal the fact that there are several
ways by which this large unknown area of a million and a half square
miles can be approached.

Jn the first place, there is the route via Smith Sound, by which we
have penetrated a greater distance into the unknown area than in any
other direction. There are also the approaches by Jones Sound and

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 275

Wellington Channel; the exploration of either of these is likely to lead
to important and valuable results. Thirdly, there is the way by Spitz-
bergen. Fourthly, by Franz Josef Land, where at the present moment
the English Harmsworth expedition, under the command of Mr. Jack-
Son, is prosecuting its researches. Then there is the route selected
and adopted by Nansen in the neighborhood of the New Siberia Islands.
And, lastly, there is the way by Bering Strait.

I now propose discussing the merits of some of these approaches
with reference to their applicability to future polar research.

We will commence with Spitzbergen, a group of islands easily
reached during the course of an ordinary summer cruise, and even in
vessels that are not specially constructed for ice navigation. This ease
of accessibility and comparative immunity from danger from the ice is
due to the warm water of the Gulf Stream, which, flowing northwards
as far as the eighty-first parallel of latitude, becomes eventually
absorbed in the north polar current; but before this absorption takes
place its influence has been felt along the entire west coast of Spitz-
bergen, thus rendering the navigation of those waters comparatively
easy and safe.

Although, I think, it is an undoubted fact that Spitzbergen was
sighted by the Dutch navigator, William Barents (who, however, sup-
posed it to be a part of Greenland), the credit of its discovery has inva-
riably been awarded to that grand old sailor, Henry Hudson, whose
high latitude, reached nearly three hundred years ago, was unsurpassed
for more than two hundred years, until, in fact, that prince of Arctic
navigators, Sir Hdward Parry, reached, with the aid of boats and
sledges, 82° 45’ north, in 1827.

There is a very marked difference between the nature and conditions
of the ice, aS experienced by Sir Edward Parry and others, to the north
of Spitzbergen and the ice in other parts of the Arctic regions in simi-
lar or even in much lower latitudes. North of Spitzbergen the ice
fields are of great extent. The floes are comparatively level and smooth,
and consist apparently of ice of only one season’s formation, whereas
the ice that has invariably been met north of Smith Sound and Bering
Strait and in the vicinity of Hast Greenland and Franz Josef Land has
been of the same heavy, massive character as that to which Sir George
Nares very appropriately applied the term palocrystic, i. e., ice of
ancient date, probably the formation of centuries. This leads one to
the supposition that a very large extent of ice-covered sea exists to the
north of Spitzbergen; a sea, however, that receives the warm but grad-
ually cooling water of the Gulf Stream, and is, therefore, antagonistic
to the formation of heavy or perpetual ice. But these large ice fields
are in a measure dominated by the north polar current after. the dis-
ruption of the pack in the summer, and under the influence of this
Stream they are drifted bodily to the southward. It was this constant
southerly drift that was the cause of Parry’s failure to reach a higher

276 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

latitude than that which he succeeded in attaining, for he found, to his
chagrin, that he was being drifted to the south with greater rapidity
than he was making progress to the north.

Success in this direction may, however, be achieved by dispatching
exploring parties with sledges and boats in the early spring, before the
disruption of the pack has taken place. This would, however, necessi-
tate a ship passing the winter on the north coast of Spitzbergen. With
Parry’s valuable experience to guide them, I am confident they would
find no difficulty in surpassing that great navigator’s highest position,
with every prospect, perhaps, of the discovery of land to the north-
ward. If my anticipations prove correct, then valuable and important
results will be obtained by an expedition sent to explore in this partic-
ular direction.

Mr. Leigh Smith has, in addition to other good geographical work in
this neighborhood, attempted to circumnavigate the Spitzbergen group,
but so far this feat has not yet been achieved, nor has the position of
that somewhat mysterious island named on our charts Gillis Land ever
yet been reached. It was sighted and named in 1707 by the Dutch
captain, Cornelius Gillis (or Giles), but he did not Jand on it. Its posi-
tion, as given by this navigator, was, however, placed on Van de Kue-
lin’s map, published in 1710. In 1864 it was reported to have been
sighted by Captain Tobiesen, but he was unable to effect a landing.
Some geographers endeavor to identify it with Wiche’s Land, which
was recently sighted by Mr. Leigh Smith from a high hill in Genevra
Bay, in Stor Fiord, Spitzbergen. If am inclined to think that what
Captain Gillis saw—if he saw land at all, which is perhaps doubtful—
was an extension of Franz Joseph Land, the nearest known point of
which is, after all, not more than about 120 miles from Spitzbergen.
Wiche’s Land is situated too far south to be mistaken for Gillis Land, if
the latitude of the latter place is approximately correct on the chart.
It is not, I think, at all improbable that a chain of islands extends
between Gillis Land and Franz Joseph Land.

While treating of Spitzbergen, I may mention that the latest scheme
by which the mysteries of the unknown region surrounding the north
pole are to be revealed to us comes from Sweden, for we are given to
understand that it has been proposed to undertake a voyage from
Spitzbergen to the pole in a balloon. But as I understand that Mr.
Andrée, the originator of this enterprise, will communicate a paper, on
his proposed expedition, to the congress, I will not further allude to it,
except to assure him of our heartiest wishes for the success of his
plucky and novel adventure.

We now come to Franz Josef Land, which comprises a large territory,
but whether a continent or archipelago remains a geographical problem
for further elucidation and solution. The history of the discovery of
this land by the Austro-Hungarian expedition, under the joint command
of Weyprecht and Payer, in 1873, reads more like a romance than a

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. De

commonplace, prosaic record of ordinary geographical discovery. It
will be in the memory of all here how their ship, the Tegetthoff, was
beset in the ice on August 20, 1872, off the west coast of Novaya
Zemlya on the very day and only a few short hours after they had said
farewell to Count Wilezek, Baron Sterneck, and other friends on board
the little sailing cutter Isbjorn; and how, notwithstanding the powerful
aid of steam with which their vessel was provided, and the free use of
gunpowder, they failed to release the imprisoned Tegetthoff, and how
she remained immovably fixed in the fetters of her icy bondage, drift-
ing about in the floe at the mercy of winds and currents for two long
years. Then suddenly, on August 31, 1873—a year after their first
besetment—a mysterious dark land loomed up to the northwestward,
and they thus became unwittingly and without any exertions on their
part the discoverers of a new territory, the existence of which had
hitherto been unknown, to which they gave the name of Kaiser Franz
Josef Land.

The drift of the Tegetthoff during the period she was beset in the ice
was no less remarkable than it was instructive. Her position when
first caught by the ice in August, 1872, was in latitude 76° 22’ and
longitude 62° 3’ east. Six months afterwards she was in latitude 78°
45‘ and longitude 73° 7’, showing that the whole body of the pack in
which she was beset had been carried steadily during that period in a
northeasterly direction. For the next nine months her drift was in a
north and northwesterly direction, until the ship became permanently
stationary by the adherance of the ice to Wilezek Island. Altogether
the drift of the ship, and consequently the pack, was somewhat over
200 miles to the northeast between August, 1872, and February, 1873, and
about the same distance in a northwesterly direction from the last-named
date until the ice remained fixed by attachment to the shore on Novem-
ber 1, 1873. Some of this drift may be attributable to the wind, but
the real movement was assuredly due to the influence of current alone.
- During the sixteen months that the ice was in motion—i. e., from
August, 1872, until November, 1873, inclusive—I find that for a period
of six months the prevailing wind was from the southeast, for five
months it was from the northeast, for two months from the north-
west, and for three months from the southwest. During the six
months she was being drifted in a northeasterly direction the prevail-
ing winds were from the southwest and southeast, and during the last
nine months of her drift the winds may be described as all round the
compass. Therefore we can not, I think, do otherwise than arrive at
the conclusion that the wind had but little effect on the drift of the
ice, either with regard to rapidity of motion or direction. What, then,
was the cause of this marvelous drift to the northward? We know
very well that the general drift of the north polar current is in a south-
erly direction. We have had convincing proofs of it in a remarkable
manner down the east coast of Greenland, down Smith Sound and

278 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

Davis Strait, into Baffins Bay, and through Bering Strait. The infer-
ence must therefore be that the movements of the ice in which the
Tegetthoff was beset must have been influenced, and in no slight
degree, first of all by that warm current of water which I have already
alluded to as expending itself along the west coast of Spitzbergen, and
a portion of which must find its way into the Barents Sea; and, sec-
ondly, by the large volumes of water which are discharged from those
great Siberian rivers the Yenesei and the Ob. Unlike my friend Nan-
sen, I do not think that the influence of these large rivers can be felt
at a greater distance than about three or four hundred miles from the ©
mainland. The theory of their flowing in a direct northerly line across
the pole is, I think, open to question, for it appears to me to be opposed
to all authenticated information that has hitherto been obtained, and
is antagonistic to our preconceived notions and ideas as to the extent
and direction of what is known as the north polar current.

The discovery of the Austrians was of the greatest geographical
importance, and the value of it was materially enhanced by the plucky
sledging expedition that was carried out by Payer during the spring
of 1874. I say plucky, because when Payer left his ship for a contem-
plated absence of thirty days he was not at all sure that he would find
the Tegetthoff in the same position as when he left her. <A gale of
wind, or the disruption of the ice during his absence, would very likely
occasion the drifting away of his ship, which would render his chances
of escape very small indeed. Fortunately, no such contretemps oceur-
red, and he returned to the Tegetthoff rich in geographical and other
scientific information. During his journey he succeeded in ascending
Austria Sound, between Zichy and Wilezek lands, to the latitude of
82° 5’ in Crown Prince Rudolf land, about 160 miles from the position
in which he had left his ship. From this position land, called Peter-
mann Land, after the celebrated geographer of Gotha, consisting of
high, conical-shaped hills, apparently of volcanic formation, was seen
to the northward, and estimated to be in about or beyond the eighty-
third parallel of ‘yea.

Since the discovery of Franz Josef Land our knowledge of it has
been much increased by the results of the voyages of Mr. Leigh Smith
in his steam yacht the Hira. Without encountering very much oppo-
sition from the ice, he succeeded in sighting the Jand on August 14,
1880, on about the fifty-fourth meridian of east longitude; that is to
say, some 60 miles to the westward of Wilczek Island. Steaming to
the westward, exploring the coast carefully as he proceeded, Mr. Leigh
Smith passed the south point of land, and succeeded in crossing the
forty-fifth meridian of longitude, when he found the coast trend away
in a northwesterly direction, certainly as far as the eighty-first parallel
of latitude. His further progress was stopped in latitude 80° 19’ by
ice, and he was compelled to abandon further research in that direc-
tion. During the voyage Mr. Leigh Smith discovered and explored at

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 279

least 110 miles of new coast line, besides obtaining a very interesting
and valuable collection of natural-history specimens from a portion of
the globe that, in a scientific sense, was almost unknown; for it must
be remembered that the collections obtained and preserved by the
members of the Austro-Hungarian expedition were unfortunately lost
when their ship was abandoned. Several peculiarities were observed
in the physical conditions of the country, differing in some respects
from other Arctic lands. For instance, the islands seen were in almost
all instances crowned with ice caps, while the icebergs that were
observed were invariably flat-topped. The drift of these bergs appeared
to be to the north; but I do not think that too much reliance can be
placed on the observations that led to this conclusion, as they were
necessarily of a somewhat perfunctory character. Mr. Leigh Smith,
after leaving Franz Josef Land, made a gallant attempt to reach
Wiches Land from the eastward, but he found the ice so densely packed
as to defy all efforts to penetrate it, so he returned to England.

It is, I think, very probable that Franz Josef Land will be found to
extend to a considerable distance to the northward; Mr. Leigh Smith
found it to extend, at any rate as far as he could see, to the northwest.
It is not at all impossible that it also extends in an easterly direction,
and I think that we may very reasonably conclude that Franz Josef
Land, as a whole, will be found to consist of a large continent inter-
sected by numerous fiords and large glaciers, or else an archipelago
consisting of many large islands. The exploration of this little-known
land, and the determination of its extent and character, are well worthy
of serious consideration, and would be productive of the most useful
and valuable scientific results. In the following year Mr. Leigh Smith
mae another voyage to Franz Josef Land, with the object of continuing
his exploration of the previous year, but unfortunately his little vessel
was crushed by the ice off Cape Flora in latitude 79° 56’, and he and his
men were compelled to pass the winter in those inhospitable regions.
They found it a comparatively barren and sterile shore, but fortunately
bears and walruses were obtained, which very materially supplemented
the provisions they succeeded in saving from the wreck. When the
ice broke up the following year, with the aid of their sledges and boats,
they happily succeeded in reaching the coast of Novaya Zemlya, where
they were succored and brought home by the steamer Hope, which had
been specially dispatched in quest of them under the command of Sir
Allen Young.

Taking all things into consideration, Franz Josef Land appears to me
to be the region to which our efforts should be directed with a view to
further exploration, offering, as it does, the most likely prospect of
achieving the greatest amount of geographical success. For here we
have all those elements that are essential to successful exploration in
high latitudes—namely, a coast line affording facilities for sledge travel-
ing, a continuity of land trending in a northerly, northwesterly, and,

280 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

for all we know to the contrary, in a northeasterly direction, the very
directions in which we wish to proceed. Having.this continuity of
land, no difficulties exist for the establishment, in absolute security, of
depots of provisions and stores for the use of traveling parties. From
the configuration of the known land we may reasonably infer that good
and sheltered harbors may be found in which a ship, or ships, can
winter without any anxiety being felt by those on board on the score
of being blown away or crushed by the ice (indeed, we already know
of one snug little haven discovered by Mr. Leigh Smith, and named
by him Eira Harbor, admirably adapted for such a purpose); and, a
very important matter, we know that abundance of fresh food in the
shape of bears and walruses, and possibly reindeer and birds, can be
obtained.

I have, therefore, no hesitation in advocating the adoption of this
particular route as being the best, according to our present lights, for
future polar exploration. From a careful study of the character and
formation of the land explored by Payer, I venture to predict that
Franz Josef Land will be found to extend as far as the eighty-fourth
parallel of latitude, and possibly even beyond the eighty-fifth; but, of
course, this is purely conjectural on my part, and must be accepted for
what it is worth. But whether the land extends as far as I have indi-
cated, or whether it comes to an abrupt termination in latitude 83°,
very valuable results will accrue, both geographically and geologically,
by an investigation of its interior and the examination of its coast line.

Although I have implied that conditions favorable to successful
exploration are to be found by using Franz Josef Land as a base of
operations, still it is only right for me to add that no precautions should
be omitted to insure the safe return of the explorers, for exploration
in the polar regions must always be attended with a certain amount of
risk to those engaged on a service that is perhaps at all times some-
what hazardous. With this very important object in view, I consider
it is absolutely necessary, in the event of an expedition being sent in
this direction, that a large depot of provisions and stores should be
established, either at Kira Harbor or on the northwest coast of Novaya
Zemlya—somewhere, I would suggest, in the vicinity of Cape Nassau—
as being the most conveniently situated place that a retreating party
from Franz Josef Land would make for, and the easiest to reach.
Then, again, I am one of those who do not quite approve of a party
being left entirely dependent on their own resources; that is to say,
without a ship at their back. The terrible sufferings and experiences
of those who, in former days, have been left unsupported fully illus-
trate, not only the desirability, but the absolute necessity of having a
ship so situated that she may be regarded as a safe refuge always to
be found, provided with a plentiful supply of provisions, and having
on board the wherewithal, in the shape of boats, sledges, clothing,
Stores, etc., to equip a retreating party; and although she may, as

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 281

in the cases of the Investigator and the Tegetthoff, be irrevocably
frozen in the ice, she is, at any rate, replete with everything that will
add to comfort, and that will conduce to a successful retreat when the
time comes to abandon her. The very knowledge of having a ship as
the base of operations imparts a moral courage and feeling of conti-
dence and contentment to the men that it is desirable to foster.

From what I have said, I do not wish it to be inferred that sledge
traveling along the shores of Franz Josef Land will be found to be a
very easy task. On the contrary, I think it will abound with difficul-
ties, and although I consider that the traveling during the early spring
will not prove more arduous or more difficult than has been experienced
along other Arctic shores, I can not but help thinking that extra cau-
tion will have to be observed in order to insure the safe return of the
traveling parties in the summer. Payer tells us that the land in
the direction in which he traveled was intersected by deep fiords, and
that he passed numerous glaciers with terminal faces of 100 feet in
precipitous height from the sea. It is the passing of these glaciers,
and the entrances of these fiords, that I fear will be extremely hazard-
ous, even if it is not found absolutely impossible in the summer, unless
a long detour into the interior is made, so as to cross at the head of the
glacier or fiord. For if the land ice—i. e., the young ice of the previ-
ous winter’s formation adhering to the coast—has broken up (and it
would probably be so by the breaking away of large fragments of ice
from the terminal face of the glaciers, or the flowing out of the ice from
the fiords) a sledging party, unless provided with a boat, would find
its retreat cut off by water, and in order to return to their base of
operations they would be under the necessity of extending their jour-
ney a considerable distance, and this, perhaps, with their provisions
nearly expended, and their own strength materially diminished by the
arduous work they had already gone through. I merely mention
this as what may possibly be the experience of any party engaged in
the exploration of Franz Josef Land.

The next important question to be decided is the exact route that
should be adopted by the explorers. Should they turn all their energies
to the west coast, or, following in the footsteps of Payer, should they
attempt to push up Austria Sound? I unhesitatingly record my opinion
in favor of the first-named course, and for the following reasons: The
western shores of all Arctic lands of which we have any knowledge are
always more accessible in a ship, and to a very much higher latitude,
than the eastern coasts. Vessels have penetrated to the eighty-second
parallel of latitude along the west coast of Greenland, but navigation
along the east coast of Greenland has invariably been impeded by the
accumulation of heavy ice 500 miles to the south of the position reached
on the west side. The same may be said of Spitzbergen and of Novaya
Zemlya, and I see no reason why it should not hold good for Franz
Josef Land. Indeed, Mr. Leigh Smith has already demonstrated the

282 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

feasibility of a steamer reaching, with comparative ease, a somewhat
advanced position along the western shores of that land. I do not
think it probable, from Payer’s account of the state and condition of
the ice in Austria Sound, and from the absence of all harbors, that that
inlet would lend itself to successful navigation for a ship to any great
distance, although perhaps well adapted for exploration by means of
sledges; but I do not think that a well-found steamer, competently
commanded and efficiently equipped, would, without very much diffi-
culty, succeed in crossing the threshold of the unknown region along
the western side of Franz Josef Land, where a snug and sheltered posi-
tion could be found, in which she might be secured for the winter,
whence traveling parties could be dispatched for further exploration,
resulting in the certainty of the accomplishment of good, useful, and
important work.

On the whole, then, I am strongly in favor of Franz Josef Land as
the base for future operations, for it seems to me that in this direction
there are better prospects of pushing into the unknown area. It gives
promise of yielding the most abundant harvest in the various fields of
science, while, with proper precautions, absolute safety to the explorers
can be assured. These are, of course, reasons of the greatest impor-
tance when the question of the be stroute for polar exploration is under
discussion, and I am confident they will be found to outweigh all other
advantages that are likely to be considered in favor of other routes.

At the present moment our thoughts, not unnaturally, are directed to
this particular portion of the Arctic regions, by the remembrance that
it is only twelve months ago that an English expedition, under the
leadership of Mr. Jackson, but organized and equipped under the
supervision, and entirely at the expense, of Mr. Harmsworth, sailed
from our shores in the little steamer Windward with the object of
exploring Franz Josef Land and, if possible, the regions beyond. We
are still ignorant as to the progress that has been made by Mr. Jackson,
for no tidings have been received of him and his brave companions
since they bade farewell to civilization a year ago and steamed away
toward the north. They have selected the right direction in which to
proceed, and I look forward with confidence to hearing, in a very short
time, that they have succeeded in penetrating into the unknown area,
and are doing good and useful geographical as well as other scientific
work. They have our best and heartiest wishes for a successful issue
to their undertaking, and a happy return to their friends when their
work is accomplished. Geographers owe a debt of gratitude to Mr.
Harmsworth for initiating, and for having so generously and so patri-
otically provided the means for defraying the cost of this expedition.

With regard to what I may call the region to the east of Novaya
Zemlya, no one has done more to advance geographical science in this
direction than that distinguished Swedish Arctic explorer, Baron Nord-
enskiold. He, by dint of several expeditions that he made to Spitz-

—

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 283

bergen, and by tentative voyages of reconnoissance through the Kara
Sea and as far as the mouth of the Yenesei River, qualified himself to
achieve what has so long baffled the navigators of earlier ages, the
accomplishment of the northeast passage. This he performed in
1878-79, by rounding the most northern point of the old world, sailing
along the northern coasts of Europe and Asia, and thus passing by
sea from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This splendid achievement must
be regarded as one of the greatest geographical feats of the present
century; not only was it of exceptional interest from a geographical
standpoint, but it proved to be of the utmost value and importance to
every other branch of science. A knowledge of the geological for-
mation of the various countries situated in high latitudes is indispen-
sable, in order to enlighten us with reference to the early history of the
earth. Nordenskiold’s researches in this particular branch of science,
together with his observations on physical geography, ethnology, nat-
ural history, meteorology, and terrestrial magnetism, are replete with
interest; nor must I omit to mention the very valuable dredgings that
were made at the bottom, which were found to be exceedingly interest-
ing and important.

Nordenskiold sailed, it will be remembered, in the summer of 1878,
in the steamship Vega, under the command of Lieutenant Palander of
the Swedish navy, who had been his companion in some of his former
expeditions. On August 19 they reached Cape Chelyuskin, the extreme
northern point of the old world where, contrary I think to expecta-
tion, he found the depth of the water to increase somewhat rapidly to
124 meters at a distance of about 8 miles from the cape. On the 27th,
in spite of fogs and mist, he passed the mouth of the Lena, and three
days later sailed to the southward of the New Siberian islands. East-
ward of this the sea was so free of ice that for three days they ~were
able to push on at the rate of 150 miles a day. On September 3 they
passed Bear Island, and on the 6th Cape Chelagskoi was reached;
thence their progress was much impeded by loose ice. On the 12th
they were abreast of North Cape, but from this time onward great dif-
ficulties were experienced in forcing their way through the ice, besides
being seriously handicapped by the gradually shortening days and cor-
respondingly lengthening nights. On the 28th they had to acknowl-
edge, to their great mortification, that further progress for that year
was impossible and the ship was accordingly secured in winter quar-
ters, although they were aware that only a few miles of sea—but, alas!
it was an ice-blocked sea—lay between them and the open water in
Bering Strait. They had been running a race against time, and had
only been beaten by a few days—indeed, it may be said by a few hours
only. Two days after the Vega was released the following year she
passed East Cape, and steamed into the Pacific Ocean.

In reviewing what has been accomplished in this particular part of
the Arctic regions, we must not forget the valuable services that have

284 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

been rendered to geography as well as to commerce by Capt. Joseph
Wiggins, who has made, since 1874, several voyages along the northern
shores of Europe and Asia to and from the Ob and Yenesei rivers.
The persistent endeavors of Captain Wiggins to establish trade between
Europe and Central Asia by way of the Kara Sea, are deserving of the
highest commendation.

The discovery of that solitary island called ‘“ Kinsamkeit,” by Captain
Johannesen, situated in latitude 77° 40’ and in 86° east longitude, is of
the greatest importance and significance, as indicating the presence of
land hitherto unknown in that direction. Although it received the
name it now bears from Captain Johannesen, a name signifying
“lonely” or ‘“ solitary,” it seems to me exceedingly unlikely that it will
prove to be so perfectly isolated-as it is supposed to. Bears, walruses,
and seals, besides many kinds of birds, were seen on this island, which
would lead to the assumption that it might be the southern termination
of a chain of islands situated to the eastward of Franz Josef Land. It
is almost a pity that Johannesen did not venture to explore in a north-
erly direction after tte discovery of this island, instead of steering to
the northwest, more especially as he reports that there was very little
ice about. Perhaps our knowledge of this particular neighborhood
will be added to, and we will hope considerably, on the return of Nan-
sen, who has now either commenced his return journey, or else is think-
ing or making the necessary preparations for passing his third winter
in the far north.

It will be in the recollection of all at this Congress that in 1893
Fridtjof Nansen sailed with the object of reaching the North Pole, hay-
ing conceived what, in the belief of the majority of Arctic authorities,
was a very novel method of carrying out his views. Having carefully
studied the direction of the currents in the north polar regions, espe-
cially the drift experienced by the Austro-Hungarian expedition in
1873, and that of the U.S. S. Jeannette, which was caught by the ice in
latitude 71° to the southeast of Wrangel Land in 1880, and also those
various well-known drifts in a southerly direction through Smith Sound
and along the east coast of Greenland, he arrived at the conclusion
that if the currents flow from the North Pole in the direction of Green-
land they must, in a corresponding degree, flow toward the North
Pole on the opposite side of the Northern Hemisphere; and if vessels
have on various occasions been carried by the ice to the southward,
other ships similarly situated must, ceteris paribus, be drifted to the
north, if they can only hit off the current at the proper locality. This
if is, of course, the crux of the whole matter. By a very elaborate but
somewhat one-sided reasoning, hardly, I opine, borne out by established
facts, Nansen assumes that a shij jammed into the ice in the immediate
neighborhood of the New Siberia Islands would drift bodily with the
pack to the northward, over the North Pole, and thence to the south,
eventually to be released on reaching the Atlantic Ocean in the vicinity

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 285

of the east coast of Greenland. My friend Nansen is a man who has
the courage of his own convictions, and he has boldly set out in his
little Fram in order to test the accuracy of his theory. It is, however,
a theory that does not find favor with men of science in this country or
with Arctic authorities generally, who, from practical experience, have
laid down certain axioms connected with ice navigation which, in their
opinion, should not, if possible, be departed from. Nansen has set these
at defiance, for one of the most important of these rules, connected with
the exploration of high latitudes, is to adhere to the coast and to keep
away from the pack. Nansen has done exactly the contrary, for he has
started with the express intention of keeping away from the land, and
forcing his ship into the ice.

Not only was Nansen guided, in forming his ideas, by the well-known
drift of ships, and of parties of men who had drifted for many hundreds
of miles on ice floes after the destruction or loss of their vessels, but
he enforced his arguments by accepting as a fact the reputed discovery
of various articles on the southwest coast of Greenland, which were
supposed to have been lost from the Jeannette, and which, if this sup-
position is correct, could only have reached the position where they
were found by drifting across that point situated on this terrestrial
sphere where the northern axis of our globe has its termination. But
even, for the sake of argument, admitting that Dr. Nansen’s conjecture
regarding the oceanic drift of the northern region is correct, the pres-
ence of land, and it need only be a small island, directly in his path,
would suffice to upset his plans, and put an end to the drift of his vessel
in the same way that Wilezek Island put a stop to the further drift of
the Tegetthoff. My own view regarding the direction of the currents in
the Arctic seas is that they have an unmistakable southern tendency,
and that this southern drift is caused by the outflow from the polar
basin due to the periodical thawing during the summer months of the
enormous quantities of snow and ice that accumulates during the long
winters in the neighborhood of the North Pole, and which must neces-
sarily seek an outlet to the south.

The last news we have of the expedition is contained in a letter from
Dr. Nansen written on board the Fram on August 2, 1893. They were
then in Yugor Strait, and were all well, happy, and confident of success.
Nansen’s intention was then to proceed along the Siberian coast until
the mouth of the Olenek River to the east of the Lena delta was
reached. Thence he proposed steering a northerly course to the west
of the New Siberia Islands as far as the open water would let him,
and then to push his vessel into the ice to be carried by it in that
northerly current in the existence of which he so firmly relies. He
concludes his letter by saying, ‘‘When years have passed, I hope you
will some day get the news that we are all safely returned, and that
the knowledge of man has advanced another step northward.” Fortune
always favors the brave, and let us fervently pray that the little Fram

286 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

is still intact, and that before long we shall hear of the safety of the
plucky and enthusiastic explorer and his gallant companions, and when
we do hear, may we rest assured that, even if his theory has proved an
unpractical one, he will still have achieved such a measure of geo-
graphical success as will reflect credit on himself and on all concerned.

Very interesting information respecting the New Siberia Islands
has been culled by Baron Toll, who paid a visit to that little-known
group in the spring of 1892. Leaving the mainland on May 1, and
accompanied only by one Cossack and three natives, he traveled over
the ice in sledges drawn by dogs, and reached the south coast of Lyakhov
Island. Here some very inieresting discoveries were made. Under
what is described as the “perpetual ice” they found not only fragments
of willow and the bones of post-Tertiary mammals, but also complete
trees of Alnus fruticosa 15 feet in length, with leaves and cones adber-
ing, thus proving that during the mammoth period tree vegetation had
reached the seventy-fourth degree of latitude three degrees farther north
than it is found at the present time. The “ perpetual ice,” Baron Toll
asserts, is not due to the accumulation of snow, but must be considered
as originating from the ice during the glacial period, representing, in
fact, remains of the old ice cap.

It is a great pity that no account of the state and condition of the
ice to the northward of the islands is given by Baron Toll. <A knowl-
edge of it would be of the greatest interest at the present time, as
enabling us to form some opinion respecting the character of the pack
in which we must assume the Fram is now imprisoned. His account of
theislands, their geological formation, natural history, etc., is extremely
interesting, more especially with regard to those great masses of buried
ice, in which has been found in incredible quantities the bones and
tusks and, indeed, whole skeletons of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and
even the musk ox, and in such a wonderful state of preservation that
the tusks so found can not be distinguished from the very best and
purest ivory.

The cruise of the Jeannette in this particular locality did not add
very much to our geographical knowledge of the Arctic regions, but
this much was accomplished, namely, the penetration, by way of Bering
Strait, to a greater distance into the unknown area than had ever been
reached in that direction before. The Jeannette was, it will be remem-
bered, beset in the ice on September 6, 1879, to the northward of Herald
Island, in 71° 35’ north latitude and in 175° west longitude. In this
pack she remained helplessly fixed until she was crushed by it in June,
1881. During this long period her drift was somewhat remarkable.
During the first twelve months of her imprisonment she drifted about
150 miles in a north-northwest direction, and during the last nine
months the current had carried her no less than 250 miles to the north-
west. It is also a curious fact that between April 26, 1880, and Novem-
ber 3 of the same year, she was carried about in such an erratic manner,

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 287

due probably to strong tidal action, that she was almost in the same
position on the last-named date that she occupied in April, notwith-
standing the fact that during those six months she was never stationary,
always drifting with a greater or less rapidity in one direction or
another, sometimes even at the rate of 4 knots an hour. During the
entire drift of over 400 miles the Jeannette was in a comparatively shal-
low sea, of a uniform depth of between 30 and 40 fathoms, but occa-
sionally a depth of 70 and even 85 fathoms was recorded, the bottom
consisting generally of soft mud. Although Captain De Long ascribed
the drift of the ice in which his ship was beset to the prevailing wind,
which was from the southeast, I am inclined to think that it was also
materially influenced by the water of the Lena River emptying itself
in that neighborhood into the Arctic Ocean. The greatest pressure of
the ice was invariably experiénced at the change of moon, and it was
considered that this pressure was in a great measure due to the action
of tides. Although the ice was apparently of the same massive char-
acter as the so-called palocrystic sea to the north of Smith Sound, yet
one of the greatest inconveniences from which the expedition suffered
was caused by the impurity of the ice, which was so salt as to be quite
undrinkable, and they were consequently compelled to obtain their
fresh water by distillation. One of the results of drinking the water
made from this ice was that it produced excessive diarrhea in those
who drank it. Dredgings were occasionally obtained during their
drift, but the results were comparatively valueless.

The most important geographical work accomplished by this expedi-
tion was the discovery of Henrietta, Jeannette, and Bennett islands,
which, I think, may be regarded as part and parcel of the New Siberian
group. Round the shore of the last-named island a strong tide, esti-
mated at 35 knots an hour, was observed, and the rise and fall of the
tide was found to be 24 feet. Traces of reindeer were seen on the island
to the eastward by Captain De Long and his party, and bituminous
coal, which burnt readily, was found and actually used by them, on
Bennett Island. Glaciers, presumably discharging ones, were also seen
on the island.

One of the ships dispatched by the United States Government (the
Rodgers, under the command of Lieutenant Berry) to search for the
mnissing Jeannette made a very complete exploration of Wrangel Island,
which must be regarded as a great geographical achievement. This
island had long been wrapped in obscurity, if not mystery. Wrangel
himself endeavored, but without success, to reach it with dog sledges
in 1822 and 1823. Captain Kellett, in the Herald, sighted it in 1849, but
no one (with the exception of the captain of the Corwin, who succeeded
in landing on it a fortnight earlier) had ever reached it or fixed its
position, except approximately. Thanks to the efforts of Lieutenant
Berry, it is now well known, and its position accurately determined.
From Wrangel Island Berry pushed to the north, but was eventually

288 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

stopped by impenetrable ice in latitude 73° 44” and in longitude 171°
30’ west. Returning to the southward, he made another attempt fur-
ther to the westward, viz, on the meridian of 179° 52’, but only sue-
ceeded in reaching the latitude of 73° 28’, when he was again stopped
by the, formidable character of theice. Berry made tidal observations
off Herald Island, and found that the flood tide set to the northwest and
the ebb in the opposite direction. At high and low water no current
was perceptible.

All reports relative to the nature of the ice north of Bering Strait
coincide with regard to its massiveness and impenetrability. De Long
was beset in the same heavy ice. Collinson made several efforts to
penetrate the pack in various directions, but without success, and he
was at length compelled to return to the lead of open water that is
invariably found during the summer along the coast of Arctic America.
This navigable channel is due to the grounding of the heavy polar pack
in the shallow water that extends for a considerable distance off the
land. It was in this ice-free channel that Collinson and McClure sailed
along the entire American coast to the east, enabling the former to
reach the one hundred and fifth meridian of west longitude, thus over-
lapping Parry’s discoveries to the westward by a considerable distance.
But both these navigators, skillful and daring as they were, were never
able to penetrate what we may fairly designate as the paleocrystic ice,
which they met when they attempted to push to the northward beyond
the seventy-sixth parallel of latitude.

Collinson states that some of the fioes were as much as 30 feet above
the water. Taking the ordinary flotation of ice as having seven-eighths
immersion, we thus have the thickness of the ice floes established as
over 200 feet. This was about the thickness of the ice, as estimated by
similar deductions, over which I traveled in 1876 to the north of Smith
Sound. Captain McClure encountered the same kind of ice. He
describes it as of stupendous thickness and in extensive floes from 7
to 8 miles in length, the surface not flat, but rugged with the accumu-
lated snow, frost, and thaws of centuries. Off the west coast of Banks
Land the surface of the oceanic ice floes was of an undulating nature,
100 feet from base to summit, rising in places as high as the lower
yards of the Investigator. The current experienced along the coast of
North America was invariably in a northeast and east-northeast direc-
tion. The current in Prince of Wales Strait is attributed by Collinson
to wind.

No more important or interesting work associated with north polar
research can be conceived than the exploration of that vast unknown
region situated between Wrangel Island and Prince Patrick Island,
and the connection of Prince Patrick Island with Aldrich’s Farthest in
Grant Land. But itis a work that can only be accomplished by a regu-
lar and systematic process, for all navigators who have approached this
rim of the unknown region—Collinson, McClure, Parry, McClintock,

———

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 289

and De Long—all testify to the heavy and formidable character of the
ice, and unite in their views regarding the difficulties that must be
overcome before success in this direction can be attained.

Casual exploration by single ships, without proper support and with-
out taking the necessary precautions which I think all Arctic authori-
ties are unanimous in advocating, should be deprecated as much as
possible. With proper care, and the establishment of depots of pro-
visions and boats in previously arranged positions, no danger need be
apprehended to those who form part of an efficiently equipped expedi-
tion, dispatched for the exploration of this portion of the Aretic
regions.

The next portion of the unknown with which I will deal is that large
tract of land called Greenland, and seas adjacent. It is in this diree-
tion that the highest latitude has so far been reached, and this has
been accomplished solely in consequence of the extension of land in a
northerly direction. Although much has been done in this region,
much yet remains to be accomplished.

The connection of Cape Bismarck on the east coast with Cape Kane
(Lockwood’s Farthest) on the north coast is of the greatest importance,
as Setting at rest the question of the boundaries of Greenland and the
determination of its insularity. The amount of coast line to be explored
and the distance to be traveled in order to solve this geographical prob-
lem is not very great, probably not more than 450 or 500 miles, but of

- course much time and trouble must be expended in reaching either of the

above-mentioned positions before starting on new ground. Civil En-
gineer R. HE. Peary of the United States Navy has shown us what can
be done in the way of traveling in the interior of Greenland by an
energetic and persevering explorer. He, it will be remembered, estab-
lished himself during the summer of 1891 in McCormick Bay, in 78°
north latitude, at the entrance to Smith Sound. During the following
year he traveled across the entire breadth of Greenland, from his
headquarters in Murchison Sound to a large bay which he reached on
the northeast coast of Greenland, which he named Independence Bay,
on about the thirty-fourth meridian of west longitude. During this
somewhat remarkable journey the explorers reached an altitude of over
8,000 feet above the sea level. Departing from the usual method of
carrying out exploration in the arctic regions, namely, adhering to a
coast line, they pushed boldly into the interior, utilizing the inland ice
as the roadway on which their sledges were drawn by dogs. It is sig-
nificant, as illustrating the severe nature of the traveling experienced,
that although they started with 25 dogs, only 14 were alive when they
reached their most northern position, and only 5 survived the whole
journey, the remainder having succumbed to the hardships of the work
in dragging the sledge or had been killed in order to supply the party
with food. During the outward journey Peary estimated the distance
he traveled at about 650 miles, at an avezage rate of 164 miles for each
SM 96 19

290 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

day of sledging. The weather experienced was, on the whole, mild,
the lowest temperature recorded being —5° F., although at an altitude
of 8,000 feet. The information supplied by Peary relative to his obser-
vations in this part of Greenland is extremely interesting. He found,
beyond the glaciers and fiords that intersect the west coast of Green-
land, large glacial basins extending into the interior to a distance of
from 30 to 50 miles. These basins are separated from each other by
ranges of hills varying in height from 5,000 to 6,000 feet, and at least
2,000 feet above the basin plateau. Peary states that the north end of
the great inland ice cap terminates in about 82° north latitude. He
followed its edge some 60 miles along this parallel, and observed it
extending in an easterly and westerly direction for a considerable dis-
tance. He has established the fact that musk oxen inhabit those dreary
regions, and he found excellent pasturage in the sheltered valleys,
where some 20 of these animals were observed browsing. From Inde-
pendence Bay to the position reached by Lockwood in Greeley’s expe-
dition is comparatively a short distance. At Peary’s most northerly
position, ata height of 3,800 feet, he observed land at an estimated dis-
tance of about 60 miles in a northeast direction. This land showed no
sign of being capped by ice, and is possibly a portion of an archipelago
of unknown extent. It is a noteworthy fact that, in addition to the
well-known fauna found in high latitudes, two humblebees and several
butterflies were seen.

Interesting ethnological observations were made at the winter quar-
ters, and much valuable information relative to glacial geology in that
particular locality obtained. Altogether Lieutenant Peary is to be
congratulated on the successful result of his exertions.

Although Lieutenant Peary was engaged last year in continuing his
researches in North Greenland, he has not, from various unavoidable
causes, added much to his previously acquired geographical knowledge
of that region; but a journey was made by Mr. Astrup, one of the
members of his expedition, round Melville Bay, resulting in some
highly interesting observations relative to the glaciology of that part
of Greenland, and a more accurate mapping of the coast line in that
vicinity. Lieutenant Peary, with praiseworthy persistency, is still
engaged in his valuable work of exploration, and I have no doubt in
a Short time we shall have more interesting and valuable results to
chronicle.

While treating of Greenland, we must not omit that large archipelago
of islands situated to the west of that great continent, and north of
Lancaster and Barrow strait. Here we have a most interesting region,
new to the explorer, and which may be regarded as virgin territory.
Its edge has been lightly touched by Perry, McClure, and McClintock
to the west; by Franklin, Sherard Osborn, and Belcher to the south; by
Greeley and Aldrich to the north, and by Kane, Hayes, Hall, and Nares
to the east. It is impossible to conceive anything more interesting or

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 291

more valuable, in a geographical sense, than the connection of MeClin-
tock’s discoveries in Prince Patrick Island with Aldrich’s farthest along
the north coast of Grinnell Land.

There are different routes by which exploration in this direction can
be carried out. In the first place, it can be undertaken from Discovery
Bay (where H. M.S. Discovery wintered in 1875, and which was also the
headquarters of the Greely expedition six years later), by proceeding
up Archer Fiord until the boundary of the undiscovered region is
reached. Secondly, there is the route northward, using Prince Patrick
Island or Melville Island as the base of operations; and, lastly, there
is the way by Jones Sound. The latter, | am inclined to think, is the
route that will yield the greatest amount of success. No one has as
yet succeeded in penetrating to any great distance in this direction,
but then no serious effort has ever been made to doso. Whalers have
- oceasionally looked in, but, finding it blocked with ice, and therefore
inaccessible to whales, have not persevered in pushing on, but have
continued their journey to Barrow Strait and Prince Regent Inlet,
where whales are known to abound. Sherard Osborn, in the Pioneer,
ascended the sound for some distance, until stopped by ice. Hereports
the scenery on either side as magnificent; long winding glaciers pour-
ing down the valleys and projecting into the deep blue waters of the
strait. Traces of Eskimo were discovered, but of supposed ancient
date, and vegetation, quite as luxuriant as was seen farther to the
southward, was found.

It was only last year that Mr. Bryant, in command of the Peary Aux-
iliary Expedition, endeavored to penetrate into Jones Sound while
searching for the missing Swedish naturalists, Messrs. Bjorling and
Kalstenius; but he had other important duties to carry out, and, unfor-
tunately, had not the time at his disposal to persevere in his efforts to
push northward.

A few words relative to those two gallant Swedish gentlemen, who
sacrificed their lives in the cause and in the interest of geographical
science, will not, I think, be inappropriate at the present juncture. It
will be remembered that they set out in 1892 with the intention of
exploring that practically unknown country situated on the northwest
side of Baffin Bay, called by Admiral Inglefield Ellesmere Land.
Purchasing a small, and I fear somewhat unseaworthy schooner, named
the hippie, at a comparatively insignificant cost—-for their means were
limited—and with a crew of only three men, they sailed from St. John’s,
Newfoundland, on their adventurous voyage. Godhavn was reached
in safety, and they left that port on August 3, since which time nothing
has been seen of them, but the wreck of their little craft was found by
a whaler the following year on the southeast island of the Cary group.
Not far from the wreck was the body of a dead man, buried under a
heap of stones. Some letters from Bjorling were also discovered con-
cealed in a cairn adjacent. From the contents of these we gather that

292 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

the Ripple reached the Cary Islands on August 16, only thirteen days
after leaving Godhavn, but was, unfortunately, wrecked the following
day while taking on board the provisions deposited there by Captain
Nares in 1875. The party remained several weeks on the island, but
eventually left in an open boat for Cape Clarence or Cape Faraday, on
the west side of Baffin Bay, in the hope of falling in with the Eskimo
that were supposed to be in that neighborhood. The date of the letter
is October 12, 1892, and a significant statement was made in it to the
effect that their provisions would not last beyond January 1. Their
numbers were then undiminished, but one man was dying. This is the
last news that has been received of these gallant and enthusiastic young
explorers. Careful search was made for them in the Cary Islands, at
Clarence Head, Cape Faraday, and along the north shore of Northum-
berland Island, as well as the entrance to Jones Sound, during the sum-
mer of 1894, but, alas! with an unsuccessful result, and it seems more
than probable that they lost their lives while attempting to cross from
the Cary Islands to Cape Clarence, a distance of about 50 miles, in a
frail and probably leaky boat.

I will now conclude my address with a brief summary of the results
that would accrue by a systematic exploration of the unknown area in
the arctic regions.

The most important would, in all probability, be those connected
with physical geography and geology. The geology of the far north is
known only in fragmentary patches, but even this limited knowledge
proves it to be of a varied character. If all these patches were joined
and dovetailed together, facts even more remarkable and interesting
than any yet known would be revealed. What can be more interest-
ing, from a scientific point of view, than the account of Baron Toll’s
valuable researches in the New Siberia isiands, and the extraordinary
Post-Tertiary deposits that he discovered there? Then, again, it must
not be forgotten that the north shore of Grinnell Land, and also the
coast of that part of North Greenland known as Hall Land, are plen-
tifully bestrewed with erratice ice-born bowlders. Dr. Bessels, the
chief of the scientific staff of the Polaris expedition, was, I think, the
first to recognize that these bowlders had no connection with the rocks
in situ; but he came to what I can not help thinking (and in this belief
Iam supported by Colonel Fielden, who served as naturalist in Nares’s
expedition) was an erroneous conclusion, viz, that they must have been
transported from South Greenland, and consequently at one time the
current must have been from the south to the north. It is, in my opin-
ion, far more likely that these erratic bowlders were transported on
ice floes from land hearer to the north pole than we are at present
acquainted with. i

Ido not think, but I speak under correction, that the glacial geology
of KMurope can be properly understood and described without a more
thorough kuowiedge of the great glacial sheets of the north, for we may
safely assume that the arctic regions at the present moment are in very

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 293

much the same condition as was this country during the Glacial period.
Scores of people have expounded their views on the Great Ice age, but
how many of them have had any personal acquaintance with those
stupendous masses of ice to be found only near the poles?) The major-
ity of these writers argue mainly from their experience of the puny
glaciers of the temperate zones. It has been gravely asserted, and in
a journal of a scientific society, that ice does not wear down rocks, and
that the idea of fiords being excavated by glaciers was a theory that is
now abandoned by all geologists. The writer holding these astonish-
ing views must allude to those geologists who have never visited the
Arctic regions; for all those who have seen for themselves the wonder-
ful results of the movements of huge bodies of ice and the marks of
glaciation so frequently seen on the rocks of the north must think
differently. These are questions that can only be satisfactorily owed
by a continuance of polar explorations.

The science of ethnology would be largely benefited by further inves-
tigations in the far north. It may very truly be affirmed that we are
only just beginning to know something about the Eskimo from a scien-
tific point of view. It is now recognized as an almost accepted fact
that they did not come from Asia, and that the few found on the Asi-
atic side of Bering Strait migrated from the American side. Rink and
other authorities contend that they are essentially of American origin,
but the route they took from America is still an open question. <A study
of the folklore of the Eskimo would doubtless throw new light on the
subject. Boas and Rink haveshown, and the Danish expedition which,
under command of Lieutenant Ryder, recently wintered on the east
coast of Greenland, confirmed, that new legends have a most important
bearing on the question of the origin and migration of these nomadic
tribes. An ethnologist who took the trouble to learn their language,
or who had a trustworthy interpreter, could, with the greatest advan-
tage to science, spend a year or two among the Mackenzie River, the
Ponds Bay, the Smith Sound, or indeed any other Eskimo race, for,
with the exception of a slight and imperfect knowledge of the Labra-
dor, Greenland, and Cumberland Sound people, absolutely nothing has
been done in a field of research which promises such a rich and abun-
dant harvest to the cultivator. As Dr. Robert Brown, one of the
greatest authorities on this subject, says:

There are no people on the face of the earth whose characteristics
separate them more completely from other races of mankind than the
Eskimo. They are extremely homogeneous in physical features, in
language, in social habits, in religion, and in modes of life. . .
Though divided into tribes and grouped into broader sections, the

Eskimo are everywhere the same people from the eastern point of
Siberia to the eastern shores of Greenland.

Their habitat is the habitat of the seal, the walrus, and the polar
bear. But the first-named animal is everything to the Eskimo; it is
his food, it gives him light, warmth, clothing, implements for the chase,

294 _ ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

shelter, harness for his dogs, and material for the construction of bis
boats and canoes. Without the seal the Eskimo would be in a parlous
state; with the seal he requires but little else.

Traces of the existence of the Eskimo were found as far north as the
eighty-second parallel of latitude on the west side of Smith Sound, by
Captain Nares, and this, I think, is the most northern vestige of the
existence of human life that has ever been discovered. Further
researches in high latitudes may bring to light traces of the wanderings
of these tribes still farther north.

With regard to zoology, it must, I suppose, be contessed that the
terrestrial animals of the far north are fairly well known, but we have
yet much to learn regarding their habits and geographical distribu-
tion. There are many land species, such as fresh-water fishes, mollusca,
and insects, that we are compelled to acknowledge must lead a pecul-
jar existence, for, as far as We know, they must be frozen during the
entire winter. That must also be the fate of the pup of butterflies
where the soil is frozen to a great depth, and of the inhabitants of
fresh-water lakes and pools which in the winter become solid ice. The
question is, how do they live? This and other physiological questions,
such as those affecting hibernation in extreme cold, have never yet
been satisfactorily explained, and can not be investigated except on the
spot and by an expert. Moreover, there are myriads of marine ani.
mals in the north, such as acelephee (jelly-fishes), etc., which rise to the
surface on the calm summer days; it is important that these should be
drawn and examined from actual observation, for this has never yet
been done. Soundings, temperature observations, dredgings, and
other physical observations even in Davis Strait and Baffin Bay would
not only be important from a geographical and geological point of view,
but would yield zoological materials of the utmost value to science.
And what is said about Davis Strait applies equally to Bering Sea,
Hudsons Bay, and the Spitzbergen Sea; a physical and biological sur-
vey of these regions would be of the greatest interest and importance.

Then the distribution of some of the Arctic animals is somewhat
puzzling. Take, as an illustration, the musk ox. During the Glacial
period it lived in Europe, but now it is almost entirely confined to
America, to the islands north of that continent, and to Greenland;
even in America it inhabits a very limited area bounded on the west by
the Mackenzie River. This in itself raises so many questions, geolog-
ical, geographical, and zoological, regarding the former land communi-
cations by way of the Orkney, Shetland, Faroe Islands, and Iceland
with the still farther north, and by Greenland with Spitzbergen, that
it is impossible to conceive a more instructive monograph than one
written on the range of the musk ox.

The botany of the Arctic regions has, I presume, been fairly well
investigated, at least, so far as the flowering plants are concerned, but
the lichens, alge (both fresh-water _and marine), mosses, and fungi
remain imperfectly known. It is, I believe, still a vexed question

ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. 295

along our most eminent botanists as to whether the Arctic flora was
originally European or American. There is also an idea that at the
beginning of the last Glacial period the Arctic flora was driven south,
and, after the return of warmer times, followed the retreating ice, with
the exception of those species that were stranded and had taken refuge
on the mountain tops, the so-called Alpine flora. Further investiga.
tions in order to elucidate and solve these interesting botanical problems
would be of the greatest value.

We have yet much to learn respecting the currents of air, the tem-
peratures, and other matters connected with meteorology which, in all
probability, will be found, in a great measure, to affect the climate con-
ditions of lower latitudes. Further investigations in this particular
branch would doubtless result in the attainment of knowledge that
would be of great practical use and importance.

What has been designated as the Greenland folhn is an atmospheric
condition prevailing at the same moment over different portions of the
Arctic regions situated at wide distances apart, and of which at pres-
ent little is known. At the Alerts winter quarters off the northeast
coast of Grinnell Land in 1875, we experienced great fluctuations of
temperature, varying no less than 55°; that is to say, that the ther-
mometer would make a sudden and rapid rise from —20° to +35°, and
sometimes this unusually high temperature, invariably accompanied by
a south wind, would last for a great many days, thus occasioning us
serious inconvenience from the unexpected warmth, for which we were
entirely unprepared. ‘These warm southerly winds were felt on the
west coast of Greenland, between [vigtut and Upernivik, precisely at
the same time that they were experienced by us, thus pointing to the
fact that the warm wave must have traveled at a prodigious rate, and
from a considerable distance, in order that it should have been felt,
practically, at the same time in places so widely separated. De Long
also remarks an unusual rise of temperature in the month of October,
when he was beset in the ice and drifting to the north of Herald Island,
and this increase of temperature was always accompanied by a south-
easterly wind. Immediately the wind veered round to the west, or
even to the southwest, the temperature promptly fell.

This brings us to the equally important question of oceanology, which
should comprise a complete knowledge not only of the surface currents
in the Arctic seas, but also surface and deep-sea temperatures, forma-
tion, depth and nature of bottom, influence of tides, density of sea
water, varying conditions of ice, and other matters connected with the
hydrography of those regions. The strongest known currents that have
an outlet from the north polar basin are undoubtedly those that flow
to the southward down Baffins Bay and Davis Strait and along the
east coast of Greenland. These are apparently uninfluenced by wind,
and their drift is both regular and rapid throughout the year. The
study of the system of these inflowing and outflowing currents is one
ot great complexity but of vast importance.

296 ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

Tidal action has been observed in nearly every part of the Arctic
regions that has been visited by man, but probably from a want of
synchronous observations we have yet much to learn in this respect.

A more complete knowledge of the nature, character, and size of the
icebergs and ice fields met in various parts of the polar regions, together
with other glacial observations, would also be of exceptional interest.

Nor must we omit from the results that are likely to accrue to science
by continued exploration in the Arctic regions those connected. with
terrestrial magnetism and spectrum analysis, to say nothing of the
importance of obtaining pendulum and auroral observations in high
latitudes. Each and all of these are matters of the highest consequence
and deserving of further investigation, and these investigations can
only be earried out by competent observers on the spot.

I trust I have said enough to show the value and importance of fur-
ther exploration in the ice-clad regions of the north. I have endeay-
ored to show as briefly as is compatible with the importance of the
subject our knowledge of the north polar regions up to the threshold
that bounds what I may designate the terra incognita of the Northern
Hemisphere, and I have also attempted to point out the best means by
which successful exploration in the unknown regions can be carried out.
I would wish especially to lay stress on the fact that any advance into
the undiscovered region must be regarded as a success, quite independ-
ent of the attainment of any position in near proximity to the pole.
Therefore the route that is likely to lead to the discovery of the great-
est extent of the unknown region, whether to the north, east, or west,
is the one that should be followed in future exploration. If every
nation that is represented at this congress—and I think the whole civ-
ilized world is represented—were to unite in their endeavors to dispatch
expeditions to explore the hidden mysteries of the polar basin, France
taking one section, the United States another, Germany a third, Great
Britain, Sweden, Italy, Holland, and Norway others, then I am confi-
dent that in a short time that large blank space on our globe having
the North Pole as its center will be as well known and as accurately
charted as are the other known parts of the world. There is plenty of
work to do, and there is plenty of room for every nation in this great
and interesting scheme of exploration. The zeal, energy, and enthusi-
asin of those who have preceded us have already acquired for us a
knowledge of vast terrritories that a century ago were as much a sealed
book as the north and south polar basins are at the present day. Surely
in this enlightened age we ought not to hold back where others in the
past have led the way. Let us now in this congress use our utmost
efforts to effect the exploration of those million and a half square miles
of absolutely unknown region surrounding the northern axis of our
globe. If we succeed in procuring the dispatch of even one well-
organized expedition we shall be satistied that this congress, at any
rate, has not met in vain.

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.!

By Rk. H. THURSTON.

PART I.—THE HUMAN ANIMAL AS A VITAL PRIME MOVER AND A
THOUGHT MACHINE; THE ENERGETICS OF THE VITAL MACHINE; ITS
TRANSFORMATIONS.

The vital engine, the body of every vertebrate animal—from the
human ruler of all, down to the lowest organism having a cartilagi-
nous frame—is to-day well recognized as, in the engineer’s classifica-
tion, a “*prime motor,” in which the latent forces and energies of a
combustible “‘food,” of a fuel, as many suppose it, are evolved, trans-
ferred, and transformed to perform the work of the organism itself, to
supply heat to keep it at the temperature necessary for the efficient
operation of the machine, and for the performance of external work.
The value of ethe machine as a prime mover is dependent upon the rela-
tion between this external work, so far as it can be applied to useful
purposes as labor, and the costs of its production in fuel or energ
supply, and in wear and tear and replacement, precisely as with any
other machine of the class, whether the source of power be chemical,
thermal, electrical, or vital.

The work of the machine is, however, a very different quality and is
vastly different in quantity, useful work being compared with supplied
energy, and incidental expenditures from that of any other known
motor. In the water wheels and windmills, the office of the motor is
simply that of transfer of energy of flowing currents of fluid, of water
or of air, and without transformation, to mechanism suitable for giving
it useful application. The heat engines develop energy previously
“latent,” potential, as the modern nomenclature would call it, into the
kinetic form of thermal motion, and, by transformation, so far as may
be practicable, into the dynamic form, make it available for work.
Hlectro-dynamic machinery similarly makes available by transforma-
tion the energy of the electric current, and none of these machines
has any other function than that of making useful some one energy
previously stored by the operations of nature in such form as to be
readily applied to his purposes by the hand of man.

'From the Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. CXXXIX, Nos. 829 to 831, Jan-
uary, February, and March, 1895.
297

298 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

The vital machine, on the other hand, has purposes and performs
offices of essentially different kinds. It must not only transform the
latent energies of the supplies received by it into useful external work,
but all its work being directed toward the sustenance and preservation
of the contained soul, as its principal and always essential purpose, all
its operations being automatic or self-directed, all its powers of trans-
formation of energy are demanded for the production, by transforma-
tion, presumably, of (1) the vital forces and energies; (2) the physical
energies demanded in constructing, rebuilding, and operating the ani-
mal frame; (3) the external work required to furnish the body supplies,
to protect it from decay or injury, and to minister to the physical
wants and ethical requirements of the personality of which it is at
once the home and the vehicle.

This curious prime mover is thus an apparatus which, from familiar
sources of energy, transfers and transforms, for its own purposes and
applications, a variety of energies, performing a variety of work in
various realms. The nature and composition of the sources of latent
energy, always chemical compounds capable of oxidation, are well
known; the character and method of many of the internal as well as
of the external expenditures of energy are equally well understood;
but there are a variety and considerable number of internal operations,
involving transformations of energy, the nature and method of which
are entirely beyond observation by any process of experimentation yet
devised.

‘‘Food” is taken into the body, enters into solution with the peptic
fluids, elaborated from previously supplied nutriment, is absorbed into
the circulation, and disappears from our sight and reach; heat, carbon-
dioxide, vapor of water, various salts, and a considerable proportion of
unutilized nutriment are rejected from the system, and work is per-
formed as the product of transformed energies and in large amount,
both within the machine and upon external bodies. A chain of energy
transformations is in continuous operation, of which we see the two
ends, so far as the vital machine is concerned, but of which we only
get occasional glimpses between the extremities, and some of the links
of which are, as yet, undiscovered and unknown. It is certain that the
series of changes, material and kinetic, involves familiar methods of
transformation, and it is hardly less certain that singular and probably
wonderful and unknown processes of energy development and transfor-
mation are concealed within this miracle among machines.

Possibly a study of the present state of scientific research relative to
this machine may give at least some idea of the importance and com-
plexity of the problems here placed before the man of science and the
engineer, if not give a clew to their final solution.

The source of power in the animal machine is invariably the stored
chemical energy of vegetation, the potential energy of the hydrocarbons
and other compounds contained in all plants, and capable of uniting

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. Zoo

with oxygeu to form carbonic acid, water, and salts capable of solution
in water. It is possible, but perhaps not probable, that other sub-
stances and energies forming constituents of these compounds may
exist, having eluded the investigating chemist and physicist; but this
is thought unlikely. We probably know precisely what enters the
animal prime motor, and what are the sources of all its energies. Food
and air are the two known elements of all its powers. It is also pos-
sible, but probably not the fact, that this machine may drink in from the
surrounding ether some portion ofits energy in forms still undetected and
unsuspected. We are compelled, for the present, certainly, to assume
that all the energies developed and applied in the vital machine are
initially latent in vegetable matter, air, and water. This organic sub-
stance is derived by the carnivorous animals indirectly through the
other creatures, all of which live upon vegetation directly. The organic
forces of plant life derive all energy from the inorganic world of min-
erals and from the gases of the atmosphere by utilizing the primary
energy of solar rays in the chlorophyll with which every leaf is provided,
as the active agent in that transformation. The vital machine thus
ultimately derives all its energies from the sun.

Food is the material in which are stored the substances supplied to
the vital machine as the reservoir of the potential energy from which
the required energies, in various active forms, may be derived, as
demanded, to perform the work of the body and the mind. It consists
of a mixture of edible and other matter, the former being that part
from which energy is derivable; the latter being indigestible and unas-
similable and only useful in promoting, by mechanical irritation, the
action of the digestive system.

All foods contain:

Water—required for solution of nutrients.

Nutrients—protein, fats, carbohydrates.

Innutrient matter.

Protein consists of the albuminoids, and, in vegetable matter, the
amides, a less valuable portion of the food. The white of egg, the
fibrine of meat, and the gluten of wheat are illustrations of albuminoid
compositions.

Fats, such as those of meat, and the greases of vegetation, the oils
of the animal and vegetable compounds extractable by ether consti-
tute the basis of construction of the fats of the body and of a part of
the nerve and brain substance.

Carbohydrates are the starches and sugars of the vegetable.

Salts are found in both animal and vegetable foods, and are in some
cases essential elements of the compositions making up the body, though
not, in the ordinary sense, digestible and nutrient.

Mineral matters constitute, in the case of the vegetable foods, the
principal portion of the innutrient matter of food, and form the ash
when the plant is burned. In some cases these mineral matters serve

300 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

as stimulants of digestive and other physiological processes, even when
not themselves in any degree digestible, and are, for that reason, essen-
tial constituents of food. It is for this reason largely that vegetable
foods are indispensable to perfect action of the functions and to bodily
and mental health. The vegetable food also, especially the fruits and
grains, contain the required elements of all the compositions of the
animal system in best proportion and best arranged for utilization by
man and all other except the purely carnivorous animals. Could the
whole animal be used as food, including blood and nerve and bone and
brain, animal food would be substantially correct in composition; but
it would still lack the stimulating property of the other class of foods
which comes of the presence of the mineral and indigestible elements.

The uses of food are mainly two: (1) To supply material for the build-
ing up and the repair and maintenance of the tissues of the body. (2)
To furnish the energies required in the operation of the animal machine
in their various forms and in due proportion.

The first is the direct application of a portion of the food. The sec-
ond disposition of the elements of the food and their potential energy
may be direct, as probably in the use of the fats, the combustion of
which to carbon-dioxide and water results in the production of imme-
diately available energy; or it may be indirect, as where the carbohy-
drates are first digested and, later, consumed in similar manner to the
fats; or, still more indirectly, as where the protein becomes first a part
of the flesh or of the nervous system and, later, broken down in the
course of the work of the body, serves as fuel or otherwise in the pro-
duction of heat or other energy by its oxidation.

Protein forms tissue—muscular, nervous, and other. Fats form a part
of the nervous tissue, and carbohydrates are converted by the digest-
ive organs into fats, and then serve the same purposes. Both the latter
compounds serve as fuel or energy-storing reservoirs, contain a quantity
of potential energy, which is sooner or later drawn upon in the develop-
ment of the various energies utilized in the operations of the body and
the brain. It is usually assumed that the energy demanded is that of
thermal molecular motion, and that the value of the foods may be meas-
ured by their calorific content or potential thermal energy. Until it is
known just what energies are employed in the numerous and varied
operations of the living creature, and to what extent they are severally
derivable from the potential energy of the various foods and transform-
able from one into another, and especially from or into thermal energy,
no better method can be devised than that which assumes the value of
foods properly compounded in imitation of nature’s known propor-
tions—as in milk for children, fruit of palatable character, and grains
for adults—to be proportional to their calorific measure. Pure carbon
or the pure carbohydrates, however, are not foods in a proper sense, as
they could not be converted into muscle, nerve, or bone, and only serve
in themselves for energy storage for use by a body composed of protein

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 301

largely, and of other essential matter in less proportion. On the other
hand, the muscle and nerve and bone-making constituents alone serve
to build up the machine, but not to operate it. Ultimately, however, it
is supposed that the stored energy of the latter class of compositions
become available, and thus both, the original proportions being correct,
may have a kind of measure of value in that of their fuel constituents.
For highest efficiency, the proportions of the constituents must be suit-
able for the individual case, and availability by digestion and assimila-
tion, and in the provocation of all essential vital processes, is quite as
essential as either of the other required qualities of the food.

The protein compounds are all nitrogenous, whether in the form of
albumen, fibrin, casein, or gluten. These compounds are fairly uni-
form in value. The carbohydrates differ greatly among themselves in
this respect. The fats are substantially of equal value as measured by
thermal contents, but differ in palatableness and digestibility, and thus
in food value. Neither the carbohydrates nor the fats contain nitrogen,
and they are simply useful in furnishing a supply of heat or other
energy. One unit weight of carbon and one of protein yield substan-
tialiy equal quantities of energy—about 14,500 British thermal units, or
1,860 calories per unit weight. Its energy is sufficient to raise 2,850
tons one foot high. The same weight of carbohydrate has usually very
nearly the same force value. <A similar weight of fat should have 50
per cent more stored energy—about 4,700 foot-tons. A pound of corn
meal should supply a quantity of energy equal to two-thirds that of an
equal weight of carbon—about 2,080 foot-tons, 1,560 calories.

The food consumed daily by a powerful workingman contains, on the
average, about 34 ounces of protein, 6 ounces of fat, and 14 ounces of
carbohydrates, according to Professor Woods. Its energy measures
sensibly the same as that of 25 pounds of corn meal. Its protein and
fats come largely from the flesh food contained in the daily ration.
The carbohydrates come entirely from the vegetable constituents.
Another illustrative example of a ration given by the same authority
measures 3.8 ounces of protein, 5 ounces of fat, 15 ounces of carbo.
hydrates. The energy stored in the food thus taken measured 5,400
foot-tons, or 3,530 calories. A standard ration for swine contains about
7,500 foot-tons, 4,900 calories, per 100 pounds weight. That for cows
measures 4,600 foot-tons, 3,000 calories, approximately, per 100 pounds
weight. The ration for sheep measures 5,900 foot-tons and 3,550
calories per 100 pounds.

Food-energy transformation is the office of the vital machine. The
fish can traverse the water all day; the bird can fly through the air all
day; man and the animals on land can walk all day; and it is evident
that, as suggested by Pettigrew, their tasks must be not very far differ-
ent in magnitude. All exert powers approximately proportional to the
volume of the seasoned working muscles employed in these tasks, which,
according to various authors, is not far from about the equivalent in

302 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

work of one atmosphere, 15 pounds per square inch of section of fiber,
rising to somewhat higher figures; but all are very moderate intensi-
ties as compared with those adopted in machinery and in proportion to
weights developing them. None can therefore find in peculiar tenaci-
ties or intensities of action of working parts a means of attaining
remarkable power, even in the case of the bird, which was formerly
supposed to enormously excel all other creatures in its concentration
of power in mass and muscle. We seem thus reduced to the study of
the methods of transformation of energy of the foods. The fact that
venous blood is warmer than arterial, though very slightly, is another
evidence that the transformations of matter, as well as of energy, in
these processes occur in the muscular system; and the path into which
investigation must be turned would seem to be fairly well located.

Dr. Carpenter was, perhaps, the first to elaborate fully and clearly
the idea that the germ of the organism is not the concentrated essence
and energy of the organism and all its progeny, but that it is rather
constituted as ‘a directive agency, thus rather representing the con-
trol exercised by the superintendent builder, who is charged with the
working out of the design of the architect, than the bodily force of
the workmen who labor under his guidance in the construction of the
fabric.” The actual constructive force, he thinks—as we now ean see,
very possibly, wrongly—is heat.

It may now be taken as certain that, as Dr. Carpenter asserted in
1850, ‘‘in some way or other fresh organizing force is constantly being
supplied from without” during the whole period of activity of the vital
machine, which continues by inheritance to transmit the power of
absorption and transformation and of direction of this absorbed energy,
for all its various purposes, throughout the life of the whole line of its
posterity and that of the race.

Liebig, Carpenter, Grove, and others have long ago prepared the way
for the acceptance of the proposition that the organs of the animal
which elaborate its powers constitute an apparatus fitted to simply
divert the energy received as latent in the food and awakened by the
chemical processes constituting digestion, assimilation, and nutrition,
and to direct it into its new channels in the form of heat, mechanical
energy, and vital power. Sir Benjamin Brodie found that the act of
respiration simply did not sustain the temperature of the body, and
that the action of the spinal column was essential to the normal devel-
opment of heat. Helmholtz found the chemical changes greater in
muscle in use than when at rest, and a larger proportion of waste, due to

1“Thus in the case of the successive viviparous broods of the Aphides a germ
force capable of organizing a mass of living structures which would amount (it has
been calculated) in the tenth brood to the bulk of 500,000,000 of stout men must
have been shut up in a single individual weighing perhaps the one one-thousandth
of a grain, from which the first brood was evolved,” if the theory was true; and
““the bodies of all men who have lived from the time of Adam to the present day
must have been concentrated in the body of their common ancestor.”

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 303

the breakdown of tissue, to be produced. Beclard found the quantity
of heat developed by voluntary muscular contraction greater when
simply an effort is produced, as when grasping an object firmly, than
when doing work, as by lifting the object. Matteucci found that
muscles absorb oxygen and throw off carbon-dioxide when doing work,
and in larger amount as more work is performed.

Dr. Flint, after a very beautiful investigation of the conditions of the
muscular system and the changes of tissue in the case of the pedes-
trian Weston after a five-days’ walk, as well as throughout equal
periods during and before the tremendous effort which carried him over
117.5 miles at the mean rate of over 4 miles per hour of actual travel,
concluded that ‘“‘ work is always attended with destruction of muscular
substance;” ‘the direct source of muscular power is to be locked for
in the muscle itself.” He thinks that the muscular tissue ‘can not be
absolutely stationary, and disassimilation must go on to a certain
extent even if no work is done. ‘This loss must be repaired by food to
maintain life.” That this is ordinarily, or at least may be, a very small
proportion of the energy effect is evident from the well-known condi-
tions of hibernation and by the fact that Dr. Tanner and others have
fasted for 40 days and more with no great apparent loss of vital and
essential strength, and seemingly at only the cost of accumulated fat
disposed of as a superfluity, previously, in the spaces between the
muscles. In the case of severe labor, as where a pedestrian continually
exerted all his powers for days together, Flint has proven clearly that
large quantities of muscular tissue are broken down.'

The proportion of nitrogenized or muscle-making food to nonnitro-
genized, in the walk here referred to, was, aS measured in units of
energy, about as 5,700,000 foot-pounds to 39,000,000, or about 15 per
cent; which figure will be recognized later as corroborated by other
and independent methods of examination of this subject. The total
absorbed energy would thus be about 11,000,000 foot-pounds per day,
plus that derived by the breaking down of tissue to the extent of the
total value of about 3,500,000 foot-pounds, 700,000 per day; that is to
say, 11,700,000 foot-pounds of energy were supplied the system per day,
when doing an extraordinarily large amount of work, both externally
and internally.» But Weston is a small man, and probably 10 per cent
should be added to make these figures comparable with those elsewhere
given as the average for a workingman, 10,000,000 foot-pounds. This
_ gives a total of over 12,000,000 foot-pounds, or 20 per cent above the esti-
' inated figure to be later computed for the average regular day’s work.
The food taken averaged about 20 ounces, a pound and a quarter, but
was somewhat concentrated, and stimulating in more than ordinary
degree.

' The source of muscular power. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1878.

*' The vital machine consists of about 40 per cent muscle, of which a half is water,
12.5 per cent blood, 2 per cent brain, and the remainder is skeleton and internal
organs.

304 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

As remarked by Professor Foster,' ‘from many considerations it is
extremely probable that a chemical change—an explosive decomposi-
tion of more complex into more simple substanuces—is the basis of a
nervous impulse.” The energy thus developed is largely in this case
employed in conveying the impulse along the nerve and in setting up
muscular or mental evolutions and applications of energy at its
extremity.

The introduction of chemical actions in the production of solution of
the available constituents of the food is one of the essential elements
of the extraordinarily perfect utilization of all its substance, of its
complete digestion, entire absorption, and thorough assimilation. -Only
from a state of solution could complete absorption or precipitation take
place. Food undergoes “profound disruption” before it can become a
part of the body or furnish it energy. ‘It would almost seem that the
qualities of each particle of living protoplasm were of such an indi-
vidual character that it had to be built up afresh from almost the very
beginning.” ”

The presence ot considerable quantities of phosphorus, especially in
the nervous system of the auimal, indicates that chemical actions may
be very rapid, and possibly may especially indicate the resultant pro-
duction of peculiar material and nonmaterial output, as the electric
current of the gymnotus, if not all animals, light in the firefly, the vital
forces of all vital machines. ‘The presence of water in large quantity
points the same way.

The blood is the carrier and distributor of all potential energy from
the dissolved material of supply, and the capacity of the blood vessels
is probably something of a gauge of the quantity of energy supplied
the parts to which they lead, and of the mean rate of expenditure dur-
ing their period of operation and restoration to normal condition of
rest. Whether the nutriment and the potential energy thus conveyed
supply energy directly, as supposed by Dr. Pavy and others,’ or indi-
rectly by the upbuilding of tissue later broken down and supplying
directly the stock of energy needed for transformation, as supposed
and probably experimentally proven by Dr. Flint,’ the result is the
Same.

The influence of the form in which the potential energy is supplied
the machine is well exhibited where, as in penal institutions like that
of the State of New York, “experimental classes can be formed and
the effect of the changes thus found practicable observed and meas-
ured.” The inverse ratio of food supply to crime and to illness had long
been recognized by students in anthropology and sociology; the fact
that every variation of the quality of an ample food supply produces

'Eneyclopedia Britannica. Article, Physiology, p. 21.
2Tbid.

The Lancet, Nov. 25, 1876.

4 Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Oct., 1877

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 305

an effect upon our moods, our powers, and our ability to perform mental
even more than manual work is a daily observation with every one;
and the suggestion has even been made that the selection of nutriments
may be made to produce effects of economic importance in both direc-
tions—in making the human as well as the lower order of machine
better as a motor, better as an intelligent worker, and even better as
a thinker and as a moral creature, which lines of improvement are all
essential to further progress in either direction. So far as both experi-
ment and general observation have gone, at present, it may safely be
stated there can be no question that the value, the power, the efficiency
and durability of the mechanical and of the mental side of the vital
apparatus are both influenced essentially by the nature of the material
selected as the reservoir of potential energy, to be rendered kinetic
and to be applied to useful purposes by it.

As indicated by Dr. Carpenter, in the middle of the nineteenth cen-

tury, it would seem now certain that ‘‘motor force may be developed,
like heat, by the metamorphosis of constituents of food which are not
converted into living tissue; ” while there is also no doubt that, in many
cases at least, the disintegration of tissue which has completed its
period of service in the organism may, precisely as does the digestion
of animal food, perform its part in the supply of potential energy to
the system for utilization in vital and other operations. As the same
great physicist and physiologist has stated it:

The life of man or of any of the higher animals consists essentially
in the manifestation of forces of various kinds, of which the organism
is the instrument, and these forces are developed by the retrograde
metamorphosis of the organic compounds generated by the instrumen-
tality of plants.

Thus, during the whole lite of the animal, the organism is restoring
to the world around both the materials and the forces which it draws
from it; and after its death this restoration is completed, as in plants,
by the final decomposition of its substance.

As was, perhaps, first stated explicitly, by Liebig, we find that the
sources of all forces, powers, energies, in man and animals, are to be
found in the food constructed by the plants out of mineral substances
under the active energy of the sun’s rays, which energy, becoming thus
latent, is reawakened by the vital apparatus and directed into useful
channels, constructing the whole animal machine, and doing all its
work—muscular, thermal, electrical, vital, mental.

The quantity of energy imported into the vital machine, is, in any indi-
vidual case, readily measurable. It differs greatly with the species,
size, temperament and work, external and internal, of the animal, and
very greatly with the efficiency of its apparatus of digestion and assim-
ilation. While, for example, one man will live and enjoy life and do
his full share of work on 1 pound of good food per day, another will
often require 2 pounds or more; and, in some instances, in which dis-
ease had reduced the assimilative powers, as much as 7 pounds have

SM 96 20

306 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

been demanded and still proved insufficient to supply the needed total
energy of the system. Tor a healthy and hard-working man, Dr. Pavy
gives 2 pounds of bread and 0.75 pound of meat as a fair ration for a
day.' Moleschott gives a total of 46 ounces or about 23 ounces in a dry
state, and 60 to 80 ounces of water in twenty-four hours. Voit gives 500
to 800 grams, or about 17 to 27 ounces of nutrient matter in the food
taken;? and, on the same basis, eliminating wastes, the principal inves-
tigators give about 550 grams, nearly 20 ounces, as an average. Edward
Atkinson gives from 2 to 2.75 pounds per day of common foods as diet-
aries on which life can be sustained and ordinary work done without
strain; but he allows 4 pounds for what may be termed “ good living.”
Much of the food included in the bill of fare of the well-to-do citizen has
no real value in nutrition; some of it is actually and often seriously
detrimental, and some, possibly a large proportion, is simply superfluity
and waste.

The food of a working man contains about 15 per cent nitrogenous
matter; that of a young child 20 per cent. Milk contains 25 per cent, -
uncombined water, as in the preceding cases, eliminated. Eighty-five
per cent of the food of the man is thus applicable to work, and 15 per
cent to muscle making. Three-fourths of the child’s food is suitable
for work and production of fat; one-fourth for making muscle. An
egg contains 11 per cent fat, 17.6 per cent albumen, and 1.5 mineral
matter; or dry, 37 per cent fat, 58 per cent albumen, and 5 per cent
minerals; i. e., apparently nitrogenous matter constituted about 0.6
the total weight of the body. A large fraction of the food is thus
required for work and heat, a small proportion for building up the
machine, or for its repair.

Wheat is usually considered the most perfectly compounded of the
grains adapted for the food of man. It contains, according to Scammel,
14.6 per cent muscle-making elements, 66.4 per cent heat-producing
material, 1.6 per cent nerve and brain food, and 17.4-water and waste.
Oatmeal contains, respectively, 17, 50.8, 3 and 30.5 per cent of these
elements. The meatscontain 20, 14,2 and 64 percent. Fish require little
heat, obviously, and as food contain 20 per cent muscle-making material,
1 per cent fat, 5 per cent brain and nerve food, and 74 per cent water
and waste. Oysters contain two-thirds as much solid matter of sub-
stantially the same composition. On the whole, 4 times as much energy
is Supplied in good food for heat and work as for muscle repair and 40
times as much as for brain and nerve.

Frankland finds the energy per pound of common foods to range
from 2,000 or 3,000 British thermal units in the case of the lean meats,
to about 7,000 with the grains and their flours, and to over 15,000 in the
case of the solid fats. The underground vegetables, which can hardly be

1Treatise on Foods.
2Mott’s Manual.
*Thurston’s ‘Animal as a prime mover,” page 76.

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 307

called foods, such as potatoes, carrots and turnips, contain three-fourths
to seven-eighths their weight water, and only supply from 800 to 1.800
British thermal units of energy. In foot-pounds of dynamic power, the
figures are 600,000 to 1,400,000 for the last-mentioned substances,
- 1,500,000 or 2,300,000 for the lean meats, 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 for the
grain foods, and 12,000,000 for the fats per pound of nutriment digested.
This comparison, however, gives no clew to their value as foods and as
nutriment of the vital machine, since it is known that the heat-produc-
ing value is but a part of the question, and that the power of assimi-
lating the elements of the body and of producing muscle, nerve, brain
and bone is no less essential to the maintenance of the efficiency of the
machine than the production of thermal or other equivalent energies.
The grains have double the value of the meats as brain and nerve
foods, and the coarse vegetables one-fourth the value of the grains in
this respect. Butter and lard, the best heat producers, have no value
at all as muscle and nerve material.!

Voit and others give the correct proportion of these elements in good
food as about 120 grams protein, 50 grams of fats, 550 grams of carbo-
hydrates, a total of say, 700 grams, about 23 ounces per day, as the
requirement of a man doing a day’s work at muscular labor. This
provides not far from 3,000 calories of thermal energy by oxidation.
Voit gives a total required energy in thermal units of from 3,000 to
5,200 calories, Playfair from 3,000 to 3,700, and Atwater from 2,820
to 4,060 calories; or, collecting all the best authorities, we may say that
3,000 calories, about 12,000 British thermal units, may be taken as
representative of the demand of the machine for energy when doing
little external work, and 4,000 calories, about 16,000 British thermal
units, when performing a hard day’s work every day. This means the
equivalent of 1 pound of ordinary coal for the first, and an equal
weight of the best coal for the second case, burned completely and with,
consequently, maximum production of thermal energy and dynamic
power. One pound of fairly good coal, say, about 13,000 British thermal
units of energy, may be assumed as ample for the production of all the
work and power, aud all the active phenomena, internal as well as
external, of the human machine, when doing a full day’s work.

This is 10,000,000 foot-pounds, nearly, of energy supplied.

So far as now known, this food supply and the oxygen required for
its complete combustion, with some nitrogen and a minute quantity of
mineral matter, constitute the total intake of the animal machine,
except that a quart of water, more or less, is needed to dilute the cir-
culating fluids of the system. The next question for our examination
is: What amounts of energy are expended and utilized in the various
processes of the operation, of maintenance and repair, and of perform-
ance of external work, usefal and useless, in an average day, with its
usual distribution of working time and rest?

1Seammel. Jbid., page 74.

308 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

The efficiency of the animal, considered as a machine, is now well
understood to be dependent, in a large measure, for any given indi-
vidual, upon the character of the material in which the stored energy
supplied it is presented. It is coming to be understood, also, that the
same is true of the vital prime mover, considered as a thought pro-
ducer. It is well known, also, that this is an important element in the
maintenance of that ideal state, ‘‘perfect health,” to which we may
approximate, but never absolutely reach, and the approximation to
which measures approximation to maximum efficiency under otherwise
most favorable possible conditions. From this point of view it is inter-
esting to study the following summary of the distribution of nutritive
and of heat-produeing elements in the best dietaries, according to
accepted authorities, that have been yet proposed. The nutrients,
the nitrogenous matters, are classed as including the muscle of meats,
the casein of milk, the gluten of grains; while the fats and carbo-
hydrates are taken as purely heat producing, and the following diagram
and tables, from the report of 1893 of the Elmira Reformatory, gives
the best condensed view of the data required that the writer has yet
seen.!

The standard dietary for man is usually given as not far from a weight
of 700 grams, of which about 60 per cent is generally starchy food, 20
per cent fats, and the remainder nitrogenous; the potential energy
stored is about 3,650 calories.2, But while the actual dietaries are com-
monly largely composed of animal food, it should be at all times remem-
bered that the teachings of comparative anatomy and of general
experience, so far as careful observation informs us, indicate that the
vegetable starches and fats and proteins are more suitable for the animal
prime motor, and even still more to the thought machine than the
carnivorous foods.’

It will be noted that the lower limit of supply ranges close upon 400
grams, 2,000 calories, 8,000 British thermal units for little or no labor;
that is not far from 600 grams, 3,000 calories, 12,000 British thermal
units for the workingman; while double these figures may be reached.

1The Eighteenth Yearbook of the New York State Reformatory, at Elmira,
issued, under the supervision of its distinguished and successful superintendent, as
wholly the product of the talent of its officers and of the manual skill and the taste
of its inmates, contains exceedingly valuable and interesting accounts of the
manual training system and trade schools there so fruitfully operated.

2For present purposes it will be sufficiently accurate to take the gram as one-
thirtieth of an ounce and the calorie as four British thermal units.

* See particularly, Schlickenysen; ‘‘ Fruit and bread; a scientific diet ;” Holbrook’s
translation, 1877. See also various papers of The Anthropological Institute of
Great Britain, as that of C. O. Groom, Napier, and the address of Dr. Denis at
the International Congress of Anthropology, of 1892; which papers and various
researches now becoming familiar, show the influence of the character of the
energy-storing material supplied the vital engine upon its power and efficiency
in both fields of application of kinetic energy derived from the original store of
potential.

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 309

On account of unavoidable waste, exact standards can not be adopted
in a practical ideal dietary, and it is universally deemed necessary to
establish, beside an exact standard, an actual practical standard diet-
ary, with somewhat increased allowance. The first table furnishes a
comparison of certain daily dietaries computed principally by Prof.

I.—STANDARD AND ACTUAL DIETARIES.

k= CO lS

CARBOHYDRATES. FATS, PROTEIN.

POTENTIAL ENERGY,

Nutrients. Grams 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 400 16)00
) ‘ : R
Potential Enerdy , Calones 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 80}00
Subsistence diet (Playfair). ........
Perce iborerLaaeety uty oo wu
Students, Japan si ncuer a womans a we 8, 8 SSR
Lawyers, Munich, Germany, ....... Saar
Well-paid mechanic, Munich, Germany. . Semin
Well-fed blacksmith, Eugland.....:..
German soldiers, peace footing ...,..
German soldiers, war footing .......£
French-Canadian families, Canada ...4. Sntmin
Mechanics and factory operatives, Mass. . Sem it
* ” =
Well-to-do family, Conn... ...... at er
College students, Northern & Eastern States p=
Machinists, Boston, Mass........,...

Hard-worked teamsters, etc., Bostoti. Mass.

U.S. Army Ration. ....... se aesOk ic E

(UM SeNAVY, RAO) os cs ws eres se) © .

N. ¥. 5. Reformatory Standard .i1..,.

W.O. Atwater, and bearing upon people in various parts of the globe—
together with lines indicating the theoretical standard dietary adopted
in the Reformatory. The second table offers a comparison between
this exact standard and the actual dietary as provided in three grades

310 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

established at Elmira, and in contrast, other standards established
by Playfair and Voit for adults in general, and for inmates of penal
institutions.

II,—IDEAL AND ACTUAL PENAL DIETARIES.

Nutrients, Grams 200 400 600 800 1000 120

Potential Energy, Calories 1000 2000 3000 4000 S000 s0\00

Reformatory Standard Daily Ration. ...+.-+.-- OOOO

pean
mu

Gazz
Actual Upper First Grade Dietary. ........--. INARI

Actual Lower First Grade Dietary......-... SS JQ)
: S

oie EES TE
Actual Second Grade Dietary .....-..- ~~ . BS) (0)

4

HOM

Playfair’s Standard for adults, moderate exercise. .

Voit’s Standard for laboring men at moderate work =] (0

Ey Ra
BUA

Voit's Standard for prisoners inidleuess ,.....:

Voit’s Standard for prisoners at work. ......-

Exact figures corresponding to these lines are presented herewith:

Ill.—ANALYSES OF ENERGY STORAGE.

Nutrients, in grams. Potential |
| zi Ta ; energy |
| Protein. |

| Carbo- | in
Fats. | hydrates.) calories. |

|

= = neste }—=

Refractory standard dietary daily ration! ..... 119 | 61 556 3,334 |
Actual upper first-grade ration.........-....-. | Nd be 810 | 4,696 |
Actual lower first-grade ration -.-...-..-.----.) 154 | 69 | 794 | 4,524 |
Actual second-grade ration.....-...----------- , 154 | 69 | 776 4, 452
Playfair’s standard for adults, moderate exer- | | |

Gis Ganabarns dos nase hoossncobosuaEeduesusasnass 17 | ol | 531 | 3,140
Voit’s standard for laboring men at moderate | |

WOE es een a aren SP oe Ney ten en mg > BS | 500 | 8, 050
Voit’s standard for prisoners in idleness. ..-.--| 85 | 30 | 300 1,857 |
Voit’s standard for prisoners at work.-.------.| 105 40 500 2 852

' All food supplies are issued according to-this standard dietary, except bread ; which is unlimited.
The average consumption of bread per man is somewhat in excess of one and one-half rations per meal,
thus accounting for the increase in value of the actual ration over that of the standard dietary,
which conforms very nearly in food values to the standards of Voit and Playfair.

An excess above 600 grams, 3,000 calories, 12,000 British thermal
units, may probably be taken as representing waste in most cases; it
is certainly exceptional. Deficiency is as probably indicated where the
weight is less than two-thirds this figure.

The quantity of energy supplied, where the method and material of

oo

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

thermal units, from 6,700,000 to 10,000,000 foot-pounds per day.

New York State Reformatory dietary.

dil

_ supply are suitable, may thus range between 8,000 and 12,000 British

Standard daily dietary (in ounces).
Sunday. | Monday. Tuesday. gone ee | Friday. Saturday.| ag
| | Or
ney comes tee a ee = eg ee
B.|D.| S.|B.|D. 8. B.| D. S./B.|D.[S.]B.|D.]S.|B.|D.)sS.|B.1D.|s.| B
t| | (eee sy Tee tl | aie | | tae] fee ene | ee 2| ee | hee z<)\4
[4 | ea | | | ina |
(nnedicorned beef-.-.\1s6\-)-..1.--\2- 1. 6}.- -|- a Fonte eoreoalinee fk G |ferers hee fe: elas Pls 6. 40
eet a 08) Sos. 2 stele ES ae eae ee olN6) Vales eels ae
| | | | |
IMinttonys..- 22 sec 5-2 <2 ge ee a eee eles Lee peel alee Bae a Resets 8
| | |
OGkKa (fait) 5 eesti S| os cae elses | ose esmlestiitses Bea | Be alae [al elie calleoe!| a arial
| | | | | | |
Kopf’s pea soup ..-.----|--- 2 oll eolas oat | Bel ae ea Bee eter ceo J--=]---|- -|---|---! Boel ae
TG Ash eset cate as gels ce 8 |8|8)8/8)8\8 | 8 8/ 8/8 8/8 |}8)'8 8 8 | 8} 8 | 8} 8 }168
Potatoes.......-....... Gi fees [12 |. |e HC Gn ede | talG | es le oi6 G|4]...| 60
} | i | | | ) |
Omions eee ey se ee sialic lls <I 4. ae howe see alte 4) + 2.50
MorMip seca sesg=c vals - lamellae ene acl I eclene | 2 2 5
| | fF
(CEVeROIS) Gee Sepeee pease lara |. TAS WSR ge ie 1} - a\lz 14 4
IPRSTTN OS Seco dace tHecee jee] See Se (Aer : iby eee er 14. ae 13 4
TRAGUSaeGae ec eeseeeeaae Nes errs eel eaallooe eee See se Yai Beal lee Ye eal ee : oat 3! 1.50
Tomatoes.......---..-. has tee we Zoalle cll bal deel es aa eat | 2g)---|--- +s 2.50
Milouneie sees. 2) ll 1S se | ab oes cis GEM [ee ee La eee et alea it oe Hee lieaain 5
(ORES Seoaeesereodllsosisselos lloozl|sballeealaa- 2 eiosal [shes HSE es Hl .25
Tatars cage Neel lee ale ace Ae eS le Peaceteeai ci lee eats 10.50
Barlevecer cee see une ale: et eaee ta een t= AL Se Al pela ee ala cg 2
JERS gee Oe eee eae esse eat ae ea oe Fol urls Bo fal iesell | 1.75
Miolasseste 26.92/25 Kav aller taed ae eects ies Peele s| | | 31
Pree | sa|Posta = —| -|—| err, —|—-|—- —-|—-|—-|—-|-—- —|—-}
Total, one week..|... ..- erie de all6as ae aloo eae lel se tere ean Pele | |... 844. 65
Total, one day ...|..-|-.-|.--| cod lecollecallScultes ee! Sac\bse|ode|\see i: |- ee a|iace||nex | 49, 24
Breardewe alee ge See celles ass 5 a ae ele eles ee ee
Total, one week... Ten | aa eet ee | oe |. a ee uae A Gen peal 442. 65
Motaleoneday a clei ois tlee lee ees ae peta BES aed pes essere la od (eae ees Bale poqess| Ce
deli a [aan el |
ADDITIONAL FOR UPPER AND LOWER FIRST GRADES.
a S| easel aca ea a | Sets etd aa] CoE la ees
Cnitdcch cae ae eee es ssc] al deo flee bes Peace eieee ehecelesc | sh. Shen 1 2 6
| | | | i | | | | |
Tea...--.-----------.-- ---)- | Gs-- 0: Bie-- --- Bole Hose leech elects \aemlene ---| g] «88
Sugar...--.........---- | a}---| 3 4} 2] 4] 4)-2 | 4) a] 4} a} 4 1 4| 2 4) 4 4) 2) 4.50
=|—=|— = | SS ee ey = =| = |= = = =| |= :
Tuavieih mg WeGTR oe se FU pe aaa a BE Sal al PA | bale eae 450. 78
| | | |
Total, one day .-..)---) lb | | aie [Pst | eae | [fee ee lise ke jo | ie 64. 40
ADDITIONAL, UPPER FIRST GRADE.
Ooi 2 eee eer ee seal: AA ON al ee Ne (eer oaeta a Bae Obl Weel oral en eee es eed lacr (G6
SigGiP sat ae a ahah ec lees| 2 |ergneeneeelicalie Bsel2iarele. a| 3.23
| | | |
Dried apples.........-. eal 8. dlescloaeloas||. "Pioselebellecolece| Hscalsasices 8} 2.50
Durrant) 2. -- Gs see. =. lee [eee seat etal s(t I Sees ees |e | ine | Eoccleos =|) 2 2B
[Bie oo acS ice wee ae ee : Feu ce ee Nelle aE dellanellecal | A eallagareca|l ils 16)
ipiecsoneeres sce a. Aly eet ho Hh eer alee Per eeeleeelen elias 2| 8.00
b= == = SS = SS} ——— —— 2S] == == = ——|———s ———
Total, one week..|._- ae RRS as ae eee !_..|468. 49
“Nz Gia GET cle alfls ele ll eR ge te an a oedfecellsoc|icorlecclene eee Heaps ceeyee | G6u 92
| J |

B—Breakfast. D—D

inner.

S--Supper.

'The writter has, as a matter of experiment, lived for long periods of time on about 12 ounces per
day of oatmeal (dry) or the equivalent in ‘‘cracked wheat”’ or other grain, supplying but about 1,400
calories per day. and, leading sedentary life, found this allowance ample. This is also the least
costly of all foods, and the writer has known young men to live on 60 cents a week, making up the
dietary of grain foods mainly.

2 Actual average consumption per man per week in excess of standard ration.

312

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

New York State Reformatory dietary—Continued.

Table of food values.

Nutrients.
Ref.
use : :
) Min- | Potential
bones, | Water,
Rye eae ; Carbohy- eral | energy.
oi | Protein. Fats. AEAioe. ee sy
a | ter.
=| ‘ uk
Per | Per | Per Per Per s Per ; :
earns oats, | Gem, Ounces. rents Ounces. wernt Ounces Gent: Calories.
Canned corned beef. -..|.------ | 62 30 "1.92 8 (Oey Be eerste a pene 358
BECHER keen ee Saal 19.7 | 44 13.8 4.41 | 21.7 et sera one ise 0.8 2, 608
WENO <atenogoasocKsas 20 42.9 37.1 2.97 23. 2 1 Dae Sallececeene att 834
IPO (IRN) = caacooakoaos 10.4 9.5 2.8 508 || Gul eeeee |bbene see 8 205
Kopf’s pea soup _...--- |Reece eeeoey 21 .42| 17 BA INAG eon 0.92) | Gene 246
EBT al Claes 5 Bate eee bere ee B25 8 14. 95 1.9 3. 19 5555 93. 24 il 13, 417
IQUE) - ceobacaobaadise 10 68 1. 08 2 - 12) 19.1-) 11.46 .9 1, 489
Onions*ees-ce meses |
Dkubaoh Ns ee Seosmcnacease
Carrots aces Oe sean | | ee
E 10 CML 2) . 39 .2 4 6 1.17 .8 192
JPMASMVIIS ssoccodocosses
(Be otis) Seetiae sas ea:
Momatoes\-.--2--'--2:---
ADIOS Ro osee GoEsboce abo eeeare 4, 11.1 . 55 1.1 05 | 75.6 3.78 .6 518
Oatmeal See eye sere ome fie 15.1 «04 TAL 02 | 68.1 5 e/ 2 29
Bean gis yes Mewes eyes 13.7 | 23.2 2.44 2.1 22 | 57.4 6. 02 3.6 1, 042
awleyiecee ese en se cess eivevesl = 18 10.5 083 2.5 .01 | 67 melii, 2 Bul
BERT C Cpe ete pele aera cecll car 12.4 7.4 13 4 01 | 79.4 1539 4 178
WIQEISSES) Scaccogdesquce|oseasos|ecmocnalasesopelacesdanieecoosc|baoceone| Os 1) UEC) osccss- 2,197
Total, one week..|-.---- : i Penne Bamersee 29. 35 Bccereeacke OP looaase | TOD cose 23, 337,
Wtouall, oie Clany socloeoccaallocsao5e |---=--- CoQ) Iaoooseis 2:15) }------ ISCO |ncoeess 3, 334
Standard daily ration, S i z pa |
GRAS ..cacacseacoeosloosoods||eacacccljeosaqse WI |esoades Gi ocoses BHD) eavesaclseonsosssc
Breadth asesn steele, ALE 5 Ge Riel ee AP EIEEG tees Sao) eee 7, 827
=| =| == —= ——— = —
Toviall, ONS wWweElesa|scoosclascoues Texgee i BE (ie eecsae 1GHOSUEsee ee HN(O1e Gila eee 31, 164
otal ome\ danas ss |heee ese Peace Jocotane 5.44 |....--- Ces opm ose Pile BU loasoac = 4, 452
Actual second-grade a ae | ae al
daily mation) jomams eee sehen a slneee eee Ms oeascae G2) csesda WO octoscollosacosss5e
ADDITIONAL FOR UPPER AND LOWER FIRST GRADE. =
Suara aoe ewer eee 2.2 0.3 ONOL aaeeerleee saeco 96. 7 4.35 | 0.08 507
Total, one week .|...... Tate Heer W309 Po ee aos Tonocy ae A Si, Gy
ROA ONS GERY scsllecascocl|ocacdsocllecsscoc 544i cect Poe |nsenos Alig 88) oaoacc< 4,524
Actual lower first i 4 ;
grade daily ration,
EAMG) eee ates eee oes eee cielel eee aes | see Ge Ne seeder BN Nesoeiae CO Ginsoscosbeccnseac
ADDITIONAL, UPPER FIRST GRADE.
Susars)- cei eee Jee DO 0,8) OG Latenclee sense 96.7 | 3.12'| 0.8 363
Butlers ss succ sete ne eel eee 10 1 . 01 85 0. 96 a) OL 3.5 254
@heesen ees. ae. gee coat Meese 41.3 | 38.4 3. 07 6.8 . 54 8.9 71 4.5 583
Total, onesweck:.\.) sean een | Sees RZ es Ete. Bi: TYEE) Iauaoe qh. 42 an
Motalone daygere |Maseern eee eens nee YI Nlososeu » 2G occese |_ 28.56 |..-.--- __ 4, 696
Actual upper first Sree Ns age
grade daily ration,
REPSUS) cocommoneeosanc locodince [eceeees Jreeeeee| WOY Weceacns WD bedsos Sl) scacasaliscocsasc 2c

1 Actual average consumption per man per week in excess of standard ration.

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. ale

PART II.—ENERGY SUPPLIED; POWER AND EFFICIENCY; INTERNAL
WORK OF THE VITAL MACHINE.

The energy expended by the vital machine consists of:

(1) The external work performed, as the task of the workingman.

(2) The external work performed incidentally outside of that usetul
work, as-in the movements of the limbs, walking, handling the food,
and various voluntary and other motions, which constitute a consider-
able fraction of the more or less necessary expenditure of energy in
ways not included in the daily specified task.

(3) The internal work of digestion, assimilation, nutrition, and rejec-
tion of excreta.

(4) The internal work of respiration.

(5) The internal work of circulation of the blood and the other fluids
of the system.

(6) The internal work of growth, maintenance, reconstruction, and
repair.

(7) The internal work of the automatic system regulating the fune-
tions and movements of the various organs, both external and internal.

(8) The internal work of conscious direction of the movements of
body and limbs, and, in some cases, of internal organs, and, to some
extent, of the work of respiration and of circulation.

(9) The internal work of the brain, and possibly of other organs, in
the performance of conscious thought and of brain work, a large part
of which is essential to the proper performance of the useful work of
the vital prime motor, and in the case of the man whose duties are
those, distinctively, of the thinker, a large part of which must be rated
as useful and prescribed work, determining the efficiency of the machine.

(10) Peculiar and characteristic forms of energy which are the special
produce of some organism or class of organisms, and not essential ele-
ments of its operation as a vital machine, bul; which are employed
occasionally as the special provocation to which they respond comes
into action.

Such is the internal work last mentioned—that of the brain—where
it is not the useful product of the machine; such is the energy expended
in the production of the poison of the serpent, the secretion of offen-
sively odorous fluids in many animals and, perhaps, the honey produc-
ing glands of the bee may be thus classed. The most remarkable, and,
in this connection most important, illustrations of this class, are found
in the generation and use of the electric fluid by the torpedo and gym-
notus and the production of light by the glowworm and firefly.

Hibernating animals exhibit a peculiar modification of the action of
the vital functions; their whole purpose, during hibernation, being to
insure of the continuance of the physical operations of circulation and
respiration by the employment of the previously stored energy of the
accumulated fat of the body. Very little tissue is wasted or repaired,
and the whole system is simply preserved in action through a period of

314 THE ANIMAL AS. A PRIME MOVER.

temporary suspense of the life of the creature. That this may be
done by the employment of pure hydrocarbous indicates that only
energy and not material is required, for no nitrogenous aliment is
absorbed or assimilated.

The measure of these various quantities of energy, useful and wasted,
necessary or incidental to the purpose of the existence of a machine
or its application to useful work, is, in the case of the external useful work
of a laboring man or animal, easily and accurately made; but all the
other items are very difficult, and usually, at present, at least, impos-
sible of more than approximate measurement, even if any clue cam be
obtained at all to their methods of action or their absoiute and relative
quantities. We have not yet discovered the nature of the primary
methods of transformation of the energies imported, as latent, into the
system, or even what energies are active in the production of the work
of the brain and nervous systems and in the automatic operation of
the machine. We know enough, however, to prove that the animal
machine is a motor of very high efficiency as compared with the prime
movers devised by man (his thermodynamic engines, at least), and to
indicate, if not to prove, that the machine is a thermo-electric, chemico-
dynamic, electro-dynamic, or chemico-electric apparatus, or else a prime
mover in which some unknown form of energy, acting by as yet undis-
covered methods, is transformed more economically than in any case
familiar to the man of science or the engineer of our time.

The power of animal machines varies greatly with the race and work.
Investigations of the quantity of work per pound of the animal ma-
chine have been made by the students of aviation, which throw some
light upon the problem in hand.' Thus Dr. Smith measured the lifting
power of a pigeon, as registered by a dynamometer, and computed its
expenditure at 160 foot-pounds per pound of bird, or about 200 pounds
weight of bird per horsepower. AJexander computes 270 foot-pounds
per pound, 120 pounds weight per horse-power. Penaud finds the fol-

lowing, which are thought to be more exact figures:
Pounds per

horsepower.
PORCOGk \ p52 5) Bae 2 lass Nae RR ee ne Ce ie te ee ete 66
PiPC OMe ese Hear eRe Slee ees Bie ora oy tree ta ager ed he Oe Sr ee ec aR 57
SPALLOW. Sess yh eee Reais ok ee se lene nN le om aie Oe ey oye a 48
S@apie eee er eae aie Gas kIe Ne LAER SAP ELOEN TC” te ce aeet: Se ece 26

Were the weight of the pectoral muscles, which actually perform all
this work, made the basis of these calculations, these figures would
range from 15 to about 5 pounds only per horsepower, thus giving the
limiting weight of motor machine. Theactual work of rising in the last
cases is greater by the amount of slip in the wings, and the bird com--
puted to give 60 pounds per horsepower is more nearly 20 pounds, and
the last given figure becomes more nearly 5 to 2 pounds than 13 to 5.
In full flight, the demand for power is much reduced, and becomes

1 Progress in Flying Machines. O. Chanute. Page 39.

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. S15

probably 500 foot-pounds per pound, or at the rate of 0.015 horsepower
per pound, 66 pounds of bird per horsepower. This flying machine is
proportioned to give the higher power at starting; the lower in steady
working. Their emergency performance is thus probably three or four
times the average for the day’s work. This is also a fact illustrated in
common experience with men, who, developing one-eighth of a horse-
power for an average day’s work, can exert a half horsepower for two
or three minutes, a full horsepower for a few seconds. The aggregate
power of the machine varies from an indefinitely small quantity with
the smaller creatures to 140 horsepower, as estimated for the whale
swimming 10 knots per hour.

The beart is, perhaps, the most powerful and enduring of all the
muscular structures of the system. Helmholtz has computed that this
organ can, on the average, raise its weight at the rate of 6,670 meters
per hour. He found that the locomotive, climbing heavy gradients, in
the cases investigated by him, at that time, could rise 800 meters in the
hour, unloaded. He therefore concluded that the heart, considered
as a machine, was eight times as effective as the locomotive. Presum-
ing that his locomotive had an efficiency of 10 per cent, this would
make the heart, were it self-contained and a prime motor, exhibit an
efficiency of energy-conversion of about 80 per cent. This supposition
is, however, by no means correct.

Tick estimates the efficiency of energy transformation in the useful
work of the muscle at one-third to one-quarter, the remainder of the
total energy supplied being consumed in internal work and wasted
directly or indirectly as heat.'

Chauveau points out the fact that the efficiency of the muscle varies
enormously with time and method of contraction and extension and
magnitude of load. In the case of the muscles of the automatic—the
vital—system as those of the heart and lungs and digestive organs, it
is probable that the conditions are those of constant maximum
efficiency, and the figure attained would seem, from other considera-
tions, to be likely to be found comparatively large, and, for the machine ©
as an energy transformer, immensely greater than is ever attained in
nonvital motors of the thermodynamic class. The energy transforma-
tion is presumably never thermodynamic, but is, directly or indirectly,
dynamo-thermic, and the heat of the muscular system is a product, not
a source, of useful work, and an excretion, not a food.”

It has been seen that the food required by the average workingman
contains about 12,000 British thermal units of energy when resting or
doing little work, and about 16,000 when at hard work. It would thus
appear that the work of the laborer, for which he is paid, represents
about 25 per cent of all the energy expended by the vital machine in
external and internal work, heat-producing and wastes. This means

1 Experimenteller Beitrag, 1869; Ueber die Wirmeentwicklung, 1878.
?Chauveau. Travail Musculaire, page 233.

316 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

that it performs one-fifth of a horsepower of commercially valuable
labor, and, assuming all work concentrated into the workingday, three-
fifths of one horsepower, mainly, in the work of the organism itself.

A day’s work, even for the average workman of full working power,
varies greatly with the nature of the work and the method and facilities
of its performance, and the same is true of the horse and all other
animals, but usually in less degree. The most powerful horses may be
expected to develop, aS an average, two-thirds of a horsepower for
eight hours a day, or 12,000,000 foot-pounds per day, very nearly,
under favorable circumstances. The work of a man is variously given
by different writers, but it is usually stated to be not far, at best, from
2,000,000 foot-pounds per day in the treadmill, ascending mountains
and stairways when his own weight is the useful load, and carrying
burdens on a level. Weisbach gives as maximum figures 1,935,360,
Rankine gives 2,088,000, while Ruhlman states the work of a Prusean
soldier, carrying a lepencl and other accouterments weighing a total
of 64 pounds, as about 3,000,000 foot-pounds. We may safely take
2,000,000 foot-pounds per day as a figure to be compared with the
10,000,000 foot-pounds of energy supplied, and as giving a fair maxi-
mum for the efficiency of the animal considered as a prime motor.' It
is 0.125 horsepower for eight hours, 0.04 for the day.

The efficiency of the animal machine as an apparatus for the per-
formance simply of external work is on the basis here taken,

EH = 2,000,000 / 10,000,000 = 0.20,
20 per cent. This happens to be just the efficiency of the best recorded
steam-engine performance to date.

The efficiency of the vital machine considered as a motor is ‘high.
Haller, about 1840, had applied the then new principles of thermody-
namics to the action of the vital elements of the system, and had
suggested that the heat of the body was at least in part due to the
friction of the circulation. Joule found by experiment that the passage
of fluids through tubes gave rise to heat, and gave the correct explana-
tion as early as 1843. In the now famous paper of Joule, dated 1846,’
he concludes:

The duty of a Daniell battery, per grain of zinc, is 80 pounds raised 1
foot high—about one-half the theoretical duty—i. e., its efficiency is
about 0.50.

The duty of a Cornish engine, per grain of coal, is 145 pounds raised
1 foot high, an efficiency of 0.10.

The duty of a horse, per grain of food, is 143 pounds raised 1 foot high,

“which is one-quarter the energy due its combustion,” an efficiency of
0.25.

The ean as a Prime Misior. R. H. Thurston, section 17, page 50; section 18,
page 523.

Philosophical Magazine, 1846. Memoir of Joule, by Osborne Reynold, 1892, page
100.

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 317

Joule thus, at the middle of the century, had found the animal, taken

as a prime mover, to be two and a half times as efficient as the best
engines of his day, one and a quarter times as efficient as the best
engines of our day, the close of the nineteenth century.

This figure is corroborated by many independent experiments and
computations. Joule, as above, put the work of horse and man at about
one-fourth, sometimes as low as one-sixth, the dynamic equivalent of
the food supply. Hirn found substantially the same figure as is above
deduced by measuring the work and the exhalations of carbon-dioxide
and of moisture by his ineclosed treadmill operators. Helmholtz
deduced 20 per cent, also, from the same experiments. Joufret
takes the work of the man at 280,000 kilogrammeters and obtains 21
per cent, by the day, rising to 37 per cent, short intervals and actual
expenditures of energy and proportional supply being taken.

We may thus, without much doubt, conclude:

The efficiency of the animal machine, assuming that only external,
so-called useful work is reckoned as the product, and the full dynamic
equivalent of the energy latent in the food supply being taken as unity,
is about 20 per cent.! Hirn’s experiments with his inclosed treadmill
gave efficiencies from 17 to 25 per cent, the lowest being given by ‘“‘a
lymphatic youth of eighteen,” the highest by a strong laborer of the
age of forty-seven. The average is precisely that computed by the
method pursued above.”

Our computation, however, should be checked by the introduction
of the quantity of rejected, unassimilated food, if we are to learn the
real maximum possible efficiency of the animal machine motor.

The factor of digestibility is probably with the animal machine,
human or other, when in good health and normal, between 75 and 90
per cent, averaging not far from 80 or 85 with the customary healthful
foods. With domestic animals Professor Woods finds this factor to
range all the way from about 50 to approximately 90 per cent.’ This
is confirmed by many other investigators, and the assumption of 85
per cent as a fair maximum is probably perfectly justifiable, with all the
familiar forms of the vital machine in good order.

In the case of Weston, the pedestrian—studied by Dr. Flint—the
proportion of food utilized being taken as measured by the ratio of
nitrogen absorbed in food to that excreted in chemically different com-
binations, the efficiency of nutrition, the ‘‘factor of digestibility,” in
one sense, was, when quietly training without excessive exertion and
with very moderate exercise, and as an average for five days, 86.6 per
cent. Itis probable that a good digestion and assimilation should be
expected to attain an efficiency of 90 per cent, aud that 10 per cent of

'The Animal as a Prime Motor.
*Tbid., p. 43.

° Reports of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.
*Muscular Power, page 84.

318 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

the food, or less, might be expected to be wholly wasted. Very nearly
this efficiency was attained by the same individual during five days of
recuperation after a five days’ walk of 317.5 miles.

The food of the human prime motor has been seen to yield from
about 2,500 calories, 10,000 British thermal units, 7,800,000 foot-pounds,
nearly, when doing little or no work, up to 4,000 calories, 16,000 Brit-
ish thermal units, 12,500,000 foot-pounds, nearly, when doing a maxi-
mum day’s work. This would seem to indicate that the internal work
of brain, nerves, muscles, and other organs of work and thought and
heat production must be about three times the total external work of
a working day, and this, in turn, would again make the efficiency of
the vital machine one-quarter, 25 per cent, corresponding once more to
the maximum given by Hirns’s.direct experiments.

Reviewing what has been thus far collated, it will probably be
admitted that the following may be taken as a fair estimate of the
efficiency and energy distribution of the average representative human
prime motor, assuming 10,000,000 foot-pounds supplied and 85 per cent
ot the food to be digested:

The animal machine—RKeceipts and expenditures—E fficiencies.

| Energ af i ry |
. ood. | y Per cent of energy

| NECONEH MOET COON: | utilized. available.
| = <= ae SS a
| Total receipts (foot-pounds)..-...--..--- 10,000,000 |

Loss unassimilated.....----..---.--.---- 1,500,000 | |

Available and utilized .......................-. | 8,500,000 | 6&5 100

One day’s labor, maximum..........-...--.:---.----- i oO 000, 000 | 23.5 ~ 90 ‘|
exit catsrejected lan aten sine eaaseme setae enna ceeaen 3,700,000 | 43.5 Sil
| |
| Thought-energy ..-...-.---..--------.----------.---. 500,000 | 5.9 5 |
| Jnternal work other than friction...............----- 2,300,000 | iene 23}

Wastes by nonassimilation, as above .-.....-----.--. .------------. Pea etek 15 |
| Sotalles Vesti Rian Oe te chs NNN tote 8, 500, 000 100 100 |
SE Bisws Dial oe anes | = |

! Dalton

Where the machine is a thought-machine, and not primarily a prime
motor, the efficiency may be quite different, as will be seen later.

The wasted energy of the vital machine, when considered merely as a
work producer in the ordinary sense of that term, consists of the
various internal energies expended in the operation of the machine,
the misapplied mechanical energy of the twenty-four hours, and the
heat radiated and conducted from the body and exhaled from the lungs.
Jould all these wastes be suppressed, the efficiency of the machine
would be unity as a prime motor. Precisely what are these energies
and their respective amounts is, as yet, unknown; their aggregate has
been seen to be 80 per cent. To what extent either or all may be sup-
pressed, as our knowledge of the machine enables us to employ it more
and more intelligently, no one can yet say, except that itis known that
the losses of heat from the exterior of the body may be kept down to a

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 319

comparatively small amount, and, if necessary, made minute, by properly
clothing it in nonconducting materials, precisely as nature clothes the
birds and the other wild creatures. If the suppression of this loss
results in corresponding increase in energy-conversion, in useful direc-
tions, the efficiency of the machine is to that extent exalted. It is
certain that some loss of heat externally is necessary to preserve the
activities of organs of the body, by giving a needed difference of tem-
perature between the surface and the interior, and to carry away
energy in its final, thermal form; and mankind has, from the begin-
ning, sought to reduce this waste by covering the body with skins,
woven tissues, and other forms of material fitted to check the outflow.

The source of animal warmth and heat energy has been for genera-
tions the subject of study and experimental research by the best
physicists and biologists. According to Jamin, Messrs. Halles and
Cigna and Black and Priestley showed that the products of respiration
were chemically identical with those of combustion. Lavoisier con-
firmed this conclusion, and proved that the oxygen inhaled was not all
accounted for by the exhalation of carbon-dioxide, but a balance must
be sought in the production of water by union with hydrogen. He
attributed the vital functions to the oxidation occurring in the lungs,
and cireulation to digestion and to the regulating action of transpira-
tion. Regnault and Reiset, measuring the volumes of carbonic acid
produced, found that the larger the proportion of vegetable food the
greater the amount of this oxidation; while the combination of oxygen
directly with the carbon of the nutriment sometimes gave an item in
the balance of the account, its rejection occurring with the fluids of the
system, as in uric acid, this proportion being the greater as the food
was, in larger part, flesh. They found a small amount of nitrogen
passing off, presumably rejected from the disintegrating tissues. Bous-
singault reached the same conclusion by determining the quantities of
solid and liquid taken into the body and rejected from it. Lagrange,
Spallanzani, Edwards, and Magnus ascertained that the oxidation
occurs in the circulation and the capillaries. Despretz and Dulong
found the heat produced by the vital apparatus to be about nine-tenths
the quantity which would result from complete oxidation, in equal
amount, in the air.!

The source of vital and muscular energy is easily identified, and it is
well known that the function of digestion is to render available the
potential energy of the foods by reducing them to solution in fluids
capable of easily and rapidly and completely entering the constitution
of the biood, to be distributed to points in the system at which their
stores of potential energy may be made available in kinetic form. Pre-
cisely how this latter operation of transformation occurs is still un-
known; but Claude Bernard, about the middle of the century, called
attention to the action of the re sy stem in the production of Eee

Des intere aes ¢ Prater en ae recent measures on the dancer of diesetane

320 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

genic matter, and later investigation has shown that glycosic matter is
distributed throughout the animal system from the liver and through
the circulatory system into the capillaries, where it largely disappears
and carbon dioxide comes into view. It is now well understood that
the oxidations and the energy transformations essential to animal life
and activities occur through reactions between the oxygen in solution
in the blood of the arteries and the combustible elements accompanying
it, which chemical operations take place in the depths of the tissue cells,
and, perhaps, in the capillary vessels. It isalso now admitted that the
quantity of action is probably proportional to the loss of sugar and of
oxygen, and to carbonic acid replacing the lost glycose as a product of
its oxidation.’ Since these chemical combinations are invariably low-
temperature combustions, and since they are vastly greater in quantity
in the active than in the passive muscle, and since the heat ultimately
derived is the excretum of the system and the final result of energy
transformation, it may fairly be concluded that an intermediate trans-
formation, or series of transformations, as yet unidentified, either quali-
tatively or quantitatively, constitutes the physiological method of pro-
duction of work. Glycosic substance is not found concentrated in any
considerable quantity in the tissues, except in the liver, the organ in
which it originates, and the only conclusion would seem to be that
glycogenesis is the one extremity of a chain of transformations, of which
heat constitutes the other. In this sense the hepatic gland is the source
of muscular power as well as of animal heat. It is this fact which makes
the flow of blood to the working part, and the volume of its channels,
measures of the energy there applied. The weight of blood flowing
through a muscle at work was found by Chauveau and Kaufmann to be
about 85 per cent of the weight of the muscle itself, each minute of »
working time, for full load. Its amount varies with the work performed,
external and internal. The circulation, with the muscle in repose, was
found by the same investigators to be about one-fifth as great as when
full work. The succession of changes is thus, probably, as follows:

(1) Potential energy in foods is rendered available as a source of
kinetic energy by change of the foods into the various constituents of
the blood by chemical action and the expenditure of some probably
small net amount of chemical energy.

(2) This available potential energy is transferred to the capillaries
by the blood, and its elements are selected by each organ for its own
special development of mechanical work or of other and active energies.

(5) Chemical combinations take place, resulting in the production of
active forms of energy, applicable to the special work of the organ, as
mechanical work in the muscle, chemical action of characteristic kinds
in the glands, nerve power in the nervous system, and the accessories
of thought in the brain.

1 See Chauveau and Kaufmann. Comptes rendus, T. C1II, 1886.
+Chauveau and Kaufmann. Comptes rendus, T. CIV, 1887.

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. Ali

(4) The internal energies, though useful, objective forms, each being
utilized in the performance of its special work, are subject to a final
transformation, and are at last converted into heat and passed outward,
to be excreted by the skin and the lungs.

The latest researches indicate very positively that the production of
heat in the vital prime mover is partiy due to nutrition and tissue
repair, or rather its breaking down, and not all necessarily derived
from the simple and direct oxidation of the combustible matter of food.
It is even uncertain whether the potential energy of food considered as
a fuel and of its combustion in air is to be taken as precisely measuring
its energy available for the work of the vital machine. Chauveau con-
siders the glycogenic product of the liver distributed to the tissues the
source of all mechanical and thermal energy. The sound animal
machine can work vigorously about eight hours a day; the remaining
sixteen hours are devoted to repair, reconstruction, and energy storage.
Hight hours each day, one-third of life, is given especially to the repara-
tion of the brain and mental powers.

Dr. Edward Smith has shown, by experiment upon himself, that the
inspiration of air and the production of carbon dioxide may vary in the
proportion of 1 to 10, accordingly as the individual lies sleeping or
actively exerts himself in the treadmill or in running at top speed, the
exhalations of CO, ranging from 5.5 grains to 45 grains per minute.!
The quantity becomes, for the given case, 6 grains when standing,
20 when walking, and 25 or 30 when walking rapidly. The variation
seems to be approximately, in Smith’s tables, as the square root of
the speed of the pedestrian. Since the total work of the machine
must vary as the velocity of overcoming a fixed resistance, as the
cube of velocity where the resistance increases with the speed square,
as is here presumably the fact, it would seem from these facts that
the interior resistance must be a rapidly increasing proportion of
the total work performed, internally and externally, a deduction which
is confirmed by constant and familiar experience. The experiments of
the same investigator, however, seem to prove the variation of the
exhalations when at rest, directly with the difference between the exter-
nal and the internal temperatures; which, if corroborated fully, would
indicate the heat of oxidation in the body to be ordinarily employed
principally in the maintenance of its warmth at the standard point.
This makes it advisable to ascertain more exactly what energy is meas-
ured by the chemical actions resulting in the production of other
rejected compounds, solid and liquid, and to learn, if possible, whether
chemical action in one case produces the demanded thermal energy
and in others the required chemical or other motive energy.

These various deductions indicate that one-tenth or thereabouts of
the energy of oxidation in the tissues of the body and in its capillaries
finally produces work of various kinds; that nine-tenths passes as

‘Foods. International Series, New York: D. Appleton & Co,
SM 96——21

Se THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

heat; that the efficiency of energy conversion is thus 10 per cent. On
the other hand, the fact that external work alone gives transformation
of 20 per cent shows that both internal and external work must find
ultimate conversion into heat from some other and antecedent form of
energy of food conversion and chemical action.

Rejected heat energy increases rapidly with increase in the amount
of work performed by the machine, and this seems to confirm the idea
that the expenditure of internal energy in the accelerated operations
of circulation, respiration, and nutrition must find ultimate conversion
into heat and rejection in that form. The disappearance of thermal
energy observed by Hirn is proof of this action. Hirn also found that
the total heat exhaled exceeded by one-third that computed, and thus
proved that it must be derived, in part at least, from other processes
than combustion. ‘The quantity was five calories when resting, about
half as much when at hard work per gram of oxygen inhaled. Men-
tal effort and work have precisely the effect of manual labor in this
increase of the heat waste and conversion of energy. The source of
energy as an effect of oxidation would seem to be the food taken into
the system and the broken-down tissues of muscle, bone, and nerve,
while the office of the food supply is to replace this tissue and to
furnish the energy of chemical action as well.

Dalton! and others take the heat waste of the human machine as
about 200 British thermal units per hour, 1:28 British thermal units per
pound nearly, or a total for the day of 4,800 British thermal units,
equivalent to 3,734,400 foot-pounds. Assuming the possibility of com-
plete suppression of this as waste, or, what is equivalent to the same
thing, its application to internal work of equal value with the energy
applied to useful external ns, the efficiency of the animal machine
becomes

5,734,400 — 10,000,000 = 0-57 +;

over 57 per cent, and exceeds that of any known form of thermody-
namic Iachine in actual use nearly three to one.

Whether the suppression of this waste, with corresponding gain in
useful conversion of energy, can be effected remains uncertain and is
perhaps unlikely to be practicable, although animals and human races
in the Tropics often live for long periods in temperatures at which no
conduction or radiation of heat is possible, and must depend entirely
upon evaporation of moisture from the exterior of the body for its dis-
tribution. Since it certainly, in part at least, represents the retrans.-
formed energy of internal work, it would seem probable that only by
effecting a balance between internal and external work of that class
could this waste be completely suppressed. Thisis probaly impossible
with “he vital engine, but nothing is known that would indicate similar
necessary limitations in any artificial machine in which the essential

1 Human Physiology. Philadelphia, 1875, page 302.

a aig

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 323

transformations of the vital machine may in some way possibly be
illustrated.

As has elsewhere been suggested, it seems certain that all the inter-
nal operations of the body, all the various methods of energy transfor-
mation, must result in final reduction of their resultant total to the
form of heat energy, and in that form they pass away from the system.
This conclusion is confirmed by the experiments of Rubner, who finds
that the radiated heat of the animal body precisely measures the eal-
orific power of the food utilized by assimulation.'

The internal work of the vital machine, as now computed, amounts to
43 per cent of the energy supplied less the amount of rejected potential
energy of unassimilated food. Neither quantity has as yet been pre-
cisely determined. Estimates have been made, however, and possibly
sufficiently approximate for present purposes.

Letheby, for example, proposes the following for an average day of
the average workingman at his usual vocations involving some manual
labor:

Foot-pounds, external work, actual labor. ..-.....-.....------ 1, 011, 670
Wolo oit Where mbnnome ses oH na aA eee Se ee ee eee 500, 040
MOLL Ot Tes pInablOmar=rsee cease seas s celia S/he s. sees sane 98, 496

obaletoot=p ouand siz oais ee Goce cares se cree wei see 1, 610, 206

Adding to this probably very rough estimate the 3,734,400 — 598,536 =
3,135,864 for heat not due to these causes, we have a total of 4,746,070
foot-pounds, or about one-half of all the energy supplied. Reckoning
the work, as before, at 2,000,000 foot-pounds, the total becomes five-
eighths the energy supply.

This leaves at least three-eighths to be accounted for, and if we may
take the proportion of blood taken to the brain as a measure of its
demand for energy, and, as estimated by Flint, at about 10 per cent,
we still have about 25 per cent as unaccounted for; but it is certain
that a part, perhaps a large part, of the heat rejected from the system
comes of internal fluid friction and energy transformations, and it is
also certain that some of the food escapes digestion and assimilation.
In fact, the loss in the latter form of supplied energy has been com-
puted in some cases as fully 25 per cent.

It would thus appear possible, if not extremely probable, that the
full amount of the potential energy of the food actually assimilated
may be accounted for in one or another form of the resultant energies
visible or sensible as external, and as essential internal, work in the
vital machine. Just what internal work the external heat flow may
represent it is impossible to say positively; but assuming that all the
energy expended in the circulation of the fluids of the body, all the
work of friction so appears, and that all energy of internal mechanical
work of other sorts and of all chemical processes occurring within the

1 Zeitschrift fiir Biologie, XXX, 1893, page 73.

O24 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

system also is thus rejected as heat, and assuming that the energy of
brain and nerve action is transformed into mental and unmeasurable
energies of which we have no dynamic equivalent yet established, the
animal machine, as represented by the human body, may be taken as
having an efficiency measured by the ratio of the sum of useful muscular
labor and brain work to the energy supplied.

This is now seen to be probably not far from 30 per cent, and the
machine is, thus viewed, one and a half times as efficient as any exist-
ing steam engine.

If the use of the machine may be taken to be the production of
muscle and brain work, and of the heat required for the comfort of the
system considered as an intelligent creature, the efficiency becomes
the sum of these three quantities, divided by the total receipts of
energy, or substantially two-thirds, the only waste on this basis being
that of unassimilated food, and the energy of formation of chemical
compounds, of heat, and of dynamic energy, unutilized, in a compara-
tively small proportion.

Brain work is the task and thought the product of the professional
man. The mass and weight of the brain give us some interesting data
for consideration, if not throwing important light upon the problem in
hand. The average weight of the brain of a man is about 3 pounds,
perhaps 50 ounces; that of the average woman is 10 per cent less,
about 45 ounces. High brain weights are 53.4 ounces, the weight of
that of Agassiz, up to 64.5, that of Cuvier; while low weights are
indicative of reduced working power, if not of capacity for intellectual
action. It is, however, true that the largest brains have been those
of the idiotic and the insane, and that the greatest genius sometimes
possesses a brain of but average size or even somewhat less; yet
insanity and idiocy only prove, in most cases, disease of the ordinary
brain of whatever size, and individual cases afford no evidence pro or
con. The important fact is that size of brain increases with the intel-
ligence of the race, and that when the weight falls below about 2
pounds, two-thirds the average for our own race, intelligence is usually
lacking. Cerebration only occurs, efficiently, with larger proportions
of gray matter.

The average weight of the male brain in African races is about that
of females of the European races, and that of their females is 10 per
cent lower. The weights in Australian races fall to that of the African
female in the case of the male, and 10 per cent below this for the
female, or 39 ounces. The weight never exceeds 55 ounces, except
among the most civilized races. The bodily functions may be main-
tained and manual labor performed with very low weights, as healthy
idiots have been known having brains weighing less than a pound
(8.5 to 10.6 ounces). The cerebrum constitutes 87 per cent of the cra-
nial contents.

The compactness and firmness of the brain substance and the com-
paratively small quantity of blood with which it is saturated in its

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 325

ordinary healthy condition, indicate, probably, a slow building of tissue
-and construction of the gray matter constituting the brain material
proper, and is, perhaps, also to be taken as evidence that the organ is
not, like the muscles, in the opinion of many physiologists operative by
the destruction of its own substance. The proportion of nutriment
suitable for each organ, presented by the blood, varies considerably,
and it may be the fact that, for this reason at least, the volume of blood
sent to the brain is not a gauge of the energy supplied it in that form;
but the probably slow construction of the tissue of that organ, and the
comparatively small proportion of nerve and brain-making elements in
the blood, are in accord with the hypothesis that some approximation
to the ratio sought may be thus obtained.

The proportion of blood flowing to the brain would make it appear
that about 15 per cent of the potential energy supplied the body is
expended in brain work. The fact that a loss of one-third the average
weight results in loss of power of cerebration possibly indicates that
one-third the brain power is devoted, in civilized races, to intellectual
work. The fact that life and bodily health may persist with one-third
the average allowance of brain would seem to show that one-third the
normal brain action may be required for the conduct of the purely ani-
mal operations of the system. The corollary of these two deductions
would seem to be that the normal thinker expends one-third his brain
power upon the vital machine, one-third upon the incidental and acei-
dental cerebrations of life, and one-third upon real, purely intellectual
work. But the size of brain and its quality are both known to be fac-
tors in the determination of the magnitude and nature of its product
intellectually, and it is very possible, probable indeed, that the intel-
lectual mind, with a brain well adapted to its use, not only has an
instrument capable of doing more and better work than the average,
but makes more use of that instrument than does his neighbor of equal
brain weight. It is for this reason, in part, that the figures here
assigned for brain work have been fixed upon. As a matter of simple
proportion, the human machine, acting aS a prime mover simply, devel-
ops from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 foot-pounds of work per day. The best
worker is, usually, also most intelligent, and, following the above sug-
gestion, it may, perhaps, be assumed, in default of direct measurement,
that the ‘“‘brainless ” worker—using that term in its vulgar accepta-
tion—may perform the lesser amount, 1,000,000 foot-pounds, and that
the intelligent worker may, under similar external conditions, produce
2,000,000 foot-pounds, and that the latter may use his brain and con-
sume energy supplied by the average brain in moderate amount as
well. If the professional brain worker does less physical labor and
more brain work, he may substitute the one for the other, to a consider-
able extent, and we have assumed 1,000,000 foot-pounds as the measure
of a brain worker’s day’s work, in addition to the labor of carrying on
the bodily functions and that of regular, moderate exercise. As yet,
however, such figures are little better than guesses.

326 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

The efficiency of the thought-machine, as the ‘‘ brain worker” of modern
times has become, can not be estimated with even so much of accuracy
and certainty as that of the same organism employed as a vital prime
motor and mechanical engine. The considerations presented in the
last sections and in some of the earlier portions of this discussion
would seem to indicate that the energy demanded by the brain. for
transformation, presumably, in the operation of the apparatus as
the instrument of the mind and the tool of thought, inay be fairly
taken as between 5 per cent for the case of the workingman giving all
his energies to his task, with little time and no strength for mental
labor, and for the nonintellectual creatures most nearly approaching
man in their constitution and structure, and 10 per cent for the aver-
age intellectual product of civilization, up to perhaps 15 per cent in
the case of the steadily working professional brain worker. This is
mainly to be deducted from the energy applied by the laborer with his
muscles to his daily task, and the efficiency account would, in such
case, Stand as a first and a rough approximation, perhaps, as follows:

The intellectual machine—Receipts and expenditures—Lfficiencies.

oe Energy util- | Per cent of energy
Received food-content. asa. aI.

Total receipts (foot-pounds) -.---.-.----- 8, 500, 000
Waste, nonassimilation .........-..----- 1, 500, 000

Aw ailablelandvappliedeess===s=s—-eeeesee essa 7, 000, 000 82 100
Oneiday7spwork (thowehb) presses esas rene eee Sar G00, 000 | 12 14

|

Heat rej ectedean c= secessccccce Sees de mecca asco 2 ay WO), O00 35 43
Internal work, aside from friction.---....----.------ 2, 000, 000 23 29
External work (moderate exercise) ......----------- 1, 000, 000 12, 14

This estimate makes the efficiency of the mental machine 14 per cent
if based upon the energy actually offered it in the circulatory system,
or 12 per cent if based upon the total food supply. If the exercise
taken can be made also commercially useful, the efficiency, on this
assumption, becomes 28 or 24 per cent, and if the essential work of the
machine is taken as that of providing its operator with heat and brain
power it becomes 57 or 47 per cent, the internal work as here denomi-
nated being the only waste except that of nonassimilation of food.

Whatever may be taken as the proper method of reckoning efficien-
cies from the utilitarian standpoint, it is obvious that, in one form or
another, the machine— this vital engine—converts 80 or 90 per cent of
the energy received by it into new energies by transformation, and,
taking the real waste in the scientific sense as that of the heat rejected,
the efficiency for comparison with heat engines—in which but one pur-
pose exists, that of providing a single form of energy, transforming all
received into the mechanical form, so far as practicable—it is fair to
say that the former, with its efficiency as thus stated at 57 to 65 per
cent, excels the perfect heat engine of our time enormously, has twice
the highest theoretical efficiency of the best steam engine yet pro-

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. Bail

duced, and three times its actual efficiency under the most favorable
conditions yet reported. To attain this efficiency of the vital machine,
any heat engine acting under the laws of thermodynamics, as applied
to motors with fluid working substances, the only forms as yet devised,
must, if we take the temperature of the human body as its minimum,
have a range of about 375° F., and a maximum temperature of about
475° F. These should be the limiting temperatures of the machine, if
it were a thermodynamic engine operating under any such conditions
as are now known to limit the action of the heat engines.

The maximum possible range of temperature in a mass of organic
substance of which 50 per cent or more is water, and the circulating
fluid mainly a solution of organic substance, can not possibly be much
greater than the range between the freezing and boiling points of
pure water, but the efficiency of the best heat engine known, even
acting as a perfect thermodynamic engine, would not exceed the ratio
180/672 — 0.27 (27 per cent) and its actual efficiency would probably
fall below 20 per cent. The animal—the vital engine—certainly has no
sensible range of working temperature, and no elastic working sub-
stance like the gases and vapors, but its efficiency, even as a work
producer alone, exceeds the above figure, and as an energy-producer
its efficiency exceeds that of ordinary heat engines several times.

The correct method of estimating the efficiency of the vital machine
is unquestionably that which sums up all its expenditures of energy,
thermal, mechanical, mental, and determines the ratio of that sum of
all energies, so far as directly contributing to the purposes for which
the dweller within the apparatus lives, with the total energy supplied
during a period including at least one perfect cycle. Taken in this
manner and in this sense, the rejected heat would seem to constitute
the only real waste, and the efficiency of the machine, as a peripatetic
residence for the soul, would seem to be fairly reckoned at not less than
45 per cent nor more than 65, accordingly as one or the other of the
units above taken are accepted—two to three times the maximum
efficiency of the best-known heat engines. |

The rejected heat energy is precisely like that of the final heat waste
of the electric-lighting system—the final form of energy subjected to
transformations of greater or less complexity during the process of
application, in some definitely demanded phrase, to a prescribed pur-
pose. Rejected heat is certainly not, in the case of the vital machine,
“let down” from a higher temperature in the process of thermodynamic
conversion, an essential characteristic of that form of prime mover.
The machine is evidently not a thermodynamic engine.

PART III.—SPECIAL ENERGY PRODUCTS: ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, ETC.;
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

Singular and unfamiliar energies are produced by the vital machine,
either as incidental to the ultimate purposes of the apparatus, or as
special final output for peculiar purposes. For example, it is known

328 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

that electricity is produced in the muscular and nervous systems,
in vertebrate animals, and that in some cases, as in that of the electric
eel, in large quantities, and for peculiar and special purposes of offense
and defense. The firefly also produces light for its own special pur-
poses. It is supposed by some authorities that electricity is developed
for the use of the internal telegraphic system of all animals and it is a
“singular” product only in the sense that we have not yet been able to
make ourselves familiar with itand to determine just how it is employed
and in what manner it is generated and transformed. In the case of
the light producer, the product is “singular” in the sense that it is not
only unfamiliar as a system of energy production, distribution, and
transformation, but also as being rarely developed. We know only the
glowworm, the firefly, and a few other organisms, such as the animal-
cule of the tropical seas and certain bacteria, which are capable of
transforming energy supplied them into light. In this case it is also
singular that the light produced should be almost, if not entirely,
unmixed with heat, and in this sense it is the most economical light
production known. These two examples of singular product are so
important and suggestive, as well as interesting from their mystery,
that they demand careful consideration, particularly at the hands of the
engineer.

Electricity has long been recognized as a vital energy, and the fame
of Galvani, the distinguished professor of comparative anatomy at
Bologna (1737-1798) was mainly established by his striking discovery
(1786) of what is now familiar to biologist and physicist alike, as
‘animal electricity,” or, as Daguin calls it, 1’électricité vitale, the “ vital
fluid,” according to the discoverer himself. _ The famous controversy
which at once arose between Galvani and Volta, the contemporary
professor of physics at Pavia, and which led to the publication of Volta’s
dictum: ‘‘When two heterogeneous substances are in juxtaposition,
the one always assumes the positive the other the negative electrical
state,” was a first step toward the determination of the fact that as
externally produced currents will always affect the nerves and muscles,
so internal currents may always be found capable of affecting external
substances. Nobili’s discovery of the “‘ proper current” directed from
the foot toward the head of the frog (1827), as predicted by Humboldt
just thirty years earlier; Matteucci’s extended researches of later date,
and the still more striking investigations of Du Bois Reymond (1842),
have proven both the existence of such currents in the animal machine
and a drift, also, of electricity outward from interior of muscle, or nerve,
to the surface, which may probably be taken as a “leakage current,”
due, in part at Jeast, to the fact that, even here, insulation is not perfect.
The last-named investigator showed that the more powerful the muscle,
in its natural condition, the stronger these electric currents, the heart,
for example, exhibiting powerful currents and the muscular system of
the intestines a comparatively weak flow. His well-known experiment,

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 329

in which the galvanometer is made to reveal a current passing from an
unflexed arm to the other side and into the arm, which, contracting its
muscles strongly, grasps an object forcibly, especially interests the
student of the vital machine as indicating, in correspondence with
the fundamental laws of energetics in this case of electric action, as in
thermodynamic operations, the reduction of the energy supply by con-
version into mechanical work.!

The experiments of the Italian physicists and of Dr. Ure on cadav-
ers are familiar proofs of the substitutive value of the electric fluid and
the vital fluid, if, indeed, they are not evidence of their identity; and
the still more familiar experiences of all who have had to work with
electricity in any form at moderate or high tensions may be accepted
as more convincing testimony of the relationship of the one form of
energy to the other. The discovery by Pouillet and the later inves-
tigations of Donné, Becquerel, and others relative to the now well-
recognized form of vegetable electricity coustitute an interesting if
superfiuous confirmation of the idea that nature employs the electric
eurrent in her work much more generally than is popularly supposed.

The identity of animal electricity with the familiar forms of that
energy is perhaps best shown by the fact that where, as in the gym-
notus and torpedo, the best known among some fifty such creatures,
the fluid is made the means of attack and defense, thus necessarily
being given considerable volume and tension, it responds to every test
customarily employed to identify and measure the voltaic current.

The assumption, which perhaps may now be fairly taken as possess-
ing a basis of probability, that electrical or some related or in many
ways similar form of energy may prove to be an intermediary between
the chemical energy known to be a necessary initial action in the
reduction to the active form of potential energy supplied to the vital
system, and those ultimate energy products—mechanical power, heat,
sometimes light, and always physiological manifestations—is strongly
corroborated by the facts developed by research in those organisms
which most extensively and strikingly exhibit that kinetic energy. Itis
known not only that about fifty creatures are capable of applying the
electric fluid to their own purposes, in defense and in pursuit of their
prey, but that all species of the ray family have at least rudimentary
electric organs, a fact first stated explicitly probably by Robin. Five
species are known to be capable of producing a sensible, often pow-
erful, electric discharge. Muschenbroeck, Walsh, Davy, Becquerel,
Breschet, Linari, Matteucci, Moreau, and others, some of whom have
been elsewhere mentioned, have shown this fact and have revealed dis-
tinetly the identity of this energy of these fishes and other creatures
with the electricity now familiar to us in a thousand daily operations.
Marey has shown that the discharge is effected by transmission of the

‘Recherches d’électricité animale. Annales de Chemie de Physique, 3c serie, T.
XXX, page 119.

330 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

mandate of the will to the storage battery of the animal at substan-
tially the same rate that other nerve actions are propagated.! He
sums up his facts in a form which suits our present purpose well.”

He concludes: i

(1) The rapidity of the nervous agent is identical in the torpedo and
the frog affected by the electric discharge.

(2) “Lost time” exists and has the same measure in the electrical
apparatus of the torpedo and in muscle, and the same is true of its
endurance.

(3) The duration of the torpedo’s discharge is about the same as the
duration of the shock in the case of the electrified frog.

(4) This period is about one-seventh of a second.

Davy produced all the phenomena of voltaic electricity from the vital
organism; Linari and Matteucci similarly proved its identity, in action
and effects, with static electricity and provoked the electric spark from
the animal. If the idea of Fritsch is correct that the electrical gener-
ating and storage organs of the creature are derived from the skin, it
would seem very probable also that the source of energy transforma-
tion from potential to the kinetic, or from stored forms to motor forms,
may be found in or under the cuticle. Bayliss, Bradford, and others,
however, attribute the currents observed in animals to the flow of
fluids, perhaps to simple friction; while Biedermann thinks the kata-
bolic action, breaking down tissue, is the source of the current passing
inward, and the anabolic action, constructing tissue, is the cause
of the reverse current. If the machine be in any degree electro-
dynamic, this is a substitution of cause for effect.

Humboldt’s account of the employment by the Indians of Rastro
de Abaso of wild horses in capturing the gymnotus, at the sacrifice
of an occasional horse by drowning, after being disabled by the
shocks administered by the enraged gymnotus, and his statement that
he himself had received more powerful shocks than he had ever received
from the largest Leyden jars, give some idea of the vigor as well as of
the character of animal electricity. His experiments with Gay-Lussac,
and those of Davy, Becquerel, Breschet, and others, show it to be capa-
ble of performing every feat and exhibiting every phenomenon famil-
iar to us as the result of voltaic action at high tension.

All research to date proves:

(1) That the electrical current in the animal system is produced for
the purpose of effecting energy transformations of, as yet, undetermined
character and extent.

(2) That it is, in the electric fishes at least, developed at will in
quantity demanded for its intended work, as in other displays of
energy, up to the limit of the nerve power of the individual.

(3) That in all its characteristics it is similar to, if not identical with,

' Journal de Vanatomie et de la physiologie, 1872.
Animal mechanism, page 57.

.

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. aa

voltaic electricity, and thus unquestionably subject to all the laws of
energetics, of electro-dynamics, of electrical physics, and of electro-
chemical action.

The velocity of transmission of the nerve impulse is from 90 feet per
second in cold-blooded to 100 or 150 feet in warm-blooded creatures—
an exceedingly minute fraction of the speed of the electric current
over good conductors. It thus requires about the tenth part of a sec-
ond to telegraph from the brain to the extremities and obtain a
response through the sensory nerves or to produce reflex motions of
muscles. Du Bois Reymond found the electro-motive force impelling
the electric currents flowing in the nerves and muscles of the frog to
have the value of 0.22 to 0.25 volt in the nerve and 0.35 to 0.75 volt in
the muscle.! Should it prove the fact that the active energy is electric
and magnetic, the low voltage, if confirmed by measurement of the actu-
ally operating currents doing their regular and normal work, would
indicate great strengths of currents at low tensions. The time required
for action at the nerve center itself is something like 0.05 second.

Matteucci found that the passage of the electric current from the
brain toward the extremities produced contractions of the muscles
traversed, while the opposite direction of current caused annoyance,
if not actual pain, and seemed only to affect the sensory nerves. He
thought that this “ polar condition” indicated that such excitation by
something analogous to, if not identical with, the electric form of
energy constitutes the ‘‘ nervous agency” of the system.

What is known to-day simply shows that electricity of low tension
and comparatively large quantity, or some related form of energy, is
or may be a product of transformations occurring in the body, having
their source in the potential energy of the food supplied, and is the
probable intermediary between the directing power of brain and spine
and the elements of the voluntary and involuntary systems of muscles;
that this energy is probably in constant circulation in continuously
acting organs, and intermittently, at least, in those actuated only by
the will; and that the evidence of its presence may always be found in
its leakage currents. It is certain that the preduction of electricity
may be increased by the special development of its producing organs
to such extent as to become a source of power and of safety to its user
and of danger to enemies, exhibiting all the characteristic properties
of the familiar forms of moderately high-tension currents.

Anatomists familiar with comparative biology know that the electric
cells of the torpedo and its congeners are evolved from the under side
of the skin, and by a process which seems simply that of muscle-cell
production, with modification to its special purpose. This fact may be
accepted as evidence, worthy of consideration at least, that the muscles
contain within themselves the principle of animal power, and possibly,
even, that this power is a modification of, if not identical with, the

' Kneyclopedia Britannica. Article ‘‘Physiology,” page 26.

332 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

familiar forms of electricity. It is well known that muscular power
may reside in the muscle, and that this local potentiality of energy dis-
play may be exerted by, and may even act rhythmically in, an organ,
as the heart, detached from the body.

Tight production by the vital machine illustrates another curious and
impressively suggestive method of energy transformation, the nature
of which, and the essential prerequisites for which, are still among the
mysteries of this ever-present sphinx.t The light radiated by the
living machine has been studied by many investigators, and something
has been learned of its production and its characteristics. It is known
to be produced in a superficial, transparent tissue, blanketing the parts
of the creature exhibiting luminosity, and containing a fat of peculiar
structure and composition, which may be burned at extraordinarily low
temperatures, giving out alight almost absolutely free from heat. It can
thus be utilized in the animal system and, only ight being produced,
but a minute fraction of the energy demanded in the production of our
more familiar lights is required for this transformation. In its distri-
bution but a fraction of 1 per cent of the energy thus expended takes
the form of heat, while in the common gas, or candle, or oil flame 99
per cent of the energy is wasted in the form of heat; worse than
wasted, since the heat thus produced is usually a source of discomfort
as well as a material loss.

The vital machine, as a light producer, thus appears to have an
efficiency of production approximating unity.” It has 400 times the
light value of the gas flame, 40 times that of the electric incandescent
lamp, and 20 times that of the best arc lamp. But the electric current
utilized in these cases is derived from heat energy transformed by the
heat engine and the dynamo at, usually, the expense of four-fifths to
nine-tenths its original potential amount; thus making the light of
nature, as developed in the vital machine, from 200 to 4,000 times as
efficient as the best and the worst, respectively, among our present
artificial lights, if we assume no wastes in the production of the light-
giving material. This would be the case if, for example, its wastes of
energy, were there any to occur in the process, were to find use in fur-
ther transformation, or application, in the economy of the system, as
the heat of the exhaust steam of a steam engine in a woolen mill
often has as great value for heating purposes as if taken direct from
the boiler. Could this kind of light be obtained as the product of
artificial methods of energy transformation, the result in economy
of energy, of power, and of fuel would be among the most tremendous
of all the marvelous products of human invention.

Technically stated, the problem is: to produce ether vibrations havy-
ing a frequency of 5 x 10" per second, without admixture of other

1 The Great Problems of Science. R.H.Thurston. Forum, September, 1892.
*Langley and Very, on the Heat and Light of the Vire-fly. Smithsonian Contri-
butions to Knowledge, 1892.

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 333

periodicities. Tesla attempts it by electrostatic action; nature does it
perfectly by what seem to be chemical processes. How shall we ulti-
mately accomplish this seductive task and emulate nature while com-
plying with those economic laws which always control, and often
seriously impede, the progress of the engineer?

Vital force and energy, the force and energy which constitute vitality,
which are the characteristics of animal life, may easily be shown to be
apart from that higher life of the soul and the intellect which consti-
tutes the ego, which 7s the individual. They reside notin the brain, or in
its directing power, the mind, but pervade the animal frame, and are
found active throughout the vital machine. Life, in this sense, is seen
in the motions of the decapitated trunk of any animal, and the reptiles
often live a long time with brain removed. Ali the functions of purely
animal life continue, and the taking of food, its digestion, the act of res-
piration, that of blood circulation, and the whole “automatic” operation
of the system essential to continued vitality goes on. This independ-
ence of the vitality of all mind is seen in the spermatozoa, which live
independent lives for hours, and even in some animals, as in the bats, for
months at atime. It is seen, very probably, in the white blood corpus-
cles, which, as they float in the stream of vital fluid, change form, seize
upon each other or upon the surfaces of their channels, and otherwise
exhibit independent life. In fact it may be fairly presumed that they are
themselves the principle of life, its method of importation into the ani-
mal system. But this is not all. The vital principle attaches to every
part, and the heart, removed from the body, continues for a time pul-
sating with its own independent life, the vital principle surviving long
enough to produce many repetitions of the natural rhythmic automatic
movements of the organ. In man—as intellection is entirely unessen-
tial to vitality, and, when unconscious, as when sleeping, when under
the influence of anesthetics, when suffering from concussion or other
injury to the brain, the whole animal system continues in action with
more or less accuracy under the impulse and direction of the vital
power—unconscious life continues, in some cases, weeks and months.

The probability that the vital functions are independent of the intel-
lectual and moral life and of brain action is also evidenced by the facts
that the muscle, even when excised, quivers with vitality for a time;
that it exudes carbonic acid when working; that it reduces lactic acid,
decreases the amount of compounds present soluble in water, and
increases the quantity of those soluble in alcohol; decreases glycogen,
increases sugar; and all this when the flow of blood, with its burden
of nutrients and of oxygen, is cut off from it. Blood entering the liv-
ing and working tissues is always changed in life and issues with a
new composition. The tissues are thus “laboratories in which mate-
rials abstracted from the blood are transformed.”

An excised intestine continues its peristaltic movements for an
appreciable time. The heart of the rabbit beats sometimes a half hour

J04 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

after excision; the right auricle continues after the organ as a whole
has become quiescent, and has been known to exhibit motion fifteen
hours after death. The same independent and automatic action has
been detected in the dog’s heart four days after the death of the animal.
The cold-blooded animals exhibit still more persistence of this local and
independent life of the organ, and the heart of the frog has been known
to pulsate with the motions of life, as a whole, for two or three days after
removal from its nerve connections. Jivery organ is a motor; every
protoplasmic cell is an elementary vital system.

The motor and other movements of the machine are absolutely inde-
pendent of the peculiar nervous and mental characteristics of animal
life. This is shown not only by the facts elsewhere mentioned in a
similar connection, but also by the seemingly intelligent action of the
sensitive plants and many other vegetable organisms, by the movement
of the vegetable as well as of the animal protoplasms, by the energetic
action of the white corpuscles of the blood and of the amceboid cells of
both animal and vegetable protoplasms. Heat, light, electricity, chem-
ical, and mechanical stimuli, alike, all provoke displays of motor forces
and energies in the simplest known forms of vegetable and animal
structure, and absolutely independently of intelligence, will, nervous
power, special circulatory and respiratory organs, or of location in the
organism of which they form the most elementary part. The rhythmic
action of the human heart, the voluntary movement of the animal
frame, the entrapping of its victims by the sensitive plant, the motions
of the bacteria, the changes of the ameeba and the protoplasmic cell are,
all alike, exemplifications of the inherent residence of motor energy
under conditions which involve entire absence of all the machinery of
thermodynamic or electrodynamic motors of any sort as yet familiar to
science.

It is thus evident that the vital energy is independent on the one
hand of the familiar physical energies and forces, and on the other of
the mental powers of intellectual and soul life. It pervades the whole
system, as do the physical energies, and may attain great development
without reference to the condition of the physical or the psychical
energies. The doctrine of Quesne, “ psychism,” is to this degree
afforded some support. But the now universally accepted doctrine of
the evolution of the world from an earlier chaos compels us, it would
seem, to admit that all energies and forces and all matter aggregate
out of space, and Quesne’s proposition may be extended to every depart-
ment of physics and psychics. All space is pervaded by heat, light,
electricity, and magnetism; why not with vital and spiritual energies?

The office of the vital force and its energy is apparently to give direc-
tion to the coarser physical energy of the muscle. It is the director of
the telegraphic current which notifies the energy of the muscle when
and how to exert itself. It coordinates the automatic movements, con-
trols the system as a whole, as well as in detail, and is itself the prin-
ciple of purely animal life. The organ which mainly controls and

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. 335

directs it, which is constructed to differentiate it from other energies,
to give it form and purpose, to afford it a vehicle, is the spinal nerve of
the vertebrate and the equivalent organ in other creatures.

The psychical energies, including consciousness, intellection, emotion,
which are essential characteristics of the vital machine, and which, in
the case of those with which we are principally concerned, at least
influence to an important degree its power, endurance, and efficiency,
all depend for their effective display and fruitful exertion upon the
preservation in good health and perfect form of the upper brain. A
touch upon the surface of that organ impairs the action of the mind;
the destruction of a ganglion takes away the power of expression if not
of thought; the lesion or degeneration of its tissue measures a propor-
tional loss of psychic energy. With the organ sound and strong, its
action depends, as every day’s experience shows us, upon its nutrition
and repair. Like the body, it is seen to be a machine which guides
and applies energies derived from external sources. All its energies
come ot an initial supply brought through the blood channels from the
digested food, and both body and brain exhibit characteristic modes of
guidance and application of the transferred and transformed energies
originally stored in air and food. Body and brain are apparatus for
absorption, transformation, and employment of characteristic forms of
energy. Their methods of absorption, modes of transformation, and
processes of application constitute important and attractive as well as
legitimate problems in physical research. Tracing back the path by
which all matter came in from space to construct the material world
and retracing the path over which the energies came out of the ether
and its accompanying stock of all the energies, are companion problems.

The origin of energies displayed in the vital machine is found in the
food consumed, and the apparatus of the body is simply, as is now well
proven, employed in the freeing of these energies from their potential
form in the chemical affinities of oxygen for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and the elements of various other compounds, and the diversion and
direction of the resultant energies of various kinds and always equiva-
lent quantity in the performance of internal and external work. Brain,
nerve, muscle, gland, all give proper direction to appropriate energies ;
none originates energy or bas power, intrinsically, of doing work. They
are all characteristically and kinematically similar to the organs of the
machines constructed by man. But the ultimate physical source of all
energies, so far as identified, is the heat and light of the sun; while in
turn the source of the energy of the sun’s rays is presumed to be the
mechanical energy of colliding atoms, molecules, star dust, all celestial
bodies, the comets, planets, suns, worlds. The distinctive energies are
simply, aS we suppose, different modes of motion of atoms and mole-
cules and masses, if physical; but we find no light yet thrown upon the
nature of the more subtle energies of vitality, of intellection, of mind,
or upon their relation to matter.

Conclusions of serious import, of singular interest, of engrossing

336 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

attractiveness, and of wonderful possible result may be deduced from
what has preceded; some of these conclusions are positive and certain,
some extremely probable, others bare possibilities, so far as we can now
trace them, and the possibilities are of such inconceivable magnitude
and importance, should they be found to have a substantial basis, that,
ereat as are the consequences of the positive deductions, the further
investigation of the potentialities will undoubtedly be considered by
men of science a matter of even superior importance. Some of these
conclusions are:

(1) The vital machine is not a heat engine, subject to the thermo-
dynamic laws governing all known forms of thermo-dynamic machinery
produced by man up to the present time.

We can not assert that it is not a heat engine in the sense of being a
machine, which by as yet undiscovered methods directly transforms
thermal into dynamical and other forms of energy; but it certainly can
not employ expansible fluids and transform energy by their expansion
through a wide range of temperature, and it as certainly does greatly
exceed all heat engines in efficiency both ideal and actual.

(2) The vital machine is an energy transforming apparatus, in which
the supplied energy is employed in useful transformations in far higher
degree than in any energy transforming machine or system yet pro-
duced by man to render available the potential energy of oxidizable
substances.

(3) The vital machine must operate through methods of energy
transformation yet unknown to science, though undoubtedly absolutely
scientific and intelligible once discovered.

The source of energy is perfectly well known, and the primary steps
of the process determined up to the completion of the preparation of
the substance containing the potential energy furnished for transfer
into the organs of the body and for immediate transformation by
chemical action. The resulting products are all probably identified
and most of them well uiderstood and quantitatively determinable;
but the intermediate processes of transformation of potential into actual
energy, and of transformation of one form of energy into another, as
yet are veiled from our sight and concealed from our touch.

(4) These methods, whatever their character, produce mechanical
energy more cheaply, aS measured in energy consumed, than any
known prime motor; develop heat at minimum cost in the same terms;
in some cases produce electrical energy in considerable quantity and at
high tension, by some probably direct transformation; occasionally
produce light of almost absolute purity and perfection of economical
character, and in all intelligent creatures supply the mind with an
instrument utilizing physical energies for intellectual demonstrations.

(9) All these products being considered, this vital machine is enor-
mously more efficient than any apparatus yet invented by the human
mind, and illustrates methods of energy transformation which if they

THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER. Jon

could be applied in industrial operations in place of the heat engines
would afford inconceivable amelioration of the condition of the race,
and to a less but nevertheless considerable degree of his attendant
creatures, both by giving the power of securing the utmost possible
duty from our stores of latent available energy, and by prolonging the
life of the race by indefinitely removing the period of exhaustion of
those stores.

(6) The best evidence yet secured by research seems to indicate that
the method of energy transformation in the vital machine is one which
directly transforms the potential energy of the food, as developed by
chemical combinations, into kinetic form, sometimes perhaps simply by
chemico-dynamic change, sometimes by chemico-electric transforma-
tion; and this in turn, and possibly also the energy due to oxidation of
food, and, to some extent, of ‘the muscle itself, into mechanical power,
into the vital energy of the automatic system, and into the form of
energy producing brain work.

(7) The vital machine may produce electricity as one principal output
of its working processes, and probably by some direct system, without
intervention of either heat energy or dynamical power.

(8) The vital machine may produce light energy in substantially
unadulterated form, and by some process which does not involve either
high temperature or the production of heat or other energies to be
rejected as waste.

(9) It seems most probable, in view of what has been here collated,
that the vital machine is some form of chemico and electro dynamic:
engine.

We know that the vital machine is not thermo-dynamic in the sense
of being a.heat engine of any known class. We find in electricity the
apparently next most available form of energy for use in transforma-
tion into dynamic and thermal and other forms, and many accept this
aS @ provisional, a working, hypothesis. This was long ago hinted at
by the greatest scientific men, the greatest minds, it would perhaps be
fair to say, that have illuminated the history of the race. <A century
ago Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford), a keen ‘‘ Yankee” with
uncontrollable inclinations toward scientific research, showed to his
own Satisfaction, and to the extent of proving to others its probability,
that the animal system constitutes a machine of higher efficiency than
any steam engine.’ Joule, as long ago as 1846, working with Captain
Scoresby, concluded that the animal motor ‘more closely resembles an
electro-magnetic engine than a heat engine,” and this is reaffirmed by
Tait in our own day.’ Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, in his
papers of about 1850, adopts the idea of Joule, and introduces the prin-
ciple of Carnot, and says explicitly: ‘When an animal works against
a resisting force, there is not a conversion of heat into mechanical effect,

‘Rumford’s Essays, 1800.
2Tait’s History of Thermo-dynamics.
sm 96—22

338 THE ANIMAL AS A PRIME MOVER.

but the full thermal equivalent of the chemical forces is never pro-
duced; in other words, the animal body does not act as a thermo-
dynamic engine, and very probably the chemical forces produce the
external mechanical effects through electrical means.” We have now
seen how all investigations made before and since that date, so far as
interpretable, point to the same conclusion:! that the machine is not a
heat engine.

The possibilities of improvement by simulating or paralleling nature
are seemingly stupendous. Could the chemical energy of fuel oxidation
be directly transformed into dynamic energy; could it even be changed
by double or by indirect transformation, as through the intermediary of
electricity, and in such manner as to insure a full equivalence of util-
izable energy, it is evident that we might anticipate a conversion as
economical as we now attain in the transformation of mechanical into
electrical energy, and, consequently, many times as large a return for
outgo as we at present realize and correspondingly lengthened time of
exhaustion of our stores of primary energy. At first thought the pos-
sibility of an economic gain in power production, by following nature
in energy transformations through processes which involve the organi-
zation of a Sugar manufactory as a source of fuel supply, may seem
somewhat unpromising; but when it is considered that sugars and
glycogens are but carbon and water and that the chemist has success-
fully attacked many other more unpromising cases, as the synthesis of
madder, and of the various other commercial substitutes for natural
products, the possibilities, even seen from a financial standpoint, are
not apparently absolutely to be ignored. Similarly, could chemical
energy be directly and fully transformed into light, where needed, and
as effectively as nature performs these operations of energy transfor-
mation in the vital apparatus, the enormous expenditure, the fearful
wastes, now going on even in our production of out-of-door light by
the use of the electric arc would be reduced to a fraction of their pres-
ent amounts and to an insignificant fraction of total costs. Could
vital energy be identified and brought under control, or could that
mysterious energy which is its servant in directing and producing
animal power be securely gained and its processes understood and con-
trolled, it would seem possible that direct transformations of energy—
which probably means by influencing molecular and atomic rather than
molar motion—might be made possible to man, and all this impressive
and wonderful chain of consequences caused to follow.

1 Mathematical Papers, Vol. I, lviii, page 505.

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE, AND THEIR BEARING
ON MEDICINE AND SURGERY!

By Prof. MICHAEL FostTER,
Secretary of the Royal Society.

I

When fifty-four years ago the school of Charing Cross Hospital
gathered itself together for its winter work, among the newcomers
was a pale-faced, dark-haired, bright-eyed lad, whose ways and works
soon told his fellows that he was of no common mold. To-day I am
about to attempt the fulfillment of the duty, which the authorities of
the school have done me the honor to lay upon me, of delivering the
first of the series of lectures which the school has wisely instituted to
keep alive, in the minds of those to come, the great services which that
lad’s strenuous and brilliant life rendered to the healing art. The
trust of the Huxley Lectureship provides that the lecturer shall dwell
on “recent advances in science, and their bearing on medicine and sur-
gery.” I venture to hope that I shall be considered as not really depart-
ing from the purpose of the trustif I attempt to make this first lecture
a sort of preface to the volume, or rather the volumes, of lectures to
come; and since a preface bears a different paging, and is written in
a different fashion, from that which it prefaces, I shall be so bold as,
with your permission, to make the character of my lecture to-day dif-
ferent from what I suppose will be that of the lectures of my successors.
Tt will, I imagine, be their duty to single out on each occasion some
new important advance in science, and show in detail its bearings on
the art of medicine. Hach succeeding lecturer will, in turn, be limited
in the choice of his subject, and so assisted in his task by the choice
of his predecessors. I to-day have no such aid. It seems fitting that,
for the purposes of this initial lecture, the word “recent” should be so
used as to go back as far as the days of Huxley’s studentship. If it
be so used, I am brought to face advances in science affecting medicine
and surgery so numerous and so momentous that any adequate treat-

'The Huxley Lecture. Delivered at Charing Cross Medical School, London, on
October 5, 1896, by Prof. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. Printed in Nature, Nos. 1407 and
1408, vol. 54, 1896.

309

340 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. _

ment of them as a whole would far exceed not only the time at my dis-
posal, but also, what is more, my powers to treat and your patience to
hear. I will not dare so hopeless a task. Nor will I attempt to select
what may be deemed, or what may appear to me, the most important
of these advances, and expound the bearings on medicine of these
alone. J venture to hope I shall best fulfill the duty laid upon me, and
meet with your approval, if I single out and dwell on one or two gen-
eral themes suggested by the history of science during those fifty-odd
years. .

The first theme is one suggested by a survey of the studies which
engaged young Huxley in the school here in 1842. This will bring
before us a special bearing on our profession of the advance of science
which, though it may not be evident at first sight to everyone, is never-
theless real and important.

Each case of illness is to the doctor in charge a scientific problem, to
be solved by scientific methods. This is seen more and more clearly
and acknowledged more and more distinctly year by year. Now, it is
true that each science has, to a certain extent, its own methods, to be
learned only in that science itself; and from time to time we may see
how a man eminent in one branch of science goes astray when he puts
forward solutions of problems in another branch, to the special methods
of which he is a stranger. In nothing is this more true than in an
applied science like that of medicine. At the bedside only can the
methods of clinical inquiry be really learned; it is only here that a stu-
dent can gain that kind of mind which leads him straight to the heart
of disease, that genius artis, without which scientific knowledge, how-
ever varied, however accurate, becomes nothing more than a useless
burden or a dangerous snare. Yet, it is no less true that the mind
which has been already sharpened by the methods oz one science takes
a keener edge, and that more quickly, when it is put on the whetstone
of another science, than does a mind which knows nothing of no science.
And more than once inquiry in one science has been quickened by the
inroad of a mind coming fresh from the methods of a quite different
science. For all sciences are cognate; their methods though different
are allied, and certain attitudes of the mind are common to them all. -
In respect to nothing is this more true than in respect to the methods
of medicine. Our profession has been the mother of most of the
sciences, and her children are ever coming back to help her. In our
art all the sciences seem to converge—physical, chemical, biological
methods join hands to form the complete clinical method. This is the
real justification for that period of preparatory scientific study which
each enactment of the authorities makes longer and harder for the
student of medicine. It is this, and not the mere acquirement of facts.
The facts, it is true, are needed. Every day the doctor has to lay hold,
for professional use, of mechanical, physical, chemical, biological facts.
But facts are things which the well-trained mind can pick up and make

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 341

use of as it goes along at any time and in any place; whereas the
mind which is not well trained will miss the facts or pick up the wrong
ones, or put to a wrong use even the right ones which it has in hand.

Now, the ideal training to be got from any science is that of pursuing
inquiry within the range of the science according to the methods of
the science; in that way only does the spirit of the science fully enter
into the man. But such an ideal education is impossible. Weare fain
to be content in merely making the student know what truths in each
science have been gained and how they have been gathered in, such a
teaching becoming more and more effective as a training the more fully
the student is made to tread in the very steps, and thus to practice the
methods, of those who gained the truths.

The more complete the body of any one science the more useful does
that science become as a means of training, and hence itis that advance
of science has a double bearing on the medical profession. As each
science grows, not only does its new knowledge bring to the doctor new
tacts and new ideas, new keys to open locked problems, and new tools
to use day by day, but the incorporated knowledge gains greater and
ereater power as an instrument to train his mind rightly to use all the
facts which come before him,

Let me, in the light of this view, call your attention for a moment to
the yoke of compulsory studies under which the young Huxley had to
bend his somewhat unruly neck, and compare it with the like yoke
which presses, heavily it seems to some, on the neck of the young
student of to-day.

I have not been able to find an exact record of the course of studies
pursued by Huxley himself at Charing Cross in the years 1842-1845,
but I have been privileged to examine the stained and tattered sched-
ule of the College of Surgeons, duly “signed up,” for the years 1844—
1847, belonging to one who, during some of those years, sat by Hux-
ley’s side, who was then and afterwards his friend, and who has won
honor for himself and for your school under the name of Joseph Fayrer.

I find that young Fayrer attended during his first year a course of
at least 140 lectures with 100 demonstrations on anatomy and physiol-
ogy, a course of not less than 70 lectures on materia medica, a course
of lectures on the practice of surgery, and a course of “The practice of
physics,” each of not less than 70 lectures, and a course of hospital
practice in surgery of not less than nine months. In his second year
he again attended the 140-lecture course on anatomy and physiology,
and the 70-lecture course on the practice of surgery, and again hospital
practice in surgery, taking as well a 70-lecture course in chemistry, a
like course in midwifery and hospital practice in medicine. In his
third year he once more attended the 140-lecture course in anatomy and
physiology, but no other systematic lectures; the rest of his time was
devoted to hospital practice. To these demands of the college of sur-
geons we ought to add, in the case of the ordinary student, the demands

342 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

of the company of apothecaries; but the main addition thus caused
would be a course of botany.

Such a curriculum differs widely both in nature, extent, and order
from that in force at the present day. But I venture to think that if
we examine the conditions of the time, we shall find that the authorities
of that day were as wise as, possibly wiser than, we cf to-day. In
judging such matters as these, we and, perhaps, especially they who
would drive the student on into learning by the goad of compulsion,
must bear in mind that legislative enactments, such as those prescribing
a curriculum of study, always exhibit a long latent period; they come
into visible existence long after the stimulus which begat them has
been applied, long after the need of those things being done which the
enactments strive to do has been felt. So long, indeed, is the latent
period, that often new needs have arisen calling for yet other regula-
tions before the old ones appointed to meet the old needs have got into
working order. Bearing this in mind, we shall find that the course of
study prescribed in Huxley’s time was wisely chosen to meet the needs
of, at least, the time immediately preceding that, if not, indeed, the
time itself.

It will be observed that the study of physics, or as it was then more
commonly called natural philosophy, finds no place whatever in young
Fayrer’s schedule, and that the one short course of chemistry, without
any practical instruction, which he attended was taken in his second
year—in the middle, as it were, of his curriculum, when he was already-
advanced in his clinical studies.

At the present time the sciences of physics and chemistry have each
of them developed into a body of logically coordinate truths, furnish-
ing an instrument of peculiar value for the training of the scientific
mind. Moreover the methods of teaching have developed in no less a
degree, so that in the laboratory the student follows, at a long distance
it is true, but still follows the steps of those who have made the
science, and has at least the opportunity of catching something of the
spirit of scientific inquiry. In this educational value of these sciences,
even more than in the practical utility of a knowledge of the mere
facts of the sciences, great as that may be, lies the justification of the
authorities when these, desiring to improve the profession by intro-
ducing artificial selection into the struggle for existence, insist that all
to whom the lives and health of their fellow men are to be intrusted
should have learnt at least something of the sciences in question.

In the time of Huxley’s studentship both these sciences were in a
very different condition. The time,it is true, was one of great awaken-
ing. In physics men’s minds were busy opening up the hidden powers
of electricity; some ten years before Faraday had made an epoch by
discovering induced currents; he and others were still rapidly extend-
ing our knowledge, one practical outcome of which was the introdue-
tion of the telegraph in 1837. But how great has been the onward

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 343

sweep in electric science since then; how great the advance in all
branches of physics! To realize the great gap which separates the
physics of to-day from the physics of then one has only to call to mind
that the world had yet to wait some years before Mayer, and Joule,
and Helmholtz, and Grove had said their say. In the books which
taught young Huxley the laws of physics he found not a word of that
great law of the conservation of energy which, like a lamp, now guides
the feet of every physical inquirer, whatever be the special path along
which he treads.

In chemistry much, too, was being done. That science was in the
first flush of success in its attack on the mysteries of organic com-
pounds. Liebig, Dumas, and others were rapidly making discoveries
of new organic bodies, and dealing with types and substitution, were
beginning to make their way into the secrets of chemical constitution;
but then, as indeed for a long time afterwards, progress was taking
the form of the accumulation of new facts interesting and eminently
useful, but still mere facts, rather than of the gaining of insight into
those laws of chemical change of which the facts are but the expression.
And the brilliant success of purely organic chemistry was somewhat
prejudicing those inquiries in regions where physics and chemistry
touch hands, which in these latter days are producing such striking
results.

In the days of Huxley’s studentship neither of these sciences pre-
sented such a body of truths as could be readily used as an engine of
mental training, nor had the educational mechanism for thus employ-
ing them been developed; a chemical laboratory for the student was
as yet hardly known, a physical one wholly unknown. The profession
turned to these sciences chiefly for the utility of the facts contained in
them. The facts of physics, with the exception of those of mechanism,
were but rarely appealed to, and if those of chemistry were in more
common use, it was because they threw light on the mysteries of the
pharmacopeceia, rather than because they helped to solve the problems
of the living body. Hence the authority, not without cause, demanded
of the student no physics at all, and asked for chemistry only in the
midst of his course, when its facts might help him to understand the
nature of the drugs which his clinical studies were already bidding him
use.

As regards the biological sciences, the time was also one of change,
or rather of impending change; the causes of the change were at work,
but for the most part were at work below the surface; their effects had
not yet become obvious.

In natural history, in what we sometimes now call biology, in botany,
zoology, and comparative anatomy, the activity in systematic and
descriptive work was great. The sun of the great Cuvier was setting,
but that of our own Richard Owen was at its zenith; new animal
forms, recent and extinct, were daily being described, the deep was

344 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

giving up its treasures, new plants and new beasts, brought home by
energetic travelers, were being duly investigated. But this was only
a continuation of what had been going on long before.

Of the great biologic revolution which was about to come, there was
not so much as even a Sign in the skies when Huxley took his seat on the
Charing Cross benches, though Charles Darwin was already brooding
over the ideas which had come to him in his long voyage.

Two great changes, however, were already beginning—one due to
new ideas, the other to improved methods.

The morphological conceptions, of whieh Von Baer, in his ‘‘ History
of Development,” had laid the foundations, destined to make a new
science of animal forms, were being carried forward by Johannes Miil-
ler in Germany, though, save for the expositions of Carpenter, they had
made but little way in this country. Nowhere, indeed, had they pro-
gressed far. The man who, perhaps to Huxley himself, was to advance
them most, Gegenbaur, was as yet a mere student. Nor, in spite of the
beginning made by Von Baer himself, by Allen Thomson, and by
Rathke, had embryology made much progress. Ko6lliker, to whom the
science owes so much, had as yet written no line. Still the new ideas
were beginning to push.

Of no less importance was the impulse given by the improvements in
the microscope. Only ten years before Sharpey, discovering that emi-
nently microscopic mechanism, ciliary action, found that a simple lens
was a much more trustworthy tool than the then compound microscope.
But in the ten years a great change had taken place, and, during the
latter part especially of the decennium, improved instruments yielded
a rich harvest of discovery in animal and vegetable life. Prominent
among the new additions to truth was increased knowiedge of the
mammalian ovum, in acquiring which Wharton Jones, Huxley’s teacher
at Charing Cross, did much. But the most momentous and epoch-
making step was the promulgation of the cell theory by Schwann and
Schleiden as the decennium drew to its close, and more or less con-
nected with that step was the accurate description by Von Mohl of the
structure of the vegetable cell, and his introduction of the word, which,
next to the word cell, has perhaps had the most profound influence on
the progress of biologic science—I mean the word protoplasm.

Of this wide field of general biologic knowledge the college of sur-
geons at that time took no heed, or at least made no formal demand.
It is true that part of it found its place in the lectures on anatomy and
physiology, and in the consequent examinations, but only a small part.
It is also true that the lecturer on materia medica had by custom license
to roam over almost the whole of nature, and the student in learning
the nature and use of drugs took doses of heterogeneous natural his-
tory; the mention, for instance, in the Pharmacopoeia of castorenm
being made the occasion of a long disquisition on the biology of the
beaver.

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 345

But in this the end in view was the acquisition of facts, not training
in scientific conceptions and ways of thought.

The botany, it is true, which unasked for by the College of Surgeons,
was insisted upon by the company of apothecaries, though made com-
pulsory on utilitarian grounds as an appendage to and introduction to
the Pharmacopceia, did serve the student in an educational way, teach-
ing him how to appreciate likenesses and differences, even small ones,
and how to distinguish between real and superficial resemblances. But
the time he spent on this was too brief to make it—save in cases where
a special enthusiasm stepped in—of any notable effect.

Of the then conditions of that biologic science which comes closest
to the profession of physiology, I will venture to say a few words,
though I will strive to curb my natural tendency to dwell on it at too
great a length.

A great master—Johannes Miiller—had a few years before written a
great work, The Outlines of Physiology; a work which the wise physi-
ologist consults with profit even to-day, noting with admiration how a
clear strong judgment may steer its way through the dangers of the
unknown, and the still worse perils of the halfknown. A study of
that work teaches us the nature and extent of the advanced physiology,
which at that day an accomplished teacher like Wharton Jones might
put before an eager student like Huxley, and we may infer what the
ordinary teacher put before the ordinary student, each perhaps then,
as since, eager neither to give nor to take more than the statutory
minimum.

When we look into the past of science and trace out the first bud-
dings of what afterwards grow to be umbrageous branches, it some-
times seems as if every time, and almost every year, marked an epoch;
it seems as if always some one was finding out something which gath-
ered into greatness as the following years rolled on. But even bearing
this caution in mind, the end of the thirties and the beginning of the
forties of the present century do seem to mark a real epoch in physi-
ology. All along the line accurate, careful observation, quickened by
the rapid growth of the cognate sciences, was taking the first steps to
replace by sound views the sterile discussions and scholastic disquisi-
tions which had hitherto formed too large a part of physiological teach-
ing. The first steps had been taken, but the most marked advance
was yet to come. , i

Though the observations of Beaumont had a few years before, by
proving that gastric juice was a real thing, and demonstrating its prop-
erties, Shown the nature of digestion in its true light, the older fermenta-
tive and other theories were not yet abandoned byall. Though the
conversion of starch into sugar had been recognized, and pepsin had
been discovered, the exact action of the digestive juices had yet to be
learned; that of pancreatic juice was almost unknown, and bile still
reigned as the king of enteric secretions.

346 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

In the physiology of respiration the view that the carbonic acid of
expired air was formed in the lungs by the oxidation of the carbon of
the blood, still found strenuous support; for Johannes Miiller found it
necessary to argue at great length tbat the researches of Magnus on
the gases of the blood had placed the matter in its true light. It had
been suggested that the red corpuscles were in some way also special
carriers of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, but Miiller could not
regard this as anything more than a mere supposition.

When it is borne in mind that injection with mercury was the one
method employed for tracing out the course of the lymphatics, it will
be readily understood how imperfect was the then knowledge of the
lymphatic system. And when it is also remembered that though
Dutrochet had long before used osmosis to help in the interpretation of
the movements of liquids in living tissues, the exact researches of
Graham had yet to come, it will also be understood why, when questions
of absorptions and cognate questions of secretion came under consid-
eration, they were dealt with as questions in such a condition are dealt
even nowadays; much was said about them because little was known.

Though Poisseuille, taking up the matter where it had been left by
Stephen Hales in the foregoing century, had begun, and the brothers
Weber were just continuing, the work of placing our knowledge of the
mechanics of the circulation on a sound and exact basis, and though
the then teaching of the mechanical working of the heart did not differ
widely from that of to-day, the gap which separates the then knowl-
edge of the circulation, even in its mechanical aspects, from that which
we possess to-day, is seen in all its width when I remind you that Carl
Ludwig’s first paper was not published until Huxley had ceased to be
a student—until the year 1845. As to all that great part of the physi-
ology of the vascular system which concerns its government by the
nervous system, I will only say that in Miiller’s great work may be read
the pages in which he deals with the conflicting opinions and indecisive
observations as to whether the brain and spinal cord have any influ-
ence over the heart-beat, and in which, marshaling with logical force
the arguments for and against the opinion that the blood vessels have
muscular fibers in their walls, finally decides that they have not.

In the physiology of the nervous system a momentous advance had
been made some few years before, in the early thirties, by the introduc-
tion, through Marshall Hall, of the idea of reflex action. This was
rapidly supplying the key to many hitherto unsolved physiological and
clinical problems. The special functions of the several cranial nerves
were being worked out by Majendie, Reid, and others. The former
(with Flourens) was also making many experimental researches on
cerebral lesions; and, in another line of inquiry, Bidder and Volkmann
were preparing the way for discoveries to come by their important
studies on the sympathetic system. The physiology of the senses was
being vigorously pushed forward by Johannes Miiller; but the reader

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 347

to-day of Miiller’s volumes cannot but be struck with the smallness of
the space (if we omit all that deals with the senses) which he allots
to the nervous system when we compare it with what is demanded in
the present day; and no little part of even that limited space is taken
up with a consideration of the laws of those ‘“‘sympathies” which gave
to the sympathetic nerves their name, but which have long since
dropped out of sight.

Lastly, it must be remembered that many of the speculations of the
preceding part of the century had remained barren, and many investi-
gations had gone astray through lack of knowledge of the minuter
changes which lie at the bottom of physiological events. Those minuter
changes could not but lay hidden so long as there was no adequate
knowledge of minute structure. I have already referred to the improve-
ments of the microscope taking place in the thirties, and this soon bore
fruit in the rapid growth of that branch of biologic science once called
general anatomy, later on microscopic anatomy, and now best known
by the name of histology. It is well-nigh impossible to exaggerate the
importance of a histological basis for physiological deductions; it is
one of the chief means through which progress has been made and
must continue to be made. In the earlier days of physiology the
grosser features of structure forming the subject-matter of ordinary
anatomy guided the observer to the solution of problems about fune-
tions; but after a while these became exhausted, having yielded up all
they had to yield, and in due time their place was taken by the finer
features disclosed by the microscope. These show as yet no signs of
exhaustion, and we may look forward in confidence to their standing
us in good stead for years to come. We may expect them to last until
we pass, insensibly, from that molecular structure which makes itself
known by optical changes to that finer molecular structure which is
only revealed by and inferred from its effects, which is an outcome of
the ultimate properties of matter, and which is the condition, and so
the cause, of all the phenomena of life.

The early forties of the present century may be taken as marking
the rapid rise of histological inquiry. It is true that, even before this,
the labors of Henle had gone far; that in this country the brilliant
Bowman had already (in 1840) given to the world his classic work on
the structure of striated muscle, and a little later (1842) his hardly less
important work on the structure of the kidney; that the sagacious
Sharpey had embodied, in Quain’s Anatomy, a whole host of impor-
tant histological observations, and that many others were at work.
Nevertheless, one has’only to remember how closely the progress of his-
_ tology is bound up with the name of K6lliker, and to cali to mind that
Kolliker’s first paper was not published until 1841, to see clearly how
much of our present knowledge of histology and all that that brings
with it, has been gathered in since Wharton Jones taught it to the
young Huxley.

348 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

If the gap which parts the physiological learning of that time from
the learning of to-day is great, still greater is the gap in the teaching.
Though at Charing Cross and in some other schools a course of physi-
ology was given, apart from that of anatomy, this was not separately
recognized by the College of Surgeons; it demanded simply a course
of anatomy and physiology, of which the lion’s share fell undoubtedly
to anatomy.

In accordance with this, in most schools, at all events the greater
part, and perhaps the sounder part of the physiology taught, was that
which may be deduced from anatomical premises. Where the teacher
went beyond this, he in most instances at least wandered into academ-
ical disquisitions and sterile discussions. Only in rare hands, such as
those of Wharton Jones and William Sharpey, was the subject so
treated as to be of any real use aS a mental training for the medical
student preparing his mind to view rightly biological problems. The
science was not as yet sufficiently advanced to be an educational engine
which could be safely intnusted to the ordinary teacher’s use. And the
method of teaching it, happily recognized now, which alone insures the
salutary influences of the knowledge acquired, that of following out in
the laboratory the very steps along which the science has trod, was
then wholly unknown. It was as a brilliant favorite pupil that young
Huxley was encouraged by Wharton Jones to use the microscope him-
self, and study, among other things, the structures of hairs; he was not
led to it, as one of a flock, in a practical course.

Indeed, one kind of knowledge only was at that time demanded of
the medical student, in such quantity and in such a way as to render
the study of it a real mental training. Not in one year only of his
course, but in each year—in his first, his second, and his third year—
was the student, who hoped to obtain the diploma of the college, com-
pelled to attend lectures, each course consisting, not as in other subjects
of seventy, but of double that number of lectures, on what was styled
anatomy and physiology, but was in the main what we now eall anat-
omy. Moreover, the student learned even then his anatomy in the same
way that he is bid to learn all other subjects now, not merely by listen-
ing to lectures, or even by witnessing formal. demonstrations, but by
individual labor in.the laboratory—in that laboratory which we eall a
dissecting room. Nowadays it may seem strange to insist that the
student should be studying anatomy during all the three years of his
curriculum, down to the very end of his studentship. But we must
admit the wisdom of it then. At that time human anatomy was the
one branch of knowledge which had achieved anything like complete
development, and which successive generations of able teachers had
shaped into an engine of mental training of the highest value. It was
then the mainstay of medical scientific teaching. It was in the dissect-
ing room that the student, of the time of which we are speaking,
acquired the mental attitude which prepared him for the bedside. He

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 349

there learned to observe, to describe, to be accurate and exact, and the
time spent there was wisely judged to be the most precious of his
apprenticeship. The shaping of his mind by help of orderly arranged
facts was perhaps even of greater value than the mere acquisition of
the facts, important as this might be.

The authorities of the time were, I venture to repeat, in my opinion
wiser in their generation in making this well-developed, accurately
taught science of anatomy the backbone of the medical student’s edu-
cation; they were wise in making relatively little demand on the student
in respect to the other sciences cognate and preparatory to medicine,
the value to him of which consisted then chiefly in the facts which they
embodied; they were also wise in giving him leave to defer his study
of them until his knowledge of something of the needs of his future
profession should have opened ‘his eyes to the value of those sciences
as mere records of facts.

Lalso, however, venture to think that the advance of ‘these sciences
since then has greatly changed their bearing towards the medical stu-
dent, no less than towards medicine. What was wisdom in the fore-
fathers is not necessarily wisdom in us the children. I have no wish
to take advantage of the occasion of this lecture to make an excursion
into the troubled land of medical education. But I feel sure—indeed
I know—that I am only saying what the man whose name these lectures
bear always felt, and indeed often said, when I suggest for consideration
the thought that while some choice out of that advancing flood of
science which is surging up around us, and all of which has some bear-
ing on the medical profession, some choice as to what must be known
by him who aspires to be the instrument of the cure and prevention of
disease is rendered necessary by the struggle for existence—a decided
and even narrow choice, lest the ordinary mind be drowned in the waters
which it is bid to drink. In making that choice, we should remember
that an attitude of mind once gained is a possession for ever, far more
precious than the facts which are gathered in with toil, and flee away
with ease. This should be our guiding principle in demanding of the
medical student knowledge other than that of disease itself.

The usefulness, and so the success, of a doctor is largely dependent
on many things which belong to the profession viewed as an art, on
quickness of sight, promptness of decision, sleight of hand, charm of
manner, and the like—things which can not be taught in any school.
But these are in vain unless they rest on a seund and wide knowledge
of the nature of disease, on a sound and wide grasp of the science of
pathology; and this can be taught. Byasound and wide grasp, I mean
such a one as will enable him who has it to distinguish, as it were by
insight, among the new things which almost every day brings to him
that which is a solid gain from that which is a specious fallacy. Such
a grasp is only got by such a study as leads the mind beyond the facts
into the very spirit of the science.

350 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

But what we call pathology is a branch—a wide and recondite
branch, but still a branch of that larger science which we call physi-
ology; it employs the same methods, but applies them to special prob-
lems. So much are the two one that it would doubtless be possible to
teach pathology to one who knew no physiology; such a one would
learn physiology unawares. Butata great waste of time. For physi-
ology, in its narrower sense, being older, has become organized into an
engine which can be used for leading the mind quickly and easily into
the spirit and methods of true pathological inquiry. The teaching of
it as an introduction to pathology is an economy of time. That, I take
it, if compulsion be justifiable at all, is the justification of its being a
compulsory study.

Farther, the methods of physiology, in turn, are the methods of physics
and of chemistry, used hand in hand with other methods special to the
study of living beings, the general methods of biology. And here
again it is an economy of time that the student should learn these
methods each in its own science, and this is the justification for making
these sciences also compulsory. But in all the regulations which are
issued concerning these several ancillary sciences, this surely should
be kept in view, that each science should be taught not as a scientific
accomplishment of value in itself, but as a stepping stone to professional
knowledge, of value because it is the best means of bringing the
student on his way to that.

ae

Now let me turn to another theme suggested by what has happened
in science and in the profession since the days of Huxley’s studentship,
and that is the complexity of the bearings of any one discovery, of any
one advance, as well on science itself as on the applications of science.

In the garment of science, with which man is wrapping himself
round, or rather is being wrapped round, the several threads are woven
into an intricate web. As the loom which is weaving that ever-spread-
ing garment takes in new warp and new woof, such threads only of
each are taken in as can be fitly joined to those which have come in
before; each thread as it is twisted in becomes a hold for other threads
to be caught up later on. No single observation, no single experiment
stands alone by itself, nor can its worth be rightly judged by itself
alone. The mistaken philanthropists who have put restrictions, and
would put more on physiological investigations, betray that ignorance
of the ways of science, which seems to be a necessary condition of their
attitude, when they ask us to state in a sentence the direct application
to the good of man of each experiment on a living animal. In the
doors of science, each the opening as often of a path as of a chamber,
itis not, as such folk seem to think, that each bobbin pulls only one
latch. Every experiment, every observation has, besides its immediate
result, effects which, in proportion to its value, spread away on all sides

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 351

into even distant parts of knowledge. The good of the experiment by
itself is soon merged in the general good of scientific inquiry. The
science of physiology, and by implication the art of medicine, is built
up in part on experiments on living animals; in part only, but that
part is so woven into all the rest that any attempt to draw it out would
lead to a collapse of the whole.

It is because each experiment or observation is thus a thread caught
up in a close-set web, that 1ts value depends not alone on the mere
result of the experiment or observation itself, but also, and even more
so, on the time at which, and on the circumstances and relations under
which itis made. This truth the real worker in science has borne in
upon him again and again; it is this which leads him to that humility
which has ever been the outward token of the fruitful laborer. He
feels that it is not so much himself working for science as science
working through him.

Let me attempt to illustrate this by dwelling on some two or three
single observations in physiology, made almost at the time or very
soon after the time at which Huxley was a student. It will, I think,
be seen that each of them has reached a long way in its bearing on the
science of physiology and on the art of medicine; that the full effect of
each has been dependent both on what went before and on what has
happened since, and though they were all made, so to speak, long ago
some of their fruits were brought in as it were yesterday, and their full
fruition is perhaps not yet accomplished.

I will first invite your attention to a single experiment, for, though
repeated on various animals, we may call it a single experiment, which
in the fall of the year 1845 Ernest Heinrich Weber, then professor of
anatomy at Leipzig, and his brother Eduard Friedrich, reported to an
assembly of Italian scientific men in Naples, and of which they subse-
quently published an account in Miiller’s Archiv in 1846. Makintg use
of the recently introduced rotating electro-magnetic apparatus (the
physical discovery begetting the physiological one), they found that
powerful stimulation of the vagus nerves had the unexpected result of
stopping the heart from beating.

This single experiment, which I may quote by the way as a typical
experiment on a living animal—for it is impossible to imagine how the
discovery of this action of the vagus on-the heart could have been
made otherwise than by an experiment on a living animal—this single
experiment has made itself felt far and wide throughout almost the
whole of physiology.

In the first place, it has made us understand in a way impossible
before the experiment how, through the intervention of the nervous
system, the work of the heart is tempered to meet the strain of varying
circumstances. As I said a little while back, only a few years before
even eminent observers were groping about in a dim light, hotly dis.
cussing whether the brain and spinal cord could affect the beat of the

Soe RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

heart. To all these discussions Weber’s experiment came as a great
light in a dark place.

There is no need for me to insist how this knowledge that impulses
descending the vagus slow or restrain the heart beat, and the knowl-
edge genetically dependent on this, that impulses reaching the heart
along the cardiac sympathetic nerves from the thoracic spinal cord stir
up the heart to more vigorous or frequent beats, have since served as a
euide for the physician in the intricate problems of cardiac disease,
and that with increasing security as our knowledge of the details of
the actions has increased. The knowledge may not always have been
wisely used. On this point perhaps I may be allowed to repeat the
caution which I may have given elsewhere concerning the dangers of
taking a new physiological fact direct and straight, raw and bleeding,
as it were, from the laboratory to the bedside. The wise physiologist
takes care, even in physiology itself, not to use a new fact as an expla-
nation of old problems without a due testing and a direct verification
of its applicability. How much more is it needful that the doctor who
sails not on the calm seas of the phenomena of health, but amid the
troubled tempests which we call disease, should not hastily and heed-
lessly rush to make practical use of a new fact, tempting as the use
may be, until he also has tested its applicability by that clinical study
which is his only sure guide. But this is by the way.

In the second place, as a mere method Weber's qicene ery has in
physiological experimentation borne most important fruit. Before
Weber’s experiment many an investigation, not only on the vascular
system itself, but in many other branches of physiology, came to a
standstill or went astray because the experimenter had not the means
on the one hand to stop or slacken, or on the other to quicken and stir
up the heart without interfering largely with the object of his research.
Thanks to Weber’s experiment and what has come out of it, that can
now be done with ease, and thus solutions have been obtained of prob-
lems which otherwise seemed insoluble.

In the third place, the experiment has had a profound and wide-
spread influence by serving to introduce a new idea, that idea which we
now denote by the word inhibition. Before the experiment, though
men’s minds were gradually getting clearer concerning the nature of a
nervous impulse, all known instances of the action of a nervous impulse
had for the result an expenditure of energy; and it was a still open
though hotly debated question whether in such actions as when a muscle
was thrown into contraction by a nervous impulse this feature of expend-
iture was not impressed on the muscle by the very nature of the impulse
itself. That question the experiment answered in the negative once
and for all. Whatever the exact nature of a nervous impulse, it was
evidently of such a kind that it might on occasion check expenditure
aud bank up energy in an increased potential store. Observation soon
showed that the heart and vagus was no solitary example. It was

RECENT ADVANCES IN. SCIENCE. 353

recognized that the due regulation of many of, if not all, the so-called
nervous centers was secured not merely by the intrinsic forces of pas-
sive rest making themselves felt in the absence of stimulation, but also,
and even more so, by the alternating play of antagonistic influences.
Throughout all the sciences the resolving a stability seemingly due to
intrinsic causes into an equilibrium arising out of the balance of oppos-
ing forces has again and again marked a step forward; and it is per-
haps not too much to say that a like analysis, prompted by the story
of the vagus and the heart, has profoundly modified all our conceptions
of the way in which nervous impulses, sweeping along the intricate yet
ordered network of paths in the brain and spinal cord, determine the
conduct of life. The idea has of course been abused as well as used, as
what idea has not? Such a word as inhibition could not but fail to
have a blessed sound in the ears of the ignorant; the idea has been
ignorantly and wrongly applied; but this is of little moment in view of
the help which it has given to wise and well-directed inquiry.

And the idea has spread with fruitful results beyond the limits of
nervous impulses; it has been carried deep down into the very inner-
most molecular processes of life. The closer we penetrate into the phys-
ical-chemical events through which living matter grows, lives, and dies,
the clearer does it seem that life itself is a shifting outcome of two
opposing sets of changes—one synthetic, constructive, the other destruc-
tive, analytic—and that the key to this and that riddle of vital action
lies within the grasp of him who can clearly lay hold of the mutual
relations of these conflicting changes. The story of the vagus and the
heart is a tale, not of the heart alone, not of the nervous system alone,
but of all living matter. The light which first shone in the experiment
of the brothers Weber may, in a sense, be said to have gone out into
all the lands of physiology.

Let me now turn your attention to an experiment made a few years
later. This is also an experiment made on a living animal, and what-
ever good may have come out of that to which it has given rise must
be reckoned as the fruit of an experiment.

In 1851 Claude Bernard made known that division of the cervical
sympathetic led to a widening of the blood vessels and a warming of
the ear and other parts of the head and neck. This was the beginning
of what may rightly be called the great vaso-motor knowledge. It may
be true that more than a hundred years before, in 1727, Du Petit had
observed much the same thing, but nothing came out of it; the germinal
time had not yet arrived. It may be true that other observers since
Du Petit had divided the cervical sympathetic and noted the effects;
but these had their attention directed chietly to changes in the pupil.
It may be true that Brown-Séquard and Waller a few months before
Bernard himself was able to do so supplied the complement to the origi-
nal experiment by showing that stimulation of the peripheral part of

SM 96——23

354 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

temperature. All this may be true, but there remains the fact that
with Bernard’s experiment the new light began; that experiment marks
the beginning of our vaso-motor knowledge.

I have already spoken of the prolonged discussions which, just before
the date of Huxley’s studentship, were taking place touching the ques-
tion whether or no the blood vessels were muscular and contractile.
That question had, meanwhile, been definitely settled by Henle’s dem-
onstration, in 1840, that the tissue in the middle coats of arteries really
consisted in part of muscular tissue of the kind known henceforward
as plain muscular tissue. But for some years no use was made of this
discovery in the direction of explaining the intervention of the neryous
system in the government of the circulation. That began with Bernard’s
experiment. =

It would, I venture to think, be sheer waste of your time and mine,
if I were to attempt to labor the theme of the Jarge share in our total
physiological knowledge which is now taken up by the vaso-motor
system and all that belongs to it, and of the extent to which the physi-
ology of that system has woven itself into pathological doctrines, and
helped medical practice. I would simply ask the lecturer on physiology
in what stress he would find himself if he were forbidden in his teach-
ing to say a word which would imply that the caliber of the blood
vessels was influenced by the contraction of their walls through nervous
influence; or ask the student how often, in an examination of to-day, he-
would have to sit seeking inspiration by biting his pen, or staring at
the roof, if he too, in his answers, could never refer to vaso-motor
actions. Whatever part of physiology we touch, be it the work done
by a muscle, be it the various kinds of secretive labor, be it that main-
tenance of bodily temperature which is a condition of bodily activity,
be it the keeping of the brain’s well-being in the midst of the hydro-
static vicissitudes to which daily life subjects it—in all these, as in
many others, we find vaso-motor factors intervening; and, to say noth-
ing of the share taken by these in the great general pathological con-
ditions of inflammation and fever, they also have to be taken account
of by the doctor in studying the disordered physiological processes
which constitute disease, whatever be the tissue affected by the morbid
conditions. Take away from the physiological and pathological doc-
trines of to-day all that is meant by the word vaso-motor, and those
doctrines would be left for the most part, a muddled, unintelligible mass.
To so great an extent as that which Bernard’s experiment began
entered into our modern views.

It was Bernard’s good fortune, but deserved good fortune, to
announce, almost at the same time, two fundamental discoveries. For
I venture to claim for his discovery of the formation of glycogen in the
liver, briefly indicated in 1850, more fully expounded in 1851, an impor-
tance only second, if second, to that of the experiment with which we
have just been dealing,

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 355

To judge of its importance we must look at it from more than one
point of view.

At the time when Huxley was sitting at the feet of Wharton Jones,
the teaching of the schools was largely governed by the view that the
aDimal organism, in contradistinction to the vegetable organism, was
essentially destructive in its chemical actions, possessing no power in
itself of synthetic construction, It is true that the possible synthesis
of organic compounds special to the animal body had long before, in
1828, been shown by Wohler’s artificial formation of urea. It is true
also that Huber, in the case of bees, and Liebig, in the case of cows,
had already shown that wax and fat must be in part manufactured out
of something that was not fat. The conclusions, however, of these
observers were at best somewhat distant inferences from statistical
data; and, in any case, had not as yet made much way in the direction
of general acceptance. But Bernard’s experiment was in the form of
an ocular demonstration. The glycogen which had been formed in the
liver could be extracted, could be seen, handled, and, if need be, tasted,
a result adequate to convince even a physiological Thomas. We may
claim for Bernard’s glycogen discovery, that, as the first realistic proof
of the synthetic powers of the animal organism it did much to establish
a truth, which succeeding observations have only served to confirm and
extend, namely, that the animal, no less than the vegetable organism,
possesses synthetic powers, and that the want of prominence of these
in the ordinary work of the animal body is to be attributed to economic
reasons, and not to absence, or even scantiness of power.

But there is another aspect from which the discovery must be viewed.

At the time of which we are speaking, physiologists were still, as
they had been of old, largely under the influence of a somewhat
mechanical conception of the body as a collection of organs, each of
which had its special use or function, the unity of the body being main-
tained by the mutual adaptation of the constituent organs. This was
further developed into the view that when a use of an organ had been
satisfactorily made out, when a function had been made clear, all that
remained to be done, in the way of research, was simply to inquire how
far and in what ways the performance of that function was influenced
by changes in the rest of the body, or by external circumstances. It
was acknowledged, for instance, on all hands that the function of the
liver was to secrete bile, and physiologists in general were content to
look forward for future discoveries which should throw light on the
exact nature of the mechanism of the secretion, and on why the liver
secreted now more, now less bile, and to these alone without expecting
anything else.

Bernard’s discovery that the liver not only secreted bile but manufac-
tured glycogen fell on physiologists like a bolt from the blue. The
knowledge that the same hepatic cell was engaged both in secreting
bile and manufacturing glycogen, and that the sugar or other prod-

356 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

ucts of digestion were carried from the intestine, not straight to the
tissues which they were destined in any case ultimately to nourish,
but to the liver, there to undergo transformation and await some future
fate, marked the beginning of a new way of looking at the problems
of nutrition. It was recognized that these became less simple—more
complex than they had formerly seemed; but the very complexity
gave hope of possible solutions. It was seen that as the blood swept
in the blood stream through the several tissues it might undergo pro-
found changes without any visible outward token, such as that of the
appearance of secretion in the duct of a gland or of the contraction of
a muscle—might undergo changes which could only be demonstrated
by differences in the composition or properties of the blood as it
came to or left this or that tissue. The technical. difficulties of the
analysis of blood prevented any immediate marked steps in the way
of advance, and attempts to establish in respect to any particular tissue
the changes which the blood underwent in it, by inference from the
results of experimental interference, met with difficulties of another
but no less serious kind. Hence the world had to wait some little time
before the new idea which Bernard’s discovery had started bore impor-
tant or striking fruit. Yet it was not very long before it was seen that
the hepatic cell had heavy duties touching the metabolic changes of
proteid as well as a carbohydrate material; that it, and not the kidney
alone, had to do with urea as well as sugar, and the difficulties, which
physiologists in the early half of this century must have keenly felt—
how to reconcile the bald task of secreting bile, which alone technical
physiology alloted to the liver, with the overweening importance which
not only popular experience, but more exact clinical study, could not
but attach to that organ—began to steal away. A little later on exact
experimental inquiry converted into certainty the suspicions which
clinical study had raised, that the blood in streaming through the
thyroid gland underwent changes of supreme importance to the nutri-
tion of the tissues of the body at large. Still, a little later, the Ber-
nardian idea, if I may so venture to call it, doubling, so to speak, on
itself, led to the discovery that the mysteries of the fate of sugar in
the body were not lodged in the liver alone, but might be traced to the
pancreas. It was seen that as the blood streaming through the liver
worked on sugar besides secreting bile, so the pancreas, besides secret-
ing its marvellous omnipotent juice, also influenced, though in a differ-
ent way, the career of sugar in the body; that the disease we call
diabetes was or might be in some way connected with the pancreas no
less than with the liver. I need not go on to speak of recent researches
on the suprarenal capsules or of other organs. It is enough to note
that one of the most promising lines of inquiry at the present day is
that relating to the changes of which I am speaking, sometimes known
under the name of ‘internal secretion.” Every year—nay, almost
every month—brings up some new light as to the details of the great

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 357

chemical fight which the blood is carrying on in all the tissues of the
body. It may be perhaps to-morrow that we shall learn of some work
of. a kind wholly unexpected which is carried out by that great Mal-
pighian layer of the skin which wraps round our whole frame. In any
case, the line of inquiry is one of the most fruitful of those of the
present day. I may add, too, I think, that it is one which has been of
the greatest direct use to mankind, and promises still more. It is true
that Bernard’s discovery of glycogen, and perhaps especially the
diabetic puncture, raised hopes which have not been fulfilled. Not
to-day, any more than forty years ago, is it in our power wholly to
remove the disease which we call diabetes. But short of complete
mastery, how great is our power now compared with then. And when
we remember that the pancreatic relations of sugar are far from being
worked out, and that such knowledge as physiologists already possess
has not yet made much way in clinical study, we may look forward to
marked progress possibly in no very distant time.

Further, if there be any truth in what I have insisted upon—that the
value of a discovery is to be measured not only by its immediate appli-
cation, theoretical and practical, but also by the worth of the idea
which it embodies and to which it gives life; and if it be true, as I
have suggested, that by the genesis of ideas the discovery of glycogen
is mother of all our knowledge of internal secretion, in its widest
sense, of the work of the thyroid and other like bodies, then the good
to suffering mankind which may be laid to the door of Bernard’s initial
experiment is great indeed.

The next result to which I will call your attention is again an experi-
ment, and once more an experiment on a living animal. In 1850
Augustus Waller described in the Philosophical Transactions the his-
tological changes which division of the hypoglossal and glosso-
pharyngeal nerves in the frog produced in the fibers of the distal
portions of the nerves, and shortly afterwards developed this initial
result into the more general view of the dependence of the nutrition of
a nerve fiber on its continuity with a cell in the central nervous system,
or in the case of afferent fibers, in the ganglion of the posterior root.

This discovery was at the time and has since continued to be of
value as a contribution to physiological ideas. It had its share in pro-
moting the progress—which, though slight, is still a progress—of our
understanding the obscure influences which the part of a cell inclosing
uhe mysterious nucleus exercises over all the rest of the cell, and per-
haps even to-day the theoretical value of that degeneration of nerve
fibers the knowledge of which we owe to Waller is not adequately
appreciated and the lead which it gives not followed out as it might
be. In spite of all we know, we are much too apt to fall back on
the conception that when no nervous impulse is traveling along a
nerve fiber the nerve fiber is in a state of motionless quiescence, and
that a nervous impulse, when it does come, sweeps over the fiber as a

358 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

wave sweeps over a placid lake; but the Wallerian degeneration gives
such a view the lie direct. When we reflect that the finely balanced
molecular condition, which itself is nothing more than the falsely seem-
ing quiescence of an equilibrium of opposing motions in the ultimate
fibrils of the nerve twigs in the ultimate phalanx of the finger, by
which we touch and get to know the world without us, is dependent on
what is going on around the nucleus of a cell or the nuclei of some
cells in the ganglion or ganglia of certain upper spinal nerves, so that
if the continuity of the axis cylinder process be anywhere broken the
figure of the molecular dance changes at once and riot takes the place
of order. When we reflect on this it is clear, I say, that between the
molecules of the ultimate fibrils branching in the Malpighian layer of
the ball of the finger and the molecules within the immediate grasp
of the nucleus of the cell from which those fibrils start there must be
ever-passing thrills—thrills, it is true, of so gentle a kind that no phys-
ical instrument we as yet possess can give us warning of them, so
gentle that compared with them the wave which carries what we eall
a nervous impulse must appear a roaring avalanche, but still thrills
the token of continued movement; and of such gentle, impalpable,
unnoticed thrills we must in the future take full account if we are ever
to sound the real depth of nervous actions.

It is not, however, as a contribution to theoretical conceptions, but
rather as a method, that the results of Waller have so far had their
chief effect on the progress of physiology and medicine, and I have
chosen it as a thing to dwell on because it seems to me a striking
instance of the value of a method merely judged as a method, and, fur-
ther, because the value of its use illustrates my theme, that the success
of any one scientific effort is contingent on the converging aid of other
efforts. For some time, it is true—for years, in fact—the Wallerian
method was employed solely or chiefly in what, without reproach, may
be called the smaller problems of physiology. It settled many topo-
graphical questions. It cleared our views as to the distribution of
afferent and efferent fibers. It seemed to add or replace a few stones
here and there in the growing building, but it did not greatly change
the whole edifice. After a while, however, it met with two helpmates—
the one sooner, the other later—and, by means of the three together
we have gained and are still gaining such additions to our knowledge
of the ways in which the central nervous system works out the acts
which make up our real life as to constitute perhaps the most striking
progress in the physiology of our time. A wholly new chapter of nery-
ous physiology has through them been opened up.

The one colleague is to be found in the experiments of Fritz and
Hitzig; and of Ferrier, again, experiments on living animals—experi-
ments which, by demonstrating the existence of definite paths for the
play of nervous impulses within the central nervous system, opened up
paths for the play of new ideas concerning the working of that system.

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 359

I say ‘“‘demonstrating the existence of definite paths,” for this, and not
the topographical recognition of so many centers of hypothetical nature,
is the solid outcome of experiments on local stimulation of the cerebral
cortex. Views come and go as to what is happening when the current
is flitting to and fro between two electrodes placed on a particular spot
of the Rolandic area. The solid ground on which each view strives to
establish itself is that the particular spot is joined by definite nervous
paths to particular peripheral parts. I say ‘“‘demonstrating the exist-
ence of particular paths,” but what would have been the demonstrative
value of the experiments of stimulation or of removal by themselves
without the anatomical support furnished by the Wallerian method?
And I may justly include within the Wallerian method not the mere
tracking out the degenerated fiber by the simple means at Waller’s
own disposal, but such finer, surer search as is afforded by the later
help given by the newer development of the staining technique.

They who have the widest experience of experiments on living ani-
mals are the first to own that in a region of delicate complexity like
that of the central nervous system the interpretation of the results of
any experimental interference may be, and generally is, in the absence
of aid from other sources, a matter of extremest difficulty, one in which
the observer, trusting to the experiment alone, may easily be led astray.
I need not labor the question what would have been the value of the
mere effects of stimulating or even of removal of parts of the cerebral
cortex, and whither would they have led us, had the experimental
results not been supported and their interpretation guided by the
teachings of the Wallerian method. It is not too much to say that the
experiments of Ferrier and his peers, brilliant as they were, might have
remained barren, useful only as isolated bits of knowledge, or might
even have led us astray, had they not been complemented by anatomical
facts. They have not remained barren and they have not led us astray.
The Wallerian method picked out from the tangle of nerve fibers mak-
ing up the white matter of the brain and spinal cord the pyramidal
tract running from the Rolandic area to the origins of all the motor
roots, even of the lowest, and so, joining hands with the experiment,
made it clear that, whatever might be the exact aature of the events
taking place in a particular spot of the cortex of that area, that spot
was, by the definite paths of particular nerve fibers, put in connection
with definite skeletal muscles. The pyramidal tract was further shown
to be merely one—an important one, it is true, but still merely one—
of,a large class. So it is that the experimental results and the Wal-
lerian results, not merely in that Rolandic area where the results of
experiment take on the grosser form of readily appreciated interfer-
ence with movements, but in other regions where other finer, more
occult manifestations of nervous and psychical actions have to be dealt
with, are, it may be slowly, but yet surely, resolving that which seemed
to be a hopeless tangle of interweaving and interlacing nerve fibers

360 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

and cells into an orderly arrangement, of which the key is seen to be
that each nerve filament is a path of impulses coming from some spot—
it may be from near, it may be from afar—where events are taking
place, and carrying the issue of those events to some other spot, there
to give rise to events having some other issue.

But a third factor was wanting to forward our insight into this
orderly arrangement, and especially by again affording an anatomical
basis to open the way toward explaining what was the order of events
in the spots or centers, as we call them, in which the filaments began
or ended, and what was the mechanism of the change of events. This,
I venture to think, we may find in the special histological method
which, however much its usefulness, has been enhanced by its subse-
quent development in the hands of Cayal, Kélliker, and others, as well
as by the coincident methyl-blue method we owe to Golgi. The final
word has not yet been said as to the exact meaning and value of the
black silver pictures which that method places before us; but this, at
least, may be asserted that by means of them the progress of our
knowledge of the histological constitution of the central nervous system
has within the last few years made strides of a most remarkable kind.
It may be that those pictures are in some of their features misleading,
it may be that the terminal arborization. and their lack of continuity
with the material of the structures which they grasp, does not afford
an adequate explanation of the change in the nature of the nervous
impulses which takes place at the relays of which the arborizations
seem the token; it may be, indeed it is probable, that we have yet
much to learn on these points. But notwithstanding this it must still
be said that, by the help of this method, our knowledge of how the
fibers run, where they begin and where they end within the brain and
spinal cord has advanced, and is advancing in a manner which, to one
who looks back to the days when Huxley was studying within these
walls, seems little short of marvelous.

Let me once more repeat, the value of this silver method is not an
intrinsic one; it has its worth because it fits in with other methods; it
is available on account of what is known apart from it. I imagine that
if in 1842 Huxley, at Wharton Jones’s suggestion, had invented the
silver method it would have remained unknown and unused. The time
for it had not then come. The full fruition which it has borne and is
bearing in our day has come to it.because it works hand in hand with
the two other methods of which I have spoken—the Wallerian and the
experimental methods.

It is these three working together which have brought forth what I
may venture to call the wonders which we have seen in our days, and
i can not but think that what we have seen is but an earnest of that
which is to come. In no branch of physiology is the outlook more
promising, even in the immediate future, than in that of the central
nervous system. but surely I do it wrong to call it merely a branch

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 361

of physiology. It is true that if we judge it by even the advanced
knowledge of to-day, it takes up but a small part of the whole teaching
of the science; but when we come to know about it that which we are
to know, all the rest of physiology will shrink into a mere appendage
of it, and the teacher of the future will hurry over all that to which
to-day we devote so much of the year’s course, in order that he may
enter into the real and dominant part.

There is no need for me to expound in detail how the knowledge
gained by the three methods of which I have been speaking, in laying
bare the secrets of nervous diseases and opening up the way for suc-
cessful treatment and accurate and trustworthy prognosis, has helped
onward the art of medicine. Even the younger among us must be
impressed when he compares what we know to-day of the diseases of
the nervous system with what we knew, I will not say fifty, but even
twenty, nay even ten, years ago. Do not for a moment suppose that I
am attempting to maintain that the great clinical progress which has
taken place has resulted from the direct, immediate application to the
bedside of laboratory work, or that I wish to use this to exalt the physi-
ological horn. I would desire to take a higher and broader standpoint,
namely this, that the close relations and mutual interdependence of
laboratory physiology and that bedside physiology which we sometimes
call pathology, and the necessity of both for the medical art, are
nowhere more clearly shown than by the history of our recent advance
in a knowledge of the nervous system as a whole. In this, when we
strive to follow out the genesis of the new truths, it is almost impossi-
ble to trace out that which has come from the laboratory and that from
the hospital ward, so closely have the two worked together; an idea
started at the bedside has again and again been extended, shaped, or
corrected by experimental results and been brought back in increased
fruitfulness to the bedside. On the other hand, a new observation
which, had it been confined to the laboratory, would have remained
barren and without result, has no less often proved in the hands of the
physician the key to clinical problems the unlocking of which has in
turn opened up new physiological ideas.

And, though the scope.of these Huxley lectures is to deal with the
relations of the sciences to the medical art, I shall, I trust, be pardoned
if I turn aside to point out that this swelling knowledge of how nerve
cell and nerve fiber play their parts in bringing about the complex
work done by man’s nervous system is not narrowed to the relief of
those sufferings which come to humanity in the sick room. Mankind
suffers much more deeply, much more widely, through misdirected
activities of the nervous system, the meddling with which lies outside
_ the immediate calling of the doctor. Yet every doctor, I may say every
thoughtful man, can not but recognize that the distinction between a
so-calied physical and a so-called moral cause is often a shadowy and
indistinct one, and that certainly so-called moral results are often the

362 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

outcome, more or less direct, of so-called physical events. I venture to
say that he who realizes how strong a grip the physiologist and the
physician, working hand in hand, are laying on the secret workings of
the nervous system, who realizes how, step by step, the two are seeing
their way to understand the chain of events issuing in that sheaf of
nervous impulses which is the instrument of what we call a voluntary
act, must have hopes that that knowledge will ere long give man
power over the issue of those impulses, to an extent of which we have
at present no idea. Not the mere mending of a broken brain, but the
education, development, and guidance of cerebral powers, by the light
of a knowledge of cerebral processes, is the office in the—we hope—not
far future of the physiology of the times to come.

I might bring before you other illustrations of the theme which I
have in hand. I could, I think, show you that the very greatest of all
recent advances in our art, that based on our knowledge of the ways
and works of minute organisms, has come about because several inde-
pendent gains of science met, in the fullness of time, and linked them-
selves together. But my time is spent.

I should be very loth, however, and you, I am sure, would not wish
that I should end this first Huxley lecture without some word as to
what the great man whose name the lectures bear had to do with the
progress on some points of which I have touched. He had an influence,
I think a very great one, upon that progress, though his influence, as is
natural, bore most on the progress in this country.

The condition and prospects of physiology in Great Britain at the
present moment are, I venture to think, save and except the needless
bonds which the legislature has placed upon it, better and brighter
than they ever have been before. At one time, perhaps, it might have
been said that physiology was for the most part being made in Ger-
many; for, in spite of the fact that some of the greatest and most preg-
nant ideas in physiology have sprung from the English brain, it must
be confessed that in the more ordinary researches the output in Eng-
land has at times not been commensurate with her activities of other
kinds. But that cannot be said now. The English physiological work
of to-day is, both in quantity and quality, at least equal to that of other
nations, having respect to English resources and opportunities. Part
of this is probably due to that activity which is the natural response
to the stimulus of obstacles. The whip of the antivivisectionists has
defeated its own end. But it is also in part due to the influence of
Huxley.

That influence was twofold, direct and indirect. I need not remind
you that not only when he sat on the benches of Charing Cross Hos-
pital, but all his lifelong afterwards, Huxley was at heart a physiologist.
Physiology, the beauty of which Wharton Jones made known to him,
was his first love. That morphology, which circumstances led him to
espouse, was but a second love; and though his affection for it grew

RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE. 363

with Jong-continued daily communion, and he proved a faithful hus-
band, devoting himself with steadfast energy to her to whom he had
been joined, his heart went back again, and especially in the early days,
to the love which was not to be his. What he did for morphology may
perhaps give us a measure of what he might have done for physiology
had his early hopes been realized. As it was, he could show his lean-
ings chiefly by helping those who were following the career denied to
himself. Unable to put his own hand to the plow, he was ever ready
to help others whom fate had brought to that plow, especially us
younger ones, to keep the furrow straight. Andif I venture to say
that the little which he who is now speaking to you has been able to do
is chiefly the result of Huxley’s influence and help, it is because that
only illustrates what he was doing at many times and in many ways.

His indirect influence was perhaps greater even than his direct.

The man of science, conscious of his own strength, or rather of the
strength of that of which he is the instrument, is too often apt to under-
rate the weight and importance of public opinion, of that which the
world at large thinks of his work and ways. Huxley, who had in him
the making of a sagacious statesman, never fell into this mistake.
Though he felt as keenly as any one the worthlessness of popular judg-
ment upon the value of any one scientific achievement, or as to the right
or wrong of any one scientific utterance, he recognized the importance
of securing toward science and scientific efforts in general a right atti-
tude of that popular opinion which is, after all, the ultimate appeal in
all mundane affairs.

And much of his activity was directed to thisend. The time which
seemed to some wasted, he looked upon as well spent, when it was used
for the purpose of making the people at large understand the worth
and reach of science. No part of science did he more constantly and
fervently preach to the common folk, than that part which we call
physiology. His little work on physiology was written with this view,
among others, that by helping to spread a sound knowledge of what
pliysiology was, among the young of all classes, he was preparing the
way for ajust appreciation among the public of what were the aims of
physiology, and how necessary was the due encouragement of it.

And if, as I believe to be the case, physiology stands far higher in
public opinion, and if its just ambitions are more clearly appreciated
than they were fifty years ago, that is in large measure due to Huxley’s
words and acts. I have not forgotten that he was one of a commission
whose labors issued in the forging of those chains to which I have
referred; but knowing something of commissions, and bearing in mind
what were the views of men of high influence and position at that time,
I tremble to think of what might have been the fate of physiology if a
wise hand had not made the best of adverse things.

One aspect of Huxley’s relations to science deserves, perhaps, special
comment. On nothing did he insist, perhaps, more strongly than on

364 RECENT ADVANCES IN SCIENCE.

the conception that great as are the material benefits which accrue
from science, greater still is the intellectual and moral good which it
brings to man; and part of his zeal for physiology was based on the
conviction that great as is the help which, as the basis of the knowl-
edge of disease, and its applications to the healing art, it offers to suffer-
ing humanity in its pains and ills, still greater is the promise which it
gives of clearing up the dark problems of human nature, and laying
down rules for human conduct. No token, in these present days, is
more striking or more mournful than that note of pessimism which is
sounded by so many men of letters, in our own land, no less than in
others, who, knowing nothing of, take no heed of the ways and aims of
science. Cast adrift from old moorings, such men toss about in dark-
ness on the waves of despair. There was no such note from Huxley.
He had marked the limits of human knowledge, and had been led to
doubt things about which other men are sure, but he never doubted in
the worth and growing power of science, and, with a justified optimism,
looked forward with confident hope to its being man’s help and guide
in the days to come.

LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY:.!

By J. BURDON-SANDERSON.

I. INTRODUCTION.

The death of any discoverer—of anyone who has added largely to
the sum of human knowledge—affords a reason for inquiring what his
work was and how he accomplished it. This inquiry has interest even
when the work has been completed in a few years, and has been
limited to a single line of investigation—much more when the life has
been associated with the origin and development of a new science and
has extended over half a century.

The science of physiology, as we know it, came into existence fifty
years ago, with the beginning of the active life of Ludwig, in the same
sense that the other great branch of biology, the science of living beings
(ontology), as we now know it, came into existence with the appearance
of the “Origin of Species.” In the order of time physiology had the
advantage, for the new physiology was accepted some ten years before
the Darwinian epoch. Notwithstanding, the content of the science is
relatively so unfamiliar, that before entering on the discussion of the
life and work of the man who, as I shall endeavor to show, had a larger
Share in founding it than any of his contemporaries, it is necessary to
define its limits and its relations to other branches of knowledge.

The word physiology has in modern times changed its meaning. It
once comprehended the whole knowledge of nature. Now itis the name
for one of the two divisions of the science of life. In the progress of
investigation the study of that science has inevitably divided itself
into two: ontology, the science of living beings; physiology, the science
of living processes, and thus, inasmuch as life consists in processes, of
life itself. Both strive to understand the complicated relations and
endless varieties which present themselves in living nature, but by
different methods. Both refer to general principles, but they are of a
different nature.

Yo the ontologist, the student of living beings, plants, or animals,
the great fact of evolution, namely, that from the simplest beginning
our Own organism, no less than that of every animal and plant with its

‘Founded upon a lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, January 24, 1896.
Printed in Science Progress, Vol. V, No. 25, 1896, pages 1-21.

365

356 LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY.

infinite complication of parts and powers, unfolds the plan of its exist-
ence—taken with the observation that that small beginning was, in all
excepting the lowest forms, itself derived from two parents, equally
from each—is the basis from which his study and knowledge of the
world of living beings takes its departure. For on these two facts—
evolution and descent—the explorer of the forms, distribution, and
habits of animals and plants has, since the Darwinian epoch, relied
with an ever-increasing certainty, and has found in them the explana-
tion of every phenomenon, the solution of every problem relating to
the subject of his inquiry. Nor could he wish for a more secure basis.
Whatever doubts or misgivings exist in the minds of “ nonbiologists”
in relation to it may be attributed partly to the association with the
doctrine of evolution of questions which the true naturalist regards as
transcendental, partly to the perversion or weakening of meaning
which the term has suffered in consequence of its introduction into the
language of common life, and particularly to the habit of applying it to
any kind of progress or improvement, anything which from small
beginnings gradually increases. But, provided that we limit the term
to its original sense—the evolution of a living being from its germ by a
continuous, not a gradual process—there is no conception which is more
free from doubt either as to its meaning or reality. It is inseparable
from that of life itself, which is but the unfolding of a predestined
harmony, of a prearranged consensus and synergy of parts.

The other branch of biology, that with which Ludwig’s name is
associated, deals with the same facts in a different way. While
ontology regards animals and plants as individuals and in relation to
other individuals, physiology considers the processes themselves of
which life is a complex. This is the most obvious distinction, but it is
subordinate to the fundamental one, namely, that while ontology has
for its basis laws which are in force only in its own province, those of
evolution, descent, and adaptation, we physiologists, while accepting
these as true, found nothing upon them, using them only for euristic
purposes, i. e., as guides to discovery, not for the purpose of explana-
tion. Purposive adaptation, for example, serves as a clue, by which
we are constantly guided in our exploration of the tangled labyrinth
of vital processes. But when it becomes our business to explain these
processes—to say how they are brought about—we refer them not to
biological principles of any kind, but to the universal laws of, nature.
Hence it happens that with reference to each of these processes, our
inquiry is rather how it occurs than why it occurs.

Jt has been well said that the natural sciences are the children of
necessity. Just as the other natural sciences owed their origin to the
necessity of acquiring that control over the forces of nature without
which life would scarcely be worth living, so physiology arose out of
human suffering and the necessity of relieving it. It sprang, indeed,
out of pathology. It was suffering that led us to know, as regards our

LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. 367

own bodies, that we had internal as well as external organs, and
probably one of the first generalizations which arose out of this
knowledge was, that “if one member suffer all the members suffer
with it”—that all work together for the good of the whole. In earlier
times the good which was thus indicated was associated in men’s minds
with human welfare exclusively. But it was eventually seen that
nature has no less consideration for the welfare of those of her products
which to us seem hideous or mischievous, than for those which we
regard as most useful to man or most deserving of his admiration. It
thus became apparent that the good in question could not be human
exclusively, but as regards each animal its own good—and that in the
organized world the existence and lite of every species is brought into
subordination to one purpose—its own success in the struggle for
existence.'

From what has preceded it may be readily understood that in physi-
ology adaptation takes a more prominent place than evolution or
descent. In the prescientific period adaptation was everything. The
observation that any structure or arrangement exhibited marks of
adaptation to a useful purpose was accepted, not merely as a guide in
research, but as a full and final explanation. Of an organism or organ
which perfectly fulfilled in its structure and working the end of its exist-_
ence nothing further is required to be said or known. Physiologists of
the present day recognize as fully as their predecessors that perfection
of contrivance which displays itself in all living structures the more
exquisitely the more minutely they are examined. No one, for example,
has written more emphatically uonp this point than did Ludwig. In
one of his discourses, after showing how nature exceeds the highest
standard of human attainment—how she fashions, as it were, out of
nothing and without tools instruments of a perfection which the human
artificer can not reach, though provided with every suitable material—
wood, brass, glass, india rubber—he gives the organ of sight as a signal
example, referring among its other perfections to the rapidity with
which the eye can be fixed on numerous objects in succession and the
instantaneous and unconscious estimates which we are able to form of
the distances of objects, each estimate involving a process of arithmetic
which no calculating machine could effect in the time.? In another

1] am aware that in thus stating the relation between adaptation and the struggle
for existence, I may seem to be reversing the order followed by Mr. Darwin, inas-
much as he regarded the survival of organisms which are fittest for their place in
nature, and of parts which are fittest for their place in the organism, as the agency
by which adaptedness is brought about. However this may be expressed it can not
be doubted that fitness is an essential of organisms. Living beings are the only
things in nature which by virtue of evolution and descent are able to adapt them-
selves to their surroundings. It is therefore only so far as organism (with all its
attributes) is presupposed, that the dependence of adaptation on survival is intelli-
gible.

27 summarize here from a very interesting lecture entitled ‘“‘Leid und Freude in
der Naturforschung,”’ published in the Gartenlaube (Nos. 22 and 23) in 1870.

368 LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY.

discourse—that given at Leipzig when he entered on his professorship
in 1865—he remarks that when in our researches into the finer mech-
anism of an organ we at last come to understand it, we are humbled
by the recognition ‘‘that the human inventor is but a blunderer as
compared with the unknown Master of the animal creation.” !

Some readers will perhaps remember how one of the most brilkiant of
philosophical writers, in a discourse to the British Association delivered
a quarter of a century ago, averred on the authority of a great physi-
ologist that the eye, regarded as an optical instrument, was so inferior
a production that if it were the work of a mechanician it would be unsal-
able. Without criticising or endeavoring to explain this paradox, I
may refer to it as having given the countenance of a distinguished
name to a misconception which I know exists in the minds of many
persons, to the effect that the scientific physiologist is more or less
blind to the evidence of design in creation. On the contrary, the view
taken by Ludwig, as expressed in the words I have quoted, is that of
all physiologists. The disuse of the teleological expressions which
were formerly current does not imply that the indications of contrivance
are less appreciated, for, on the contrary, we regard them as more
characteristic of organism as it presents itself to our observation than
any other of its endowments. But,if I may be permitted to repeat
what has been already said, we use the evidences of adaptation differ-
ently. We found no explanation on this or any other biological-prin-
ciple, but refer all the phenomena by which these manifest themselves
to the simpler and more certain physical laws of the universe.

Why must we take this position? First, because it is a general rule
in investigations of all kinds to explain the more complex by the more
simple. The material universe is manifestly divided into two parts,
the living and the nonliving. We may, if we like, take the living as our
Norma, and say to the physicist: “You must come to us for laws; you
must account for the play of energies in universal nature by referring
them to evolution, descent, adaptation.” Or we may take these words
as true expressions of the mutual relations between the phenomena and
processes peculiar to living beings, using for the explanation of the
processes themselves the same methods which we shotld employ if we
were engaged in the investigation of analogous processes going on
independently of life. Between these two courses there seems to me to
be no third alternative, unless we suppose that there are two material
universes, one to which the material of our bodies belongs, the other
comprising everything that is not either plant or animal.

The second reason is a practical one. We should have to go back to
the time which I have ventured to call prescientific, when the world of

! The words translated in the above sentence are as follows: ‘‘ Wenn uns endlich
die Palme gereicht wird, wenn wir ein Organ in seinem Zuzammenhang begreifen,
so wird unser stolzes Gattungsbewusstsein durch die Erkenntniss niedergedruckt,
dass der menschlicher Erfinder ein Stiimper gegen den unbekannten Meister der
thierischen Schépfung sei.”

LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. 369

life and organization was supposed to be governed exclusively by its
own laws. The work of the past fifty years has been done on the
opposite principle, and has brought light and clearness where there
was before obscurity and confusion. All this progress we should have
to repudiate. But this would not be all. Weshould have to forego
the prospect of future advance. Whereas by holding on our present
course, gradually proceeding from the more simple to the more com-
plex, from the physical to the vital, we may confidently look forward
to extending our knowledge considerably beyond its present limits.

A no less brilliant writer than the one already referred to, who is
also no longer with us, asserted that mind was a secretion of the brain
in the same sense that bile is a secretion of the liver or urine that of
the kidney; and many people have imagined this to be the necessary
outcome of a too mechanical way of looking at vital phenomena, and
that physiologists, by a habit of adhering strictly to their own method,
have failed to see that the organism presents problems to which this
method is not applicable, such, e. g., as the origin of the organism
itself or the origin and development in it of the mental faculty. The
answer to this suggestion is that these questions are approached by
physiologists only in so far as they are approachable. We are well
aware that our business is with the unknown knowable, not with the
transcendental. During the last twenty years there has been a con-
siderable forward movement in physiology in the psychological direc-
tion, partly dependent on discoveries as to the localization of the
higher functions of the nervous system, partly on the application of
methods of measurement to the concomitant phenomena of psychical
processes; and these researches have brought us to the very edge of
a region which can not be explored by our methods, where measure-
ments of time or of space are no longer possible.

In approaching this limit the physiologist is liable to fall into two
mistakes; on the one hand, that of passing into the transcendental
without knowing it; on the other, that of assuming that what he does
not know is not knowledge. The first of these risks seems to me of
little moment; first, because the limits of natural knowledge in the psy-
chological direction have been well defined by the best writers, as, e. g.,
by Du Bois-Reymond in his well-known essay ‘On the limits of natural
knowledge,” but chiefly because the investigator who knows what he is
about is arrested in limine by the impossibility of applying the experi-
mental method to questions beyond its scope. The other mistake is
chiefly fallen into by careless thinkers, who, while they object to the
employment of intuition even in regions where intuition is the only
method by which anything can be learned, attempt to describe and
define mental processes in mechanical terms, assigning to these terms
meanings which science does not recognize, and thus slide into a kind of
speculation which is as futile as it is unphilosophical.

SM 96— 24

370 LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY.

II. LUDWIG AS INVESTIGATOR AND TEACHER.

The uneventful history of Ludwig’s life—how early he began his
investigation of the anatomy and function of the kidneys; how he
became just fifty years ago titular professor at Marburg, in the small
university of his native State, Hesse Cassel; low in 1849 he removed
to Ziirich as actual professor and thereupon married; how he was six
years later promoted to Vienna—has already been admirably related
in these pages by Dr. Stirling. In 1865, after twenty years of profes-
sorial experience, but still in the prime of life and, as it turned out,
with thirty years of activity still before him, he accepted the chair of
physiology at Leipzig. His invitation to that great university was by
far the most important occurrence in his life, for the liberality of the
Saxon Government, and particularly the energetic support which he
received from the enlightened Minister Von Ialkenstein, enabled him to
accomplish for physiology what had never before been attempted on an
adequate scale. No sooner had he been appointed than he set himself to
create—what was essential to the progress of the science—a great obsery-
atory, arranged not as a museum, but much more like a physical and
chemical laboratory, provided with all that was needed for the applica-
tion of exact methods of research to the investigation of the processes
of life. The idea which he had ever in view, and which he carried into
effect during the last thirty years of his life with signal success, was
to unite his life work as an investigator with the highest kind of teach-
ing. Even at Marburg and at Ziirich he had began to form a school;
for already men nearly of his own age had rallied round him. Attracted
in the first instance by his early discoveries, they were held by the
force of his character, and became permanently associated with him in
his work as his loyal friends and followers—in the highest sense his
scholars. If, therefore, we speak of Ludwig as one of the greatest
teachers of science the world has seen, we have in mind his relation
to the men who ranged themselves under his leadership in the build-
ing up of the science of physiology, without reference to his function
as an ordinary academical teacher.

Of this relation we can best judge by the careful perusal of the num-
erous biographical memoirs which have appeared since his death, more
particularly those of Professor His! (Leipzig), of Professor Kronecker?
(Bern), who was for many years his coadjutor in the institute, of Pro-
fessor Von Fick? (Wiirzburg), of Professor Von Kries* (Freiburg), of
Professor Mosso” (Turin), of Professor Fano® (Florence), of Professor

‘His. Karl Ludwig und Karl Thiersch. Akademische Gedichtnissrede, Leipzig,
1895.

* Kronecker. Carl Friederich Wilhelm Ludwig. Berliner klin. Wochensch., 1895,
No. 21.

“A. Fick, Karl Ludwig. Nachruf. Biographische Bliitter, Berlin, Vol. I, pt. 3.

*Von Kries. Carl Ludwig. Freiburg, Bd. I., 1895.

»Mosso. Karl Ludwig. Die Nation, Berlin, Nos. 38, 39.

Fano, Per Carlo Ludwig Commemorazione, Clinica Moderna, Florence, I, No. 7,

LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. 5 (jl

Tigerstedt! (Upsala), of Professor Stirling? in England. With the
exception of Fick, whose relations with Ludwig were of an earlier date,
and of his colleague in the chair of anatomy, all of these distinguished
teachers were at one time workers in the Leipzig Institute. All testify
their love and veneration for the master, and each contributes some
striking touches to the picture of his character.

All Ludwig’s investigations were carried out with his scholars. He
possessed a wonderful faculty of setting each man to work at a problem
suited to his talent and previous training, and this he carried into effect
by associating him with himself in some research which he had either in
progress or in view. During the early years of the Leipzig period all
the work done under his direction was published in the well-known
volumes of the Arbeiten, and subsequently in the Archiv fiir Anatomie
und Physiologie of Du Bois-Reymond. Each “Arbeit” of the labora-
tory appeared in print undcr the name of the scholar who operated
with his master in its production, but the scholar’s part in the work
done varied according to its nature and his ability. Sometimes, as Von
Kries says, he sat on the window sill, while Ludwig, with the efficient
help of his laboratory assistant, Salvenmoser, did the whole of the work.
In all cases Ludwig not only formulated the problem, but indicated the
course to be followed in each step of the investigation, calling the
worker of course into counsel. In the final working up of the results
he always took a principal part, and often wrote the whole paper. But
whether he did little or much, he handed over the whole credit of the
performance to his coadjutor. This method of publication has no doubt
the disadvantage that it leaves it uncertain what part each had taken;
but it is to be remembered that this drawback is unavoidable whenever
master and scholar work together, and is outweighed by the many
advantages which arise from this mode of cooperation. The instances
in which any uncertainty can exist in relation to the real authorship
of the Leipzig work are exceptional. The well-informed reader does
not need to be told that Mosso or Schmidt, Brunton or Gaskell, Stirling
or Wooldridge were the authors of their papers in a sense very different
from that in which the term could be applied to some others of Lud-
wig’s pupils. On the whole, the plan must be judged of by the results.
It was by working with his scholars that Ludwig trained them to work
afterwards by themselves, and thereby accomplish so much more than
other great teachers have done.

Ido not think that any of Ludwig’s contemporaries could be com-
pared to him in respect of the wide range of his researches. In a
science distinguished from others by the variety of its aims, he was
equally at home in all branches, and was equally master of all methods,
for he recognized that the most profound biological question can only
be solved by combining anatomical, physical, and chemical inquiries.
It was this consideration which led him in planning the Leipzig Insti-

'Tigerstedt. Karl Ludwig. Denkrede. Biographische Blatter, Berlin, Vol. I, pt, 3.
2Stirling. Science Progress, Vol. IV, No. 21.

Site LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY.

tute to divide it into three parts, experimental (in the more restricted
sense), chemical, and histological. Well aware that it was impossible
for a man who is otherwise occupied to maintain his familiarity with the
technical details of histology and physiological chemistry, he placed
these departments under the charge of younger men capable of keep-
ing them up to the rapidly advancing standard of the time, his rela-
tions with his coadjutors being such that he had no difficulty in retaining
his hold of the threads of the investigation to which these special lines
of inquiry were contributory.

It is scarcely necessary to say that as an experimenter Ludwig was
unapproachable. The skill with which he carried out difficult and
complicated operations, the care with which he worked, his quickness
of eye and certainty of hand were qualities which he had in common
with great surgeons. In employing animals for experiment he strongly
objected to rough and ready methods, comparing them to “firing a
pistol into a clock to see how it works.” Every experiment ought, he
said, to be carefully planned and meditated on beforehand, so as to
accomplish its scientific purpose and avoid the infliction of pain. To
insure this he performed all operations himself, only rarely committing
the work to,a skilled coadjutor. :,

His skill in anatomical work was equally remarkable. It had been
acquired in early days, and appeared throughout his life to have given
him very great pleasure, for Mosso tells how, when occupying the room
adjoining that in which Ludwig was working, as he usually did, by him-
self, he heard the outbursts of glee which accompanied each successful
step in some difficult anatomical investigation.

Let us now examine more fully the part which Ludwig played in the
revolution of ideas as to the nature of vital processes which, as we have
seen, took place in the middle of the present century.

Although, as we shall see afterwards, there were many men who
before Ludwig’s time investigated the phenomena of life from the physi-
cal side, it was he and the contemporaries who were associated with
him who first clearly recognized the importance of the principle that
vital phenomena can only be understood by comparison with their
physical counterparts, and foresaw that in this principle the future of
physiology was contained as in a nutshell. Feeling strongly the fruit-
lessness and unscientific character of the doctrines which were then
current, they were eager to discover chemical and physical relations in
the processes of life. In Ludwig's intellectual character this eagerness
expressed his dominant motive. Notwithstanding that his own re-
searches had in many instances proved that there are important func-
tions and processes in the animal organism which have no physical or
chemical analogues, he never swerved either from the principle or from
the method founded upon it.

Although Ludwig was strongly influenced by the rapid progress
which was being made in scientific discovery at the time that he

LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. ata

entered on his career, he derived little from his immediate predeces-
sors in his own science. He is sometimes placed among the pupils of
the great comparative anatomist and physiologist, J. Miiller. This,
however, is a manifest mistake, for Ludwig did not visit Berlin until
1847, when Miiller was nearly at the end of his career. At that time
he had already published researches of the highest value (those on the
mechanism of the circulation and on the physiology of the kidney),
and had set forth the line in which he intended to direct his investi-
gations. The only earlier physiologist with whose work that of Lud-
wig can be said to be in real continuity was E. H. Weber, whom he
succeeded at Leipzig, and strikingly resembled in his way of working.
For Weber Ludwig expressed his veneration more unreservedly than
for any other man excepting, perhaps, Helmholtz, regarding his re-
searches as the foundation on which he himself desired to build. Of
his colleagues at Marburg he was indebted in the first place to the
anatomist, Prof. Ludwig Fick, in whose department he began his career
as prosector, and to whom he owed facilities without which he could
not have carried out his earlier researches; and in an even higher
degree to the great chemist, R. W. Bunsen, from whom he derived that
training in the exact sciences which was to be of such inestimable value
to him afterwards.

There is reason, however, to believe that, as so often happens, Lud-
wig’s scientific progress was much more influenced by his contempo-
raries than by his seniors. In 1547, as we learn on the one hand from
Du Bois-Reymond, on the other from Ludwig himself, he visited Berlin
for the first time. This visit was an important one both for himself
and for the future of science, for he there met three men of his own
age, Helmholtz, Du Bois-Reymond and Briicke, who were destined to
become his life friends, all of whom lived nearly as long as Ludwig
himself, and attained to the highest distinction. They all were full of
the same enthusiasm. As Ludwig said when speaking of this visit:
‘We four imagined that we should constitute physiology on a vhemico-
physical foundation, and give it equal scientific rank with physics, but
the task turned out to be much more difficult than we anticipated.”
These three young men, who were devoted disciples of the great anato-

‘mist, had the advantage over their master in the better insight which
their training had given them into the fundamental principles of scien-
tific research. They had already gathered around themselves a so-called
“physical” school of physiology, and welcomed Ludwig on his arrival
from Marburg, as one who had of his own initiative undertaken in his
own university das Befreiungswerk aus dem Nitalismus.

The determination to refer all vital phenomena to their physical or
chemical counterparts or analogues, which, as I have said, was the
dominant motive in Ludwig’s character, was combined with another
quality of mind, which, if not equally influential, was even more obvi-
ously displayed in his mode of thinking and working. His first aim,

374 LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY.

even before he sought for any explanation of a structure or of a process,
was to possess himself, by all means of observation at his disposal, of a
complete objective conception of all its relations. He regarded the
faculty of vivid, sensual realization (lebendige sinnliche Anschanung)
as of special value to the investigator of natural phenomena, and did
his best to cultivate it in those who worked with him in the laboratory.
In himself this objective tendency (if I may be permitted the use of a
word which, if not correct, seems to express what I mean) might be
regarded as almost a defect, for it made him indisposed to appreciate
any sort of knowledge which deals with the abstract. He had a disin-
clination to philosophical speculation which almost amounted to aver-
sion, and, perhaps for a similar reason, avoided the use of mathematical
methods even in the discussion of scientific questions which admitted
of being treated mathematically—contrasting in this respect with his
friend, Du Bois-Reymond—resembling Briicke. But as a teacher the
quality was of immense use to him. His power of vivid realization
was the substratum of that many-sidedness which made him, irrespect-
ively of his scientific attainments, so attractive a personality.

I am not sure that it can be generally stated that a keen scientific
observer is able to appreciate the artistic aspects of nature. In Lud-
wig’s case, however, there is reason to think that esthetic faculty was as
developed as the power of scientific insight. He was a skillful drafts-
man but not a musician; both arts were, however, a source of enjoy-
ment to him. He was a regular frequenter of the Gewandhaus con-
certs, and it was his greatest pleasure to bring together gifted musicians
in his house, where he played the part of an intelligent and apprecia-
tive listener. Of painting he knew more than of music, and was a
connoisseur whose opinion carried weight. Itisrelated that he was so
worried by what he considered bad art, that after the redecoration of
the Gewandhaus concert room he was for some time deprived of his
accustomed pleasure in listening to music.

Ludwig’s social characteristics can only be touched on here in so far
as they serve to make intelligible his wonderful influence as a teacher.
Many of his pupils at Leipzig have referred to the schéne gemeinsam-
keit which characterized the life there. The harmonious relation
which, as a rule, subsisted between men of different education and dif-
ferent nationalities could not have been maintained had not Ludwig
possessed side by side with that inflexible earnestness which he showed
in all matters of work or duty a certain youthfulness of disposition
which made it possible for men much younger than himself to accept
his friendship. This sympathetic geniality was, however, not the only
or even thechief reason why Ludwig’s pupils were the better for having
known him. There were not afew of them who for the first time in
their lives came into personal relation with a man who was utterly free
from selfish aims and vain ambitions, who was scrupulously con-
Scientious in all that he said and did, who was what he seemed and

LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. 375

seemed what he was, and who had no other aim than the advance.
ment of his science, and in that advancement saw no other end than
the increase of human happiness. These qualities displayed themselves
in Ludwig’s daily active life in the laboratory, where he was to be found
whenever work of special interest was going on; but still more when,
as happened on Sunday mornings, he was “at home” in the library of
the institute—the corner room in which he ordinarily worked. Many
of his “scholars” have put on record their recollections of these occa-
sions, the cordiality of the master’s welcome, the wide range and varied
interest of his conversation, and the ready appreciation with which he
seized on anything that was new or original in the suggestions of those
present. Few men live as he did, “im Gaznen, Guten, Schdnen,” and
of those still fewer know how to communicate out of their fullness to
others.
Il. THE OLD AND THE NEW VITALISM.

Since the middle of the century the progress of physiology has been
continuous. Hach year has had its record, and has brought with it
new accessions to knowledge. In one respect the rate of progress was
more rapid at first than it is now, for in an unexplored country discov-
ery 18 relatively easy. In another sense it was slower, for there are
now scores of investigators for every one that could be counted in
1840 or 1850. Until recently there has been throughout this period no
tendency to revert to the old methods—no new departure—no diver-
gence from the principles which Ludwig did so much to enforce and
exemplify.

The wonderful revolution which the appearance of the Origin of Spe-
cies produced in the other branch of biology promoted the progress of
physiology, by the new interest which it gave to the study, not only of
structure and development, but of all other vital phenomena. It did
not, however, in any sensible degree affect our method or alter the
direction in which physiologists had been working for two decades. Its
most obvious effect was to sever the two subjects from each other. To
the Darwinian epoch comparative anatomy and physiology were united,
but as the new ontology grew it became evident that each had its own
problems and its own methods of dealing with them.

The old vitalism of the first half of the century is easily explained.
It was generally believed that, on the whole, things went on in the liv-
ing body as they do outside of it, but when a difficulty arose in so
explaining them the physiologist was ready at once to call in the aid of
a “vital force.” It must not, however, be forgotten that, as I have
already indicated, there were great teachers (such, for example, as
Sharpey and Allen Thomson in England, Magendie in France, Weber
in Germany) who discarded all vitalistic theories, and concerned them-
Selves only with the study of the time and place relations of phe-
nomena; men who were before their time in insight, and were only
hindered in their application of chemical and physical principles to

376 LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY.

the interpretation of the processes of life by the circumstance that
chemical and physical knowledge was in itself too little advanced.
Comparison was impossible, for the standards were not forthcoming.
Vitalism in its original form gave way to the rapid advance of knowl-
edge as to the correlation of the physical sciences which took place in
the forties. Of the many writers and thinkers who contributed to that
result, J. R. Mayer and Helmholtz did so most directly, for the con-
tribution of the former to the establishment of the doctrine of the
conservation of energy had physiological considerations for its point of
departure; and Helmholtz, at the time he wrote the Erhaltung der
Kraft, was still a physiologist. Consequently when Ludwig’s cele-
brated Lehrbuch came out in 1852, the book which gave the coup de
erdce to vitalism in the old sense of the word, his method of setting
forth the relations of vital phenomena by comparison with their physical
or chemical counterparts, and his assertion that it was the task of
physiology to make out their necessary dependence on elementary con-
ditions, although in violent contrast with current doctrine, were in no
way surprising to those who were acquainted with the then recent
progress of research. Ludwig’s teaching was indeed no more than a
general application of principles which had already been applied in
particular instances.
The proof of the nonexistence of a special “vital force” lies in the
demonstration of the adequacy of the known sources of energy in the
organism to account for the actual day by day expenditure of heat and
work; in other words, on the possibility of setting forth an energy bal-
ance sheet in which the quantity of food which enters the body in a
given period (hour or day) is balanced by an exactly corresponding
amount of heat produced or external work done. It is interesting to
remember that the work necessary for preparing such a balance sheet
(which Mayer had attempted, but from want of sufficient data failed
‘In) was begun thirty years ago in the laboratory of the Royal Institu-
tion by the foreign secretary of the royal society. But the determina-
tions made by Dr. Frankland related to one side of the balance sheet,
that of income. By his researches in 1866 he gave physiologists for
the first time reliable information as to the heat value (i. e., the amount
of heat yielded by the combustion) of different constituents of food.
It still remained to apply methods of exact measurement to the expendi-
ture side of the account. Helmholtz had estimated this, as regards
man, as best he might, but the technical difficulties of measuring the
expenditure of heat of the animal body appeared until lately to be
almost insuperable. Now that it has been at last successfully accom-
plished, we have the experimental proof that in the process of life there
is no production or disappearance of energy. It may be said that it
was unnecessary to prove what no scientifically sane man doubted.
There are, however, reasons why it is of importance to have objective
evidence that food is the sole and adequate source of the energy which

LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. aoe

we day hy day or hour by hour disengage, whether in the form of heat
or external work.

In the opening paragraph of this section it was observed that until
recently there had been no tendency to revive the vitalistic notion of
two generations ago. In introducing the words in italics I referred to
the existence at the present time in Germany of a sort of reaction,
which under the term ‘“ Neovitalismus” has attracted some attention—
so much indeed that at the Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher at
Liibeck last September it was the subject of one of the general addresses.
The author of this address, Professor Rindfleisch, was, I believe, the
inventor of the word; but the origin of the movement is usually traced
to a work on physiological chemistry which an excellent translation by
the late Dr. Wooldridge has made familiar to English students. The
author of this work owes it to the language he employs in the intro-
duction on “ Mechanism and vitalism” if his position has been misun-
derstood, for in that introduction he distinctly ranges himself on the
vitalistic side. As, however, his vitalism is of such a kind as not to
influence his method of dealing with actual problems, it is only in so
far of consequence as it may affect the reader. For my own part I feel
grateful to Professor Bange for having produced an interesting and
readable book on a dry subject, even though that interest may be partly
due to the introduction into the discussion of a question which, as he
presents it, is more speculative than scientific.

As regards other physiological writers to whom vitalistic tendencies
have been attributed, it is to be observed that none of them has even
suggested that the doctrine of a “vital force” in its old sense should
be revived. Their contention amounts to little more than this, that in
certain recent instances improved methods of research appear to have
shown that processes at first regarded as entirely physical or chemical
do not conform so precisely as they were expected to do to chemical and
physical laws. As these instances are all essentially analogous, refer-
ence to one will serve to explain the bearing of the rest.

Those who have any acquaintance with the structure of the animal
body will know that there exists in the higher animals, in addition to
the system of veins by which the blood is brought back from all parts
to the heart, another less considerable system of branched tubes, the
lymphatics, by which, if one may so express it, the leakage of the
blood vessels is collected. Now, without inquiring into the why of this
system, Ludwig and his pupils made and continued for many years
elaborate investigations which were for long the chief sources of our
knowledge, their general result being that the efficient cause of the
movement of the lymph, like that of the blood, was mechanical. At
the Berlin Congress in 1890 new observations by Professor Heidenhain,
of Breslau, made it appear that under certain conditions the process of
lymph formation does not go on in strict accordance with the physical
laws by which leakage through membranes is regulated, the experi-

378 LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY.

mental results being of so unequivocal a kind that, even had they not
been contirmed, they must have been received without hesitation. How
is such a case as this to be met? The “ Neovitalists” answer promptly
by reminding us that there are cells, i. e., living individuals, placed at
the inlets of the system of drainage without which it would not work,
that these let in less or more liquid according to circumstances, and
that in doing so they act in obedience, not to physical laws, but to vital
ones—to internal laws which are special to themselves.

Now, it is perfectly true that living cells, like working bees, are both
the architects of the hive and the sources of its activity, but if we ask
how honey is made it is no answer to say that the bees make it. We
do not require to be told that cells have to do with the making of lymph
as with every process in the animal organism, but what we want to
know is how they work, and to this we shall never get an answer so long
as we content ourselves with merely explaining one unknown thing by
another. The action of cells must be explained, if at all, by the same
method of comparison with physical or chemical analogues that we
employ in the investigation of organs.

Since 1890 the problem of lymph formation has been attacked by a
number of able workers, among others here in London, by Dr. Starling,
of Guy’s Hospital, who, by sedulously studying the conditions under
which the discrepancies between the actual and the expected have
arisen, has succeeded in untying several knots. In reference to the
whole subject, it is to be noticed that the process by which difficulties
are brought into view is the same as that by which they are eliminated.
It is one and the same method throughout, by which, step by step,
knowledge perfects itself—at one time by discovering errors, at another
by correcting them; and if at certain stages in this progress difficulties
seem insuperable we can gain nothing by calling in even provisionally
the aid of any sort of eidolon, whether “cell,” ‘“‘ protoplasm,” or inter-
nal principle.

It thus appears to be doubtful whether any of the biological writers
who have recently professed vitalistic tendencies are in reality vitalists.
The only. exception that I know is to be found in the writings of a well-
known morphologist, Dr. Hans Driesch,' who has been led by his
researches on what is now called the mechanics of evolution to revert
to the fundamental conception of vitalism that the laws which govern
vital processes are not physical, but biological—that is, peculiar to the
living organism and limited thereto in their operation. Dr. Driesch’s
researches as to the modifications which can be produced by mechanical
interference in the early stages of the process of ontogenesis have
enforced upon him considerations which he evidently regards as new,
though they are familiar enough to physiologists. He recognizes that

1Driesch. Entwicklungsmechanische Studien. A series of ten papers, of which
the first six appeared in the Zeitsch. f. w. Zoologie, Vols, LIII and LY; the rest in
the Mittheilungen of the Naples Station.

LUDWIG AND MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. 379

although by the observation of the successive stages in the ontogenetic
process one may arrive at a perfect knowledge of the relation of these
Stages to each other, this leaves the efficient causes of the development
unexplained (fiihrt nicht zu einem Erkenntniss ihrer bewirkenden
Ursachen). It does not teach us why one form springs out of another.
This brings him at once face to face with a momentous question. He
has to encounter three possibilities. He may either join the camp of the
biological agnostics and say with Du Bois-Reymond ‘ignoramus et
ignorabimus,” or be content to work on in the hope that the physical
laws that underlie and explain organic evolution may sooner or later
be discovered, or he may seek for some hitherto hidden law of organism
of which the known facts of ontogenesis are the expression, and which,
if accepted as a law of nature, would explain everything. Of the three
alternatives Driesch prefers the last, which is equivalent to declaring
himself an out-and-out vitalist. He trusts by means of his experi-
mental investigations of the mechanics of evolution to arrive at “ ele-
mentary conceptions” on which by ‘mathematical deduction”! a
complete theory of evolution may be founded.

If this anticipation could be realized, if we could construct with the
aid of those new principia the ontogeny of asingle living being, the ques-
tion whether such a result was or was not inconsistent with the uni-
formity of nature would sink into insignificance as compared with the
splendor of such a discovery.

But will such a discovery ever be made? It seems to me even more
improbable than that of a physical theory of organic evolution. It is
satisfactory to reflect that the opinion we may be led to entertain on
this theoretical question need not affect our estimate of the value of
Dr. Driesch’s fruitful experimental researches. |

1“Blementarvorstellungen . . . die zwar mathematische Deduktion aller
Erscheinungen aus sich gestatten méchten.” Driesch. Beitriige zur theoretischen
Morphologie. Biol. Centralblatt, Vol. XII, p. 539, 1892.

raat is ated

THE PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICRO-
SCOPE; A PLEA FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL HISTOLOGY.

By Simon HENRY GAGE, B. 5.,
Ofeliiiaca Neen

It is characteristic of the races of men that almost at the dawn of
reflection the first question that presses for solution is this one of life—
life as manifested in men and in the animals and plants around them.
What and whence is it, and whither does it tend? Then the sky with
its stars, the earth with its sunshine and storm, light and darkness,
stand out like great mountain peaks demanding explanation. So in
the life of every human being, repeating the history of his race, as the
evolutionists are so fond of saying, the fundamental questions are first
to obtrude themselves upon the growing intelligence. There is no
waiting, no delay for trifling with the simpler problems; the most
fundamental and most comprehensive come immediately to the fore
and alone seem worthy of consideration. But as age advances most
men learn to ignore the fundamental questions and to satisfy them-
selves with simpler and more secondary matters, as if the great reali-
ties were all understood or nonexistent. No doubt to many a parent
engaged in the affairs of society, politics, finance, science, or art, the
questions that their children put, like drawing aside a thick curtain,
bring into view the fundamental questions, the great realities; and we.
know again that what is absorbing the power and attention of our
mature intellect, what perhaps in pride we feel a mastery over, are
only secondary matters after all, and to the great questions of our own
youth, repeated with such earnestness by our children, we must con-
fess with humility that we still have no certain answers. It behooves
us, then, if the main questions of philosophy and science can not be
answered at once, to attempt a more modest task, and by studying the
individual factors of the problem to hope ultimately to put these
together and thus gain some just comprehension of the entire problem.

This address is, therefore, to deal, not with life itself, but with some —
of the processes or phenomena which accompany its manifestations.
But it is practically impossible to do fruitful work according to the
Baconian guide of piling observation on observation. This is very

1 Address of the president of the American Microscopical Society. Printed in
Transactions of the American Microscopical Society, Vol. XVII, 1896, pages 3-29,
381

382 PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

liable to be a dead mass, devoid of the breath of life. It is a well-
known fact that the author of the Novum Organuon, the key which
Bacon supposed would serve as the open sesame of all difficulties and
yield certain knowedge, this potent key did not unlock many of the
mysteries of science for its inventor. Every truly scientific man since
the world began has recognized the necessity of accurate observation,
and no scientific principle has ever yet been discovered simply by
speculation; but every one who has really unlocked any of the myste-
ries of nature has inspired, made alive his observations by the imagi-
nation; he has, as Tyndall so well put it, made a scientific use of the
imagination and created for himself what is known as the “ working
hypothesis.” It must be confessed that for some investigators the
“hypothesis” becomes so dear that if the facts of nature do not con-
form to the hypothesis, ‘so much the worse for the facts.” But for
the truly scientific man the hypothesis is destined solely to enable
him to get the facts of nature in some definite order, an order which
shall make apparent their connection with the great order and har-
mony which is believed to be present in the universe.

If the working hypothesis fails in any essential particular, he is ready
to modify or discard it. For the truly inspired investigator one
undoubted fact weighs more in the balance than a thousand theories.

At the very threshold of any working hypothesis for the biologist,
this question as to the nature of the energy we call life must be consid-
ered. The great problem must receive some kind of a hypothetical
solution. What is its relation to the energies of light, heat, electricity,
chemism, and the other forms discussed by the physicist? Are its com-
plex manifestations due only to these, or does it have a character and
individuality of its own? If we accept the ordinarily received view of
the evolution of our solar system, the original fiery nebula, in which
heat reigned supreme, slowly dissipated part of its heat, and hurled
into space the planets, themselves flaming vapors, only the protons of
the solid planets. As the heat became further dissipated there
appeared in the cooling mass manifestations of chemical attraction,
compounds, at first gases, then liquids, and finally, on the cooling
planets, solids appeared. Lastly upon our own planet, the earth, when
the solid crust was formed and the temperature had fallen below the
boiling point of water, the seas were formed and then life appeared.
Who could see, in the incandescent nebula, the liquids and solids of
our planet and the play upon them of chemism, of light, heat, electric-
ity, cohesion, tension, and the other manifestations so familiar to all?
And yet, who is there that for a moment believes that aught of matter
or energy was created in the different stages of the evolution? They
appeared or were manifested just as soon as the conditions made it
possible. So it seems to me that the energy called life manifested itself
upon this planet when the conditions made it possible, and it will cease
to manifest itself just as soon as the conditions become sufficiently

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE. 383

unfavorable. It was the last of the forms of energy to appear upon
this planet and it will be the first to disappear.

In brief, it seems to me that the present state of physical and physi-
ological knowledge warrants the assumption, the working hypothesis,
that life is a form of energy different from those considered in the
domain of physics and chemistry. This form of energy is the last to
appear, last because more conditions were necessary for its manifesta-
tions. It, like the other forms of energy, requires a material vehicle
through which to act, but the results produced by 1t are vastly more
complex. Like the other energies of nature, it does not act alone. It
acts with the energies of the physicist, but as the master; and under
its influence the manifestations pass infinitely beyond the point where
for the ordinary energies of nature it is written ‘‘thus far and no
farther.”

It can be stated without fear of refutation that every physiological
investigation shows with accumulating emphasis that the manifesta-
tions of living matter are not explicable with only the forces of dead
matter, and the more profound the knowledge of the investigator the
more certain is the testimony that the life energy is not a mere name.
And, strange to say, the physicist and the chemist are most emphatic
in declaring that life is an energy outside their domain.

The statements of a chemist, a physicist, and a biologist are added.
From the character and attainments of these men, their testimony, given
after years of the most earnest investigation and reflection, is worthy
of consideration :

When a celebrated chemist was asked if he believed that a leaf or a
flower could be formed or could grow by chemical forces, he answered:

i would more readily believe that a book on chemistry or on botany
could grow out of dead matter by chemical processes.—Liebig.

The influence of animal or vegetable life on matter is infinitely beyond
the range of any scientific inquiry hitherto entered on. Its power of
directing the motions of moving particles, in the demonstrated daily
miracle of our human free will, and in the growth of generation after
generation of plants from a single seed, are infinitely different from any
possibie result of the fortuitous concourse of atoms; and the fortuitous
concourse of atoms is the sole foundation in philosophy on which can
be founded the doctrine that it is impossible to derive mechanical effect
from heat otherwise than by taking heat from a body at a higher tem-
perature, converting at most a definite proportion of it into mechanical
effect, and giving out the whole residue to matter at a lower tempera-
ture.—Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin).

The anagenetic [vital] energy transforms the face of nature by its
power of assimilating and recompounding inorganic matter, and by its
capacity for multiplying its individuals. In spite of the mechanical
destructibility of its physical basis (protoplasm) and the ease with
which its mechanisms are destroyed, it successfully resists, controls,
and remodels the catagenetic [physical and chemical] energies for its
purpose.—Cope.

384 PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

What, then, are the manifestations of the life energy? and what are
the processes which are discernible? All of us,in whatever walk of life,
will recognize the saying of Gould:

Now, when one looks about him the plainest, largest fact he sees is
that of the distinction between living and lifeless things.

As life goes on and works with power where the unaided eye fails to
detect it, the microscope—marvelous product of the life energy in the
brain of man—shows some of these hidden processes. It has done for
the infinitely little on the earth what the telescope has done for the
infinitely great in the sky.

Let us commence with the little and the simple. If a drop of water
from an aquarium, stream, or pool is put under the microscope many
things appear. It is a little world that one looks into, and like the
greater one that meets our eye on the streets, some things seem alive
and some lifeless. As we look we shall probably find, as in the great
world, that the most showy is liable in the end to be the least interest-
ing. In the microscopic world there will probably appear one or more
small rounded masses which are almost colorless. If one of these is
watched, lo! it moves, not by walking or swimming, byt by streaming
itself in the direction. First a slender or blunt knob appears, then into
it all of the rest of the mass moves, and thus it has changed its posi-
tion. If the observation is continued, this living speck, which is called
an amceba, will be seen to approach some object and retreat, indeed, it
comports itself as if sensitive, with likes and dislikes. If any object
suitable for food is met in its wanderings the living substance flows
around it, engulfs it and dissolves the nutrient portions and turns them
into its own living substance; the lifeless has been rendered alive. If
the eye follows the speck of living matter the marvels do not cease..
After it has grown to a certain size, as if by an invisible string, it con-
stricts itself in the middle and finally cuts itself in two. The original
amceba is no more, in its place there are two. Thus nearly at the bot-
tom of the scale of life are manifested all of the fundamental features—
the living substance moves itself, takes nourishment, digests it and
changes nonliving into living substance and increases in size; it seems
to feel and to avoid the disagreeable and choose the agreeable, and
finally it performs the miracle of reproducing its kind, of giving out its
life and substance to form other beings, its offspring.

It is the belief of many biologists that the larger and complex forms,
even up to man himself, may be considered an aggregation of structural
elements originally more or less like the amceba just described; but
instead of each member of the colony, each individual itself carrying
on all the processes of life independently, as with the amceba, there is
a division of labor. Some move, some digest, some feel, think, and
choose, some give rise to new beings, all change lifeless matter into
their own living substance. (See Plate XI.)

The processes and phenomena by which a new individual is produced
are included under the comprehensive term embryology.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE Xl.

Locomotion

Choice

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

Fie. 1. The amceba in its various phases of activity—locomotion, choice (irritability), nutri-
tion, and reproduction. The figures should be read from left to right, as with words in a
book. p, Pseudopod; c, crystal of substance distasteful to the amceba, hence the amceba
withdraws from it; /, food ingested and digested by the amoeba for its nourishment. The
indigestible matter (w) is extruded from the body and left behind. n, Nucleus. This is seen
to divide first in reproduction, then the division of the cell body is completed, thus giving rise
to two individuals.

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE. 385

All organisms, great or small, are but developments of minute germs
budded oft by the parent or parents, and the way in which these minute
beginnings develop into perfect forms like their parents can only be
followed by the aid of a microscope. Indeed, in no field of biology
has the microscope done such signal service in revealing the processes
of life.

The method of the production of a new being with the amcba, as we
have just seen, is for the parent to give itself entire to its offspring—
the parent ceasing to be in producing its offspring. With some other
lowly forms a part of the body of the parent buds out, grows, and
finally falls off as an independent organism or remains connected with —
the parent to form a colony. In the vegetable world a familiar exam-
ple of a colony is represented by the plant that the children call “old
hen and chickens.”

In the higher animals, however, where specialization is carried to its
extreme limit, some myriads of cells forming the body are set apart to
produce motion, others digest food, still others think and feel, while
comparatively few, the germ cells, are destined for the continuation of
the race. In the higher and highest forms especially, all observation
goes to show that the life energy, not satisfied with the mere vitaliza-
tion of matter and a dead level of excellence, is aiming at perpetual
ascent, greater mastery over matter and its physical forces. For the
more certain attainment of this end, the production of offspring is no
longer possible for one individual; two wholly separate individuals
must join, each contributing its share of the living matter which is to
develop into a new being. In this way the accumulated acquirements
of two are united with the consequent increase in the tendencies and
impulses for modification and nearly double the protection for the off-
spring. Thus, in striking contrast to the ameba, where the single
parent gives all of itself to form offspring and in so doing disappears
and loses its identity, in the higher forms, while two must unite to form
the offspring, the parents remain and retain their individuality and the
ability to produce still other offspring. The process by which this is
accomplished may be traced step by step with the microscope. <A germ
cell of the father and one of the mother fuse together, and from this
new procreative cell formed by the fusion of two, with all their possi-
bilities combined, the new individual arises. This certain knowledge
is the result of the profound investigation of the last few years, and
shows the literalness of the scriptural statement, ‘they shall be one
flesh.” (See Plate XIL) |

After this fusion of the father and mother germ cells the single cell
thus formed, like the amceba, divides into two, and these into four and
so on, but unlike the ameeba all the cells remain together. Within this
cellular mass, as if by an unseen builder, the cells are deftly arranged
in their place, some to form brain, some heart, some the digestive tract,
others for movement; so that finally from the simple mass of cells,
originally so alike, arises the complex organism, fish cr bird, beast or

SM 96——25

386 PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

man. How perfectly the word “offspring” describes the life process in
the production of this new being! That the child should resemble both
father and mother is thus made intelligible, for it is a part of both.
Yes, further, it may resemble grandfather or great grandfather or
mother, for truly it is a part of them, their life conserved and contin-
ued. There is no new life, it is only a continuation of the old. “‘Omne
vivum ex vivo,” all life from life. But the demonstration of this prime
fact required a microscope, and it is an achievement of the Jast half of
this century. How counter this statement still is to the common belief
of mankind we may perhaps better appreciate if we recall our own
youth, and remember with what absolute confidence we expected the
stray horsehairs we had collected and placed in water to turn into
living snakes.' The belief that it is an everyday occurrence for living
beings to arise from lifeless matter was not by any means confined to
those uneducated in biology. It was held by many scientific men
within the memory of most of us. Indeed this goblin of spontaneous
generation, even for the scientific world, has been laid low so recently
that the smoke of battle has scarcely yet cleared from the horizon.

In the complex body of animals, as stated above, the constituent
elements perform different functions. Is there any hint of the way in
which the action is accomplished? Let us glance at two systems, the
nervous and the glandular, widely different in structure and function.
All know how constantly the glands are called into requisition, the
salivary glands for saliva, those of the stomach and the pancreas for
their digestive juices, etc. If we take now the pancreas as an example,
and that of a living, fasting animal is put under the microscope so that
its constituent cells can be observed, it will be seen that they are
clouded, their outlines and that of their nuclei being vague and indis-
tinct. The cell is apparently full of coarse grains. If now the animal
is fed, as the digestion proceeds the pancreas pours out its juice. At
the same time the granules, and with them the cloudiness, gradually
disappear, the cells become clear, and both they and their nuclei are
sharply outlined. That is, the substance which is to form the pancre-
atic juice is stored in the cells in the form of granules during the
periods of rest, and held until the digestive agent is demanded, and
if the demand is great all the granules may be used up. But as
soon as the demand ceases the cells begin again their special vital

tReference is here made to the nematoid worm Gordius. This worm lives a part
uf its life as a parasite in the larve of aquatic insects and insome fish. In the adult
free condition it differs markedly from the larval, parasitic stage, and is very slender
and much elongated, often reaching a length of 20 to 30 centimeters (8 to 10 inches),
and has the general appearance of a coarse hair like that from the tail of ahorse. It
lives in water and in wet places, and frequently appears in horse troughs and the
wet places where the trough overflows. From the hair-like appearance it was and
still is believed that a hair from the horse’s tail or mane had directly transformed
into a living creature. By many persons it is called a hair snake, by others a hair
worm. Often one or seyeral become tangled in an almost inextricable knot, whence
the name from the famous ‘‘Gordian knot,”

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XII.

tnte20arrg,

eit it : soe
ye oe ann

CRC be eedvegasags On oe

<a =

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

Fic. 2. Various phases in the reproduction of one of the higher animals. In the upper
series is shown the fusion of the father and mother germ cells; in the middle series appear
some of the earlier phases of segmentation of the fertilized ovum. The lower figure (modi-
fied from Marshall) represents a medisection of an amphibian embryo sufficiently far advanced
to show that the original cells into which the ovum divided have differentiated and arranged
themselves in such a manner as to form the beginnings or protons of the great systems of
organs—brain, enteron, and heart.

O, Ovum; n, nucleus of the ovum. @ This sign indicates that the ovum is a mother or
female germ cell. Z, Zoosperm. <¢ Sign indicating that the zoosperm is a father or male
germ cell. ff pn, Female pronueleus; m pn, male pronucleus. These two pronuclei fuse and
form the nucleus of the true reproductive cell, the fertilized ovum. In the two figures at the
right both signs (? &) are used to indicate that both germ cells are represented in each figure.

FO, Fertilized ovum. That is the true reproductive cell, composed of a father or male and
a mother or female germ cell fused. The steps of the fusion are shown in the upper series.
sn, Segmentation nucleus. 2¢s, Two-cell stage; that is, the fertilized ovum has divided
once, forming two, (Compare the reproduction of the amceba.) 4c s, Four-cell ctage. bl,
Blastula stage, in which the fertilized ovum has divided into very many cells, all remaining
together.

Embryo.—The division of the organs has proceeded very far, and the cells have begun to
differentiate and form organs: Brain; ch, body axis, or notochord; @nteron, or alimentary
canal, and Heart.

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE. 387

action, and again the granules begin to appear and increase in number
until finally the cells become so full that they are fully charged and
again ready to pour forth the digestive fluid. This is a daily, almost
an hourly process. (See Plate XIII.)

Let us take another example in which it would almost appear that
there is organic memory on the part of the gland cells. No doubt all
have seen the clear jelly-like masses surrounding the eggs of frogs and
salamanders. Whence comes this jelly that is so resistant to the agents
that work so quickly the destruction of ordinary organic matter? As
spring advances the cells of the oviduct increase enormously in size.
The microscope shows this increase to be due to a multitude of clear
granules. As the eggs move along, the ova are coated with the jelly
formed from the granules given out by the cells. As this material for
the jelly is poured out the cells gradually shrink to their original size,
and then wait another twelve months before doing their destined
work.

If one can thus catch a glimpse of some of the finer processes taking
place in gland action, how is it with nervous action, the highest function
of which living matter is capable? While it has been known for a
long time that the nervous system is the organ of thought and feeling
and the director and coordinator of the motions of the body, and many
speculations had been made concerning the processes through which
the nervous tissue passes in performing its functions, it was left to an
American student, Dr. Hodge, to first successfully show that there
were visible changes through which the nervous system passes in its
work. The question is, can the activity of the nervous system be traced
as surely by changes occurring in the living matter forming its basis,
as the action of a gland can be seen by the study of the gland cells?

The demonstration is simple now that the method has been shown.
No doubt everyone has had the experience of failing to perform some
difficult muscular action at one time and then at another of doing it
with ease, or of finding true the reverse of the adage, ‘practice makes
perfect.” For example, in a trial of skill, as in learning to ride a
bicycle, all the complicated action may be performed with considerable
ease and certainty at the beginning of a lesson, when one is fresh, but
as the practice continues the results become progressively less and less
successful, and finally with increasing weariness there is only failure,
and one must rest. Wesay the muscles are tired. This is true in part,
but of much greater importance is the fatigue of the nervous system,
as this furnishes the impulses for the action and coordination of the
muscles. Now, as muscular action can be seen and the amount can be
carefully controlled, here was an exact indicator of the time and
amount of the nervous activity. Furthermore, as animals have two
Similar sides, one arm or leg may work and the other remain at rest,
and consequently corresponding sides of the nervous system may be
active and at rest. By means of electrical irritation one arm of a cat
or other animal was caused to move vigorously for a considerable time,

388 PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

the other arm remaining at rest. Then the two sides of the nervous
system—that is, the pairs of nerves to the arms with their ganglia and
a segment of the myel (spinal cord)—were removed and treated with
fixing agents, and carried through all the processes necessary to get
thin sections capable of accurate study with the microscope. Finally
upon the same glass slide are parts of the nervous system fatigued
even to exhaustion, and corresponding parts of the same animal which
had been at rest. Certainly if the nervous substance shows the result
or processes of its action the conditions are here perfect. Fatigued
nerve cells are side by side with those in a state of rest. The appear-
ances are clear and unmistakable. The nucleus has markedly decreased
in size in the fatigued cells and possesses a jagged, irregular outline
in place of the smooth, rounded form of the resting cells. The cell
substance is shrunken in size and possesses clear, scattered spaces, or
a large, clear space around the nucleus.

If the nervous substance was not fixed at once but remained in the
living animal for twelve to twenty-four hours in a state of repose, the
signs of exhaustion disappeared and the two sides appeared alike. By
studying preparations made after various periods of repose all the
stages of recovery from exhaustion could be followed.

For possible changes in normal fatigue, sparrows, pigeons, and swal-
lows, and also honeybees, were used. For example, if two sparrows or
two honeybees as nearly alike as possible were selected, the nervous
system of one being fixed in the morning after the night’s rest and that
of the other after a day of toil, the changes in the cells of the brain of
the honeybee or sparrow and in the spinal ganglia of the sparrow were
as marked as in case of artificial fatigue. After prolonged rest, then,
the nerve cells are, so to speak, charged; they are full and ready for
labor; but after a hard day’s work they are Gees Seas and
seanneiedl (See Plate XTV.)

There is one more step in this brilliant investigation. Ifin the morn-
ing, after sleep and rest, animals and men are full of vigor, and in the
evening are weary and exhausted, how like is it to the beginning and
end of life? In youth so overflowing with vigor that to move, to act,
is pleasure, and continued rest a pain; but in the evening of life a warm
corner and repose are what we try to furnish those whose work is done.
How is this correlated in the cells of the nervous system with the states
of rest and fatigue? With a well-nourished child which died from one
of the accidents of birth the nerve cells showed all the characters of
cells at rest and fully charged. Ina man dying naturally of old age the
cells showed the shrunken nuclei and all the appearances of exhausting
fatigue. In the one was the potentiality of a life of vigorous action; the
other showed the final fatigue—the store of life energy had been dissi-
pated, and there was no recovery possible.

For the animals that possess an undoubted nervous system probably
all would admit that there is some sort of nervous action corresponding

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XIII.

Discharging Discharged €%

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

Fig. 3. Sections of a gland in various phases of activity. The upper series represents the
gland as in Jongisection or lengthwise and the lower series as in transection or cut across. In
the longisections J, in the right-hand figure, represents the cavity or lumen of the gland into
which the secretion of the gland is poured. The arrows at the top represent the direction
taken by the secretion when it is poured out.

In the lower right-hand figure / represents the lumen, 7 the nucleus of one of the cells, and
cl b the cell body of the same cell. The words Charged, Discharging, and Discharged desig-
nate the various phases of the gland activity. The process of becoming recharged is not
shown.

nam

, eid
apy
Be ean

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XIV.

Cat

Fatigue

&,

Rest Fatigue

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

Fig. 4. Figures from Hodge (Jour. Morphology, Vol. VII), showing changes in the nerve
cells of the spinal ganglia in the cat and of the brain in the honey bee. The words Rest and
Fatigue indicate the appearance of the cells in these two conditions. mn, Nucleus; cl b, cell
body, and c s clear space around the shrunken nucleus in the fatigued cells.

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE. 389

to sensation; but what of living matter in the humbler forms where no
nervous system can be found? That these have vital motion, that they
breathe, nourish themselves, grow, and produce offspring, none can deny.
Do they have anything comparable with sensation? As most of the
lowest forms are minute, the microscope comes to our aid again, and in
watching these lowliest living beings it is found that they discriminate
and choose, going freely into some portions of their liquid world and
withdrawing from other portions. lf some drug which is unusual or we
must believe disagreeable is added to a part of the water, they withdraw
from that part. It seems to have the same effect as disagreeable odors
on men and animals. On the other hand, there are substances which
attract, and into the water containing these they enter with eagerness.
Strange is it, too, that, as proved by experiment, if an unattractive sub-
stance is used and also one on the other side that has been found still
more unattractive, the less disagreeable is selected; the less of the two
evils is chosen.

As man, the horse, dog, and many other animals adapt themselves
gradually to temperatures either very cold or very warm, and that, too,
by a change in their heat-regulating power rather than by a change of
hairy or other clothing, so these lowly organisms are found in nature
in water at temperatures from near freezing up to 60° or 80° C., a point
approaching that of boiling water. It may be answered that each was
created for its place, but by means of a microscope and a delicate
thermostat, to be certain of every step and to see all the results, Dr.
Dallinger, through a period of seven years, accustomed the same uni-
cellular organism and its progeny to variations of temperature from
15° to 20° C., i. e., about the temperature of a comfortable sitting room,
up to 70° C. For those at the cooler temperature it was death to
increase rapidly the heat 10°, and for those at the higher temperature
it was equally fatal to lower it to the original temperature of 15° to 20°.
These examples seem to show that it is one of the fundamental charace-
teristics of living substance, whether in complex or simple forms, to
adapt itself to its environment.

There is another fact in nature that the microscope has revealed and
that fills the contemplative mind with wonder and an aspiration to see
a little farther into the living substance, and so perchance discover the
hidden springs of action. This fact may be called cellular altruism. In
human society the philanthropist and soldier are ready at any time to
sacrifice themselves for the race or the nation. With the animals the
guards of the flock or herd are equally ready to die in its defense.

So within each of the higher organisms the microscope has shown a
guarding host, the leucocytes or white-blood corpuscles. The brilliant
discoveries in the processes of life with higher forms have shown that
not only is there a struggle for existence with dead nature and against
forms as large or larger than themselves, but each organism is liable to
be undermined by living forms, animal and vegetable, infinitely smaller

390 PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

than themselves, insignificant and insiduous, but deadly. Now, to
guard the body against these living particles and the particles of dust
that would tend to clog the system, there is a vast army of amceba-like
cells, the leucocytes, that go wherever the body is attacked and do
battle. If the guards succeed, the organism lives and flourishes; other-
wise it dies or becomes weakened and hampered. This much was com-
mon scientific property three years ago, when one of our members (Miss
Edith J. Claypole) came to my laboratory for advanced work. I dis-
cussed with her what has just been given and told her that there still
remained to be solved the problem, What becomes of the clogging or
deleterious material which the leucocytes have taken up? ‘These body-
guards are, after all, a part of the organism, and for them simply to
engulf the material would not rid the body entirely of it, and finally an
inevitable clogging of the system would result. The problem is simple
and definite; what become of the deleterious substances, bacteria and
dust particles, that get into the body and become engulfed by the leuco-
cytes? Fortunately for the solution of this problem, in our beautiful
Cayuga Lake there is an animal, the Nectwrus, with external gills
through which the blood circulates for its purification. So thin and
transparent is the covering tissue in these gills that one can see into the
blood stream almost as easily as if it were uncovered. Every solid
constituent of the blood, whether red corpuscle, white corpuscle,
microbe, or particle of dust, can be seen almost as clearly as if mounted
on a microscopic slide. (See Plate XV.)

Into the veins of this animal was injected some lampblack, mixed
with water, a little gum arabic and ordinary salt, an entirely nonpoi-
sonous mixture. Thousands of particles of carbon were thus intro-
duced into the blood and could be seen circulating with it through the
transparent gills. True to their duty, the white corpuscles in a day or
two engulfed the carbon particles, but for several days more the leuco-
cytes could be seen circulating with the blood stream and carrying
their load of coal with them. Gradually the carbon-laden corpuscles
disappeared and only the ordinary carbon free ones remained. ~- Where
had the carbon been left? Had it been simply deposited somewhere in
the system? ‘The tissues were fixed and serial sections made. The
natural pigment was bleached with hydrogen dioxid, so that if any ear-
bon was present it would show unmistakably. With the exception of
the spleen, no carbon appeared in the tissues, but in many places the
carbon-laden leucocytes were found. In mucous cavities and on mucous
surfaces and on the surface of the skin were many of them; in the
walls of organs were many more apparently on their way to the sur-
face with their load; that is, the carbon is actually carried out of the
tissues upon the free surfaces of the skin and mucous membranes,
where, being outside of the body, it could no more interfere in any way
with it. But what is the fate of the leucocytes that carry the lamp-
black out of the tissues? They carry their load out and free the body,

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XV.

Gill Filament of Mecturus

Leucocytes. Emigrating

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

Fig. 5. These figures represent various steps in the removal of foreign matter from the
blood of Necturus.

Gill filament of Nectwrus.-—Part of a single gill filament greatly magnified to show the blood
vessels containing the red-blood corpuscles (7 be) and the leucocytes (/) or white-blood cor
puscles. The black dots (c) within the blood vessels represent carbon 1 articles which had
been injected into the veins. In many of the leucocytes are several carbon particles; there
are also several shown free in the blood plasma. g t, The tissue of the gill filament between
the blood vessels.

Leucoeytes emigrating.—This, the lower figure, represents a section of the skin with its cov-
ering, epithelium (ep), and the corium (cor) or true skin. The leucocytes containing carbon
particles (c) are seen in the corium and penetrating the epithelium and finally free outside the
epithelium. The arrows indicate that the leucocytes emigrate from the body through the
corium and the epithelium, and finally into the space outside the epithelium.

ee Wishanes at =
Gene

7 -
Cae

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE. 391

but they themselves perish. They sacrifice themselves for the rest of
the body as surely as ever did soldier or philanthropist for the better-
ment or the preservation of the state.

Thus I have tried to sketch in briefest outline some of the phe-
nomena or processes of life revealed by the microscope. Most of those
discussed have come under my own personal observation, and are there-
fore to me particularly real and instructive; but to every one long
familiar with the microscope and with the literature of biology many
other examples will occur, some of them even more striking. The dis-
cussion has been confined to the above also because it seems to me to
show with great clearness the way in which we can justifiably hope to
do fruitful work in the future. This sure way, it seems to me, is the
study of structure and function together; the function or activity serv-
ing aS aclue and stimulus to the investigator for finding the mechanism
through which function is manifested, and thus give due significance to
structural details, which, without the hint from the function, might
pass unnoticed.

This kind of microscopical study may be well designated as physiolog-
_ical histology. Itis in sharp contrast with ordinary histology, in which
too often the investigator knows nothing of the age, state of digestion
or of fasting, nervous activity, rest, or exhaustion. Indeed, in many
cases it is a source of congratulation if he knows even the name of the
animal from which the tissue is derived. Such haphazard observation
has not in the past and is not likely in the future to lead to splendid
results. If structure, as I most firmly believe, is the material expres-
sion of function, and the sole purpose of the structure is to form the
vehicle of some physiological action, then the structure can be truly
understood only when studied in action or fixed and studied in the
various phases of action.

Indeed, if one looks only for form or morphology in the study of his-
tology the very pith and marrow is more than likely to be lost.!

For example, if one wished to study the comparative histology of the
pancreas, and were to take pieces from various animals to be compared
without regard to their condition of fasting or digestion, he might find
the coarser anatomical peculiarities in each. In all probability he
would also find two dictinct structural types. One type with clearly-

1Although in a different field, the words of Osborn in discussing the unknown fac-
tors of evolution are so pertinent that they may well be quoted: “‘My last word is,
that we are entering the threshold of the evolution problem, instead of standing
within the portals. The hardest task lies befere us, not behind us. We are far
from finally testing or dismissing these old factors [of evolution], but the reaction
from speculation upon them is in itself a silent admission that we must reach out
for some unknown quantity. If such does exist there is little hope that we shall
discover it except by the most laborious research; and while we may predict that
conclusive evidence of its existence will be found in morphology, it is safe to add
that the fortunate discoverer will be a physiologist” [armed with a microscope].
I would like to add the last four words. S.H.G. Am. Nat., May, 1895.

392 PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

defined cells and nuclei, the other with the cells clouded, filled with
granules and with the outlines of cells and their nuclei almost indis-
cernible. Between these there might be various gradatious in the dif-
ferent forms. And yet, from what has been stated above, it is plain
that all these different structural appearances represent phases of
activity, and all might have come from the self-same animal. In like
manner, if certain parts of the nervous system were to be studied com-
paratively, and the tissue taken from one animal after refreshing sleep
and rest, from another after exhausting labor, another in infancy, and
another from an animal decrepit with years, the difference in general
appearance and in structural details would be striking enough to
satisfy any morphologist that, as with the structure of the pancreatic
cells, there were two or more distinct types; but the physiological his-
tologist would recognize at once that the differences so much insisted
upon represented different phases of activity, and, as with the pan-
creatic cells, might be all represented in the same animal at different
times.

I would be far from saying that there are no structural differences
in the different animals independent of any particular phase of fune-
tional activity; but if these only are sought and the others neglected
the physiological appearances will often obtrude and confuse, if they
do not utterly confound.

I have, therefore, for the last ten years urged my students, and mean
to go on advocating with all the earnestness of which I am capable,
that in studying an organism or its tissues, the investigator, to gain
certain knowledge, must know all that it is possible to learn concerning
the age, health, state of nervous, muscular, and digestive activity; in
fact, all that it is possible to find out about the processes of life that
are going on and have gone on when the study is made.

There are some microscopic forms in which the entire study can be
made while the creature is alive. With the higher organisms, also,
some of the living elements, as the white-blood corpuscles and ciliated
cells, can be studied, and their various actions and structural changes
observed for a considerable time.

The white-blood corpuscles or leucocytes resemble the amoeba very
closely in their actions and powers, as we have seen in discussing the
way in which the body is freed from foreign particles. The ciliated
cells are among the most striking of all the constituent elements of the
body. One end is fixed firmly to the tissues, the sides are in contact
with their fellow cells, but the other end is free and bears great num-
bers of hair-like processes, the cilia, which project freely into some cav-
ity or upon some surface. What histologist would be able for a moment
to suggest the power of these hair-like processes if he studied the dead
cells alone? Yet the moment these cells are studied alive under the
microscope it is seen that for the service of the body all the powers of
these cells are concentrated into one, that of motion, and all the motion

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE. 393

is manifested by the little cilia. These sweep with almost incredible
rapidity in one direction and more slowly on their return, thus produc-
ing a current in the direction of most rapid motion. This motion with
the resulting current ceases only with life. Each individual cilium is
weakness itself, but with their combined action the untold millions
covering the cells, in the air passages for example, make a strong cur-
rent in the liquid covering them. This current is from the interior of
the lungs toward the throat and carries along with it particles of dust
inhaled into the lungs. In this way the delicate breathing organs are
swept clean and left unincumbered for their work of receiving oxygen
and getting rid of carbon dioxide.

If now one puts under the microscope some cells from the small
intestine of almost any animal from the lamprey eel to man, the cells
appear almost identical with those just described. The end projecting
to the free surface of the intestine seems to have a similar brush of
fine hairs, with a clear line along their base. If a striated and a dead
ciliated cell are under the same microscope side by side, it is almost
impossible to distinguish them. Indeed so difficult is it that those from
the intestine have been described as ciliated more than once. If both
cells are living, no one could confuse them. The striated end of one is
motionless, the lines or cilia of the other are in constant motion, One
serves for producing currents, always in the same direction, the other
is for the purpose of absorbing and passing into the tissues the products
of digestion. One isa moving the other an absorbing cell. (See Plate
XC Var}

Most of the tissue elements of the higher forms can not be thus
studied alive, however, and the best that can be done is to fix the dif-
ferent phases of action, as by & series of instantaneous photographs,
then with a kind of mental kinetoscope put these together and try to
comprehend the whole cycle.

Fortunately for the histologist the incessant experimentation of the
last twenty-five years has brought to knowledge chemical substances
which do for the tissues the wonder that was ascribed to the mythical
Gorgon’s head—to kill instantly and to harden into changeless perma-
nence all that gazed upon it. So the tissues may be fixed in any phase
and then studied at length. If then the investigator observes and
keeps record of every point that may have an influence on the strue-
tural appearances, whether shown by experience or suggested by
insight, and this record always accompanies the specimen, thus and
thus only, it seems to me, can he feel confident that he is liable to gain
real knowledge from the study, knowledge that represents actuality,
and which will serve as the basis for a newer and more complete unrav-
eling of the intricacies of structure, an approximate insight into the
mechanism through which the life energy manifests itself.

And so, with all the life that physics and chemistry can give, com-
mencing with the simplest problems and being careful that every factor

394 PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

that can influence the result is being duly considered, the microscopist
ean go forward with enthusiasm and with hope, not with the hope that
the great central question can be answered in one generation, perhaps
not in a thousand, but confident that if each one adds his little to the
certain knowledge of the world, then in the fullness of time the knowl-
edge of living substance and the life processes will be so full and deep
that what life is, though unanswered, may cease to be the supreme
question.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following are a few of the works used in the preparation of the foregoing
address:

For general discussions of the problems treated, the works of Herbert Spencer
and other philosophers may be consulted with profit. For extended references, the
Index Catalog of the Library of the Surgeon-General’s Office, the Index Medicus,
the Physiologisches Centralblatt and the Anatomischer Anzeiger will put the reader
on the track of most of the books and papers that have appeared.

BERNARD, CLAUDE. Lecons sur les phénomenes de la vie commune aux animaux et
aux végétaux. Two volumes, Paris (1878-79).

These volumes show, in the way only a master like Bernard could show, the essential unity of
the life processes in animals and plants.

CHITTENDEN, R. H. On digestive proteolysis, being the Cartwright lectures for 1894.
New Haven, 1895, p. 137.

He makes very clear that in absorption the vital activity of the epithelium is necessary, and
that it is not a mere matter of physical diffusion. See p. 116, etc.

CLAYPOLE, AGNES M. The Enteron of the Cayuga Lake Lamprey. Proc. Amer.
Micr. Soc., Vol. XVI (1894), pp. 125-164, eight plates.
Besides the structural changes in the physiological process of transformation from the larval

to the adult condition, the enteric epithelium and its structural features in action are shown;
also the ciliated and striated border of the enteric epithelial cells.

CLAYPOLE, EpirH J. An Investigation of the Blood of Necturus and Cryptobranchus.
Proc. Amer. Mier. Soc., Vol. XV (1893), pp. 39-76, six plates.

This is the investigation referred to in discussing cellular altruism, in this address.

Corr, E. D. The Energy of Evolution. American Naturalist, Vol. XX VIII (1894),
pp. 205-219.

From this paper is taken the quotation in this address.

DALLINGER, W. H. On a series of experiments made to determine the thermal
death point of known monad germs when the heat is endured in a fluid. Jour-
nal of the Royal Microscopical Society, Vol. III (1880), pp. 1-16.

See also his presidential address published in the same journal, pp. 185-199 (1887). This
investigation was carried on for nearly seven years, and organisms living normally at a temper-
ature of 15° to 20° centigrade were inured to a temperature of 70° C. Dr. Dallinger poinced out
some of the physical appearances passed through by the organisms in their acclimatization.
See also Davenport and Castle.

Davenport, C. B. and Castir, W. E. On the Acclimatization of Organisms to
High Temperatures. Archiv fiir Entwickelungsmechanik der Organismen. II
Band, 2 Heft., pp. 227-249. (1895.)

This paper gives in tabular form a history of the observations of various authors on acclima-
tization of various living forms naturally, as in the waters of hot springs, and artificially.
Their own experiments on tadpoles are highly suggestive and they point out some of the
chemico-physical changes occurring in the adaptation of the living substance to the unusual
environments. See also Dallinger.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XVI.

Ciliated © Epithelium

pine

(i

Hl

AE

Absorbing eras

grace

RODEO a aie

w

ui

aa

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

Fic. 6. Figures showing the similarity in appearance of the absorbing epithelium of the
intestine and of a ciliated epithelium. The free ends of the cells point upward toward the top
of the page, and the attached ends toward the bottom of the page. cilia, The minute, hair-
like processes projecting from the free end of the cells and constantly swinging rapidly in one
direction and returning less rapidly to the starting point. In this way a current is made in the
direction of the most rapid motion (indicated by the arrow). At the base of the ciliais a clear
plate or segment (c s).

In the absorbing epithelium the segment appearing like the cilia is called the striated border
or segment (st b) and rests on a clear segment (c s) comparable with that on which the cilia
rest. In the absorbing epithelium food particles (f) are represented as passing through the
cell from the free end toward the base, as indicated by the arrow..

Naw

Be

;
:

PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE. 395

Foster, M. Text Book of Physiology. (New York and London, 1895.)

In this work there is stated very clearly what is known and what is not known concerning
the processes of life.

Gaatn, Simon H. The Limitations and Value of Histological Investigation. Pro-
ceedings Amer. Assoc. Ady. Sci., Vol. XXXIV (1885), pp. 345-349.

In this paper is pointed out the necessity of studying function as well as structure in histo-

logical investigations if anything like a complete understanding of a tissue or organ is obtained.

-

GouLp, GEORGE M. The Meaning and Method of Life. 297 pages. (New York,
1893. )

This is a most stimulating and inspiring work. ‘The quotation in this address is from it.

Hertwie, Oscar. The Cell Outlines of General Anatomy and Physiology. Trans-
lated by M. and edited by H. J. Campbell. Pp. 368, 168 illustrations. (London
and New York, 1895.)

Dr. Hertwig lays special stress on the function of the structural elements.

Hopes, C. F. A Microscopical Study of Changes Due to Functional Activity in
Nerve Cells. Journal of Morphology, Vol. VII (1892), pp. 95-168. Two plates.
In this paper and the next are given the facts on which the statements concerning the changes

in nerve cells mentioned in this address are based. There is also in this an excellent résumé of
what is known of structural appearances due to vital activity in gland cells.

Hopes, C.F. Changes in Ganglion Cells from Birth to Senile Death. Observations
on Man and the Honey-Bee. Journal of Physiology, Vol. XVII, pp. 129-134.
One plate.

Hower, W. H. The Physiology of Secretion. The Reference Handbook of the
Medical Sciences (N. Y., 1888), pp. 363-579.
In this article Dr. Howell gives a very admirable account of secretion; and bearing upon the
dissimilarity of living and lifeless things says that something more than simple physical law is
necessary to explain the differences.

Kinespury, B. F. The Histological Structure of the Enteron of Nectwrus maculatus.
Proceedings of the American Microscopical Society, Vol. XVI (1894), pp. 21-64.
Hight plates.

In this paper the structural appearances accompanying activity in the enteric epithelium are
described and figured.

LANGLEY, J. N. On the Histology and Physiology of the Pepsin Forming Glands.
Philos. Trans., pp. 663-711 (1881).

METCHNIKOFF, Evias. Lectures on the Comparative Pathology of Inflammation,
delivered at the Pasteur Institute in 1891. Translated from the French by F. A.
and KE. H. Starling. Pp. 218, three colored plates and 65 figures in the text.
(London, 1893.)

‘‘My principal object in writing this book is to show the intimate connection that exists
between pathology and biology properly so called.”’ Author’s preface. For the purposes of the
preceding address the parts of the book showing the activities of unicellular organisms, their

attraction and repulsion by various agents, and the action of the leucocytes in ridding the body
of hurtful or clogging matter are of especial importance.

SEDGWIck, Wm. T., and Witson, E. B. An introduction to general biology, p. 231,
105 figs. 2d edition (N. Y., 1895.)
This work emphasizes the physiological side of the organism, and the first chapters discuss
with clearness and force the characters of living things.
THOMSON, Sir Wm. (Lord Kelvin).—On the Dissipation of Energy. Fortnightly
Review, vol. 57 (1892), pp. 313 to 321. ;

In this paper may be found the quotation given in this address and also the statement of Liebig.

Tait, P.G. Properties of Matter with an Appendix on Hypotheses as to the Con-
stitution of Matter, by Professor Flint, D.D. (Edinburgh, 1885). Pp. 320.

396 PROCESSES OF LIFE REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE.

Tuurston, R. H. The Animal as a Machine and a Prime Motor. (N. Y., 1894).
See also Science, April 5, 1895, and Journal of the Franklin Institute, January-March, 1895.
It is shown that the animal machine is the most efficient of all known machines, and the senti-

ment is expressed that a comprehension of the processes of life is of as much interest to the
engineer as to the physiologist.

Wiirman, C. O. Evolution and Epigenesis. In biological lectures delivered at the
Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, in 1894.

In the prefactory note is given a discussion relating to matter and energy. See also his arti-
cles in the Journal of Morphology, Vol. I, pp. 227-252; Vol. 11, pp. 27-49; Vol. VIII, pp. 639-658.

THE GENERAL CONDITIONS OF EXISTENCE AND DISTIRI-
BUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS:!

By Dr. JOHN MURRAY,
of Edinburgh.

Since the great geographical discoveries at the end of the fifteenth
and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries which are associated with
the names of Columbus, Da Gama, and Magellan, there have been no
additions to the knowledge of the surface of our planet that can in any
way compare with those which have resulted from the exploration of the
great ocean basins during the past quarter of a century. The French,
the Germans, the Americans, the English, the Norwegians, the Italians,
the Swedes, the Austrians—indeed, nearly all civilized nations—have
taken part in these explorations, and the result has been a vast accu-
mulation of new observations and new facts.

Whenever science is enriched by a large number of new observations
in new regions a change almost Invariably follows in our theoretical
conceptions. Indeed no complete theory of the earth was possible so
long as we were ignorant of the three-fourths of the earth’s surface
covered by the waters of the ocean. We are very far from having any-
thing like a complete knowledge of the physical and biological condi-
tions of the ocean, but we know very much more than we did thirty
years ago, and it is to some of these additions to our knowledge of the
ocean that I propose to direct your attention to-day, especially those
having a more or less direct bearing on biology.

The observations themselves are good for all time. The deductions I
may draw from them may be erroneous and evanescent, still it may be
interesting to you to catch some glimpse of how one who has spent
over twenty years in the study of oceanic phenomena has been cutting
paths through the almost impenetrable forest of observations that has
grown up in recent years.

Although we have still no accurate knowledge of the depth over
large areas of the ocean, yet deep-sea soundings have in recent years
become so numerous that it is probable the contour lines laid down on
the most recent maps will not be greatly altered, so far as their general

1From Société Néerlandaise de Zoologie. Compte-Rendu des Séances du Troisieme
Congres International de Zoologie. Leyde. 16-21 Septembre, 1895. Leyde: E. J.

Brill, 1896, pp. 99-111.
397

398 EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS.

position is concerned, by future investigations. Quite recently a depth
of over 4,900 fathoms (nearly 9 kilometers) has been recorded in what
is known as the Aldrich Deep, to the southeast of the Friendly Islands;
the greatest depth at which bottom has been reached is in 4,660 fathoms
(Si kilometers) in the Atlantic, north of the Virgin Islands. A nearly
equal depth—4,655 fathoms—is found in the Tuscarora Deep, to the
east of Japan. The Challenger’s deepest sounding was in 4,475 fathoms
(over S kilometers), north of the Caroline Islands. On the whole fi
estimate that about 5 per cent of the area of the ocean has a depth of
over 3,000 fathoms ( 54 kilometers).

The whole surface of the earth may, from a quite general point of
view, be divided into elevated plateaus and submerged plains, the ele-
vated plateaus being represented by the continents, which occupy
about two-sevenths of the earth’s surface, and the submerged plains by
the abysmal areas of the ocean, which cover about four-sevenths of the
earth’s surface, the remaining one-seventh of the earth’s surface being
oceupied by the slope connecting the one with the other. The average
level of the continental plateaus is about 2,500 fathoms (over 44 kilo-
meters) above the general level of the abysmal area. These great
troughs or hollows on the surface of the earth are filled with salt water
up to within a few hundred feet of the average height of the conti-
nental plateaus.

At the present time the temperature of the ocean water varies from
28° or 29° F. (—2.22° or —1.67° C.) at the poles to from 80° to 85° F.
(from 26.67° to 29.44° C.) at some points within the tropics. The sea-
sonal variation of the surface temperature is not felt at depths over 100
fathoms. At the level of a depth of 1,000 fathoms beneath the surface
the mean temperature of the ocean is 36.5° F. (2.5° C.), the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans being, on the whole, warmer than the Pacific at this
depth, and at greater depths, even within the tropics, the temperature
may at some points fall as low as the freezing point of fresh water.

Sea water contains in solution a fairly constant proportion of salts
and a more variable proportion of gases. The saline constituents, to
which sea water owes its distinctive properties, consist chiefly of chlo-
rides and sulphates, with a comparatively small, but none the less
important, proportion of carbonates and bromides. Of some twenty-
four metals which have been detected in sea water, only sodium, mag-
nesium, calcium, and potassium are of any importance in determining
the character of the water. The presence of this saline matter gives
the water an increased density, and this density, measured under uni-
form conditions, is taken as a measure of the absolute quantity of salt
in solution. :

In any sample of sea water the proportions of the various saline
constituents remain quite sensibly constant among themselves. This
statement, although true as a rule, is liable to an exception in the case
of lime, for, from actual determinations of the lime and from the increase

EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS. 399

in the alkalinity of very deep waters, there seems to be no doubt that
the quantity of lime increases with the depth. It has long been known
that sea water is distinctly alkaline to test paper; this is due to an
excess of base over sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, the surplus base
being more or less saturated by carbonic acid, too weak an acid to
bring about a neutral reaction.

The gases in sea water are not only much more variable than the
saline matters in their absolute amount, but also vary in the propor-
tions among themselves. The gases of general occurrence are oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbonic acid, the two former being wholly derived by
absorption from the atmosphere, while the last named is partly absorbed
from the atmosphere and partly due to excretion from animals and to
oxidation of organic matter in situ.

The gas is absorbed from the atmosphere by the merest surface layers
only of the water, and is distributed to the rest of the ocean by descend-
ing currents. The quantity absorbed is determined by the temperature
of the water and the pressure of the atmosphere, but chiefly by the
former. If the water remaining on the surface pass to a warmer region
gas is given off, if to a colder region more is absorbed. Once the water
is cut off from the surface by overlying layers of water all further
absorption of gas ceases. Of the three gases nitrogen alone remains
constant in quantity. The oxygen of the water is taken up by animals
for the furtherance of their metabolic processes, and in i‘s place they
excrete carbonic acid. Thus, if free surface ventilation be denied there
is a continual decrease in the proportion of oxygen and a correspond-
ing increase in the quantity of carbonic acid; and in small inclosed seas
this process may go so far as to render the water quite unfit for the
support of animal life of any order much higher than that of bacteria.

On account of the coefficient of absorption of oxygen being double
that of nitrogen, the proportion of oxygen to the total gas in sea water
under full aeration is double that in air, being as a matter of fact 544
to 334 per cent. The absolute quantity of gas in solution in surface
waters is found to decrease as we go from the poles to the equator, as
also does the proportion of oxygen. In high latitudes, indeed, the pro-
portion of oxygen is so high as to amount to supersaturation, as much
as 36.7 per cent having been found in polar waters. The quantity of
oxygen is always less in bottom than in intermediate waters from great
depths, but no oceanic water at least is found to be absolutely devoid
of oxygen, although in waters from the bottom in great depths the
amount is sometimes very small.

Both the horizontal and vertical circulation of ocean waters is
mainly governed by the prevailing winds which blow over the surface,
and these are again determined by the position of the areas of high
and low barometric pressure. Where the winds are dry and constant
there we find the saltest water at the surface, as for instance in the
trade-wind regions of the North and South Atlantic and South Pacifie,

400 EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS.

where the salinity is over 1.027; but in the inclosed basins of the Medi-
terranean and Red seas the salinity may reach 1.030. The average
salinity at the surface in the open ocean is higher than on the bottom,
and, like the temperature, is higher at the bottom in the Atlantic and
Indian Oceans than in the Pacific.

The density of ocean water is dependent upon temperature as well
as pressure, and in consequence the less saline water of the polar
regions has a higher density than the salter waters of the tropics, and
in general the lowest annual and diurnal temperatures tend to be
propagated downward to the greater depths. Vertical circulation
downward is likewise to some extent determined by the presence of
detrital matter from rivers, and by the action of very constant winds
like those which prevail over the great Southern Ocean.

When we examine the deposits now being laid down on the floor of
the ocean, we find that in all inclosed basins surrounded by continental
land, and for an average distance of 200 miles off continental shores
facing the great oceans, the deposits are for the most part made up of
detrital matters more or less directly derived from the subaerial denu-
dation of the dry land, or as a result of the destructive action of waves
and currents in the shallow regions of the ocean. yeu when such
deposits are composed for the most part of carbonate of lime organisms,
such as shells, corallines, and corals, these bear the impress of the
mechanical action of the forces at work in the shallow waters, and are
therefore included under the general term of terrigenous deposits. The
predominant mineral in these terrigenous deposits is quartz, being in
Inany positions associated with glauconite; and both these minerals
appear to be almost wholly absent in the central parts of the great
ocean basins, except where the surface waters may be affected by
floating ice.

The alkalies, alkaline earths, iron, manganese, and other bases, at one
time associated with the quartz of the sand dunes, sandstones and other
rocks of the continents, have been separated by chemical decomposi-
tion, and carried in solution or in suspension out into the abysmal
regions of the ocean, where they have accumulated through physical
or organic agencies. The lighter, less soluble, and more refractory
quartz has, on the other hand, accumulated on the continents and in
the deposits in their immediate vicinity. If this process has been going
ol. continuously since precipitation of water first took place on our
planet, the rocks on the continental areas would become more and more
acid in constitution and lighter, while the deposits formed at the bot-
tom of the ocean would become moreand more basic and heavier. The
reason why the continents on the whole stand at a higher elevation
than the floor of the ocean basins may well be that, by this continu-
ous process, they are the lighter portions of the superficial crust, as is
indeed indicated by the general results of pendulum and plumb-line
observations.

OO

EXISTENCE AND DJSTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS. 401

In the terrigenous deposits now being laid down in the shallow and
deep waters of the continental areas, we have in the organic remains
quartz, glauconite, phosphatic nodules, an assemblage of materials
resembling in all important respects the stratified layers making up
the larger part of the continental masses.

When we turn to the deposits in the abysmal regions far removed
from continental land we find that deposits are being formed which do
not resemble so closely the continental rocks. In depths of less than 2
mniles the deposits are principally made up of the dead shells of carbon-
ate of lime secreting organisms, which had lived at the surface of the
sea, such as calcareous alge, foraminifera, pteropods, and other pelagic
mollusks, forming globigerina and pteropod oozes. In the colder parts
of the extratropical regions the siliceous frustules of diatoms which
had lived on the surface predominate in the deposit, and thus produce
a diatom ooze. In the still greater depths of the ocean, i. e., over 2
miles, the carbonate of lime organisms are partially or wholly removed,
either while falling to the bottom or shortly after reaching the bottom,
through the solvent action of the sea water. Where they are wholly
removed the deposit may, as, for instance, in the western parts of the
Pacific, contain a considerable percentage of radiolarian skeletons,
which had lived in the surface and intermediate waters, and the deposit
is then called a radiolarian ooze, but usually the deposit is what has
been called a red (or chocolate-colored) clay, and this covers a larger
proportion of the sea bed than any other kind of deposit.

The red clay has evidently accumulated at an extremely slow rate.
It consists principally of hydrated silicate of alumina and the perox-
ides of iron and manganese, mixed with thousands of sharks’ teeth,
represented by the dentine of Carcharodon, Lamna, and Oxyrhina, of
dense ear bones of various species of cetacea, and the dense mesoros-
tral bones of ziphioid whales. These red-clay deposits likewise con-
tain many magnetic spherules with crystalline or metallic nuclei,
which are believed to be the dust burnt off from the outer surfaces of
meteoric stones heated as they pass through our atmosphere. These
cosmic spherules probably fall all over the surface of the earth, but
their presence is here evident because the deposit may not accumulate
to the extent of more than an inch in several centuries. The manga-
nese and the iron are often deposited in concentric layers around the
sharks’ teeth, ear bones, and volcanic lapilli, and in some places the
deposit contains many zeolitie minerals which have evidently been
formed in situ.

When we turn to the observations on the pelagic fauna and flora it
will be found that there is a considerable difference between the organ-
isms observed near shore and those present in the open regions of the
ovean—a difference recognized in the terms neritic and oceanic plank-
ton. The coccospheres, rhabdospheres, pelagic foraminifera, hetero-
poda, pteropoda, and radiolaria, so abundant in tow-net gatherings in

sm 96-26

402 EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS.

the open ocean, are absent or but sparingly represented in tow-net
gatherings near the land.

All the carbonate of lime secreting organisms are much more abun-
dant in the warmer than in the colder waters, and we have seen that
their dead shells are much more abundant at the bottom within the
tropics than toward the polar areas; indeed, through these organic
processes the lime present in solution in the ocean, probably in large
part originally derived from the disintegration of the continental rocks,
is at the present time being accumulated toward the tropical regions
of the earth. In the Tropics there are in the surface waters over
twenty species of pelagic foraminifera which secrete thick carbonate of
lime shells. These mostly disappear as the colder waters of the polar
regions are approached, and are there represented by two dwarfed
species of globigerina. In the same way many species of shelled ptero-
pods, heteropods, and pelagic gasteropods live in the warmer waters of
the tropics, but disappear or are represented only by small thin-shelled
limacine or naked species in polar waters. The calcareous coccospheres
and rhabdospheres of the tropical and warm waters give place in polar
waters to species of algze which secrete no lime.

This abundant secretion of carbonate of lime in the warm waters of
the Tropics is apparently due to chemical rather than physiological con-
ditions. When neutral ammonium carbonate is added to sea water at
a high temperature—80° to 85° I*.—the lime salts other than carbonate
present in sea water are quickly decomposed and an immediate precipi-
tate of carbonate of lime having the properties of aragonite is formed,
while if the same experiment be carried out at a low temperature—40°
to 45° I’.—the carbonate of lime separates out very slowly and in doing
so takes the form of calcite. The abundant secretion of carbonate of
lime in the warm waters of the Tropics at the present day, as well as
the feeble development of carbonate of lime organisms in cold polar
regions, are interesting facts when we remember that coral reefs flour-
ished within the Arctic Circle during Paleozoic and even later times,
and from the manner in which the lime is secreted we may safely con-
clude that the polar waters in these ancient times must have had a
temperature of about 70° F. (21° 1 C.).

Not only is the number of species of lime-secreting organisms in the
surface waters of the Tropics greater than in the cold water of the
polar regions, but the same holds good tor the radiolaria and nearly all
other classes of pelagic organisms, the characteristic of the pelagic
organisms of the polar areas being a relatively small number of species
and a great abundance of individuals. Another peculiarity of the tow-
net gatherings in the Arctic and Antarctic areas is the almost complete
absence of pelagic larve of benthos animals, which are so abundant in
the surface waters of the Tropics. A comparison of two tow-net gath-
erings conducted under precisely similar conditions, one in the cold
waters of the Antarctic and the other in the warm waters of the Tropics,

EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS. 403

shows that there is a much greater number of species in the Tropics
than in the Antarctic, but at the same time a less total amount of
organic matter, due to the smaller absolute number of individuals in
the warmer waters. In making this comparison, however, it must be
recalled that the metabolism of cold-blooded animals rises with the
temperature of the water, and is therefore very much more rapid within
the Tropics than at the Antarctic Circle, so that within a given period
of time many more organisms may pass through their life history in
warm than in cold water, but on account of the high temperature of the
water the effete products are more rapidly disposed of than in the cold
polar waters, where chemical action is more sluggish. A measure of
this rate of change is to be found in the large amount of saline
ammonia present in the sea water of the Tropics, while albuminoid
ammonia predominates in polar waters.

When we compare the shallow-water animals iiving on or attached to
the bottom within the tropics and toward the polar regions, we find
that the distribution follows the same laws as in the case of the pelagic
organisms. There are many more species, especially of lime-secreting
organisms, in the warm waters of the tropics than in the colder waters
toward the poles. For instance, the Challenger’s dredgings in the
vicinity of Cape York, Australia, in depths less than 12 fathoms,
yielded 554 species of metazoa, while many more dredgings at Kerguelen,
in depths less than 25 fathoms, yielded only 150 species; indeed the
total number of species known from Kerguelen in depths less than 25
fathoms amounts only to 242 species. While the number of species of
shell-bearing mollusks procured by the Challenger in depths less than
12 fathoms at Cape York was 292, only 92 species were taken at Ker-
guelen down to 120 fathoms, and the total number known from
Kerguelen is only 125 species. The higher crustacea (macrura, anomura,
brachyura) are also more abundant in the tropics, while the reef-build-
ing corals are, of course, entirely absent at Kerguelen. On the other
hand, the hydroida, holothurioidea, annelida, amphipoda, isopoda,
pycnogonida, and tunicata, which secrete little or no carbonate of
lime, are more numerous in the cold waters around Kerguelen.

The recent deep-sea researches have shown that not only is life
universally present in great abundance at the surface of the sea, and
probably also, though much more sparsely, in all the intermediate
depths of the ocean, but also that fishes and all the invertebrate groups
are spread all over the floor of the ocean in great numbers. The total
number of species taken by the Challenger in depths less than 100
fathoms is 4,400; in depths between 100 and 500 fathoms, 2,050; in
depths between 500 and 1,000 fathoms, 710; in depths between 1,000
and 1,500 fathoms, 600; in depths between 1,500 and 2,000 fathoms,
500; in depths between 2,000 and 2,500 fathoms, 340, and in depths
over 2,500 fathoms, 235. It is thus seen that the actual number of
Species procured decreases with increase of depth, and if we take inte

404 EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS.

account the number of stations included in each zone of depth we find
that the number of species per station decreases gradually from 62.8
species per station in the shallowest zone to 9.4 species per station in
the deepest zone, as shown in the following table:

Depth in fathoms. Specleon er
Wind eral 00 Aeeeee scenes 62.8
MND WOW: -escsscossscuesae 51. 2
DOO tom O00 Se aaaser ata 30. 9
IOC) 1} WANN) oes oaeesoasser 24.0
1500 1) ZOU) ss ccseessccces 15. 6
PWD BAN a2 scssaasncne 10.6
Oxeri2*500 SRS eae eee el 9.4

Again, it is interesting to point out that the proportion of genera to
species procured in the different zones increases gradually with increase
of depth, the ratio of genera to species in the shallowest zone being as
1 to 2.93 and in the deepest zone as 1 to 1.17, as shown in the following
table:

Ratio of
Depth in fathoms. genera to
species as—
Wmncders 00a ese eae ese 1 to 2. 93
IOO WOR) seradacceorodssese 1 to 2. 37
SO0ROMNO 00 Reames ne era 1 to 1. 67
1,000 to 1,500 -.-.----------- 1 to1.50
IND 10) BOW) 6 350s caeacocod 1 to 1. 45
PVD tO) ZNO soscsescases aos 1 to 1.36
OWwer2'500 ee ae2 soa s2 bose 1to1.17

An analysis of dredgings at similar depths close to and far removed
from continental shores shows that both species and individuals are
more numerous on the terrigenous deposits close to the shore, and the
proportion of species to genera is higher, than on the pelagic deposits
far removed from the land. This seems to indicate that migration has
taken place from the shallow waters close to the shore to the deeper
waters of the great ocean basins, and that the ancestors of the fauna
at great depths far removed from land have migrated from many
shallow-water areas on the surface of the globe. On the whole the
deep-sea fauna resembles that of the shallow waters of the polar
regions much more than that of the shallow waters of the tropical
regions, in so far as the animals of the deep-sea fauna have a relatively
small quantity of carbonate of lime in their shells and skeletons, the
proportion of genera to species is higher than in the tropics, and there
is an absence of pelagic or free swimming larvie.

In depths of over 1,000 fathoms the Challenger’s trawlings rarely
yielded over 10 or 15 specimens of any one species, but in lesser depths,

EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS. 405

for instance in about 500 fathoms, hundreds of specimens of holothu-
rians, pycnogonids, and crustaceans have been procured in a single haul,
and just beneath the mud line at.a depth of about 100 fathoms around
continental shores enormous numbers of individuals belonging to one
species have been procured. This is the great feeding ground in the
ocean. To this depth the herring, salmon, whales, narwhals, descend
to feed upon the immense numbers of individuals belonging to species
of Calanus, Bucheta, Passiphwa, Crangon, Hippolyte, as well as species
of schizopods, amphipods, isopods, fishes, and cephalopods.

Probably the majority of deep-sea species live by eating the surface
layers of the mud, clay, or ooze at the bottom, and by catching or pick-
ing up the small organisms, or minute particles of organic matter which
fall from the surface or are washed away from the shallower reaches of
the ocean, and ultimately settle on the bottom beyond the mud line.
These mud-eating species are in turn the prey of numerous rapacious
animals armed with peculiar tactile, prehensile, and alluring organs, for
phosphorescent light plays an important role in the economy of deep-
sea life, and is correlated with the red and brown tints of the majority
of deep-sea organisms. Some species are blind, and others, in addition
to large eyes, are provided with a sort of bull’s-eye lantern, from which
streams of light are thrown out at the will of the animal. Phospho-
rescent organs act sometimes as a lure, sometimes they indicate the
presence of prey or the passage of an enemy.

Some species of deep-sea organisms are of gigantic size when com-
pared with their shallow-water allies. Some of the hexactinellids are
3 or 4 feet in diameter; the hydroid Monocaulus is 5 feet in height; the
legs of some pycnogonids extend for over a foot on either side of the
body, and the largest echini and isopods are found in deep water.

Before the systematic investigation of the deep sea it was believed
by some naturalists that the remnants of faunas which flourished in
remote geological periods would be found in the great depths of the
ocean. This expectation has not been realized. Discina and some
other brachiopods undoubtedly represent a very ancient group; still the
king-crabs, lingulas, trigonias, Port Jackson sharks, Heliopora, Amphi-
oxus, Ceratodus, Lepidosiren, and other shore and shallow-water forms
undoubtedly represent older forms than anything to be found in the
deep sea at the present time.

Sir Wyville Thomson was of opinion that from the Silurian period to
the present day there had been, as now, a continuous deep ocean, with
a bottom temperature oscillating about the freezing point, and that
there had always been an abyssal fauna. It is much more probable
that in palzeozoic times the ocean basins were not so deep as at the
present time; that the ocean had then a nearly uniform high tempera-

- ture throughout its whole mass, and that life was either absent through-

out all the greater depths or represented only by bacteria, as in the
Black Sea at the present day.

A406 EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS.

An analysis of the Challenger’s results seems to show that the deep-
sea organisms at present inhabiting the sea bed are not, as is generally
supposed, universally distributed in the abysmal area; indeed, they
do not seem to be much more widely distributed than shore forms
from any one given region. Of the 272 species taken in the deep-water
area of the Kerguelen Region, in depths of over 1,260 fathoms, 60 per
cent are only known from these dredgings, and not more than 6 per
cent have been found in the dredgings within and to the north of the
tropics. Again, of the 523 species found in depths over 1,000 fathoms
south of the southern tropic, 64 per cent are known only from this
area, and only 8 per cent are known from dredgings within the tropies
and to the north of the northern tropic.

The Challenger dredgings in the neighborhood of Marion, Kerguelen,
and Heard islands, down to a depth of 150 fathoms, gave 533 species;
of these 61 per cent are unknown outside that region, while 3 per cent are
known from areas within and to the north of the tropics, and 6 per cent
are known from regions north of the northern tropic, but not within the
tropics. I have already stated that the number of genera and species
is largest in the shallow zone under 100 fathoms, and that the number
decreases down to the deepest water far removed from land. This
relation apparently holds good even in shallower depths less than 100
fathoms, and especially within the tropics, the number of genera and
species in depths less than 20 fathoms on the whole exceeds the num-
ber in deeper water. The statistics of the Challenger investigations in
the neighborhood of Kerguelen, however, seem to show that in depths
less than 50 fathoms the number of species and genera may be less
than in greater depths, for the total number of species recorded from
Kerguelen in depths less than 50 fathoms amounts to 242, less by 30
species than the number captured in 8 trawlings in depths greater than
1,260 fathoms, and in depths between 75 and 150 fathoms around these
Antarctic islands both species and individuals appeared always to be
more abundant than in shallower water.

The general similarity between the fauna and flora of high northern
and high southern latitudes has been many times remarked, and in the
first dredgings of the Challenger in comparatively shallow water in the
southern hemisphere the naturalists were very much struck by the char-
acter of the fauna being very like what they had been accustomed to
procure in somewhat shallower water off the northern coasts of Europe;
the species in many cases seemed to be identical. This impression was
deepened as the Challenger dredgings still further to the south were
examined. The specialists who have described the various groups of
animals brought home by the Challenger frequently call attention to
species from the Kerguelen Region being identical or closely allied to
species occurring in the far north, which at the same time are wholly .
unknown from within the tropics. We are now acquainted with about
150 identical species of Metazoa, and nearly 100 closely allied species,

EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS. 407

occurring in the extra-tropical regions of the northern and southern
hemispheres, and wholly unknown from the intervening tropical zone.
Again, a list has recently been published giving 54 species of marine
Algee common to the northern and southern oceans, and not occurring
within the intervening tropical belt.! In fact, the arctic and antarctic
marine faunas and floras, geographically as wide asunder as the poles,
are generally more closely related to each other than to any interven-
ing fauna or flora. This is all the more remarkable when we remember
that, with the exception of a few pelagic, brackish water and deep-sea
species, there is hardly a species of marine Metazoa common to the
east and west coasts of Africa within the tropics.

In order to give a rational explanation of these remarkable facts in
the distribution of marine organisms at the present time, as well as of the
presence of tropical fossils in Paleozoic and even later geological strata
within the polar areas, it seems necessary to assume that at one time
there was a very different distribution of heat and light over the sur-
face of the globe than what obtains at the present time. A uniform
high temperature all over the surface of the globe in the early stages
of the earth’s history is required to explain these phenomena. In later
Mesozoic times a gradual cooling at the poles appears to have set in,
and slowly brought about the destruction of a large number of the
shore and-shallow-water animals, especially those which secreted large
quantities of carbonate of lime or were provided with pelagic or free-
Swimming larve. This weeding out of numerous species in the polar
areas, from a fauna which must have much resembled the coral-reef
fauna of the present time, accounts for the relatively small number of
species which we now find in polar waters, and, through lessened com-
petition, for the relatively large number of individuals belonging to
some of these species. In still later times, when polar lands became
covered with ice and snow and when glaciers descended at almost all
points into the ocean, shallow-water organisms appear to have taken
refuge in the deep sea, and a migration of polar animals toward the
equator was initiated over the floor of the ocean. This may account
for the relatively more abundant fauna in the great depths of the
Southern Ocean, as indicated by the Challenger’s investigations. The
large numbers of pelagic animals which are continually being killed
through the mixture of surface currents of different origins between
latitudes 40° and 50° south, falling to the bottom, provide an abundant
supply of food for deep-sea animals, and the large quantity of oxygen
taken down by descending currents from the cold surface waters pro-
duces further favorable conditions of life in these great depths.

In discussing the causes of the distribution of organisms over the sur-
face of the earth at the present time, or the geographical distribution of
fossils in Paleozoic rocks, it is too often assumed that the relations

‘Murray and Barton. Phyculogical Memoirs from the British Museum, London,
1895.

408 EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS.

between the earth and the other members of the solar system were in
past times the same as we now find them. The variation in the astro-
nomical elements of the globe is so small that they are regarded as
stable for the period covered by history, but this variation assumes
great importance when the periods represented by geology are brought
into consideration.

Lord Kelvin says the nebular theory of the evolution of the solar sys-
tem, ‘“‘founced on the natural history of the stellar universe, as observed
by the elder Herschel and completed in details by the profound dynam-
ical judgment and imaginative genius of Laplace, seems converted by
thermodynamics into a necessary truth if we make no other uncertain
assumption than that the materials at present constituting the dead
matter of the solar system have existed under the laws of dead matter
for a hundred million years.”' A large sun during the early stages of
the earth’s history is therefore a necessary result of what is believed to
have been the genesis of our system. The earth is an extremely small
fragment thrown off from the central sun at one of its periods of con-
densation, and by reason of its small dimensions its stellar phase would
be comparatively short. On the other hand, the enormous mass of the
sun would cool much more slowly, and its gradual contraction would
provide an amount of energy sufficient to make good all that lost in
radiation.

We may well suppose that when the sun had a diameter little less
than the diameter of the orbit of Mercury the precipitation of water,
geological and life phenomena, commenced on our earth. Such a
nebulous sun would radiate for each unit of its surface less heat and
light than the sun at present, but the total amount of radiant energy
received by the earth might be greater than that received at present,
and would be very differently distributed over the earth’s surface.
The Torrid Zone would be extended on either side of the equator to
the forty-seventh parallel of latitude. The seasonal effects produced
by the inclination of the earth’s axis to the ecliptic would be annulled.
There would be suppression of a twenty-four-hour night about the
poles at any time of the year. A cone of effective solar rays would
graze the earth along a smail circle of the sphere; at the solstice the
rays of light would touch one pole and envelop the other to the forty-
third parallel of latitude, so that at this position of the earth four
degrees of latitude—those between 43° and 47°—would have at the
the same time a twenty-four-hour day and some portion of the sun
overhead at noon. A sun the angular diameter of which is equal to
twice the obliquity of the ecliptic, i. e., 47°, would thus produce at the
poles during the whole year an insolation 18 per cent greater than at:

‘Kelvin. Popular Leetures and Addresses, Vol. I, pages 421-422. London, 1891.
) , D ,
7 “Ves géologues pourront trouver, dans le diametre considérable de la masse solaire:
a ces Gpoques, Vexplication de Végalité de climat dont parait avoir joui la terre
J ’ g J
jusqivau commencement de ]1’Gpoque actuelle.” (Wolf. Les Hypotheses cosmogoni-
ques, page 32: Paris, 1886).

EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ORGANISMS. 409

present, tending to a complete uniformity of climate over the earth’s
surface.’ When we take into consideration the effect of the earth’s
atmosphere, a sun with a diameter even half that here indicated would
account for the paleothermic phenomena made known by the records
of the past life on the globe. When seeking a rational explanation of
the gradual evolution of the surface features of the globe, it is neces-
sary to take into account the contemporaneous evolution of the other
members of the solar system, and especially that of the central luminary.

'Blandet. Bull. Soc. Géol. de France, Tom. 25, p. 777, 1868.

J ae, ata:

=, ed

¢
i

THE BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS!

By Dr. HEI,
Associate of the Faculty of Medicine at Paris.

In the study of natural sciences it is often an excellent plan to begin
by stating a well-worn truism. To say, in the present state of our
knowledge, that close relations exist between plants and insects is to
utter such a truism.

At the close of the last century the wonderful discoveries of Koel-
reuter followed by those of Sprengel had already demonstrated such
relations. It was upon the teachings of that genial thinker that was
built a great part of the theory of selection given definitive form by
the labors of Darwin. At that period, however, the relations between
plants and insects, even when viewed by the light of evolution, were
considered almost solely with regard to the cross-fertilization of vege-
table organisms. The biologic relations between plants and ants have
been fully examined only by our contemporaries. Though the topic is
one of extraordinary fecundity, it is but little known to the general
public.

Among the subjects that biology offers for our consideration some are
especially fortunate in that their exposition requires no personal talent,
their interest depending upon a mere recital of facts. One of these
privileged subjects is the relations of plants and ants, and this selfish
consideration has led me to choose it for my remarks.

As a preliminary to the study of the relations of ants to living vege-
table forms it will be well to rapidly examine the organs that insects
use in establishing such relations. We need not dwell upon their legs,
which are very movable and constructed upon the general plan of the
legs of insects. The claws that terminate them are used by ants in
clinging to rough surfaces, in scratching the ground, in rejecting refuse,
in holding food. Between the claws are found very delicate organs,
the pulvilli, by whose aid the insect can cling to smooth surfaces,
whether vertical or horizontal, against the force of gravity, by
means of an oily secretion that causes the foot to adhere by capillary

'Translated from the Compte Rendu de la 24me Sess. de l’Association Frangaise
pour lAvancement des Sciences, 1895, prémiére partie, pp. 31-75.

411

412 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

attraction. Upon the head of an ant are borne sense organs—com-
pound and simple eyes, organs apparently olfactory in character,
antenne, and buccal organs. On either side of the buccal opening are
two large chitinous pieces, triangular in shape, articulated so that they
can be moved apart or toward each other in a horizontal direction like
the two jaws of a pinchers, the surfaces in contact being usually cut like
asaw. These mandibles have a most important office, serving both as
a weapon and as a tool. They are, in fact, used as scissors for cutting,
as pinchers for dragging or tearing, as a trowel is in tempering and lay-
ing on mortar, as a shovel for removing excavated matter. It might
almost be said that the only use for which they are absolutely unfitted
is that of mastication of food. Below and behind them are found the
maxille, formed by three coarticulated pieces, movable, membranous
in character, bearing on their surfaces several rows of hairs and gus-
tatory papille. Like the mandibles, they can not serve in mastication,
but they assist the lips and the palpi in the recognition and seizure of
food. The maxille bear the maxillary palpi, composed of from one to
Six pieces, organs especially tactile. The labrum, usually concealed
under the epistoma, forms the anterior wall of the buccal opening. It
is a flattened piece of variable form, often bilobate, capable of move-
ment from behind forward in a horizontal plane. ‘he lower lip forms
the floor of the mouth and carries the ligula, an extensible piece which,
because of its mobility, may be used for lapping or licking up fluids.
The rows of gustatory papilla that it carries in front and behind are
the principal seat of the sense of taste. On each side of the lower lip
are inserted the labial palpi, usually smaller than the maxillary palpi,
formed of from one to four pieces. ‘These also are tactile organs.
According to Forel the mandibles are never used for eating, The most
attentive observations confirm this, and the disproportion between the
mandibles and the maxille makes it evident. The mandibles remain
closed and immovable while the ant is eating. The mouth is usually
closed by the labrum, which is turned over it, downward and backward,
covering entirely the anterior part of the maxill and of the lower lip.
When the ant wishes to eat it makes a complex movement of the
pharynx which pushes forward the ligula, together with the neighbor-
ing parts, raising the labrum like a lid. The maxille are too short and
too weak to crush a solid; they can only draw into the mouth a liquid
or semisolid. It is the ligula or tongue which is most used by ants
when they eat, and, according to the apt expression of Lespés, they
use it as a dog does when he laps. When the ants are dealing with a
solid body inclosing a liquid they first tear it with their mandibles and
then lap up its contents. The buccal apparatus can, then, be used for
scraping, cutting, and licking.

Mention should be made of the apparatus for the production of venom.
This is situated on the posterior part of the abdomen and, as we shall
hereafter see, may render to plants, the friends of our insects, certain

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 413

indirect services. Its essential parts are a double, paired gland and a
single unpaired gland, there being secreted by one of these, as is prob-
ably the case with all the hymenoptera, an acid liquid, while the secre-
tion of the other is alkaline. From the admixture of these is formed a
true acid venom whose irritating property is partly due to the pres-
ence of formic acid. This venom is discharged into an inoculating
apparatus developed in a greater or less degree in different species.
The pain produced by the bite of indigenous species of ants is but slight,
but exotic species may cause suffering of considerable intensity and
duration.

This rapid review of the external organization of ants will enable us
to account for various relations that exist between them and the vege-
table world.

The first relations between ants and vegetables have undoubtedly
been those of the eaters and the eaten. There are in fact quite a num-
ber of species of ants that obtain their food from living vegetables. Of
these the most celebrated, and justly so, are the harvester ants. Their
habits were known in the most ancient times. ‘The ant,” says Solo-
mon (Proy. vi, 8), ‘‘provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth
her food in the harvest.” Aelian, an author of the third century of our
era, not only notes their gathering of seeds, but describes the means
employed by them to keep their grains from dampness and their way
of preventing germination by boring through the germ outside of the
seed. An Arabic book of the seventh century says, in speaking of ants:
“They store up wheat for food and dry it in the sun. If they fear that
the grain may germinate they take away its ball, cutting it in two
fragments. If we reflect we will be convinced that the ant is an intel-
ligent insect.” Montaigne, who lived in the south of France and had
traveled in Italy, was acquainted with the habits of the harvester ants,
which he describes with great precision. ‘They spread,” says he, ‘in
the open air their grains and seeds to aerate, freshen and dry them, when
they see that they are getting moist and smelling moldy, for fear that
they may become corrupt and rotten. But the caution and foresight
that they use in dealing with barley grains surpasses all that human
prudence could imagine. For fear lest the grain sprout and lose its
qualities and properties as a store of food, they gnaw the end of it
where the germ is wont to appear.”

These data, collected by the old atthors, have, however, been contro-
verted by recent authorities—Swammerdam, Buffon, Latreille, and,
above all, P. Huber, the great observer of ants—and it was not until
recently that Lespés and Moggridge clearly proved the industrious
habits of the harvester ants.

The two principal species of harvester ants, Aphanogaster (Atta)
structor and A. barbara, are rare in the north, quite common in central
Europe, and abundant on the shores of the Mediterranean. The work-
ers are remarkable for their differences in height and appearance. They

414 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

pass by insensible gradations to a form with an enormous head—a sol-
dier. The description of their method of harvesting and preserving
the grain we must borrow from Moggridge, that acute observer, who, at
32 years of age, being forced by phthisis to seek a climate less inclem-
ent than that of England, employed his latest strength in studying the
ants of the neighborhood of Mentone.

Often upon uncultivated lands, there called the garrigues, are seen
long trains of ants forming two continuous lines hurrying in opposite
directions, one going away from the nest, the other toward it. The lat-
ter is laden with seed or capsules that the ants are carrying to their
hill.

These files of foraging ants sometimes range to a considerable distance
from the nest, seeking the seeds of grasses, peas, and other plants of
the garrigues. They collect not only ripe seeds, but also understand
how to detach from the plants green fruits. Thus we may see an ant
climbing along the stem of a shepherds-purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris)
and, choosing a green pod, disdaining the riper ones which let fall their
seeds at the least touch, seize the peduncle of the capsule between its
mandibles and, fixing its hind legs firmly as a pivot, twist the peduncle
round and round until it is broken off. Then, laden with this burden,
it descends, backing and turning as its load demands, down around the
stem to reach its nest. In the same manner are gathered the capsules
of chickweed (Alsine media) and the nutlets of little labiates such as
Calamintha.

We may frequently see two ants combine for the purpose of breaking
the peduncle of a capsule. While one is gnawing the peduncle the
other will twist it off; but it seems that their mandibles are never
strong enough to sever the peduncle by cutting alone. If grains of
hempseed, millet, and oats are scattered in the neighborhood of the
nest of the harvester ants, the insects hasten to carry them off, although
those seeds are heavy burdens for them. But it ofteu happens that
they are deceived as to the quality of the articles they drag to their nest.
Thus they may carry off objects not suitable for food; shells, bits of
wood, fragments of leaves. If little procelain beads are scattered along
the path of a harvesting train the ants will carry them toward their
nest. They soon perceive their error, however, for after an hour of this
fruitless labor they pass by their false treasures indifferent to them.

The seeds of a species of fumitory (Fumaria capreolata) are gathered
by these harvesters. Now, beside this plant, there fall to the ground
little galls inhabited by asmall cynipid insect. Deceived by the resem-
blance between these galls and the seeds of the plant, the ants add
them to their store, quite convinced that they are really seeds. What
is the fate of the inhabitants of these galls? Is there not here to be
solved an interesting problem involving mimicry of parasitic origin ?

The situation of the nests of the Atta barbara is often indicated by
the presence of a number of plants that grow around out of the refuse

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 415

accumulated by the ants. These are, in fact, to be considered as weeds
of cultivation and strangers to the lavender and cistus covered banks
of the garrigue, being plants sprung from seeds that the ants have
brought and abandoned for some unknown cause. The plants thus
transported belong to the following classes: Veronicas, fumitories, oats,
a nettle (Urtica membranacea), bird chickweed, wild marigold (Calendula
arvensis), snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), a flax (Linaria simplex),
watercress (Cardamine hirsuta), and goose foot.

Quite frequently these plants are found along the sides of minature
gullies or crevices hollowed in the rock where their seeds have been
washed by the rain and there germinate. Thus these interlopers have
been drawn into competition with the primitive occupiers of the ground;
they accompany the ants as the plants of our harvests accompany man.
The ants serve indirectly in their dissemination, using, indeed, part of
them for food, but yet assisting in the propagation of the species. As
soon as the harvested seeds are brought near to the nest, some hundreds
of workers are employed in separating them from the husks while others
store them away in the depths of the ant hill. The refuse is dragged
out of the nest, in the immediate vicinity of which are found heaps of
débris formed of bits of straw, pods, and empty capsules.

The nest is simply hollowed out in the soil, but it seems that some-
times the ants know how to appropriate the work of certain beetles.
Mogeridge has, in fact, seen in one of the nests a cavity covered over
by a spherical dome having walls of hardened earth closed at the bot-
tom, there being a large circular opening at the top and a smaller one
below. This appears to be a dome constructed by a beetle and used
by the ants for storage purposes.

The floor of these grain cellars is well cemented. The rooms differ
in size, being on an average as large as a good-sized watch. Each
of these rooms contains about 5 grams of seed. A nest made up of
from 80 to 100 rooms may contain a pound or more of seeds belonging
to different plants. The majority of these are, however, from culti-
vated grasses, especially Tragus racemosus. These are evidently pre-
ferred because of their richness in alimentary principles.

Especially interesting are the means employed by the ants to pre-
vent the germination of seeds. In examining 21 nests Moggridge
found, among some thousands of seeds, but very few that had germi-
nated; these were, nevertheless, attacked by the ants, who attempted
to mutilate them in order to stop their germination. This arrest of
germination caused by the intervention of the ants is unquestionable,
but we have not yet discovered the exact means by which it is effected.
In isolated or abandoned portions of the nest the seeds sprout and
develop in the granaries, and if the ants are prevented from penetrat-
ing into one of these the seeds germinate there normally. It has been
surmised that the ants could prevent germination by closing, with a
gelatinous substance, the micropyle of the seed, through which it was

416 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

supposed that moisture penetrated to the interior of the grain. This
hypothesis is, however, very doubtful. When the seed became suffi-
ciently softened and ready to germinate, it was thought that the ants
raised the micropylar seal and germination ensued. Since a more
advanced growth, says Moggridge, would alter the nutritive qualities
of their store, they hasten to gnaw off the tip of the radicle. Having
effected this mutilation, they dry the seeds in the sun, then store them
up anew. If by chance the seeds are moistened by rain, they are dried
in the same way.

When the entire grain becomes soft and swollen, the ants devour its

soft parts, which are charged with saccharine substances, of which they
are very fond, and which serve to nourish their larvee. The envelopes,
in the form of bran, are rejected and carried outside to the rubbish
heap.
The ants then know how to malt the seed of graminaceous plants,
obtaining real malt as our brewers do. We need not discuss here
whether they pursue this industry by instinct alone or whether they
have acquired their skill by experience.

By using artificial light Moggridge was able to see how the ants gnaw
theseed. Oneof them grasps firmly a portion of the farinaceous albu-
men while two or three others attack the seed with their mandibles,
feed upon it, and finally yield their places to others. Thus we see that,
unlike other ants that are nourished only by soft or liquid substances,
the harvester ants attack solid substances, rejecting, however, those
seeds which have never been softened, and attacking only those which
have been dried after having begun to germinate. The hard envelope of
hemp and similar seeds generally resists the attack of the ants, so that
these insects wait until these envelopes are softened and burst by ger-
mination before they devour the oily contents. Although the buceal
apparatus of ants is not suitable for the mastication of hard bodies, it
answers perfectly well, when assisted by the hard, toothed mandible, for
scraping or scratching small particles of farinaceous matter.

These ants have also carnivorous habits, and frequently pillage neigh-
boring nests, but a consideration of this would take us too far from our
topic. Harvester ants exist also in the Tropies. As early as the first
of this century Sykes, and then Gordon, noted in India a harvester ant
(Pheidole providens).

Certain ants are not only harvesters, they are also farmers. These
American species of the genus Pogonomyrmex were studied throughout
ten consecutive years by Dr. Lincecum and his daughter. The observa-
tions of those skillful observers have been published by Darwin. These
large, brown ants bore a hole in the ground, about which they heap up
earth to a height of from 3 to 6 inches, forming a low, circular mound,
rising by a gentle declivity from its center to its outer border. If, how-
ever, the ant is building in low, flat, wet land, subject to inundation, it
elevates the mound like a pointed cone to a height of 15 or 20 inches

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. A117

more, and makes the entrance near the summit—a wise precaution that
is also shown in the location of their nests, which are placed beyond
danger from inundations.

The ants then destroy the herbage entirely around the mound, level-
ing the surface for 3 or 4 feet all about the nest. Within this sort of
paved area no growth is tolerated except that of a species of grass
(Aristida stricta). This plant is sown all about the nest, while other
plants that start up in the vicinity are pitilessly gnawed. The grass,
thus aided in its struggle for existence, gives an abundant harvest of
small, white, flinty seeds quite similar to rice (ant rice). The plant is
harvested a little before maturity, bundled up and carried into the nest.
There the grain is separated from the husk, which is thrown out beyond
the paved area. If the ants are surprised by an early setting in of the
rainy season, their stores may be dampened. They then dry them in
the sun, preserve the sound grains and store them anew.

Lincecum and Darwin thought there was no doubt but that this
species of grass was planted designedly. McCook affirms, however,
that it is not sown by the ants themselves, these insects merely pre-
venting any other species of plant from growing around their nest. In
autumn, after the harvest, the paved area is abandoned until the ensu-
ing autumn, when the grass again springs up, appearing about the ant-
hill in the same ring-like form, and is cared for by the ants in the same
manner.

Mrs. Treat and MeCook have also studied with the greatest care other
species of Pogonomyrmex in Texas (P. erudelis and P. occidentalis)
having similar habits. One of these collects the fruits of Composite.

We see already by these examples that the vegetarian ants may,
notwithstanding the ravages they commit upon certain plants, yet aid
to a certain extent in their dissemination. The loss of a considerable
quan ‘ty of seeds is compensated for by the dissemination of those
which, among the number collected, are necessarily overlooked by the
ants. The insects, especially the agricultural ants, manifestly aid the
plants of their choice in their struggle with the neighboring species
whose physicochemical requirements are the same. Certain tropical
plants make-use of agricultural ants for the dissemination of their seeds;
but, far from furnishing an aliment in return, they deceive their assist-
ants by the resemblance of their seeds to those of plants they are in the
habit of gathering.

Sometimes, also, the insect is led into error by the resemblance of
seeds to the nymphal cocoons (vulgo, egg) of the ants. It is true that
the ants find under the leaves of these plants a saccharine liquid of
which they are very fond. An instance of this is our common Melam-
pyrum pratense, that often grows in the middle of ant-hills. Its dehis-
cent capsule contains a single seed, smooth and white, bearing a most
deceptive resemblance to the cocoons inclosing the nymphe. The
ants are deceived by this appearance, and bury these seeds with the

SM 96—27

418 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

same care with which they conceal their cocoons. These facts have
resulted from the researches of a Swedish, botanist and a myrmecolo-
gist, Lundstrém and Adler. By reason of the long tigellus that carries
the cotyledons, the Melampyrum is well adapted for germinating under
stones. The assistance of the ants gives it easy command of this habi-
tat which other plants are unable to dispute. The resemblance of the
seed of the Melampyrum to the cocoon extends not only to form and
color, but also to odor, the seed emitting an ant-like smell.

Throughout central South America there exists a leaf-cutting or
visiting ant, also called the parasol ant, and known by the native as
the saiiba. Itisthe Gicodoma cephalotes. These ants construct in woods
and plantations quite extensive dome shaped habitations. The domes
form the roof of a nest that has passages extending far away into the
ground and provided with numerous entrances, usually closed. These
ants excavate long galleries, in which they accumulate masses, rela-
tively enormous, of fragments of leaves that they have cut from trees.
If an ant-hill has been inhabited by a single colony for some years, it
may acquire very considerable dimensions. The activity of these ants
is so great that they have been seen to pass and repass under ariver a
quarter of a mile wide. The earth from their digging is spread outside
and forms a talus more than 40 feet in circumference and from 1 to 3
feet high.

The workers of this species are of three orders. The main body is
formed by a small-sized order of workers with small heads. The large
workers are of two kinds, one having a smooth, polished head, with
ocelli upon the vertex; the other subterranean, having no ocelli, and,
according to Bates, fulfilling, in the depths of the colony, some
unknown function; whether they are soldiers is doubtful.

The small workers and the large werkers with smooth, polished heads
are a real scourge to cultivators, especially ravaging coffee and orange
plantations. The small workers climb upon the trees, stand on the
edge of a leaf and, by means of their toothed mandibles, cut from it a
semicular piece, leaving only the large nervures. A quarter of an hour
suffices for the operation, during which they use their hind feet as a
center and point of support. When the section 1s nearly finished the
ant seizes the piece between his mandibles and, by a sharp jerk,
detaches it. He then descends, carrying his load upright. Sometimes
he simplifies his task by dropping his booty to the foot of the tree,
where other workers pick it up.

“When standing upon an eminence,” says Ellendorf, ‘‘one can see
columns of these tiny creatures in compact masses, with their green
bannerets above their heads, looking like an enormous green serpent
slowly gliding over the ground; and this picture, outlined upon a back-
ground of yellowish gray, is made still miore striking by the fact that
all their bannerets are agitated by slight undulatory motions.”

These ants, by biting the grass close to the ground, make regular

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 419

roads which extend to their nests. These are trodden night and day
by thousands of workers, and soon become smooth and bare, resembling
the tracks of a cart wheel passing through the herbage. The severed
grass is thrown out on the sides of the road.

The voracity of the Gcodomas is such that, in the countries they
infest, it is almost impossible to naturalize certain trees, such as citron
and orange trees. Lund states that, when on a voyage of exploration
in Brazil, he was very much astonished to hear, during calm weather,
a noise like rain, caused by leaves falling to the ground. He was
standing under a laurel tree 12 feet high, having coriaceous leaves
which were detached, although having their natural green color, thus
having no resemblance to diseased leaves. He saw then that each
petiole had upon it an ant that was trying to cut it off. Each leaf
severed and thrown to the ground was seized by the G’codomas, who
immediately cut it up and carried the fragments to their nest. In less
than an hour the tree was stripped and resembled a gigantic broom. -

Did Lund meet with some other species of Gicodoma than the Mco-
doma cephalotes? If not, the ants know how to modify their method of
harvesting, sometimes cutting round pieces out of leaves still attached
by their petioles, sometimes cutting the petiole directly through. The
leaves are taken into the ant-hill in a condition neither too dry nor too
moist. If they are too moist they are dried near the entrance, and, if
rain continues, finally abandoned. If the weather is too dry the leaves
are gathered only at night. By the opening or closing of certain gal-
leries a suitable ventilation is also kept up. In order to facilitate this
their hills are never located in the interior of forests, where the air does
not circulate well, but on the edge of clearings.

Of what use can these harvested leaves be to the ants? Various
hypotheses have been proposed on this subject. The most probable
is that of Belt, who supposes that they are used to make a real compost
on which small mushrooms grow, that serve the ants for food. If,
indeed, we open an ant-hill we do not see there any leaves, but find
in many communicating chambers a brown flocculent matter, in the
midst of which are found ants much smaller than the leaf-cutting
workers, together with larve and pup.

These little ants sometimes go out of the nest and follow the paths
traversed by the workers; but they never carry anything, and are even
themselves carried back again by the workers, seated upon the round
pieces of leaves transported by the latter. There is apparently assigned
to them the task of reducing to small fragments the leaves brought
into the nest, and they work only in the depths of the colony.

It is not only leaves that are used by the ants to make their compost,
but certain flowers belonging to plants the leaves of which they do not
attack, and the inner whiterind of oranges. Like the harvester ants of
our own country, they sometimes carry in by mistake useless materials,
but they soon discover this and drag them outside.

420 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

The (£codomas are not the only ants that attempt the raising of
mushrooms. A Brazilian species of Atta digs subterranean passages
from its nest to the trees whose leaves it uses. These leaves, after
being taken to the nest, are torn up and masticated till they have the
appearance of a spongy gray mass. In this mass there develops the
mycelium of an agaric (Moller), which forms small white masses “like
cauliflower heads,” the principal food of the ants.

We have now referred to three kinds of ants that live at the expense
of plants, and whose depredations (if we disregard the benefit from the
dissemination of seeds by the harvesters and others) are injurious to
such plants. It is, therefore, not surprising to find in many vegetables
special defensive provisions made against the ravages of ants. It
should be noted that this provision is not always made against the
ants alone, but in a general way against injurious apterous insects.

We have seen that certain harvesters attack the fruits of the Com-
posite. We find, accordingly, that certain typical forms in this family
surround their infloresence with a regular chevausx de frise. The example
of the carline thistle shows this very clearly. The spinescent bracts of
the involucre form, as in many thistles, an insurmountable hedge. The
heads of the centaury have an involucre surrounded with little curved
needles, the rest of the plant being smooth.

At certain times of the year a number of plants excrete from the
surfaces of their leaves a sugary liquid. This is the case with the oak,
whose leaves are in spring covered with ‘ honey dew.” This excretion
is connected with the growth of the plant, and is caused, according to
various authors, by retarded transpiration. DPrimitively it must have
been a total loss to the vegetable eéonomy, but little by little the plant
has become enabled to utilize it. Various stinging hymenoptera, such
as bees and ants, visit the leaves to gather this honey dew. There is
no doubt but that phytophagous animals can not approach a plant
thus covered with venomous insects without exposing themselves to
numerous stings. Hence there is, in exchange for food, a real proteetieg
offered by the insects.

In the case of the oak the production of the honey dew is not local-
ized, but extends over the whole surface of the leaf. But in the case of
some other plants the production is localized at certain special points
of the leaf which thus become true nectar glands, foliary or extra-
floral nectaries, also called extranuptial nectaries, since they in no
way contribute to the fertilization by insects. The production of the
honey dew at these specialized places is less abundant, but is more
constant than when it extends over the entire surface of the leaf.
Hence the nectarivorous insects are more constantly upon the surface
of the plant, and the protection against phytophagous creatures is
more efficacious. These extrafloral nectaries are placed upon the
aerial vegetative organs at points that vary in different plants. In the
cherry tree, for example, some nectaries, in the form of small, red:
spherules, are found on the edges of the upper part of the petiole.

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. A421

A study of the development of the leaf suffices to show that, mor-
phologically, these represent aborted teeth of the limbus that have
become adapted as nectaries. Between the serrate teeth that form the
edge of the limbus of a number of leaves there are found in various
plants small nectariferous glands (serration glands). In the wood-
vetch the stipules, situate at the base of the compound pinnate leaves,
serve as foliary nectaries.

It is quite natural to ask what can have been the cause of this
localization of the production of honey dew at this particular point
to the exclusion of others. The following explanation is reasonably
satisfactory :

Nectarivorous insects, having acquired the habit of frequenting
leaves covered throughout their entire surface with honey dew, con-
tinued to do so, even when the excretion had ceased; during periods,
for example, when transpiration was not retarded. These leaves they
subjected to suction, and if their buccal apparatus permitted it, as in
the case of ants, to a continually repeated nibbling. In this respect
these insects behaved like a young mammal who sucks the breast of
his mother more energetically in proportion as she furnishes less lac-
teal secretion. Any irritation of a living tissue causes it to hyper-
trophy and proliferate. The localization of the irritation at certain
special points causes the formation, at these points, of glands having
a sugary secretion. Henceforward the nectarivorous insects localize
their action upon these nectaries, and the remainder of the leaf may
then adapt itself entirely to other functions, of which the most impor-
tant is chlorophyllian absorption.

The formation of foliary nectaries may, in principle, be due to the
intervention of phytophagous as well as of nectarivorous insects. The
tendency which ants have to tear the leaves of young peach-tree buds
is well known. It may be supposed that the bites of these insects
upon the inferior portions of the leaf caused a progressive atrophy of
that organ. These portions would be progressively adapted to a new
function—that of nectaries. ‘The plant, thus forced to adapt itself to
the needs of the ants, would in this manner establish a modus vivendi
between itself and those insects. In place of giving up portions of its
foliary parenchyma, it would give them a sugary liquid. The ants
would find every advantage in this substitution, the liquid being more
easily assimilable and its collection by sucking being much more eco-
noiical in time and labor than the mastication of the foliary paren-
chyma. In return the ants would protect the plant against the attacks
of phytophagous creatures.

Along the edges of the leaves of the Rosa Banksic are found perifo-
liary nectaries that attract great numbers of a large black ant (Campo-
notus pubescens). The presence of these ants preserves the rose from the
attacks of a hymenopterous insect (Hylotoma rose). We owe an inter-
esting experiment upon this subject to Beccari. Ona branch of Rosa
Banksie attacked by ants he placed a branch of another rose bush

422 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

attacked by the larve of Hylotoma. Incommoded by the ants, these
larvie took refuge upon the youngest buds, unprovided as yet with
nectaries, and consequently not visited by ants. It is to be remarked
that the Banks rosebushes, which are rarely or never attacked by
Hylotomas, are destitute of prickles. We may probably admit that
there is a correlation between the presence on plants of thorns or prickles
and that of leaf-eating insects. Is it net due to the protection given
by ants and other sting-bearing hymenoptera that the Banks rosebushes
attain the great age that some of them are known todo? We may cite
as an instance one of these bushes planted in 1803 by Bopland in the
garden of the marine hospital at Toulon, which has a stem a meter in
diameter at the base and bears each year from fifty to sixty thousand
flowers.

The leaves of peach, apricot, and cherry trees may, as there is reason
to suppose, be derived from compound leaves. The nectaries which
they carry on the petioles should then have the significance of aborted
leaflets filled with sweet stores.

The extranuptial nectaries belong not only to phanerogams, they
are also found in the vascular cryptogams. We find extranuptial
nectaries at the base of sterile pinnules in Pteris aquilina and Acrosti-
chum scandens. In Acrostichum Horsfieldii we find at the base of the
sterile leaflets, and also frequently at the base of the fertile leaflets,
small auricles that seem to be nectariferous.

Francis Darwin, who discovered the nectaries in the fronds of Pteris
aquilina, does not believe in the defense afforded by the ants against
phytophagous insects. In favor of this theory, however, is the fact
that the secretion of nectar takes place only in young fronds whose
tissue, yet tender, is an easy prey for the leaf eaters. It should also be .
noted that Pteris aquilina is a cosmopolitan plant. It may not attract
insects in England, and yet do so in other regions. Besides, in France,
an Halictus has been seen to visit the fronds of this fern. Ferns are
not exempt from attacks by plant-eating insects. Beccari saw a
Cyrtomium plicatum, cultivated in a court, with all its fronds covered
by a green caterpillar. Not far from this fern were found stems of
Pteris aquilina which had been reduced to small fragments by an
insect. Beceari supposes that the same larva attacked simultaneously
the fronds of the two ferns.

It is not only the normal organs of plants which may offer a sugary
secretion prized by the ants. Certain galls may be considered as true
foliary nectaries of parasitic origin. “The galls of Andricus testaceipes
(Aphilotriz Sieboldi),” says Adler, “are greatly exposed to the attacks
of various parasites of the genera Torymus and Synergus. It is inter-
esting to observe how the gall has indirectly evolved a means of pro-
tection. Its red, sappy envelope secretes a sticky fluid eagerly sought
after by ants, and that they may enjoy this nectar undisturbed, they
build with sand and earth a perfect dome over the galis, and in this

.

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 423

way provide the inhabitants with the best protection against their
enemies.

There are other honey-dew galls that furnish ants with an excellent
food. Such are the reddish-brown galls formed on the leaves of the
(Juercus undulata in the region of the Garden of the Gods, Colorado.
These galls are frequented by the honey ant, Myrmecocystus melliger,
whose habits, studied by McCook, have been recounted in most classi-
cal treatises. We need here only recall that these ants have two
classes of workers—those charged with gathering nectar from the sur-
faces of the galls and sedentary honey-bearing workers whose abdomen
is distended by the expansion of a bag filled with honey. The honey
bearers do not form a class predestined to special functions by a pecu-
liar physical organization. A1I neuter individuals may be transformed
into honey bearers under the influence of special alimentation. There
is no doubt but that the presence of ants upon the leaves of the gall-
bearing oak may have for its indirect result the protection, first of the
galls and then of their leaves, from the attacks of their various enemies.
In this case the hymenoptera causing the galls render a service to the
plant they attack by attracting to its vegetative organs a more or less
permanent army of defenders.

The Camponotus inflatus and Melophorus Bagoti described by Lub-
bock are also honey ants. The Crematogaster inflatus of Malasia has
its metathorax transformed into a bag filled with a sugary liquid and
provided at the back with two orifices of discharge.

The production of nectar is not limited, as is well known, to the vege-
tative organs of plants. It is especially abundant in the floral organs
where the nectaries attract pollenizing insects. The presence of the
nectar attracts not only winged insects especially adapted to pollination
but also aptera, ants in particular. In a number of cases the latter
insects may rob a plant of its nectar without pollination being, in its
turn, well assured. Hence we find a series of defensive or myrmecopho-
bie arrangements having for their result the exclusion of ants from the
floral organs. :

It seems that, to low-growing flowers like certain Cruciferz and Com-
posit capable of pollination by ants, there is a certain advantage in
the process being effected in a more assured manner by winged insects
(Kerner). The chevaux de frise, to which we have called attention as
surrounding the inflorescence in the carline thistle and the centaury,
may be a defensive organ of the firstrank. The wood scabish (Knautia
dipsacifolia) has on its stem downward-pointing hairs through which
the ants can not mount to the inflorescence. The teasels are protected
by a sort of cup formed by the base of opposite leaves, a cup to which
has been ascribed a very doubtful carnivorous function, from which the
name ‘digestive trap,” given it by Francis Darwin.

Vaucher showed some time ago that the Malvacez that have nectar-
iferous flowers are provided with hairs, while those that do not produce

424 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

nectar have none. In other plants the leaves form about the stem a
sloping surface in the form of a collar, or the vegetative organs may be
covered with a waxy secretion that renders the leaves and stems,
or perhaps both of these organs, shining, smooth, and slippery. The
myrmecophobie function of these slippery surfaces has been shown by
Delpino, although, as it seems to us, he has in a number of cases
exaggerated the defensive role attributed by him to the glaucescence
of the vegetative organs. In certain cases the glaucescence may be
combined with another method of protection. Such is the case with
the Ricinus or castor-oil plant, whose leaves are nectariferous and whose
stem is glaucous (Delpino and Schimper).

If flowers with large corollas were visited by ants they could not
usually be visited by winged insects, who are alone suited to effect
pollination. A bee, for example, who might light upon a flower thus
visited by ants might run the risk of having its proboscis, one of the
most sensitive of organs, seized by the ants; hence the utility, for many
insect-loving flowers, of protecting themselves against the visit of ants.
In a considerable number of cases the protection is effected by foliary
organs, aS we have just indicated, but more frequently the plant pro-
tects itself. Pendent flowers having the peduncle inclined toward the
ground offer by the very curvature of that organ an arrangement very
likely to cause the fall of ants who may venture upon it. Besides, these
plants are usually slippery. Good examples of this arrangement are
observed in the snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis), the Cyclamen, the crown
imperial (Pritillaria imperialis). These plants protect themselves as
does the weaver bird, which places its nest upon the end of a flexible
limb, where it will be out of the reach of serpents. If a flower is
arranged horizontally or vertically it may protect itself by means of
viscous hairs upon which the ants will be likely to stick. We may
cite as an example of surfaces thus covered with granular, viscous
hairs the peduncle of Silene nutans, of Hpimedium alpinum, the flowers
of the gooseberry, of the Linnaea borealis, of the Plumbago Europea, a
plant considered by some authors as insectivorous (?). ;

Aquatic plants are protected by their very situation. Aquatic species
of genera generally pubescent are smooth. Hxamples: Viola palustris,
Veronica anagallis, Veronica beccabunga, Ranunculus aquatilis. In the
Polygonum amphibiunm, studied by Kerner, the stigma is much larger
than the corolla. If the ants should penetrate the interior of this
corolla they would steal the nectar without pollenizing the plant; but
if a winged insect should visit the flower there would be many chances
of its brushing the stigma in its passage. The stamens are short and
ripen before the pistil, so that any winged insect, however small, can
effect pollination. But this Polygonum, as‘its specific name indicates,
may also growupontheland. As long as it remains in water it remains
glabrous; as soon as it grows upon the land it becomes covered with
glandular hairs.

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. A25

If the flower has no stiff or viscous protecting hairs, if its peduncle
is neither glaucous nor steep, it adopts various devices for the purpose
of protecting its floral nectaries against ants—-devices that affect various
organs. In certain narcissuses the tube is so narrow that an ant can
notenter. Only the proboscis of a winged insect can penetrate it. In
the Campanula the flowers are widely open, but the stamens are so
united as to form a sort of box,in which the nectar is found. Bees are
very early risers, while ants do not go out until the dew is off. A flower
which possesses no means of protection against ants has, therefore, an
advantage if it opens early in the morning and closes its corolla before
the ants arrive (Lubbock). Thusitis that the flowers of the Tragopogon
pratense close early in the morning. Those of Lampsana communis and
of Crepis pulchra open before 6 o’clock and close about 10 o’clock a, m.

The nectar-producing plants of England are generally pubescent.
Lubbock has drawn up a list of 110 species that are nectariferous and
smooth. In 60 of these the passage leading to the nectar is so narrow
that the ant can not pass. Thirty are aquatic, 3 or 4 open only at night,
6 grow in the open ground but are very small, so that to them hairs
would be of very doubtful utility.

In a number of eases the ants borrow the nectar from vegetables
through the intermediation of animals. A true animal honey dew is
secreted by plant lice (Aphides) or cochineal insects (Coccide). It is
well known that these insects excrete from the posterior extremity of
their digestive tube a saccharine liquid of which the ants are fond.
Upon the leaves covered with aphides ants constantly circulate, and,
tickling these creatures upon the abdomen with their antenne gather
the sugary drops that are then exuded. The adaptation of these
aphides to the ants is so perfect that, according to Darwin, when one
is tickled by a hair it will not give up its liquid, that result only follow-
ing the excitation produced by the ant (7). However this may be,
aphides and sometimes cochineal insects are truly purveyors to the
ats. Linneus called them Vacce Jormicarum, or ant-cows.

The habits of these pastoral ants are too well known for us to dwell
upon them, but it is well to remember that there are, so to speak, two
degrees of complexity in the relations of these insects. Many ants are
content with collecting the nectar from the aphides in the open air,
others construct covered ways and regular aerial stables to protect
their “cows” from the attacks of their enemies and to “milk” them at
their ease.

Sometimes, also, when the aphides frequent the subterranean parts
of vegetables, they construct underground stables. In our country the
aerial stables are temporary, made of loose earth and fragile, but Osten-
Sacken has seen, near Washington, a branch of juniper carrying an
aerial stable formed of agglomerated filaments having a resinous odor.
He has even seen in Virginia an aerial stable, spherical but fragile, con-
Structed upon an Asclepias. Trelease has also seen in North America
aerial stables established by Crematogasters upon Andromedas.

426 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

The ants protect their charges against the attacks of their enemies;
for example, against ichneumon flies that wish to deposit eggs in their
bodies, and this with an almost maternal vigilance. They also protect
them against wasps, greedy for the sugary secretion. lf the ants have
installed themselves upon a plant near the aphides it is very difficult
for the wasps to drive them away. ‘Those insects try to make the ants
fall, and succeed in doing so, but soon other ants come to replace the
fallen and the wasps are at length forced to give up the struggle.

The solicitude of the ants for the aphides is sometimes carried so far
that they take them with them when they break up their nests. Such
is the case with Lasius fuligineus and brunneus in whose hills is found
an aphis (Lachnus longirostris) that frequents the bark of certain trees.
When they change their domiciles the ants detach from the bark the
rostrum of the aphis which, deprived of its protectors, would remain
exposed to the attacks of its enemies.

In certain cases ants not only profit by colonies of aphides formed
independently of their aid, but they also assist in founding others.
The Schizoneura venusta is a winged aphis that lives at the base of the
stem of certain grasses (Setaria). The ants tear the wings of the
winged insects which they find on the ground, then dig a gallery so
that they can reach a rootlet. The aphides having reached the nour-
ishing plant, found there a colony that becomes, for the ants, a true
subterranean dairy. To it roads are made in the ground to give pas-
sage to winged aphides charged with the dissemination of their species.
In this case the aphis does not seem able, without the aid of the ant,
to find the means of penetrating to the base of the plant that is to
nourish it. The infesting of the plant depends directly upon the ants.
A considerable number of aerial organs are thus peopled with aphides
by the direct action of ants who transport the insects to noninfested
plants. We will not dwell further upon the relations between aphides
and ants, which interest us only because of the damage done to plants
by the cooperation of those insects. The facts are, besides, detailed in
most general treatises on entomology.

The relations of ants with the Coccide (scale insects) are essentially
the same as those they have with the Aphides (plant lice). In our
climate, where plant lice abound, they are, together with the Coccide,
the only insects, or nearly so, that furnish ants with a true animal
honey dew. But in South America, where aphides are much more rare,
they appear to be replaced almost entirely by the larve of homopterous
Hemiptera (Cercopides, and especially Membracides). The relations of
ants with these insects have been studied by Beske, Swainson, and
Lund. Besides the protection which the ants afford to the insects that
excrete the honey dew they perhaps aid them in their moltings by
relieving them of their old skin. Delpino has described the relations
that occur in Italy between Camponotus pubescens and other ants and
the larve of two Cicadellas (Tettigometra virescens and Centrotus

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 427

genistv). Inthe United States the caterpillar of a species of Lycena
has upon its last abdominal segments two or three pairs of small pro-
jecting buttons provided with a central opening from which exudes,
under the influence of the caresses of Formica fusca, a small drop of a

_ special liquid.

As we have seen it is incontestable that the ants thus protect a num-
ber of insects injurious to vegetation against the attacks of their
natural enemies, but in certain cases it seems probable that ants, by
transporting these sucking insects from developing to older parts of
the plant may considerably aid the vegetable to sustain the attacks of
these parasites. For example, an aphis, by living on the young leaves
of a bud, will frequently cause them to develop abnormally, while if it
lived on the adult stem it would be much less prejudicial to the plant.
Cases will hereafter be cited in which ants transport aphides and
cochineals from one organ of the plant to another.

All these nectar-producing insects may be considered, generally, as
walking nectaries. They attract ants much more powerfully than do
the extrafloral nectaries. Traversing almost the entire surface of the
plant, they determine the goings and comings of the ants, which thus
indirectly protect the entire plant by their very presence instead of
remaining massed at special points where nectaries are found. But it
seems to us going too far to consider with Lundstrom that these walk-
ing animal nectaries are profitable to the plant. The quantity of nutri-
tive materials they take from it, and the de‘ormations they cause in a
number of organs, are not compensated for by the protection, doubtful
indeed in many cases, offered by the ants they attract.

The true plant-protecting ants are those which do not borrow (even
indirectly by means of aphides) their aliment from the vegetable king-
dom—those which are frankly carnivorous. Such ants are quite numer-
ous in our climate, and their usefulness to agriculture and silviculture
is incontestable. We find that Formica pratensis is very destructive to
insects such as caterpiliars and grasshoppers. A nest of this species
will destroy as many as 28 insects per minute, or about 1,600 per hour.
And such a colony works day and night throughout the entire season.

In the midst of the arid savannas of America the beneficent action of
ants is Shown by islets of verdure covering the hillocks raised by these
insects. The protection which they give to plants prevents the attacks
of leaf eaters.

We have not touched upon many well-known points in the above-
mentioned biologie relations of ants. We prefer to concentrate our
attention upon their direct relations with a number of plants that may
be called myrmecophilous, since they afford shelter and often food to
ants. The history of these lodging plants is generally little known, and
they present a number of peculiarities which deserve to be studied in
detail. The instinct of ants leads them to attempt to establish them-
Selves in cavities where they may be sheltered. These cavities will be

428 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

more advantageous in proportion as they are convenient to the food
which the insects seek. Therefore, if a nectariferous plant visited by
ants presents in some of its organs a cavity suitable for their habita-
tion, it will soon become a lodging for these insects.

Such is the case with various ferns. We have already mentioned the
extra-nuptial nectaries found on the fronds of various indigenous and —
exotic ferns. On the lower face of the sterile fronds of Polypodium nec-
tariferum nectaries are found in considerable numbers; but their origin
is different from that of those observed in the before-mentioned types.
They seem by their position to correspond to the petiolar nectaries of
phanerogams of the types already cited. But in P. nectariferum they
appear to be aborted sori formed at the points where the nervures
divide, and therefore analogous to the floral nectaries of the phanero-
gams. The sterile frond of this polypod is quite different in shape from
the fertile frond. The nectaries seem to attract the ants to it, and they
find there assured shelter by reason of its special form.

The young shoots of palm trees are tender, usually sweet in flavor,
and therefore exposed to be eaten by herbivorous animals. (It is well
known that travelers who traverse the virgin forests of Malasia easily
procure for themselves a succulent food by felling palm trees and cut-
ting out their growing top shoots.) ‘These plants are therefore usually
protected by means of spines. Certain species for which this mode of
defense is insufficient have recourse to ants for protection. Even those
species that are armed with sharp needles have the younger parts com-
paratively unprotected, because the needles are not yet sufficiently
hardened. The ants find a shelter upon these palm trees. Sometimes,
as is the case with certain species of Calamus, the spathe that protects
the inflorescence has a form suitable for harboring these insects. Some-
times, as in some species of Damonorops, the series of needles that arm
the stem are curved toward each other two by two, thus forming, by
their intercrossing on the surface of the stem, galleries, in which the
ants establish themselves. In this case the lodging organ forms but a
part of the wall of the cavity inhabited by the ants. It is, as might
be said, the rough draft of a myrmecophilous feature. In the great
majority of lodging plants the cavity is entirely formed by the organs
of the plant.

In palm trees of the genus Korthalsia the lodging organ is of
another character. The sheath of the leaves (ocrea) has an appendage
that enlarges in the form of a boat, and thus shuts in, together with that
part of the stem against which it is applied, a closed cavity. To get
into this the ants make an opening in the median line or laterally, and
in addition to this, which is used for entrance and exit, they make other
small openings at the base of the ocrea for the purpose of ventilation.
It is probable that the Korthalsia has nectaries in the petiolule of some
of the segments of its leaves. It appears certain that the cavity of the
ocrea is formed without any intervention on the part of the ants, but

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 429

the holes in it do not exist there naturally, and seem to be made by those
insects. This, too, it would seem, is a rough draft of a myrmecophilous
feature. (See Pl. X VIL.)

Usually lodging plants offer to ants a well-closed cavity formed at

the expense of one of their organs. Such is the case with Acacia
- cornigera, a small tree of Central America, about six or seven meters
high, having at the base of each leaf two strong spines, representing
modified stipules. It is generally allowed that it was Belt who first, in
Nicaragua, studied the relations of this tree to ants. It had, however,
already been mentioned and figured by earlier observers: Hernandez
(1651), Hermann (1689), Commelin (1698), Plukinet (1691). The spines
are strong and have been compared with some exactitude to bull’s
horns. They are hollow within, the cavities of the two contiguous
spines intercommunicating. The leaves are bipinnate, and at the base
of each pair on the median nervure there is found a crateriform gland
which in young leaves secretes a honey-like liquid. These foliary nec-
taries attract a great number of ants, which are constantly running
about from one gland to another.

But this is not the only aliment offered to these insects. There are
nectaries of another kind. At the extremity of each of the small
divisions of a compound leaflet there is formed a little yellow fruit-
like body, attached to the leaf at a single point. When the leaf first
unfolds these little pears are not quite ripe, and the ants are continually
employed going from one to the other examining them. When an ant
finds one sufficiently advanced it bites the small point of attachment.
Then, bending down the fruit-like body, it breaks it off and bears it
away in triumph to the nest. The ants are therefore found continually
upon the plant occupied in harvesting these glandules, which ripen
successively. Since these organs are attractive to ants as dainties,
Francis Darwin gave them the name of “ food bodies.” We may per-
haps attribute the production of the ‘‘food bodies of the Acacia corni-
gera to the ants themselves. The ancestors of the plant must have pos-
sessed leaves that secreted at their borders a mucilaginous liquid in
greater or less abundance. The ants, attracted by this liquid, began
to nibble the secreting edge of these leaves, and thus produced an irri-
tation resulting in a more abundant secretion of the liquid and an
hypertrophy of the secreting parts. We have already spoken of the
theory that accounts for the primary differentiation of the perifoliary
nectaries by the irritation caused by the suction and bites of insects
seeking mucilaginous or sugary liquids.

Belt has observed that two species of ants visit the spines of the
Acacia. The most frequent visitor is the Psewdomyrma bicclor. The
other is a species of Crematogaster. The two never inhabit at the
Same time the same tree, nor do they perforate the same spines at the
Same place, the former penetrating them near the apex, the latter
about midway of their length.

430 BIOLOGIG RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

3elt succeeded in cultivating this Acacia. His plants were covered
with ants of a different species from those that lived on the wild tree.
These ants frequented neither the foliary nectaries nor the spines,
which they neglected to perforate. Deprived of their usual inhabitants,
the spines differed from those of the usual plant, being but little devel-
oped, soft, and filled with a pulpy, sweetish substance. From this
experiment it may be concluded that the presence of ants within the
spines tends to increase the size and density of those organs, which
can not reach their full development without the stimulus caused by
such inhabitants.

It is to be supposed that the ancestors of the Acacia cornigera had no
other defense against the attacks of herbivora than the protection
afforded by their spines. The differentiation of foliary nectaries at
first permitted them to utilize for their defense the constant visits dur-
ing the day of certain bees whose venomous stings would put to flight
the diurnal herbivora. But as the visits of these bees were only
diurnal, the plant would remain exposed to the attacks of nocturnal
herbivora. The adaptation of its spines for lodging the ants assured
the Acacia cornigera of a constant defense. It may, however, be well
to remark that the defensive arrangements are especially directed
against leaf cutting ants rather than against other herbivorous crea-
tures. The protection given to ants is so necessary to this Acacia that,
according to Belt, its acclimation would be impossible in localities
where the Pseudomyrma does not exist. The leaves of the plant, even
when treed from the ants that inhabit them, are rejected by herbivorous
animals, their repugnance to them being due, in great part, to the odor
of ants exhaled by the leaves after they have been visited by the
Pseudomyrma.

Beceari has mentioned a nutmeg tree (Myristica myrmecophila) whose
internodes, provided with wing-like prolongations of very curious
form, are enlarged, hollow, and inhabited by ants, which reach the cay-
ities by openings situated on the stem or on the peduncle of the male
and female flowers. These openings have the form of narrow slits with
raised edges. The cavities of the various internodes do not intercom-
municate. We may suppose, by analogy with what is seen in other
myrmecophilous types, that the perforations do not exist in the young
internodes, and are the work of the ants that visit the plant in great
numbers, as they likewise do other species of the same genus. The
raised edges of the slits in the internodes apparently secrete a sugary
liquid attractive to ants. These insects, besides the part they may
play in driving off phytophagous creatures, may, perhaps, assist in the
fertilization of the dicecious flowers of the nutmeg tree. The visit of
insects is, in fact, indispensable to the fertilization of this plant, the
male flowers having a convex receptacle and an ovoid calyx slightly
tridentate at its upper part, and an andrecium consisting of sixteen
anthers, forming a cylindrical stipitate column entirely included within
the tube of the calyx.

Smithsonian Report. 1896. PLATE XVII.

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANTS.

Korthalsia echinometra, Beece —A lodging organ. (Beceari.)

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 431

The Endospermum moluccanum is a myrmecophilous euphorbiaceous

plant known to the oldest authors who have treated of the flora of

Malasia. Itisthe Arbor regis of Rumphius, ‘‘cujus truncus intus inhabi-
tatur plerumque ea copia formicarum, ut vix aliquis arborum proprius,
multo minus caudam altruneare audent.” Its native name is caju sumut,
that is, ant tree.

At the base of the leaves of this tree, where the limbus is inserted
on the petiole, are found two nectariferous glandules that, there is
every reason to suppose, are capable of attracting ants. It is not yet
known whether the branches are hollow or not. Rumphius speaks, it
is true, of openings upon the branches by which the ants pass in and
out but it may be that his Arbor regis is rather Hernandia ovigera, a
plant that is possibly myrmecophilous, or a related species of Hndos-
permum of New Guinea (Hudospermum formicarum), whose branches
are hollow and provided with well-marked perforations.

One of the most interesting facts in the history of this tree is the
following: It seems, according to the observations of Beceari, that it
attains in its native forests such proportions as to justify the name
Arbor regis, but when it is transported to tropical botanic gardens its
height is considerably less. He considers the cause of this dimor-
phism to be the absence of ants from the cultivated plants, for he
assumes that those insects, by the irritation in the internodes, stimulate
growth. The ants, finding upon the Hndospermum nectar and lodging,
render it a signal service by causing indirectly its development. When
the tree has attained, in its natal forest, ‘‘royal” dimensions its inflo-
rescence overtops the other trees and the fertilization of the plant,
which is effected by the wind, is greatly facilitated. Thus, in the most
roundabout manner, the ants aid in pollination. This is a most curious
example of an anemophilous plant becoming entomophilous, so as to
utilize the visits of insects that indirectly aid fertilization.

The Hndospermum formicarum, a species related to the preceding,
has branches naturally and constantly enlarged and hollow, but we do
not know if the perforations they present are produced by the agency
of ants. Their position, which seems constant (in view of the few
branches that are turned upward), gives rise to the supposition that
this is the case, besides incomplete perforations are found involving
only the bark and the outer fibers of the liber, and these must be the
unfinished work of ants. There are also cicatrices which must cor-
respond to the orifices commenced by ants and then closed up by the
proliferation of the walls.

What stopped the ants in the work of perforation? The density of
the internode, if they attack it at its base, a density that leads them
to arrest their work and attack it higher up where the tissue is not so
hard. These partially cut holes the plant closes up by cicatricial tissue.

At the summit of the petiole, near the bifurcation cf the large nerv-
ures on the lower surface of the leaf, are found glandules that appear
to serve as nectaries.

432 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

The ants are incapable of assisting in pollination, for the plant is
dicecious and the pulverulent pollen seems to indicate that it is ane-
mophilous. By causing the disappearance of the medullary tissue and
thus rendering the branches lighter, the ants may facilitate the devel-
opment of the tree, and consequently its elevation above the top of
other trees, an arrangement especially favorable for the transportation
of pollen by the wind.

The Clerodendrum fistulosum is a verbenaceous plant visited and
inhabited by ants. Its straight stem, about a meter in height, has
internodes that all appear enlarged. Each enlargement has at its
summit, just below the insertion of the leaf of the internode above (one
of the two opposite leaves of each internode having aborted), an orifice
bounded by a projecting rim. The ants are attracted to the surface of
the plant by little nectaries situated on the inferior surface of the
leaves near the median nervure. It is not yet known if these inter-
nodes with their apical openings are absolutely constant features.
Beccari supposes that the irritation produced by ants may cause a
notable increase in the internodes and in the size of their cavity. The
openings may have been in the first place the work of ants, though the
cavities do not intercommunicate, for the ants that inhabit this Clero-
dendron belong to an eminently perforating genus (Colobopsis). It
would appear, however, that at the present time these openings are
produced without the intervention of ants, that a lesion has become
hereditary. The services rendered by ants to the Clerodendron are,
first, a protection against herbivora. Delpino saw a plant of this
genus (C. fragans) defended by armies of ants aS soon aS anyone
attempted to gather its flowers. Then these myrmecophilous features
may assist the C. fistulosum in its struggle for existence with neighbor-
ing species. The irritation produced by the ants may perhaps cause a
notable increase in the internodes and their more effective lignification,
the subherbaceous plant being thus enabled to struggle with more
advautage against rival species in the midst of tropical vegetation
largely of a ligneous character. If this isthe case we may suppose that
primitively individuals inhabited by ants survived in preference to
those which were not so inhabited, and natural selection consequently
fixed these myrmecophilous features. The swelling of the internodes
and the perforations, at first accidental characters, became normal.

Everyone has heard of the curious Nepenthes, commonly reputed to be
carnivorous plants. The Nepenthes bicalcarata is one of the most inter-
esting species of the genus and is to-day cultivated in the hothouses of
Europe. Its climbing stems ascend trees to a height of from 10 to 15
meters. Its leaves are terminated by ascidia or pitchers, having the
well-known form peculiar to the genus, which has caused the plant to
be regarded as one of the most carnivorous of vegetables. These
pitchers are so markedly dimorphic that they might be supposed to
belong to two different species. The leaves of the upper part of the

PLaTe XVIII.

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANTS.

Clerodendron fistulosum, Beee.—Stem and inflorescence. (Beccari.)

—
a — ¥ rn
Z. — ~— ‘.. Ce Poa = _

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 433

stem have a peduncle that turns upon itself with a spiral coil opposite
the most swollen portion of the pitcher. Its cavity does not extend
beyond the enlarged portion of the peduncle. The leaves situated at
other levels of the stem have a straight peduncle joining the pitcher
at right angles and enlarged at the junction., The enlargement is hol-
low and also has an opening where it touches the pitcher. In neither
of these forms is there any communication between the cavity of the
pitcher and that of the peduncle. The axis of the male inflorescence
is traversed by a median canal communicating with the exterior by
several openings, which, like those made in the peduncle, have every
appearance of being the work of ants that inhabit the cavities of those
organs. Weare unfortunately not informed whether the peduncles of
hothouse plants have the enlargements so characteristic of the wild
form, or whether the perforations are wanting if ants are absent. Itis
to be supposed, reasoning from analogy, that the enlargements are con-
stant, but the perforations are the work of ants which have removed from

_the cavities of the peduncle and the inflorescence a spongy tissue like
that belonging to the Acacia cornigera. As to the first cause of the
formation of these peduncular enlargements we may perhaps find it in
the bites of the ants. This differentiation, traumatic in its origin,
might become hereditary in the course of time.

If it be true that the Nepenthes are really carnivorous plants (which
in the present state of our knowledge seems doubtful), the species may
utilize in two ways the hospitality it proffers to ants. Those insects may
defend it against plant eaters, and if while running about the surface
of their host they chance to fall into the traps formed by the pitchers,
the plant may use their carcasses for food. The ants would thus serve
the plant both for defense and for prey. (PI. XIX.)

The species of Kibara (K. formicarum and KX, hospitans), a genus of
the family Monimiace, have perforated internodes, eitber solid or hol-
low, that are visited by ants (Hypoclinea scrutator). Within the hollow
internodes are found numerous individuals of a species of cochineal
(Myzolecanium Kibare) that has a very well developed rostrum.
Although it is not possible to determine in the dried specimen the
presence of an excretory apparatus, there is reason to suppose that
these insects give out a sugary liquid sought for by the ants. Bio-
logical relations ought then to exist between these inhabitants of the
Kibaras, and it is not probable that the cochineals enter by themselves
the cavities of the internodes. They have doubtless been conveyed
there when young by the ants and there finish their development, the
pregnant females attaining such dimeusions that it is impossible for
them to leave the cavity by the orifice of entrance. The ants have,
then, undertaken the raising of cochineals within the internodal cay-

_ ities of the Kibara. The orifices of entrance to these stables seem
_ certainly to be their work. In fact, at the base of the internode there
4. are found small, superficial perforations, apparently the result of
SM 96 28

434 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

abortive attempts at penetration made by the ants, the resistance of
the tissues there having caused them to abandon the effort, which, how-
ever, easily succeeds at the upper part of the internode, where, from an
early age, the medullary tissue is less dense and the peripheral tissues
less resistant. Perhaps the irritation produced by the ants may cause
an increase in the diameter of the internodes and of their cavity.

The ants doubtless render to the Aibaras services of various kinds;
first, protection against plant eaters; then transportation of the cochi-
neals to a location where they will be less injurious than upon the
young and undeveloped parts; finally, fertilization of the flowers.

The Kibaras are, in fact, moncecious, and their floral structure is
such that their fertilization seems impossible without the intervention
of insects. In exchange for these services they offer these ants a cavity
for lodgment, and very likely an aliment indirectly furnished by the
cochineals.

The Cecropia adenopus is a plant of Brazil, belonging to the Aralia-
cee, that in its native country bears the name of Amboiba or Imbauba.
As long ago as 1648 Marcgrave said of it ‘‘ Totus intus cavus a radice
ad summum usque et cavitas illa per interstitia semi-digiti ubique dis-
tincta et transversali membrana, in cujus medio foramen rotundum
magnitudine pisi. In hae cavitate reperiuntur semper formice rubrze
ipsa coloris et hepatici.” The medullary tissue is narrow at the base
ot the trunk, enlarging above, and is interrupted at each node by a
ligneous disk. Two consecutive disks thus bound a closed cavity cor-
responding to an internode. In these cells the ants pursue the culture
of cochineals. This is a myrmecophilous feature similar to that which
Beccari pointed out in Kibara formicarum and hospitans. Belt and
Fritz Miiller have studied the relations of this plant to ants. Accord-
ing to the latter author there is a small cavity in the upper part of each
internode, where the wall of the internodal chamber is thinner. At this
point a pregnant female ant makes a hole in order to penetrate the
chamber. These perforations can be plainly seen in herbarium speci-
mens. Their relative position is perfectly regular, and they can by no
means be considered as accidental. The ants once installed in the
chambers, perforate the nodal disks and may thus circulate, under
shelter, throughout the entire length of the trunk (Belt). Three species
of ants frequent the Cecropia, but if either of these species is present
the others are not found upon the tree. Fritz Miiller thinks, on the
contrary, that perforation of the disks does not take place. These two
opinions, apparently contradictory, may perhaps be easily explained.
Possibly the various species of ants that frequent the Cecropia may not
have identical habits. Some may leave the disks intact, others may
perforate them. Hach of these observers may have been dealing with
a different species of insect. Perhaps, also, they did not observe the
same species of Cecropia. The Cecropia adenopus may not be the only
one that presents a hollow stem separated into chambers by nodal

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XIX.

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANTs.

Nepenthes bicalcarata, Hook.—Ascidia and inflorescences. (Beccari.)

—_—_

BIOLQGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 435

disks. The same features are found in most of the species of that
genus, which are, without doubt, myrmecophilous.

The utility of the ants for the Cecropia they inhabit may consist
entirely in the protection they afford. This protection would be not
only against plant-eating animals, but also against cochineals. We
may suppose that the latter are transported from the surface of young
buds, where they would be injurious to the normal development of the
leaves, to the cavities of the stem, where their injurious action would
be less. The ants here act like our gardeners who free hothouse plants
from infesting scale insects. But the honey dew of cochineals being
endowed with nutritive properties, the ants do not destroy them, but
merely transport them to a part of the plant where their life is more
compatible with the normal evolution of the vegetable. There would
thus be established a consortium of three members—between the plant
on one hand and the cochineals and the ants on the other.

Upon the Cordia Gerascanthos we find enlargements of the branches
that are terminated by axes of inflorescence. Into these enlargements
the ants make openings, using, perhaps, the place where some little
bud is implanted. The cavity of the enlargment at first contains a
flocculent tissue that the ants remove so that they may arrange within
the cavity disks like a sort of pasteboard. In this domicile the ants
pursue the raising of cochineals. It should be noted that these
enlargements do not appear to be constant in the species.

In another species of the same genus, Cordia nodosa, the internodes,
especially those bearing the inflorescence, are enlarged and hollowed
near the insertion of the opposite leaves. The cavity communicates
with the outside by an orifice situated, not laterally, as in the preced-
ing species, but at its top. Both cavity and opening seem to be natural
and not affected by the agency of ants. In cavities not yet visited by
ants the internal surface is invested with stiff scattered ridges, some of
which hang over the opening. Im this species the lodging organ is
formed hereditarily all ready for occupancy by the ants without any
preliminary labor on their part. The myrmecophilous features merely
outlined in the first species of Cordia would thus attain their perfec-
tion in the second and their origin be purely hereditary. This is an
excellent example of the fixation of a character primitively accidental,
and, so to speak, teratological. Ifthe ants vary the place of penetrat-
ing the lodging cavity, the opening they make will not tend to become
hereditary—that is to say, to reproduce itself independently of their
action. This is the case, for example, in Acacia cornigera and the
Eindospermums. But if the ants always make their opening at the
Same point, the lesion tends to become a part of the morphologic plan
of the vegetable. The point of lesion in the ancestor becomes a point
of less resistance in the descendant—that-is to say, a point where the
ants can make an opening with the greatest facility, as the wall of the
lodging organ would there be thin and easily perforable. In those

436 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

types in which myrmecophilous evolution is most advanced the per-
foration will become hereditary and the cavity of the lodging organ
communicate with the exterior independently of any action on the part
of the ants (Clerodendon fistulosum).

In all the cases we have reviewed the ants do not seem to have estab-
lished themselves in organs whose differentiation relates to the habitat
of the host plant. A considerable number of host plants are epiphytes,
subject to peculiar physical conditions. They have to especially strug-
gle against drought, and a number of them possess in their organs true
reservoirs of water. The best known of these myrmecophilous epiphytic
plants are the Myrmecodias and the Hydnophytums. We will dwell
especially on the former because of the interesting observations that
have been made upon them.

The Myrmecodias and Hydnophytums are epiphytes belonging to the
Rubiaceze and attach themselves by means of adventitious roots to the
branches of trees, often at a considerable height. These plants are
almost wholly formed of large tubercles, globular or cylindric in form,
surmounted by one or more leafy stems. These tubercles, which may
be either smooth or prickly, enlarge so as to attain several decimeters
in diameter. (Pl. XX.) Instead of forming a solid mass their internal
tissue is traversed by a system of intercommunicating cavities and
passages that open externally by one or more quite large openings and
numerous narrow orifices scattered over the entire surface of the
tubercle.

All those who have collected these strange plants in their natural
habitat have found their tubercles inhabited by ants scattered in great
numbers throughout the galleries and passages. It was Rumphius, the
old explorer of the Malay Archipelago, who first called attention to
this. According to him the ants not only inhabit the tubercles, but
they produce the entire vegetable. ‘This is,” he says, ‘‘a strange crea-
tion of nature springing up without father or mother, * * * foritis
known that these plants spring from the substance of the nests of ants
where there can never have been any seeds, and yet each colony forms
a separate plant.” Rumphius then distinguishes two kinds of Nidus’
germinans, according to the species of ants found therein: Nidus ger-
minans formicarum rubrarum—that is, a Myrmecodia, and Nidus germi-
nans formicarum nigrarum—that is, a Hydnophytum.

It was Beccari, the eminent explorer of Malasia, who made the first
accurate observations upon the biology of these curious Rubiaceze and
their relations to ants. These observations led him to suppose that
the presence of the insects was indespensable to the plant. He thought
he had ascertained that at the time of germination the tigellus merely
thickens a little at the base and takes on a conical form with the coty-
ledons opening at the summit (Fig. 2, Nos. 1-5, Pl. XX), thus remaining
until a species of ant hollows a little cavity in its side at the most
swollen part of the tigellus. If the tigellus is not attacked by the ant

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 437

the plant dies; in the contrary case the wound made by the insect causes
a considerable development of cellular tissue, the tubercle enlarges, the
stem develops. (Fig. 2, Nos. 6,7, Pl. XX.) Soon the ants find a suffi-
cient space in which to found a colony, and they excavate within the
tubercles galleries in all directions. If this view is correct, these plants
could not live nor develop without ants. These insects must contribute
to the formation of the organ that is to be the water reservoir of the
plant. But on the other hand the ants could not live and reproduce
their kind if they had not at their disposal plants in which they could
construct such a living home.

According to Beccari the tubercles of the Myrmecodias and Hydno-
phytums are products primitively foreign to the plant. They are devel-
oped in the same way that galls or cecidia are—that is to say, they are
produced upon vegetable organs in consequence of irritation caused by
various insects. There is a striking analogy of form, and, indeed, of
internal structure, between these tubercles and a certain gall formed by
a curculio of the genus Centorynchus on the root of the garden cabbage.
The larva of this insect feeds exclusively on the cortical portion of the
root. As fast as this food is consumed a new generating layer prolif-
erates and replaces the destroyed tissue. The life of the insect is per-
fectly compatible with that of the plant. It injures no essential organ,
and the losses to which the plant is subjected are compensated for by
the hypertrophy of the tissues under the irritation caused by the insect.

This analogy between the tubercles of the Myrmecodia and the gall
formed on the cabbage by the Centorynchus may suggest the hypothesis
that these tubercles are organs whose development must have been
caused by a parasitic lesion made, perhaps, by ants, which are known
to attack for food vegetable tubercles—potatoes, for example—as we
have ourselves seen. This lesion might be at first merely compatible
with the life of the plant, then useful to it, by the adaptation of the
injured and hypertrophied organ to an organ for the storage of water.
Fixed by selection, this character, at first accidental, would finally
become hereditary. In order to kuow what credit to give this hypoth-
esis it is necessary to study in detail the existing relations between the
ants and the Myrmecodias. There is no doubt that ants, even in our
own countries, sometimes establish themselves within certain galls that
have been abandoned by the insect that produced them. Such is the
case with a gall formed upon the Cynara cardunculus by a curculionid
larva (Larinus ?).

Is there between the Myrmecodias and the Hydnophytums on the one
Side, and the ants on the other, a reciprocal exchange of services,
mutualism, symbiosis in the strict sense of the word, or, indeed, can not
those plants do without the ants; are not the insects merely commen-
sal? The interesting researches of Treub upon a Javanese species of
Myrmecodia allow us to partially answer these questions.

We must first study the structure of the young plant, then the

438 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

changes that occur in its tissues up to the time when the young tuber-
cle has an external opening giving access to an internal gallery.

The first cavity or gallery in the young tubercle is not hollowed out
by the ants. It does not start from a lesion of the peripheral tissue,
due to insects, but is the result of an internal differentiation. A trans-
verse section of a young tubercle shows a parenchymatous homogene-
ous mass, inclosing in its center a libero-ligneous fascicle, and limited
at the periphery by an epidermic layer. The growth and subdivision of
the parenchymatous cells produces a thickening of the tubercle, at
whose periphery is formed a generating layer of cork. In proportion
as the tubercle grows, it forms, at the expense of some of the parenchy-
matous cells, new libero-ligneous fascicles, arranged parallel to the sur-
face of the tubercle, and soon becoming connected by transverse anas-
tomoses, not only with each other but with the fascicles of the stem and
of the root. The formation of these peripheral fascicles indicates the
beginning of the first gallery. A generating zone, parallel to the swr-
face of the tubercle and situated deeply within its mass, begins to dif-
ferentiate. All the parenchymatous material that it incloses in its
interior then begins todry up. This dessication brings about a rupture
of this material, and there is thus formed the beginning of a central
cavity circumscribed by a layer of cork, the result of a differentiation
of the generating sheet. This cavity, cylindrical in its general form,
extends in two directions. Above, it ends in a vault near the insertion
of the stem, properly so called; below, it approaches the periphery. At
last it constitutes a gallery nearly in the axis of the plant, lined with a
layer of cork and inelosing a flocculent matter, the remains of the primi-
tive parenchymatous tissue. The gallery is separated from the exterior
by a thin peripheral layer of cork which soon tears and permits com-
munication from without.

The essential point is that the generating layer results from an inter-
nal differentiation, and not as a consequence of the sting of an insect.
This generating layer, which toward the interior of the tubercle pro-
duces cork, forms externally parenchyma, which contributes to the
increase in thickness of the tubercle. In proportion as the tubercle
thickens the number of galleries that traverse it increases. The new
galleries are formed by a process identical with that which gave rise to
the first gallery.

Although the first gallery is spontaneously formed in the young
tubercle, it is possible that the hypocotylous axis did not thicken
enough to produce it without the stimulus of an ant, by a bite perhaps
imperceptible. But the lower part of that axis commences to thicken as
early as the first stage of germination (fig. 2, Pl. XX). Why should not
that spontaneous thickening continue? We may add that the young
tubercle is provided with chlorophyll, and can assimilate even at the
time when the cotyledons are yet inclosed in their seminal envelope.
According, then, to these observations, the sting or bite of an ant

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XX.

2. Myrmecodia echinata, Jack.—Successive stages of germination. (Treub.)

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANTS.

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 439

apparently is not necessary to induce the primary thickening of the
tubercle nor the formation of the internal cavities. An important
observation of Beccari is opposed, however, to these conclusions. He
noticed that only those plantlets increased in volume that were provided
with a small cavity at the base of the enlargement. Those that did not
have this rapidly perished. He supposes that the cavity in question is
hollowed out by ants. The irritation produced by these insects would
then be absolutely indispensable for the proper development of the
plantlet.

A demonstrative experiment still remains to be made: to sprout the
seed and obtain hollow tubercles without the intervention of ants. This
has not been done up to this time, for in tropical countries the abun-
dance of ants is such that under the conditions proper for the develop-
ment of the plantlets we can never be sure that no ant has approached
the germinating seed. But there is a very direct and very conclusive
experiment due to Treub, which is as follows: Transported from their
normal habitat into tropical botanical gardens, the tubercles are aban-
doned by the red ants that inhabit them in the forest. Very often
these are replaced by little black ants. In spite of this change of
inhabitants the plant continues to flourish, its tubercle enlarges, new
galleries are formed in it, new leaves are produced, and fructification
ensues. It appears, then, that if the presence of ants is necessary to
the plant, it is not a particular species of ant that is required. But
this is not all. The majority of the tubercles commence to rot at the
time of their transportation, and this rotting causes the flight of the
ants. At the end of a certain time the tubercles again become swollen
and healthy, again commence to grow, to thicken, and to form new
galleries, and all this in the absence of ants.

The ants, then, are not at all indispensable for the renewal of develop-
ment in the adult plant. From the experiments of Treub we can,
indeed, deduce but one fact: that in the adult state certain Myrmecodias
can dispense with the presence of ants. We do not yet know whether
this is the case with young plants, whether in the absence of ants a
Myrmecodia can pass through all stages of development from the germ
up to the adult. In certain species of this genus the myrmecophilism
may be facultative, in others obligative.

Beceari justly remarks that the tissue which lines the galleries has
all the characters of a young tissue likely to actively proliferate and to
react energetically to any irritation that might be caused by the pres-
ence of ants. Its reaction to irritation might take the form of a pro-
liferation of its constituent elements, as occurs in the tissues of a newly
formed leaf when it is subjected to the irritation caused by a gall-
insect. The irritation produced by ants upon an adult tissue would
not cause the proliferation of its elements, though it might easily do
this upon young tissue.

Though direct proofs are wanting, we are yet authorized in some

440 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

degree to continue to admit with Beccari that it is the presence of the
ants, dwellers upon the Myrmecodias (Iridomyrmex cordata var. myrme-
codie), that leads to the formation of the first gallery in the tubercle.
These ants must have perforated the epidermis and penetrated into the
central cavity of the hypocotyl, the irritation they produced there
determining the hypertrophy of the latter and transforming it into a
tubercle. As the tubercle acts as a reservoir of water, the plantlet
that is deprived of it is necessarily condemned to perish as soon as the
drought affects it. The development of the leaves, which are organs
of transpiration, hence oceasioning a loss of water, does not occur until
after the development of the tubercle, the water storer. Now the ants
invade the hypocotolous axis when it is surmounted merely by the two
cotyledons.

Let us now examine another point. Are the ants capable of making
perforations and of hollowing out the galleries in the tubercles?

The examination of species of Myrmecodia is especially instructive
in regard to this matter. J. bullosa shows at the base of its tubercle
a few openings (one to four) of quite narrow galleries that end, at the
periphery of the organ, in cavities somewhat similar to the cells of a
honeycomb. In these recesses there are very numerous colonies of
ants, and ventilation is difficult. To avoid the danger of asphyxiation
the ants perforate the outer walls of the galleries with minute holes
that dot the surface. The surface of the tubercle of M. alata has
small gibbosities corresponding to the blind ends of certain galleries
(fig. 6). Areund these eminences are also seen small, dot-like venti-
lating holes that may, by becoming confluent, cause the detachment of
the cover closing in the gallery, and thus make a new entrance to the
passage.

It would be ascribing a very high degree of intelligence to the ants to
admit that they could corrode, from the outside, a circular series of
points exactly corresponding to the bottom of the gallery. They
undoubtedly form their ventilators by working from within outward
upon the inner wall of the gallery. The corrosive liquor (probably
saliva) secreted by the ants not only destroys the cells with which it
comes in contact, but also causes the formation of a cicatricial tissue
that borders the perforating opening. There also seems to be no doubt
but that the ants continually increase the diameter of the galleries
when the dimensions of these passages become too narrow for their
needs. In fact, once stripped of the dead flocculent tissue that at first
fills them, the galleries have a constant tendency to fill up by reason
of the internal proliferation of the layer of growing tissue that lines
them. The ants must remove this, as it constantly tends to invade the
gallery and decrease its caliber.

It is evident that the presence of galleries within the tubercle does
not in any way assist the function of that body as a reservoir of water.
Still, it may be admitted that the galleries, as asylums for ants, serve

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PEATE XOX

Hh

i
Ui

2. Dischidia rafflesiana, Wall.—Portion of the stem spread out so as to show the arrangement
of the urns. The adventitious roots near the urns have been purposely omitted. (Treub.)

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANTS.

ari SER
ce

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BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 441

the plant indirectly in its struggle against drought. The irritation
produced by the insects causes an hypertrophy of the tubercle and
consequent increase in the size of the reservoir. If the galleries were
primarily the work of ants, they inust have been, on general principles,
-unfavorable to the plant, which has, however, by progressive adap-
tation, finally utilized them.

On reflection we are led to believe that the labyrinth within the
tubercle must be a feature very useful to the plant. It permits an
active circulation of atmospheric air within the tubercle, and the pres-
ence of oxygen may be necessary for the elaboration of certain nutritive
principles within its tissue. But the utility of this feature seems to be
of another kind. The suggestion we are about to offer has not been
proposed by any of those who have occupied themselves with the study
of these plants, yet we think it merits attention. The corky layer that
invests the entire surface of the tubercle is an obstacle to gaseous inter-
change between that body and the exterior. Such interchange can
only take place by means of the air that circulates in the galleries.
There, too, it can only be effected by the lenticels, since the internal
surface is also lined with a corky layer, except where these lenticels
are found. Now, sudden changes in the hygrometric state of the sur-
rounding air will be but slowly transmitted to the air of the galleries,
and it is this hygrometric state that regulates the interchange of water
vapor between the tubercle and its environment. The presence of the
labyrinth of galleries would then permit the plant to adapt itself more
readily to the hygrometric changes in the circumambient air, which
changes must be sudden, owing to the epiphytic situation of the plant.
In ease of drought the plant finds in its tubercle a reserve of water, its
fleshy leaves transpire but little, and finally the air of the galleries is
nearer the point of saturation than is the surrounding air. Hence the
transpiration of water by the lenticels is less than it would be if they
were exposed to the dryness of the surrounding air.

Some of the walls of the galleries of the Myrmecodia are smooth, others
(Pl. XX) studded with little prominences that might a priori be sup-
posed to be glands for absorbing nutritive principles derived from the
decomposition either of the carcasses of ants (a rare case, since the
dead are usually dragged out of the nest), or of detritus occasioned by
the work of those insects. Treub has made a careful study of these
prominences and has shown that they are internal lenticels, differing
but little from the ordinary external lenticels. It is well known that
the function of the cellular masses forming the lenticels is to supply
atmospheric air to the tissue of the plant. The lenticels of Myrmecodia
differ from those of other plants by absence of the central aeriferous
passages; but all about them the files of peripheral cells are filled with
air, and this may compensate for the lack of passages between the
central files. It is also possible that certain protoplasmic-bodied
cells that surround the lenticels like a collar serve to elaborate and

442 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

transform nutritive principles in presence of the abundant free oxygen
brought to them by the active circulation of air in the cavities of the
tubercle.

Beceari, on the contrary, is inclined to consider the eminences that
stud the galleries not as lenticels, but as organs of absorption analogous
to those of moisture-loving plants (Corallorhiza, Epipogium, Triutis,
etc.). Itmay be remarked that certain terrestrial parasites, such as the
Balanophorez, possess, on their parts that come in contact with the
soil, organs quite similar in appearance to the lenticels. It is with these
apparently absorbent organs that Beccari correlates the internal emi-
nences of the galleries. If this supposition ts correct, the interior of the
galleries bristles with true internal roots.

The figure given by Treub of these lenticels in course of formation
reminds one of the formation of a callus upon the cut surface of a cut-
ting. The conditions that determine the formation of this callus—dark-
ness, moisture, heat, a nutritive environment—are realized in the gal-
leries of the Myrmecodia. The functions of the callus of a cutting are
perhaps absorbent. A cutting upon which a callus is formed is sure to
“take,” which is about the same thing as saying that the absorption of
nutritive substances is assured. Certain of these supposed lenticels
may be transformed into real adventitious roots, which seems to con-
firm the theory that their function is absorbent. In spite of the great
quantity of nutritive matters they contain, the lenticels are never
gnawed by ants. There is therefore no reason to consider them as food
bodies. These lenticels can not in any case act the part of organs that
secrete digestive ferments. Their absorbent power for nutritive sub-
stances brought from without is still doubtful.

One point remains established. The ants penetrate the tubercle of
the Myrmecodia and live there because they find an assured shelter.
But it would be going too far to say that they render no service to the
plant on which they lodge. The circulation of air in the galleries of
the tubercle is probably indispensable, and the presence of a floeculent
tissue there is well calculated to impede circulation. Perhaps the ants
free the young galleries from the flocculent mass of dried cells. This
would be a case of mutualism quite analogous to that of certain acarids
known to install themselves upon the fur of mammals and the down of
birds for the purpose of removing epidermic débiis that ineumbers
their hairs and feathers. The ants, like the acarids, act the part of
scavengers.

There seems to be no doubt but that ants may form an army of
defenders useful to the plant in case it is attacked by plant-eating
animals. It is an established fact that if a tubercle inhabited by the
ants is struck, even slightly, thousands are seen to emerge and swarm
on the surface, reentering their domicile as soon as the danger is past.
But this has not been demonstrated upon plants in their natural wilds.

The part played by ants in fertilization is doubtful. The Myrmecodias

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 443

appear to be normally self-fertilizing. Since their flowers have no
nectaries for attracting insects suitable for effecting fertilization, we
can not say that the presence of ants on the surface of the plant tends
to drive away apterous insects that might appropriate the nectar without
profit to the plant.

Perhaps the ants might in certain cases assist in transporting the
seeds of the plant, which are covered, like those of the mistletoe, with
a viscous matter; but such dissemination seems to be effected more
commonly by carpophagous birds, who carry them from one tree to
another, or by the rain, that washes them from the upper to the lower
branches of the same tree. There seems to be no doubt but that the
Myrmecodias and the Hydnophtums are derived from Rubiacee that
were primitively terrestrial or but feebly epiphytic. Their affinities
with Uragoga are very strong. Usually epiphytic plants need for their
development a small quantity of vegetable detritus in which their seed
ean be sheltered while germinating. Normal epiphytes are not pro-
vided, as are these Rubiacew, with fruits having viscous pulp that
causes their seed to adhere to the surface of the bark upon which they
fall, and would be unable to gain a lodgment on such a surface.

These Rubiacee seem, in fact, to be intermediate forms between the
normal epiphytes and the parasites, such as the Loranthacewe, which
are likewise provided with viscous fruits (inistletoe) whose dissemina-
tion is effected by fruit-eating birds. The seeds of these Rubiacez are,
at the time of their germination, peculiarly situated. Subject to desic-
cation, which is very likely to occur upon the surface of the bark, they
can not borrow from the tree on which they rest the moisture necessary
for their life, as do the plantlets of parasites. They must, therefore,
create for themselves a store of water. This is done by the thickening
of their hypocotylous axis, which enlarges into a tubercle that acts as a
reservoir.

Beccari supposes that the formation of the flocculent tissue of the
tubercle is a consequence of this mode of development combined with
alternations of dryness and moisture. But this tissue develops from an
internal generating layer, and, since it is composed of dead and dried
cells, it seems more logical to suppose that it results from the starvation
of such cells because of the formation about them of a corky layer that
deprives them of all nutritive material and vascular connection. This
would be an example of true parasitism of one tissue in relation to
another, the generating layer acting like a parasite as regards the
central parenchymatous layer.

Since Treub has not followed the complete evolution of a Myrmecodia
froin its germination up to its adult state, we may admit the opinion of
Beceari until a formal demonstration of its error shall be furnished.
According to this author, though the ants may not at the present time
be necessary for the formation of the bulbiform enlargement of the
hypocotylous axis, they are required for its future growth. To state

444 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

this in another way: The plantlets of Myrmecodia, without the help of
ants, might, indeed, by reason of their hereditary tendencies, com-
mence to form the tubercle but would be unable to develop to adult
dimensions.

The intervention of ants must, then, be considered as indispensable to
the life of the plant, since they contribute to the development of the
organ that serves as a water reservoir. Were there no ants there
would be no internal reserve of water, and the plant would be exposed
to all the dangers of drought. It may be remarked here that, accord-
ing to recent researches, a similar service is rendered to plants that
grow in the sand of Sahara by nematode worms, that act on their sub-
terranean organs. These worms (Hterodera, noted for their ravages
on certain garden vegetables, particularly the betterave) cause a devel-
opment of histological elements adapted to serve as water reservoirs.

The biologic relations of the ants with the Myrmecodias seem, then, to
be symbiotic. The symbiosis is not, perhaps, as close as some think,
but it seems difficult to deny its existence. There seems to be good
reason to suppose that if, during several generations, the ants should
cease to visit the tubercles, those bodies would undergo a progressive
atrophy, or at least be reduced to the state of solid tubercles without
internal cavities, such as those of Pentapterygium ( Vaccinium) serpens,
for example.

The lodging organs of several myrmecophilous orchids have a great
resemblance to those of the Rubiacee we have just been studying.
We know among the orchids three examples of which there can be but
little doubt. One of these has been known for quite a long time, hav-
ing been already mentioned by Rumphius. It is that of an epiphytous
orchid, Grammatophyllum speciosum, whose pseudobulb thickens, even
after the fall of the first leaves, and within whose fibrous mass ants
establish themselves.

The Lecanopteris deparioides (a fern) has a rhizome similar to the
tubercles of Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum, and which, like them, forms
a true ants’ nest. Within this rhizome there are hollowed-out cavities
and galleries that are at first filled with a flocculent matter, analogous,
doubtless, to that of the Rubiacez above cited. The ants penetrate
the interior of this rhizome by an opening situated on the upper pro-
jecting part, upon which the fronds are inserted. The same arrange-
ment is found in LP. sinuosum, on the surface of whose rhizome are
found circular opeuings, indeterminate as to situation, that seem
undoubtedly to be the work of an ant (Iridomyrmex cordata), the same
that inhabits Hydnophytum petiolatum. :

Certain Melastomacez are likewise epiphytic and myrmecophilous.
Such are the Pachycentrias, epiphytic or pseudo parasitic plants, whose
branches, interlacing on the surface of tree trunks, give out a great
number of adventitious roots. Upon these roots enlargements are
found irregularly spherical in shape; and if, as frequently happens, sev-

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 445

eral such enlargements are contiguous on the same root, a chaplet is
thus formed with more or less regular beads.

It is admitted that these tubercular roots may offer an asylum for
ants. But the study of these tropical plants is as yet very incomplete.
We can not even affirm that the tubercles are hollow. Many appear,
when dry, to be full of spongy tissue, loosely arranged toward the
center. We might be inclined to believe, with Beccari, that later this
tissue is destroyed by ants, who thus hollow out a regular cavity
within these tuberculous roots. But it should be noted that certain
species of this genus have tubercular moniliform roots that are entirely
solid, and only in certain specimens, even in species with hollow tuber-
cles, do we find perforations allowing a communication between the
inside and the exterior, which might, indeed, have easily been the work
of ants.

The Pachycentrias do not seem to be provided with extra-floral nec-
taries capable of attracting ants. The insects are, then, attracted to
the plants only by the chance that they may be able to install them-
selves in the tubercle. But it should be noted that a type closely
related to the Pachycentrias, Pogonanthera robusta, has a limbus pro-
longed at its base into two auricles, decurrent upon the petiole, that
appear to be nectariferous. These nectaries attract ants, but the roots
of these epiphytic plants are not, like those of the Pachycentrias, tuber-
euliform, but normal and incapable of affording lodgment to the ants
attracted by the nectaries. This fact may, perhaps, give us a clew to
the way in which biological relations were first established between
the ants and the Pachycentrias. The ancestors of these latter plants
were, without doubt, like the Pogonantheras, provided with extra-nup-
tial nectaries frequented by ants. These ancestors gave rise on the one
hand to types that preserved the primitive features, as in Pogonanthera,
and on the other to types better adapted to myrmecophilism, as in
Pachycentria. The ants, impelled by their hereditary habits to visit -
those plants provided with foliary nectaries, continued to visit them
even when those nectaries were undergoing atrophy. Profiting by the
tendency of these plants to form tuberculous roots, they have progress-
ively transformed these tubercles into ant nests, causing, by the irrita-
tion of their presence, a more marked hypertrophy of those organs. In
a word, the Pogonantheras, utilizing the protection the ants afford
against plant-eating animals, may have found it a real advantage to
vive those insects a mere asylum instead of offering them nutritive
matters in the form of nectar. It is evidently an economy to the plant
to offer simply a lodging to its defenders instead of both food and lodg.
ing, as does the Acacia cornigera, for example, and other plants that
both feed and shelter the ants. If we accept this interpretation, which
has only the value of an hypothesis, we would be led to regard the
Pogonantheras as having economical myrmecophilous features. In the
Pogonantheras, as in the myrmecophilous Rubiacez, the ants take up

446 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

their abode in swollen organs that act as water reservoirs, and conse-
quently aid the plant against drought, which may become suddenly
serious for any epiphyte.

The lodging organs of these plants appear to be purely of physio-
logical origin. In other types they appear to have had primitively a
parasitic origin. We have already spoken of the analogy between the
tubercles of the myrmecophilous Rubiacez and certain galls. But it
is more than doubtful whether the origin of these tubercles was primi-
tively parasitic and traumatic. In the types of which we have yet to
speak, parasitism, of animal origin, seems to have played an important
part, even in certain cases a primordial one, in the formation of myr-
mecophilous organs.

We will first fix our attention on the myrmecophilous features of
Dischidia.

The Dischidias are Asclepiadacez of the farthest Orient. With flex-
ible stems and branches they twine upon trees, and are especially noted
for possessing appendages in the form of pitchers. These are gener-
ally pendent from the branches, and into them plunge adventitious
roots that spring from the supporting peduncle (Pl. X XI). The resem-
blance of these pitchers to the galls produced on the leaves of various
trees by aphides of the genus Pemphigts is such that a number of the
early observers of these plants considered them as abnormal organs
caused by the punctures of parasitic insects.

The morphology of these curious organs has been fully elucidated by
the researches of Treub. They are modified leaves. The normal leaves
ot Dischidia are orbicular, thick, fleshy, and opposite. A pitcher is
merely the blade of a leaf whose lower surface corresponds to the
inner surface of the pitcher, and whose petiole is thicker than that of
normal leaves. We can get a perfectly good idea of the formation of
these organs by imagining the blade of a normal leaf to be folded
toward the ground, ther turned over and the borders brought together.
There is, besides, a change of growth in the young developing pitcher,
its increase being almost wholly along its middle, so that it takes the
form of a hood, with its opening first turned downward, then becoming
gradually set more or less upright.

The Dischidias have opposite leaves, but the normal leaf opposite the
pitcher usually aborts. When the young urn takes on the form of an
elougated flask, there are produced upon its petiole some adventitious
rcots, of which those arising near the mouth of the pitcher enter its
cavity. A full-grown pitcher usually contains one or two long adven-
titious roots provided with a well developed system of radicles (fig.
1, PJ]. XXII). The internal surface of these pitchers is purple, while
their external surface is a grayish, glaucous green, like that of the sur-
face of the stems and leaves.

The direction assumed by the pitchers is variabie and merits some
attention. The greater number are hung vertically with the mouth

-Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXII.

1. Dischidia sp.—Longitudinal section of an 2. Conchophyllum sp.—Portion of a branch viewed
ascidium. (Delpino.) from its inferior aspect. (Delpino.)

3. Tococa bullifera.—Transverse section of the lodging bursa,

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS OF PLANTS AND ANTS.

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 447

upward, but there are also some that are horizontal, and others erect
with their closed extremities upward; that is to say, preserving the
position they had during their formation.

The pitchers of the Dischidias are often inhabited by ants. Beceari
has, for this reason, suggested that an irritation produced by insects
(perhaps by ants) may have caused the abnormal evolution of these
leaves that became transformed into pitchers. This deformation, in the
first place accidental, may have became hereditary by the ‘indefinite
and continual repetition of the phenomenon.” Allow that the first
cause of this abnormal evolution was parasitism, which is a tenable
hypothesis, yet in the present condition of things there is nothing that
would lead us to ascribe to the punctures or bites of insects any part
in the formation of the pitchers. Whatever may be the part played by
ants in this formation we may yet inquire if any biologic relations
exist between them and the Dischidias whose pitchers they frequently
inhabit. Other insects rarely enter the pitchers. The ants found
there are always in good condition and generally in considerable num-
bers. The pitchers become true ant nests, sheltering some hundreds
of individuals and many larve. The ants leave the pitcher with the
same ease that they enter it, for it possesses no arrangement for retain-
ing insects that have entered; on the contrary, the adventitious roots
that traverse it from the petiole to the bottom form, with their numer-
ous radicles, a sort of ladder Jeading to the outside of the flask. When
‘we press a pitcher containing ants they leave it in great numbers, carry-
ing their larve and their nymphe. It should be noted that the Dis-
chidias may, according to their situation, offer an asylum to ants, or
grow, independent of any relations with them, yet presenting absolutely
normal pitchers.

We might suppose, on examining these curious plants, that they ought
to be classed as carnivorous, with Nepenthes and Cephalotus (Drude),
whose foliary pitchers or ascidia are regarded as veritable traps for
sects, capable of digesting their carcasses and absorbing the assimi-
lable products of such digestion. This is not the place to discuss vege-
table carnivorism, but it may be well to recall that in recent times the
supposed digestive function of these ascidia has been ascribed wholly
to the putrefactive bacteria that swarm in them as soon as they open
- (at least in the case of Nepenthes). The absorption of the soluble prod-
ucts of this digestion or putrefaction has yet to be demonstrated.

Wallich believed that the pitchers of Dischidia generally contain ants,
of which the greater number are drowned in the dirty liquid, appar-
ently rain water, that often half fills their cavity. Treub has shown
that this liquid is not an exudation from the pitcher (contrary to an
opinion advanced by Unger), its origin being wholly pluvial.

Admitting that, in certain cases at least (for example, during the tor-
rential rains so frequent in the Tropics), ants may be drowned in the
pitcher, would their soluble products, derived trom the digestion,

448 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN’ PLANTS AND ANTS.

bacterial or otherwise, of their carcasses, be useful to the plant—that is
to say, absorbed? The internal walls of the pitcher are not at all suited
for the absorption of liquids or the secretion of a digestive fluid. The
absence of all kinds of glands 1s easy to demonstrate, and the entire
surface of the epidermis is covered with a waxy coating. In addition,
abundant stomata exist there which certainly does not indicate an
organ for the absorption of liquids. This waxy coating is raised in
minute turrets around each of the stomata, and the small chamber thus
formed is constantly filled with air (Treub). These are features that
contradict in the clearest manner the absorption of solid nutritive
substances by the internal surface of the pitcher.

We may then suppose, with Delpino, that the ascidiferous Dischidias
are not carnivorous plants in the strict sense of the word. Perhaps,
then, the true function of the ascidia is “to prepare a liquid animal
fertilizer for the purpose of nourishing the much ramifying adventitious
roots that have introduced themselves into the pitchers.” As a corol-
lary we would have to admit that the pitchers belong to that class
whose ‘‘immediate function is to kill by drowning the small animals
that enter them.”

Let us commence by examining this last hypothesis. If it be correct
the pitchers ought all to contain liquid. Now, that is not the case,
for, in the first place, a certain number have their openings placed
horizontally or more or less reversed, and the walls of these are only
moistened by the aqueous vapor transpired from the inner surface of
the pitcher. In the pitchers that open upward there is but little water
found, even after a day’s rain. Their office as ant drowners appears,
therefore, very problematic. Even the presence of the ants is not con-
stant, as we have already said. In contrast to those of Nepenthes they
are not arranged so as to retain the ants that may venture into them.
Finally, what seems to settle the matter is that in most cases we do
not find in them carcasses of drowned insects.

To these direct objections we are tempted to add another of an indi-
rect character. Even granting that putrefaction might make soluble
the carcasses that fall in abundance into the pitcher, it is doubtful
whether the soluble products of that putrefaction would be directly
absorbed by the rootlets (the root absorption of all organic substances,
such as humic substances, being as yet one of the most controverted
and controvertible points in vegetable physiology). It would, on the
other hand, be highly improbable that the liquid fertilizer of the pitcher
could take on, during the life of that organ, the various nitrite-producing
fermentations whose products could be absorbed by the rootlets. This
objection, which ought to be presented a priori together with the facts
observed by Trenb, convinces us that we ought to deny all carnivorous
function, either direct or indirect, to the pitchers of Dischidia. Their
true function is to aid the plant, which is of an epiphytie nature, to
struggle against transpiration, which is often excessive. The impercep-

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 449

tible droplets in the interior of the pitcher may be reabsorbed by the
slender radicles applied to its internal wall. The rain water gathered
in the pendent pitchers evaporates slowly through the narrow mouth,
and thus constitutes a reserve that may be absorbed by the rootlet.

The ants may, it is true, be indirectly useful to the plant by protecting
it against the attacks of phytophagous creatures. The pitcher presents,
indeed, various features favorable to the lifeof the ant. In particular,
the rain water, which does not enter in sufficient quantities to become
dangerous to the inhabitants, may probably be to their advantage, for
the ants that inhabit these pitchers are fond of water. But the only
protection the ant can offer in exchange for the shelter afforded by the
plant is that which we have before mentioned. Even in this connee
tion ‘“‘nothing authorizes us to suppose that the colonies of ants exer-
cise a salutary influence upon the plant” (Treub). Indeed, the ants
when they multiply too greatly in @ pitcher gnaw the rootlets, or,
indeed, cause their malformation. Still, Beccari has seen the Dischidias
form inextricable masses of pendent branches on the surface of trees,
which masses were so well defended by the ants and termites that
inhabit them that it was impossible to put the hand upon them.

If at the present time the ants play no part in the normal evolution
of the leaves that become pitchers, they yet may have had something
to do with their original formation. In a related genus, Dischidia-
Conchophyllum, and in many species of Dischidia, all the leaves are
indistinctly suborbicular or reniform, convex on one face, concave on
the other, like a watch crystal, and applied against the bark of the
tree that serves them for support. Their inferior concave face is purple
(fig.9, Pl. XXII). At the level of the leaves the branches give off adven-
titious roots, very much ramified and sheltered under the concavity of the
leaves. These roots, arising near the insertion of the petioles, divide
dichotomously and serve, some to cause the plant to adhere to the bark
of the tree it inhabits and to absorb the nutritive matter they may find
there, others, covered by the leaves, to absorb water, for which they
are more especially designed.

The ascidiferous Dischidias are certainly derived from types with
reniform leaves like those we have just described. Now, the inferior
face of these concave leaves is often inhabited by acarids, and we may
suppose, with Beceari, that the irritation produced by these parasites
has caused a more marked concavity in the organ that shelters them.
There would be primitively formed there true galls, and the deforma-
tion of the leaf might become hereditary in the course of time. Ants,
finding shelter under these concave leaves applied to the surface of the
trees, have chosen a domicile there, profiting thus by an organ of lodg-
ment whose abnormal evolution may have had for its primordial cause
the adaption of the plant to the struggle against drought or parasitism,
or perhaps both causes combined. As soon as they were installed
under these lodging organs, the ants became useful to the plants by

SM 96 29

450 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

accumulating, in these recesses, organic detritus capable of furnish-
ing assimilable soluble substances to the rootlets sheltered under the
concave leaves. The irritation caused on the under surface of the
leaves by the presence of the ants may have resulted in the augmen-
tation of the cavity of the organ and thus led it to take on the form
of a pitcher. The parasitic origin of the lodging organs is doubtful in
the Conchophyllums and the Dischidias.

This is not the case with the lodging organs of the Melastomacee.
In this family a great number of American types have leaves provided,
at the base of the limbus, with organs suitable for the lodgment of
ants. Such are the genera Lococa, Myrmedone, Majeta, Microphysea,
and Calophysca. It was Aublet, the old explorer of French Guiana,
who first remarked one of the Melastomacee that presented these curi-
ous features. He says, speaking of the Tococa guianensis ‘“ the leaves
are each attached to their stems by a little pedicle, that is at first
grooved on its upper surface, convex below, and set with hairs, but its
two sides afterwards enlarge and form a double bladder having the
form of a heart. This bladder is provided with two holes placed at the
lower part of the leaf underneath, between the two intermediary nerv-
ures. It is by these two holes that the ants enter and leave each divi-
sion of the bladder and as the stems are hollow they can penetrate
them also by means of openings that they make, and this is the reason
why some of the natives have given this plant the name of the ants-
nest, it being, aS one may Say, continually covered with them.”

He notes a similar arrangement in the Majeta guianensis, of which
he says “the leaves have on their under surface five longitudinal
nervures and numerous transversals. They are attached by a short
pedicle that, together with the lower part of the leaf, is enlarged in
the shape of a bladder, divided into two cavities by a median partition.
The body of the bladder is much more raised above than below. The
small leaves do not usually have it.” This last point is of the highest
importance. It seems to show that the presence of ants on the interior
of the sac causes an hypertrophy of the inhabited leaf that is far from
being prejudicial to it. Of the two opposite leaves of each pair one is
vesicular at the base, the other and smaller one is not so. But before
admitting that the ants cause an hypertrophy of the foliary tissue we
should ascertain whether the inequality of size in the two leaves is not
anterior to the occupation of the vessel by these insects. It is true,
however, that even if this latter fact were verified we might admit
that primitively the ancestors of the Melastomacez were provided with
equal opposite leaves having a tendency-to form a vesicle at the base
of the limbus. When this vesicle was once visited by the ants the
irritation produced by them would cause its hypertrophy and the more
considerable afflux of nutritive material thus occasioned would lead to
an increase in growth of the entire leaf. This hypertrophy would then
be hereditarily transmitted and would to-day be observed, even at an

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 451

early age, independently of the action of the ants. But it will always
be pertinent to ask why the ants did not cause the hypertrophy of
both the opposite leaves which ought a priori to be subject to the same
conditions as to the formation of vesicles. May it not be that primi-
tively without any intervention on the part of ants, there was a tend-
ency to an inequality of development between the two opposite leaves
of the same pair, as is Seen in a number of vegetables that have oppo-
site leaves? The favored leaf would tend to form a vesicle which the
- unfavored leaf could not do. This difference of size between the two
leaves of the same pair is still more marked in the Myrmedone macros-
permum of Brazil and the Calophysca heterophylla of Peru.

In Tococa truncata the foliary bursa is not much developed, but usu-
ally larger on one of the leaves than on its opposite. The inequality of
the same pair is very well marked in Z. platypetala and T. bullifera. In
this last species the development of the limbus seems to be propor-
tional to that of the bursa. In the section Hpiphysca of the genus
Tococa the bursa is evidently formed at the base of the limbus. In
the section Hypnophysca it seems to be produced from the petiole, but
in reality it is the limbus that is decurrent along the petiole and forms
there an elongated bursa. The fact is clearly shown in Tococa bullifera
(fig. 10). The burs of Tococa formicaria, T. guianensis and T. platy-
petala are very fine. The stem of 7. guwianensis and formicaria seem to
be hollow.

The relation between the size of the limbus and that of the bursa
leads us to suspect that the internal surface of the bursa may be
endowed with absorbent properties. If the bursa played the part of a
true absorbing organ it would yield to the limbus nutritive material,
which would explain why a leaf possessing a larger bursa also posesses
a larger limbus. In dried specimens we find in the bursa a large
quantity of detritus. The internal surface of YT. formicaria and T.
guwianensis bristles with papille and hairs. In the first species we find
there scale-insects as well as ants.

Beccari found entire colonies of ants with pupz on single specimens
of T. bullifera and Myrmedone macrosperma of Brazil and Venezuela.
These plants have burs at the base of the limbus, -which appear more
complete than those of other species. The transverse nervures that
run over them project on the inner surface as lamellz that indirectly
divide the bursa into galleries, as in the tubercle of the Hydnophytums.

In Majeta guianensis the internal wall of the bursa is lined with elon-
gated papille formed of cells normally filled with a colored protoplasm
that seems analogous to the foliary glands of Drosera. This fact,
together with the presence of fragments of ants and other insects, has
led Beccari to suppose that the bursa may in this case have digestive
and assimilative functions.

Some species of Tococa have leaves destitute of burse. In others
(LT. subnuda) the burse are rudimentary. The examination of this

452 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

Species is very instructive from the point of view of the genesis of these
foliary bursie. In this species, on the under surface of the limbus near
its base, in the angle formed by the median nervure and the two lateral
primary nervures, there may be observed small cavities surrounded by
hair. The analogy of these organs to the acaro-cecidia (that is to say,
to galls caused by certain acarids) of laurels and various other plants
is striking. If we conceive such an organ increasing in size without
enlarging its orifice we will obtain exactly the foliary bursa of the above-
cited Melastomacez. i

The galls of laurels and some other plants, Viburnum lucidum, for
example, are inhabited by acarids. It is not irrelevant to recall here
that these acaro-domatias (to use the expression of Lundstrém) are by
no means pathological productions injurious to the plant. The acarids
that cause them render, on the contrary, eminent services by clearing
the plant of the spores of parasitic or saprophytic fungi found on the
surface of the leaves. There is, then, no improbability in supposing
that primitively the foliary burse of the Melastomacexe have been
acarid galls in which the ants sought an asylum provisionally. Finding
the dwelling suitable, they installed themselves there permanently, and
the irritation of the plant caused by them may have occasioned the
ensuing hypertrophy of the burs. In the Melastomacex the lodging
organ seems to be undoubtedly of parasitic origin.

Let us now attempt to extract from this mass of facts some general
views.

Primitively the relations between ants and plants were as simple as
possible—those of the eaters and the eaten. Such are at the present
time the relations of the harvester ants, especially of the leaf cutters,
to the plants which they despoil. But we should note that already the
plants from which the ants harvest obtain some advantages from that
harvesting. A number of seeds are sacrificed, but some, escaping
the voracity of the ants, are disseminated by them and thus truly
aided by those insects in their struggle with rival species for existence.
From this dissemation, at first accidental, comes the normal mimicry of
the cocoons of ants shown by some seeds.

As the industry of the ants becomes more developed they no longer
content themselves with merely gathering vegetable products. They
undertake agriculture, and the plants cultivated by them are, by the
very care they receive, favored in their struggle with rival species, as
are cereals cultivated by man, which have no longer to struggle with
indigenous species. A number of ants also content themselves with
sugary liquids, such as honeydew and nectar. Primitively they seem to
have been satisfied to gather the honeydew diffused on the surface of
leaves; afterwards their suction, localized at special points upon the
foliaceous organs, may have led to the formation of extra floral nec-
taries. These organs may have served the plant in two ways—first, by
attracting to its surface ants that would protect it against phytophagi;

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. A53

second, by diverting from the reproductive organs ants that otherwise,
in certain flowers, might steal the nectar, thus depriving winged insects
of it without aiding in pollination.

But the protection of the floral nectaries may be assured by other
arrangements still more efficacious and more economical for the plant.
By becoming myrmecophobic and keeping its floral nectaries away from
the ants the plant economizes its nutritive materials. Chevaux de frise,
slippery surfaces steep peduncles, and viscous hairs are the principal
myrmecophobic features.

We may consider as a true animal honeydew the sugary excretion of
plant lice, cochineals, and some other insects. From this arise the
pastoral habits of ants, the establishment of subterranean and aerial
stables, and the effective protection of the plant lice against their
enemies; hence occurs a real injury to a number of plants indirectly
caused by ants.

The instinct of ants leads them to lodge themselves in some cavities
capable of offering them shelter. These cavities will be more advan-
tageous to them in proportion as they are within reach of the food they
require. So, if a nectariferous plant visited by ants has a suitable
cavity, it will soon become a lodging plant for those insects. Such is
also the case with a nonnectariferous plant inhabited by insects capable
of furnishing nectar to ants. The ants will then occupy themselves
with the rearing of such animals within the lodging cavity. In certain
cases, also, when a plant finds a real advantage in the constant presence
of ants on its surface, it will differentiate ‘‘food bodies” suitable for
furnishing them with a more abundant aliment.

The services rendered to plants by ants are of various kinds. Ina
number of cases the latter effectually protect the host plant against
the attacks of parasitic insects or the teeth of herbivora. In the case of
lodging plants with cavities arranged for stables the ants may min-
imize the injuries inflicted by plant lice and cochineals by transporting
them from young organs, where their presence would be injurious, to
localities upon the vegetable where their presence would be more com-
patible with the life of the plant. There is thus established a sort of
triple symbiosis, the ants protecting their flocks that furnish them food
and diminishing the injuries occasioned by those flocks upon the plant
on which they feed. Sometimes, but rarely, the detritus accumulated
by the ants in the lodging organ seems to serve as a nutritive material
for the plants. This, however, remains to be demonstrated in most
eases. Finally, the irritation caused by the ants upon the lodging organ
may, by determining a greater increase in its growth, assist the plant
in its struggle with rival species or with physical agencies.

The primitive origin of the lodging organ varies, in fact, in different
types. Sometimes the ants make use of closed or nearly closed cavities
forming a part of the morphologic plan of the plant, and having a merely
mechanical function (hollow internodes, being lighter, economizing

A54 BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS.

material and at the same time strengthening the structure); sometimes
they lodge in organs that protect plants against herbivora (spines) or
against physical agencies (water reservoirs); finally, in certain cases,
the parasitic origin of the lodging organ seems ung mesa one ols, it repre-
senting a real cecidium or gall.

In certain types the ants seem to have adapted the lodging organ to
their own needs (by perforating the wall, by forming galleries); in others,
features at first abnormal, caused by the presence of ants, seem by
heredity and selection to have become normal, after which the insects
find lodgings ready for occupation without the necessity for preparatory
labor.

Myrmecophilous features may, then, vary in their origin, according to
circumstances.

The biologic relations between plants and ants thus tend, by insen-
sible degrees, to assume the complex, reciprocally advantageous condi-
tions of communal life; that is to say, of symbiosis.

Looking at the phenomena of nature from the point of view of the
older naturalists, we should certainly go into raptures over the varied
means she employs to reach her ends. Were we to examine the relations
between plants and ants, as do those philosophers who seek final causes
for all biologic phenomena, we couid not too much admire the prevision
of nature in putting within reach of those insects plants for their nour-
ishment, and in giving certain plants, in return for certain small advan-
tages granted, inhabitants capable of protecting them.

But to our modern eyes the relations of living things, in the midst
of seemingly peaceful nature, appear in a somber light. Attack and
defense are their essential controlling conditions. Homo homini lupus,
said the philosopher; and the race of man is no worse than other living
species in its struggle for existence. All beings.seem to have but two
aims: reproduction and destruction. Growth of the individual leads to
reproduction, indefinite multiplication of the species at the expense of
its neighbors, and the ruthless destruction of rivals. Does it not seem
as if each species was created for the extermination of some other, and
that soon the struggle of so many individuals of opposing fowabnnie:
must result in the extinction of every living thing on the globe?

But, strange to say, from this very contest arises accord; the antago-
nism of living beings results in symbiosis; instability in equilibrium;
death in life. Chaos engenders order. Theresultof these tremendous
struggles, though usually inappreciable by the unsuspecting eye, may
be summed up in one word: harmony. A perfect accord is established
between creatures having nothing in common, precisely because of the
(diversity of their needs; for in this accord the copartners have no inter-
est in despoiling their associates.

Thus there is certainly confirmed, for life in general, the law of prog-
ress. Disregarding the sufferings and death of individuals, evolution
tends to establish between beings primitively rivals a modus vivendi

BIOLOGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANTS. 455

that assures the free expansion of the species; a progressive expansion
that must soon find its limits in the new struggle that species, triumph-
ing by their ubion, must make against neighboring species.

What horizons does the study of ants open to the naturalist! The
investigation of their relations to plants is capable of giving to those
who undertake it the most lively pleasure that the naturalist can enjoy.
Those who have succeeded in raising this little corner of nature’s veil
will acknowledge that they owe the auts a debt of gratitude. And if
I have succeeded, by this somewhat dry exposition, in securing your
kind attention, is it not to these little creatures that I owe it?

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE!!!

By THEODORE GILL.

INTRODUCTION.

I had originally selected for the address which it is my duty and
privilege to give to-day a very different subject”? from that which I am
now to discuss, but the renewed and lively interest which is being
manifested at present in the ever-troublous subject of nomenclature
has Jed me to take it as my theme. I have been especially influenced,
too, by the consideration that a committee was appointed at the last
zoological congress, held at Leyden, to consider the subject, and sug-
gestions have been asked for.’ Of the multitudinous questions that
offer for review, time will only permit us to examine a few.

Nomenclature, in the modern sense of the word, did not trouble nat-
uralists till near the middle of the last century. The animals and
plants of the ancient world were mostly treated of under the names
which the Greeks or Romans had used, or were supposed to have used.
The forms that became first known after the discovery of America were
introduced into the literature under names more or less like those which
they bore among the aboriginal inhabitants of the countries from which
those forms had been obtained. Only a few names were coined from
the Latin or Greek, and used for forms not mentioned by classical
authors. Ixamples of such are Ammodytes and Anarrhichas, invented

1Address by vice-president of section F (Zoology) at Buftalo meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, August, 1896. Printed in
Science, October 23, 1896, and in Proceedings of the Association, January, 1897.

2Animals as Chronometers for Geology.

=The Third International Zoological Congress (Leyden, Sept., 1895) appointed an
international commission of five members to study the various codes of nomencla-
ture in use in different countries. This commission is composed of Dr. Raphael
Blanchard (France), Professor Carus (Germany), Professor Jentink (Holland), Dr.
Selater (England), and Dr. Stiles (United States). Dr. Stiles requested the appoint-
ment of an American advisory committee. This advisory committee has now been
completed and is made up as follows:

“Yr. Gill, representing the National Academy of Sciences; Dr. Dall, representing
the Smithsonian Institution; Professor Cope, representing the Society of Amer-
ican Naturalists; Professor Wright, representing the Royal Society of Canada;
Professor Packard, representing the American Association for the Advancement of
Science.”

457

458 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

by Gesner. But none of those names were employed as true generic
designations. Genera, in fact, in the strictest sense of the word, were
not used, by zoologists at least,' till the time of Linnzus.

There were certainly very close approximations to the idea manifest
in some of the older authors, such, for example, as Belon and Lang;?
but their analogous groups were not strictly defined and limited, as the
genera of Linneus and his followers were. The system has been one of
slow growth, and has developed in accordance with our knowledge of
nature and in response to the need for expressing the various degrees
of complication of the organisms. The species known to the natural-
ists of early times were few in number—at least, comparatively—and
the old students had no idea of the excessive diversity of form and
structure familiar to us.

A census of animals and plants was taken by Ray shortly before
Linneeus commenced his career, and enumerated less than 4,000 animals,
exclusive of insects; and of those it was estimated that there were
about ‘20,000 in the whole world.” He evidently believed that the
entire number living would not be found greatly to exceed this. But
let Ray speak for himself.

According to the author’s classification, animals were divided into
four orders—“ beasts, birds, fishes, and insects.” The number of beasts,
including also serpents, that had been accurately described he esti-
mated at not above 150, adding that, according to his belief, ‘ not
many that are of any considerable bigness, in the known regions of the
world, have escaped the cognizance of the curious.” (At the present
day more than 7,000 species of ‘‘ beasts,” reptiles, and amphibians have
been described.*) The number of birds “‘may be near 500, and the
number of fishes, excluding shellfish, as many; but if the shellfish be
taken in, more than six times the number.” As to the species remain-
ing undiscovered, he supposed “ the whole sum of beasts and _birds to
exceed by a third part and fishes by one-half those known.” The
number of insects—that is, of animals not included in the above
classes—he estimated at 2,000 in Britain alone, and 20,000 in the whole
world. The number of plants described in Bauhin’s “ Pinax” was
6,000, and our author supposed that ‘there are in the world more than
triple that number, there being in the vast continent of America as
great a variety of species as with us, and yet but few common to
Kurope, and perhaps Africk and Asia. And if on the other side the
equator there be much land still remaining undiscovered, as probably
there may, we must suppose the number of plants to be far greater.
What,” he continues, ‘can we infer from all this? If the number of

|The genera of plants in Tournefort’s work are perfectly regular, as well as defined
and illustrated, but the nomenclature is certainly not binominal.

“Lang was by no means a binomialist. See note on p. 460.

“In a recent estimate of described species, 2,500 species of mammals are enumer-
ated and 4,400 species of reptiles and amphibians, the several classes thus aggre-
gating 6,900. ‘This is probably an undercstimate.—P. Z. 8., 1896, 306.

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. 459

creatures be so exceeding great, how great, nay, immense, must needs
be the power and wisdom of Him who formed them all!”

About 375,000! species of animals are now known, and of insects we
still know the smaller portion.”

As knowledge of species of animals and plants increased, the neces-
sity of system in registering them became apparent. Linneus and
Artedi especially appreciated this necessity, and early applied them-
selves to the correction of existing evils and the reformation of the
classification and nomenclature of all the kingdoms of Nature. The
Latin language had been long the means of intercourse among the
learned, and was naturally selected as the basis of nomenclature.
Instead of Latin words used as equivalents or translations of vernacu-
lar, by Linneus and Artedi they were taken especially and primarily
for scientific use. The various kinds of animals became the more
exact genera of naturalists. A new language, or rather vocabulary of
proper names, was developed with the Latin as the basis. As no ade-
quate idea was at first had of the magnitude of the subject, rigorous _
codes of laws were formulated on the assumption that philological
questions were involved rather than the means for the expression of
facts. But soon the bonds that had been framed for the restriction of
the new vocabulary were broken. The idea dawned upon men that
they had to do with natural objects rather than philological niceties,
and that which was most conducive to facile expressions or exhibitions
of facts was more to the purpose than Priscianic refinements. Linnzus
himself eventually refused to be bound by the laws which he had orig-
inally framed.” The early companion of Linnzus—Artedi—who had
cooperated with him, and also framed a similar code for ichthyology
especially, was prematurely lost to science. The fact that Artedi devised.
the first code of laws affecting zoology has been generally overlooked,
and a few of his ‘“‘canons” may be noticed here. The extent to which
each one of the two—Linneus and Artedi—influenced the other can not
now be learned, nor will it be necessary to consider here who of the
two was the abler naturalist. It must suffice that there was almost
perfect agreement between Artedi and Linnieus in the spirit of the
laws they respectively framed.

COMMENCEMENT OF BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE.

The question that has been most agitated of late is, what time shall
we recognize as the starting point for the binomial nomenclature?
Even now not all will be bound by any such limit for generic nomen-
clature; but those who will are divided into two main camps, those who

1A census of animals recently taken under the superintendence of Dr. Sclater
gave 386,000 species. P. Z. S., 1896, 307.

*The late Dr. C. V. Riley even went so far as to say ‘‘that there are 10,000,000
species of insects in the werld would be, in [his] judgment, a moderate estimate.”
The largest previous estimate, by Sharp and Walsingham, 2,000,000, was termed by
Riley ‘‘extremely low.”

460 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

start from the tenth edition of the Linnean ‘‘Systema Nature,” pub-
lished in 1758, in which the binomial nomenclature was first universally
applied, and those who advocate the twelfth edition of the “‘Systema,”
published in 1766, the last which appeared during the life of Linnzus.

But it may be premised here that even the fact that Linnzeus was the
first to devise the system of binomial nomenclature is not conceded by
all. It has been claimed that about two centuries before Linnzeus pub-
lished his ‘*Philosophia Botanica,” Belon had uniformly and consist-
ently applied the binomial nomenclature to plants as well as animals,
fishes, and birds.’ It has been also urged that C. N. Lang (Langius),”
in 1722, used the binomial nomenclature for shells. I have not been

1Crié (Louis). Pierre Belon et la nomenclature binaire. Rev. Sc., xxx, 737-740,
9 Dec., 1882.

2 My efforts to see a copy of Lang’s “‘ Methodus nova Testacea marina in suas Classes,
Genera, et Species distribuendi” (Lucern., 1722) have not been successful. Maton
and Rackett say that “‘he is the first whose generic characters are founded on com-
modious distinctions, but expressly state that ‘‘there are no trivial names.” (See
Trans. Linn. Soc., vii, 156,157.) He may have properly appreciated genera.

This note was the result of consideration of statements made by Dr. Raphael
Blanchard in his excellent ‘‘ Rapport présenté au Congres International de Zoologie,”
published in the ‘‘ Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France pour l’année 1889.”
The statements were made therein (p. 262) that Tournefort had originated the
binomial nomenclature (C’est & Tournefort que revient sans conteste la gloire
@avoir fondé la nomenclature binaire) and that among others Lang had followed
him (L’example était donné: Lang et Klein appliquent cette méthode a la descrip-
tion des mollusques). It was also specifically stated (p. 264) that zoological nomen-
clature was initiated by Lang (la nomenclature zoologique ne commence réellement
qu’en 1722, avee Lang). ;

Since the publication of the address I have been able to examine Lang’s work,
and do not find that the contention in the report cited is sustained. Lang divided
the marine shells among three parts (non-turbinate univalves, turbinate univalves,
and bivalves); each part (pars) is divided into classes, a class (classis) into sections,
and a section (sectio) into genera. One series will fairly illustrate all.

Class 4 (Classis tv) is named ‘‘Strombi” and is divided into two sections: ‘‘Sectio
1. Strombi ore superius aperto” and ‘‘Sectio 11. Strombi integri.” The first section
is disintegrated into six genera: ‘‘Genus1. Strombi canaliculati acuminati,” “Genus
i. Strombi canaliculati rostrati ore simplici,” ‘‘Genus 11. Strombi canaliculati ros-
trati ore anguloso,” ‘‘Genus ly. Strombi canaliculati rostrati ore labioso,” ‘‘Genus
v. Strombi suleati vulgares,” and ‘(Genus vi. Strombi suleati ore labioso.” The
species are named accordingly, those of ‘‘Genus 1” being designated as follows:

“Strombus canaliculatus acuminatus laevis ore denticulato vel striato.

““Strombus canaliculatus acuminatus striatus.

“Strombus canaliculatus acuminatus striatus §° granulatus.

“Strombus canaliculatus acuminatus striatus §° transversim per modum striarum
quasi sulcatus.”

And so on with the others

The generic name in each case here reproduced is indicated by roman type and
the specific by italies. Instead of an uninomial generic name there is a generic
term of three words in each case, and the specific name is of the nature of a
diagnosis.

With these examples it must be evident that a different meaning has been attached
by Dr. Blanchard to binomial nomenclature (nomenclature binaire) from that enter-
tained hy the present writer, or that the learned author has based his statements on
erroneous information,

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. 461

able to confirm either statement, and therefore have to side with the
great majority who accord to Linneus the credit of that achievement.

Almost all the naturalists of the United States accept 1758 as the
starting time for nomenclature, and now most of the naturalists of
Europe take the same view. But the English generally accept 1766
for the commencement of their orismology. It was ‘‘after much delibera
tion” that the committee of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science determined on the edition of 1766. It was only because
that edition was ‘‘the last and most complete edition of Linné’s works,
and containing many species that the tenth did not,” that it was so
selected—surely an insufficient reason. A principle was subordinated
to an individual.

Logically, the actual period for the commencement of the binomial
nomenclature should be when the rules for that nomenclature were dis-
tinctly formulated; and that was 1751, when the “ Philosophia Botanica”
was first published. Practically, however, it makes little difference for
most classes,' whether we take that date or 1758, when the next sue-
ceeding edition of the “Systema” was published. But it does make
much difference whether we take the tenth or twelfth edition. There
is really no good reason for keeping Linneus on that lofty pedestal on
which he was enthroned by his disciples of a past century. His work
does not justify such an elevation. In every department of zoology
contemporaries excelled him in knowledge and in judgment. May we
not hope that, ultimately, this truth will be recognized, and the tenth
edition universally accepted for the first work of the new era?

TRIVIAL NAMES.

The binomial system has come into prominence through a sort of
developmental process. Although now generally regarded as the chief
benefaction conferred by Linneus?’ on biology, it was evidently consid-
ered by him to be of quite secondary importance.

The first extensive use of it occurs in the Pan Suecicus, published
in 1749, where the author mentions that to facilitate the recording of
his observations he had used an “epithet” in place of the differential
character.’ It was thus a mere economical device for the time being.

lodndard

' Arachnology would be most affected, for Clerck’s work was published in 1757.

2Linneus himself did not claim this as an improvement in his account of the
advancement he had effected in science.

*Possumus nune ultra duo millia experimenta certissima exhibere, que s«epe
decies, immo spe bis decies sunt iterata. Si autem sumamus Floram Suecicam
Holmie, 1745, & ad quamlibet herbam, ut chart parcatur, nomen adponimus gene-
ricum, numerum Flore Suecice & spitheton quoddam loco differenti, negotium in
compendium facile mittitur.—Pan Suecicus, pp. 228, 229.

This thesis is attributed to Nicolaus L. Hesselgren in some bibliographies, and
naturally so, as it bears his name in the title; but Linneus probably did not claim
more than his own in claiming the authorship, although Hesselgren apparently
wrote part of it himself. It is sometimes difficult exactly to fix the authorship in
the case of some of the old theses.

462 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

In the Philosophia Botanica he also treats it as a matter of minor
importance. He distinguishes between the specific name and the
trivial.

His specific name corresponds to what we would call a diagnosis
(nomen specificum est itaque differentia essentialis); his trivial name
is what would now be called the specific. It is merely suggested that
trivial names may be used as in his Pan Suecicus, and should consist
of a single word taken from any source.’

This system was fully carried out in the succeeding editions of the
Systema Nature. Both names were then given—the nomen specificum
after the number of the species, under each genus, and the nomen
triviale before the number, in the margin.

Linneus placed little store on the trivial names, and accredited such
to old botanists; but he took special credit for specific names (or diag-
noses), claiming that none worthy of the title had been given before him.’

DRACONIAN LAWS.

For generic nomenclature a Draconian code was provided by Linnzeus
and Artedi. Itis now a maxim of good legislation that excessive sever-
ity of law is apt to defeat the object sought for, and the tendency of
civilization is to temper justice with mercy. So has the tendency
of scientific advancement been toward a mitigation of the Linnzean
code. Nevertheless, its severity is more or less reflected in later codes—
even the latest—and therefore a review of some of these old canons
will not be entirely a resurrection of the dead, and may contain a
warning for the future.

In exclusiveness for generic names Linneus and Artedi went far
ahead of any of the moderns. They provided that no names were
available for genera in zoology or botany which were used in any other
class of animals or plants, or even which were used for minerals, tools,
weapons, or other instruments, or even places.*

1257. Nomen specificum legitimum plantam ab omnibus congeneribus (159) distin-
guat; Triviale autem nomen legibus etiamnum caret.—Phil. Bot., p. 202.

2NOMINA TRIVIALIA forte admitti possunt modo, quo in Pane suecico usus sum;
constarent hee

Vocabulo unico;

Vocabulo libere undequaque desumto.

Ratione hac priecipue evicti, quod differentia sepe longa evadit, ut non ubique
commode usurpetur, & dein mutationi obnoxia, novis detectis speciebus, est, e. gr.

Pyrola [5 sp.]

Sed nomina Trivialia in hoe opere seponimus, de differentia unice solliciti.—Ph.
Bot , pp. 202, 203.

*Trivialia erant antecessorum & maxime Trivialia erant antiquissimorum Botani-
corum nomina.

Character Naturalis speciei est Descriptio; Character vero Essentialis speciei est
Differentia.

Primus incepi Nomina specifica Essentialia condere, ante me nulla differentia digna
exstitit.—Ph. Bot., p. 203.

‘Nomina piscium generica, que quadrupedibus pilosis, avibus, amphibiis, insectis,
plantis, mineralibus, instrumentis opificum, etc., communia sunt, omnino deleantur.
Linn. Fund. 230,—Art. Ph. Ich., § 193.

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. 463

Under this rule such names as Acus, Belone, Citharus, Hippoglossus,
Lingula, Novacula, Orbis, Orca, Remora, Solea, and Umbra—all now or
sometime in common use—were specified.

This rule was soon relaxed, and any name not previously used in
zoology, or, at most, biology, was considered admissible.

Another rule sends to Coventry all names composed of two names of
different animals, because it might be uncertain to which genus an
animal really belongs.' The ancient name ‘ Rhino-Batus” is even men-
tioned as one of the delicts.

This rule is also without any justification, and the reason given for it
baseless. Compound words of the kind exiled are in entire harmony
with the genius of the classic languages. As an illustration of their
use among the Greeks, we need refer to one group only—that is, com-
pounds with hippos, as Hippalectryon, Hippanthropos, Hippardion, Hip-
pelaphos, Hippocampos, Hippotigris, and Hippotragelaphos. (Hippokan-
tharos, Hippomurmex, Hippopareos and Hipposelinon are other classic
Greek words, but do not belong to the same category as the others,
inasmuch as they were used in a sense analogous to horse-chestnut,
horse-mackerel, and horse-radish with us, the word “horse” in this
connection conveying the idea of strength, coarseness, and bigness.)

In another rule, all words are proscribed as generic names which are
not of Latin or Greek origin;’? and among the proscribed are such
names as Albula, Blicca, Carassius, and many others, which were later
used by Linnzeus himself as specific names, and which are now used as
generic denominations.

Words with diminutive terminations were barely tolerated, if admitted
at all,? and the reason alleged for such treatment was that the cardi-

-nal name might belong to another class. Among the examples named

were Anguilla, Asellus, Leuciscus, Lingula, Oniscus, and Ophidion, now
familiar in connection with some of our best-known genera. One of
these—Ophidion—was subsequently used by Linnzeus himself as a
generic name.

All are now tolerated without demur even, and probably by most
naturalists were never supposed to have been tainted with offense of
any kind. For all such words we have also classical examples; and four
have already been named—the Oniscus and Ophidion of the Greeks,
adopted by the Romans, and the Angwilla and Asellus of the Latins.

Generic names, derived from Latin adjectives, were also declared to
be unworthy of adoption.‘ Aculeatus, Centrine, and Coracinus were cited —
as examples of words that should be rejected under this rule. Later

‘Nomina generica, ex uno nomine generico fracto, et altero integro composita,
_exulent. Linn. Fund. 224.—Art. Ph. Ich., § 196.

2““Nomina generica, que non sunt originis Latin vel Grece, proscribantur. Linn.
Fund. 229.” Art. Ph. Ich., § 198.

3“Nomina generica diminutiva vix toleranda sunt. Lind. Fund. 227.” Art. Ph.
Ich., § 202.

4“Nomina generica imprimis Latina pure adjectiva, sed substantive usurpata,
criticorum more improbanda sunt. Linn. Fund. 235.” Art. Ph. Ich., § 204.

464 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

writers have repeated the denunciations uttered by Linneus and Artedi,
and refused to adopt such words. But hear what Plutarch says of
names of men derived from adjectives.

In his life of Coriolanus, Plutarch, in recounting the events subse-
quent to the capture of Corioli, and the refusal of Marcius to accept
more than his share of the booty, comes to the proposition of Cominius.'

Let us, then, give him what is not in his power to decline; let us pass
a vote that he be called Coriolanus, if his gallant behavior at Corioli
has not already bestowed that name upon him. Hence came his third
name of Coriolanus, by which it appears that Caius was the proper
name; that the second name, Marcius, was that of the family; and that
the third Roman appellative was a peculiar note of distinction, given
afterwards on account of some particular act of fortune, or signature,
or virtue of him that bore it. Thus, among the Greeks additional
names were given to some on account of their achievements, as Soter,
the preserver, and Callinicus, the victorious; to others, for something
remarkable in their persons, as Physcon, the ‘gore-bellied, and Gripus, the
eagle-nosed ; or for their good qualities, as Huergetes, the benefactor, and
Philadelphus, the kind brother; or their good fortune, as Hudaemon, the
prosperous, a name given to the second prince of the family of the Batti.
Several princes also have had satirical names bestowed upon them:
Antigonus (for instance) was called Doson, the man that will give
to-morrow; and Ptolemy was styled Lamyras, the buffoon. But appella-
tions of this last sort were used with gre eater latitude among the
Romans. One of the Metelli was distinguished by the name of Diade-
matus, because he went a long time with a bandage, which covered an
ulcer he had in his forehead; and another they called Celer, because
with surprising celerity he entertained them with a funeral show of
gladiators a few days after his father’s death. In our times, too, some
of the Romans receive their names from the circumstances of their birth;
as that of Proculus, if born when their fathers are in a distant country;
and that of Posthumus, if born after their father’s death; and when
twins come into the world, and one of them dies at the birth, the sur-
vivor is called Vopiscus. Names are also appropriated on account of
bodily imperfections; for among them we find not only Sylla, the red,
and Niger, the black, but even Cacus, the blind, and Claudius, the lame ;
such persons, by this custom, being wisely. taught not to consider
blindness or any other bodily misfortune as a reproach or disgrace, but
to answer to appellations of that kind as their proper names.

What was good enough for the ancient Romans to bestow on the
most admired of their heroes is good enough for the nomenclature of
our genera of animals. We have also examples of names of adjective
form used substantively for animals among classic writers. Such, for
example, are the Aculeatus (pipe-fish) and Oculata (lamprey or nine-
eyes), mentioned by Pliny.

Linneus himself, later, coined many names having an adjective
form; and three of his genera of plants of one small family, so desig-
nated, occur in this region—Saponaria, Arenaria, and Stellaria. Yet
even at the present day we have evidences of the lingering of the old
idea embodied in the canon in question.

' Langhorne’s translation of Plutarch’s Lives is quoted from.

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. 465

We have also had drawn up for us certain rules for the conversion
of Greek words into Latin, which are tinctured with more than Roman
severity. Thus, we are told that Greek names ending in -os should
always be turned into -ws; that the final -on is inadmissible in the new
Latin, and should invariably be rendered by -wm.

In accordance with such rules, Rhinoceros has been turned into
Rhinocerus, and Rhinocerotide into Khinoceride. But Rhinoceros was
admitted into classical Latinity, and with it the. corresponding oblique
cases, Rhinocerotis, etc.; in fact, the word was current in the language
of description, satire, and proverb—as when used by Juvenal for a
vessel made of the horn, or by Lucilius for a long-nosed man, or by
Martial in the proverbial expression, ‘‘Nasum rhinocerotis habere;”
i. e., to turn the nose up, as we would say. These authorities are good
enough for me.

The termination -on was also familiar to the homans of classic times,
and numerous words with that ending may be found in the books of
Pliny. But our modern purists will have none of them; the Greek -on
in the new Latin must always become-wm. For example, Ophidion was
the name given to a small conger-like eel, according to Pliny, and was
(without reason) supposed to have been applied to the genus now called
Ophidium; and this last form was given by Linnieus, who eventually!
refused to follow Pliny in such barbaric use of Latin. But Pliny is
good enough for me—at least as a Latinist.

Another rule prohibits the use of such words as gir, Gondul, Moho,
Mitu, Pudu, and the like, and provides that they should have other ter-
minations in accordance with classical usage. But why should those
words be changed and surcharged with new endings? As they are,
they are all uniform with classical words. gir has its justification in
vir, Gindul in consul, Moho in homo (of which it is an accidental ana-
gram), and Mitwu and Pudw are no more cacophonous or irregular than
cornu. I therefore see no reason why we should not accept the words
criticised and corrected by some naturalists in their original form, even
if we consider the question involved as grammatical rather than one of
scientific convenience.

I have thus defended some of the names of our old nomenclators, and
really think the rules laid down for name making were too severe. But
those rules were on the whole judicious, and should not be deviated
from by future nomenclators without good and substantial reason.
Even if too severe, they ‘‘lean to virtue’s side.” On the other hand,
let old names be respected in the interest of stability, even if slightly
misformed.

MISAPPLIED NAMES.

While Linnzus was so exacting in his rules of nomenclature in the
cases cited, in others he was extremely lax. It is due to him, directly
or indirectly, that our lists of genera of vertebrate animals especially

1 At first (in the tenth edition) Linnaeus allowed Ophidion.
SM 96 30

466 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

are encumbered with so many ancient names that we know were applied
to very different animals by the Greeks and Romans. It is Linnzus
that was directly responsible for the misuse of such generic names of
mammals as Lemur, Manis, Dasypus; such bird names as Trochilus,
Coracias, Phacton, Diomedea, Meleagris, and (partly with Artedi) such
fish names as Chimera, Centriscus, Pegasus, Callionymus, Trigla, Amia,
Teuthis, Esox, Elops, Mormyrus, and Exocetus. These all were applied
by the ancients to forms most of which are now well ascertained, and
the animals to which they have been transferred have nothing in com-
mon with the original possessors of the names.

The misuse of these ancient names is in contravention of the rule
adopted by the International Zoological Congress held in Moscow
(1892), that “every foreign word employed as a generic or specific name
should retain the meaning it has in the language from which it is
taken,” and of like rules of other associations. The false application
by Linneeus and his followers (and he had many) was due partly to the
belief that the ancient names were unidentifiable, but now there are few
whose original pertinence is not known. It may be thought by some,
however, that we are unduly criticising the doings of the past from the
vantage ground of the present. But such is not the case, for at the
commencement of his career Linneus was taken to task for the fault
indicated. Some of those criticisms were so apt that they may be
advantageously repeated here.

Dillenius, of Oxford, wrote to Linnus in August, 1737, in these terms:

We all know the nomenclature of botany to be an Augean stable,
which C. Hoffmann, and even Gesner, were not able to cleanse. The
task requires much reading and extensive as well as various erudition;
nor is it to be given up to hasty or careless hands. You rush upon it
and overturn everything. Ido not object to Greek words, especially
in compound names; but I think the names of the antients ought not
rashly and promiscuously to be transferred to our new genera or those of
the New World. The day may possibly come when the plants of Theo-
phrastus and Dioscorides may be ascertained, and till this happens
we had better leave their names as we find them. That desirable end
might even now be attained if anyone would visit the countries of these
old botanists and make a sufficient stay there; for the inhabitants of
those regions are very retentive of names and customs, and know plants
at this moment by their antient appellations, very little altered, as any
person who reads Bellonius may perceive. I remember your being told
by the late Mr. G. Gherard that the modern Greeks give the name of
Amanita (apavtra) to the eatable field mushroom, and yet in Critica
Botanica (p. 50) you suppose that word to be French. Who will ever
believe the Thya of Theophrastus to be our Arbor vite? Why do
you give the name of Cactus to the Tuna? Do you believe the Tuna,
or Melocactus (pardon the word), and the Arbor vite were known to
Theophrastus? An attentive reader of the description Theophrastus
gives of his Sida will probably agree with me that it belongs to our
Nymphea, and, indeed, to the white-flowered kind. You, without any
reason, give that name to the Malvinda, and so in various other in-
stances concerning antient names, in which I do not, like Burmann,
blame you for introducing new names, but for the bad application of

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. 467

old ones. If there were in these cases any resemblance between your
plants and those of the antients you might be excused, but there is not.
Why do you (p. 68) derive the word Medica trom the virtues of the plant,
when Pliny (Book X VIII, chap. 16) declares it to have been brought
from Media? Why do you eall the Molucca Molucella? It does not,
nor ought it, to owe that name, as is commonly thought, to the Melucea
Islands, for, as Lobel informs us, the name and the plant are of Asiatie
origin. Why, then, do you adopt a barbarous name and make it more
barbarous? Discutella is not, as you declare (p. 118), a new name, hav-
ing already been used by Lobel. I am surprised that you do not give
the etymology of the new names which you or others have introduced.
I wish you would help me to the derivation of some that I can rot
trace, as Ipomea, for instance. Why are you so offended with some
words, which you denominate barbarons, though many of them are
more harmonious than others of Greek or Latin origin?
A year later (Angust 28, 1738) he again wrote:

It would surely have been worth your while to visit Greece, or Asia,
that you might become acquainted with, and point out to us, the plants
of the antients, whose appellations you have so materially, and worse
than any other person, misapplied. You ought to be very cautious in
changing hames and appropriating them to particular genera.

How entirely the previsions of the wise old botanist have been realized
IT need not explain. We now know what almost all of the names mis-
applied by Linnzeus and his school were meant for of old; and when
some more good naturalists collect names and specimens together in
various parts of Greece, probably very few of the ancient names will
remain unidentifiable.

The only reply that Linnzeus could make to the censures of Dillenius
appears in the following minutes:

With regard to unoccupied names in antient writers, which I have
adopted for other well-defined genera, I learned this of you. You,
moreover, long ago, pointed out to me that your own Draba, Nova Pl.
Genera 122, is different from the plant so called by Dioscorides.

The retort of one sinner that his antagonist is another is no real
answer.

The comments of the British committee of 1865 on this subject are
very judicious and pertinent.

The use of mythological names for animals and plants is far less cul-
pable. The use of such is no worse than that of any meaningless name.
Sometimes, even, there may be conveyed an association of ideas which
appeals to the imagination in a not disagreeable manner. For example,
Linneus gave the name Andromeda, after the Ethiopian maid whose
mother’s overgreat boasts of the daughter’s beauty made her the vic-
tim of Poseidon’s wrath. Linneus justified his procedure by a remark-
able play of fancy:

This most choice and beautiful virgin gracefully erects her long and
shining neck (the peduncle), her face with its rosy lips (the corolla) far
excelling the best pigment. She kneels on the ground with her feet
bound (the lower part of the stem incumbent), surrounded with water,

468 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

and fixed to a rock (a projecting clod), exposed to frightful dragons
(frogs and newts). She bends her sorrowful face (the flower) towards
the earth, stretches up her innocent arms (the branches) toward heaven,
worthy of a better place and happier fate, until the welcome Perseus
(summer), after conquering the monster, draws her out of the water
and renders her a fruitful mother, when she raises her head (the fruit)
erect.

The relation of the old myth to the plant may be farfetched, and no
other would ever be likely to notice the analogy without suggestion;
but at least the conceit is harmless, if not agreeable.

The analogy that gave rise to this fanciful description, contained in
the “ Flora Lapponica,” suggested itself to Linneus on his Lapland
journey :

The Chamedaphne of Buxbaum was at this time in its highest beauty,
decorating the marshy grounds in a most agreeable manner. The flow-
ers are quite blood red before they expand, but when full grown the
corolla is of flesh color. Scarcely any painter’s art can so bappily imitate
the beauty of a fine female complexion; still less could any artificial
color upon the face itself bear comparison with this lovely blossom. As
I contemplated it, I could not help thinking of Andromeda as described
by the poets; and the more I meditated upon their descriptions, the more
applicable they seemed to the little plant before me; so that, if these
writers had had it in view, they could scarcely have contrived a more
apposite fable. Andromeda is represented by them as a virgin of most
exquisite and unrivalled charms; but these charms remain in perfection
only so long as she retains her virgin purity, which is also applicable to
the plant, now preparing to celebrate its nuptials. This plant is always
fixed on some little turfy hillock in the midst of the swamps, as Andro-
meda herself was chained to a rock in the sea, which bathed her feet, as
the fresh water does the roots of the plant. Dragons and venomous
serpents surrounded her, as toads and other reptiles frequent the abode
of her vegetable prototype, and, when they pair in the spring, throw
mud and water over its leaves and branches. As the distressed virgin
cast down her blushing face through excessive affliction, so does the
rosy-colored flower hang its head, growing paler and paler till it withers
away. Hence, as this plant forms anew genus, [ have chosen for it the
name of Andromeda.

DOUBLE NAMES.

It was long the custom when a specific name was taken for a genus
to substitute a new specific for the one so diverted. There was some
reason for this, for sometimes the specific name covered several forms,
or at least was equally applicable to several; of late, however, the
acceptance of both the generic and specific names—that is, the duplica-
tion of a name—has been quite general, and various precedents have
been adduced in favor of the procedure. “In the solemn anthem musi-
cians have been known to favor such repetitions, the orator uses them,
in poetry they occur without offense, and even our English aristocracy
sometimes bears them as an added grace.”! It is also a frequent cus-
tom in many barbarous and half-civilized races, as well as the young of

’Stebbing in Nat. Science, viii, 255.

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. 469

our own, to double the name for a given subject; and this analogy may
be regarded by some of you as a perfect one. But in the last cases
some regard is had for euphony, and itis a short word that is repeated,
as in the case of the Kiwi-Kiwi and Roa-Roa of the Maoris of New
Zealand, the Pega-Pega of the indigenes of Cuba, the Willie- Willie
(waterspout) of the Australians, and our own familiar Pa-pa and Ma-ma.
Many scientific names repeated are long—some very long—but even for
such I would now yield the point. Stability of nomenclature is a
greater desideratum than euphony or elegance. But here let me add
that there is a history behind the Scomber Scomber, which has been fre-
quently cited as an example of the duplication of a name by Linneus.
It was Scomber Scombrus that was used at first by the early nomenclator,
and that occurs in the tenth edition of the ‘‘Systema Natura” (p. 297),
as well as in the “Fauna Suecica” (2d ed., p. 119). Linnzeus thus
combined the old Latin and Greek names of the mackerel, which
were formally different, although of course traceable to one and
the same root. The name is therefore not repulsive, but interesting
as an historical reminiscence of past usage by two great peoples. It
was only in the twelfth edition of the “Systema” (p. 492) that Lin-
neeus exactly duplicated the name as Scomber Scomber, and thus viti-
ated the last edition in this as he did in other cases. But it is at least
possible that the exact duplication of names in the twelfth edition is
the offspring of typographical inaccuracy or clerical inadvertence.! At
any rate, those who recognize the tenth edition of the ‘‘ Systema” as
the initiwm of nomenclature will adopt the more elegant form.

VARIANTS AND SIMILARITY OF NAMES.

The case of Scomber and Scombrus naturally suggest consideration of
another rule adopted by various societies. By the German Zoological
Society it is provided that ‘‘names of the same origin, and only differ-
ing from each other in the way they are written, are to be considered
identical.”” Words considered identical are Fischeria and Fisheria, as

‘Tn the last part of the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1896, IT),
received September 5, the suggestion that Scomber Scomber was a lapsus is confirmed.
According to Dr. Sclater, ‘‘on referring to the two copies of the twelfth edition,
formerly belonging to Linneus himself, and now in the library of the Linnean
Society, it will be found that the second Scomber is altered, apparently in Linnzeus’
own handwriting, into Scombrus. (See note on this subject, ‘Ibis,’ 1895, p. 168.)”
P. Z.8., 1896, 310, 311.

““Ktymologisch gleich abgeleitete und nur in der Schreibweise von einander
abweichende Namen gelten als gleich.

Beispiele: silvestris—=sylvestris; ceruleus—ceruleus; linnwi=linnei; Fischeria=
Fisheria; Astracanthus= Asteracanthus.

a. Dagegen kénnen neben einander verwendet werden Picus und Pica; Polyodon,
Polyodonta, und Polyodontes; jfluvialis, fluviatilis, fluviaticus, fluviorum ; moluccensis
und moluccanus.

b. Bei Neubildung von Namen mége man solche vermeiden, welche leicht mit
schon vorhandenen verwechselt werden kénnen.” Regeln * * * vonder Deutsch.
zool. Ges., § 4.

470 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

well as Astracanthus and Asteracanthus; and among words sufficiently
different are Polyodon, Polyodonta, and Polyodontes.

When rules are once relaxed in this indefinite manner the way is
at once open to differences of opinion as to what are to be considered
identical or too much alike. Fischeria and Fisheria appear to me to be
sufficiently distinct, and would be so considered by some who think
that Polyodon, Polyodonta, and Polyodontes are too nearly alike. While
the last three are conceded to be sufficiently distinct by the German
Zoological Society, analogous forms, as Heterodon and Heterodontus,
are claimed by some zoologists to be too similar, and consequently the
latter prior and distinctive name of the “Port Jackson shark” is sae-
rificed in favor of the later and inapt Cestracion—a name originally
coined and appropriate for the hammer-headed sharks, but misapplied
to the Australian shark.

I agree with those who think that even a difference of a single letter
in most cases is sufficient to entitle two or more generic names so dif-
fering to stand. The chemist has found such a difference not only
ample but most convenient to designate the valency of different com-
pounds, as ferricyanogen and ferrocyanogen. Iam prepared now to go
back on myself in this respect. In 1831 Prince Max of Nieuwied
named a bird Scaphorhynchus, and in 1835 Heckel gave the name Scaph-
irhynchus to a fish genus.' In 1863 I used a new name (Scaphirhyn-
chops) for the acipenseroid genus, and that name was adopted by other
naturalists. Jordan later considered the literal differences between
the avine and piscine generic names to be sufficient for both. I yield
the point, and abandon my name Scaphirhynchops. But those who
hold to the rule in question will retain it.

Another set of cases exhibiting diversity of opinion may be exempli-
fied.

In 1852 Reinhardt gave the name Trigiops to one cottoid genus, and
in 1851 Girard named another Triglopsis, Girard apparently not know-
ing of Reinhardt’s genus. In 1860 the later name was replaced by
Ptyonotus. All American naturalists have repudiated the last name.

In 1854 Girard named a genus of Atherinids Atherinopsis, and in
1876 Steindachner, knowing well the name of Girard, deliberately
called a related genus Atherinops. No one, as yet, has questioned the
availability of the later name, but one who refuses to adopt Triglopsis
because of the earlier Triglops must substitute another name for Ather-
imops.

Who shall decide in such cases, and what shall be the standard?

'JTn lieu of explanations of the etymology, it may be assumed that Scaphirhynchus
was derived from oxaverd, a digging or hoeing, and that Scaphorhynchus is trom
Guabos, anything hollowed, as a boat. Both Scaphorhynchus and Scaphirhynchus
were derived from ‘6xaoy, scapha; pvyxos, rostrum’ by Agassiz in his Nomeuclator
Zoologicus, but the characters of the respective genera would be better expressed by
the etymologies here suggested, the bird genus having a bill like an inverted boat
and the fish genus a snout like a spade, as the popular name—shoyel-billed sturgeon—
implies.

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. 471

MAKING OF NAMES.

It was long ago recognized, even by Linnieus, that the rigor of the
rules originally formulated by him would have to be relaxed. Natural-
ists early began to complain that the Greek and Latin languages were
almost or quite exhausted as sources for new names, and many resorted
to other languages, framed anagrams of existent ones, or even played
for a jingle of letters.

Forty years ago one of the most liberal of the American contributors
to such names! defiantly avowed that ‘“‘ most of the genera [proposed
by him] have been designated by words taken from the North Ameri-
can Indians, as being more euphonic than any one [he] might have
framed from the Greek. The classic literature has already furnished
so many names that there are but few instances in which a name might
yet be coined and express what it is intended to represent. |He
offered | this remark as a mere statement, not as an apology.” He gave
such names as Minomus, Acomus, Dionda, Algoma, Algansea, Agosia,
Nocomis, Meda, Cliola, Codoma, Moniana, Tiaroga, Tigoma, Cheonda,
and Siboma.

The names have caused some trouble, and have been supposed to be
original offspring of the ichthyologist; but those familiar with Long-
fellow’s Hiawatha will recognize in Nocomis the name of the daughter
of the Moon? and mother of Wenonah’ (Nokomis), corrected by elas-
sical standard! and in Meda the title of a “‘medicine man” (not “a
classical feminine name”). Otier names are geographical or individual.

In the excellent report to the International Zoological Congress, by
Dr. Raphael Blanchard (1889), it was remarked that it would be gen-
erally conceded that naturalists have almost completely exhausted the
Greek and Latin words, simple and compound, possible to attribute to
animals.*

But the classic languages are even yet, although about one hun-
dred thousand names’ grace or cumber the nomenclators, far from
being completely exploited. To some of us, indeed, the difficulty in
determining upon a new name is that of selection of several that are
conjured up by the imagination rather than the coining of a single one.

Besides the methods of name-making generally resorted to, there are
others that have been little employed. Among the few who have
resorted to other than the regular conventional ways is the illustrious

‘Girard in Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Phila., viii., 209, 1856.
2“¥Wrom the full moon fell Nokomis,
Fell the beautiful Nokomis.”
The song of Hiawatha, III., lines 4, 5.

3 Ophiologists will recognize in Wenonah the source of a synonym (WVenona) given
to the genus Charina by Baird and Girard. Oct., 1896.

*“On conviendra que les naturalistes ont di Gpuiser & peu pres complétement la
liste des mots grecs ou latins, simple ou composés, qwil était possible d’attribuer aux
animaux.” Bul. Soc. Zool. France, XIV., 223.

©The number one hundred thousand includes duplicates and variants.

A472 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

actual president of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science.! His long list of generic names proposed in the various
departments of zoology embraces many of unusual origin, and almost
always well formed, elegant, and euphonious. I can only adduce a few
of the ways of naming illustrated by classical examples.

In ancient Greek there are numerous words ending in -ias, and many
substantives with that termination are names of animals given in allu-
sion to some special characteristic.

Acanthias is the designation of a shark, especially distinguished by
the development of a spine at the front of each dorsal fin; the name is
derived from auxavOa, spine, and the terminal element.

Acontias is the name of ‘‘a quick-darting serpent,” and the main com-
ponent is axcv, a dart or javelin.

Anthias is the name of a fish found in the Mediterranean and distin-
guished by the brilliancy of its color; evidently it was based on avGos,
a flower. The color of the fish may remind one of a showy flower.’

Xiphias is the ancient as well as zoological designation of the sword-
fish; it was plainly coined from Si@o;, a sword.

These four names give some idea of the range of utility of the particle
in question; they involve the ideas of defensive armature, offensive
armature, ornamentation, and action.

A number of names have been framed by modern zoologists in con-
formity with such models. Such are Stomias (named by the Greek
scholar and naturalist, Schneider) and Ceratias—types of the families
Stomiide (generally written Stomiatide) and Ceratiudae. Tamias is
another name, well known in connection with the chipmunk.

But there is room for many more of like structure. For example,
peculiarities of various parts might be hinted at by such words as Carias
or Cephalias or Cotidias or Cottias (for animals having some distinctive
character in the head), Chirias (hand or hand-like organ), Gnathias
(jaw), Podias (feet), Thoracias (thorax), and many others of analogous
import.

Another termination which might be used advantageously instead
of the too-often used -oides is the patronymic suffix -ides. This would
be especially useful where genetic relationship is desired to be indi-
cated. We have many such models in classical literature, as Alcides,
the son of Alczus; Atrides, the son of Atreus; Pelides, the son of
Peleus; Alacides, the grandson of Aacus, and the like.

Another source for help in name-making is in the several intensive
Greek particles occurring as prefixes of various names. The chief of
these prefixes are agi-, ari-, da-, ert-, eu-, and za-. Hu- has been so very
often drafted into use that relief and variety may be found by resort-
ing to the others. rf

1Prof. E. D. Cope.
* Thoreau valls trout “these bright fluviatile flowers.” Maine Woods, 1864, 54.

i

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. 473

Ari- (Apz-) occurs often in classical words, as apidaypus (very tear-
ful), aptonlos (very plain), and apizpemns (very showy).

Da- (Aa-) is illustrated -by such names as dao 105 (daskios, shaded)
and dagporvos (daphoinos, deep red); convert them, if you will, into
Dascius and Daphenus. Numerous names may be made on the model,
although in classical Greek there are few.

Dri- (Epr-) is used in the same way as Avri-,and is familiar in ancient
Greek as a particle of such words as ¢p1avy7s (very brilliant) and
gépiavynv (with a high arched neck). The common large seal of north-
ern Europe (Hrignathus barbatus) has received its generic name, based
on the same model, on account of the depth of the jaws. Very few
naturalists, however, have availed themselves of this particle for name-
making, most of the words in the zoological nomenclature commencing
with Hri- having other origins.

Za- (Za-) is met with in such words as Cans (strong blowing), Cadepns
(very hot), CaxaAdns (very beautiful), Cazdovros (very rich), Caworns
(a hard drinker). The particle has been utilized in the composition of
the generic name (Zalophus) of the common sea lion, distinguished by
its high sagittal crest (Za- and loos, crest), familiar to menagerie vis-
itors and the residents and travelers in San Francisco. Professor
Cope has also made use of it for several of his names.

We have been told by ancient writers that Cicero was a name derived
from cicer, a vetch. According to Pliny, the name (like Fabius and
Lentulus) was obtained on account of ancestral skill in cultivation of
the plant; but, according to Plutarth, the original of the name was so
called because he had a vetch-like wen on his nose.!. Which one (if
either) was the fact is of no material consequence. The etymological
propriety of both is sanctioned by the suppositions of classical writers.
There can, then, be no valid objection to other names formed on the
model.

There is one rule which has been put in such a form (and without
proper exceptions) that a number of names, improper according to
classical standards, have been introduced. The rule is that the aspi-
rate of Greek should berendered by h. While this is true for the com-
mencement of a name, it is not for the body, where it generally is
suppressed, being sonant only after p,t, or k. The Greeks, accordingly,
wrote Philippos (®iArzzos) and Lphippus (“Eq@izzos). In accordance
with such models Mesohippus and Orohippus should have been called
Mesippus and Orippus. Protohippus should have been Prothippus.
Epihippus might by some be considered to be preoccupied by Hphippus,
a genus of fishes. But, in my opinion, all the names should be retained
aS they are (if there is no other objection), on the assumption that

'Those familiar with the ‘Spectator’ may recall Addison’s allusion to this (No. 59).
See also Middleton’s Life of Cicero.

ATA SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

more confusion would result from sacrifice of priority than of classical
excellence.
From names as names I proceed to the consideration of fitting them
to groups.
TYPONYMS.

The question, What is necessary to insure reception of a generic name?
is one of those concerning which there is difference of opinion. By
some a definition is.considered to be requisite, while by others the
specification of a type is only required. But the demand in such case
is Simply that the definition shall be made. It may be inaccurate or
not to the point; it may be given up at once, and never adopted by
the author himself afterwards, or by anyone else. Nevertheless, the
condition is fulfilled by the attempt to give the definition. In short,
the attempt is required in order that the competency (or its want) of
the namer may be known, and if incompetency is shown thereby, no
matter; the attempt has been made. The indication by a type is not
sufficient!

Anyone who has had occasion to investigate the history of some
large group must have been often perplexed in determining on what
special subdivision of a disintegrated genus the original name should
be settled. The old genus may have been a very comprehensive one,
covering many genera and even families of modern zoology, and of
course the investigator has to ignore the original diagnosis. He must
often acknowledge how much better it would have been if the genus
had been originally indicated by a type rather than a diagndésis. Many
naturalists, therefore, now recognize a typonym to be eligible as a
generic name. Among such are those guided by the code formulated
by the American Ornithologists’ Union, to which reference may be
made, and in which will be found some judicious remarks on the sub-
ject under Canon XLII. Certainly it is more rational to accept a
typonym than to require a definition for show rather than use. Never-
theless, I fully recognize the obligation of the genus-maker to indicate
by diagnosis as well as type his conception of generic characters.

FIRST SPECIES OF A GENUS NOT ITS TYPE.

On account of the difficulty of determining the applicability of a
generic name when a large genus is to be subdivided, it has been the
practice of some zoologists to take the first species of a genus as its
type. This, it has been claimed, is in pursuance of the law of priority.
It is, however, an extreme, if not illegitimate, extension of the law, and
has generally been discarded in recent years. But in the past it had
eminent advocates, such as George Robert Gray in ornithology and
Pieter van Bleeker in ichthyology. A few still adhere to the practice,
and within a few months two excellent zoologists have defended their

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. A75

application of names by statements that the first species of the old
genera justified their procedure. The contention of one involves the
names which shall be given to the crayfishes and lobsters.

It is evident that the fathers of zoological nomenclature never con-
templated such a treatment of their names, and the application of the
rule to their genera would result in some curious and unexpected con-
ditions. Let us see how some genera of Linnzeus would fare. The
first species of Phoca was the fur seal; the first species of Mustela,
the sea otter; the first of Mus, the guinea pig, and the first of Cervus
was the giraffe. These are sufficient to show what incongruities would
flow from the adoption of the rule.

CHOICE OF NAMES SIMULTANEOUSLY PUBLISHED.

There is another issue of nomenclature involving many genera. In
the same work different names have been given to representatives or
stages of what are now considered the same genus. [or example,
Lacépede, in the third volume of his “ Histoire Naturelle des Poissons,”
published two names, Cephalacanthus and Dactylopterus, the former
given to the young and the latter to the adult stage of the flying gur-
nard. Cephalacanthus appeared on page 325, and Dactylopterus on page
325. Dactylopterus is the name that has been generally adopted for
the genus, but some excellent naturalists now insist on the resurrec-
tion and retention of Cephalacanthus, for the reason that the latter was
the first given name. In connection with an analogous case, it was
urged that “the law of primogeniture applies to twins.” There is a fal-
lacy involved in such a comparison, which becomes obvious enough on
consideration. In the case of twins, the birth of one precedes that of
the other by a very appreciable interval of time. But in the case of
names appearing in the same volume (issued as a whole) the publica-
tion is necessarily simultaneous. It is therefore, it appears to me,
perfectly logical to take the most appropriate name, or to follow the
zoologist who first selected one of the names. In the case of Dactylop-
terus there would be the further advantage that the current nomencla-
ture would not be disturbed.

It is interesting to note that those who have acted on the principle
just condemned do not feel called upon to accept the first species of a
genus as its type.

MAJOR GROUPS AND THEIR NOMENCLATURE.

Another subject to which I would invite your attention is the amount
of subdivision of the animal kingdom which is expedient, and the
nomenclature of such subdivisions.

Linneus only admitted four categories—class, order, genus, and
species. These sufficed for most naturalists during the entire past
century. Only one naturalist—Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr—went

476 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

into much greater detail; he admitted as many as eleven categories,
which may be roughly compared with modern groups as follows:

Agmen Rubrisanguia Subkingdom
|= Vertebrata]
: Warm-blooded
Acies Soldniooded |Superelass
Class Mammalia Class
Pc data |
Phalanx jPinmepedia Subclass
Pinnata j
Cohors ae anes |Superorder
Ordo Order
Missus Suborder
Sectio Family
Coetus Subfamily
Genus Genus |
Species Species

These groups are not exactly comparable with any of recent systema-
tists, inasmuch as Storr proceeded from a physiological instead of a
morphological base in his classification. The only work in which this
classification was exhibited was in his “ Prodromus Methodi Mamma-
lium,” published in 1780.

With this exception the naturalists of the last century practically
recognized only four categories—species, genera, orders, and classes.
Families were introduced into the system by Latreille. The word
“family,” it is true, was not unknown previously, but it had been used
only as a synonym for order. In botany such usage even prevails to
some extent at the present day, and persists as a heritage of the past.
The French botanists used ‘‘ famille” as the equivalent of ‘ ordo.”
Our English and American botanists followed and used “order” as
the more scientific designation and ‘‘ family” as a popular one; Gray,
for example, calling the family represented by the buttercups the
“Order Ranunculacee,” or “Crowfoot Family.” But in zoology the
two names became early differentiated, and while order was continued
in use with the approximate limits assigned to it by Linneus, family
was interposed as a new category, intermediate between the order and
genus. At first this category generally was given a descriptive desig-
nation, but soon the tendency to employ as a part of the designation
the stem of the principal generic name became marked, and the use of
the patronymic suffix -ide in connection with a generic name was
adopted, and as time has advanced has become more and more general.’

3ut the assent to this method is not universal. There are still some
excellent zoologists who refuse to be bound by the rule and who adopt
the oldest family name, whether it be denominative or patronymic and
whatever may be the termination.

The five categories thus recognized were very generally admitted,
aud for a long time were the only ones recognized by many naturalists.

>=

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. eT

But gradually suborders, subfamilies, and subgenera were taken up.
Further, the word “tribe” was often used, but with different applica-
tions. Still other divisions were occasionally introduced, but the most
elaborate of all the schemes for gradation of the groups of the animal
kingdom were those proposed by Bleeker! and Haeckel.’ They are
reproduced in the following parallel columns, in which their applica-
tions to fishes and mammals are likewise shown:

Vertebrata Phylum
Pachycardia Subphylum
Allantoidia Cladus
Subcladus
Mammalia CLASSIS CLASSIS Pisces
Monodelphia Subclassis Subclassis Monopnoi
Divisio Dirhinichthyes
Deciduata Legio Legio Hleutherognathi
Discoplacentalia Sublegio Sublegio Ctenobranchir
Series LIsopleurt
Subseries Kanonikodermi
Phalanx Alethinichthyes
Subphalanx Neopoiesichthyes
Caterva Katapieseocephali
Rodentia ORDO ORDO Perce
Subordo Subordo Percichthyini
sic!
Myomorpha Sectio Sectio el eee
Subsectio
Tribus Percichthyrne
[sic !]
Murina FAMILIA FAMILIA Percovdei
Subfamilia Subfamilia Perceformes
Arvicolida Tribus Cohors
Hypuder Subtribus Stirps
Arvicola GENUS GENUS Perca
Subgenus
Paludicola Cohors
Subcohors
Arvicola amphib- SPECIES SPECIES Perca fluviatilis
Ws Subspecies

Arvicola (amphib- Varietas
dus) terrestris

Arvicola (amphib- Subvarietas
ius terrestris)
argentoratensis

Here we have a total of 31 categories intermediate between the king-
dom and the individual of an animal form. The tools have become too
“numerous, and some were rarely used by the authors themselves. Thus
the cohors and stirps were not called into requisition by Bleeker for
the Percoidei (though they were for the subdivision of the Cyprinoidei),
and in the recent classification of the Radiolarians Professor Haeckel

1Enumeratio specierum Piscium hucusque in Archipelago Indico observatorum,
p. xi et seq., 1859.
2 Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, II, 400, 1866.

ATS SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

did not find it necessary to draw upon the tribus or subtribus for the
arrangement of any family. None others have adopted in detail either
of the elaborate schemes proposed by their distinguished authors, and
even those authors themselves have not, in their later works, gone into
the details they provided for in their schemes. The only divisional
name that has been used to any great extent is tribe. That has been
frequently employed, but in different ways—sometimes for the divi-
sion of an order, sometimes within a suborder, sometimes for a section
of a family, again for a part of a subfamily, and even for a fragment of
a genus.’ In two of these widely differing ways it has been used in
the systems of Bleeker and Haeckel. It is evident, however, that
more groups than the old conventional ones, which alone Agassiz
admitted, would be useful at present. A happy mean seems to be
realized in the following list:

Branch Superfamily
Subbranch Family
Superclass Subfamily
Class Supergenus
Subclass Genus
Superorder Subgenus
Order Species
Suborder Subspecies

There are only two (or three for trinomialists) of these which are
“sonant,” all the others being ‘‘mute” (to use the expression of Lin-
neus); but a question of termination affects several of them.

All the supergeneric groups, like families, were originally chiefly
designated by descriptive names, but the trend in all the years has
been toward names which are based on the stems of existing genera.

FAMILY.

In 1796-97 (“an 5 de la R.”), Latreille, in his “‘ Précis des Caracteres
génériques des Insectes,” for the first time employed the term ‘‘ family”
as a Subdivision of an order, but only gave the families numbers (‘ Fam-
ille premicre,” “ Fam. 2,” etc.).2. He remarked that it might be desira-
ble to have the families named, but deferred doing so till he could
review the subject with greater care.’

In 1798 (“an 6”), Cuvier, in his “Tableau Elémentaire de Histoire
naturelle des Animaux,” in the introduction, when treating of graded

'The words “phalanx,” ‘‘cohors,” and ‘‘series” (if not others) have been used
recently in another manner by Dr. F. A. Smitt in the “ History of Scandinavian
Fishes.” The sequence in that work is Classis, Ordo, Subordo, Phalanx, Cohors,
Series, Familia, Subfamilia, Genus, Subgenus, Species. :

““Les rapports anatomique, ceux de I’ Habitus, des métamorphoses, ont été mes
guides dans la formation des familles. Elles sont précédées d’un chiffre arabe.”
paix.

On eut désiré que j’eusse donné des noms aux familles; mais prévoyant que je
serois contraint d’y faire plusieurs changemens, j’eusse ainsi exposé la nomenclature
a une vicissitude tres contraire 4 Vavancement de la science.” p. ix.

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. A79

characters (‘‘caractéres graducs”), named only the genus, order, class,
and the kingdom. In the body of the work sometimes he used the word
family instead of order (as for the Birds), but for two orders of the
Insects he formally adopted a division into families which were regu-
larly named. The first (unnamed) order (‘‘ordre”), with jaws and
without wings (“ Des insectes pourvus de machoires, et sans ailes”), was
divided into several families (‘‘ plusieurs familles naturelles”)—“ les
Crustacés,” “‘les Millepieds,” ‘‘les Araenc¢ides,” and “les Phtyréides.”
The order Névropteres was disintegrated into three families (‘ trois
familles naturelles”)—“les Libelles,” “les Perles,” and ‘les Agnathes.”
The representatives of the other (six) orders were distributed directly
into genera.

This, so far as I have been able to discover, was the first time in
which an order of the animal kingdom was regularly divided into
named families, designated as such.

In 1806 Latreille, in lis ‘‘Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum,” gave
names to families, but on no uniform plan, providing descriptive names
for some, as “Oxyrhinci” for the Maioidean crabs, names based on
typical genera, with a patronymic termination, as Palinurini and Asta-
cini, and in other cases names also based on a typical genus, but with
a quasi-plural form, as Pagurii. (In the same work, it may be well to
add, Latreille also admitted more categories than usual, using ten for
the animal kingdom—Sectio, Classis, Legio, Centuria, Cohors, Ordo,
Familia, Tribus, Genus, and Species.)

In 1806 A. M. Constant Duméril, who had previously contributed
tables of classification to Cuvier’s ‘“Lecons d’Anatomie Comparée,”
and published his own “Elemens d’Histoire Naturelle,” brought out
his “Zoologie Analytique.” In this volume he gave analytical tables
for the entire animal kingdom and admitted families for all the classes.
The families were generally subordinated to orders, but when the
structural diversity within a class did not appear sufficient to require
more than one “mute” category the order was sacrificed in favor of
the family. His families were generally very comprehensive, often
very unnatural, and mostly endowed with descriptive names. (He
admitted no more than five named categories in the animal kingdom—
class, order, family, genus, and species.)

As we have seen, Cuvier, Latreille, Rafinesque, and others to some
extent, used names ending in -ides and -ini, but the first to fully recog-
nize the advisability of using patronymic family names universally was
William Kirby, who has not often received the credit for so doing, and
is probably unknown to most in such connection. Nevertheless, in a
note to his memoir on ‘“Strepsiptera, a new order of insects pro-

memoir published in ‘‘The Transactions of the Linnean Society of London” (XI.,
86-122, pl. 8,9). The memoir was ‘‘read March 19, 1811.” The date of the whole
volume is 1815.

480 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

terminology. He complained that Latreille’s names “have not that
harmony and uniformity of termination which is necessary to make
them easily retained by the memory.” Continuing he added, “If we
adopted a patronymic appellation for these sections, for instance,
Coleoptera Scarabeide, Coleoptera Staphylinnde, Coleoptera Spheri-
diade, Orthoptera Gryllide, etc., it would be liable to no objection of
this kind.”

The suggestion thus made was heeded. The English naturalists
(especially William Elford Leach and John Edward Gray) soon applied
the method inculcated, and from them it has spread to the naturalists
of every land, but the original impulse has been forgotten. For this
reason I have recalled the memory of Kirby’s work.

But it was long before the expediency of this procedure was uni-
versally recognized, and even yet there are dissentients. One objection
was that the termination -idw was not consistent with Latin words.
Prof. Agassiz was never reconciled to such names, and gave names of
Greek origin the termination -oid@, and those of Latin the ending -ine.
In his system, too, there was no distinction between families and sub-
fainilies, both having terminations in consonance with the origin of the
stems, and not the taxonomic value of the groups.

The endings -ide and -oide have been often supposed to be identical,
and even in highly esteemed dictionaries (as ‘“‘ The Imperial Dictionary
of the English Language”) the terminal element of family names end-
ing in -ide@is derived from “ ¢7d 0s, resemblance.” As already indicated,
however, words so terminated should be considered as patronymies.
But those ending in -oide@, -oidei, and -oidea may be assumed to be
direct components with e7dos.

In answer to the objection (by Burmeister, for example) that patro-
nymic names are foreign to the genius of the Latin language, or at least
of Latin prose, the fact that such a poet as Virgil has a large number,
shows that there is no prevailing antagonism.

SUBFAMILY.

Next to the family, the term “subfamily” was the earliest, and has
been the one most generally accepted of the groups now adopted. But
the name itself was not used till long after “family” had come into gen-
eral vogue. The chief subdivision of the family had been named tribe
(“‘tribu”), by Latreille, in 1806, and he continued to use that term.
C. S. Rafinesque, in 1815, used the word subfamily (‘ sows-famille”) for
groups of the same relative rank as the “ tribu” of Latreille, but gave
generally descriptive names, with modified nominative plural endings
(e. g., Monodactylia), although sometimes he named the group after
the princpal genus (e. g., Percidia). The subfamily is now generally
recognized, and its ending rendered by -inw, or more seldom -ini or -ina,
This is rather a termination for Latin adjectives involving the idea of
relation or pertinence.

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. ' 481

But, as has been already urged, the language of nomenclature should
not be bound by rules of strict philology. One of the most useful devices
of scientific terminology is the establishment of terminations which
indicate the nature or value of a group, or relation to the group to
which some entity belongs.

The chemist has his terminations in -ates, -ides, and -gens, and does
not deem it incumbent to defend his usage or to abandon his system
because some one might object to the want of classical models. Nay,
classical scholars themselves have recognized the legitimacy and
usefulness of such a method.

The ending -ide has been shown to have classical sanction for both
Greek and Latin; -inw has only classical sanction for Latin words, and
there is one, -oidea, for which no models are to be found in either lan-
guage. But the convenience of all those endings, as indicative at once
of the taxonomic value of each group, far outweighs any objection to
them from the philological side. We are now confronted with the
groups having the -oidea ending.

SUPERFAMILY.

ixperience has shown that for the exhibition of difference in value
of various groups and characters, more than the generally accepted
groups—families and subfamilies—are desirable. Groups above the
family, in the generality of their characters, had been frequently adopted.
A quarter century ago I searched for an available name and notation for
such a group, and found that the groups which I wished to recognize
were most like those that Dana had recognized in the Ciustaceans,
under the name of subtribe, and given the ending -oidea. But the
term ‘ tribe” had first been given and most generally used for a sub-
division of the family, and consequently was ineligible for a group
including a family. Other names had been given to such groups, but
there were objections against them. In a communication to the Amer-
ican Association for the Advancement of Science (Volume XX) I used
a new name—superfamily—and the termination -oidea. The great
advantage of thename was that it relieved the memory, and suggested
at once what was meant by relation to a familiar standard—family.
The term has been quite generally adopted, but there has been diversity
of usage in the form of the names, -oidew being frequently suffixed to
the stem, and sometimes a descriptive name has been given. The only
reason for the ending -oidea is thatit was first used in such connection ;
-oidew has the advantage (or disadvantage?) that it is in consonance
with -ide and -inw. No provision has been made by the German Zoolog-
ical Society for this category, their attention having been confined to
family and subfamily nomenclature.!

1«Die Namen von Familien und Unterfamilien werden fortan von dem giiltigen
Namen einer zu diesen Gruppen gehérigen Gattung gebildet, und zwar die der Fam-
ilien durch Anhiingen der Endung ide (Plural von ides [gr. e7675] masc. gen.), die
der Unterfamilien durch Anhiingen der Endung inw (fem. gen.) an den Stamm des
betreffenden Gattungsnamens.” Regeln . . . von der Deutsch. Zool. Ges., § 28.

sm 96 ol

482 SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE.

OTHER GROUPS.

Time does not permit of the consideration of the other groups—order,
suborder, class, subclass, superclass, branch, etc. Nevertheless a caveat
is in order that there appears to be no reason why the principle of
priority now so generally recognized for the subordinate groups should
not prevail for the higher. Why should the name Amphibia disappear
and Batrachia and Reptilia usurp its place? Amphibia is a far better
name for the Batrachia and in every way defensible for it. The name
had especial relation to it originally, and it was first restricted to it as
a class. Why should the names Sauria and Serpentes give place to
Lacertilia and Ophidia? The first are names familiar to ail, and cor-
rectly formed; the last are, at least, strangely framed. Why should
not Meantia be adopted as an ordinal name by those who regard the
Sirenids as representatives of a distinct order, as did Linneus? Why
should not the ordinal names Bruta, Fere, Glires, and Cete prevail
over Hdentata, Carnivora, Rodentia, and Cetacea? If the rules formu-
lated by the various societies are applied to those groups, the earliest
names must be revived.

COMPLAINTS OF INSTABILITY OF NOMENCLATURE.

Frequent are the laments over the instability of our systematic
nomenclature; bitter the complaints against those who change names.
But surely such complaints are unjust when urged against those who
range themselves under laws. We are forcibly reminded by such com-
plaints of the ancient apologue of-the wolf and the lamb. The stream
of nomenclature has indeed been much muddied, but it is due to the
acts of those who refuse to be bound by laws or reason. The only way
to purify the stream is to clear out ali the disturbing elements. In
doing so mud that has settled for a time may be disturbed, but this is
at worst anticipating what would have inevitably happened sooner or
later. We are suffering from the ignorance or misdeeds of the past.
In opposing the necessary rectifications and the enforcement of the
laws, extremes may meet; conservatives and anarchists agree. But
the majority may be depended upon in time to subscribe to the laws,
and the perturbed condition will then cease to be.

It is unfortunate that our nomenclature should have been so wedded
to systematic zoology, and devised to express the different phases of
our knowledge or understanding of morphological facts. Even under
the binomial system the disturbing element might have been made
much less than it is. The genera of Linnzeus recognized for the animal
kingdom were generally very comprehensive; sometimes, as in the case
of Petromyzon, Asterias, and Echinus, answering to a modern class;
sometimes, like Testudo, kana, Cancer, Scorpio, Aranea, Scolopendra, and
Julus, toa modern order, or even more comprehensive group, and rarely,
among Vertebrates, to a group of less than family value. The usage of

SOME QUESTIONS OF NOMENCLATURE. 483

Linneets for the animal kingdom was very different from that for the veg-
etable kingdom. If the successors of Linneus had been content to take
genera of like high rank (equivalent to families, for example), and give
other names to the subdivisions (or subgenera) of such genera, which,
to use the language of Linnzeus, should be mute, less change would have
subsequently resulted. But (Linneus himself leading) his successors
successively divided a genus, gradually accepting a lower and lower
standard of value, till now a genus is little more than a multiform or
very distinct isolated species. Yet the change has been very gradual.
It began by taking a comprehensive group, recognizing that the differ-
ences between its representatives were greater than those existing
between certain genera already established, and therefore the old genus
was Split up; or it was perceived that the characters used to define a
genus were of less systematic importance than others found within the
limits of the old genus, and, to bring into prominence such a truth,
the genus was disintegrated. The process often repeated, and from
successively contracted bases, has led to the present condition.

The existing system of restricted genera, however, is too firmly fixed
to revert back to a method that might have been, and which indeed
Cuvier attempted to introduce by his revised Linnean genera and their
subgenera. The best thing to do now is to accept the current system,
purified as much as possible by judicious and inexorably applied laws.
Doubtless in the distant future a less cumbrous and changeable system
of notation will be devised, but in the meantime we had best put up
with the present, inconvenient though it be.

THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES.!

By E. A. DE SCHWEINITZ.

From the moment that man made his appearance in the world there
has been perpetual warfare between himself and everything animate
and inanimate upon the earth. To a great extent this has been an
aggressive strife, man’s every effort being exerted to compel nature to
contribute to his comfort, welfare, and advancement by the subjuga-
tion of her materials and forces. It was many centuries, however,
before he recognized that there were certain unknown insidious ene-
mies, which often rendered fruitless his simple household occupations,
defied his every effort at control, and sometimes menaced even his
well-being and life. Though in 1675 Leeuwenhoeck discovered, with a
powerful magnifying glass, certain minute organisms in decomposing
animal matter, it was not until nearly two centuries later that their
true significance was recognized, and Davaine first demonstrated the
positive connection between these minute forms of life and disease.
When animal and vegetable life ceased, in accordance with the laws of
nature, they were supposed to be changed by purely chemical actions,
so that their elements were again returned to the earth and air to sup-
ply food for other plants and animals. This destruction was considered
to be wrought simply by the oxygen of the air, and the process of fer-
mentation was thought to be due to a similar cause. It had been
known for ages that the juice of the grape, if allowed to stand, under-
went changes by which its character was modified and wine was formed,
or this change might be allowed to progress further until the juice had
been converted into vinegar and finally carbon dioxid gas and water.
These alterations, those which take place in the digestive tract of ani-
mals and are involved in the conversion of dead animal and plant
matter into their simplest constituents, were classed under tlie general
head of fermentations.

The fermentations, especially that of wine, an Italian chemist, Fa-
broni, in 1822, supposed to be induced by a substance of vegetable
origin, but closely allied to the white of egg. He considered this mate-
rial identical with the gluten of cereals and gave to it the name of

‘Address of the president before the Chemical Society of Washington, March 9,

1897. Printed in Science, Vol. V, No. 119. pages 561-570.
; 485

A86 THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES.

the “principle vegetoanimal.” For nearly forty years afterwards this
theory was applied by chemists to all fermentations. It was supposed
that the albuminoid substance present exposed to the oxygen of the air
experienced a progressively variable alteration, that diverse modifica-
tions of matter were produced which constituted the ferments of diverse
nature. The fermentation was the result of the molecular movement
thus communicated. These theories were based upon an erroneous
interpretation of what occurred under certain conditions. There exists
in wine, when it is being converted into vinegar, a substance which acts
to bring about this modification, but this is not dead albuminoid matter,
but a living plant. This fact the lamented chemist, Pasteur, demon-
strated in his careful studies upon the production of wine and its con
version into vinegar. Before this time, it is true, there were many who
failed to accept the theory of spontaneous oxidation, and endeavored to
show that if fermentable liquids were boiled in flasks which were then
immediately sealed, the fermentation could not take place. But this
did not fulfill the demands of one school of chemists, viz, that plenty of
oxygen gas should always be present. When the liquid was boiled in
contact with air which had previously been drawn through sulphuric
acid, it was claimed that the air had undergone some chemical change,
so it was not until 1854 that this objection was overcome by previously
passing the air in the presence of which boiling took place through
cotton, and it was then that this school of chemists found their theories
in danger. Pasteur demonstrated that the plant present in the prepa-
ration of vinegar was the simplest form of life, a cell which could be
easily destroyed by heat. Its presence was absolutely necessary for
fermentation, and without the living cell no amount of dead vegetable
matter could cause the peculiar molecular disarrangement which had
been claimed. Liebig had contended that as long as the juice of the
grape remained away from contact with the oxygen of the air the nec-
essary motion could not be imparted to the molecules, which move-
ment subsequently caused the phenomena of fermentation. Thus was
brought to an end the strife between the two schools of vitalists and
chemists; the one school of chemists demanding the presence of oxygen
only, the other the presence of a living plant cell in addition to oxygen.
From this strife of the two schools was evolved in reality a new science
and new theories, which have made the past thirty years marvelous in
giving explanations of many of the simplest phenomena of plant and
animal life and death, placed the practice of medicine upon a scientific
basis, and rendered possible an intelligent system of agriculture and
animal husbandry.

Pasteur’s discoveries also served to explain the true cause of the
poisonous properties of spoiled meats and other foods, stagnant water,
and water from marshy countries. For more than half a century before
this time a nuinber of investigators had proved the dangerous charac-
ter of old sausage, meats, bread, and the like. Kerner concluded that
they contained a fatty acid to which the poisonous action was due;

THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES. 487

others confirmed these ideas and came to similar conclusions in regard
to poisonous cheese. In 1856 Panum asserted, as a result of his stud-
ieS upon the poisons found in putrid animal matter, that these poisons
might be formed by some active plant cell, but their injurious effect
was independent of these cells. He demonstrated that fixed nonvola-
tile poisons could be extracted from putrid matter, which were soluble
in water and alcohol, not destroyed by heat, and produced the same
effects after they had been submitted to a high temperature as before.
These poisons he found to be intense in their action, 0.012 gram suffic-
ing to cause the death of a small animal. In 1866 Bence-Jones obtained
from the liver a substance which, with dilute sulphuric acid, gave a
bright blue fluorescence like that noted in similar solutions of quinine.
Probably this was the product of what we now call fluorescing bacteria.

The work of Pasteur threw light upon the origins of these poisons.
As the ferment causes the alteration in the grape juice, so do micro-
scopic forms of life bring about the changes which take place in dead
animal and vegetable matter, and also those conditions in the living
body which we call disease.

Many of these microscopic forms of single-celled plants, the bacteria,
have their natural habitat upon dead organic matter, but they may
flourish in the living body, and are almost unlimited in variety, appear-
ance, and behavior. It is possible also to cultivate them upon specially
prepared solutions, after their individual peculiarities have been studied.
Some thrive best in light, others in darkness; some like a goodly sup-
ply of oxygen, others prefer nitrogen; some are very sensitive to changes
of temperature, while others readily accustom themselves to vicissitudes.

These different bacteria further are somewhat eccentric within as
well as without the animal body. Some, as the diphtheria germs, find
their most comfortable habitat upon certain mucous membranes, others
in the lungs, some in the digestive tract, still others in the blood, while
others again confine themselves to certain external cells and membranes.
In their artificial cultivation this eccentricity is equally apparent.
While nearly all thrive upon beef broth, some prefer the beef broth
with an excess of acid, others with an excess of alkali. Some demand
the addition of sugar or glycerine, others the addition of sugar together
with acid, while some are satisfied with a diet of phosphates, salt, and
water. These peculiarities have to be studied for each germ, and while
many can accommodate themselves to their surroundings, and while
the same germ grown upon different media produces the same sub-
stances, the amount of each substance is a varying one, and in cultiva-
ting them artificially we must find which diet gives rise to the largest
amount of the most active products.

Shortly after the work of Panum just referred to, the Italian chemist
Selmi outlined methods of extracting poisonous principles from dead
animal matter, and gave to these substances the name ptomaines, on
account of their origin. Later, in 1876, the first analysis of a ptomaine
was made by Nencki and its formula determined. Further experiments

488 THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES.

showed that volatile and nonvolatile substances, akaline in character,
could be obtained from various portions of the animal body, often from
fresh material and also from the cultures of bacteria. These ptomaines
were found to resemble the alkaloids in their chemical reactions.

In 1882-83 Brieger succeeded in separating and determining a num-
ber of these ptomaines, from the brain, from fish muscarin, from decom-
posed glue, neuridine and dimethyl amine, ete. From pure cultures of
the typhoid germ he obtained a substance, typhotoxin, which produced
typhoid symptoms, and from cultures of the tetanus germ tetanin,
which caused convulsions. The presence of similar poisonous bases
was demonstrated in cultures of the cholera, hog cholera, anthrax,
pyogenes aureus and like active bodies were isolated from cheese, milk,
ice cream, sausage, and other foods which had caused sickness.

The isolation of these poisons from bacterial cultures gave rise to the
belief that they were the bodies which caused the fatal effects of dis-
ease. But while in many instances they produced the characteristic
symptoms, in others they were not sufficient to account for all the
phenomena. [or example, from cultures of the tetanus germ it was
possible to isolate a base that had but slight poisonous properties,
while the culture liquid from which this was obtained after all the germs
had been removed was ten thousand times more poisonous than the
base secured. Nonpoisonous ptomaines were also obtained from eul-
tures of disease-producing bacteria, and, in fact, the majority of
ptomaines were found to be nonpoisonous.

The next question was, If in the culture liquids freed from bacteria
poisonous substances are obtained, and if they do not belong to the
class of ptomaines, how shall they be identified and classified? In 1886
Mitchell and Reichert, while studying the venoms of serpents, noted
that these poisons belonged to a class of bodies different from the
ptomaines, viz, to the group called proteids. Shortly after, Roux and
Yersin, in their studies upon the diphtheria poison, demonstrated that
this was a substance which resembled the ferments and were led to
think that an enzyme, as it is called, a substance like pepsin, was the
active poison, and that this enzyme was in some way elaborated by the
germ. Other investigators had found a similar substance in tetanus
and hog cholera cultures, and a reinvestigation by Brieger of a number
of bacterial cultures showed that by precipitation with ammonium
sulphate and alcohol very poisonous substances giving proteid reactions
could be obtained. Proteids of various characters belonging to dif-
ferent classes were obtained from cultures of many bacteria. About
this time it was shown that certain plants of a higher order contained
poisonous bodies of a like proteid character. An albumose abrin was
obtained from the Jequirity seeds and ricin from the castor-oil bean.
These were intensely poisonous, 75,500 Of a grain of abrin being suffi-
cient to kill an animal weighing one kilogram, or the ;}> of a grain
should be a fatal dose for aman weighing about 130 pounds.

THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES. 489

A relationship was thus established between the poisons from higher
plants and from the lowest plants, and certain animals. Was this
poisonous property of these bacterial substances due to a true proteid,
or was there an admixture of an active, ferment-like substance with
the proteid, and are these poisons mechanically carried down in the
process of precipitation of the albuminoid matter in the culture liquids?
Experiments show that while the poisons may be proteids, it is
more than probable that they are simply carried down with proteid
matter as indicated. Brieger in 1893, in view of the results so far
obtained, endeavored to isolate the pure poison from cultures of the
tetanus bacillus. The cultures were first filtered through porous porce-
lain, a Chamberland filter tube, for instance, and the liquid which
passed through was treated with a concentrated solution of ammo-
mum sulphate. This precipitated the poisons and a number of other
substances which gave proteid reactions. After purification and dial-
ysis the poison was obtained as yellow, soluble flakes which no longer
gave proteid reactions. It was a substance in which there was no
noticeable phosphorus nor sulphur. It was thus proved that the
tetanus poison belonged neither to the ptomaines before referred to nor
to the proteids. The poison, while not perfectly pure, was purer than
any ever before obtained, and was so poisonous that a mouse weighing
one-half ounce was killed by z;s3o005 part of a grain, while 51, of a
grain should kill a man weighing 150 pounds.

It is not difficult to understand how if the tetanus bacillus outside
of the body can produce such powerful poisons, it can give rise in the
animal organism to serious troubles. The diphtheria bacillus is another
germ which forms very powerful poisons in the solutions upon which
itfeeds. Asalready mentioned, some authors, Roux and Yersin, believe
that this poison also belongs to the ferments like trypsin and pepsin,
while Brieger and Fraenkel thought it was a toxalbumin. We find,
after the germ has been removed from the culture liquid by filtration,
that the poison can be separated by calcium phosphate or ammonium
sulphate, just like the tetanus poison. In the purest condition in which
it has been so far obtained it fails to give the proteid reaction, and
of a grain will kill a guinea pig. It dialyses readily. Bodies of a sim-
ilar kind have been obtained from cholera, glanders, swine plague,
tuberculosis, and anthrax cultures, while many other bacteria produce
soluble intensely poisonous substances in artificial cultures as well as
inside the animal body.

These products aré all characteristic of the individual organism.
The conditions under which the most poisonous ones are formed seem
to be dependent partly, we may say, upon the humor of the germ and
also upon the food offered for its use. It appears, for example, in con-
nection with the diphtheria germ that if there happens to be present in
the beef broth upon which it is being cultivated an undue amount of
glucose and an insufficient supply of alkali that, instead of producing

490 THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES.

a very active poison, the substance secreted is much less harmful.
This is accounted for by the supposition that the glucose is decomposed
into acid, which, in its turn, neutralizes or decomposes the poison ordi-
narily produced by the germ. These poisons, it was originally sup-
posed, resulted from the decomposition of the food of the germ, just as
soluble and assimilable albuminoids are produced by the acids and
ferments of the animal body from the insoluble albuminoids that are
ingested as food. It has been found, however, that in most instances
the poison of the germ is in solution in quantity only after the germs
themselves have become partially disintegrated. In other words, the
active bacterial poisons seem to be products of the cell and retained
within the cell until the latter dies and the cell membrane is broken,
permitting the passage into the surrounding liquid of the poison.
What, then, is the true nature of these poisons if they belong neither
to the bases nor to the proteids or toxalbumins? That, unfortunately,
is one of the problems to which, up to the present time, chemical
research has not been able to give a definite answer; and this because,
as we have already noted, the poisons of these bacteria are so tremen-
dously active, and consequently produced in proportionately small
amount, even when a large quantity of the culture media is used, that
it has so far been a matter almost of impossibility to separate a suffi-
cient quantity of these poisonous principles to purify them perfectly
for chemical analysis. Perhaps this object has been attained more
nearly than ever before by some workers in the biochemic laboratory
in this city, who have succeeded in separating from cultures of the
tuberculosis germ a crystalline poison with constant melting point and
a constant composition. This is not the only poison produced by the
tuberculosis germ, but that it is one ot the principles which is respon-
sikle for much of the trouble with this disease is beyond doubt. These
special poisonous principles, which are so difficult to obtain pure, we
designate by the name toxins, to distinguish them from the ptomaines
and proteid substances before mentioned. Another difficulty which is
always encountered in extracting the poisons of bacteria is their
instability. The material with which an experiment is begun may be
very poisonous, but the processes of precipitation and extraction
through which it must be passed in order to obtain a desired substance
are such that often, long before the final stages have been reached, the
nature of the poisons has undergone an entire change due to the chem-
ical processes which have necessarily been applied.

We have said that the poisons of the germ were synthetic products
which were built up within the cell wall. Some of these easily pass
through the cell wall, due, probably, to the greater permeability of the
living membrane; others are retained within the cell wall, only to pass
into solution when these walls are broken down. Tetanus, diphtheria,
and swine plague allow this diffusion to take place very rapidly, while
with other germs, like typhoid fever, anthrax, cholera, glanders, tuber-
culosis, the poison is produced and retained within the cell more firmly

Ss |

THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES. A91

during the life of the latter. As the germs die, however, in artificial
cultures, the cell walls gradually disintegrate and the poison passes
out into the surrounding liquid. In the case of tuberculosis and glan-
ders a strong solution of these cell poisons in the surrounding liquid
upon which the germ has been feeding gives tuberculin and mallein,
the two diagnostic agents which have been of inestimable value in
detecting latent disease in men and animals and thus preventing the
spread of untold evils.

Thus the warfare, first begun by the chemist with the microbes in
identifying their character and relation to disease, has been prosecuted
for little more than a decade in endeavoring to detect the true charac-
ter of the insidious poisons with which their arrows are tipped. Toa
certain extent, as we have seen, this warfare has been a successful one,
in so far that the poisons have been hunted and driven to their last
stronghold, which ere long, with the many workers in attack, must
yield, as heretofore, to superior forces. But while this search for the
pure poisons has been in progress the chemist has not been idle in
endeavoring to counteract these poisons, the nature of which he did not
thoroughly understand, but the evil effects of which were only too appar-
ent. While Jenner, in vaccination for smallpox, and ‘Pasteur, with his
method of vaccination for anthrax, had shown that it was possible to
protect animals and men from a virulent attack of disease by giving
them first a mild attack (though, by the way, there are a few who con-
tend even to day that vaccination is useless), it remained for Salmon,
his assistant, and Smith, in this city, to demonstrate, in 1882, that the
poisons of germs could be used by men and animals to fortify them-
selves against the attacks of these same bacteria. This could be
accomplished by introducing into the circulation of the animal a small
quantity of the poison of the germ, so that when the germ itself was
injected the poison which it produced was without effect. What had
been found true for one disease of animals proved also to be true for
many others, and chemical vaccination was tried for diphtheria, tetanus,
anthrax, cholera, typhoid fever, tuberculosis, glanders, and a number
of other diseases. But this discovery led to another, important and
far-reaching. Fodor showed that the blood serum of animals made
immune to a particular disease by injecting the animal with the poison
which this germ formed had the effect of destroying the germ of the
disease. This excited renewed interest in the study of the blood, and
within a few years it was demonstrated by the work of many, some in
this city in the laboratory before mentioned, that this serum from pre-
viously immunized animals not only had the property of conferring
immunity upon other animals, but also of checking the disease after it
had once begun. How thoroughly this fact was demonstrated, first
by Behring and subsequently by Roux and others, in connection
with diphtheria and tetanus has been dwelt upon often, and we know
of the many thousands of lives that have been saved by the use of
antitoxic serums.

492 THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES.

To prepare these the solution of the toxins, which we have before
described, are injected into different animals, preferably horses, and at
the end of six to twelve weeks the blood of these animals is found
to yield a serum containing substances possessing both immunizing
and curative properties which we call antitoxins. The active principle
of this serum is present in a comparatively small quantity, but its influ-
ence is enormous. It does not appear to be a substance which directly
chemically neutralizes the poison, but counteracts its effects within the
animal in some unknown way.

But some of our friends may ask, Were not these facts discovered
first by the use of animals, and hence has not this knowledge, though
of inestimable value to mankind, been too dearly bought? Yes, per-
haps, a score or two of guinea pigs and sweet, lovely rats and mice
have sacrificed their lives for humanity’s sake. But this knowledge
could not have been gained in any other way unless by the sacrifice of
human life. What mother would hesitate to sacrifice a thousand
guinea pigs for the life of her child, or, on the other hand, would wish
her child to serve as the subject of experiment for others?

I have often been asked if the horses placed under this treatment
for the production of antitoxins suffer. I think not, and as an illus-
tration will relate an incident which has come under my own observa-
tion in the study of the antitoxins of the dread disease, tuberculosis.
A well-blooded horse, gentle in every particular, except that he would
run away upon the slightest provocation, seemed to be a suitable sub-
ject for some work. Accordingly he received an injection of the poison
of the tuberculosis germ, with the expectation that so high-strung an
animal would rebel against these pleasant familiarities. But he was
entirely too wise for this. He submitted quietly and seemed much
interested while by means of an hypodermic syringe a small quantity of
the poison was injected beneath his skin. A few days afterwards when
the operation was repeated it would have been reasonable to expect
that if there had been any discomfort the horse would have rebelled
against the procedure. Did this happen? Not by any means. As
soon as he observed the doctor appear with the syringe and bottle he
trotted toward him with pleasure, stood quietly looking around with
intelligence while the injection was made, and ever afterwards lent him-
self to the experiment with as much evident pleasure and interest as
that of the investigators, apparently thoroughly appreciating its object.

It would hardly be fair to say that this dumb animal was endowed with
more intelligence than some of our ill-informed but well-meaning friends,
and yet would its actions not seem to indicate a high regard for scien-
tific work and disclaimer of suffering?

Is it that they are instigated by a desire to inflict torture that scores
of investigators have sacrificed their lives in searching for the poisons
of dangerous bacteria and their antitoxins? Is it inhumanity which
spurs them on at imminent personal risk in their efforts, which are

THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES. 493

daily yielding new and brilliant results, to find means for controlling a
disease which annually causes one-seventh of the deaths of the popu-
lation of the globe?

However, it is not only for protection against the two diseases, teta-
nus and diphtheria, just mentioned, that antitoxic serums can be pre-
pared. lecent investigations have proved that typhoid fever, cholera,
anthrax, the plague, etc., are amenable to similar treatment and in
the same department in this city that chemical vaccination received its
first impetus, but by workers in the biochemic laboratory it has been
demonstrated that two diseases that cause such losses to the farmers
of the country may be controlled by antitoxic serums. Investigators
in this same laboratory have shown also that a substance antitoxie to
tuberculosis can be produced in the serum of animals when they are
properly treated, which has undoubted and pronounced effect in check-
ing experimental tuberculosis in small animals.

When we inquire the character of these antitoxins we are almost as
yet more in the dark than in our efforts to discover the exact nature of
the poisons of germs. However, it has been possible to separate in a
fairly pure form the antitoxic principle from diphtheria serum, a minute
amount of which will confer immunity and the antitoxic principle of
Swine plague, 0.002 gram of which has been found to cure animals
weighing 1 pound, and even a solid antitoxic-like substance for tuber-
culosis has been obtained in an impure form. All these solid antitoxic
principles resemble each other very closely in their chemical tests and
methods of separation, showing albuminoid reactions, but in their cura-
tive properties they are totally independent the one of the other. The
diphtheria antitoxic serum does not cure tetanus; the swine plague
serum does not cure the cholera.

In the case of the venom of serpents it has been found that repeated
injections will make the serum of an animal antitoxic and curative
against other venoms. The antitoxic serum produced by the cobra
venom will protect animals and men against the bite of the rattlesnake
as well as its own bite. It would seem from this that there is a very
close relationship between the poisons of venomous snakes, and that
immunity to one also gives protection from the other. It appears very
probable, also, that the poisons of germs belonging to the same genus
will be closely allied and that an antitoxin for one will also be an anti-
toxin for the other. In fact, it has been demonstrated that the
products of the bacillus coli communis will protect animals from the
typhoid germ, to which it is closely allied. The same effect will proba-
bly be obtained with many other diseases where the germs are related.

The difficulty of separating these antitoxins completely from the
other constituents of the blood has made it impossible as yet to obtain
positive information as to their true chemical character.

As to their action in producing immunity, one theory is that they
directly neutralize the poisons which the germs produce, but this does
not seem to be substantiated by experiment.

494. THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES.

Another theory proposed first by Sternberg, then by Metchnikoff,
ascribes immunity to the action of the white blood corpuscles upon the
bacteria, while the third theory, and the one which seems most tenable
in view of actual results, is that the antitoxic principle partakes of the
nature of an unorganized ferment like diastase, and that its action in
the body, with the aid of the leucocytes, suffices to render innocuous the
poisons of the particular germs.

There is little room for doubt that in the first instance the antitoxins
are the result of cell activity upon the introduced poison. Just how
the cell manages to convert the toxin into antitoxiec ferment is not
known, probably by absorption of the toxin and subsequent secretion
of the antitoxin within the cell wall. Every added dose of toxin finds
not only the leucocytes but a ferment to aid in its decomposition, and
so the change proceeds more rapidly and the immunity is increased.
Exactly what the chemical alteration in this instance is has not been
explained, but that there are oxidation and molecular rearrangement of
the toxin seems to be probable.

Thus, without taking into consideration the destruction of the causes
of disease, viz, germs themselves, by means of such excellent disin-
fectants as formaldehyde, has the warfare against the microbes pro-
gressed, although as we learn more of the properties and uses of
their toxins we are almost forced to confess that it is not a warfare,
but rather that man is learning how to train and control these micro-
scopic forms of life as centuries before he learned how to control the
animals and higher plants.

Our ideas of germs are sc thoroughly associated with disease that
we often forget that these germs are but the simplest forms of plant
cells which are endowed with various functions. The majority of them
are not injurious to man, but very useful fellow-workers if he has once
learned how to manage them. The value of this cell life in the pro-
duction of wines, beer, and other fermented liquids is too well known
to need more than passing mention. But you may not all know to
what extent the aroma and flavor of butter and cheese are due to the
products of micro-organisms. Now these products are frequently
ethers and esters, sometimes acid and acid derivatives or amines, the
latter a class of compounds to one of which smoked herring owes its
particular flavor and which is also formed by a number of bacteria.

When milk is first collected from healthy animals it is almost free
from germs, but exposed to the air it soon becomes filled with those
forms of life which are perfectly harmless. If placed under suitable
conditions with regard to temperature they will multiply very readily
and the milk becomes sour, due to the formation of lactic acid produced
from the sugar in the milk by one or more of these germs. If the germs
present happen to be those giving an ether and ester, which have a
pleasant flavor and aroma, good butter can be made, but if they give

THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES. 495

rise to the formation of disagreeable thio-ethers, and esters or some
amines the butter is poor and bad.

Now, by isolating different germs found in the milk and cultivating
them separately, so as to discover their own peculiar product, it is pos.
sible to always make butter of the same sort and flavor by first destroy-
ing the other germs present by Pasteurization and then inoculating the
cream with the particular germs desired. A number of germs have
been isolated from milk which will produce good butter, and any one
of them is, perhaps, as satisfactory as the other, the ethereal product
being slightly different and more palatable to different individuals. Of
course a great many germs have been found in milk which produce dis-
agreeable compounds, and it is not possible to tell from their appear-
ance simply which will be desirable plants, but it is easy to cultivate
them in a small quantity of milk, note the results, and select the desir-
able plant cells.

Fortunately or unfortunately, the use of these germs has been pat-
ented, so that in the near future we may see branded upon particularly
fine butter and cheese “ Patented in 1893,” “Amended 1896,” ‘‘ Reissued
1908,” etc. May we expect soon a patented process for sterilized breath-
ing, eating, and sleeping?

Recently it has been found that mait if inoculated with a particular
ferment from the skin of the grape will be converted into wine, the
ferment used giving rise to the formation of characteristic ethers, so it
is certainly not beyond the limits of possibilities that in the near future
American beer after a voyage to France may return as excellent cham-
pagne. When we discover too a germ (as had been done recently) that
converts starch into cellulose, we are almost led to wonder if it might
not be possible to produce cotton in a culture flask if the particular
germs were supplied with nutritious food and a sufficient amount of
carbon dioxide, oxygen, and water.

The flavor of many luscious fruits and foods is due to the products
either directly or indirectly of one or more of these useful bacteria, and
on the other hand similar germs play an important and as yet unknown
role in the formation of poisonous alkaloids.

Many bacteria form beautifully colored substances, reds, yellows,
blues, greens, and delicate shades which the art of man has not been
able to imitate and the nature of which he has not yet learned. These,
too, are only hiding their secrets with a thin veil, which investigation
will soon withdraw.

But it is not only in simple industrial processes that the products of
germs are important. Man’s very existence, while menaced on the one
hand by a few germs, is on the other dependent upon their activity.
The germs which in the soil produce nitrous and nitric acid and ammo-
nia, and aid their assimilation by the plants, those which facilitate the
decomposition of phosphates and bring the phosphorous, a so necessary
constituent for the life of plants and animals, into an available form,

496 THE WAR WITH THE MICROBES.

and those which aid in the destruction of dead vegetable and animal
matter, play a very valuable and but little appreciated part in the con-
tinuance of the life and well being of man.

There are many other ways in which the products of these dreaded
microscopic cells are useful, but all, a very insignificant number of
which we have mentioned, are only waiting man’s bidding to become
valuable subjects, and to show that, as has been instanced in the
history of nations, conquered people often make the best and wisest
citizens.

THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS!

By Prof. W. CHANDLER ROBERTS-AUSTEN, C. B., F. R.S., M. BR. I,

For reason is not the only attribute of man, nor is it the only faculty which he
habitually employs for the ascertainment of truth.—G. J. ROMANES.

Appreciation .... by «esthetic and intellectual faculties which are not senses, and
which are not unfrequently sadly wanting where the senses are in full vigor.—T. H.
HUXLEY.

The study of metals possesses an irresistible charm for us, quite
apart from its vast national importance. How many of us made our
first scientific experiment by watching the melting of lead, little think-
ing that we should hardly have done a bad life’s work if the experiment
had been our last, provided we had only understood its full significance.
How few of us forget that we wistfully observed at an early age the
melting in an ordinary fire of some metallic toy of our childhood; and
such an experiment has, like the “Flatiron for a farthing,” in Mrs.
Hwing’s charming story, taken a prominent place in literature which
claims to be written for the young. Hans Andersen’s fairy tale, for
instance, the “History of a tin soldier,” has been read by children of
all ages and of most nations. The romantic incidents of the soldier’s
eventful career need not be dwelt upon; but I may remind you that at
its end he perished in the flames of an ordinary fire, and all that
could subsequently be found of him was a small heart-shaped mass.
There is no reason to doubt the perfect accuracy of the story recorded
by Andersen, who at least knew the facts, though his statement is made
in popular language. No analysis is given of the tin soldier; in a fairy
tale it would have been out of place, but the latest stage of his evolu-
tion is described, and the record is sufficient to enable us to form the
opinion that he was composed of both tin and lead, certain alloys of
which metals will burn to ashes like tinder. His uniform was doubt-
less richly ornamented with gold lace. Some small amount of one of
the rarer metals had probably—for on this point the history is silent—
found its way into his constitution, and by uniting with the gold
formed the heart-shaped mass which the fire would not melt, as its

1Read at weekly evening meeting of Royal Institution of Great Britain, March 15,
1895. Printed in Proceedings of the Institution, Vol XIV, pp. 497-520.

sm 96——32 : 497

498 THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

temperature could not have exceeded 1,000° C.; for we are told that the
golden rose worn by the artiste who shared the soldier’s fate was also
found unmelted. The main pointis, however, that the presence of one
of the rarer metals must have endowed the soldier with his singular
endurance, and in the end left an incorruptible record of him.

This incident has been taken as the starting point of the lecture,
because we shall see that the ordinary metals so often owe remarkable
qualities to the presence of a rarer metal which fits them for special
work.

This early love of metals is implanted in us as part of our “unsquan-
dered heritage of sentiments and ideals which has come down to us
from other ages,” but future generations of children will know far more
than we did; for the attempt will be made to teach them that even
psychology is a branch of molecular physics, and they will therefore
see much more in the melted toy than a shapeless mass of tin and lead.
It is really not an inert thing; for some time after it was newly cast it
was the scene of intense molecular activity. It probably is never
molecularly quiescent, and a slight elevation of temperature will excite
in it rapid atomic movement anew. The nature of such movement I
have indicated on previous occasions when, as now, I have tried to
interest you in certain properties of metals and alloys.

This evening I appeal incidentally to higher feelings than interest
by bringing before you certain phases in the life history of metals
which may lead you to a generous appreciation of the many excellent
qualities they possess.

Metals have been sadly misunderstood. In the belief that animate
beings are more interesting, experimenters have neglected metals, while
no form of matter in which life can be recognized is thought to be
too humble to receive encouragement. Thus it is that bacteria, with
repulsive attributes and criminal instincts, are petted and watched
with solicitude, and comprehensive schemes are submitted to the Royal
Society for their devolopment, culture, and even for their ‘‘education,”!
which may, it is true, ultimately make them useful metallurgical agents,
as certain micro-organisms have already proved their ability to pro-
duce arseniuretted hydrogen from oxide of arsenic.”

It will not be difficult to show that methods which have proved so
fruitful in results when applied to the study of living things are sin-
gularly applicable to metals and alloys, which really present close
analogies to living organisms. This must be a new view to many, and
it may be said, ‘‘it is well known that uneducated races tend to per-
sonify or animate external nature,” and it is strange, therefore, to
attempt, before a cultured audience, to trace analogies which must
appear to be remote between moving organisms and inert alloys, but

'Dr. Percy Frankland especially refers to the ‘‘education” of bacilli for adapting
them to altered conditions. Roy.Soc. Proc., Vol. LVI, 1894, page 539.
* Dr. Brauner. Chem. News, Feb. 15, 1895, page 79.

THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS. 499

“the greater the number of attributes that attach to anything, the
more real that thing is.”! Many of the less-known metals are very
real to me, and I want them to be so to you; listen to me, then, as
speaking for my silent metallic friends, while I try to secure for them
your sympathy, esteem, and intuitive perception of their beauty.

First, as regards their origin and early history. I fully share Mr.
Lockyer’s belief as to their origin, and think that a future generation
will speak of the evolution of metals as we now do of that of animals,
and that observers will naturally turn to the sun as the field in which
this evolution can best be studied.

To the alchemists metals were almost sentient; they treated them
as if they were living beings, and had an elaborate pharmacopceia of
“medicines” which they freely administered to metals in the hope of
perfecting their constitution. If the alchemists constantly drew par-
allels between living things and metals, it is not because they were
ignorant, but because they recognized in metals the possession of attri-
butes wkich closely resemble those organisms. ‘The first alchemists
were gnostics, and the old beliefs of Egypt blended with those of
Chaldea in the second and third centuries. The old metals of the
Egyptians represented men, and this is probably the origin of the
homunculus of the middle ages, the notion of the creative power of
metals and that of life being confounded in the same symbol.” ”

Thus Albertus Magnus traces the influence of congenital defects in
the generation of metals and of animals, and Basil Valentine symbol-
izes the loss of metalline character, which we now know is due to
oxidation, to the escape from the metal of an indestructable spirit which
flies away and becomes a soul. On the other hand, the “reduction” of
metals from their oxides was supposed to give the metals a new exist-
ence.* <A poem of the thirteenth century well embodies this belief in
the analogies between men and metals, in the quaint lines:

Homs ont Vestre comme metaulx,
Vie et augment des vegetaulx.

Instinct et sens comme les bruts,
Esprit comme ange en attributs.

“Men have being”—constitution—like metals; you see how closely
metals and life were connected in the minds of the alchemists, and we
inherit their traditions.

““ Who said these old renowns, dead long ago, could make me forget
the living world?” are words which Browning places in the lips of
Paracelsus, and we metallurgists are not likely to forget the living

'Lotze, “‘Metaphysic,” section 49, quoted by Illingworth. ‘‘Personality, Human
and Divine.” Bampton Lectures, 1894, page 43.

> Berthelot, Les Origines de l’Alchimie, 1885 page 60.

> Les Remonstrances ou la Complainte de Nature al’Alchymiste Errant. Attributed
to Jehan de Meung, who with Guillaume de Lorris wrote the Roman de la Rose. M.
Meon, the editor of the edition of 1814 of this celebrated work, doubts, however,
whether the attribution of the complainte de nature, to Meung is correct.

500 THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

world; we borrow its definitions, and apply them to our metals. Thus
nobility in metals as in men, means freedom from liability to tarnish,
and we know that the rarer metals are like rarer virtues, and have
singular power in enduring their more ordinary associates with firmness,
elasticity, strength, and endurance. On the other hand, some of the
less known metals appear to be mere “ things” which do not exist for
themselves, but only for the sake of other metals to which they can be
united. This may, however, only seem to be the case because we as
yet know so little about them. The question naturally arises, how can
the analogies between organic and inorganic bodies now be traced? I
agree with my colleague at the Kecole des Mines of Paris, Prof. Urbain
Le Verrier, in thinking that it is possible' to study the biology, the
anatomy, and even the pathology of metals.

The anatomy of metals—that is, their structure and framework—
is best examined by the aid of the microscope, but if we wish to study
the biology and pathology of metals, the method of autographic pyrom-
etry, which I brought before you in a Friday evening lecture delivered
in 1892, will render admirable service, for, just as in biological and
pathological phenomena vital functions and changes of tissue are accom-
panied by arise or fall in temperature, so molecular changes in metals
are atteuded with an evolution or absorption of heat. With the aid of
the recording pyrometer we now “take the temperature” of a mass of
metal or alloy in which molecular disturbance is suspected to lurk, as
surely as a doctor does that of a patient in whom febrile symptoms
are manifest.

It has, moreover, long been known that we can submit a metal or an
alloy in its normal state to severe stress, record its power of endurance,
and then, by allowing it to recover from fatigue, enable it to regain
some, at least, of its original strength. The human analogies of metals
are really very close indeed, for, as is the case with our own mental
efforts, the internal molecular work which is done in metals often
strengthens and invigorates them. Certain metals have a double exist-
ence, and according to circumstances, their behavior may be absolutely
harmful or entirely beneficial. The dualism we so often recognize in
human life becomes allotropism in metals, and they, strangely enough,
seem to be restricted to a single form of existence if they are absolutely
free from contamination, for probably an absolutely pure metal can not
pass from a normal to an allotropic state. Last, it may be claimed that
some metals possess attributes which are closely allied to moral quali-
ties, for, in their relations with other elements, they often display an
amount of discrimination and restraint that would do credit to sentient
beings.

Close as this resemblance is, I am far from attributing consciousness
to metals, as their atomic changes result from the action of external
agents, while the couduct of conscious beings is not determined from

‘La Métallurgie en France, 1894, page 2.

THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS. 5O1

without, but from within. I have, however, ventured to ofter the intro-
duction of this lecture in its present form, because any facts which lead
us to reflect on the unity of plan in nature, will aid the recognition of
the complexity of atomic motion in metals upon which it is needful to
insist.

The foregoing remarks have special significance in relation to the
influence exerted by the rarer metals on the ordinary ones. With the
exception of the action of carbon upon iron, probably nothing is more
remarkable than the action of the rare metals on those which are
more common; but their peculiar influence often involves, as we shall
see, the presence of carbon in the alloy.

Which, then, are the rarer metals, and how may they be isolated?
The chemist differs somewhat from the metallurgist as to the applica-
tion of the word “rare.” The chemist thinks of the “rarity” of a
compound of a metal; the metallurgist, rather of the difficulty of
isolating the metal from the state of combination in which it occurs in
nature.

The chemist in speaking of the reactions of salts of the rarer metals,
in view of the wide distribution of limestone and pyrolusite, would
hardly think of either calcium or manganese as being among the rarer
metals. The metallurgist would consider pure calcium or pure man-
ganese to be very rare. I have only recently seen comparatively pure
specimens of the latter.

The metals which, for the purposes of this lecture, may be included
among the rarer metals are: (1) Those of the platinum group, which
oceur in nature in the metallic state; and (2) certain metals which in
nature are usually found as oxides or in an oxidized form of some kind,
and these are chromium, manganese, vanadium, tungsten, titanium,
zirconium, uranium, and molybdenum (which occurs, however, as sul-
phide). Incidental reference will be made to nickel and cobalt.

Of the rare metals of the platinum group I propose to say but little.
We are indebted for a magnificent display of them in the library of my
friends, Messrs. George and Edward Matthey, and to Mr. Sellon, all
members of a great firm of metallurgists. You should specially look at
the splendid mass of palladium, extracted from native gold of the value
of £2,500,000, at the melted and rolled iridium, and at the masses of
osmium and rhodium. No other nation in the world could show such
Specimens as these, and we are justly proud of them.

These metals are so interesting and precious in themselves, that I
hope you will not think I am taking a sordid view of them by saying
that the contents of the case exhibited in the library are certainly not
worth less than £10,000.

As regards the rarer metals which are associated with oxygen, the
problem is to remove the oxygen, and this is usually effected either by
affording the oxygen an opportunity for uniting with another metal, or
by reducing the oxide of the rare metal by carbon, aided by the tearing

502 THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

effect of an electric current. In this crucible there is an intimate mix-
ture, in atomic proportions, of oxide of chromium and finely divided
metallic aluminum. The thermo junction (A, fig. 1, Pl. X XIII) of the
pyrometer which formed the subject of my last Friday evening lecture
here is placed within the crucible B, and the spot of light C, from the
galvanometer D, with which the junction is connected, indicates on the
screen that the temperature is rising. You will observe that as soon as
the point marked 1,010° is reached energetic action takes place; the
temperature suddenly rising above the melting point of platinum, melts
the thermo junction, and the spot of light swings violently; but if the
crucible be broken open you will see that a mass of metallic chromium
has been liberated.

The use of alkaline metals in separating oxygen from other metals is
well known. I can not enter into its history here, beyond saying that
if 1 were to do so, frequent references to the honored names of Berze-
lius, Wohler, and Winkler would be demanded.'

Mr. Vautin has recently shown that granulated aluminum may read-
ily be prepared, and that it renders great service when employed as a
reducing agent. He has lent me many specimens of rarer metals which
have been reduced to the metallic state by the aid of this finely-
granulated aluminum; and I am indebted to his assistant, Mr. Picard,
who was lately one of my own students at the Royal School of Mines,
for aid in the preparation of certain other specimens which have been
isolated in my laboratory at the mint.

The experiment you have just seen enables me to justify a statement
I made respecting the discriminating action which certain metals appear
to exert. The relation of aluminum to other metals is very singular.
When, for instance, a small quantity of aluminum is present in cast
iron, it protects the silicon, manganese, and carbon from oxidation.”
The presence of silicon in aluminum greatly adds to the brilliancy with
which aluminum itself oxidizes and burns.’ It is also asserted that
aluminum, even in small quantity, exerts a powerful protective action
against the oxidation of the silver-zine alloy, which is the result of the
desilverization of lead by zinc.

Moreover, heat aluminum in mass to redness in air, where oxygen
may be had freely, and a film of oxide which is formed will protect the
mass from further oxidation. On the other hand, if finely divided alu-
minum finds itself in the presence of an oxide of a rare metal, at an
elevated temperature, it at once acts with energy and promptitude, and
releases the rare metal from the bondage of oxidation. I trust, there-
fore, you will consider my claim that a metal may possess moral attri-
butes has been justified. Aluminum, moreover, retains the oxygen it

1 An interesting paper, by H. F. Keller, on the reduction of oxides of metals by other
metals, will be found in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, December,
1894, page 833.

? Bull. Soc. Chim. Paris, Vol. XI, 1894, page 377.

* Ditte, Legons sur les Métaux, Part IT, 1891, page 206.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXIll.

2

RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

{ a

°

THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS. 503

has acquired with great fidelity, and will only part with it again by
electrolytic action, or at very high temperatures under the influence of
the electric arc in the presence of carbon.

[A suitable mixture of red lead and aluminum was placed in a small
crucible heated in a wind furnace, and in two minutes an explosion
announced the termination of the experiment. The crucible was shat-
tered to fragments. |

The aluminum loudly protests, as it were, against being intrusted
with such an easy task, as the heat engendered by its oxidation had
not to be used in melting a difficultly fusible metal like chromium, the
melting point of which is higher than that of platinum.

It is admitted that a metal will abstract oxygen from another metal
if the reaction is more exothermic than that by which the oxide to be
decomposed was originally formed. The heat of formation of alumina
is 391 calories, that of oxide of lead is 51 calories; so that it might be
expected that metallic aluminum, at an elevated temperature, would
readily reduce oxide of lead to the metallic state.

The last experiment, however, proved that the reduction of oxide of
lead by aluminum is effected with explosive violence, the temperature
engendered by the reduction being sufficiently high to volatilize the
lead. Experiments of my own show that the explosion takes place
with much disruptive power when aluminum reacts on oxide of lead
in vacuo, and that if coarsely ground, fused litharge be substituted for
red lead, the action is only accompanied by a rushing sound. The
result is, therefore, much influenced by the rapidity with which the
reaction can be transmitted throughout the mass. It is this kind of
experiment which makes us turn with such vivid interest to the teach-
ing of the school of St. Claire Deville, the members of which have ren-
dered such splendid services to physics and metallurgy. They do not
advocate the employment of the mechanism of molecules and atoms in
dealing with chemical problems, but would simply aceumulate evidence
as to the physical circumstances under which chemical combination and
dissociation take place, viewing these as belonging to the same class of
phenomena as solidification, fusion, condensation, and evaporation.
They do not even insist upon the view that matter is minutely granu-
lar, but in all cases of change of state make calculations on the basis
of work done, viewing changed ‘internal energy” as a quantity which
should reappear when the system returns to the initial state.

A verse of some historical interest may appeal to them. It occurs
in an old poem to which I have already referred as being connected
with the “Roman de la Rose,” and it expresses nature’s protest against
those who attempt to imitate her works by the use of mechanical nieth-
ods. The “argument” runs thus:

Comme Nature se complaint,
Et dit sa douleur et son plaint

A ung sot souffleur sophistique
Qui n’use que d’art méchanique.

504 THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

If the “use of mechanical art” includes the study of chemistry on
the basis of the mechanics of the atoms, I may be permitted to offer
the modern school the following rendering of nature’s plaint:

How nature sighs without restraint,
And grieving makes her sad complaint
Against the subtle sophistry

Which trusts atomic theory.

An explosion such as is produced when aluminum and oxide of lead
are heated in presence of each other, which suggested the reference to
the old French verse, does not often occur, as in most cases the reduc-
tion of the rarer metals by aluminum is effected quietly.

Zirconium is a metal which may be so reduced. I have in this way
prepared small quantities of zirconium from its oxide, and have formed
a greenish alloy of extraordinary strength by the addition of 0.2 per
cent of it to gold, and there are many circumstances which lead to the
belief that the future of zirconium will be brilliant and useful. I have
reduced vanadium and uranium from its oxide by means of aluminum
as well as manganese, which is easy, and titanium, which is more diffi-
cult. Tungsten, in fine specimens, is also before you, and allusion will
be made subsequently to the uses of these metals. At present I would
draw your attention to some properties of titanium which are of special
interest. It burns with brilliant sparks in air; and, as few of us have
seen titanium burn, it may be well to burn a little in this flame. [{Hx-
periment performed.|] Titanium appears to be, from the recent experi-
ments of M. Moissan, the most difficultly fusible metal known; but it
has the singular property of burning in nitrogen—it presents, in fact,
the only known instance of vivid combustion in nitrogen.'!

Titanium may be readily reduced from its oxide by the aid of alu-
minum. Here are considerable masses, sufficiently pure for many pur-
poses, which I have recently prepared in view of this lecture.

The other method by which the rarer metals may be isolated is that
which involves the use of the electrical furnace. In this connection the
name of Sir W. Siemens should not be forgotten. He described the
use of the electric are furnace in which the carbons were arranged
vertically, the lower carbon being replaced by a carbon crucible; and
in 1882 he melted in such a furnace no less than 10 pounds of platinum
during an experiment at which I had the good fortune to assist. It
may fairly be claimed that the large furnaces with a vertical carbon in
which the bath is maintained fluid by means of the electric current, the
aluminum and other metals being reduced by electrolytic action, are
the direct outcome of the work of Siemens.

In the development of the use of the electric are for the isolation of
the rare, difficultly fusible metals Moissan stands in the front rank.

‘Lord Rayleigh has since stated that titanium does not combine with argon, and
M. Guntz points out that lithium in combining with nitrogen produces incandesence.
M. Moissan has also shown that uranium does not absorb argon.

THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS. 5O5

He points out! that Despretz? used in 1849 the heat produced by the
are of.a powerful pile; but Moissan was the first to employ the are in
such a way as to separate its heating effect from the electrolytic action
it exerts. This he does by placing the poles in a horizontal position
and by reflecting their heat into a receptacle below them. He has
shown, in a series of classical researches, that employing 800 amperes
and 110 volts a temperature of at least 3,500° may be attained and that
many metallic oxides which until recently were supposed to be irre-
ducible may be readily made to yield the metal they contain. *

A support or base for the metal to be reduced is needed, and this is
afforded by magnesia, which appears to be absolutely stable at the
utmost temperatures of the arc. An atmosphere of hydrogen may be
employed to avoid oxidation of the reduced metal, which, if it is not a
volatile one, remains at the bottom of the crucible almost always asso-
ciated with carbon—forming, in fact, a carbide of the metal. I want to
Show you the way in which the electric furnace is used, but, unfor-
tunately, the reductions are usually very tedious, and it would be
impossible to actually show you much if I were to attempt to reduce
before you any of the rarer metals; but as the main object is to show
you how the furnace is used, it may be well to boil some silver at a tem-
perature of some 2,500°, and subsequently to melt chromium in the
furnace (fig. 2, Pl. XXIII). This furnace consists of a clay receptacle A
lined with magnesia B. A current of 60 amperes and 100 volts is intro-
duced by the carbon poles ©, C ©’; an electro-magnet M is provided to
deflect the are on to the metal to be meited. {By means of a lens and
mirror D E the image of the are and of the molten metal was projected
onto a screen. For this purpose it was found convenient to make the
furnace much deeper than would ordinarily be the case. |

The result is very beautiful, but can only be rendered in dull tones
by the accompanying illustrations (Pl. XXIV). It may be well, there-
fore, to state briefly what is seen when the furnace is arranged for the
melting of metallic chromium. Directly the current is passed the pic-
ture reflected by the mirror E (fig. 2, Pl. X XIII) shows the interior of
the furnace (fig. 1, Pl. X XIV) as a dark crater, the dull red poles reveal-
ing the metallic luster and gray shadows of the metal beneath them. A
little later these poles become tipped with dazzling white, and in the
course of a few minutes the temperature rises to about 2,500° C. Such
a temperature will keep chromium well melted, though a thousand

‘Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Vol. IV, 1895, page 365.

2?Comptes Rendus, Vol. XXVIII, page 755, and Vol. XXIX, 1849, pages 48, 545, 712.

°The principal memoirs of M. Moissan will be found in the Comptes Rendus, Vol.
CXV, 1892, page 1031; ibid., Vol. CX VI, 1893, pages 347, 349, 549, 1222, 1225, 1429;
ibid., Vol. CXIX, 1894, pages, 15, 20, 935; ibid., Vol. CXX, 1895, page 290. The more
important of the metals he has isolated are uranium, chromium, manganese, zirco-
nium, molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, and titanium. Thereis an important paper
by him on the various forms of the electric furnace in the Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.,
Vol. IV., 1895, page 365.

506 THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

degrees more may readily be attained in a furnace of this kind. Hach
pole is soon surrounded with a lambent halo of the green-blue hue of
the sunset, the central band of the are changing rapidly from peach blos-
som to lavender and purple. The are can then be lengthened, and as
the poles are drawn farther and farther asunder the irregular masses of
chromium fuse in silver droplets below an intense blue field of light,
passing into green of lustrous emerald. Then the last fragments of
chromium melt into a shining lake, which reflects the glowing poles in
a glory of green and gold, shot with orange hues. Still a few minutes
later, as the chromium burns, a shower of brilliant sparks of metal are
projected from the furnace, amid the clouds of russet or brown vapors
which wreath the little crater, while if the current is broken and the
light dies out you wish that Turner had painted the limpid tints and
that Ruskin might describe their loveliness.

The effect when either tungsten or silver (fig. 2, Pl. XXIV) replaces
chromium is much the same, but, in the latter case, the glowing lake is
more brilliant in its turbulent poding and blue vapors rise to be con-
densed in the iridescent beads of distilled silver which stud the crater
walls.

Such experiments will probably lend a new interest to the use of the
are in connection with astronomical metallurgy, for, as George Herbert
said long ago,

Stars have their storms even in a high degree,
As well as we;

and Lockyer has shown how important it is, in relation to such storms,
to be able to study the disturbances in the various strata of the stellar
or solar atmosphere. Layers of metallic vapor which differ widely in
temperature can be more readily obtained by the use of the electrical
furnace than when a fragment of metal is melted and volatilized by
placing it in the are on the lower carbon.

It must not be forgotten that the use of the electric arc between
carbon poles renders it practically impossible to prepare the rare
metals without associating them with carbon, often forming true car-
bides; but it is possible in many cases to separate the carbon by sub-
sequent treatment. Moissan has, however, opened up a vast field of
industrial work by placing at our disposal practically all the rarer
infusible metals which may be reduced from oxides, and it is necessary
for us now to consider how we may best enter upon our inheritance.
Those members of the group which we have known long enough to
appreciate are chromium and manganese, and these we have only known
free from carbon for a few months. In their carburized state they
have done excellent service in connection with the metallurgy of steel;
and may we not hope that vanadium, molybdenum, titanium, and
uranium will render still greater services? My object in this lecture is
mainly to introduce you to these metals, which hitherto few of us have
ever seen except as minute cabinet specimens, and we are greatly

Smithsonian Report, 1896. ; PLATE XXIV.

Interior of furnace containing molten chromium, as is seen either
by reflection on a screen or by looking into the furnace from
above, the eyes being suitably protected by deeply tinted glasses.

D)
)

In this case the arc was broken just before the photograph was
taken. The furnace contained a bath of silver just at its boiling
point. The reflection of the poles in the bath, the globules of
distilled silver, and the drifting cloud of silver vapor, are well
shown.

RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

mim

nes

THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS. 507

indebted to M. Moissan for sending us beautiful specimens of chromium,
vanadium, uranium, zirconium, tungsten, molybdenum, and titanium.
[These were exhibited. |

The question naturally arises, Why is the future of their usefulness
so promising? Why are they likely to render better service than the
common metals with which we have long been familiar? It must be
confessed that as yet we know but little what services these metals will
render when they stand alone; we have yet to obtain them in a state
of purity, and have yet to study their properties, but when small
quantities of any of them are associated or alloyed with other metals
there is good reason to believe that they will exert a very powerful
influence. In order to explain this, I must appeal to the physical
method of inquiry to which I have already referred.

It is easy to test the strength of a metal or of an alloy; it is also easy
to determine its electrical resistance. If the mass stands these tests
well, its suitability for certain purposes is assured; but a subtle method
of investigation has been afforded by the results of a research intrusted
to me by a committee of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, over
which Dr. Anderson, ot Woolwich, presides. We can now gather much
information as to the way in which a mass of metal has arranged itself
during the cooling from a molten condition, which is the necessary step
in fashioning it into a useful form; it is possible to gain insight into the
way in which a molten mass of a metal or an alloy molecularly settles
itself down to its work, so to speak, and we can form conclusions as to
its probable sphere of usefulness.

The method is a graphic one, such as this audience is familiar with,
for Prof. Victor Horsley has shown in a masterly way that traces on
smoked paper may form the record of the heart’s action under the dis-
turbing influence caused by the intrusion of a bullet into the human
body. I hope to show you by similar records the effect, which, though
disturbing, is often far from prejudicial, of the introduction of a small
quantity of a foreign element into the “system” of a metal, and to
justify a statement which I made earlier as to the applicability of
physiological methods of investigation to the study of metals. In order
that the nature of this method may be clear, it must be remembered
that if a thermometer or a pyrometer, as the case may be, is plunged
into a mass of water or of molten metal, the temperature will fall con-
tinuously until the water or the metal begins to become solid; the tem-
perature will then remain constant until the whole mass is solid, when
the downward course of the temperature is resumed. This little
thermo-junction is plunged into a mass of gold, an electric current is,
in popular language, generated, and the strength of the current is pro-
portional to the temperature to which the thermo-junction is raised; so
that the spot of light from a galvanometer to which the thermo-junction
is attached enables us to measure the temperature, or, by the aid of
photography, to record any thermal changes that may occur in a heated
mass of metal or alloy.

508 THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS

It is only necessary for our purpose to use a portion of the long scale,
which may be traced across the end of the room by the spot of light
from the galvanometer, but we must make that portion of the scale
movable. Let me try to trace before you the curve of the freezing of
pure gold. It will be necessary to mark the position occupied by the
movable spot of light at regular intervals of time during which the
gold is near 1,045° C., that is, while the metal is becoming solid. Hvery
time a metronome beats a second, the white screen A (fig. 1, Pl. X XV),
a Sheet of paper, will be raised a definite number of inches by the gear-
ing and handle B, and the position successively occupied by the spot of
light C will be marked by hand.

You see that the time-temperature curve, x y, so traced is not con-
tinuous. The freezing point of the metal is very clearly marked by the
vertical portion. If the gold is very pure the angles. are sharp; if it is
impure they are rounded. If the metal had fallen below its freezing
point without actually becoming solid, that is, if superfusion, or sur-
fusion, had occurred, then there would be, as is often the case, a dip
where the freezing begins, and then the temperature curve rises
suddenly.

If the metal is alloyed with large quantities of other metals, then
there may be several of these freezing points, as successive groups of
alloys fall out of solution. The rough diagrammatic method is not suf-
ficiently delicate to enable me to trace the subordinate points, but they
are of a vital importance to the strength of the metal or alloy, and pho-
tography enables us to detect them readily.

Take the case of the tin-copper series; you will see that as a mass of
tin-copper alloy cools, there are at least two distinct freezing points.
At the upper one the main mass of the fluid alloy became solid; at
the lower, some definite group of tin and copper atoms fall out, the
position of the lower point depending upon the composition of the mass.

Now turn to more complex curves taken on one plate by making the
sensitized photographic plate seize the critical part of the curve, the
range of the swing of the mirror from hot to cold being some 60 feet.
The upper curve (fig. 2, Pl. XX V) gives the freezing point of bismuth,
and you see that surfusion, a, is clearly marked, the temperature at
which bismuth freezes being 268° C. The lower curve, marked ‘‘tin,”
represents the freezing point of that metal, which we know is 251° C., and
in it surfusion, b, is also clearly marked. The curve marked standard
gold contains a subordinate point, c, which you will observe is lower
than the freezing point of tin, and it is caused by the solidification of a
small portion of bismuth, which alloyed itself with some gold atoms, and
remained fluid below the freezing point not only of bismuth itself but
of tin, Now gold with a low freezing point in it like this is found to be
very brittle, and we are in a fair way to answer the question why 0.2
per cent of zirconium doubles the strength of gold, while 0.2 per cent of
thallium, another rare metal, halves the strength. In the cese of the

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXV.

Lobe nse -

t

2702
260°
250°
2 ha?
230°
220°
2.102
200°

Sha

2

RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLoys.

THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS. 509

zirconium the subordinate point is very high up, while in the case of
the thallium it is very low down. So far as my experiments have as yet
been carried, this seems to be a fact which underlies the whole question
of the strength of metals and alloys. If the subordinate point is low,
the metal will be weak; if itis high in relation to the main setting
point, then the metal will be strong, and the conclusion of the whole
matter is this: The rarer metals which demand for their isolation from
their oxides either the use of aluminum or the electric arc, never, so
far as I can ascertain, produce low freezing points when they are added
in small quantities to those metals which are used for constructive pur-
poses. The difficultly fusible rarer metals are never the cause of weak-
ness, but always confer some property which is precious in industrial
use. How these rarer metals act, why the small quantities of the added
rare metals permeate the molecules, or, it may be the atoms, and
strengthen the metallic mass, we do not know; we are only gradually
accumulating evidence which is afforded by this very delicate physio-
logical method of investigation.

As regards the actual temperatures represented by points on such
curves, it will be remembered that the indications afforded by the
recording pyrometer are only relative, and that gold is one of the most
suitable metals for enabling a high, fixed point to be determined. There
is much trustworthy evidence in favor of the adoption of 1,045° as the
melting point hitherto accepted for gold. The results of recent work
indicate, however, that this is too low, and it may prove to be as high
as 1,061.7, which is the melting point given by Heycock and Neville! in
the latest of their admirable series of investigations, to which reference
was made in my Friday evening lecture of 1892.

It may be well to point to a few instances in which the industrial use
of such of the rarer metals as have been available in sufficient quan-
tity is made evident. Modern developments in armor plate and projec-
tiles will occur to many of us at once. This diagram (fig. 1, Pl. XX VI)
affords a rapid view of the progress which has been made; and in col-
lecting the materials for it from various sources I have been aided by Mr.
Jenkins. The effect of projectiles of approximately the same weight,
when fired with the same velocity against 6-inch plates, enables com-
parative results to be studied, and illustrates the fact that the rivalry
between artillerists who design guns, and metallurgists who attempt
to produce both impenetrable armor plates and irresistible projectiles,
forms one of the most interesting pages in our national history. When
metallic armor was first applied to the sides of war vessels it was of
wrought iron, and proved to be of very great service by absolutely pre-
venting the passage of ordinary cast-iron shot into the interior of the
vessel, as was demonstrated through the American civil war. It was
found to be necessary, in order to pierce the plates, to employ harder
and larger projectiles than those then in use, and the chilled cast-iron

1 Trans. Chem. Soe., Vol. LX VIL, 1895, p. 160.

510 THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

shot with which Colonel Palliser’s name is identified proved to be for-
midable and effective. The point of such a projectile was sufficiently
hard to retain its form under impact with the plate, and it was only
necessary to impart a modern velocity to a shot to enable it to pass
through the wrought-iron armor (A, fig. 1, Pl. XX VI). :

It soon became evident that, in order to resist the attack of such pro-
jectiles with a plate of any reasonable thickness, it would be necessary
to make the plate harder, so that the point of the projectile should be
damaged at the moment of first contact, and the reaction to the blow
distributed over a considerable area of the plate. This object should
be attained by either using a steel plate in a more or less hardened con-
dition, or by employing a plate with a very hard face of steel and a
less hard but tougher back. The authorities in this country during the
decade 1880-90, had a very high opinion of plates that resisted attack
without the development of through cracks, and this led to the produe:
tion of the compound plate. The backs of these plates (B, fig. 1, Pl.
XX VI) are of wrought iron, the fronts are of a more or less hard variety
of steel, either cast on or welded on by a layer of steel of an interme-
diate quality, cast between the two plates. Armor plates of this kind
differ in detail, but the principle of their construction is now generally
accepted as correct.

Such plates shown by the Plate B resisted the attack of large Pal-
liser Shells admirably, as when such shells struck the plate they were
damaged at their points, and the remainder of the shell was unable to
perforate the armor against which it was directed. An increase in the
size of the projectiles led, however, to a decrease in the resisting power
of the plates, portions of the hard face of which would, at times, be
detached in flakes from the junction of the steel and the iron. An
increase in the toughness of the projectiles by a substitution of forged
chrome steel for chilled iron (see lower part of Plate B) secured a vic-
tory for the shot, which was then enabled to impart its energy to the
plate faster than the surface of the plate itself could transmit the
energy to the back. The result was that the plate was overcome, as it
were, piecemeal; the steel surface was not sufficient to resist the blow
itself and was shattered, leaving the projectile an easy victory over the
soft back. The lower part of Plate B (in fig. 1, Pl. XX VI) represents
a similar plate to that used in the Nettle trials of 1888.' It must not
be forgotten, in this connection, that the armor of a ship is but little
likely to be struck twice by heavy projectiles in the same place,
although it might be by smaller ones.

Plates made entirely of steel, on the other hand, were found, prior to
1888, to have a considerable tendency to break up completely when
struck by the shot. It was not possible, on that account, to make their
faces as hard as those of compound plates; but while they did not
resist the Palliser shot nearly as well as the rival compound plate, they

Proceedings Institution Civil Engineers, 1889, Vol. XCVIII, page l-et seq.

J 3) THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS. 511

offered more effective resistance to steel shot (see lower part of Plate
Cone 1, Pl. XXV1).

It appears that Berthier recognized, in 1820, the great value of
chromium when alloyed with iron; but its use for projectiles, although
now general, is of comparatively recent date, and these projectiles now
commonly contain from 1.2 to 1.5 per cent of chromium, and will hold
together even when they strike steel plates at a velocity of 2,000 feet
per second! (see lower part of Plate D); and unless the armor plate is
of considerable thickness, such projectiles will even carry bursting
charges of explosives through it. [The behavior of a chromium-steel
shell, made by Mr. Hadfield, was dwelt upon, and the shell was
exhibited. |

It now remained to be seen what could be done in the way of tough-
ening and hardening the plates so as to resist the chrome-steel shot.
About the year 1888 very great improvements were made in the pro-
duction of steel plates. Devices for hardening and tempering plates
were ultimately obtained, so that the latter was hard enough through-
out their substance to give them the necessary resisting power without
such serious cracking as had occurred in previous ones. But in 1889
Mr. Riley exhibited, at the meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, a
thin plate that owed its remarkable toughness to the presence of nickel
in the stee]. The immediate result of this was that plates could be
made to contain more carbon, and hence be harder, without at the
same time having increased brittleness; such plates, indeed, could be
water-hardened and yet not crack.

The Plate E represents the behavior of nickel-steel armor. It will
be seen that it is penetrated to a much less extent than in the former
case. At the same time there is entire absence of cracking.

Now, as to the hardening processes. LEvrard had developed the use
of the lead bath in France, while Captain Tressider” had perfected the
use of the water-jet in England for the purpose of rapidly cooling the
heated plates. The principle adopted in the design of the compound
plates has been again utilized by Harvey, who places the soft-steel or
nickel-steel plate in a furnace of suitable construction, and covers it
with carbonaceous material, such as charcoal, and strongly heats it for a

_ period, which may be as long as one hundred and twenty hours. Thisis
the old Sheffield process of cementation, and the result is to increase the
carbon from 0.35 per cent in the body of the plate to 0.6 per cent or even
more at the front surface, the increase in the amount of carbon extend-
ing to a depth of only 2 or 3 inches in the thickest armor.

The carburized face is then “chill-hardened,” the result being that
the best chrome-steel shot are shattered at the moment of impact,
unless they are of very large size as compared with the thickness of
the plate. The interesting result was observed lately* of shot doing

1Journal United States Artillery, 1893, Vol. II, page 497.
*Weaver. Notes on Armour, Journal United States Artillery, Vol. III, 1894, page 417.
*Brassey’s Naval Annual, 1894, page 367.

512 THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

less harm to the plate and penetrating less, when its velocity was
increased beyond a certain value, a result due to a superiority in the
power of the face of the plate to transmit energy over that possessed
by the projectile, which was itself damaged, when a certain rate was
exceeded. At a comparatively low velocity the point of the shot would
resist fracture, but the energy of the projectile is not then sufficient to
perforate the plate, which would need the attack of a much larger gun
firing a projectile at a lower yelocity.

The tendency to-day is to dispense with nickel and to use ordinary
steel, “harveyed”;! this gives ®xcellent 6-inch plates, but there is
some difference of opinion as to whether it is advantageous to omit
nickel in the case of very thick plates, and the problem is now being
worked out by the method of trial. Probably, too, the harveyed plates
will be muchimproved by judicious forging after the process, as indicated
by some recent work done in America. The use of chromium in the
plates may lead to interesting results.

Turn for a moment to the Maestic class of ships, the construction of
which we owe to the genuis of Sir William White, to whom I am
indebted for a section representing the exact size of the protection
afforded to the barbette of the Majestic. [This section was exhibited
and is shown as reduced to the diagram, fig. 2, Pl. XX Vi.] Her armor
is of the harveyed steel, which has hitherto proved singularly resisting
to chromium projectiles.

In this section A’ represents a 14-inch harveyed steel armor plate, B
a 4-inch teak backing, C a 14-inch steel plate, D 4-inch steel frames,
and E 4-inch steel linings.

It will, I trust, have been evident that two of the rarer metals, chro-
mium in the projectiles and nickel in the armor, are playing a very
important part in our national defenses; and if I ever lecture to you
again, it may be possible for me to record similar triumphs for molyb-
denum, titanium, vanadium, and others of these still rarer metals.

Here is another alloy, for which I am indebted to Mr. Hadfield. It
is iron alloyed with 25 per cent of nickel, and Hopkinson has shown
that its density is permanently reduced by 2 per cent by an exposure
to a temperature of — 30° that is, the metal expands at this tempera-
ture.

Supposing, therefore, that a ship of war was built in our climate of
ordinary steel and clad with some 3,000 tons of such nickel-steel armor,
we are confronted with the extraordinary fact that if sueh a ship vis-
ited the arctic regions it would actually become some 2 feet longer
and the shearing which would result from the expansion of the armor
by exposure to cold would destroy the ship. Before I leave the ques-
tion of the nickel iron alloys let me direet your attention to this triple
alloy of iron, nickel, and cobalt in simple atomic proportions. Dr.
Oliver Lodge believes that this alloy will be found to possess very

) Engineering, Vol. LVII. 1894, pages 465, 530, 595.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXVI.

Compound Steel. Steel. Nickel-steel. | Harveyed,
plate. 1888. 1894. 1894. nickel-steel.
1888. 1 1894,

ATTACK OF 6-INCH ARMOR PLATES BY 4.72-INCH SHELLS, WEIGHING 57.2 Pounpbs.

RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

1. The upper series of projectiles are Palliser chilled-iron shells, and the lower are chrome steel. In
each case the velocity of the projectile is approximately 1,640 foot-seconds and the energy 1,070 foot

ns.

2. Section of barbette of the Mujestic.

3. Half section midship of aluminum torpedo boat.

_ 4. Preparations for the microscope of diamonds and other torms of carbon obtained from carburized
iron.

ba ha : Lier pe
Toa

a

THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS. ora

remarkable properties; in fact, as he told me, if nature had properly
understood Mendeléef this alloy would really have been an element.
As regards the electrical properties of alloys, it is impossible to say
what services the rarer metals may not render; and I would remind
you that “platinoid,” mainly a nickel-copper alloy, owes to the presence
of a little tungsten its peculiar property of having a high electrical

resistance which does not change with temperature.

One other instance of the kind of influence the rarer metals may be
expected to exert is all that time will permit me to give you. It relates
to their influence on aluminum itself. You have heard much of the
adoption of aluminum in such branches of naval construction as
demand lightness and portability. During last autumn Messrs. Yar-
row completed a torpedo boat which was built of aluminum alloyed
with 6 per cent of copper. Her hull is 50 per cent lighter and she is
34 knots faster than a similar boat of steel would have been, and, not-
withstanding her increased speed, is singularly free from vibration.

Her plates are one-tenth of an inch thick and one-sixth of an inch
where greater strength isneeded. Itremains to be seen whether copper
is the best metal to alloy with aluminum. Several of the rarer metals
have already been tried, and among them titanium, Two per cent of
this rare metal seems to confer remarkable properties on aluminum,
and it should do so according to the views I have expressed, for the
cooling curve of the titanium-aluminum alloy would certainly show a
high subordinate freezing point. (ig. 3, Pl. XX VI.)

Hitherto I have appealed to industrial work rather than to abstract
science for illustrations of the services which the rarer metals may
render. One reason for this is that at present we have but little knowl-
edge of some of the rarer metals apart from their association with car-
bon. The metals yielded by treatment of oxides in the electric are are
always carburized. There are, in fact, some of the rarer metals which
we as yet can hardly be said to know except as carbides. As the fol-

lowing experiment is the last of the series, I would express my thanks

a

to my assistant, Mr. Stansfield, for the great care lie has bestowed in
order to insure their success. Here is the carbide of calcium which is
produced by heating lime and carbon in the electric arc. It possesses
great chemical activity, for if it is placed in water the calcium seizes
the oxygen of the water, while the carbon also combines with the
hydrogen, and acetylene is the result, which burns brilliantly. [EE xperi-
ment shown.| If the carbide of calcium be placed in chlorine water
evil-smelling chloride of carbon is formed.

In studying the relations of the rarer metals to iron it is impossible
to dissociate them from the influence exerted by the simultaneous
presence of carbon; but carbon is a protean element—it may be dis-
solved in iron, or it may exist in iron in any of the varied forms in
which we know it when it is free. Matthiessen, the great authority on
alloys, actually writes of the ‘“‘carbon-iron alloys.” Ido not hesitate,
SM 96——33

514 THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS.

therefore, on the ground that the subject might appear to be without
the limits of the title of his lecture, to point to one other result which
has been achieved by M. Moissan. Here is a fragment of pig iron
highly carburized; melt it in the electric arc in the presence of car-
bon and cool the molten metal suddenly, preferably by plunging it
into molten lead. Cast iron expands on solidification, and the little
mass will become solid at its surface and will contract; but when, in
turn, the still fluid mass in the interior cools it expands against the
solid crust, and consequently solidifies under great pressure. Dissolve
such a mass of carburized iron in nitric acid to which chlorate of potash
is added; treat the residue with caustic potash, submit it to the pro-
longed attack of hydrofluoric acid, then to boiling sulphurie acid, and
finally fuse it with potash to remove any traces of carbide of silicon,
and you have carbon left, but in the form of diamonds.

If vou will not expect to see too much I will show you some diamonds
I have prepared by strictly following the directions of M. Moissan. As
he points out, these diamonds, being produced under stress, are not
entirely without action on polarized light, and they have sometimes the
singular property of flying to pieces like Rupert’s drops when they are
mounted as preparations for the microscope. {The images of many
small specimens were projected on the screen from the microscope, and
fig. 4, Wi, Pl. XX VI, shows a sketch of one of these. The largest dia-
mond yet produced by M. Moissan is 0.5 millimeter in diameter. |

A (fig. 4, Pl. XX VI) represents the rounded, pitted surface of a
diamond, and B a erystal of diamond from the series prepared by M.
Moissan, drawings of which illustrate his paper.’ The rest of the speci-
mens, C to I’, were obtained by myself by the aid of his method as
above described. OC represents a dendritic growth apparently com-
posed of hexagonal plates of graphite, while D is a specimen of much
interest, as it appears to be a hollow sphere of graphitic carbon, par-
tially crushed in. Such examples are yery numerous, and their surfaces
are covered with minute round graphitic pits and prominences of great
brillianey. Specimen HE (which, as already stated, was one of a series
shown to the audience) is a broken crystal, probably a tetrahedron, and
is the best crystallized specimen of diamond I have as yet succeeded in
preparing. Minute diamonds, similar to A, may be readily produced,
and brilliant fragments, with the lamellar structure shown in F, are
also often met with.

The close association of the rarer metals and carbon and their inti-
mate relations with carbon, when they are hidden with it in iron,
enabled me to refer to the production of the diamond, and afford a
basis for the few observations I would offer in conclusion. These relate
to the singular attitude toward metallurgical research maintained by
those who are in a position to promote the advancement of science in
this country. Statements respecting the change of shining graphite —

1Comptes Rendus, Vol. CX VIII, 1894, page 324.

}

THE RARER METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS. 595

‘

into brilliant diamond are received with appreciative interest; but, on
the other hand, the vast importance of effecting similar molecular
changes in metals is ignored.

We may acknowledge that ‘‘no nation of modern times has done so

-much practical work in the world as ourselves, none has applied itself

so conspicuously or with such conspicuous success to the indefatigable
pursuit of all those branches of human knowledge which give to man
his mastery over matter.”! But it is typical of our peculiar British
method of advance to dismiss all metallurgicai questions as “industrial,”
and leave their consideration to private enterprise.

We are fortunately to spend, I believe, eighteen millions this year
on our navy, and yet the nation only endows experimental research in
all branches of science with £4,000. We rightly and gladly spend a
million on the Magnificent, and then stand by while manufacturers com-
pete for the privilege of providing her with the armor plate which is to
save her from disablement or destruction. We as a nation are fully
holding our own in metallurgical progress, but we might be doing so
much more. Why are so few workers studying the rarer metals and
their alloys? Why is the crucible so often abandoned for the test tube?
Is not the investigation of the properties of alloys precious for its own
sake, or is our faith in the fruitfulness of the results of metallurgical
investigation so weak that, in its case, the substance of things hoped
for remains unsought for and unseen in the depths of obscurity in
which the metals are left?

We must go back to the traditions of Faraday, who was the first to
investigate the influence of the rarer metals upon iron, and to prepare
the nickel-iron series of which so much has since been heard.? He did
not despise research which might possibly tend to useful results, but
joyously records his satisfaction at the fact that a generous gift from
Wollaston of certain of the “scarce and more valuable metals” enabled
him to transfer his experiments from the laboratory in Albemarle street
to the works of a manufacturer at Sheffield.

Faraday not only began the research I am pleading for to-night, but
he gave us the germ of the dynamo, by the aid of which, as we have
seen, the rarer metals may be isolated. If it is a source of national
pride that research should be endowed apart from the national expendi-
ture, let. us, while remembering our responsibilities, rest in the hope
that metallurgy will be well represented in the laboratory which pri-
vate munificence is to place side by side with our historic Royal Insti-
tution.

1The Times, February 22, 1895.
2In the development of the use of these alloys the Société Ferro-Nickel and Les
Usines du Creuzot deserve special mention.

aa Give
ae Be

PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF AN EXPEDITION TO THE
PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA, IN 1896.!

By J. WALTER FEWKES.

-

ITINERARY, PERSONNEL, AND COLLECTIONS OF THE EXPEDITION.

The archeological expedition under my charge, sent out by the
Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution, in the
summer of 1896, began work at Winslow, Arizona, on June 2nd. An
exploration was first made of a ruin called by the Hopi Indians Homo-
lobi, situated 3 miles from that town, near Sunset Crossing of the
Colorado Chiquito River. I discovered a second ruin 5 miles north of
Homolobi, on the same side of the river, and on the left bank a small
cluster of houses about 4 miles from Winslow, near the site of a Mor-
mon town (now abandoned) called Brigham City. I likewise visited a
fourth ruined pueblo 6 miles from the railroad, on the left bank of the
Colorado, north of Winslow.

At the close of June the seat of explorations was moved to a ruin
near Hardy, Arizona, about 15 miles east of Winslow, on the left bank
of Chevlon Creek near where it empties into the Colorado Chiquito.
Having made extensive excavations at that ruin, we went to Chaves
Pass, between 30 and 40 miles about southwest of Winslow, closing the
month of July at that place. Shipping the collection which had been
obtained from these three ruins to Washington at the close of July, we
went to the Middle Mesa of Tusayan, where we arrived on the 3d of
August, and immediately began work at the ruin of Old Cunopavi.
At the earnest entreaty of Nacihiptewa, chief of the pueblo Cunopavi,
my work on the cemetery of Old Cunopavi was given up at the end of
two days. Wethen moved to Walpi, prospected the ancient site of that
pueblo, called Kisakobi, with a view to renewed exploration. I also
made a reconnaissance in a reported prehistoric home of the Katcina
people, called Katcinaba, situated about 3 miles from Sikyatki, but for
various reasons we were led to abandon archeological work for the
summer with the experiences at Cunopavi. We therefore set ourselves
to the solution of certain ethnological problems, and the collection of

1 Preliminary account, prepared and transmitted in December, 1896.
517

518 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

material illustrating obscure points of modern Hopi life. I attended
the Flute ceremonies ' at Walpi and Miconinovi, saw the Snake dances
at Oraibi, Cunopavi, and Cipaulovi, which had never been witnessed
by ethnologists, and left Tusayan at the close of August.

After visiting Zuni we went to Isleta and Sandia, made a trip to
Tesuki, and returned to Washington September 23rd.

I was accompanied, during my explorations, by Dr. Walter Hough
of the National Museum, to whose valuable aid much of the success of
the expedition is due.

It was advantageous to hire for laborers both Mexicans and Moki
Indians, but the latter only were employed on the reservation, for obvi-
ous reason. While unaccustomed to hard labor, and physically unable
to do as much in a day as a white man, the Indians were faithful
laborers, and the young men, especially those from the Hast Mesa, are
anxious for employment, not lazy, but willing to do their best.

I found Mr. Peter Stauffer, formerly industrial teacher in the Moki
School, exceptionally well fitted for camp duties; and to the energy of
Mr. J. Bargeman is due the great amount of manual work accomplished
by excavations.

An exact enumeration of the specimens collected is not possible at
this time, but my field catalogue has over 1,700 entries, in addition to
which there are fully 500 more objects. Probably the whole number of
specimens added to the Museum by the expedition of 1896 will not
fall far short of 2,500 objects.

The nature of this varied material is both ethnological and archieo-
logical, the latter, of course, largely predominating. The ethnological
specimens were gathered from Walpi, Zuni, Isleta, Sandia, and Tesuki.
Among these may be mentioned a number of objects purchased at
Santa Fé, illustrating the condition of the missions of the Rio Grande
Pueblos in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This collection
includes paintings on buffalo and other skins, mural ornaments, crosses,
and the like. Although small, when added to the few already in the
Museum they make a fatr beginning of a collection illustrating the
mutual influence of aboriginal and Christian art among the Pueblos.
Noteworthy among these specimens is a painting on skin, from the
walls of an old mission, in which the figure of a saint is represented
in a cloud from which descends parallel lines symbolic of falling rains
and a picture of the Crucifixion on a slab of wood, the edge of which
is cut in the form of a terraced rain cloud.

Dr. Hough, at my suggestion, collected a considerable herbarium,
illustrating Hopi medicinal and alimentary plants, obtaining their
aboriginal names and uses.” He likewise made a collection of fossils

The creer “ition were ade have been jonisresinedt in an satel) ential.
“The Miconinovi Flute Altars,” Journ. Amer. Folk Lore, 1896. .

? The results have been published in an article entitled, ‘‘The Hopi in Relation to
their Plant Environment.” Amer. Anth., Feb., 1897.

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PLATE XXVII.

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

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PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 519

from the formation underlying the Middle Mesa of Tusayan, which will,
it is hoped, shed light on obscure points in Tusayan geology.

The archeological material consists of a large collection of prehis-
toric pottery of many different forms, colors, and degrees of excellence,
stone implements, basket ware, cloth, jewelry, pigments, and sacred
paraphernalia, the majority of which are of a mortuary character.

The series of skulls which were collected numbers eighty, which is
the larg st assemblage of somatological material ever made from the
ruined pueblos of the Colorado Chiquito. The close resemblance
between the skulls of the ancient Cibolans and those of the accolents of
the Gila-Salado has been commented on by others.’ The modern Hopi,
however approach more closely to the former inhabitants of the Gila
Valley in their craniometric features than do the modern Zunis. The
large collection of skulls from Chaves Pass affords abundant material
for the solution of an important question, and when properly ‘“‘ worked
up” will shed light on the relationship of the Pueblos to the Gila and
Salt River tribes.

We recognized that it would be instructive, in view of the agricul-
tural life of prehistoric Pueblos, to know something of the animals,
domestic and otherwise, by which the ancients were surrounded, or
those which they hunted and used for food. Tor the purpose of answer-
ing this question we carefully gathered all bones of animals found in
excavating the rooms of Homolobi, especially those associated with
undoubted prehistoric material. This unique collection grew to con-
siderable size, and will furnish material for a special article.

In addition to objects I collected abundant notes, photographs, and
drawings, gathering data for elaboration into special articles. I have
been able to fill several gaps in my knowledge of the intricate Tusayan
ritual, especially the secret rites of the Snake dances at Cipaulovi,
Oraibi, and Cunopavi.”

SCOPE AND AIM OF THE EXPLORATION.

The primary object of my expedition was a collection of prehistoric
material from our Southwest, and in pursuit of this end I was able to
continue tie lines of investigation inaugurated in the summer of 1895.
Tam attempting to follow an archeological base line from the inhab-
ited pueblos of Tusayan to the ruins of the Gila and Salado watershed.
Broadly considered, the goal before me is to determine the origm of
the southern component of the Moki Indians, and the special aspect
of that problem, which I considered in the summer of 1896, was to
investigate by archeological methods the claim of the Patki family
that their ancestors lived near Winslow and at Chaves Pass.

1 Journ. Amer. Eth. and Arch., Vol. III., No. 2.
2This material was published in the Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology.

520 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

The ruined pueblos near Winslow are called by the traditionalists
best versed in the story of the migration of the Patki family by the name
Homolobi. Unfortunately, no known object of aboriginal manufacture
had ever been obtained from this vicinity by the archeologist, and on my
arrival at the town I found little encouragement that I should be any
more successful, for no one there knew of any ruins in the neighborhood
of the town save those of the Mormon settlements, Brigham and Sunset
City. A few days’ explorations, however, showed that Winslow is one
of the best points for archeological studies in the pueblo area. By the
aid of Hopi workmen we discovered Homolobi, from which were taken
several hundred most beautiful objects of prehistoric handiwork. Hay-
ing, as I believe, successfully demonstrated that the legend that the
Patki or some other Moki family formerly lived near where Winslow
now stands was true, it was desirable to extend explorations still
farther south. Although this family once lived at fHlomolobi, that
pueblo was only one of their homes in their northern migration. Earlier
in their history, it is claimed, they came from far to the south. The
ruins of former halting places must be searched for in this direction.
J had in this quest also traditions to guide me, even the trail indicated.
In the old times, up to the present generation, in their trading visits to
the Pimas the Hopi took the trail through Chaves Pass, an available
one for them to cross the rugged malpais of the Mogollones. I followed
this trail from Homolobi to the pass and examined ruins which had
been reported, studying their evidence of Hopi kinship. The results
confirmed traditions, and will be developed later in this report.

The ruin at Chevlon was excavated with the hope of adding new
data to aid in an intelligent interpretation of the resemblances between
ancient Hopi and Zuni cultures, which are regarded as practically
identical. It had long been my belief that the differentiation of
Tusayan, Zuiian, Keresan, and Tanoan aspects of pueblo cultures is
of modern origin, and that in no very ancient times resemblances
between them were greater than to-day. Manifestly this question can
not be properly answered save by a knowledge of objects from ancient
ruins. The ruin at Chevlon is situated about the same distance from
Zuni pueblo as from Walpi, and its former inhabitants might easily be
related to the ancestors of both. The Hopi claim it as a home of their
forefathers, and it should not be regarded as strange if the Zunis do
the same, for indeed both may be right. The ancestors of both were
intimately related in their culture; but we can not tell how close the
ancient Hopi were to the ancient Zuni until we know something definite
about both.!

As a rule, the ancient ruined pueblos of the valley of the Little
Colorado were built of stone, while those of the Gila-Salado drainage

'There is a closer resemblance between prehistoric objects from the Cheylon ruins

and Zunian antiquities than between the former and Tusayan, but our knowledge
of the old Zuni ruins is as yet very imperfect.

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 521

area were of stone and clay; stone was used in the upper part of the
river and its tributaries, and pressed clay in the great plains of the
lower Gila-‘Salado. The ruins of the Verde Valley, the natural pathway
between these two regions, are of stone. I have elsewhere claimed that
the character of aboriginal pueblo buildings in our Southwest is deter-
mined ‘by the geological environment. It would give strength to the
argument could we find instances where the same people who in rocky
places built homes of stone constructed clay houses in plains where
stone failed. Between Homolobi and modern Tusayan, following the
Little Colorado, the river winds through level plains where stones for
building material fail, the nearest rocks being several miles from the
river banks. Following the right bank of the stream for some distance
on my way from Homolobi to Tusayan, we narrowly scanned every
evidence of former aboriginal occupation for evidences of ruined build-
ings of adobe. At several points there were mounds of ancient pueblos
in which no stone was used in the construction of the walls, although
they were thickly strewn with fragments of pottery. It will probably
be found that there were several small adobe pueblos along the banks
of the Colorado between Homolobi and the Crossing, wherever the
valley broadens into a plain.

With this general sketch of the scope of my work, let us pass to a
special consideration of the four ruins, Homolobi, Cakwabaiyaki, Tciib-
kwitealobi,' and Old Cunopavi, which were studied by my party. The
first three are far south of the Moki Reservation, although ancestrally
situated in Tusayan. Roughly speaking, the pueblo at Chaves Pass
was about halfway between the Moki town, Walpi, and the great
buildings near Tempe and Phoenix. The distance of the Chevlon ruin
from Zuni is about the same as from Walpi.

HOMOLOBI.

There are no less than four extensive ruins within 6 miles of Winslow,
Arizona, near to or remote from the banks of the Little Colorado. AI]
of these are claimed by the Hopi as dwelling places of their ancestors.
The nearest, and that especially studied, is 5 miles away and was a
pueblo of considerable size, situated on the plain of the right bank of
the river, which has in freshets overflowed its banks and washed away
a portion of the walls. It is separated from the present right bank of
the stream by a level river bottom, in which now grow stunted cotton-
woods and other trees.

The mounds of this ruin exhibited no evidences, when we began work,
of rooms above ground, although I was told that in comparatively recent
times it had walls rising to a considerable height, and that the Mormons,

1The names chosen to designate the ruins at the Chevlon and Chaves Pass are of
Hopi etymology, but not necessarily the only ones applied by them to these ancient
pueblos. Cakwabaiya is a name applied to Chevlon Creek, and Tciibkwiteala, Ante-
lope Notch, to Chaves Pass.

522 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA..

in building Sunset City, a mile away, but now in ruins, utilized the stones
from this ruin for their buildings. Although the walls above ground
have been wholly destroyed, the ash-colored mounds indicating the
ruin are readily seen from a considerable distance. The original pueblo
appears to have been of rectangular shape, with inclosed plazas over-
looked by more than single-storied rooms on the east side.

The second ruin, which is referred to the Homolobi group, lies about
3 miles beyond the first and on the same side of the river, but is
separated some distance from its right bank. This pueblo is much
larger than either of the others and crowns a high mesa. The walls of
the rectangular rooms are still clearly discernible above the surface
of the ground, and in some places even wooden beams are still in place.
This ruin would well repay excavations, but its distance from water
deterred me from undertaking them, and other advantages presented
by the former ruin so far outweighed those connected with this that I
attempted only a day’s work at this place.

A third ruin of the Homolobi group is situated on the left bank of the
river, just beyond the site of old Brigham City. The periodically swollen
Colorado had washed into this ruin and worn away a considerable sec-
tion along the river front. The character of the ruin indicates that it
was a small pueblo built in part of blocks of adobe, and possibly
abandoned on account of the encroachment of the stream, although
well situated for farming the adjacent valley.

The fourth ruin is perched on top of a mesa at about an equal dis-
tance from Winslow as the second, but on the left or opposite bank of
the river. The pueblo covered almost the entire top of a conical butte,
which on one side is almost inaccessible. This ruin indicates a village
of considerable size, as shown by the fallen débris and abundance of
pottery fragments strewn on the talus at the base of the cliffs. The
pictographs on bowlders half way up the hill following an old trail are
abundant, characteristic, and well preserved.

My knowledge of the character of prehistoric culture at Homolobi is
drawn mainly from facts obtained at the first ruin, but the similarities
of all four ruins implies an intimate connection and a close likeness in
the manners and customs of their inhabitants. For convenience it may
be best to designate the group of ancient towns about Winslow as the
Homolobi group, but I will not commit myself to the statement that
they were all simultaneously inhabited. ‘There is as yet, however, no
evidence that they were not, and every probability that the time of
abandonment! of all was not far apart. ;

Although past experience had shown me that excavations in the
rooms of ruins reveal few specimens of value, as compared with those
in cemeteries, I made extensive excavations of the rooms of Homolobi
to determine their form, the number of stories, and their distribution

' The reason for their desertion is variously stated to have been inroads of hostile
bands, failure of crops, swarms of insects, ete.

Smithsonian Report, 1896, PLATE XXVIII.

VASE WITH Four BIRDS.
(Homolobi, No. 156676.)

BIRD DESIGN.
(Food bowl, Homolobi, No. 156603.)

eer

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 523

in the mounds. These excavations showed that the majority of the
rooms were large, that their walls were nicely plastered, and that they
were two stories high in some places. In more than one part of the
ruin we came upon well-preserved cedar beams of flooring several feet
below the surface. Fireplaces (?) and windows were found, but only
rarely, although passages from one chamber to another were common.
In one of the rooms we found a human skeleton, apparently of an old
man, but with no evidences of careful burial. The skull of an infant
lay on the floor of another room. It was interesting likewise to note
that in the large flat slabs on the floor of one of the larger chambers
we found small round holes, carefully made, which suggested the
sipapt, or symbolic opening, the orifice through which, it is held, races
originally emerged from the underworld. As this is one of the features
in the kiva floors at Tusayan, we might readily consider the chamber in
question to have been a sacred room or kiva; but later in our excava-
tions we found many similar slabs of perforated stone near graves
in the necropolis, which suggests that possibly these stones were used
in the floors of rooms to cover the dead in intramural interments.

The great collections of prehistoric objects which were taken at
Homolobi came from the necropolis, or burial place, which is always the
most wonderful in its revelation of the character of ancient life. The
cemeteries of Homolobi were situated, just outside the town, in the slope
of the mound, only a few feet from the outer wall. The dead were thus
practically interred in the very shade of the pueblo, and were not car-
ried to any distance. There was nothing superficially visible to indicate
these interments, save now and then the edge of a flagstone placed
upright in the soil. The custom of intramural burial and interment just
outside the house walls seems to have been of very ancient date; the
transportation of the deceased to a distance, more modern. Pueblos,
like Awatobi and Old Cunopavi, which were under Spanish influence,
practiced both methods, but the inhabitants of the present inhabited or
modern Tusayan pueblos long ago abandoned burials in their villages,
and now carry their dead down the mesa, or some distance from the town.
At Sikyatki the cemeteries were a few hundred feet distant from the
pueblo, while at Homolobi, Chevlon, and Chaves Pass the dead were
buried in the town, or close outside the walis. I found no evidence of
cremation of the dead.' Almost every grave was indicated by a flat
stone slab, which stood upright or lay above a skeleton. Some of these
stones were perforated with round, oval, or square holes. There was
no uniformity in the orientation or positions of the dead, for some of
the bodies were extended, others had knees drawn to the breast, and
still others were lying on one side. Double and multiple burials were

1 Although it is distinctly stated by early Spanish writers that the Cibolans burned
their dead, the finding of skeletons in ancient Zuni ruins shows that the ancient
Zunians did not always cremate. The great numbers of skeletons found in and about
the ruins of the Little Colorado indicates that burial in the ground was a general
custom. —

524 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

common. The place of interment extended from the northeast to the
southeast angles of the ruin, and the average depth of burial was about
five feet below the surface of the ground. Very shallow graves were
also common, but the deeper we excavated the better preserved were >
the mortuary objects, the finest pottery being found at the lowest depth.

There appeared to have been ao consecration of the soil in which
the dead were once interred, and the same burial ground was appar-
ently used several times, after intervals of time. The habit of placing
mortuary votive offerings was almost universal, and almost every grave
excavated contained one or :nore objects of pottery,! stone implements,
ceremonial paraphernalia, and the like. The perishable food material
formerly deposited in the bowls was, as a rule, so much destroyed that
no opinion can be expressed in regard to its character. Valuable orna-
ments were left on the bedies of the dead.

The pottery from Homolobi differs in color from the true Cunopavi
and Sikyatki wares, but contains a considerable number of bowls, vases,
and jars of similar form. Roughly speaking, about one-third of the
specimens from Homolobi are similar in color with those from Sikyatki;
another third, red and black ware, which is glazed, and the remainder,
white and blacix, like the cliff-home pottery. These differences in color
are, I believe, mainly due to the kind of clays, pigments, and other com-
ponents used in their manufacture, but the symbolism of all wares,
however colored, is practically identical.

The large number of vessels belonging to the red and black, and
black and white varieties, identical with those sometimes said to be
characteristic of the cliff dwellers, lead me to the conclusion that the
ancient pueblo villages made the same kind of pottery, and adorned it
in the same way, whether they lived in cliff houses or in villagesin the
the plain. This conclusion could not have been demonstrated with-
out extensive excavations in pueblo ruins, such as the means at my
disposal made possible in the Homolobi region.

Vases, aS a rule, are ornamented on the exterior, and I have but a
single specimen decorated on the interior. This figure represents on
one side of the rim the head, breast, and arms of a human being, hold-
ing in outstretched hands rattles or spears. Below this figure there
are, in the interior of the bowl, two footprints, as if from one who had
leaped into the jar. From these two footprints a line of steps extends
across the interior of the jar, ending on the diametrically opposite rim,
behind a figure of the lower body and legs of a man crawling out of
the bowl on the opposite side. This internal decoration is unique, and
undoubtedly had an important meaning in the mind of the delineator.

The pictographic decorations of Homolobi pottery which can be
identified are few in number compared with those from Sikyatki, which

1 While much pottery was broken, many pieces were entire.

*In other words, while black and white ware is among the most abundant kinds
in cliff houses, it,is not characteristic of or confined to them, thus indicating con-
temporaneity of occupation.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXIX.

BoNE EAR PENDANTS.
(Chevlon, No. 157852.)

Copper BELL.
(Chaves Pass, No. 157839.)

FOOTPRINTS ON INSIDE OF A VASE. BROKEN FRET.
(Homolobi, No. 156690.) (Food bowl, Chevlon, No. 157895.)

‘palin

ee

Smithsonian Report, 1896,

Re grey” ae

ie

DIPPER.
(Homolobi, No. 156891.)

BIRD FIGURE.
(Food bow], Homolobi, No. 156870. )

PLATE XXX.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXX]

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MyYTHIic SPIDER AND SUN EMBLEM.
(Food bowl, Homolobi, No. 156888.)

~

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 520

is, I believe, a highly significant fact. The figures of birds predominate,
but these differ essentially from those represented in the paleeography
of Cunopavi and Sikyatki. As arule, they are crude in form and less
artistically made, a generalization which is likewise true of the ceramic
ware as a whole, looking at it either from the point of view of finish or
ornamentation. The ancient pottery from Sikyatki and old Cunopavi
is superior to any which I have examined from the Southwest. That
from the Homolobi region is cruder, more like ancient Zuni ware, indi-
cating a less developed artistic taste and pointing to but not proving
a high development of culture in prehistoric Tusayan. As we compare
articles from the Chevlon ruin with those from Zuni we find close like-
nesses,' but if anything the ancient Cibolan ware is inferior to that-of
Homolobi, both of which is greatly inferior to the ancient Tusayan
pottery.

~The only instance in which I have found a figure of the spider in
pottery from prehistoric ruins of the Southwest was on a food basin, the
interior of which was adorned with a representation of thisanimal. It
had the four pairs of legs characteristic of Arachnida, the globular
body, and prominent mandibles of this group. In modern mythology
the spider woman is associated with the sun, and itis probable that she
is an earth goddess, bride of the sun, called the mother or grandmother
of the twin war gods. It is interesting to find on the outer rim of this
bowl with spider decoration a figure of the sun similar to that now
made yearly by the chief of the Katcinas on the floors of the saered
rooms or kivas in the celebration of the series of ceremonials called the
Powami.’?

The maize found in the mortuary bowls at Homolobi, and the same is
likewise true of the other ruinsstudied by me, was a small-eared variety,
in some instances not more than one or two inches in length. There
were many squash seeds, a few cotton seeds, and others not identified.’

Among objects of doubtful use found at Homolobi may be mentioned
the plastron of a turtle which was cut into a circular form or disk.
While we were at work on our excavations at Homolobi a small party of
Hopi made a visit to the Chevlon and Clear creeks to collect turtles
for use in the sacred dance. They also made prayer offerings, which

1 Both the ancient Zuni pottery and that from lower down the Colorado Chiquito
are similar in color, doubtless because of identity in the constituents of the clay and
the action of fire upon it.

2The modern symbol of the sun which is depicted on the pottery now made in
Tusayan is likewise found on the altar screen of the Paliiliikonti, or serpent-sun cer-
emouy, and in various other altar paraphernalia. The sun symbol of the Katcinas,
however, is slightly different, and that on old pottery resembles the Katcina variant.
Isuggest that the dual symbol thus recognized can be explained on the theory of
diverse origins.

3 Among the present people in Tusayan, who claim that their ancestors came from
the far South, the Squash people were regarded most important. Itis held that these
people, together with the Sun, Water, and others, once lived on the banks of the
Little Colorado. On their advent in Tusayan they settled Teukubi, a pueblo of
the Middle Mesa, now in ruins. The gens is now extinct at Walpi.

526 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

they placed in shrines, and carried back water for use in a Katcina
dance, the Calako (Sio, Zuni), which was performed in July ! in Sit-
comovi. These men made a pilgrimage of 80 miles to visit ancestral
places of worship. The fact has a significance and is connected with
early migrations of cults.’ :

Several sections of the leg bones of some mammalian were found near
the skull of one interment. These were possibly hair ornaments.’

The second ruin in the Homolobi group which was discovered was
situated about 3 miles beyond the first, on the same side of the river,
but more distant from its bank. This ruin was a much larger one than
that already considered, and crowned the top of a mesa about 200 feet
high. ‘The rooms were well marked out by standing walls, and in many
instances the remains of wooden beams were still present. ;

The burial places of this pueblo were in the foothills at the base of
the mesa, and the graves were marked by the same rectangular stone
Slabs recorded in the first ruin. The most instructive food bowl found
in these burials was ornamented with the picture of a human being
with flowers and butterflies. The chin of the figure is painted black,
as is so often the case in idols in Tusayan altars, and faces of partici-
pants in dances.*

The third ruin® was situated on the left bank of the river, not more
than 5 miles from the town of Winslow. It was a small village, and
so near the stream that the water had washed away one corner of the
mounds. I made no excavation at this place, except on one side, but

1This ceremony has been described in the Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau
of American Ethnology.

2The Sio-Calako was brought to Sitcomovi from Zuni by several Hopi who had
seen it at the latter pueblo not many years ago. As all Katcinas are the special care
of the Badger people, the paraphernalia of this ceremony belongs to the Badgers.
There are some other Katcinas which were derived from Zuni, as well as weak rep-
resentatives of certain priesthoods; but as a rule the Mokis have carefully guarded
their peculiar rites, not being willing to sell them even to the Zunis. About the
year 1880 representatives of eleven Zuni clans visited Walpi and tried to purchase
the mysteries of the Snake Dance, but wererefused. The Zuni ritual is not as varied
or as rich as the Moki and has suffered more ly losses caused by the extinction of
ceremonials due to the Spaniards.

2One of the most problematical gentes of the Hopi, which is reputed to have come
to Tusayan from the far South, was the ‘‘Wiksrun.” This gens is said to have
been so called because the members of it wore sections of the leg bones of the bear
in their hair, hanging down over the forehead. Onate mentions a people between
the Little Colorado and the Great Colorado, called ‘‘Cruzados,” from their wearing
crosses on their foreheads. The Coco Maricopas are said to have worn bone objects
in their hair, and this is true of several tribes in the Southwest.

4The Antelope priests, Flute girls or Corn maids; see description of the Tusayan
Flute Observances.

"Several clans which were later assimilated with the Tusayan villagers are
reported to have built homes along the Colorado Chiquito, and some of the names of
these villages are known to Tusayan folklorists. One of these is the old pueblo,
Etipsykjya, a home of the Squash people. From the size of some of the ruins along
the Little Colorado, I should judge that some of them housed several phratries.

Smithsonian Report, 1896, PLATE XXXII.

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OraIBI STYLE OF BASKETRY.
(Chevlon, No. 157918. )

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Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXXIII

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(Chevlon, No. 157912.)

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ORNAMENTAL BASKETRY, MIDDLE MESA VARIETY.
(Chevlon, No. 157915.)

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 527

found that some of the walls were made of adobe blocks as well as
stone. Taken in connection with the ruins later found farther down
the Colorado, these are the first mention of adobe walls in villages in
the Tusayan province, showing, of course, that the builders utilized
the most convenient material at hand for their habitations.

The fourth ruin of the Homolobi group was situated on the same side
of the river as the last, a few miles farther north. Like the second ruin,
itis more distant from the river and crowns a mesa, the walls of which
are very steep. This ruin is small and has cemeteries in the débris at
the foot of the mesa. The blocks of stone near by were found to be
covered with characteristic pictographs' made by the modern flopi.

The second and fourth Homolobi ruins are excellent ones to excavate,
and will undoubtedly yield many specimens, although the probability
is that objects taken from them will not differ greatly from those which
J have brought to Washington from the first ruin.

CHEVLON RUIN.”
\
There are several ruins on Chevlon Creek, one of the most convenient

of which to study was that on the left bank near where it flows into
the Little Colorado. This ruin, about fifteen miles from Winslew, is in
sight of the station Hardy, on the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, and
was the most eastern ruin of those examined.

It is situated on a gravelly hill, nowhere more than a hundred feet
high, and in no way different from neighboring hills of the same
geological character. No sign of walls were seen above ground, but
from a distance the mounds of Chevlon ruin could be readily distin-
guished by their peculiar light-gray color. The general form of the
ruin was rectangular with outlying rows of rooms apparently inclosing a
plaza, and the most elevated part was on the northern side.

The cemeteries of this ruin, like those of Homolobi, gave us the
majority of objects collected at that place. The pueblo, judging from
the contents of the graves, was richer and larger than Homolobi,
although there are many likenesses between the two. The portion of
the necropolis excavated was situated on the northern side, the graves
being found on the slope of the mounds in the immediate vicinity of the
outer walls of the town.

The burials were indicated by flat stones, some upright, but mostly
horizontal, similar to those of Homolobi. As a rule the bodies were
Wrapped in a coarse rush matting, which was in many instances well
preserved.

Of fragile objects from this ruin may be mentioned fragments of
plaited ware, some of which were almost entire baskets. The custom

1 Among these were recognized the totem signatures of several clans of the Patki
and Squash people, who traditions say once lived in the Colorado Chiquito ruins.

2? Cakwabaiyaki, Blue Stream pueblo. Higher up or nearer the source of the Chevlon
there are other ruins, and in the Clear Creek Canyon several cliff houses.

528 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

of burying basket plaques with the dead is still preserved in the
Tusayan towns, where it appears to have been inherited from ancient
times. Baskets are not now made at the Hast Mesa of Tusayan, and
the craft is confined to the Middle Mesa and Oraibi. The baskets
from several graves were identical with those made at Oraibi. There
were also representations of the peculiar kind manufactured at Miconi-
noviand among the Kohoninos. Some of the baskets were painted on
the surface a green or blue! color, others had the component twigs
stained before they were plaited. When the basket ware was painted
the pigment formed a thick coating or layer over the surface.

Phere was found in a Chevlon grave a large stone slab ornamented
in color on both sides. The designs on one side are shown in the
accompanying plate, but the figure on the reverse is almost invisible.
From the portions still remaining I recognized symbols of the dragon
fly. The triangular figure I will not attempt to explain, out of a feeling
that it would be presumptuous to attempt it when the best folklorists
among the people of Walpi declared that they did not understand its
meaning.

The use of stone, wooden, and burnt clay slabs on the altar of Tu-
sayan priests has been repeatedly illustrated by me in accounts of the
Hopi ritual, but none of these bear a symbolism identical with that on
the stone slab from a grave in the Chevlon ruin. This form of pictog-
raphy is therefore exceptional, and the specimen, so far as I know,
unique.

The colors with which it was painted are the same as those used
to day, and from being mixed with water easily wash off. Undoubtedly
this stone slab was used in ceremonials, perhaps prehistoric, and buried
in the grave of the priest who performed them, at his demise.

Although the significance of the three triangular figures is unknown
to me, their likeness to similar markings on the walls of certain cham-
bers called kivas in the cliff homes of the Mesa Verde is very striking.
In the view of the interior of one of these rooms given by Nordenski6ld?
not only the same number of these triangles are depicted, but also
adjacent to one of them, but not on its apex, is represented a bird. It
has been suggested that these are rain-cloud symbols, and it may be
called to mind that similar figures, reversed, are painted on dados of
modern homes, and embroidered on wedding blankets, where they are
called butterfly symbols. In the secret rites of the snake dance at
Walpi the priests still use a stone slab decorated with a figure of the
butterfly or moth, and called the Hokona mana (butterfly virgin).*

One of the rarest stone implements found in the Chevlon ruin was
an ax of white stone, smoothly polished and symmetrically finished.
This implement was ornamented on opposite faces with a simple incised

' Blue pigment is azurite; green, carbonate of copper.
2Cliff Dwellers of Mesa Verde.
3 Journ. Amer. Eth. and Arch., Vol. 1V.

Smithsonian Report, 189

ew,

Smithsonian Renort, 1895

PLATE XXXIV.

STONE SLAB WITH RAIN CLouD AND BIRDs,
(Chevlon, No. 187293.)

f : :
ah
y je “"
He ; s a
' ie Se tee eS
“ if , ji <

‘Gia Quod WIARTON GR BUD’
a ea) a

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

MOSAIC FROG.

A Hoen &Co.,Lith,

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 529

cross, and four parallel marks were cut on one edge. The stone was
soft, probably limestone, and must have been originally brought to
Chevlon from some distance, as similar rock, in place or in fragments,
was not found in the vicinity. I have not seen an ax of the same mate-
rial from any pueblo ruin, but the majority of stone implements are of
harder rock. The stone axes from Homolobi are of chipped stone,
without groove for hafting.

Several forms of arrow straighteners were found, one of these in the
form of a frog. These also served as arrow polishers, and are at the
present day used in polishing prayer sticks.

Several stone slabs found in the Chevlon ruin had one surface covered
with two rows of blackened circles. They were too heavy for trans-
portation, and my photographs of them were failures. Their use or
significance is not known to me.

The occurrence of metates, or grinding stones—flat, worn slabs of
rock, on which seeds, probably corn, were ground—in the graves of
women indicates a burial custom not without a parallel in modern times.
These metates were commonly inverted over the skeleton of the woman
at burial. The Indian workmen said that in all instances they indicate
the sex of the dead, and, as far as my osteological knowledge goes, it
seemed to me that they were right in that statement.

Several objects for personal decoration were taken from the Chevlon
ruin, one of the most interesting of which was a large button of
polished lignite. A square fragment of the same material, found on a
skull near the mastoid process, was inlaid with five small turquoises,
one at each angle and one in the middle. This was the only specimen
of lignite inlaid with stone which was found, but several specimens of
incrusted shell, wood, and bone were taken from the Chevlon ruin. The
number of marine shells found in the Colorado Chiquito ruins was very
great. |

The following have been identified : ”

Pectunculus giganteus, Reeve. Oliva angulata, Lam.
Melongena patula, Rod. & Sow. Oliva hiatula, Gmelin.
Strombus galeatus, Wood. Oliva biplicata, Sow.
Conus Fergusont, Sow. Turritella tegrina, Keiner.

Cardium elatum, Sow.

The most beautiful ornament or fetich of shell incrusted with turquoise
was found at the smaller of the two ruins at Chaves Pass. It was a
specimen of Pectunculus giganteus covered with gum, in which were inlaid
rows of turquoises nicely fitted together in the form of a frog or toad.
This beautiful object was evidently an ornament, and was taken from
the breast of a skeleton buried several feet below the surface in the
smaller of the Chaves Pass ruins. As an example of mosaic work this

'See Pacific Coast Shells from Prehistoric Tusayan Ruins. Amer. Anth., Novem-
ber, 1896. :
2For objects made from them, see my article, Amer. Anth., November, 1896.

SM 96 34

530 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

object is unsurpassed, and with the exception of one other is the only
veritable mosaic frog known to me from ruins in the Southwest.!

The Chevlon ruin revealed a few specimens of shell carving, one of
the best of which was a Pectwnculus cut in the shape of a frog, with per-
forations for eyes. Many shellarmlets, bracelets, finger rings, and per-
forated shells of the same species were likewise found. There ought
likewise to be mentioned two objects cut out of shell representing, pos-
sibly, some animal with head, four legs, anda tail. One of the armlets
was beautifully decorated with an incised pattern which is variously
modified in color on many prehistoric bowls and jars.

Wood, bone, and shell incrusted with turquoise mosaic were familiar
objects to the inhabitants of the Chevlon. One of the most interesting
ornaments is a pear-shaped pendant of bone, covered on one surface
with a turquoise mosaic. Shell and turquoise were combined in an
incrustation on wood in another specimen.

A set of gaming reeds was found in a grave at the Chevlon. These
were five in number (four is now the prescribed number), and are simi-
larly marked to those used in gaming at modern Zuni. This game was,
however, known in ancient Tusayan, for we found at old Cunopavi a
beautiful food basin with the same four reeds depicted upon it.

In the same grave with the gaming reeds we found fragments of a
bow and arrow which seems to refer the owner to a warrior priesthood.

The pottery from the Chevlon ruin has many resemblances to that
of the ancient Zuni ruins, but is not so fine as that from Sikyatki or
Cunopavi, the old Tusayan pueblos. The predominating colors are dit-
ferent from the latter and similar to those of ancient Cibolan ware, but
its decorating designs are mostly geometric figures. As the symbolism
of the Chevlon pottery is essentially the same as that of Homolobi,
which is undoubtedly Tusayan, and closely akin to that of Cibolan
ruins, I am led to the belief that the differences between the old Tusa-
yan towns of the Colorado Chiquito and those of its tributary, the Rio
Zuni, were not very great, and that there was a closer similarity between
the ancient Zunis and Mokis than between the modern pueblos; so
that both people may consistently claim kinship with the same ancient
people, and their present differences may be interpreted rather as later
differentiations than due to dissimilar origins.

Several vessels of clay, painted and fired, made in the forms of ani-
mals, were found at the Chevlon ruin. One of these was identified by
the Indian workmen as a duck, while others were called birds. One or
two of these were so conventionalized that the head, wings, and tail
were represented by knobs on the surface of the jar. The most striking
of the bird-formed vessels had the form of a macaw or parrot,’ figures
of which bird are constant decorations on many objects of pottery. The

‘Thayve, however, seen one or two other specimens which were cleverly made.
7The macaw or ‘‘gyazro” gens was associated with the Patki, and for obvious
reasons came from the South, where the parrot is found.

PLATE XXXVI.

‘Smithsonian Report, 1896.

= ——_——
= et —————
———
—————

GAMBLING REEDs.
(Chevlon, No. 158030.)

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXXVII.

LAKANA.
(Food bowl, Chaves Pass, No. 157570.)

UNKNOWN QUADRUPED.
(Food bowl, Chevlon, No. 157102.)

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXXVIII.

MyTHIc BIRDS AND RAIN CLouD SymMBOLS
(Food bowl, Chevlon, No. 157221.)

he
a
+4

epee in,

attr
>
c.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XXXIX.

JAR WITH Four KNoss.
(Homolobi, No. 156354.)

BIRD SNAKE VASE.
(Chevlon, No. 157311.)

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XL.

LADLE WITH DiviIDED HANDLE.
(Chevlon, No. 157051.)

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XLI

Posen tater rr emi ani

|
|
|
4

LADLE WITH FIGURE ON HANDLE.
(Chevlon, No. 157306.)

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 531

wings are represented by parallel lines or feathers, a conventionalism
still used on the bodies of Moki dolls.

One of the most suggestive of these jars of animal form is a bird-
shaped vessel with folded appendages on each side which suggest legs.
It is barely possible that these may be reptilian appendages, in which
case the mind naturally recalls the intimate association of the bird
and snake, which has been worked out in so clever a way in carvings
from Yucatan ruins.

The decoration of rudely coiled or indented pueblo pottery was rarely
practiced, but several good specimens were obtained from the ruins of
the Little Colorado. This ware is instructive as furnishing a passage
from rude ware to highly decorated polished pottery. The accompany-
ing figures show the general character of this kind of ware; it has
a peculiarly formed handle, which is nowhere else duplicated. The
interior is perfectly polished and black, closely resembling the modern
ware of Santa Clara. While this kind of pottery was never exten-
Sively manufactured along the Little Colorado, it was not unknown to
the people who once dwelt there.

A remarkably fine series of ladles was taken from the graves at the
Chevlon ruin, which, while they present no marked peculiarities, are
of special interest in the study of the modification in form of their
handles. In one specimen the handle is double; in another, decorated
with a human figure, and many specimens are ornamented with alter-
nating parallel and cross bars. While the interior of the bow] is gener-
ally decorated with geometric patterns, we find the rare abnormality of
a figure of a face resembling a Katcina depicted on its surface.

A peculiar kind of ware, so far as I know new to collections of pre-
historic pottery from our Southwest, was limited to bowls from the
three ruins studied by us last summer. The dominating colors are
red, black, and white, the relative amount of the latter predominating.
The figures are geometric or stellate, terraced and zigzag forms mak-
ing up the greater part. Spirals and curved figures are absent.
While ware of this kind has been taken only from the area covered by
our excavations, its limitation has not been determined. The fact that
it is not found at Sikyatki may be explained on the ground that this
pueblo was settled by the Kokop or Firewood people, who came not
from the south, but from the east, but it is strange that no specimen of
it has yet been found in the modern limits of Tusayan.

CHAVES PASS RUINS.

The aboriginal dwellings in Chaves Pass were two in number, one of
which was larger than that at Homolobi, which I have already described.
These ancient pueblos were situated in the pass on two hills a short
distance apart. The country in which they lie is very different from
that inhabited by the accolents of the valleys of the Colorado Chiquito.

532 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

It is well wooded with beautiful trees, and abundant water, one of the
delightful camping places in this part of Arizona. The walls of both
ruins were built of lava rocks, and the hills nearby are capped with
malpais. From the site of the smaller a wide outlook can be had
across the valley of the Little Colorado to the far distant Moki buttes,
those great conical elevations of rock which form conspicuous land-
marks, for miles about and are in sight of the present Moki villages.
The elevation of the ruins at Chaves Pass was considerably higher than
that of Homolob:. Chaves Pass from prehistoric times was one of the
few available passageways over the Mongollon mountains, and through
itran an old Moki trail, reputed to have been the way used by Hopi
traders in visiting the peoples south of the mountains. The tributaries
of two watersheds arise from it a few miles away, one flowing into the
Little Colorado, the other into the Gila; both eventually into the Gulf
of California.

The position of the Chaves Pass ruins is therefore a most important
one in discussion of the migration of peoples north and south along
these river valleys, and a determination of the culture of the people
which inhabited pueblos on such a site is of great importance in a dis-
cussion of the ancient home of that component of the Hopi people who
claim to have come from the southern region.

The larger of the two Chaves Pass ruins consisted of two rectangu-
lar parts connected by a wall. The highest houses were on the north
side, and the rooms of the eastern end were well marked.

Several hundred skeletons were exhumed from the cemeteries at the
Chaves Pass ruins, many of which were brought back for examination.
These were of the brachycephalic type, the majority with well-marked
artificial flattened occipital regions. From a superficial examination
they appear to resemble those of the Salado-Gila ruins, but their affini-
ties will be discussed in a special memoir.

Two of the skulls found in the excavations at Chaves Pass had
frontal and facial bones stained green. I suppose this was due to the
fact that copper carbonate was placed on the face in funereal rites, and
that after decay of the tissues, the color stained the bones of the face.

The only specimen of metal found in our digging was a copper bell
from the cemetery at Chaves Pass. This bell was found ten feet below
the surface of the ground with a human skeleton. It is identical with
bells found in graves in Salado Valley, at Casa Grande and old Mexican
ruins, and has the same form as the clay imitation described by me from
Awatobi, in my report last year. I see no good ground for the sus-
picion that this bell indicates Spanish influence, for its form is identical
with those made and used by Mexican and Central Indians, of gold and
copper prior to the advent of the Conquistadores.

The flat stones with perforations, which, as already shown, were
marked indications of the graves at Homolobi and the Chevlon ruin,
were not found at Chaves Pass, for this kind of stone does not occur

ay
BN)

aa

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XLII.

ROUGH WarRE, DECORATED.
(Chevlon, No. 157095. )

MyTHIic Birb.
(Food bowl, Chaves Pass, No. 157563.)

Ye
wie

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XLIII.

—————————!

Disk OF TURTLE SHELL.

STICK USED BY STICK (Chevlon, No. 157841.)

SWALLOWER.
(Chevlon, No. 158076.)

Bone AWL.
(Chaves Pass, No. 158097.)

CARVED BONE AWL.

BONE IMPLEMENT (Homolobi, No. 157866.)

(Chaves Pass, No. 157867.)

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 533

there. The surroundings of Chaves Pass afforded other materials to
cover the graves. This region furnished logs, which were generally
used in covering the graves. In digging into the cemetery, we invari-
ably found, at varying depths, a number of these logs laid side by
side, resting on stones at each end. These logs were always found to
cover a body, sometimes, two or more, laid at full length. Oftentimes
these log coverings were but a few feet below the surface, and again
8 or 10 feet. When the dead were buried the food vessels were placed
beside the body and head, the logs laid above the corpse, and additional
stones placed at both ends of the covering. The weight of soil above
these logs, accumulating for a long time, combined with decay of the
wood in many instances, had pressed down on the bowls so heavily
that many were broken. The accidents of this kind to the mortuary
pottery of the Chaves Pass ruins far outnumbered those at Homolobi
- or the Chevlon ruin.

The pigment used by the people of Chaves Pass in painting their
mortuary prayer sticks was not a green copper carbonate, but the blue
azurite, a considerable quantity of which was found in small paint pots
in the graves. The other pigments which were found were yellow ocher
and sesquioxide of iron. Implements in the Chaves Pass ruins, made of
bone, were particularly fine, the best of which were made from the leg
and other bones of the antelope. The bones of the wild turkey afforded
suitable material for bodkins, awls, needles, and the like. There were
several bones of a bird made into implements with a hole punctured
midway in their length, resembling the whistles, tatiikpi, still used by
the Moki priests in their secret religious rites. There were likewise
short sections of bone about a half inch long, flat on one side and round
on the other, upon which the marking of a string was plainly seen.
Apparently these were once tied together in pairs, but although I found
many at Awatobi and a few at Sikyatki, and others at the ruins on the
Little Colorado, I am as yet ignorant of their probable use. The skull
of a dog was found in one of the graves.

There was taken from the ruins of the Colorado Chiquito, near Wins-
low, and from Chaves Pass, a type of ancient pottery, which has never
been found in the ruins scattered over the Moki Reservation. It is
unrepresented in the large collections from Awatobi and Sikyatki.

This kind of pottery is decorated with black, brown, or red lines with
white margins, and is very common in the cemeteries of the ruins along
the Little Colorado. This limitation, which subsequent researches may
modify, indicates a well-marked difference between old Hopi pottery
and that of the ancient Patki peoples.

The pottery from the Chaves Pass ruins, as would naturally be
expected, differs from that of the ancient ruins near Walpi even more
than that of Homolobi and the Chevlon ruin. The peculiar cream-yellow
ware, a division which includes more than 90 per cent of the ancient
Sikyatki and Old Cunopavi ceramics, is hardly represented at Chaves

534 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

Pass, while the red, the black, white and red, and the white and black
divisions make up the great majority of mortuary vessels from this
locality. Asa rule these vessels, as is natural, are similar to the ware
from Homolobi.

The striking figure of a bird on the interior of a food basin of red
ware is no doubt one of the innumerable mythic birds which figure so
conspicuously in modern Hopi ceremonies.! The Jong projecting beak
is a characteristic of many masks used in modern presentations in
Katcina dances.

The only quadruped which was found depicted in Chaves Pass picto-
graphy was a representation of the raccoon, Lakana.

This animal, like many others, has its mythic prototype in the Hopi
pantheon, although, as far as known, this is the first proof from objective
evidence that it was conspicuous in ancient pueblo mythology.

The various kinds of pottery found in the Chaves Pass ruins, and the
geometrical designs upon them, are practically identical with those of the
ruins of the Colorado Chiquito (Homolobi, Chevlon), and the same as
the fragments which I have seen from the ruins of the Verde Valley.
If similarities of this nature mean anything they mean that the people
of the Verde Valley and the lower Colorado Chiquito were formerly
closely related. Trustworthy traditionists of the Patki family at Walpi
told me, long before I knew of this resemblance, that their old men said
their ancestors built the pueblos of the Verde Valley.’

DESCRIPTION OF THE ANCIENT PATKI PEOPLE.

I am led by my studies of these ruins to the following conclusions in
regard to the ancient Patki people:

They were of short stature, with brachycephalic heads, more or less
distorted by pressure in infancy. They lived in pueblos constructed of
clay or stone, raised crops of corn, melons, squashes, cultivated cotton,
and made garments of agave, yucca, cotton, and cedar fibers.

They rarely buried their dead in the floors or walls of their houses,
but generally just outside the walls of their pueblo, only a few feet
away.

For ornaments they wore shell, bone, and turquoise variously worked.
The most elaborate forms of these ornaments were shell and turquoise
incrustations on wood, shell, lignite, or bone. They may have worn
bone and shell ornaments in their hair, but the women before marriage
dressed their hair in two whorls, one above each ear, had ear pendants
made of rectangular fragments of lignite set with turquoise, bone in-
crusted with the same, or simple turquoise. Both sexes had armlets,

1See the ceremony of the Siocalako and the Zuni Shalako. The former I have
described in the Fifteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.

*T am told by Dr. Mearns that a Hopi visitor to Camp Verde, long before I went
to Tusayan, told him that ‘‘Old men Moki” built the pueblos of the Rio Verde.

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

A.Hoen &Co.,Lith.

INCRUSTED ORNAMENTS AND LIGNITE GORGET.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE XLV.
a

1. SHELL ORNAMENT. 3. Mosaic PENDANT. 5. SHELL FRoG.
(No. 158074.) (Chaves Pass, No. 157840.) (Chevlon, No. 157310.)
2. STONE PENDANT. 4. SHELL USED FOR RATTLE. 6. SHELL ORNAMENT.

(Homolobi, No. 156903.) (Chevlon, No. 157847.) (Chevlon, No. 157251.)

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 535

wristlets, and finger rings made of the marine shell, Pectwnculus gigan-
teus, sometimes inlaid with stone. They made basketry like that still
manufactured at the Moki pueblos, Oraibi, and the Middle Mesa, and
wrapped their dead in coarse matting of rushes or other fibers.

The priests made elaborate pahos or prayer sticks, some of which
were several feet long, and painted them with yellow, green, blue, red,
white, and black pigments, the same as those used by their descend-
ants. They prized for ceremonial purposes quartz crystals, stone con-
cretions, and fragments of obsidian. They were acquainted with bells
made of copper. They had rattles of sea shells and wore fringes of
shells on the margins of their garments. In ceremonials they made
use of stone slabs painted with figures of animals which frequent
water.

The warriors were armed with bows and arrows tipped with stone
and obsidian points. They had mauls and clubs, stone hammers, celts,
and axes. They made needles, bodkins, and awls of bird bones, ante-
lope tibize and ribs, which they sometimes carved in imitation of animals.

The women were adepts in the manufacture of earthenware vessels,
which they decorated with elaborate figures in several colors. They
were familiar with the art of glazing pottery, and practiced etching of
the same to a very limited extent.

They buried their dead just beyond the outer home walls, and
deposited with them various votive offerings, pottery, basketry, cere-
monial and other paraphernalia, having first painted the face and
wrapped the body in matting. Over the grave, as environment dic-
tated, they placed square or rectangular perforated stone slabs, or
covered the corpse with cedar logs resting on stones at either end and
weighted with the same at the extremities.

In their mythology, the symbols on their pottery indicate that they
recognized the sun and spider as powerful deities. They worshipped
the rain clouds, lightning, snake, tadpole, frog, and various mythic
birds. The designs on their pottery was similar to that of the ancient
Tusayan people; broken encircling bands, terraces, spirals, and zigzags
were common. The leaf or flower was not used in artistic decorations,
and human figures only sparingly copied. They entertained an idea
of a future life, and associated the dead with rain gods. With the
deceased they deposited votive offerings in food vessels, and buried
costly (to them) property with the defunct.

CUNOPAVI.

The discoverers of Tusayan in 1540 sought ‘seven cities,” but there
is no evidence that they found more than five, for the narratives of
visitors in the sixteenth century discredits the vague report of seven
Tusayan pueblos. At the time Tobar visited this province, and for
a century later, there were probably only five pueblos on what is now
called the ‘“‘Moki Reservation.” These villages were Awatobi, Walpi,

536 PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

Miconinovi, Cunopavi, and Oraibi, names which can all be recognized
in Espejo’s list of 1583.

Of these pueblos the first mentioned has been destroyed,! and the
last still occupies its ancient site, while the others have been moved to
the tops of adjacent mesas.

Old Cunopavi, or ““Cumupabi,” as it was known in earliest records,
was Situated in the foothills near the spring east of the mesa on which
stands the present pueblo. The remnants of the ancient house walls
indicate that it was a village of considerable size, and of an old archi-
tectural type. It had a mission in the early days, the walls of which
are now used as a Sheep corral. The cemeteries of old Cunopavi were
very extensive, some situated near the old walls and others more distant.
A tract of sand, about a half mile.east of the town, was a burial place,
which is thought to have been used by the old Cunopavi people.

We camped on the edge of this cemetery, as near as we could get our
wagon to the spring, and I began work with high hopes of success. I
was aided by a large force of native workmen from Walpi, but was
obliged to suspend my explorations after two very remunerative days’
work, during which over one hundred and. twenty beautiful pieces of
pottery had been exhumed. The chief of Cunopavi, incited by the
chiefs of Miconinoyi and Cipaulovi, he said, objected to my digging in
the ancient cemeteries on the ground that such work would create great
winds which would blow away rain clouds and thus deprive them of
rain for their farms. He likewise stated that disturbing the graves
would incense Masauth, the god of death, and kill the little children.
After a long talk with the Cunopavi chief, Nacihiptewa, whose feelings
I respected, I came to the conclusion that the time was not yet ripe for
archeological work so near the inhabited pueblos. The necropolis of
Old Cunopavi is one of the richest in scientific treasures in Tusayan,
and will some day yield to the student a wealth of material destined to
throw a flood of light on Tusayan cults and customs in prehistoric and
early historic times.”

The pottery from Old Cunopaviis most closely allied in texture, color,
and symbolism to that of Sikyatki, the best in the Southwest. This
ware is, as a rule, cream or yellow colored, very smooth, made of finest
paste, but never glazed. No specimen of the red ware which forms

1Smithsonian Report, 1895: Coronado sought ‘‘seven” cities of Cibola or Zuni,
and Castaneda, Motolinia, and others said that Cibola had that number. Jaramillo,
however, speaks of but five pueblos in Cibola. Camuscudo mentions six, and a few
years later Espejo gives names of the same. In Onate’s act of obedience in 1598
only six pueblos are mentioned. To reconcile Castatieda’s and Onate’s enumeration,
Bandelier considered it “‘as probable that one village was abandoned within forty
years after Coronado’s departure;” but Jaramillo, who gathered his data “‘on the
spot,” and was with Castafieda on Coronado’s expedition wrote, “‘Hay en esta
provincia de Cibola, cinco pueblezuelos, etc.” Modern research has not yet demon-
strated that Coronado found ‘‘seven” pueblos in Cibola or Zuni.

2A beantiful collection was taken from this locality in the spring of 1897, and sold
to the Field Columbian Museum.

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

PLATE XLVI

1. KAOLIN Disk.
(Chaves Pass, No. 157928.)

2. SHELL ORNAMENT.
(Homolobi, No. 156391.)

3. ARMLET WITH INLAID
TURQUOISE.
(Chevlon, No. 157295.)

4. BONE TUBE.
(Homolobi, No. 156898. )

5. INCISED ARMLET.
(Chevlon, No. 157843.)

6. SHELL ORNAMENT.
(Chevlon, No. 157845.)

PLATE XLVII.

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

BirRD DESIGN.

(Cuniopavi, No. 15'

7795.)

mn

STONE IMPLEMENT.
(Homolobi, No. 157895.)

STONE IMPLEMENT.
(Chevlon, No. 157024.

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 537

such a conspicuous feature in the Colorado Chiquito pottery was found,
and there were only two specimens of black and white.!

A much larger number, proportionally, of bowls decorated with fig-
ures of mythic personages were found at Cunopavi than in the Winslow
ruins, the proportions being about the same as at Sikyatki. From what
we know of ancient Tusayan ware and its decoration, I believe that its
specialization in decoration shows an advancement over all other quar-
ters of the pueblo area, and that the potters’ craft in that province
in prehistoric times was more highly developed than elsewhere in
the Southwest. The varieties of pottery found in Cunopavi include
the coarse-coiled patterns, cream-colored and black and white. The
cream ware was very smooth, but without glaze, which, however, forms
a well-marked feature of certain specimens from the three Homolobi
ruins.

No form of pottery was found which was essentially different from
those taken at Sikyatki, and the mode of burial appears to have been
identical in the two pueblos. Considering the decorations as so much
pictorial material, I find little variation in geometrical patterns used in
Sikyatki and Cunopavi or the Homolobi group of ruins. The drawings
of animals differ somewhat from those of the latter region, and my col-
lection in a way supplements the known ancient Tusayan paleography.
As with the decoration of other prehistoric Tusayan ware, figures of
mythic birds predominate over those of other animals, and the feather
is a constant feature in ornamentation. I have introduced copies of
some of the more striking or novel forms of animals represented in the
ancient Cunopavi ceramics.

One of the most striking designs on the food vessels evidently repre-
sents a bird with elongated beak, a tuft of feathers on the head, and an
elevated wing. On the throat there is a figure of a terraced rain cloud,
and the three feathers of the tail are represented in false perspective.
The significance of the ring is unknown to me in this connection, although
the circle is at present a symbol of the horizon. A more conyentional-
ized figure of a bird from another food basin has wings and tail, but a
remarkable head, which represents amask. The face is represented by
a rain-cloud figure with parallel lines over the mouth resembling falling
rain. Above it there is the conventionalized symbol of the dragon-fly.
The appendages to the sides of the mask recall those still used at Zuni
and Walpi in the personifications of Katcinas. The horn on one side
and the rectangular appendage on the other suggest the personage

1The fine yellow ware, which we may call Tusayan ware, is limited to the ruins of
modern Tusayan. In the area where it is found the ceramic art reached a very high
degree of perfection, and the symbolic decorations show a higher development than
any where else among the ancient people of the Southwest. The pottery of the Colo-
rado Chiquito ruins, in which I include those of the ancient villages of the banks of
the Zuni River, is red in color, coarser in texture, and, as a rule, simpler in symbolic
decorations. This ware may be known as the Little Aulooais ware, yes has many
advantages over the nomenclature ‘‘ancient Zuni ware.”

538 PUEBLO RUINS. NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA.

called Caiastaca. Figures which can be referred to Katcina masks are
rare in the most ancient Tusayan paleography, which has led me to a
belief that this cult is a late introduction among the Hopi.!

The two figures on an adjacent plate represent a true Sikyatki style
of ornamentation, variations of which can be traced with great clear-
ness, but which, as far as I know, have never been found outside the
present boundaries of Tusayan. These figures represent a symbolic
bird, highly conventionalized, but with tail feathers, wings, and part
of the body easily distinguished.

A single specimen with the decoration of a reptilian figure was found,
and this was pronounced by Kopeli, the Snake chief, to represent the
Plumed Serpent. The design had little likeness to the symbolism at
present adopted to distinguish this mythic monster.

Unique in the collection from Cunopavi, and very rare in ancient
pueblo pottery, are two food bowls furnished with spouts. One of these
has depicted upon it a mythic bird very much conventionalized, and
the four reeds of a game of chance still in vogue among the Zunis.?
The reeds used in this game I have already referred to as found at
Chevlon.

The figure of a bird with a long upper beak recalls the parrot, a bird
So often used in decoration of pottery farther south, and whose feathers
are so highly prized for ceremonial purposes. The two feathers which
project from one side bear the conventional marks of the breast feather
of the eagle.

The two bowls in the following plate are highly conventionalized, but
the figures evidently represent the tail and two wings. The star is
associated with the great harpy, Kwataka, whom I have shown to be
one of the prominent mythological characters of ancient Sikyatki.*

The Cunopavi pottery is most closely related in symbolism to that
of Sikyatki, and is very similar to that found at Old Walpi.’?._ Its like-
ness to the pottery of Awatobi is more distant, and the same is true of
Sikyatki, for the ancient pottery of Awatobi is closer than to either the
ruins of Homolobi, Chevlon, or Chaves Pass. This resemblance is sug-
gestive, and may later be shown to mean a closer resemblance of the
people of Awatobi to those of the south than is now suspected.

'The Katcina cult in Tusayan is intimately associated with the Honani or Badger
people.

2From the closeness in symbolism and the resemblances in the character of the
ware there seems every reason to believe that Old Cunopavi was inhabited synchro-
nously with Sikyatki. The historical argument does not prevent an acceptance of
this conclusion.

*See Owens’s account of Zuni games, Popular Science Monthly, 1894. The sym-
bolic bird depicted on the food basin with the four reeds is a patron of gamblers.

4The modern Hopi have many legends connected with this harpy, or bird monster.

5Old Walpi consisted of two pueblos situated on the terrace below the east mesa,
and were formerly inhabited by the ancient Walpians. The latter lies to the north,
the former to the west of the present pueblo, where extensive ground floors are still
visible.

PLATE XLVIII.

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

BOWL WITH SNOUT

817.)

(Cunopavi, No. 157

AND BIRD.

, No. 157735.)

J

GAMBLING REEDS

mopavi

(Cu

Smithsonian Report. 1896. PLATE XLIX.

MytHic BIRD AND GAME OF CHANCE.
(Food bowl, Cunopavi, No. 157714.)

MyTHte BirD.
(Food bowl, Cunopavi, No. 157134.)

250
*

PUEBLO RUINS NEAR WINSLOW, ARIZONA. 539

Our excavations at old Cunopavi, interrupted in their inception, were
too small to betray much of ancient customs, but we found in the
graves such a close resemblance to those of Sikyatki that there must
have been a strong likeness between the two peoples. The decorations
on pottery are closer to those of Sikyatki than to that of Walpi or the
Middle Mesa. Cunopavi is no longer a pottery-making pueblo to the
same extent as Oraibi and the Hast Mesa, but in old times this condi-
tion does not seem to hold.

CONCLUSION.

In order to show the advance made in the interpretation of the
problem of the origin of the Hopi Indians by the fieldwork of 1896, it
may be well to close my report with a summary of theoretical results
obtained by the expedition. The objective material collected demon-
strates that ancestors of some Hopi clans lived in ancient times on the
Colorado Chiquito and at Chaves Pass, over a hundred miles south of
Walpi, a few miles from the head waters of the Gila Salado drainage
area. The material from the most southern ruin examined is almost
identical with that from the Verde Valley. The step which remains to
be taken is a searching investigation of the ruins from the crest of the
Mogollones south to the great ruins near Tempe and Phoenix. When
that is done we will have what has never been done before in south-
western archeology, the tracing of a migration legend of a pueblo
people, step by step, by archeological methods.'

The material collected from the Chevlon ruin shows that some Zuni
clans probably formerly lived farther down the river than their descend-
ants do at present, and that their culture was almost identical with the
Hopi, who lived in the neighborhood or possibly in the same pueblo.
The arguments bearing on this conclusion can be satisfactorily stated
only by a technical discussion of the material.

Studies of the habitations of the ancient people of the southwest
have shown me, as stated in my report for 1895, that the culture of the
people who built cliff houses, cavate dwellings, and villages in the
plains or on mesa tops, was the same, and that these different architec-
tural structures are adaptations to environment. I am convinced, from
my studies in 1896, that the color and character of ancient pottery
follows a similar law, and varies according to the material employed.
In other words, that a classification of pottery by colors is purely
arbitrary and useless in separating different pueblo people. The
character of the symbolism is more important.

1It may be suggestive to show that the ruins at Chaves Pass are twice the distance
from Walpi that they are from Casa Montezuma in the Verde Valley, and almost mid-
way between the present Tusayan pueblos and those near Tempe, near the Salado
River, in southern Arizona. The ruin at Rattlesnake Tanks, which I have not stud-
ied, lies midway between the Verde ruins and those at Chaves Pass, on the trail
connecting them.

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE L.

PLUMED SNAKE.
(Food bowl, Cunopavi, No. 157769.)

SYMBOLIC BIRD.
(Food bowl, C‘uopavi, No. 157771.)

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE LI.

BiIRD-SHAPED VESSEL.
(Chevlon, No. 157909.)

MYTHIC BiRD.
(Food bowl, Chevlon, No. 157264. )

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLaTE LI.

DUCK-SHAPED VESSEL.
(Chevlon, No. 157018.)

BiRD FIGURE.
(Food bowl, Chevlon, No. 157084.)

‘Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE LIII.

THREE LINES OF LIFE.
(Food bowl, Chevlon, No. 156138.)

<2)

Smithsonian Report, |896.

A.Hoen &Co.,Lith,

RED WARE DECORATED IN BLACK AND WHITE.

WAS PRIMITIVE MAN A MODERN SAVAGE?

By TALcoTT WILLIAMS.

The early primitive, primeval past has three witnesses—its early tra-
dition, conscious and unconscious; archeological research into its
remains, and the anthropological study of existing savage and barba-
rian raves. ‘These three sources sum our knowledge of the beginnings
of things. It is the current tendency to challenge the value of tradi-
tion, to exalt the value of inferences drawn from anthropology, and to
interpret all archeological discovery in the light of our knowledge of
the savage of to-day. His study has played the same part in deter-
mining our view of the dawn of history as has the study of the lower
organisms in determining our conception of the origin and development
of the human species. Both have been accepted as repeating in their
present activity the unknown past. From both have been drawn the
inferences on which rest current theories as to the beginnings of his-
tory and the descent of man.

The value of both methods of study is not altered because it is neces-
sary from time to time, with new knowledge, to readjust our past
application of recorded facts to an unrecorded past. This perpetual
readjustment between our knowledge of facts and our application of
them is the measure of the progress of science. In all fields it inex-
orably proceeds; in all it marks not reaction but growth. If, in biol-
ogy, the recapitulation theory is less implicitly accepted than it once
was, as spelling all the riddle of fetal changes, it is not because less is
known of embryology, but more. If new controversies as to the plas-
ticity of the early cell and as to the capacity of all cells either to acquire
or transmit hereditary or acquired influences postpone the solution of
some of the issues of life whose discovery seemed near twenty-five
years ago, it is not because the true solution is more distant than it
once was, but because it is nearer. The readjustment which has been
necessary 1n biology in employing the lowest organisms to explain the
origin of human life is equally necessary and equally probable in the
attempts to explain the origin of human society by the use of the low-
est forms of organized society. These attempts have left on us all the
impression and image of the progress of man as beginning with a sav-

age—bestial, degraded, and repulsive, lower than the lowest now
541

542 WAS PRIMITIVE MAN A MODERN SAVAGE?

known—passing upward through incessant centuries of savage war-
fare in which each worse stage has been succeeded by a better, all find-
ing their reflex and counterpart in the grim and bloody record of the
anthropologist, which has in it many savage infernos but no primeval
- Eden.

This conception of the beginnings of human society rests to-day on
the uniformitarian view that the savage of the youth does not materi-
ally differ from the savage of the maturity of the race. The earliest
savage of the past is assumed to be like the lowest savage of to-day,
and the well-nigh universal assumption is that the origin and only
origins of human institutions must be sought in tribes engaged in a
perpetual warfare with those about, cannibal in their habits, in their
religious conceptions the prey of the terror-stricken animism of the
Savage, aS we know him, in their sexual relations given to exogamous
marriages by capture or to endogamous marriages sprung from com-
munal maternity, both bestial, below the larger mammals and birds,
among whom a fairly loyal monogamy not unusually exists. The foun-
tain of government is to be found, and found alone, in a matriarchate
which implies fugitive paternal relations or a patriarchate which was
always the precursor of and was usually accompanied by polygamy.
Out of this dark background of war, rapine, robbery, rape, fornication,
and incest, by pathways as dark of idolatry, polytheism, polygamy, and
slavery, we are asked to believe that man slowly developed into mono-
theism, monogamy, the family, freedom, equality, and law. The con-
trast between the origin and end of this human pilgrim’s progress must
have often struck the candid observer. The difficulty may lie in the
facts. It may lie in the theory. If in the latter, it will not be the first
time that the real obstacle to acceptance has been, not in the facts,
which, accurately stated, always explain themselves, but in the theory
which is presented in the name of science, but is, as all mere theory must
be, the badge of ignorance and the open proof that the facts are not yet
fully known.

Of the existence of cannibalism, for instance, as a fact on the part
of prehistoric man, in some quarters and places, there can be no
reasonable doubt. Whether this single habit was in the first place
universal, in the second place primitive, and in the third place connoted,
all that in the modern savage accompanies cannibalism is a matter of
inference in the present state of our knowledge. There is no question
that certain representatives of prehistoric man, living miserable lives
in caves, at or near the close of the glacial epoch, in a region where
the struggle of life was severe, were cannibals. This is also true of
very early man in more favorable conditions in Southern Egypt and
of early remains in Japan, a region where, as in North Europe, subsis-
tence must have been difficult under primitive conditions. Whether
in friendlier parts of the temperate zone, farther on one side from the
Arctic Circle and on the other from the Tropic of Cancer, cannibalism

WAS PRIMITIVE MAN A MODERN SAVAGE? 543

was universal, we do not yet know. ~A large explanatory field in myth,
legend, and religion rests, however, on the assumption, first, that canni-
balism was universal, and second, that it was primitive, though the
habit is, as we know, in some modern savages of recent introduction
and adoption. Yet, before admitting that cannibalism and its other
concomitants were both primitive and universal, is it not fair to ask—
since the higher apes are in many instances decently monogamous and
comparatively peaceful—for more proof before we are fully persuaded
in our own minds that the particular pithecoid ape which aspired from
the brute to man, sank, on developing human traits, into the savage
mire in which most prehistoric theory plunges him?

This theory rests on the inference—and let us remember it is only an
inference—that the modern savage explains primitive man, and this
inference rests in its turn on the assumption not only that the modern
Savage and primitive man are alike in culture, but that they are also
alike in character and that they both act, one in the past and the other
now, under similar conditions. They may. In one most important par-
ticular there is no proof that the essential condition is similar; quite
the contrary. The modern savage is under pressure. In Australia,
at his lowest, he is under the pressure of a desiccated and desiccating
continent.

Indisputably a decreasing precipitation has made the struggle for
food more severe for him within a comparatively recent period. The
Polynesian savage is under the pressure of exiguous insular territory.
The Malaysian savage is under hostile intertribal pressure, stimulated
by the ease of water communication in an island and tropical world.
The African savage is under a like pressure, relieved by obstacles of
transit on a continent where, taken collectively, the coast line is in
small ratio to area, waterways few, and deserts many. The Eskimo
is under arctic pressure. Nearly everywhere the modern savage is or
has been under contiguous civilized pressure.

It is a familiar truism of both the savage and the barbarian that each
owes his worst qualities to this pressure. Deterioration succeeds
wherever it is applied. Under pressure civilized man may be at his
best, as witness the high civilization which the needs of a cold winter
will develop in those who face it with some civilized capital; or the
rapid development of our railroad system under the pressure of trans-
continental distances. Under pressure, be it heat, cold, a spare food
supply, difficult communication, or civilized neighbors, a savage or a
barbarian is at his worst. For his development some opportunity for
expansion, some freedom from pressure, seems essential. Nowhere is it
clearer that the pressure of civilization works ruin for him than on this
continent. Here, too, if this was escaped until a late period, there
existed in two or three great centers, if not the pressure of civilized
barbarism, at least the pressure of a barbarian civilization in Mexico,
Central America, Peru, and perhaps elsewhere,

544 WAS PRIMITIVE MAN A MODERN SAVAGE ?

Everywhere, then, the savage and barbarian, who is held up as the
mirror and reflex of our past, is under pressure. Where the climate is
unfriendly this pressure is due to nature; where the climate is friendly,
to man. Primitive man may also have been under this alternative
pressure. It is possible that, before the first halting steps were taken
which carried man from savage to barbarous life and set his feet in the
path that led to civilization, the earth, or, to be more accurate, the
Euro-Asian continent along the belt where physical conditions were
favorable, was already full of men. But is it not more probable that
it was empty? The relics of paleolithic man point to wandering
and to scattered centers of activity and population rather than to
a universally diffused population. Much must be collected, collated,
and studied before this question can be unhesitatingly answered
one way or the other. A slender population existing through long
eras will leave as thick a deposit of stone implements, for instance, as
would a large population in a short time. The former seems a more
probable proposition and a more reasonable deduction than the latier. |
The balance of proof and probability are for an empty earth in the
regions where civilization began at some date which, for our present
purpose, it is unnecessary to fix precisely, but which few would be
inclined to place earlier than 10,000 B. C., and most at about 6,000 B.
C., or within a millenium of this period. The early savage, as he began
in some favorable site the germmant origins of civilization, would,
therefore, be without pressure, and to pressure much in the modern
savage must be attributed. Around each of these early centers for civili-
zation would stretch an elastic zone of unoccupied and for many genera-
tions undesired territory. Into this elastic zone each tribe which began
to ascend into civilization in some river valley, island, coast, or range
would grow without pressure and without antagonism. The trader
would cross this zone before the war party penetrated its friendly pro-
tection. For three early and favorable nests of primitive culture—
whether the first or which was the first I do not assume or assert—in
the Euphrates Valley, in the Nile Valley, and in southern Arabia, special
physical conditions emphasize the protection which this elastic zone
offered. Peace, not war, would be the normal condition of these ante-
cedent communities in which the flower of savage life was setting into
barbarism and slowly fruiting into civilization. Hach, surrounded by
an empty space, would develop, untouched, for many centuries, and its
culture would be fostered by peace and not forced by war. Marriage
by capture would be rare or unknown. The family would early develop.
Woman would come to occupy a far higher position than in tribes under
the pressure of modern savage life, where she is the booty of the strong
and the drudge of the successful warrior. In the happy and fortunate .-
but not improbable isolation due to a sparsely settled earth about and
a well-settled territory within, the separate ownership of land would
early develop and bring with it the arts, the leisure, and the culture of

WAS PRIMITIVE MAN A MODERN SAVAGE? 545

the landowner. The priest in a community so situated would occupy
a higher position than the warrior. Removed from strife and pro-
tected from attack, the early type of religion would develop a beneficent
view of the Deity. Monism in some monotheistic shape would become
the dominant and interpretative but not the exclusive form of national
faith, because an homogeneous concentric national growth would long
maintain the supremacy of the central shrine. Government would be
benign. Conquest would not be its chief object, because about and
without would be no tempting object of attack. The arts would flourish
and it might easily be that some Sheikh el Beled, such as now stands in
wood at Cairo, or some scribe and architect, such as sat at Tellah and
now sits in the Louvre, would surprise us by an achievement in sculp-
ture which later generations were not destined to equal. This is not
only possible, as an hypothesis, if an empty earth spread an elastic
zone about each favored and favorite nidus of civilization, but I unhesi-
tatingly appeal to every student of the early stages of Babylonian,
Egyptian, Arabian, and Chinese civilization if the development which
Ihave sketched does not more nearly meet the known and recorded
facts of the dawn of the history of each than does the assumption that
a Savage possessing the culture of the Papuan or the negro was slowly
prepared by perpetual tribal war, by brutal sexual relations, and by
terror-stricken superstition for the upward ascent of man.

In due time, it is true, the elastic zone would be taken up by the
increase of, population, external and internal. War and conquest
would come. The structure of the state would be remodeled. The
warrior king would move to the head of the state and exercise the
despotic direction of its affairs. Earlier liberties would disappear.
Arts and industries would deteriorate. The national religion would
divide into polytheistic conceptions. It would gain in ferocity and
organization and lose in elevation and ethical character exactly as
would the commuuity itself. With conflict and conquest slavery and
polygamy would play a larger share in the national life. The dangers
and debauch of war would stimulate superstition. The militant would
succeed the industrial type of society. In short, there would come the
precise deterioration in the national activities, conscience, and con-
sciousness which is perceptible in both Babylonia and Egypt as outer
contrast begins. In the present state of our knowledge, in which the
dim perspective of centuries too often crowds together in our discus-
sion dates widely disparate, it is not possible definitely to determine the
precise time of this change, but that some such downward movement
occurs in both countries somewhere between and about three thousand
five hundred to two thousand five hundred years before Christ, no one
will, I think, be inclined to deny. As the earth fills also about these
early centers, there begins to fall on their records the pressure of pos-
sible or actual conquest from without. New cruelties appear, a lower
moral temper and blunted morality, with a host of those superstitious

SM 96—35

546 WAS PRIMITIVE MAN A MODERN SAVAGE?

indicia which have been deemed the signs and survival of a savage
origin, but which in the secondary stage of these communities and in
the modern savage are the product of pressure, and not the normal
fruits of the primitive development of man.

Much, inscrutable and inexplicable on the theory that all in ancient
and much in modern cultures is to be explained and read in the light
and lesson of the debased savage, becomes rational and luminous on
the theory just sketched, which allows for the absence in primitive
culture of the precise pressure under which the modern savage lives
and has lived for generations, and through which he has become what
heis. The golden age of peace, virtue, and justice, which appears in
every popular mythology, and which it is at once crude and unscientific
to dismiss as a myth, squares itself with the development just described.
The diffusion of primitive myths, primitive culture, and primitive com-
merce becomes easily explainable when we remember how freely among
such isolated communities the trader would pass.

We know that he thus passed among American Indian tribes. The
native copper-gold alloy of Bogota has been found in pre-Ceciumbian
ornaments in south Jersey. Native copper of Michigan was carried
all over the continent, and the conch shells of its sea coast penetrated
to its center. The turquoise of our southwest is found in ancient
graves a thousand miles away. In the old world, the diffusion of jade
in prehistoric times is a familiar and typical example of like phenomena.
Tin found at opposite extremities of Europe and of Asia spread over
all the space between, the terms of the two extremities meeting near
the Iranic plateau. Copper from the Biscayan mines, the mines of the
Atlas, and the carbonate of copper of the Taurus, spread over all west-
ern Asia and Europe. Such commerce would be impossible if the sav-
age were in perpetual tribal war, but, as a matter of fact, with our own
American Indians, the instant the zone of pressure caused by infringing
civilization is passed, there is found the utmost freedom for the trader
who moved with relative and remarkable security between tribes at
war and with complete safety between tribes at peace. Nor can any
one who has been fortunate enough to break the bounds of civiliza-
tion and leave behind him its frontier of hate fail to be struck with
a new attitude toward the stronger and a hospitality which literature,
wiser than anthropology, has justly termed a primitive virtue.

So with the diffusion of myth and custom. ‘To our thoughts, full of
the wars of history, and our imagination, affected by the specter of strife
as the normal condition of the savage, isolation seems the characteristic
of primitive culture. Communication was, however, probably freer than
at a later period, when conflicting frontiers had turned hospes into
hostis. Once diffused, however, the new trontiers which divided what
had once been an elastic and easily penetrated zone prevented further
intercommunication, and this may, perhaps, explain so much which is
insular in the “fauna” of religions, but an insularity which at so many
points hints an early continental communication.

WAS PRIMITIVE MAN A MODERN SAVAGE? DAT

The savage theory of primitive culture is forced also in such records
as exist of early times to lay great stress on incidents and accidents,
the petrifactions of the narrative, and to attribute the main majestic
eurrent of historical record to the myth-making faculty. This is con-
venient. It is not conclusive. If, however, a different view is adopted,
if we think of the empty earth as early bearing separate centers of
civilization too far apart to vex each his neighbor, and living at peace
with the nameless region between, the conception altogether harmonizes
with the broad outlines of such early records as we have, and explains
on a simpler hypothesis the “ savage” exceptions they contain. The
early and later Genesis documents may represent the compilation of
records, colored by these successive stages of peace and of war. The
entire ethnic theory of the book is of an earth empty and slowly filling
until the elastic zone is taken up and inevitable war begins. Move-
ment and immigration are easy on this hypothesis. They become
impossible if savagery was spread over the earth and slowly curdled here
and there in some happy and defensible coign of vantage into barbarism
and civilization. What is true of Genesis is true of all national records
and all archeological research. Everywhere is a surprising primitive
development. Everywhere this descends into war. Everywhere the
war: god is the younger god, never the elder, as perpetual war would
have made him. If the origins of society stood rooted in perpetual
strife, if the endless war of the savage were its early normal condition,
and the war chief its first head, mythology would make the god of
war the earliest of the pantheon; but, while he is often the favorite
rational deity, his temple the greatest, his priesthood the most impor-
tant, and his caste the rulers of the tribe, in the national cult and
culture the war god is, as with Ares and with Mars and a dozen more
which will suggest themselves, of the second or third generation of
deities. I can not, myself, recollect a single instance in which the
tutelary divinity of war is figured as a primitive deity, although the
rites of hospitality are often committed to an early god, and the pro-
tection of the stranger is generally in the hands of such a deity as
is natural if geveral war succeeded general intercommunication over
vacant and often peaceful spaces. In general, the succession of dei-
ties is from local primitive and comparatively peaceful early gods to
gods whose warlike demands require a bloodier sacrifice. Not infre-
quently, also, though by no means as uniformly as with the war god, the
goddess whose worship prescribes, permits, or palliates sexual license,
is figured as a goddess later and younger than the goddess who pre-
sides over lawful marriage. How frequently, also, in this development
of a national and popular pantheon, based on local and tribal cults and
Shrines, is there elusive esoteric reminiscence of a period when polythe-
ism was preceded by a juster conception of the divine as it is in time
generally succeeded by one. Everywhere men look back upon peace
and hope for its return. Everywhere nations have their wanderjahre

548 WAS PRIMITIVE MAN A MODERN SAVAGE ?

in their annals when the earth was still empty and happy and young.
These numerous coincidences can not be accidental. They unquestion-
ably point to the necessity of revising and limiting the confidence with
which the modern savage has been used to explain a nobler past which
the surviving savage would have shared, if he had been fit for it, or
untoward circumstance had not barred his way. In the end it may be
found that even more radical change is necessary in our interpretation
of the past, that the only true explanation is that much in existing
savage culture represents retrogression, and was never a part of the
upward movement of the race. For the present this conclusion would
be to err in another extreme. All that can be claimed now is that too
much has been made of savage life in explaining the primitive develop-
ment of the race, and too little of conditions which, once existing, have
since disappeared, and, by disappearing, have done iuch to create the
misleading savage of modern anthropology.

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL!

By HERMANN MEYER.

The present treatise is an introduction to a larger one now in course
of preparation. While this larger work is to discuss the distribution
of the bow and arrow throughout South America, and to widen the
knowledge of her mixed populations by means of a thorough investi-
gation of material in museums and the study of literature, it is the
aim of this brochure to point out the system only in general outline,
with the comparison of the materials furnished for the classification
of bow and arrow, and to set forth for a circumscribed region—the Mato
Grosso—how, through the harmonizing of different tribal groups,
ethnographic types arise; what share the several associated tribes
have had in this creation of groups; and, on the other hand, what
ethnographic development within the group each tribe has undergone.

It will not be possible to make an extended review of individual
tribes in a preliminary description of the bow and the arrow. ‘This is
in view for the later work, and at this time it will be presented only so
far as an ethnographic characterization is necessary. In the same way
here the review will be only so extended concerning the meaning of
these weapons for a tribe as to reveal some variation of the arts by
which an advancing or retarding momentum in the ethnographic
development has been given.

For investigating the ethnographic materials which furnished the
groundwork of my investigation, it was made possible through the rec-
ommendation of Professor Bastian, in Berlin, and Professor Ratzel, in
Leipzig, to study the collections belonging to the museums in Berlin,
Munich, Vienna, Braunschweig, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Christiania,
Brussels, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Leiden, London, Kew, Salisbury,
Oxford, Cambridge, Newcastle, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Belfast, Dublin,
and Liverpool; and I here express to the directors and conservators of
the establishments mentioned, above all to Professor Bastian and Pro-
fessor Ratzel, and especially to the head of the American section of the
ethnographic museum in Berlin, Dr. Seler, my heartfelt thanks for the

‘Inaugural dissertation by Hermann Meyer, of the University of Jena. Trans-
lated from original German “ Bogen und. Pfeil in Central-Brasilien.” Leipzig.

Druck von Bibliographishen Institut. 1896.
549

550 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

encouragement rendered. Moreover, I am obliged to Professor von den
Steinen, to Dr. Ehrenreich, and to Dr. Richard Andree for friendly
assistance.

A large number of museums on the Rhine, in Switzerland, France, and
Italy, which I had not time to visit, I thank for their promises to ren-
der complete my investigations in the futare. The rich material of the
Leipzig museum was unfortunately at the time, through want of space,
packed up and not accessible, yet it is hoped that shortly after the
completion of the new museum building it will be possible to make
studies there also.

In the study of material stored up in museums one must proceed
with the greatest prudence in deciding the matter of locality, for the
beginner in this field, who has no knowledge concerning the associa-
tions of a specimen, makes false and confused reports. There exist
only small collections whose data have any claim to confidence; the
great majority of objects are either unknown or insufficiently or falsely
labeied. Very many pieces which have been brought together from
some estate, or through collectors on the coast, far from their origin,
bear absolutely untrue information regarding their provenience. There
are many pieces that migrate down a river, even to a trade station near
the mouth, and then come into the possession of a traveler who knows
only the name of the last place or of the river. Other specimens that
the traveler really got from the natives represent not indeed the true
ethnographic type of that tribe, since these also could have come
into the possession of a tribe through traffic or as booty, as Lucioli
narrates of the Ucayale tribes—that slaves among them worked in their
own manner. However, by means of a careful comparison of speci-
mens in question with well-identified material it is possible to find out
with some certainty their coordination.

In the accessible literature are only a few modern works of any value
for furthering this investigation, since the majority of travelers, par-
ticularly older ones, have often some other object than the promotion of
ethnography, and consequently give only brief notices on ethnographie
subjects. Only in the rarest cases do they devote themselves to a
detailed description of weapons and tools of a tribe with whom they
came in contact. For that reason are to be found abundantly in differ-
ent accounts of the same tribe contradictory statements, so that even
in the utilization of such notices one must use the utmost caution and
critical discrimination.

Unfortunately it was not possible for me to identify the substaiuces
used in the manufacture of bows and arrows, by which I might have
had better data for the fixing of the locality and for proving also the
craft marks. A botanist skilled in South American flora, to whom I
referred a single little sample of wood for microscopic investigation,
declared that among the endless number of South American species of
trees he could render assistance only through the leaves or the flowers.

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 551

This was unfortunately impossible in the case of the weapons. I must,
therefore, confine myself to the repetition of the reports of collectors or
quotations from literature.

Since I have expressed these many difficulties which are in the way
of a thorough investigation, the reader will perhaps lightly criticise any
errors or shortcomings that may appear in my work, especially when I
here suggest this is to be merely an effort to throw a little light upon
the tangled ethnographic conditions in South America—only a first
effort in a larger inquiry, and laying no claim to enduring validity.

The motive in ethnographic investigation is twofold. First, to fur-
nish a contribution to the ethnography of a single group, by which the
group as such may be set forth in its individuality. Second, it should
be sought to establish upon the foundation of the deseriptive part a
scheme for fixing the relationship of this group to its neighbors, and,
above all, to mankind in general. I say advisedly a scheme, for every-
one must be conscious that such investigation can be only one-sided;
and as yet one is not entitled to draw larger conclusions and family
connections of the people in question. Only when the purely objective
ethnographic results compared with linguistic, anthropologic, and eth-
nologic investigations agree, can the perfect accuracy of the outcome
be accepted. Into what dreadful blunders one is led by precipitate
conclusions of all sorts drawn from one-sided data is sufficiently known.

That ethnographic and linguistic studies in nowise always lead to the
same result may be realized in the examination of every ethnographic
collection. On the one side it may be seen that two hordes related in
speech have entirely different ethnographic characters, while, on the
contrary, the industries of two may agree while genetically they belong
to different stocks. This remark is very pregnant as regards South
American peoples, and I shall seek on the basis of my studies of mate-
rials and literature to establish a correct theory concerning the ethno-
graphic relationships of South America.

We must here examine the imitative instinct of men as a motive.
Assume that different impulses and migrations of divers tribes having
unlike ethnographic characters have brought them to settle near one
another, one can recognize among most of these tribes a variation,
through a series of years, of their ethnographic characteristics. They
have become more or less assimilated in their mode of living and their
ethnographic peculiarities. This assimilation, that is external likeness
in type forms, may arise in different ways. If the tribes are inimical,
then captured objects have influenced the technique, but if the tribes
have entered into friendly commerce, then the possibility of acquiring
by trade, tools, weapons, etc., is easily afforded. If they are brought
into still nearer contact through the force of culture, through common
acculturation, then the preservation of old ethnographic peculiarities in
the tribe is rendered more difficult. Finally, among tribes that prac-
tice slavery there is still greater likelihood that these, owing to the

552 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

customary freedom of intercourse, would immediately impart their own
characteristic forms to the peculiarities of their masters. But chief
among these, that form which suggested itself as the fittest to adopt,
and for which the locality and conditions supplied the necessary mate-
rial would be most persistent. It seldom happens that proper material
is procured from a distance through trade, or that any other material
would be chosen than the one there in use for certain forms.

As the chart at the end of this article points out with respect to the
distribution into ethnographic areas, there occur in the same tribe sey-
eral separate types in close contact. This phenomenon is to be referred
back chiefly to a certain persistency with which favorite old-time forms
hold on. ‘This attachment to the ancient is very frequent on types that
are completely changed through assimilation, still showing small idio-
synerasies or added decorations and so on, so that it is possible through
these marks to obtain a glimpse backward on the original form.
Frequently, through trade or capture, certain objects or weapons pass
immediately into the employ of the new-owner and are more widely
diffused in association with theold forms, Especially in these inquiries
in which several tribes are brought together in comparison is an
association of this kind noticeable, but apparently comparison of dif-
ferent forms is possible only when a tribe has been split into several
parts and each one has borrowed on other soil different customs and
forms from neighboring tribes. These tribal divisions have then had
an entirely different ethnographic development. Do we find among
a group of originally diverse tribes, which have acquired through
assunilation special ethnographic characters, a people with entirely
different characteristics, then we are able to conclude that either this
people remains out of contact with surrounding tribes or has just come
there.

This ethnographic association would differ perhaps according to the
choice of the object taken for the classification; at least my investiga-
tions lead to this result, whether we select the bow or the arrow as
object of comparison. But a certain analogy is to be recognized in all
grouping of this sort. For an ethnograpbic classification all the tribes
studied should be regarded from the same point of view, namely, that
the object selected shall be common to all.

As is known, the entire population of South America, originally
depending on natural conditions, have been hunting peoples, and the
greater part of them have held on to this manner of life. The hunting
implement is then common to all. Now we find among the different
tribes generally various methods of capturing animals. One employs
the blowtube, the second a sling, the third a bola and a lance, but all
have as the chief weapon the bow and arrow, which even the gun can
not supplant, because the noiseless shooting of the bow does not
frighten the game. Only the tribes of the Pampas, who since the
influx of the Spaniards have taken up with the horse, have more and

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 553

more given up the bow, since as riders they can not conveniently use
it. In fighting on foot at the time of Dobrizhoffer the bow was always
the favorite weapon. Also the tribes that are now completely seden-
tary, which practice hunting along with agriculture only for amuse-
ment, exercise still the greatest care upon the preparation of this weapon
and know how to use it with skill. In their sagas the bow and the
arrow still play animportant role. They are regarded almost as sacred
and are frequently used as cult objects. If a people through constant
association with culture exchanged their bows and arrows for other
weapons, then the children kept up the old reminiscences and held on
to the bow and arrow as playthings. We can thus appreciate the
interest which a South American Indian feels when foreign bows and
arrows are brought to his notice. He is accustomed to recognize the
tribe by its arrow. I therefore indorse the position of Von den Steinen!
when he says, ‘“‘just as in comparative philology, a comparative arrow
study may be conducted,” as a rule for the resulting ethnographic
grouping. This position has full force only when the difference of time
between the arrival of different collections is taken into consideration,
since, aS has been already said, the ethnographic characteristics have
been subject to great variations.

It can not then be wondered at that in the general distribution of
bows and arrows so great a diversity of form exists, which makes
possible a grouping for a fundamental study. This grouping demands

again the separation of forms according to specific marks of structure.

Of great importance in the distribution of the arrow appears to be the
feathering, which seems to be capable of unlimited variation. There
may be also bestowed a great deal of care on the fastening of the
feather, on the wrappings of the shaft with thread, or upon the manner
of fitting the feather. Moreover, the wrapping of the feathered end
or shaftment offers excellent opportunity to preserve certain textile
patterns, perhaps the one remaining survival of the old tribal peculi-
arity. Besides the feathering, the fastening of the point to the shaft,
or of the point to the foreshaft, affords a safe datum for discriminating.
The shape of the point also furnishes a guide for differentiations, how-
ever generally the varietal marks of the point and shaft adjust them-
Selves with those of the feathering, so that the last may be taken as a
basis for classification. The dimensions of the arrow are not directly
useful as a means of separation, although individual tribes are char-
acterized by the measurements of their weapons. Yet there are not
seldom within a single tribe differences of half a meter in the lengths
of the same sort of arrow. The choice of material depends chiefly on
natural surroundings which a tribe encounters from place to place. It
ceuld, therefore, through identification of material and the botanical
proof of the source of a plant, be shown that an arrow belonged to a
certain group; unfortunately this is not possible where accurate data

1Unter den Naturviélkern, Central-Brasiliens, page 229.

554 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

concerning the material are not given by the collector. Only single
types like the Chaco arrow may be recognized through the material.
In the classification of bows through the cross section the material
would be of weight.

Before offering some remarks on the characteristics of bow and arrow
types by regions, I shall seek briefly to describe South American bows
and arrows as a whole.

Unlike the North American bows, which are generally small and
often made up of parts differing in material joined together, the South
American bows are all self-bows, that is, they are made of a single
piece. For the most part they are very large; only in the Guiana
region and the northwestern lands, as well as in the South, the Gran
Chaco, the Pampas, and in Terra del Fuego are smaller forms in use.
A certain similarity of the Chaco bow with that of the northern Llano
tribes, the Goajiro, is inexplicable. Further, in forest regions almost
throughout, excepting Guiana, large, powerful bows are in use, while
the smaller belong to open steppes. In this fact there is a contradic-
tion to the affirmation of Ratzel concerning Africa, that the forest bows
are smaller than the steppe bows, since the contracted forest prevents
the use of the larger forms. On the contrary, among the Jauapery,
who live in the forest region on the lower Negro, bows are found, ac-
cording to Pfaff, 3 meters long. The South American bows are made
with the greatest care, so that in the manufacture the peculiarities of
the materials are utilized to their utmost extent. The form is, with
rare exceptions, Symmetrical. The curvature is not pronounced and
symmetrical, but sometimes through a little bulge of the middle a
slight double curve is effected. Bows are neatly wrapped with liana
bast or with yarn and cotton string, partially, as a general thing, and
frequently thus to old bows an artistic touch is given and beautiful
patterns developed. Feather ornaments are also often added to the
bow. The plain bows exhibit, as Ratzel has pointed out, a decided
similarity with those of the Melanesians.

The size of arrows is naturally in relation with that of the bows. The
steppe peoples and the Fuegians have the smallest arrows. ‘They also
exhibit much care in their finish, and adorn them greatly by means
of wrappings upon the joints where the several parts are united. The
arrows of the steppes are made especially with reed shafts having
wooden points, those of upper South America have mostly in the
reed shaft a fore shaft inserted, which carries the point.

The material of the shaft over the entire middle region is mostly the
widely distributed knotless Uba reed (Gyneriuwm saccharoides), and
especially in the Hast the more slender Cambayuva reed. The reed
shaft of the Chaco tribes is similar to the Cambayuva. Only among
the Fuegians and a few other tribes in special kinds of arrows is wood
used for shafts. The points are of wood, at times smooth and again
with rows of opposite barbs, or from long, sharp splints of bamboo, from

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 555

bone. from spines of the ray fish-and in later times of iron. Stone
points were, indeed, originally in vogue over the whole area, and have
held their own only among the most southern and the most northern
tribes, Central Americans and Fuegians. Poisoned arrows are spread
over nearly the whole forest region.

The different groups may now be characterized :

Bows in Central South America are of five different classes or
groups:

Group 1.—Peruvian bow.—Rectangular or long elliptical cross section
and almost always made of the heavy, black chonta palm wood. (PI.
Vie no: Pl LX, fig. 1.)

Group 2.—North Brazilian bow.—Semicircular cross section, charac-
terized by the material, a reddish brown, smooth, leguminous wood.
Gel nVvilhh. tie. 10.)

Group 3.--Guiana bow.—Small with parabolic cross section for the
most part and a channel along the outer side. Made from a dark-
brown wood. Between the north Brazilian type and the Guiana type
there is an intermediate form.

Group 4.—Chaco bow.—Round and beautifully smooth exterior, made
from the red Curepay acacia.

Group 5.—Hast Brazilian bow.—Distinguished by the choice of differ-
ent woods. The type is separated into two subgroups, which at the
north have their connecting link in the Shingu bow and at the south in
the Kameh bow. The western class has been developed out of the
smooth, strong wooden bow of the Bororo, having cross section, and
wrapped with ‘‘cipo,” a liana bast. The eastern subgroup is marked by
the black Airi palm wood, in the southeast less carefully made by the
Puri and Botocudos. On the contrary, in the Caraja bow (Pl. LIX,
fig. 1) of dark-brown palm wood it has reached a high development,
which still survives in the Shingu bow (PI. LVI, figs. 1, 4, 7), the inter-
mediate form between the eastern and the western subgroup. To the
eastern subgroup belong the majority of the Ges tribes, while the west-
ern subgroup finds its greatest extension among the Tupi tribes of
Paraguay.

Outside of this group stand the Mataco bow, the Fuegian bow, and
the Central American bow, which are not considered here.

The types of feathering are as numerous as the bow types, and may
be briefly characterized as follows:

Feathering of South American bows.

1. Hast Brazilian or Gez- Tupi feathering.—A widely separated group,
which, like the east Brazilian bow group, extends over the entire eastern
Bravil as far west as the Paraguay and the Shingu. ‘Two feathers
unchanged, seldom halved, are fastened at their upper and lower ends
to the shaftment opposite each other with thread, fiber or cipo bast.
Frequently these wrappings are laid on in patterns or have an orna-
mentation of little feathers added. (PI. LIX, figs. 8 and 9.)

556 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

2. Guiana feathering.—Smail, and carefully laid on. Two short half
feathers are bound to the shaft in different places with seizings of fine
thread. The shaft has always a nock piece to fit against the stretched
bow string in shooting. An account of its distribution and of the foot-
ing or nock piece will be given further on.

3. The Shingu sewed feathering.—Two half feathers stitched to the
shaft opposite each other through perforations. The ends are seized
fast with plain or patterned lashing. (P1]. LVLII, fig. 9.)

4, The Arara feathering.—Two long half feathers, which, in addition
to the end seizings, are held down by narrow wrappings of thread at
short distances apart. At the nock the wrapping is done in beautiful
patterns. (PI. LVIII, fig. 14.)

5. The Mauhé feathering.—Like the east Brazilian feathering, has
two entire feathers bound on above and below. At the base of the shaft,
however, a nock piece or footing is setin. (PI. LVIII, fig. 13.)

6. The Peruvian feathering.—Constitutes a little group on the Ucayale
and is quite like the east Brazilian on the whole.

Perhaps the Mauhé feathering, as well as the Peru wrapped feather-
ing, belong genetically together with the Tupi feathering in the east
Brazilian group. By this is strengthened the hypothesis of Von den
Steinen and Ehrenreich that the west and the central Tupi wandered
to the westward and to the Amazon again as far as the Tapajos and
Shingu. Also on the Tocantins, on whose lower waters Tupi tribes
have settled, are found arrow forms like to those of the Maunhé.

7. The great group of Peru cemented feathering ineludes two divi-
SionS:

a. The northern, belonging to the Amazon region, which falls into
subdivisions according to the presence or form of the nock.

b. The southern, which embraces the anomalous Chaco feathering.
(Pl. LVIII, fig. 15.)

The two feathers of the cemented feathering are separated from the
midrib with only a thin portion of the quill remaining, bound fast to
the shaftment in close spiral with thread or yarn, and to increase the
hold on the shaft along the feather, the shaftment is covered with black
or brown pitch.

Examining the chart of the geographic distribution of bow and
arrow types, it appears that—

The division into ethnographic provinces by reason of the domination
of certain forms, on the whole, has nothing to do with the tribal char-
acteristics. As among the Bororo, starting out from an originally
identical type, two entirely separate types succeed through different
associations with other stocks;

The classification, furthermore, has not led to the same result for
bows and for arrows;

Frequently from a bow an arrow is shot which has quite a different
distribution from that of the bow;

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 557

But, yet, a certain analogy is discoverable in the two methods of
grouping.

So the boundary lines of the enclave of east Brazilian feathering
correspond in gross features to the boundary lines of the distribution
region of the east Brazilian bow. Furthermore, omitting the region
of the Chaco feathering, the region of the Peruvian bow is overlaid by
that of the Peru cemented feathering.

The Guiana bow has about the same extent as the Guiana arrow;
however, the southern boundary of the bow region lies more to the
north than that of the feathering, which in several places overpasses
the Amazon.

To these almost analogous groups belong a bow type which alto-
gether detached from a feathering region on the north engrafts itself
on the region of the Peru bow and the east Brazilian bow. Also,
where the three chief feathering groups—the Peru cemented feather,
the east Brazilian, and the Guiana—come together, three entirely
separate feather types (Mauhe, Arara, and Shingu) have spread over
regions whose borders intrude into one another.

This mixed area into which the characteristics of individual ethno-
graphic developments have obtruded themselves is the Mato Grosso.
We can from this realize what great importance the thorough explora-
tion of this region possesses for the entire ethnology of South America,
and I hold it, therefore, not fruitless if I seek before I describe clearly
in a greater work the result of my investigations upon the collective
material concerning the South American bows and arrows, to give, so
far as it is possible, in this publication an ethnographic picture of the
Mato Grosso.

The Mato Grosso is the highland in which several principal rivers of
South America have their origin. While the Paraguay flows south-
ward and furnishes, through its extremely fortunate advantages for
navigation, the veins of commerce, the fountains of the most important
affluents of the Amazon on the south spring from the neighborhood of
the Paraguay sources, so that a lively commerce from the Amazon to
the La Plata would go on across interior Brazil by water, if an impass-
able barrier to navigation between the northern incline of the Mato
Grosso and deep water of the Amazon were not established by the
waterfalis and rapids. Since, through the earlier expeditions on these
rivers—Tapajoz, Shingu, Araguay, Tocantins—for the purpose of infor-
mation concerning the feasibility of a good connection with the Ama-
zons, no practical result was obtained, it is natural that general geo-
graphical knowledge about this region should have remained very
mIneager up to this century. It was through the expeditions of Nat-
terer, Castelman, Wedell, Martius, Pohls, Von den Steinen, and Hhren-
reich that a glance was obtained at the natural relations of this area,
and especially was it Natterer, Martius, Von den Steinen, and Khren-
reich who made themselves serviceable for the ethnography of the

~

558 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

northern Mato Grosso, and who have shown that the hindrances which
the rapids in the streams mentioned opposed to general commerce are
not so insurmountable that even great tribal migrations upstream and
downstream can not be proved on ethnographic and linguistic grounds.
The immense importance which the Mato Grosso possesses for the eth-
nology of South America here fully appears, and it follows hence that
the knoweldge of the populations of the Mato Grosso must furnish the
key for the entire ethnology of South America.

While the northern border is quite clearly fixed, on the east a limitis
less Sharply drawn, and the transition to the highlands of Goyaz passes
only gradually through separate detached elevations. The sources of
the Araguay are to be attributed to the Mato Grosso, while the Tocan-
tins belong to the highlands of Goyaz. In the south the Mato Grosso
slopes slowly toward the Paraguay basin. Let the boundary be the
Serra de Cayapo, which extends from the western edge of the Goyaz
plateau in a southwesterly direction to the Paraguay, and on the west
side finds its continuation inarange of hills running in a northwesterly
direction to the Rio Guapore. The alluvial lowland of the Paraguay is
especially not to be reckoned with the Mato Grosso, though in ethno-
graphic features it is not easily separated from it. In the southeast,
the Mato Grosso is cut off from the Gran Chaco by the watershed men-
tioned, and on the west the Madeira furnishes the natural boundary
with its forests, though these begin to appear already east of the
Madeira. With exception of the woody river bottoms the Mato Grosso
is a pure prairie region, which stretches away between the north flowing
river perhaps still farther than the north border of the Mato Grosso.

It is clear that the Mato Grosso in its central location before men-
tioned, endowed with extremely favorable natural conditions, must
have played an important role in the history of the South American
peoples. Of all the events, however, of which the Mato Grosso was the
theater of action nothing more is known. Only from traditional rela-
tions of a few tribes or from the narratives of colonists may the latest
migrations and invasions be followed. It is therefore not possible from
the present condition of knowledge to draw a correct ethnographic
picture of the original divisions and dispersions of the populations.
We are able from the comparison of materials in museums to gain only
a foothold for the knowledge of prior wanderings. The inquiry how far
these assumptions can be of use for illuminating the theory of migra-
tions of the Ges, Tupi, Carib and Nu-Arawak families by means of com-
parative philology, proposed by Von den Steinen and Ehrenreich, lies
outside the borders of this treatise and will be examined later.

The ethnographic picture of the present Mato Grosso shows, as may
be seen from the chart of distribution, a division into four, perhaps
three, regions when the arrow or the bow is used as material for com-
parison. Hach geographic region is characterized by the predominance
of a fixed tpye, whichis peculiar to one of the above-mentioned ethno-
graphic regions. In both classifications the two great areas of east

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 559

Brazil and the Peruvian type hold good which have certain analogies in
their own borders. Some of the chief divisions in the Mato Grosso
seem accidental to the Shingu drainage. Therefore, inaccordance with
the bow types, the Mato Grosso is divided into a west and an east half.
The north Brazilian bow region does not overlap the Mato Grosso.
When arrow types dominate the divisions two other distribution
areas are revealed, in one of which the wrapped or sewed feathering
prevails, as the peculiar Mato Grosso feathering may be termed, while
the borders do not extend beyond those of the Mato Grosso. The area
of the Arara feathering lies within the eastern part of the region of the
Peru feathering; furthermore, the Mauhe feathering extends itsinfluence
on the northwest of the Mato Grosso. Inthe west Mato Grosso occur
also the cemented, the Mauhe, the Arara, and the sewed feathering.
This may be best characterized as to the mixed region, set forth as
follows:

1. Hastern and southern region.—East Brazilian feathering.

2. Central region.—Sewed feathering.

3. Western region.—Mixed: Cemented, Arara, Mauhe, and sewed
feathering.

Considering the bow in the same connection gives the following
group:

1. Hast Brazilian bow with East Brazilian feathering.—Araguay and
southern Mato Grosso.

2. Hast Brazilian bow with Shingu sewed feathering.—Shingu and
West Bororo.

3. Peru bow with feathering of mixed areas.—Tapajoz.

This grouping is naturally to be taken cum grano salis, since trans-
gressions and intrusions occur in individual cases.

In the following consideration of single stocks or tribes it will not
always be possible to hold strictly to the plan, while this arrangement,
which throws upon the screen a complete ethnographic picture with
natural coherence often, as will be seen of the Bororo, must point out
the originally component parts of a stock, on account of the differing
developments of its ethnographic characters. In order to set forth
genetically the types resulting from the original type an assembling of
the parts is necessary in the discussion.

Let us begin with the tribes of the upper Shingu, which belong col-
lectively to the area of the East Brazilian bow with sewed feathering.
These tribes, which have been known to us only a short time through
the two Shingu expeditions of Von den Steinen, belong, according to
his investigations, to different linguistic families, to wit:

Linguistic

families.
Baccairi, Nahuqua...........--.------------- Carib.
Aueto, Kamayura, Menitsaua...--..--..-...- Tupi.
Mehingkwete ys sate eee seacoast shee os Nu-Arawak.
MLC pecane passed sceEpoeaac 2d Beprice caeBeoere. Tapuya or-Gés.
—— —

560 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

This commingling of tribes, belonging to different stocks in the com-
paratively narrow space of the upper affluents of the Shingu, Kulisehu,
Batovy, and Kuluene, furnishes the best example of how, through long
contiguous dwelling, national peculiarities are obliterated and a new
common type takes the place. The bows and arrows of these stocks
' differ only very little from one another, but together very much from
those of the stocks of the lower Shingu; for example, from the Yuruna,
of whom they have no knowledge, on account of the rapid streams
difficult to pass. Among these, it will be seen later, the East Brazilian
feathering unites with the Peru bow, a circumstance which witnesses
in favor of the Von den Steinen theory of the migration of the western
Tupi.

If the Upper Shingu tribes be kept solely in view, without regarding
small differences, the following statements may be confirmed:

To all of them the bow and the arrow are common, while other
weapons, such as the throwing stick and the club, appear only among
isolated tribes.

The arrows, as well as the bows, are universally beautiful and care-
fully wrought, from which Von den Steinen draws the conclusion that
they indeed, as hunting peoples, had also an irregular kind of seden-
tary life, and that they, notwithstanding that the hunter stage is
alwayS more and more being supplanted by agriculture, have not
become negligent in the manufacture of hunting implements. This
rests chiefly upon the exalted position which the bow and arrow holds
in their tradition. He mentions of the tribal history of the Baccairi,
among others, that the culture-hero Keri had created the tribe out of
different arrow reeds. (Von den Steinen, op. cit., 228, 379.)

Von den Steinen says, ‘‘the length of the bow reaches 220 to 250 cm.”
(Pl. LVII, figs. 1-7). The yellow wood is furnished by the Arata tree
tecoma, ete. Dark-brown palm wood is often found among the Aueto
and Kamayura tribes and among the Tupi stock, whose bows are
wound with cotton wrappings in a sort of staircase pattern, a decora-
tion widely distributed in South America. The cross section of the bow
is about circular and it tapers toward the end, becoming more elliptical.
The ends are somewhat rounded for-the reception of the bowstring,
running to points. The bowstring, twisted from the bast of the tucum
palm, is looped on at one end. It is knotted around the other end and
is extended along the back, becoming smaller and smaller, and is made
fast around the upper limb, about two-thirds the height of the bow.
The curvature of the bow differs and often there is more than one
curve. <A single slight curve is rare and only to be found among the
Baceairi and the Nahuqua. The Aueto and Kamayura have slightly
double-curved bows, with ends bent back. The bows of the Baceairi,
Trumai, and the palmwood bows of the Aueto and Kamayura show a
bend of the limbs in an opposite direction.

On a bow of the Kamayura and two of the Baccairi are tight leather
rings stretched over the limbs, a custom which is also to be seen upon

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 561

the bows of the Sokleng of southeastern Brazil. (Pl. LVII, fig.7.) That
different ways of bending the bow are customary close together in the
same stock is not to be- admitted; it is more likely that bows whose
exact origin is not fixed might have been scattered by the lively barter
on the Shingu.

The arrows appear to have less dispersion as trade objects, which
again has its explanation in the fact that the arrow is esteemed as a
characteristic of a tribe, and for that reason is less communicable to
another tribe. Therefore we see among the most southern tribes—Bac-
eairi, Nahuqua, and Aueto—no arrow with Cambayuva reed shaft; for,
as is known from the tribal history of the Baccairi, these are made of Uba
reed, a characteristic also of the Baccairi. This reed, in order that the
natives may not be compelled to get it from far away, is planted in
great patches in the river Batovy. (Vou den Steinen, op. cit., p. 210.)
The northern tribes, on the contrary, have substituted for the Uba
reed at times the Cambayuva reed, which, among the Yuruna, furnishes
the only material on that side of the rapids. The use of the Camba-
yuva reed, which predominates on the Tapajoz and the Araguay,
appears, from the latest information, to have arrived first upon the
Shingu; atleast other peculiarities permit the coujecture of an influence
from the Kast.

Different kinds of points are to be found among nearly all the tribes
of the Shingu. The simplest is a smooth-pointed piece of wood driven
into the end of the reed shaft. This form is common to all stocks, as is
one with a middle piece (foreshaft) fastened on with pitch and pointed
with the beveled humerus bone of a monkey. (PI. LVII, fig. 8).
Finally there 1s found, as will be seen also among the Bororo and Guato,
the style that belongs to the East Brazilian group. <A point with a
barb or hook, effected by means of a double-pointed piece of bone laid
in the hollow outer end of the fore shaft (compare Pl. LIX, fig. 6),
wrapped with thread and pitched, is used among the Caraja on the
Araguay, as well as in Western Brazil and Guiana. It is found among
the Aueto, Kamayura, and Trumai. On one side of the smooth wooden
point of the Baccairi and the Nahuqua arrow 10 cm. long a barb is
provided, by wrapping a little tooth or jaw spine of the ant bear.
(Pl. LVII, fig. 14.) This practice is also a peculiarity of the Caraja.
The use of the spine of the ray is also in vogue here. (Compare PI.
LIX, fig. 13.) Von den Steinen denies that the Shingu tribes, except-
ing the Yuruna, used the barbed wooden point; yet there is in his
collection a specimen from the Kamayura (Pl. LVI, fig. 12), which
exhibits exactly this type of the Shingu arrow. This point, moreover,
which is found abundantly on the Gez arrows, must have come from
the east. The Suya and the Trumai use in-war and in chasing the
jaguar arrows with long bamboo knives bound to the end of the
wooden fore shaft, which are manufactured on the Shingu only by these
tribes (Pl. LVII, fig. 2). Of this pattern, moreover, there is found an
example among the Kamayura. The Baccairi collection contains also

SM 96——26

562 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

an arrow with bamboo knife-blade point. (Pl. LVII, fig. 15.) However,
this point deviates from that of the Suya in form, and resembles much
more that of the Yuruna or of the Tapajoz region. It is strongly
probable that. the arrow came hither from the Yuruna, but perhaps it
is a reminiscence of the earlier home of- the Baceairi upon the Arinos.

Of the feathering I have briefly written in the general classification.
(Pl. LVI, fig. 9.) Let it be here simply remarked that the variegated
feathers of different birds are bound on in spiral wrappings of 90
degrees. At the nock end is generally found a wrapping of thread in
staircase pattern as on the Aueto bow, which is laid over a ring cut
from the bark of the wambi (Philodendron), to which is also fastened
a little ring of red feathers. Sometimes the feathers are wanting, and
only the wrapping with the bark ring and feather tuft remains. The
nock is smaJl and round.

On some arrows of the Suya, who must have wandered, according
to tradition, from the great stock of the Gez, on the Araguay and
Tocantins to the west as far as the Tapajoz and back to the Shingu,
occurs also east Brazilian feathering. Both wrapping material. for
feathers are made from white bast. Moreover, on the tip of the shaft
is fastened a tucum nut (Pl. LVII, fig. 10) bored with holes, by means of
which it sends forth in flight a clear sound. This toy is in vogue on
the Tocantins as well as on the Tapajos, and also among the Arara on
the Madeira; it is also spread among the Suya from east to west. A
circular band of color on the shaftment of some Baccairi arrows, as

well as the custom all along the Shingu of binding the shaft and fore
shaft with windings of bast, hints at Kastern influence.

In briefly recapitulating we must recognize decidedly an wniluenee
from the East. It appears, moreover, that the more southern tribes had
been less overcome thereby. Upon the relationship of the eastern Bac-
cairi to the western Baccairi on the Arinos the language must be the
decider.

Furthermore, among the tribes of the Upper Shingu still in use among
the Cayapo (Pl. LIX, fig. 17), is found the sewed feathering, which,
according to the report of Von den Steinen (op. cit., p. 155), has
intruded itself from the majority of the tribes on the Araguay and
Tocantins to those of the upper confluence of the Paranatinga, belong-
ing to the drainage of the Tapajoz, in friendly relationship with the
Baccairi and Nahuqua. However, since they have preserved in arrows
and bows almost completely the characteristics of their principal tribes,
it will be more seasonable to treat of them in the discussion of the
eastern groups. Outside of tribes of the upper Tapajoz, treated of in
that which follows, who in addition to other styles possess the sewed
feathering, it is interesting to find in the Marine Museum at Rotterdam
arrows with sewed feathering from the lower Tocantins, from the Tembe,
and from an unknown tribe on the mainland opposite the Ilha de Arco.
Perhaps it was frow this unknown tribe that the Tembe on the other

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 563

side of the Tocantin received this technique, a tribe from the Shingu,
which at the beginning of the century supplanted the Carib tribe of the
Apiaka. This phenomenon is more interesting because through it the
center of radiation of the sewed feathering is fixed on the head waters
of the Shingu or the Paranatinga, and perhaps this feathering can be
fixed aS specially Carib. Therefore the circumstances bear witness
that on the Madeira, among the Arara, who are to be assigned to the
Oaribs, the sewed feathering might first occur; still, even as easily it
could have come to this tribe through the medium of the Apiaka of the
Tapajoz, for the typical Arara feathering is also found again among the
Apiaka.

Older collections from the Shingu perbaps will furnish information
on this topic. Still, the possibility of finding such is far from certain,
since the Shingu tribe, up to a short time ago, were wholly unknown.

A good transition from the central group to the westward or mixed
group is furnished by the settled Baccairi belonging to the Shingu
branch of the Baccairi, who lead a peaceable existence as agricultur-
ists in the area between the Paranatinga, the Cuyaba, and the Arinos,
in slight contact with their culture. As we know from the accounts of
the Baccairi collected by Von den Steinen, both divisions were orig-
inally united near the falls of the Paranatinga, from which, accidentally,
in the middle of the last century, one part drew away upon the Ronuro
and Batovy to the Kulisehu, the other settled in the above-named
region in a southwestern direction. We possess some arrows of these
settled Baceairi in the Vienna museum, collected by Natterer in 1827
from the Arinos. (Pl. LVIII, fig. 15.) Iwas surprised to see among
them Baccairi arrows, since this type deviated so much from them in the
Von den Steinen collection, so well known to me, and at once, by nearer
comparison, I could prove that they belonged there. With exception
of the point, they pertain to the group of cemented feathering, and
indeed to those in use on the Tapajoz and on the Madeira with pointed
notches or barbs cut out and for the most part overlaid with reddish

- brown pitch: The well-known Uba reed of the Shingu is here replaced

by the lighter and thinner Cambayuva reed. Von den Steinen says
(op. cit., p. 229), ‘“‘the settled Baccairi have, since they became
acquainted with muskets, given up the Uba reed in general use on the
Upper Shingu and possess now, if not purely boys’ arrows, at least
small arrows in comparison with those on the Shingu.” J refer this
change in the choice of material and the turning to another technique
not to contact with culture but rather to association with the tribes of the
Arinoz and Tapajoz. Any affiliation with the kindred tribe on the
Shingu later has demonstrably not taken place. This tribe was known
to the settled Baceairi only through the tribal history. Assimilation
with the Tapajoz tribes could for that reason go on more easily. That
the western Bacecairi originally and indeed also down to the separation
have used the Uba reed is proved by the Baccairi tribal history con-

564 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL. BRAZIL.

cerning the plant. That the sewed feathering is peculiar to the whole
nation and was not first adopted on the Shingu by the eastern Baceairi
is Shown by the fact, as will be seen later, that the western Bororo
living at the head waters of the Paraguay, who perhaps at the same
time have turned away from their eastern brethren on the Lorenzo (PI.
LVIII, fig. 17), in twenty years had adopted the sewed feathering and in
some measure had modified it. But the then wild, contentious hordes
could have been in contact only with the still unitea Baccairi, since the
eastern Baccairi are now too widely separated from the western Bae-
cairi to be in touch with these. The northwestern neighbors, the
Pareci, who now practice the sewed feathering, can not be considered
as middle men, since at that time the Pareci did not have the sewed
feathering, while already the Bororo possessed it. While also the
western Baccairi prove their ethnographic affiliation with the Tapajoz
region by the Cambayuva reed and cemented feathering, they betray
their relationship with the wild Baccairi of the Shingu only through
the point on the arrow. Both points have been ascribed already to the
Shingu as characteristic, the bone point from the humerus of the
monkey stuck on the foreshaft (Pl. LVII, fig. 8), and that with the
zygomatic process of the ant-bear (PI. LVII, fig. 14) bound as the side
of a palm-wood point about ten centimeters long, which, as was seen
already, is on the Shingu peculiar to the two Carib tribes, the Baceairi
and the Nahuqua.

Concerning the bows of these Baccairi, unfortunately, nothing is
known. Von den Steinen reports only that they are smaller than those
on the Shingu.

From the tribes of the Tapajoz region, which is only partially known
to us, there are in many collections pieces whose exact location must
first be fixed by comparison. The Natterer collection in Berlin has
also thrown some light on this region. As was already brought
torward and is apparent on the chart, the tribes of the Upper Tapajoz
represented in the collections, in addition to other forms of arrow,
have those with sewed feathering. We assumed already that the
point of diffusion of the sewed feathering on the Shingu ‘or of the
united Baccairi might have been on the cataracts of the Paranatinga,
and shall therefore seek to find out the path along which it arrived at
the tribes settled on the Tapajoz and Madeira.

Eastern influence in the Tapajoz region appears first to be a sec-
ondary consideration. The principal migration has taken place from
west to east. Which one has been the original type of bow and arrow
in the Tapajoz region is no longer determinable on account of the
diversity of types at present existing side by side. As may be seen
upon the chart, there can be demonstrated by the material on three or
perhaps four sides an acculturation of the ethnographic characteristics
of the Tapajoz tribes. The Tapajoz region upon the chart is entirely
surrounded by the region of the Peruvian cement feathering, and the

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 565

western Baccairi mark the farthest projection of this ethnographic
development from the west. The cement feathering, which has
wandered from the west to the east, whose starting point is to be
sought in Peru, has undergone many variations in its long journey to
the Tapajoz. In the Mato-Grosso, coming westward, is found the
type of feathering with the notches cut out, on which generally a
little bunch of red feathers is fastened. (Pl. LVIII, fig.15.) The Madeira
River is approximately the boundary between this and a western
group, where the cement feathering comes in without notches, but
with bands of network woven on the shafts. In the great Parentintim
tribe these groups touch one another. A common peculiarity with the
cement feathering, and also with the Arara feathering, is a decoration
of the shaft by means of small encircling bands made of white quill,
which explains the wrapping in stepped winding of cotton, previously
mentioned as on the Shingu. (Pl. LVIII, fig.14.) These quill rings are to
be found among all groups of the cement feathering, and have perhaps
served as suggestive methods for the bast rings on the Shingu sewed
feathering. The Arara feathering appears to have derived the quill
ring likewise from the pitch feathering, as will be seen. It is in this
manner further perfected through an ornamental weaving in black and
white strips of quill. (Pl. L VIII, fig. 17.) The notch has been here copied
from the arrows with cement feathering influenced by the Arara type,
and is cut out narrow and with a pointed angle.
- Generally in this Madeira-Tapajoz region a large, broad, bamboo
point, 30 to 40 em. long, is distributed, which on one side is cut into an
angle lying in the long axis, and is hollowed out on the under side so
that the cross section shows a concavo-convex outline. (PI. LVIUTI, fig.
16.) The foreshaft, upon which the point is fastened by means of a
wrapping of thread, extends somewhat above this wrapping and is set
at its other end, which is pointed, into the bamboo shaft. This point,
which differs from the bamboo points of the western region as well as
from those of the Shingu, is found outside of our region also among
the Arawak tribe and the Juberi, on the Purus. It is well to mention
that this point, like the cement feathering of the Madeira, has gotten
as far as the Tapajoz.

Likewise a peculiar, barbed point, which is formed by a spindle-
Shaped bone, 10 to 15 em. long, pointed at both ends and seized at its
middle upon the upper end of the foreshaft, appears to have come
among the Apiaka and Mauhe from the Madeira in abundance. (PI.
LVIII, fig.19.) Thence it spread among the Parentintim, and from them
is to be found among the Manaos on the lower reaches of the Madeira.
In a remarkable way it makes its appearance also on the Tocantins,
where exists also a kind of Mauhe feathering. If I had not found
examples of this in different museums labeled Tocantins, I should have
attributed them to the Tapajoz area.

Of the distribution of the Arara and the Mauhe feathering mention.

566 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

has already been made. (Pl. LVIII, figs. 13 and 14.) With the Arara
feathering, as well as with the cement feathering, the pretty and well-
known stepped wrapping is chiefly associated, which statement applies
to the feathering as well as to the uniting of the shaft to the foreshaft.

The Mauhe feathering, which is perhaps a Tupi feathering modified
through the Guiana type, comes into consideration here only so far as
Mauhe arrows have been found among the Apiaka and the Mundrueu.

In contradistinction to the Shingu region we here find the Cambay-
uva reed distributed throughout the upper basin of the Tapajoz and
the Uba reed throughout the lower.

In comparing collections at my command from the Madeira and the
Tapajoz tribes, it became unexpectedly possible to recognize the present
position of the unique metamorphosis of the type caused through for-
eign influence. In the Natterer collection of 1827 it may be observed
that on the Tapajoz the cement feathering appears among the Apiaka,
Mundrucu, Baceairi, and Pareci. It is now assumed that on account
of the similarity of form among the Parentintim and the Apiaka the
type of cement feathering, together with the well-known bamboo and
bone points from the Parentintim, came last to the Apaika, and from
these went downstream to the Mundrucu and upstream to the Pareci
and Baceairi. Upon the relationship of these tribes to one another
little is known; only, Martius has said concerning the warlike Mun-
drucu and Apiaka, that enmity and friendship alternate. (Beitriige
zur Ethnographie Sudamerikas, pp. 211, 391.) It is easy to conceive
that the Apiaka came upon their long canoes into contact with the
Pareci and the neighboring Baccairi dwelling at that time still farther
northward. (Ibid., 206.) In 1828 the gold prospector Lopez must
have camped with some Baceairi under escort of Apiaka Indians on
the Peixes River, an adjoining stream to the Arinos. At any rate the
occurrence of the sewed feathering among the Apiaka hints at com-
munication with the Baccairi. (Von den Steinen, op. cit., p. 388.)

In the arrows of the Apiaka at that time, eastern influences had been
amalgamated with western, and sewed feathering and Baceairi points
had been united with cement feathering and Madeira-Tapajoz points by
commerce. The little barb bound diagonally on the side of the point,
peculiar to the Baccairi, is here abundantly represented by a small
palm-wood spine (cf. Pl. LVII, fig. 14), the long palm-wood point at
times greatly thickens in the middle, as is customary on the Ucayale.
Further, there is to be found among the Apiaka an arrow with Mauhe
feathering and Tapajoz bone point, but with a Cambayuva shaft,
impracticable for this kind of feathering.

Upon the Pareci arrows with cement feathering is seen, along with
the bamboo point, also received from the Apiaka, a long wooden point
with two sharp teeth or barbs set opposite, projecting at different dis-
tances outward, and striped throughout its entire length with clear
brownish-gray poison. The occurrence of a poisoned arrow on the

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 567

Upper Tapajoz is very surprising, and it must be assumed that this
arrow came either from the Mundrucu or from a tribe settled westward
on the Madeira, since outside of the extinct Tapajoz, who, according to
Acuna’s account, possessed poisoned arrows. (Martius, op. cit., p. 382,
388.) On the Tapajoz River only the Mundrucu knew of this practice.
The Parentintim have a similar toothed projection on the foreshaft of
an arrow with bone point.

Along with the cement feathering is found among the Pareci and the
Cabischi related to them the Arara feathering. Still, it is here notice-
ably smaller, and there is wanting the stepped weaving customary
among the Arara. Connected with itis associated also the bamboo
point in use among the Arara. Since there is found in the Natterer
collection among the northern Tapajoz tribes no Arara feathering, there
must be assumed a direct contact of the Pareci or Cabischi with the
Arara in the south who must inhabit the still unknown region between
the Juruena-and the Madeira. The variation which the Arara feather-
ing has undergone at the hands of the Pareci is thus accounted for, if
the differentiation had already sufficient time to take place before the
exploration of Natterer.

The feathering of the Cabischi arrow is like that of the Arara in
length, but shows at the butt end a very carefully cemented wrapping
with fine bast (Von den Steinen, op. cit., p. 426), which, as will be seen,
exhibits a similar workmanship to that of the Bororo on the Cabagal.
As generally happens, the bamboo point has another form here. It runs
toa sharp tip with flatconcave section and has at the inner end edges cut
oblique. According to the account of Captain De Motta (cf. Pl. LX,
fig. 17), in the year 1886, the Pareci have the same weapons as the
Cabischi.

In the arrows of the Mundrucu, living to the north of the Apiaka,
meet and cross the types of the cement feathering of the Apiaka and
the Mauhe feathering. It is merely a poisoned arrow with a fish-spine
point projecting forward, which calls to mind similar pieces on the
Upper Negro, but shows the usual cement feathering. The Mundrucu
must first have learned in modern times the use of arrow poison, and
this they did not invent themselves, but borrowed it from the northern
neighbors. (Martius, op. cit., p. 389.)

To discuss the arrows of the Mauhe, living entirely outside of the
Mato Grosso, is beyond the scope of this paper. They also have beén
strongly influenced by Madeira forms. So rest the accounts of 1827.

There are outside of the Natterer collection two smaller ones of whose
date of acquisition nothing is known, but from a comparison with that
of Natterer it appears to have been secured later. One of these collec-
tions in the British Museum has the mark “ Apiaka, Rio Tapajoz below
the mouth of the Juruena.” The other, in the museum at Stockholm,
acquired on the coast from the Brazilian General Silva da Castro, has
no data of locality, but is to be ascribed also to the Apiaka.

568 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

Since the arrows in the British Museum represent exactly the type
of Natterer’s Arara, and particularly his Tora arrow, they may, pro-
vided the label Apiaka is to be retained, have come over directly from
the Arara to the Apiaka A characteristic of the Arara arrows is,
besides the feathering, the frequent occurrence of beautifully toothed
bamboo points (PI. LVIL, fig. 17), which are also to be found among the
Juberi on the Rio Purus, and in somewhat modified forms among the
Cashivo on the river Ucayale. A morestriking peculiarity is the deco.
ration of the shaft by means of ornamental wrapping, carefully laid in
strips of white and black quill. Among the Arara the setting of a
Tucum nut (ef. Pl. LVI, fig. 10) on the shaft is practiced, and perhaps
came to them from the Tapajoz, where the Suya got the idea from the
eastward. The Tora arrows, resembling in essential particulars those
of the Arara, have, however, adjoining the quill work a painted orna-
ment (P]. LVITI, fig. 18) on the wrapped tang of the bamboo point, which
also the arrows of the Parentintim show abundantly.

While these arrows exhibit, indeed, the pure Arara type and on that
account do not leave the indication of locality free from objection, the
unmarked arrows of the Steckholm Museum with greater certainty
may be ascribed to the Apiaka. They show partly a union of cement
feathering with the most general fashion of the Arara arrow; are, ip
fact Arara arrows passed over to the Apiaka type. One arrow dis-
plays the variety of sewed feathering discovered by Natterer.

If we now study the boys’ arrows in the Von den Steinen collection
of 1888 (op. cit., p. 433), belonging to the Pareci tribe who, according
to that author, have exchanged bows and arrows for muskets and given
the former to boys for playthings, we shall see also the variegated sewed
feathering.

It appears also that this, which, indeed, long before the beginning of
the century, had gone westward as far as the Arara tribe in a some-
what simplified form first, in much later times had found its way among
the northern tribes of the Tapajoz.

We may now bring together briefly the results of studies upon the
Madeira-Tapajoz region. The bow and the arrow types of the Tapajoz
tribes show preponderating westerly influences, which these received
from the Parentintim and the Arara by way of the Madeira. The first
demonstrable intrusion, the migration of the cement feathering, came
upon the Apiaka from the Parentintim. Thence it found wider distri-
bution in the Tapajoz region. Perhaps at the same time the sewed
feathering of the Baccairi, somewhat varied among the Apiaka, extended
to the Arara, and a third stream moved along from the Arara to the
Cabischi and the Pareci. Later came also the Apiaka into direct con-.
tact with the Arara and received their type unmodified. The sewed
feathering meanwhile intruded southward and was received by the
Pareci. The working in of the Mauhe type is only of a secondary
importance.

From other tribes of the Tapajoz region, which are known only by

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 569

name, we possess no collections. Of the Cayabi, near neighbors of the
Baccairi on the Rio Verde, Von den Steinen says ‘‘that they use arrow
shafts of Cambayuva reed.” (Op. cit., p. 392.)

The distribution of the bow types is very simple in the Tapajoz
region and shall be touched on only briefly.

The Museums possess bows of the Mauhe, Mundruku, Apiaka and
Pareci, and some with the general label Tapajoz.

Martius describes (op. cit., p. 203, 401) two different bow types among
the central Tupi, to which stock belong for the most part the tribes on
the Tapajoz. ‘They shoot long arrows from immense bows, often longer
than a man, made from the black wood of a palm tree or the red wood
of a mimosa, whose strings are twisted out of Tucum fiber or cotton.”
The bows from black palm wood belong to the Peru group, and are
represented on the Tapajoz by Apiaka and Pareci examples. (Cf.
Pl. LVILII, fig. 1.) The bows made of red leguminous wood, pao d’Arco
of the Portuguese, with semicircular cross section are of the northern
Brazilian type and here occur among the Mundrucu and the Manhe.
They are, for the most part, manufactured by the Mauhe and brought
to the friendly Mundrucu through trade. (PI. 1. VIII, fig. 10.)

Martius met on the Tapajoz a chief of the Mauhe who brought out a
bow of red wood to the Mundrueu and exchanged it for feather orna-
ments. (Martius, op. cit., p. 88.)

A bow 180 em. long (PI. LVIL, figs. 6-9) of dark-brown wood in the
Copenhagen Museum with ornamented ends which exhibits an artisti-
eally carved human head having eyes inlaid with mother-of-pearl over
which a line runs on both sides in a meandering pattern is most inter-
esting. In cross section it belongs to the North Brazilian bow region.
The peculiar ornament is found, moreover, on a war trumpet in the
Copenhagen Museum which was found among the effects of the Prince
of Nassau in the middle of the 17th century and of which Ehrenreich
has given a short account in Globus. Furthermore, this same orna-
ment is to be seen on two remarkable little boards in the Christiania
Museum as well as on a club in the Martius collection in Munich, illus-
trated in Ratzel’s “‘ Volkerkunde” (11, p.575), But in Vienna the label
““Mundrucu” is upon a war trumpet which had been overlooked having
the same ornament. The decorated end is bored through for the fasten-
jung of the cord, a fashion entirely out of vogue now in South America.
The cord is a thick twisted gut string. In the middle or grip the bow
is whittled on the inner side for better handling.

I'rom the Pareci two bows are in hand, one from the Natterer collec-
tion, the customary Peru bow made from black palm wood, the other, a
_ boy’s bow, also made of black palm wood, brought by Von den Steinen
having the North Brazilian form. Here occurs a rare instance in which
a tribe adopts a foreign form without using for it the customary material.
The form of the North Brazilian bow has either gone to the Tapajoz
outwards through the Mauhe to the Pareci or been received from the
Tora, from whom, as was seen, the painted ornament arrived on the

570 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

Tapajoz. Whether the road which the Peruvian bow took toward
the Tapajoz is that of the cement feathering is not determined, since the
only accessible Parentintim bow in the Berlin Museum shows angular
edges, while the Apiaka and Pareci bows are rounded. Perhaps this
has its origin among the tribes settled higher up on the Madeira who
possess similar bows.

Having sketched in the foregoing pages the ethnographic character- -
istics of the Tapajoz region and recorded the ethnographic information
concerning Shingu and Tapajoz peoples, I shall proceed no further
among the Madeira tribes, since these indeed do not belong peculiarly
to the Mato Grosso and are of interest only as they influenced the
character of the Topajoz region. Upon the characteristic forms which
the migration to the Tapajoz made necessary, communication has been
made in the course of the foregoing narrative.

The Araguay region presents only pure eastern forms, so that here
is exhibited a much more simple ethnographic picture. Bows as well
as arrows belong to the almost united group of Eastern Brazilian bows
and feathering. By the evidence of the Shingu tribes it could be
emphasized that some arrows of the Suya, like those of the Yuruna of
the lower Shingu, deviate very much from the Shingu type and belong
to the eastern feathering group.

The Suya are as already seen, the member of the Ges or Tapuya
stock most widely pushed to the west, and they have in spite of their
long backward stretched road to the Tapajoz and to the Shingu, and in
spite of the manifold contact with other tribes, held on partly to the
old type, or after they had set their foot again on the Shingu adopted
anew the eastern feathering.

The Yuruna, who, as is ascertained through Von den Steinen, are ~
known through their travel downstream and possess not the slightest
knowledge of the Shingu tribes, stand in more coustant touch with the
widely branched and extensive Caraja tribe, who control the region
from the upper Araguay entirely to the lower Shingu and are the
dreaded’ opponents of the Shingu tribes. Von dan Steinen found
among the Yuruna Caraja prisoners as well as a club captured from
this tribe, and further among the Kamayura of the Shingu a club and
an arrow of the Aruma, an ethnographic horde belonging to the Caraja
tribe. Moreover correspondences to the Caraja type were previously
observed on the Baccairi arrows. The Yuruna live on the borders of
the eastern and the western feathering and bow regions, and they have
received from the western region the dark palm-wood bow and from the
east the arrows. (Pl. LVIII, figs. 1-3.) The bow exhibits not the cus-
tomary form on the Tabajoz, but resembles more that in use farther to
the west, with sharp rectangular cross section.

Also this cropping out substantiates the theory of migration concern-
ing the central Tupi; the stepped weaving is also found here. The
arrows of the Yuruna have the Cambayuva reed shaft in vogue on the
lower Shingu, upon which a wooden fore shaft is attached by means of

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 571

a wrapping of bast. The upper end is oftimes channeled, and in the
cavity a double piece of bone is fastened by means of a wrapping of
fine thread cemented over, after the customary manner on the Shingu
(Pl. LIX, fig. 6). In another kind of arrows there is on the point of
the fore shaft a long, similar strong bamboo point, with half moon,
concavo-convex cross section tied on by means of neat wrapping of
thread around the tang, and the fore shaft is packed in a furrow cut out.

The bamboo point resembles precisely in form the one mentioned as
belonging to the Baceairi on the Shingu. (PI. LVI, fig.15.) Still a
direct connection is excluded. Where the common origin is to be sought
can not be conjectured. Also are seen arrows with a simple stick of hard
wood sharpened and stuck in the front end of the shaft. The feathering
is very Similar to the Caraja style (Pl. LIX, figs. 8,9); two whole feathers
almost 20 cm. long, opposite each other, are wrapped fast to the shaft
with thread in slightly spiral arrangement, and the points of the
feathers stick out at the butt end in form of a tuft. The decoration of
the lower part of the shaft, and much of the fore shaft with wide spiral
and longitudinal lines painted in black and yellow lac-like colors, is also
abundantly practiced by the Caraja. The nock, which is cylindrical on
the Caraja arrows, is here, as on the Tocantins and Tapajoz, continued
to a point.

The Caraja, whose linguistic affiliation with the Ges group is not yet
made out, are, aS Ehrenreich’s collection proves, surely to be accredited
to it ethnographically. Bows and arrows show the characteristics of
the eastern type and correspond almost entirely with those of Crahaos
and Chavantes, their eastern neighbors, belonging to the Ges or Tapuya
stock. The predilection of the tribes belonging to this group for the
-use of bast for fastening feathers, fore shafts, and bamboo points, which
is to be seen on the Shingu River, is also in bold relief in the Caraja
crafts. The wooden point, with unilateral barbs, characteristic of the
Ges of the southeast (cf. Pl. LVII, fig. 12), which had penetrated
already to the Kamayura and arrived among the Suya, is not found
among the Caraja. Only the arrow originating from the hordes of
the Aruma, which Von den Steinen got on the Shingu, shows this Ges
point. ;

The bow is beautifully wrought out of dark-brown palm wood and
decorated with feathers and ornamental wrappings of thread. (PI.
LIX, figs.1-5.) In the manipulation of the material, the circular cross
section flattened occasionally on the back, and the peg-shaped ends
characterize excellently the South Brazilian bow of the Botocudo and
Puri. However, near the Caraja and thence to the Shingu and south
to the Cayapo, it shows fundamental dependences on the bow types
there. It is slightly bent, about 2 m. long, and strung with a strong
cord twisted from threads, which is knotted on one end and on the
other encircles the peg, then returns on the back of the bow about half-
Way, aS was seen on the Singu, where it is made secure under seizings.
The lower end of this wrapping is decorated with a compact layer of

572 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

leaves, held on by means of black cotton thread bound closely down.
At the end of this bowstring, wound backward and colored with white
clay, is a large yellowish-red bunch of feathers, bound on as ornament.
Moreover, about both ends is wrapped a stepped pattern about 5 em.
broad. The decorations are frequently wanting.

The arrows are quite as carefully made as the bows. The shaft is of
Cambayuva reed, and the fore shaft, of ditferent kinds of wood, is fre-
quently, as among the Yuruna, adorned with yellowish-brown or red
lines and points in lae-like paint. Among the very diversely shaped
points occur only two already known, the smooth wooden point and
the short bone point (PI. LIX, fig. 6) set in slantingly in the wooden
fore shaft, which is common among the Yuruna and upon the Shingu.
Frequently this bone piece is replaced by a fish spine. (PI. LIX, fig.
13.) A peculiar point, which is made of a delicate cylindrical bone cut
off obliquely at the outer end, is cemented upon the point of the fore
shaft, reminding one also of a similar form on the Shingu, only there the
barbs are wanting. Moreover, there are two noteworthy points of paim
wood to be mentioned as peculiar to the Caraja. One of them, lanceo-
late, two edged, with an angle on one broad side and the other rounded.
The second point is knife-blade shaped, with a somewhat serrate edge
at the inner extremity of the edge. (PI. LIX, figs. 11,12.) Both eall
to mind similar southern forms among the Cengua tribe in Paraguay.
A lighter arrow for small game is made wholly from a piece of Cam-
bayuva reed whittled to a point. (Pl. LIX, fig. 15.) The arrows with
bamboo points (Pl. LIX, fig. 14) deviate greatly from the types up to
this time described. The delicate long point. 30 to 40 cm.; is hollowed
out on the inner side only or very little and runs somewhat to a beak-
formed point in front and is rounded abruptly at the inner end. The
fore shaft, shoved into an excavated socket in the shaft, is tightly
wrapped the whole length of its union with Cipo bast. <A bird arrow
exhibits a short wooden knob, thickened conically toward the front and
terminating in a blunt point. (PI. LIX, fig. 10.) The feathering is
arranged upon the same principle as that of the Yuruna, but differs from
it in more careful work and in the single points characteristic of the
Caraja. The fastening of the feather, moreover, is wrought with black
thread (Pl. LIX, fig. 8), or less frequently with winding of Cipo (PI.
LIX, fig. 9), in which often also little tufts of red feathers are caught;
also the lower long binding, which here for the most part is effected by
windings of thread, and stepped patterns includes often red feathers as
decoration. Almost always here also the shaftmentis painted with red
and yellow varnish in lines, whereby an individual taste is to be recog:
nized in decoration still remaining on several examples.

As already mentioned, the Chavantes and Crahaos, living eastward
on the Araguay and Tocantins, are with little deviation to be reckoned
in the company of Caraja; only less care is bestowed in the manufae-
ture of their weapous, and so the decoration is frequently omitted.

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 573

Whether all the different varieties of points also exist among them is
not known. There have been examined arrows with knife-blade points
of bamboo (PI. LIX, fig. 14), those with double-pointed bone tip (PI.
LIX, fig. 6), laid on diagonally at the fore end, arrows with smooth
wooden points, and finally those cut from a single piece of Cambayura
reed. Still the Chavantes may possess for war also an arrow with
toothed points of wood. (Pohl, Reise in Brasilien, vol. ii, p. 30.)

The bows of the Crahaos are somewhat different, since the belly has
a flat, guttered excavation, and only one end is cut to a point, while the
other end is blunt.

The Aruma arrow, already mentioned, is likewise of Caraja type, but
the characteristic toothed point of the Ges stock is here found. (PI.
LVII, fig. 12.)

It remains now only to mention the bows and arrows of the Cayapo,
in the Natterer collection, from the region about the sources of the
Araguay, in the eastern Matto Grosso. They occupy ethnographically
a middle position between the Shingu and Hast group and the tribes
settled on the south of the Mato Grosso. The peculiar bow of the
Cayapo (Pl. LIX, fig. 16) is, in spite of its apparent isolated position,
to be relegated to the East Brazilian type. Here also the cross section
is fixed by the nature of the material. While the remaining part of the
bow is nearly straight, its pointed ends, about 10 cm. long, are bent
inward at an angle of 120 degrees. In order to give a sufficient excur-
sion to the bowstring of twisted vegetable fiber, a ball of cotton is
wound about the bow at the inner part of the nock. The bowstring is
knotted on one end and ends with a sling at the other end of the bow.
In a wide spiral winding the rest of the string is then carried back, as
in the Caraja bow, and caught under compact bands of wrapping about
10 em. in width.’ The arrows give evidence in the sewed feathering, as
already remarked by Von den Steinen (op. cit., pp. 151, 153) of a long-
enduring friendly relation with the tribes of the Shingu, especially the
Nahuqua and the Cayapo, which has proceeded as far as the Parana-
tinga—indeed, perhaps, as far as the Ronuro. Associated with the
sewed feathering and the rounder nock, the predominant Ges character
of the arrow is also striking. There are found here the Cambayuva
shaft made fast to the point by means of a wide wrapping of Cipo ; also
the long, unilaterally toothed wooden point (Pl. LVII, fig. 12) and the
so-called Caraja bamboo point. The winding of the point to the shaft
with wrapping of thread is here rude and meager, so that the fore shaft
is seen through. (Pl. LIX, fig. 17). <A strengthening of the shaft by
partial wrapping of the Cipo is seen on the Cayapo arrows and those
of the Bororo.

The tribes of the southern Mato Grosso are to be studied in common,
although they exhibit great ethnographic differences and, as the chart
teaches, are to be ranged partly with the West Peruvian group and
partly with the East Brazilian group. They belong to the Paraguay

5TA BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

region and are, since they were compelled to follow an entirely different
route of traffic to the southward-flowing rivers, in a directly opposite
condition to the tribes of the Madeira, Tapajo, Shingu, and Araguay.
Their ethnographic development must stand in direct association with
that of southern tribes, shut off from the tribes of the northward-flowing
rivers, which, for the most part, are confined within their own drainage
regions, and only along subsidiary lines are they in contact with tribes
of a neighboring drainage to bring about ethnographic adjustments.
However, that the tribes extending farthest north on the Paraguay
region came into frequent touch with the tribes neighboring to them is
thereby not excluded, and, on the contrary, it is proved, as was shown
in the case of the Cabischi arrow and Cayapo weapons. For that reason
there can not be drawn up for the ethnographic development of the
whole group a balance sheet respecting this region which would be
derived through the coming together of many types from different
directions into one or through the radiating expansion of a dominating
type.

Further, a second motive constrains one to deviate from a hard and
fast division, namely, that, as was already seen concerning the Bac-
cairi, a people can develop along entirely diverse ethnographic lines
through divisions and wandering away into remote parts. It is the
case here with the Bororo, whose western branch approaches the Shingu
tribes in their feathering and has received its bow in commerce with
the Paraguay tribes, while the eastern branch has held on to the original
common mixed type of eastern feathering and bow throughout. These
two tribes, whose development is easily demonstrable, can be considered
apart when it comes to the study of the fundamental type. On this
ground it is well to discuss the Paraguay tribes of the Mato Grosso in
common.

The Bororo tribe, the special representative of the native southern
Mato Grosso populations, who, if not the autochthones, occupied the
region of the southern Mato Grosso as far back as any information of
the tribe is had, specially the upper Paraguay portion, existed, indeed,
since the previous century in two groups, which have gone forth out of
the region previously discussed between the Lorenzo and the Para-
guay, and from which outward the eastern section pressed forward into
the vicinity of the Cayapo, on the upper Araguay, the western half
passing over the Cuyaba and the Paraguay and halting at the western
confluence of the Paraguay. The Bororo are a hunter tribe purely,
who, being given to fishing and the chase, held on tenaciously to their
manner of living and developed an unrestrained free character and a
wild temperament, which can not be said concerning close application
to the field and the restful activity of the tiller of the soil. While the
Government and the missions have succeeded with great difficulty with
others, as for the Bororo, with their hostile indisposition to link their
interests with those of the colonists and to settle in permanent aldea-

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. Lewis:

ments, the plan to interest them in the cultivation of the soil did not
sueceed. They remained hunters as before, and only acknowledged
with sufferance a guardianship on the part of the Government while
advantages accrued to them in this way. Their support was abun-
dantly cared for, so that they themselves were not brought to want for
food or any other necessaries of life. But the hunting and fishing
went on in spite of their common occupation. When these no longer
served them as a means of livelihood they were pursued as sport. The
reduction of the two groups happened at quite different times. While
the Bororo of the west were already settled in the first half of the
century, the other half extended for a long time hunting and pillaging
through the camps before it was possible to bring them to remain for
some years on the Lorenzo.

The three collections from the Bororo—that of Natterer in Vienna,
that of Rhodes and of Von den Steinen in Berlin—are from the two
sections of the Bororo after their separation and, excepting the Bororo
of Cabacal, after their subjugation. There is wanting the type of
weapon of the Bororo from the olden time when they were united.
Still it is possible to reconstruct the common type, partly, since from
both groups pieces of the same type are in hand. Through this it must
be accepted that in the Von den Steinen collection of the year 1885,
shortly after the settlement of the eastern branch, this type partly
returned, and in the Natterer collection of the western Bororo (collected
in 1827) it is to be seen that only the eastern Bororo continued the
original common type after the Separation, and have only through com-
merce with their neighbors on the Araguay adopted varietal forms.
The much longer absence of association of the eastern Bororo in com-
parison with the western substantiates this view, while much feebler
associations with culture and with other tribes would render possible
and easy a constancy in the making of weapons which are perfectly
sacred to them as their crowning peculiarity. Let us examine, there-
fore, first, most carefully, the bows and arrows that Von den Steinen
collected in the year 1888 in the colony of Thereza Christiana (PI. LX,
figs. 1 to 9), newly established in 1887, from the point of view that we
have here to do with a purely hunter folk whose peculiarities culture
could not have wiped out.

The bow was their most precious possession as the only means of
livelihood. This belief finds its expression in the estimation in which it
was held. Von den Steinen says (op. cit., p. 502) that after the bow
and arrow of a head of a family are burnt up in the funeral fire along
with the househoid stuff, the survivors receive from friends bows and
arrows as pledges for the foundation of a new household. Arrows,
moreover, furnish the present of the lover to the gir's and women of the
ranchao, by whom they are given over to their brothers. With arrows
and especially shaped bows the fortunate slayer of a jaguar would be
distinguished, and arrows furnish the medium of exchange for cotton

576 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

and tobacco. In their ceremonies these weapons play a leading: role.
In the consecration of the skull of a dead man, a long and complicated
mortuary ceremony, five bows set up in a semicircle form the founda-
tion of a kind of sanctuary. Whether in the traditions here as on the
Shingu the arrow plays a special role is not known. The great value
of the bow and arrow naturally finds expression in the carefulness of
their manufacture. Since they set forth the characteristic attribute of
the hunter they are prepared only by the men, who expend a pains-
taking accuracy and care upon their production. Perhaps centuries of
using the bow and arrow have developed different kinds for different
functions, which show, indeed, the same characteristic marks of the
tribe, differing in the choice of material and the form of the point,
The arrows for war and for hunting larger mammals, as the jaguar.
being much heavier in consequence of the use of the dense Seriba
palm wood for the shaft, have their penetrating power greatly increased.
Arrows with shaft from light Cambayuva reed are lighter and have
longer flight.

These original, characteristic types of weapons, since they seem to
remain relatively pure, enable the student to recognize through them
tribes far away and correspondences with neighboring forms. From
their next neighbors, the Cayapo, their hereditary enemies, they appear
never to have learned the great strengthening of the shaft by wrapping
it with Cipo bast, and this makes obtrusive the similarity of their
arrow with that of the Caraja and with certain forms on the Shingu.
Firstly, in the feathering, beautifully executed and decorated with little
tufts of feathers, a relationship with the Caraja arrow can not be
recognized, likewise the form of the bamboo point of the peccary arrow
is the same as that of the Caraja bamboo point previously described.
To both tribes, furthermore, the plain arrow cut out of a single piece
of Cambayuva reed iscommon. (PI. LIX, fig.15). The barbed wooden
point of the fishing arrow is suggestive of the Ges form.

All these correspondences point to the east or the northeast; for all
that, relationships with the western tribes are not to be denied. ‘The
points made from the tubular part of the humerus bone of a monkey (PI.
LVII, fig.8) are common to them and the tribes on the Shingu, the west
Bororo, and the Guato. An artificial winding of the dark Cipo, asso-
ciated with the loosened wind of the reed at the butt end of the feather-
ing, points to similar work on the northern Paraguay, the black and
white wrapping of thread for the fastening of the feather (Pl. LX,
fig. 9; cf. fig. 14) is likewise in use among the southeastern tribes—the
Guato, forexample. Theattachment of the bow to the Peruvian type is
recognized by the natural peculiarities of the materials and the cross
section (Pl. LX, figs. 1 to 7), as must strikingly appear, since these
examples stand out isolated in the eastern Brazilian bow region. ‘The
black palm-wood bows with greatly thickened ends are somewhat aber-
rant by reason of their long elliptical, somewhat hollowed cross section.

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. ld

The fastening of leaf filaments on a bow as a premium for having slain
a jaguar as well also as the beautiful decorations on the chief's bow
with wrappings and tufts of feathers are entirely like the Caraja custom.

While the Bororo, just described, appear to have preserved the type
of their hunting weapons relatively pure up to the time named, the
weapons of the Bororo of Cabagal and those of Campanha, the west-
ern groups on the Cabac¢al and the Jaura seem to have yielded more to
foreign influence through contact with other tribes. These Bororo
also, already having become sedentary, in the first half of the century
held fast to the old custom, were prejudiced against agriculture and
continued hunters. However, through continuous touch with culture
and with their influence destroyed they are to-day entirely subdued.
The dispersion of weapons went hand in hand with the wanderings of
this tribe. The two collections from these Bororo were brought together
at different dates. That of Natterer, assembled in 1827, containing
arrows of the Bororo of Cabacal and Campanha, comes from a time in
which the Bororo of Cabacal were still ranging free in the wilderness,

. but the Bororo of Campanha had then been brought under control for

some years. It is now seen that the arrows of the Bororo of Cabagal
have from the first held to the original type to which the Bororo on the
Lorenzo return. The broad bamboo point of the characteristic jaguar
arrow (PI. LX, fig. 8), which is so cut that the knot on the reed shaft
runs across the point, the loose shafting of the point as well as the
working of the intractable Seriba palm wood to a very long foreshaft,
associated with a very short Cambayuva reed shaft is a reminiscence of
the old union with the eastern Bororo. , The feathering, however, with
the feathers toothed on the margin has decidedly the characteristic of
the Guato arrow (Pl. LX, fig. 14), though in this tribe there is want-
ing the peculiar arrangement of the nock. Whether this influence can
have been exerted upon their westward wandering when they may have
come in contact slightly with the Guato, or happened for the first time
later after they already had settled on the Rio Cabacal, isin doubt. An
association with the Guato, the water nomads of the upper Paraguay, is
very probable. The bow manifests no variations whatever. It is about
the same simple unadorned weaponof the original Bororo on the Lorenzo.
That these Bororo did not know the decoration of the weapon with little
feather tufts, shows that the Bororo of the East had not been brought
in contact with this technique originally but, as already mentioned,
have taken it from their later neighbors.

The Bororo arrows of the Campanha in the Natterer collection,
which were received from them after they had already become settled
by conquest, show an advance in the migrations hinted at. Before
all else, the Cambayuva reed used for shafts of arrows was entirely
replaced by the Uba reed. The abundance of the Uba reed (Synerium
saccharoides), on the one hand, and the influence of the Guato using it
and perhaps of the Baccairi, on the other hand, have occasioned this

sm 96 oT

578 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

change. As a single survival of the time before the separation of the
Bororo, there is to be seen among the Bororo of the Campanha the
jaguar (PI. LX, fig. 8) arrow point, with foreshaft of Seriba palm wood.
The feathering of this arrow is here entirely different. (PI. LX, fig.
17.) The feathers are, in spite of the constant disasters of this tribe,
set on the shaft with very much more elegance and care. When the
Baccairi of the Tapajoz region are contrasted with one another, this
technique would seem to have come only from the Baceairi on the
Paranatinga, earlier united with the Bororo, while the wide separation
of the Bororo from the Baccairi of the Shingu does not allow contact
with them to be thought of. Moreover, the highly developed technique
hints that the reception of the sewed feathering must have occurred
already in much earlier time—indeed, shortly after their wandering
into this region. Eventually this form, indeed, had already become
known to the Bororo before the split and was lost by the eastern
Bororo. The Pareci, the northwestern neighbors of the western Bororo,
can not be regarded as intermediaries, because they, in more recent
times, as was seen, first received the sewed feathering from the north.
As for the origin of the Bororo, sewed feathering on the Shingu calls to
mind that also on that river the bone point from the humerus of the
monkey (PI. LVII, fig. 8), as well as the wooden point of the Baceairi and
the Nahuqua with side barbs of palm splint wrapped on, were known
to the Bororo (P1. LVI, fig. 14). In opposition to this approach to the
Shingu type is the setting aside of the old Bororo bow and th
adoption of the Guato bow (PI. LX, fig. 10), only a little modified. An
unpracticed eye would with difficulty discriminate the bows of these
two tribes. These bows belong to the eastern Brazilian type, and,
indeed, also here is to be found the bow with bast wrapping diffused
in the western part of this region. The more or less round, slightly
bent bow stave, made from the brown wood of the Caranda palm, is
throughout its entire length closely wrapped in imbrications, with
about 2 em. broad strips of Cipo negro or Liana bast, only the ends
are free and bluntly pointed. A strong palm fiber bowstring is carried
back on this wrapping for a quarter of the length of the bow, as in
those on the Shingu and the Cajara.

The second collection of the western Bororo, by Kkhode, in 1884,
brings to us another stadium of development. In the sixty years that
passed after Natterer’s journey, the disadvantageous influences of
culture likewise worked to the detriment of the Bororo of Campanha
and of Cabagal, and from Von den Steinen’s account (op. cit., p. 442)
they to-day form only a poor, starving society. This is more wonder-
ful, because after the year 1827 a certain constancy in the making of
their weapons is shown. The sewed feathering, no less than the bone
points, has become entirely domesticated. A similar bamboo point
(Pl. LX, fig. 16) to that found among the Baccairi and Yuruna occurs
also here and is associated with the sewed feathering. It appears also

a

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. 579

to have come among the Bororo from the Baccairi. However, as
already made clear, it is not easy to say whence the Baccairi received
the point. But therewith also has the contact with the Baceairi
belonged, since after the settlement of the Bororo the conilict north-
ward must have ceased. It has at the present time a stronger assimi-
lation with the Guato, the water nomads, which went on until the
Bororo came hereabout. So, as at this place the Bororo received the
bow from the Guato in this region, these last, in reciprocity, took the
bone point. The Uba reed has entirely superseded the Cambayuva
reed. To the stout, long shaft, which often, as among the Guato, is
made up of several pieces bound together with wrapping of Cipo, is
made fast a harder knotty wooden foreshaft by means of Cipo wrap-
ping. These are all the arrows with which the Guato are familiar.
Out of the originally much-diversified arrow forms remain now only
two, the one with the bamboo point and the one with the bone point.
With the bamboo point (PI. LX, fig. 16) is associated the sewed
feathering; with the bone point (cf. Pl. LVII, fig. 8) belong a feathering
similar to that of the Guato type. However, the peculiar form of the
barb is always wanting.

Of the tribes that live south of the Bororo no one is appropriately
to be assigned to the Mato Grosso. They dwell together in the deep
swampy lowlands of the Paraguay, which furnish the transition to the
great Plains of the Gran Chaco. However, there are some tribes yet
to be brought into this discussion, since the ethnographic connection
with the Bororo are so striking that omitting them would leave the
ethnographic picture of the Mato Grosso incomplete.

The Guato, already frequently mentioned, a people in their tribal
affiliations quite. as unknown as the Bororo, lived, so far back as
information of them goes, upon the upper Paraguay and its tributaries,
which, at the time of the inundations during half of the year, when
their homes are partly submerged, they navigate as genuine water
nomads in their canoes. Driven to the water, they live chiefly upon
fish, which, in the absence of hooks, they hunt skillfully with bow and
arrow (Castelnau, Voyage, etc., III, p. 9), an art which is commonly
spread over South America.

The bow (Pl. LX, fig. 10-13), as mentioned, almost the same as that
of the western Bororo, has as a variation a thick tuft 5 cm. long, which
is shredded from the end of the Cipo filaments and wound fast about
the bow, serving for a better security of the bowstring. The Cipo
winding is cleaner and less carefully laid on than among the Bororo.
The bowstring is made from the shredded fiber of the Tucum palm, or,
according to Castlenau, also out of the gut of the monkey (Castlenau,
Voyage, III, p. 14), and is, as among the Bororo, in its prolongation
wrapped less close and fast about the bow. The arrows of the Guato
are distinguished by the feathering, the same as those of the Bororo.
Along with the bone point, which was, indeed, transferred from the

580 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

Bororo, and also with a harpoon arrow with unilaterally barbed point,
there is in the Rhode collection a bamboo point (Pl. LX, fig. 15)
having nothing in common with those of the Bororo. It is narrow,
is a flattened circle in cross section, and is made fast upon the
short foreshaft by means of a narrow band of Cipo wrapping merely,
and the foreshaft is not, as generally, inserted into the point, but is
spliced on. The Natterer collection furnishes the same style of arrow,
but only with bone point. Arrow shafts made from pieces joined,
already mentioned among the eastern Bororo, are held together among
the Guato with fish glue. (Castelnau, op. cit., III, p. 14.)

The feathering (Plate LX, fig. 14) of the Guato arrow is worthy of
remark in its deviations from that of the Bororo. Generally one-half
of the plume of the feather is cut toothed, as also partly among the
Bororo of Cabacal. The fastening of the smooth feather lying flat on
the shaft is effected in the customary technique of the eastern Brazil-
ian type by means of a cotton thread at the inner and outer end, which
is blackened at the upper extremity. Sometimes Cipo is also utilized,
which mostly continues from the upper wrapping to the lower in a longer
spiral, simply encircling the shaft. This also calls to mind similar ones
occurring among the eastern Bororo. The notch is worthy of notice.
Two pegs of hard palm wood driven into the border of the nock prevent
the reed from being split and rendered useless by the discharging of the
arrow. ‘This practice was found already in the Mauhe feathering (PI.
LIX, fig. 13), wherein a notched wooden nock is driven into the end of the
arrow, a technique distributed throughout the entire northeastern region
of South America and having its origin in Guiana. A more extended
account will be given in the projected work. The technique employed
by the Guato in the manufacturing of the notch differing from the cus-
tomary method allows the belief that they discovered it independently
of the northern nock technique. Outside of a few tribes eS
to the Guato the nock pegs are nowhere found.

From the Guana, the last people here to be considered, there is in the
Natterer collection only one long barpoon arrow with the Habel ‘Guana,
Presidio Albuquerque and Miranda on both banks of the Paraguay,
Mato-Grosso and Bolivia.” It is absolutely of the Guato type. The
shaft is of Uba reed; the foreshaft is fastened on by means of Cipo, and
the long feather or shaftment terminates in nock pegs, only there is
upon the smooth foreshaft of redwood, most commonly used in the
Gran Chaco, an iron point set with bark pointing backward. Through
this similarity with the Guato and indirectly with the Bororo arrow the
story (von den Steinen, op. cit., p. 379) of the coming of the Guana from
the north out of the Arinos region gains probability. Dobrizhoffer,
who traveled from the Chaco westward from Albuquerque, alleged that
they differed from the Chaco people and that they did not use the horse.
Natterer and Castelnau found them in the Presidio Albuquerque and
Miranda, in three hordes, the Guana proper, the Terenos, and the Lai-
anos. While also the use of the horse is not mentioned among the

BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL. ASl1

Guana proper, the Laianos and Terenos are described as riding people
(Castelnau, op. cit., Il, p. 469), who carry the customary weapon of the
Chaco Indians, lances with iron points, clubs, bows with small arrows,
and wearing the bodoque or labret received from the Guarani of Para-
guay. To this assertion correspond some bows and arrows of the
‘rerenos in the Berlin Museum, which completely correspond to the
Chaco type. Although the three mentioned tribes are not to be
regarded linguistically as Nu-Aruak the different modes of living and
different character of weapons show an already very early separation.

The Terenos and the Laianos quite early, perhaps shortly after the
Chaco people had begun to ride the horses introduced by the Spaniards,
were driven from the common possession on the upper Arinos toward
the northern Chaco, which had been seized, where they, as well as the
Guana, were called a horseless nation by Dobrizhoffer. The Guaycurnu,
Mbaya, their neighbors, gained through the ownership of horses a great
advantage over them and brought them under their sway. (Dobriz-
hoffer, Geschichte der Abipones, I, p. 161.) As will be frequently seen
in a subdued people, the Guana accepted entirely the mode of life of
their conquerors, and also their weapons, which they later continued
using after they had again gained their freedom. Perhaps, at first, long
after the wandering about had been taking place with these Guana,
the remaining Guana also drew off to the southward. A village of the
Guana near Cuyaba, 1848, was still called in that language Akten.
(Von den Steinen, op. cit., p. 550.) They settled in the vicinity of the
Guato on the Paraguay, whereby an ethnographic commerce was
effected.

Southward of the Guana the tribes living on the banks of the Para-
guay are genuine Gran Chaco stock, whose history so far as known has
been closely knit with that of this region. It might be here remarked
that the form of arrow known from the descriptions of the Bororo,
Guato, and Guana, finds many transitions to the type common in Para-
guay, while the transition to the Chaco form takes place first indirectly
through the Paraguay type. Furthermore, in the same way, these tribes
are related to one another through their bow types.

The bow wrapped throughout with Cipo (Pl. LX, fig. 10) is to be
seen in several differentiated forms as far as southeastern Brazil. The
distribution of the nock pegs (Pl. LX, fig. 14) is evidenced by single
unlabeled old arrows of pure Chaco type which are in the museum at
Edinburgh. Whether these received the pegs in contact with the
Gv ito type, or whether the origin of this technique is to be sought in
some portions of the Chaco region, from which it was communicated
to the Guato, is not disclosed. The practical value of this applied nock
is easily seen. A technique of this kind can, therefore, since it does
not differ outwardly from the character of the type, easily have been
borrowed from a tribe extremely conservative in the giving out of their
weapons, as we are able to demonstrate among the Chaco people, whose

582 BOWS AND ARROWS IN CENTRAL BRAZIL.

smaller bow of Curepay wood has been found in prehistoric graves in
Jujuy, in the western Chaco region.

We may now bring together the results reached for the southern
Mato Grosso. It is known that, with exception of small movements
in opposite direction between neighboring peoples, an ethnographic
stream, rich in its influences, has flowed from the south, passing out
from Paraguay and reaching to the Bororo. As well the Paraguay
feathering, as the winding of the bow with Cipo may be traced as far as
the Bororo. Afterwards this stream is met by one opposing it from the
north. It is indeed astonishing, but its influence does not pass the
Guato. The sewed feathering is confined to the Bororo; only the bone
point is now to be found among the Guato. The spread of the Uba
reed, aS mentioned, founded on its abundant supply, can not testify
directly of an ethnographic relationship.

The ethnographic picture of the whole Mato-Grosso appears, in
spite of its original complexity, to be strikingly unified on closer
inspection.

We see in the northern region two great ethnographic streams, one
from the west and one from the east, running toward and in the
Shingu encountering each other, so as to result in a mixed type.
Between them is thrust in a third type, which perhaps, on the upper
Shingu, at least so far as the feathering goes, has its center of disper-
sion toward the Tapajoz and Tocantins. A small by-stream is to be
traced from the northwest to the Arara, the Juberi tribes, for example,
and to the southeast on the Tapajoz from the Mauhe. In the southern
Mato-Grosso runs a main stream along the Paraguay. A second one is
directed southward from the Shingu region. Further influence of
groups lying farther off is not to be recognized in the Mato Grosso.

The ethnographic character of a people is generally not conterminous
with its linguistic affiliations, but depends also on a place which a
people occupies with reference to its neighbors, and on possibilities of
an ethnographic adjustment conditioned thereby. Original peculiari-
ties of groups of tribes, like the Tupi, are to be occasionally found, but
these have through many adjustments with others, not belonging to the
stock, lost characteristics or have been changed therein. Whether the
widely diffused stepped decoration (PI. LVII, fig. 5), found all over
northern South America, as well as the quill ring (Pl. LVIU, fig. 17),
are to be regarded as tribal characteristics is to be decided by further
and more careful observations.

The question how far the conclusions reached concerning the develop-
ment of the Mato Grosso furnish generalized results for other regions,
and how far other momenta for the completion of the ethnographic
picture are to be considered, will be attempted in a later work.

Smithsonian Report 1896.

40°

|
|
|
|
|

DISTRIBU HOe AREAS

Boundaries of bow
Peruvian bow

Last Fracitian bow.
North Brazilian bow
Chaco bow

80°

www Geographical tints of the Mato Grosso.

Last Brazuvanr leah ing.

4 Peruvian Cement reathering.

... Dividing line of Chaco reath
Region of Xingit Sewed reaanhang.
Kegon of 'Arara reathering.
Region of Mauheé feathering
region of Guiana reathering.

see) Region of Peruvian a ae |

40°

AHOEN & CO.LITH. BALTO.

Smithsonian Report 1896

DISTRIBUTION AREAS
BOWAND ARROW TYPES
CEN TRAL BRAZIL.

Scale
xm So

Bahia

___ Geographical limits of the Malo Grosso |
0 Fast Grazilian feathering.
| Peruvian Cement feathering.
\ f = Dividing line of Chaco teathering.
Boundaries of bow wpes | J g/ Cori : 0 Region of Xing Sewed feathering.
A Peruvian bow | yA s ae Fewion or Arara feathering,
B fast Brazilian bow | (tee) ) ; 8 , og)
CG NorthBrazilian bow f 3 = 13) — $e — Region of Guiana teatherin
na i iS = .
D. Chaco bow es , - Region of Peruvian banded toathorng|

80 y ___ Longitude 60 Witrom Greenwich

a, ,
A thts eee ners pe ROE MUNRO AT erat em dtr

=

Orr D oe oe lO

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LVII.

[Figs. 1 to 14, Berlin Museum. ]

. Double-curved bow of the Aueto, Upper Shingu.

. Cross section of the same at the grip.

. Cross section of the same at the ends.

. Double-curved bow.

. End of the same showing stepped pattern of wrapping.

. Cross section of the same at the middle.

. Single-curved bow, with rawhide rings stretched on, Baccairi tribe.

. Arrow with Shingu sewed feathering and point from monkey humerus set on,

Aueto.

. Shingu sewed feathering, Aueto.

. Tucum nut whistle on shaft, Suya.

. Bamboo point, Kamayura.

. Bamboo wooden point, Ges from Kamayura.

. Bamboo point, Baccairi.

. Wooden point, with barb of ant bear zygomatic process.

584

PLATE LVII.

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

14

BOWS AND ARROWS OF CENTRAL BRAZIL.

ate
Cg

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LVIII.
[Figs.1 to 5, 10 to 15, Berlin Museum; 6 to 9, Copenhagen Museum; 16 to 19, Stockholm.]

1. Bow, Peruvian type, Yuruna tribe.
2,3. Ends of the same.
4. Middle part wrapped with thread.
5. Cross section in the middle.
6. Bow with carved end, Mundrucu.
7,8. Ends of the same.
9. Cross section of the same.
10. Bow, North Brazilian type, Mauhe.
11,12. Ends of the same.
13. Mauhe feathering, Mauhe.
14. Arara feathering, with stepped pattern and quill ring on the nock.
15. Peruvian cemented feathering, Baccairi.
16. Tapajos bamboo point, with stepped pattern in wrapping, Apiaka.
17. Toothed bamboo point, with ornamentation in quill work and stepped weaving,
Arara.
18. Quill work and colored patterns effected in the wrapping of threads.
19. Bone point set on diagonally.
586

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE LVIII.

AAI We
COTTA

iy
ye

MAIN

=

neu

6

BOWS AND ARROWS OF CENTRAL BRAZIL.

il

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LIX.

[Figs. 1 to 5, Berlin Museum; 16, 17, Vienna Museum. |

Bow, East Brazilian type, Caraja.

2,3. Ends of the same.

. Middle or grip, with packing or wrapping of leaf.

. Cross section.

. Arrow with bone point cemented on diagonally.

. Point of the same.

. Feathering, wrapping of black thread, east Brazilian type.

. Feathering, with wrapping of Cipo, east Brazilian type.

. Wooden point of a bird arrow.

. Wooden point of arrow, single edge, Caraja.

. Wooden point of arrow, two-edged, Caraja.

. Point of fish spine set diagonally on a painted foreshaft, Caraja.
. Bamboo point, Caraja.

5. Point of an arrow out of a single piece of Cambayura reed, Caraja.
. Bow, with cotton wrapping, Cayapo.

. Arrow, with bamboo point, Cayapo.

588

PLATE LIX.

Smithsonian Report, 1896.

CI? $=

14

q a —— a BY, ——— ~ — = y- eee a Se
i —— = = SHMMMARER NTE? a =
: a oo =— _—_ = are IEEE Z
= coll = = = = ee as reas ZS
= ri Peas tH} a5
2

tg” RESUS SEN SS SSN EF

SV

BOWS AND ARROWS OF CENTRAL BRAZIL.

1.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE LX.
[Figs. 1 to 17, Berlin Museum. ]

Hunting bow, Peruvian type, eastern Bororo tribe, Rio Lorenze.

2,3. Ends of the same.

4,

Middle part or grip.

5, 6, 7. Cross sections.

8.
¥),
10.

Bamboo point of jaguar arrow, eastern Bororo, Rio Lorenzo.
Feathering of the same, eastern Brazilian type.
Bow, with Cipo wrapping and grommets, Guato.

11,12. Ends of the same.

13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Cross section of the same.

Feathering, with nock pegs set in.

Bamboo point.

Arrow, with bamboo point, west Bororo.

Sewed feathering of the Bororo, western Bororo.
590

Smithsonian Report, 1896. PLATE LX.

we)

2©

Hat

TTT CT

ST

co
=
i=)

Bows AND ARROWS OF CENTRAL BRAZIL.

4 wow >
ete a ky!

ACCOUNT OF THE WORK OF THE SERVICE OF ANTIQUI-
TIES OF EGYPT AND OF THE EGYPTIAN INSTITUTE
DURING THE YEARS 1892, 1893, AND 1894,!

By J. DE MORGAN.

On the 1st of September it was two years since, charged by the Gov-
ernment of His Highness the Khedive, with the administration of the
antiquities of Egypt, I definitely assumed full control of an office
which I had held pro tempore for about six months, and which, in spite
of the experience already gained, seemed to me none the less a very
heavy burden.

It is not enough, as you know, that a person be merely a good
administrator in order to properly direct this great service; one must be
an Keyptologist as well, and while my good intentions might contribute
to the conduct of affairs, it could not be so with regard to Egyptology.
I found that to succeed Mariette and our colleague, Maspero, was an
honor difficult to support.

My studies had always turned to Asia. I was not an Egyptologist.
Consequently only my administration and my discoveries can excuse
my ignorance of the hieroglyphs. I hoped, however, that linguists
would be satisfied if I furnished them with their documents, while I
devoted myself entirely to my researches.

In order to show you plainly the work done by the Service of Antiqui-
ties since my arrival in Egypt, it is indispensable that I divide my sub-
ject, because very often enterprises of quite different nature have been
executed at the same time, and it would be impossible to enumerate
them in chronological order.

I shall speak first concerning excavations, then about the conserva-
tion of monuments, then about the museums, and finally about the pub-
lications of the Service of Antiquities in Egypt.

1Translated from Actes du Dixiéme Congres International des Orientalistes,
session de Genéve, 1894. Leide, 1897. Section iv, Egype et Langues Africaines,
pp. 3-33.
591

BPA EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

EXCAVATIONS.

I shall bring to your attention the various places in which excava-
tions have been effected within the last two years, following the geo-
graphical order, for any other arrangement would be impracticable,
since various works were carried on simultaneously. I shall commence
with the north of Egypt, and proceed toward the frontiers of Nubia,
ascending the river. i

Sa-el-Hagar (September, 1893).—These diggings, at the place where
the great discoveries of bronze had been made, have furnished a goodly
number of statuettes, some of them of great rarity, among which I may
mention a.statuette of Pacht, representing a cat sitting on the shoul-
ders of a man.

Abou-Roach (June 15-October 1, 1893).—The work here revealed a
vast subterranean structure whose use is as yet unknown, in which
were found in the sand a great many statuettes of bronze and enamel,
several of them remarkably delicate. These objects represent the rats
of Pharoah, animals sacred to the god Nefer-Toum.

There formerly existed on the plateau of Abou-Roach a number of
tombs and some pyramids. These monuments are now destroyed, and
up to the present time no other research has been attempted in these
regions.

Gizeh (August, 1892).—During the period of organization of the
Museum of Gizeh I made some excavations in the neighborhood of the
great pyramids. One of these brought to light a limestone sarcoph-
agus of a certain Uta, priest of the pyramid of Mycerinus about the
end of the fourth dynasty. New excavations (March-April, 1894) led
to the discovery of a large pit, the examination of which is not yet
concluded.

Abou-Sir (August-October 1, 1893).—To verify the assertions of
Perring concerning the pyramids of this place, I had the most consid-
erable of the three monuments opened. There I found, as the English
explorer had asserted, the ruined chambers. At the spot indicated on
the chart of Lepsius, under the head of Pyramid No. X VII, diggings
carried on by my orders brought up, not the discovery of foundations
of a pyramid, but the remains of a vast mastaba, constructed for a
certain Ptah-Chepses, a high functionary of King Sahoura of the fifth
dynasty. This monument, very remarkable for the engraving as well
as for the delicacy of its bas-reliefs, was composed of numerous halls,
only two of which are in a good state of preservation. A spacious
court, ornamented with a colonnade, extended south of the principal
building. One of the rooms was supported by two lotus-shaped col-
umns, of the purest style, whose capitals, forming a bouquet of the
lotus, are the most ancient known. Five giant statues ornamented
the rooms of this mastaba. The place they occupied against the walls
or in the naos is readily discernible; their transport is figured on
bas-ieliefs on the exterior walls. Finally a graffito traced in hieratic

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 593

on one of the walls informs us that the neighboring statue was erected
for King Sahoura himself.

Mit-Rahineh (August, 1892).—The excavations undertaken on the
site of the temple of Ptah brought to light two statues of this god,
4 meters high and made of hard sandstone. These two colossi are the
largest divine statues thus far discovered. The sanctuary also con-
tained a boat in rose-colored granite and another in solid limestone,
surmounting a naos, containing a statue of the god Khnoum, a bust in
limestone representing a king, perhaps Rameses II, and finally a group
in rose-colored granite of the god Ra-Hor Khouti and of the Pharoah
Rameses II.

(August, 1893.)—Excavations of little importance made in the koms
led to the discovery of the remains of the studio of a sculptor of the
Ptolemaic epoch. The models in limestone and plaster, the molds and
the casts furnished at once specimens of the two schools, which had
flourished in the valley of the Nile, that of the Egyptian and that of
Greek art.

Saqqarah (January, 1893).— While I supervised in person the work
in the Said, E. Brugsch-Bey, conservator of the Service of Antiquities,
carried on some excavations on the site of the necropolis of Saqqarah,
concerning which he had been for a long time in doubt. These
researches were crowned with complete success; for in a mastaba of
erude bricks of the fifth dynasty, the chief of the works found two
painted limestone statues of perfect execution. One represented a sit-
ting person, the other a scribe, unfortunately unknown, crouching in
the attitude of a man waiting for orders. This statue is one of the
most admirable achievements of ancient art; only the ‘‘Sheik-el-Beled”
and the ‘“‘Scribe” at the Louvre can be compared with it. These two
statues were inclosed in hollow niches in the crude brick walls of the
steps of the mastaba.

(July, 1893.)—I had devoted the entire summer of 1893 to the study
of the necropolis of Saqqarah. The considerable excavations formerly
executed by Mariette guided me not only for my investigations in that
locality, but also for those which I proposed to make in the other
necropolises of the ancient and middle empire.

The soil of Saqqarah has been many times removed for examination
of the tombs. Already, at the time of Pietro della Valle’s travels in
Egypt, the fellahin knew all the secrets of the discovery of mummies.
But it was especially after the great work of Mariette that this part of
the desert became a veritable chaos, where heaps of ruins and cavities
resulting from excavations followed each other like the billows of
the sea.

Thad just arrived in Egypt, and of course was not yet accustomed
to researches in a sandy soil. I therefore resolved to profit from the
diggings of Mariette and only to attack those sites left untouched by
my illustrious predecessor.

SM 96——38

594 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

Following the avenue of the Sphinx, the discoverer of the Serapeum
had contented himself with examining the level of the pavement and
had not pushed his diggings deeper. It was evident, however, that
the entire space under the avenue itself had not been visited since the
time of the building of the avenue of the Serapeum. By observing
the line of that road you notice that it passes about 40 meters north of
the pyramid of Teti and along the north facade. It is, however,
known that the royal tombs have always been surrounded by tombs of
high functionaries. It was therefore most likely that the avenue con-
tained the remains of funeral monuments of high personages of the
epoch of Teti.

Inspired by these deductions, some days after our installation in
Mariette’s house I began work to the northwest of the pyramid of Teti.
The avenue of the Sphinx was easily found again, and some meters
under the pavement there appeared the walls of an immense tomb, the
vastest that has thus far been recovered of the old empire. Several
months were necessary for the excavation of the 31 rooms comprising the
sepulchral temple of the family Meru-Ka. The rooms of Mera were
cleared one after the other, as well as the monumental steles, the statue
of the deceased, 2.30 meters high, and the sacrificial table. Then came
the rooms of his son, Teti ate and those of his wife, Sech Secht, a
royal princess.

Up to the date of the discovery of the tomb of Mera the most con-
siderable tomb of the old empire, excluding the pyramids, was that of
Teti, composed of two chambers, a stairway, and a court. The bas-
reliefs of that tomb were considered the grandest productions of the
old empire. |

The discovery of the mastaba of Mera proves that all the tombs of
personages of the earlier dynasties were constructions of the greatest
importance, and that the tomb of Teti is far from being an exception.
In that of Mera the walls are ornamented with sculptures and paint-
ings of great delicacy. The scenes are of infinite variety—games, rustic
employments, education, navigation, all kinds of occupations are
painted with that ingenuous grace which the artists of ancient Hgypt
alone possessed.

To the east of the tomb of Mera, but always beyond the avenue of
the Sphinx, my workmen discovered another monumental tomb, that
of a certain Kabi-n, five chambers of which were cleared. This temple
is far from being entirely excavated, but the exhaustion of my pecu-
niary resources in 1893 obliged me to suspend the researches.

The painted bas-reliefs that ornament the walls of this mastaba are
the most remarkably executed of any that I know of the old empire.
Unfortunately, in spite of avery active watch day and night, vandals, who
remained undiscovered in spite of all inquiries made by our watchmen,
defaced some of these splendid works of art with a knife. This act of
irreparable vandalism ruined one of the best specimens of the art of

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 595

bas-relief. I almost regretted that I did not follow the plan of Mariette
and cover the recently discovered monuments with sand, to protect
them against the depredations of the fellahin or of certain visitors.

During the same excavations I examined numerous pits of different
epechs. They have furnished many objects for the galleries of the
Museum of Gizeh.

To the west of the pyramid, on the edge of the desert, there is a
singular construction, of which, up to the present, no one had taken
notice. Buried under the sand, it presented the aspect of a large rec-
tangle, with the sides marked by a slight elevation of the soil. This
inclosure, formed of four walls parallel throughout, measures 655 meters
in length and 400 meters in breadth. A series of borings enabled me
to recognize its nature and exact dimensions.

The interior shows no trace of a monument and no vestige of habita-
tion; the virgin soil covers almost the entire surface. Some pits, found
empty, were the only results of several hundred drillings executed in
an area of about 26 hectares. Judged by the construction of the sur-
rounding wall, this monument belongs to the earliest time of the
Egpytian dynasties. Yet, although we know its epoch approximately,
we have no facts as to its use and any conjecture is possible.

As I have already remarked, this large inclosure never contained
constructions or habitations; it was no doubt built for some other pur-
pose, and I am of the opinion that it bounded a surface occupied by
immense subterranean structures. The examination of the entrance,
however, will involve great difficulty and considerable expense.

Although the necropolis of Saqqarah has been for many centuries
exploited for mummies, and during the last hundred years many times
explored from the scientific point of view, yet the last word has by no
means been spoken about it. in one year it has furnished documents of
inestimable value and its sands still hide many scientific treasures. I
have begun a map of this vast necropolis on a scale of 1: 1250, a work
which will occupy several years.

Dahchour.—During the summer of 1893, although I was detained in
the desert by excavations in the necropolis of Saqqarah, I had the
leisure to carefully study the environs, and, in taking up a map of the
entire plateau, | examined most minutely the different regions of this
vast necropolis, which extends without interruption from the pyramids
of Abou-Sir to those of Menchiyéh.

This plateau is situated at a mean altitude of 35 meters above the
valley of the Nile. It incloses several groups of sepulchers, of which
only the most important, that called Saqqarah, has been the object of
profound scientific research.

To the south the necropolis is terminated by the plateaus of Dah-
chour and Menchiych, where 4 large pyramids rise, 2 of stone and 2 of
brick. Here and there masses of white stone proclaim the existence of
ruins buried under the soil, but in most cases there was to be seen only

596 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

the wind-driven sand of the desert, which, at first sight, seemed never
to have been touched by man.

A more attentive examination quickly showed me that the so-called
desert contained a number of sepulchers, which, if not as numerous as
those of Saqqarah, were at least as imporfant.

The stone pyramids of Dahchour, although opened, yielded no his-
torical information; those of brick had resisted all attacks. Only some
ruined mastabas of the fourth and twelfth dynasties were known, the
former situated north of the northern brick pyramid, the other south
of the southern pyramid.

The absence of documents, the resistance which the pyramids of
brick offered, the numerous indications which I discovered at each foot
of the soil, were the reasons which induced me to concentrate my efforts
on that part of the Memphitic necropolis. But being obliged to go to
upper Egypt during the months of December, 1893, and January, 1894,
I could direct the work in person only after the 18th of February.

During my absence excavations had been carried on according to
my order to the south and north of the northern tumulus in the group
of tombs, the upper of which I recognized on my arrival to belong to
the old empire, and the lower to the twelfth dynasty.

The cartouches of Ousertesen Il and III and Amenemhat III left
no doubt as to the epoch in which these latter monuments had been
constructed.

The pyramid, as I have already said, had been attacked, and under
the millions of accumulated bricks untouched diluvial gravel had been
found. The royal chamber was not included in the mass of the monu-
ment itself. As is usually the case in stone pyramids, it was possibly
built deeper down. I soon learned by using the drill in the center of
the trench recently opened, that the diluvium continued to a depth of
9.50 meters underneath the foundations of the pyramid, and was with-
out the slightest trace of human labor. Under these alluvial deposits
friable gravels were found whose silicious nodules arrested the drilling.
Further search was useless, for the tombs, if they existed, would have
been hollowed from the mass of the rock itself, and would probably be
found at a very great depth.

These negative indications were most precious to me, and in order to
procure information of anature which would aid me in my researches, I
abandoned for several days the excavation in the immediate neighbor-
hood of the pyramid and devoted myself to a careful study of the
tombs hollowed out in the mountain.

The tombs of the middle empire in the necropolis of Dahchour do
not at all resemble those of the old empire, discovered by Mariette at
Saqqarah. We do not find among the monuments of the twelfth
dynasty at Dahchour the elaborate funeral temple covered with bas-
reliefs like those of Ti, Mera, Ptah-Hotep, Ptah-Chepses, etc. The
mastaba of Dahchour is very simple and contains no chambers, being

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 597

composed of a massive square of unbaked bricks, often very small. It
is whole and is covered with a casing of the white limestone of Tourah.
It was in the casing that the steles were found. They look to the north
or the east, and are provided with tables for offerings. The pit is gen-
erally placed at the north of the mastaba, instead of opening in the
center of the construction, as is usual in the tombs of the old empire,
but the galleries are hollowed out in such a manner that the deceased
reposes directly under the stele which bears his name. The corridors
that lead to the funeral vault are cut in the rock and are covered either
by an elliptical arch of rectangular sections of Tourah limestone or
with an arch of unbaked bricks fitting very regularly and slightly
raised.

These observations concerning the tombs of the twelfth dynasty in
the necropolis of Dahchour result from the opening of thirty mastabas.
I have, therefore, certainly not been led into error by an anomaly in
the funeral usage.

The construction of the pyramid and of the mastabas presents strik-
ing analogies. The bricks are identical in dimensions, material, and
making; the dressing is the same in the great monument as in the
small ones. It is easy to conclude from these likenesses that all the
tombs belonged to the same epoch. At the same time I observed that
the masses resulting from the pits of the mastabas formed around the
excavations from which they proceeded regular layers, more or less
thick and interspersed among the sands produced by the wind, and
that in consequence when I encountered the débris I necessarily dis-
covered the exits not far from the pits.

While I was concluding these studies, the researches which I had
caused to be executed on the base of the pyramid in the supposed
place of the lining on the north and east ends led me to discover stones
decorated with fragments of inscriptions. One of them contained the
cartouche of Ousertesen III. This discovery rendered my conjecture
as to the age of the pyramid a quasi certainty.

I then began the examination of the pits in the open space between
the foot of the pyramid and its inclosure of bricks. After a large
ni.uber of diggings with the pickax in the made soil down to the
diluvial gravel, I found the remains of a deep excavation hidden under
the sand. Following these remains, I came gradually to the mouth of
a pit (February 26) situated near the northwest corner of the pyramid.

Two days were necessary to remove the earth which filled the cavity.
In the course of the work a poor litile grave, dated in the twenty-sixth
dynasty, placed in the ruins which inclosed the pit, was discovered,
and on the 28th of February the door of the subterranean structure
was found.

A tortuous way descended with a gentle slope toward the pyramid
and came to an end ina funereal chamber vaulted and ornamented
with white limestone where, amidst the débris of a stone sarcophagus,

598 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

lay the remains of a diorite statue. It had been entirely broken in
this vault; the pit through which I had entered was probably the
same one used by some earlier spoilers of antiquity, in all likelihood as
early as the period of the twenty-sixth dynasty.

This first sepulcher opened into a passage 110 meters long, running
from west to east, and consequently parallel to the north facade of the
pyramid. Doors made of Tourah limestone opened into the northern
sides of this gallery. KEverything had been turned upside down and
the sarcophagi had been opened, but the inscriptions which they bore
informed us that in the second vault a queen named Nefert-hent had
been buried. Among the broken flagstones and rubbish were found
skulls, canopies, and vases of clay and alabaster. Everywhere the
greatest disorder reigned, and the white walls here and there still
showed traces of the hands of the spoilers.

This first visit made, I immediately ordered workmen to clear the
principal gallery, and the soil was distributed over the entire length
of the subterranean structure. A wall of freestone was met, and I
found on the other side definite indications of the existence of another
pit. It was about time for the discovery of that egress, because air
was wanting in the gallery and the lights were extinguished. I imme-
diately made a plan of the subterranean structure, and carrying it
back to the surface, fixed the point of the opening. This pit was
cleared in a few days. It opened near the northeast angle of the pyr-
amid, rendered possible the discovery of tombs heretofore unknown,
and created a current of air, without which it would have been impos-
sible for the laborers to complete the work.

Twelve sarcophagi of princesses had been successively discovered
and the clearing definitely commenced. I had given precise orders
that the explored portions of the tomb should be freed from all the
débris in order that the rock could be seen in place.

As I had the honor to tell you, the sarcophagi had all been despoiled ;
but the searchers after hidden treasures had evidently been hasty in
their work, for a goodly number of stone chests containing canopes
had been respected, and some chambers were still closed by the walls
of brick. On the 6th of March the first treasure was discovered. The
jewels inclosed in a little box inlaid with gold and silver had formerly
been buried in the soil of the gallery at a depth of about 40 centimeters,
near the door of the tomb of Princess Hathor-Sat. The following day,
the 7th of March, another hiding place was found in a neighboring
gallery at the foot of the tomb of Princess Sent-Senbets. The ancients,
foreseeing that spoilers would later come to destroy these tombs, had
taken all precautions to hide from their eyes the most precious jewels.

The richness of this treasure is considerable; necklaces, bracelets,
rings, mirrors, breastplates, pearls, pendants, jewels of every sort,
were found by the hundreds in the holes in which they had been
hoarded up. The chests had been destroyed by the humidity, and
their riches lay pellmell in the midst of the sands and the débris.

EGYPTIAN: ANTIQUITIES. 599

Nearly all the jewels are of gold, often inlaid with precious stones;
others are of amethyst, carnelian, turquoise, or lapis lazuli, cut in the
form of scarabs, pearls, and pendants, and often set in gold. The mir-
rors are of silver or bronze, mounted in gold; the vases of alabaster,
carnelian, lapis lazuli, and obsidian, frequently having gold mountings.

The workmanship of the jewels is exquisite in form, precision, and
especially in the composition of designs. The inlaying and the carving
-areespecially beautiful. All this denotes an extremely advaneed civil-
ization, more developed than it was possible to suppose from what we
know about the twelfth dynasty. It would be impossible for me to
describe in detail all the forms and particulars of each one of the
jewels. I shall content myself by noting the principal objects, those of
the greatest historical or artistic importance.

In the first treasure I found a breastplate in gold, enriched with
precious stones and representing the cartouche of King Ousertesen IT
supported by two crowned hawks, two bracelets, several clasps of
necklaces, all in gold, inlaid with lapis lazuli, carnelian, Kgyptian
emerald, turquoise, and obsidian (?), and several scarabs, one of which
contained the name of Ousertesen II], and another that of the Princess
Hathor-Sat. These two secarabs are veritable marvels, both because of
the material of which they are engraved—they are amethyst—as well
as because of the workmanship. Other objects discovered were six
crouching golden lions with collars made of pearls of gold, amethyst,
and lapis lazuli; large golden shells, figured with cypresses, others
representing pearl oysters; a golden collar; a mirror of silver enriched
with gold; and a lot of small objects of the most perfect workmanship.

The second treasure is much more important than the first, and
includes several hundred objects, among the choicest of which I will
mention a breastplate of gold enriched with stones. In the center
is the cartouche of King Amenemhat III. On both sides the king is
seen, upright, raising his club and striking an Asiatic captive, desig-
nated by a text at the side, and above a vulture soars with outspread
wings. The reverse contains the same representations in chased gold;
the inlaying of this piece is on lapis lazuli, Egyptian emerald, feldspath,
turquoise, carnelian and black obsidian(?). These gems are not only
cut in the requisite forms, but are also so delicately engraved that the
heads of king and of captive and the bodies show in relief the smallest

details. Another pectoral of the same king bears his cartouche, sup-
_ ported by two griffons. Four captives are figured on this jewel, two
Asiatics and two negroes. On the reverse are the same scenes engraved
in gold. These two pieces, of first importance, are, with the pectoral
of Ousertesen II, the finest jewels discovered, and the next in rank are
the inlaid bracelets containing the cartouche of Amenemhat III. There
were also found numerous scarabs with the naines of kings and prin-
cesses; three mirrors, two of them of silver with gold mountings; a collar
of lion heads, joined together in fours, each pearl of the collar as large
as an egg; shells of gold as large as the lion heads; clasps of collars

600 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

enriched with gems; collars of gold, amethyst, emerald, and lapis; a
pearl of glass; four couching Hons in gold, ete.; vases of carnelian,
lapis lazuli, obsidian, and alabaster, some of them enriched with gold;
and many objects of less historic interest, though not inferior in work-
manship to the great pieces, conclude the list of the find. The perfec-
tion of the handiwork and the state of preservation are especially
striking in these treasures. No enamel has fallen off, no shock has in
the least destroyed the most delicate work, while the technique of the
jewelry is so perfect that nothing could surpass it.

After the discovery of the treasures, the work was actively continued
and all the environs of the northern pyramid were literally riddled by
diggings over a surface of about 6 hectares.

These researches led to the discovery of a large number of pits of
secondary importance, and finally to the finding of five large wooden
boats 10 meters in length.

While I was exploring the surface I was likewise engaged on an
underground gallery, which, parting from the eastern pit of the prin-
cesses, proceeds toward the center of the pyramid through the sand
bed which forms the subsoil. Already 140 meters of the principal
galleries has been hollowed out without finding the royal tomb. A
vertical distance of 10 meters has been explored. The excavation of
the approaching season will certainly yield results worthy of attention.

In the surrounding wall of the northern pyramid I discovered over
the tombs of the principal princesses the ruins of crude brick masta-
bas, entirely similar to those which the first diggings brought to light.
Near these ruins, in the surrounding débris, I found several fragments
of bas-reliefs bearing the title of ‘“ Royal Daughter.” There is, accord-
ingly, no doubt that these mastabas were formerly funeral chapels of
princesses.

Two deep pits, a little north of these monuments, each inclosed a sar-
cophagus of alabaster, superb pieces of stone, probably taken from
the quarries of EKl-Amarana. Unfortunately they had no inscription.
One of the two contained four empty alabaster vases.

To the south the excavators brought to light three large mastabas
of unbaked bricks, situated in the inclosure between the wall and the
foot of the pyramid, some fragments of bas-reliefs, and two pits, one
of which inclosed anonymous canopes, placed in a granite chest.

In the southern part of the necropolis, near the village of Menchiyeh,
I commenced, on the 10th of April, an examination of the soil com-
prised within the inclosure of the southern pyramid. In the initial
work I came across fragments of bas-reliefs with the name of Amen-
emhat III, of the twelfth dynasty, probable successor of Ousertesen
III; then, proceeding methodically, I made borings in the ground in
the same way that I had examined the surroundings of the northern
pyramid.

On the 17th of April a pit was discovered within the inclosure, near
the wall, in the prolongation of the eastern side of the pyramid. In

EGYPTIAN - ANTIQUITIES. 601

removing the ruins a statuette of gilded wood was found whose base
bore the inscription ‘‘The son of the Sun, issue of his loins, Hor,” and
then fragments of alabaster vases bearing the second name of the King
Fou ab Ra or Aou ab Ra.

No king of this name was hitherto known in the twelfth dynasty.
There were in the thirteenth two kings of the name of Aou tou ab Ra;
but it seemed scarcely possible to assimilate these two names, even if
Aou ab Ra had been found buried in the territory reserved to the princes
of the twelfth dynasty.

The researches speedily brought to light the funereal vault; it had
been despoiled, having been entered by a hole made in the ceiling. It
was in this way that I entered, myself, as soon as the opening was freed
from the ruins which obstructed it. The chamber was empty, and great
disorder reigned; boards, chests, pieces of alabaster, and fragments of
vases encumbered the funereal vaults. The sarcophagus had been
opened, its cover laid at its side, as well as that of the wooden coffin
on which could be read, engraved in gold leaf, the names and titles of
the king. Near this was an inverted naos, its face in the air, covered
with inscriptions painted in green on a golden ground. The interior
inclosed a large wooden statue, decorated with gold, canes, scepters, a
large number of offerings imitated in wood, and fragments of alabaster
vases with royal cartouches. The thieves had carried away only the
most precious pieces, abandoning all these objects which are to-day of
such great value to us.

The inscription on the fagade of the naos is as follows: ‘Horus
Hotep-ab, the master of the diadems of Vautour and of Ureeus. Nofer-
Khaou (of the splendid apparitions), golden Horus Nofer-Nouterou
(beauty of the gods), King of upper and lower Egypt, master of the
two lands, the Almighty Aou ab Ra (or Fou ab Ra), the son of the Sun,
the issue of his loins, whom he loves. Hor, the royal double living in
the tomb; he gives life, stability, force, and health; he rejoices himself
on the throne of the Horus of the living, like Ra, the everlasting.”

Two square steles, engraved on alabaster, and an offering table fur-
nish religious texts, all in the name of the king, whose cartouches are
repeated twenty times.

The royal mummy was inclosed in a case worked with gold, as was
also the lid, and covered with texts. It had been despoiled, but during
the researches I found some interesting objects. A mask in the form
of a klaft covered the head of the king; on his left were scepters and
the débris of his flagellum, of small alabaster vases, and other minor
objects. To remove this material it was necessary to open the original
gate, the entrance of the spoilers being insufficient. This work took
two days, because the natural rock is very dangerous in that place and
great precautions were necessary. I and my workmen were almost
crushed by a slip in the pit.

As soon as the vaults were freed from the objects which surrounded
them, I proceeded to a careful examination of the pavement and of the

602 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

walls, and under a block of stone I came across a chest containing
canopes. This chest, which had not been touched by the robbers, was,
like the coffin, covered with gold leaves with the titles and names of the
king. A string which fastened it still contained his sealin clay. The
seal showed the name of Amenemhat III. It was, however, the sover-
eign who presided over the funeral rites of the king, his predecessor or
his coregent, unknown hitherto.

This verification is of the greatest historical importance, because it
proves either that there was a king between Ousertesen III and
Amenemhat III, or that Amenemhat IV did not reign alone. Not only
does it definitely fix the epoch or age of King Hor, but it also assigns
him a rank in Egyptian chronology.

The tomb of King Hor is situated, as I have said, outside of the
pyramid, in the northern part of its surrounding wall, and for this
reason it is not the tomb of the king who built the colossal brick
structure. This fact is interesting, but it is still more curious to find
a king interred in a modest tomb; his vault is very restricted indeed,
and would seem rather to be the last habitation of some private indi-
vidual than that of a master of Upper and Lower Egypt. A problem
still remains whose solution will probably be furnished by a continuation
of this work.

The diggings which followed led to the discovery of eleven other hits
running from east to west. Some had fallen in and seem never to have
been finished; but one, the nearest to the royal pit, has furnished very
important reenites

On the 19th of April, when this pit was emptied, I came to a door
giving access to a passage 14.60 meters in length and covered with
a cylindrical arch, properly joined. This gallery, in every way resem-
bling that leading to the royal tomb, was broken in the middle by a
very dangerous cavity, which required much care. It ended southward
in a wall, constructed of the stone of Tourah, closing the door of the
vault. This tomb had not been violated.

J think it useful to insist here upon the existence of arches of crude
brick in the tombs of the twelfth dynasty at Dahchour. I have thus
far met several of which the oblique cut relative to the axis denotes a
very extended practical knowledge on the part of the architects of this
epoch. Another remark must also be made on the subject of the
employment of plaster, whichis general in the monuments of Dahchour.
I myself have found in the various constructions vases in which the
mortar had been tempered; one still sees the thumb mark of the masons
traced in the wet mass.

The door was opened with all the precautions necessitated by the
bad state of the gallery, and as soon as the first stones were taken off
we saw before us all the objects placed in a small room, in the spot
where they had been deposited by the priests of the twelfth dynasty
or by the family of the deceased. There stood the clay vessels still
inclosing the mud of the Nile water; here pieces of embalmed viands; a

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 603

little farther the dishes with dried food. In a corner there were two
cases; the one inclosed perfumes in alabaster vases, carefully labeled
in hieratic characters, the other contained scepters, canes, a wooden
mirror, and arrows whose points were astonishingly well preserved.

Thus far it is impossible to say whether this tomb was that of a man
or of a woman. It contained arms and toilet objects. The only indica-
tion we found was the seal with which the perfume chest had been
sealed; it bore the family name of King Tesch Senbet. As soon as all
these objects were numbered, and when their respective positions had
been sketched, and when finally that chamber had been emptied, the
opening of the sarcophagus commenced. Large flags of white Tourah
limestone covered the entire floor of the chamber of offerings, forming
at once the floor of that chamber and the cover of the sarcophagus.

As soon as the first stone had been removed there appeared a wooden
coffin, gilded, decorated on both sides, and ending in a slope. An
inscription in gold reached the whole length of the cover. It gives us
the name and the title of the deceased; the princess (or royal daughter)
Noub Hotep ta Khroudit.

The case of the coffin, also decorated with gold leaves, was made of
natural wood; the golden bands bearing the inscription were inclosed
in a line of green paint. The inscriptions of the coffin were immediately
copied, and then detached with the greatest care, for the paste which
held them crumbled, so that they fell off at the slightest shock, and it
was impossible to transport them with the wood. The mummy, although
untouched, had suffered very much from moisture, and nothing remained
but a mass of bone, jewels, and dust, inclosed in the remains of an
envelope of plaster, entirely gilded. But the objects had not been
' displaced at all, and by removing them oe was easy to find the
use to which each part was put.

On the left were the canes, the scepters, the flagellum, and a curious
instrument, frequent in te bas-reliefs of temples, but never before
found in so complete a state. On the head of the royal mummy there
was a diadem of silver inlaid with stones, an urzeus, and the head of a
golden vulture. On the breast I found a necklace decorated with about
fifty pendants of gold, inlaid and terminating in two heads of golden
hawks of natural size. Toward the waist there was a poniard with a
golden blade, and on the arms and feet were golden bracelets ornamented
with pearls, carnelians, and Egyptian emeralds.

J shall not dwell on the description of these funereal trappings; the
jewels, though very heavy, are of inferior workinanship compared with
those of the preceding discovery. The inlaying and embossing are
comparatively crude.

The head of the mummy was, as usual, placed at the north of the
tomb; on the left of the feet was a box of canopes, worked with gold
like the coffin, and covered with texts.

Among the titles of the Princess Noub Hotep it is never mentioned
that she had been queen, and yet I found in her tomb all the attributes

604 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

of royalty. Perhaps she died before the accession of her husband to
the throne, and he was therefore only the heir apparent.

The tombs of King Hor and Princess Noub Hotep, as well as the
details of their funeral furniture, show clearly that these two persons
had been buried at the same epoch. Must we hold that the princess
was either the wife or the daughter of the sovereign near whom she
reposed ?

At the same time that these researches were being made I prepared
a very detailed account of their results. This description will be con-
tained in a special volume, in which all the objects, texts, plans, and
the details of architecture will be figured. M.G. Legrain and M.G.
Jéquier, members of the French Oriental Institute of Cairo, aided mein
their composition, the Egyptologists of the Service of the Antiquities
being busy either in the museum at Gizeh or in other researches in
progress in various parts of Egypt.

After these discoveries I continued the exploration of the soil included
in the surrounding wall of the southern pyramid. The shapeless remains
of the mortuary chapel which formerly stood to the east of the monument
were brought to ight; but the entrance of the subterranean structure
still remains hidden. In the south, as well as in the north, it will be
necessary in future researches to proceed by means of mined galleries.
But while the northern pyramid reposes on solid stones, that of the
south is constructed of crumbling clay. The galleries ought to be
wainscoted, a task which, without skilled workmen, will require much
care. East of the pyramid extends a large square filled with tombs of
the principal functionaries of the king, who is buried in the pyramid.
The exploration of this necropolis will form a part of the next research
campaign.

Fayoum (1893-94).—The Roman necropolis of the Fayoum, so often
explored, still retains an appreciable number of interesting documents;
about fifteen mummies decorated with portraits, an incense box in
gilded wood—a unique object and in a perfect state of preservation—
several sarcophagi, and some inscriptions of the Roman epoch were
found.

Meir (1892, 1893, and 1894).—The necropolis of Meir was as yet almost
untouched. I signalized my arrival in the Service of Antiquities by
having researches made on it, and the three campaigns which followed
have been fertile in results. In September, 1892, the tombs of the
twelfth dynasty yielded us some curious wooden statuettes and one
in bronze of a person named Nakht. This last is a unique piece, being
duly dated. Twenty-eight wooden boats, some of which still have their
sails, accompanied the statuettes.

In 1893 the discoveries continued, the objects found also belonging
to the twelfth dynasty.

In 1894 a tomb of the sixth dynasty was opened. It contained a series
of most original statuettes, representing the servants of the deceased
engaged in the ordinary duties of life. There are women kneading

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 605

bread, others putting it into the oven, reapers, fruit merchants, armies
of slaves with fans to drive away the flies, and also the special servant
of the deceased bearing his effects.

This fortunate discovery revives for us, in the form of statuettes, all
the scenes we are accustomed to see figured in bas-reliefs on the walls
of the mastabas of the ancient empire.

Siout (August, 1894).—Since my departure from Egypt, having stopped
the diggings of Dahchour in order that I might renew them myself the
coming winter, the efforts of the Service of Antiquities were turned
toward the necropolis of Siout, and a remarkable discovery was made
there. All the tombs of that necropolis thus far known have been
violated by searchers after treasures; only one, which had just been
brought to light, had escaped their hands, and it gives us most inter-
esting information about a period of Egyptian history concerning which
very little is known. The body had been placed in a double rectangular
case of acacia wood, similar to those of the necropolis of Dahchour;
the inscriptions traced with ink on both sarcophagi give us, besides the
usual religious formule, the name and title of the deceased; “the
feudal prince, chief of the prophets of Ouap ouaitou, lord of Siout,
royal chancellor, Emsah.” The mummy, reduced to a skeleton, was
enveloped in raw linen, and had on its head and breast a wooden mask;
various objects reposed on the deceased or at his side; a silver collar,
a mirror, a pillow, sandals, a basin of bronze, canes, bows, a scepter,
ouas. But the most interesting objects are those which had been
deposited at the side of the sarcophagus, and first of alla funeral bark,
1.20 meters in length, giving us the exact model of a dahabieh of the
epoch, with its mast in the bow and in the stern the double cabin with
its walls and its roof, built of light timber, where the deceased and his
family stay, while the crew stand on the bridge in poses full of grace
and naturalness. On either side of the coffiu are soldiers of the deceased
to the number of eighty, in two groups, well ordered, and showing us
an army highly organized. first of all are the Egyptians, dressed in
short aprons and armed with large, light shields and lances with great
bronze points, while the negroes on the other side, clad still more
lightly, each carry a large bow and half a dozen arrows with blunt
points. All these persons in wood, so carefully made, about 40 centi-
meters high, show us the forces which the princes of Siout had at the
disposal of the Heracleopolitan kings in those long civil wars which
desolated Kgypt during the ninth and the tenth dynasty, contests of
which the tombs of the other princes of the Lycopolite nome speak,
among others Khiti, who has given us on one of the walls of his tomb
the representation of these same soldiers.

Gaow (1893).—These excavations have brought out mummies of the
Greek epoch of moderate interest, some small monuments, such as
funeral statuettes, winged scarabs, etc., of fairly good workmanship,
and a cover of a compact limestone sarcophagus, similar to those dis-
covered at Saqqarah. It is very well made. The inscriptions are

606 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

painted in green, the eyes are inlaid, and the face gilded. (Ptolemaic
epoch.)

Gournah (January—April, 1894).—The campaign at Gournah was one
of the least productive. Its yield consists of two pits each inclosing a
sarcophagus, without importance, of a priest of Ammon. A covered
tomb with fine paintings was also cleared, but I was obliged to fill up
the entrance.

Karnak.—Two colossal statues were removed from the temple of
Karnak and are now deposited in the museum of Gizeh. The one, in
solid sandstone, represents King Seti II (nineteenth dynasty). It was
placed in the hypostyle under the débris of a pylon. The waters cov-
ered it every year. The other, located in 1892, is of rose granite. It
was placed near and facing the great pylon. It represents a certain
Amen-Hotep, scribe of the eighteenth dynasty.

Gebelein (March, 1893).—These excavations have not yielded notable
results. They have revealed some fragments of a monument of the
eleventh dynasty and a stone bearing the cartouche of King Khian.

Hassaya.—The Greco-Roman necropolis, which seemed to be ex-
hausted, has, however, produced many Greek or Egyptian steles of the
latter epoch. ‘Two seasons of excavation have been had at this point,
one in April, 1893, the other during the early months of the year 1894.

Kom-Ombos.—While I was occupied with the clearing of the temple
(January—March, 1893), I had some excavations made in the necropolis,
where I established the existence of numerous sepultures of the Ptole-
maic epoch of little interest. Besides, I found in tombs, similar to
those of human mummies, a mass of animal mummies. They included
snakes, mice, hawks, gazelles, rams, and more often crocodiles, some
of eH have a leneth of 5 yates:

Assouan (January, 1893).—Several tombs belonging to tye sixth and
the twelfth dynasty have been discovered. They contained only objects
of little importance.

Island of Sehel.—While we were uncovering all the monuments of
that region, for the purpose of preparing the first volume of the Cata-
logue of Monuments and Inscriptions of Ancient Egypt, I discovered
the ruins of a chapel dedicated to the goddess Anoukit. Unfortunately
this little monument is destroyed in such a manner that it has not been
possible to recover its primitive function.

THE CLEARING AND STRENGTHENING OF THE MONUMENTS.

Gizeh.—The temple of the Sphinx, long since discovered, had been
entirely cleared by Mariette. But since that time the sands of the des-
ert, driven by the wind, have accumulated and obstruct more than half
of the monument. These chambers were again cleared up during the
summer of 1892, and are open to the public.

Abou-Sw (August-October, 18935).—The mastaba of Ptah-Chepses,
receutly discovered, has undergone the most necessary repairs. Two

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 607

chambers have been restored, recovered, and provided with grates.
The grand court still lies under the débris.

Saqqarah (July-August, 1892).—The grand court of the tomb of Ti
has been cleared anew, as well as the pit and the galleries leading to
the chamber of the sarcophagus. The court is at present screened by
a ceiling and lighted from the center in such manner that the visitor
may traverse all the chambers of this celebrated tomb.

(August—October, 1893.)—The tomb of Meru-Ka, called Mera, has been
entirely repaired, and, immediately after being brought to light, so well
covered up that its thirty-one chambers have been open to the public
since the beginning of the season of 1893-94.

(September-October, 1893.)—The mastabaof Kab-in, near that of Mera,
having been only partly cleared, the five chambers discovered have
been repaired and covered with a ceiling, an improvement being eftected
at the same time in the tombs of Ptah-Chepses and Mera.

Luxor.—The clearing of the temple was actively pushed under the
direction of M. G. Daressy, assistant conservator of the Service of
Antiquities. Commencing on the Ist of January and finishing at the
end of April, they continued work on the large colonnade on the court
yard of Rameses, the northeast angle of which could not be touched
because of a mosque which occupied it, and on the exterior of the tem-
ple in the southeastern part, the only place where it was possible to
work, the other environs of the monuments being encumbered with
_ houses. By a Khedivial decree of 1894 all property comprised in the
surrounding wall of the temple is to-day considered public property,
but the condemnations are not yet operative. The mosque which for
more than ten years had been the principal obstacle to excavation is
also destined to be transferred. A large structure of masonry was
erected to repair the columns and the different parts of the temple, as
well as to create a wall around the monument. Two vaulted drains
have been constructed to permit the waters of the Nile to enter and
freely discharge. This measure has been taken to carry off the salt
with which the soil and the constructions are impregnated, and which
by their crystallization and their dissolution every year disintegrate
the particles of the materials of which the edifice is composed. AH the
earth taken from the temple has been transported, at the expense of the
inhabitants of Luxor, to the ponds situated northeast of the village.
It is a very useful measure for the health of the locality.

Ombos.—The temple of Ombos rises on the summit of a small moun-
tain, situated on the right bank of the Nile, 40 kilometers below
Assouan. In earlier times this temple was entirely surrounded by
water. To day the right arm of the river is entirely filled up.

At Kum-Ombos, as at Phil, the outer works of the temple reached
as far as the banks of the Nile, but the current has washed them nearly
all away and would have inevitably destroyed the other monuments if
I had not taken the necessary measures to protect them in the future.

A wall of crude bricks, three sides of which are still well preserved,

608 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

circumscribed the grounds reserved for the worship and the priests.
In the midst was the large temple, its facade turning toward the west.
At the northwest was the mammisi; at the southwest the pylon.
Between the two are the remains of a sakieh which furnished the
necessary water for the temple. The large monument is composed, a
fact unique in Egypt, of two temples joined following their axes. The
sanctuaries are independent and the gates of the facade are double.
One of the sanctuaries, that of the south, was dedicated to Sebek or
Sobkou, while that of the north was dedicated to Haroéris.

The sovereigns who contributed to the embellishment of the temples
of Ombos are Ptolemy VII, who seems to have built the greater part,
the Ptolomies IX, X, XIII, and the emperors Augustus, Tiberius, Cali-
gula, Claudius, Nero, Vespasian, Domitian, Antonius, and Commodus
himself, whose cartouches are found in the exterior buildings.

There is no doubt that most of these sovereigns of the west com-
pletely ignored the existence of the little town of Ombos lost in upper
Egypt, but their names are engraved on the monuments and furnish
us the date of the constructions.

From the picturesque site on which it rises, from its singular archi-
tecture, and the delicacy of the sculptures covering its walls and
columns, the Temple of Ombos especially recommends itself to the
attention of visitors.

Nearly all the scholars who have visited Egypt declared that the
temple was destined to be destroyed, and this opinion seemed very just,
because the river ate away each year a new part of the kom; but I was
resolved to try all efforts to save this monument, unique of its kind in
the valley of the Nile, from destruction.

It was the Ist of January, 1593, that the excavations began; in three
months more than 25,000 cubic meters of earth were removed and cast
into the Nile. The stones bearing no inscription, which had fallen into
the midst of the building, were employed in the construction of a solid
buttress that now protects all the ruins against the current of the river.
One after another, each column, each architrave, each wall, has been
carefully strengthened, so that by the 1st of April the most important
work had been finished. The excavations were taken up again in
October of the same year. The area of clearing was extended, and
thus 25,000 cubic meters additional of sebakh and of sand were taken
out from the perimeter of the edifice. A wall of crude bricks was con-
structed all around the monument, to keep up the grounds of the kom
and to protect the entrance of the temple.

To-day the ruins of Ombos are saved forever; it will be sufficient to
maintain the protective works. The buttress on the Nile has already
resisted two overflows without the slightest settling.

Assouan.—l speak only from memory of the works partially executed
in the necropolis of Assouan, as well as of those effected in Medinet-
Habou, in Denderah, and in Abydos, by the searchers of sebakh operat-

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 609

ing under the direction of our inspector. Considerable blocks of earth
have been taken away without any cost to the Service of Antiquities.
The complete clearing of these monuments is only a question of time.

MUSEUMS.

On my arrival in Egypt there was but one museum, that of Gizeh,
situated about 2 kilometers from Cairo, on the left bank of the Nile,
“and occupying the vast halls of the palace built by the Khedive Ismael
Pacha.

The transport of the antiquities from Boulak to Gizeh had been
entirely effected, but all the monuments were far from being exhibited.
I at once employed all of my resources for the definite organization of
the galleries. In six months 46 new halls were installed, and the empty
stone room harbored only fragments unworthy to be placed under the
eyes of visitors.

Into the galleries of the ancient empire a goodly number of colossal
steles were brought from Saqqarah, where they had been hidden under
the sands since their discovery by Mariette.

To provide for these expenses I was obliged the first year to slacken
a little the work of exeavations, or rather to reduce them as much as
possible. To meet all these charges I had only the ordinary budget
for researches, reduced by 1,500 Egyptian pounds, on my arrival.

While this organization was being effected I had time to examine
attentively the building in which so many treasures were deposited,
and I quickly became convinced that it was quite impossible to protect
the palace against the dangers of fire. It was then, for the first time,
that I gave my official advice to the Egyptian Government on this
important question. The danger was real; everyone gave heed, and
quite recently (July, 1894) the Council of Ministers voted a sum of
150,000 Egyptian pounds for the construction and fitting up of a special
building in the city of Cairo.

The building and arrangement of this museum is placed under inter-
national control, so we have reason to hope that the year 1897 will
not pass without seeing the Egyptian antiquities protected from every
catastrophe. .

For a long time the city of Alexandria, the capital of the Ptolemies,
claimed the right to preserve within its walls the vestiges of its ancient
grandeur; but administrative difficulties of every kind opposed the
realization of this project. Taking up the matter anew, I have solved
the problem; to-day a Graeco-Roman museum collects the Alexandrian
antiquities under the direction of the General Service of the Antiquities
of Egypt.

The director of the new museum, M. G. Botti, a very capable arehe:-
ologist as well as a good Hellenist, devotes all his activity to the study
of the ancient city of the Ptolemies and Romans, The museum of Gizeh

sm 96——39

610 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

has already forwarded to him important series of papyri and antiquities
of epochs concerning it, and I do not doubt that in a few years the new
building which the city is going to construct will be too small to con-
tain the collections.

Before May 1, 1892, the museum of Gizeh included only 45 halls;
to-day it counts 91. That of Alexandria has 10. This gives for all
Egypt a total of 101 exhibition halls, 56 of which have been created
within two years without special appropriations.

In finishing this outline of the actual condition of the museums, I
have to express to my collaborators my gratitude for the devoted efforts
they have never ceased to accord to this work. Messrs. E. Brugsch-bey,
H. Bazil, G. Daressy, Ahmed-bey Kiamal, A. Barsanti, and G. Botti
have rivalled each other in ardor and zeal to promote this very com-
plex work.

PUBLICATIONS.

Since its establishment the Service of Antiquities has had no special
publications. The various directors, who, beginning with Mariette,
have succeeded each other in Boulak and in Gizeh, have given an
account of their labors in personal publications; but, thus far, the
Museum of Egyptian Antiquities possessed no annals.

It was necessary to publish accounts not only of the monuments which
remained standing throughout Egypt, but also of the treasures exhibifed
in the museums and the results of the excavations. This extensive
work could not be accomplished by a single man; the personnel of the
service was not sufficient for so great an undertaking. I have accord-
ingly invited all Egyptologists to lend their aid to the Service of
Antiquities, thus founding an international publication edited by my
administration. Our publications are divided into three series, as
follows:

1. Catalogue of the monuments and inscriptions of ancient Egypt.

2. Catalogue of the museums of Egyptian antiquities.

The first series will embrace the publication in extenso of all the
monuments still existing on Egyptian soil, and I can not better show
the purpose of this work than by presenting to you the first volume,
which appeared only a few months since. It gives a complete descrip-
tion of all the antiquities situated between the frontier of Nubia at
Assouan and the Temple of Ombos.

Two other volumes are in press; they contain a complete description
of the Temple of Ombos. We owe these three volumes to Messrs. U.
Bouriant, director of the French Archeological Institute in Cairo; G.
Jéquier and G. Legrain, members of that institute; A. Barsanti, con-
servator of the Service of Antiquities, and to my personal aid.

The second series will contain the catalogues of all the objects depos-
ited in the museums. Several volumes are in preparation, as follows:
The Greek papyri of the museum of Gizeh, by P. Jouguet, member of
the French School at Athens; those of the museum of Alexandria, by

EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES. 611

G. Botti, conservator of the museum; the steles of the middle empire,
by Willoughby Fraser; those of the Ptolemaic epoch, by Ahmed-bey
Kiamal, and the monuments of the Ramessides, by G. Daressy.

It should be noticed that foreign scholars unite in this work with the
members of the Service of Antiquities. Hach author is responsible for
his publications, the Service of Antiquities contenting itself with put-
ting all the memoirs in the same style of type, and with the execution
of the volumes.

The third series will embrace only the description of the principal
discoveries. I thought it necessary to preserve for science the details
of the researches and discoveries, which unfortunately thus far have
been too often neglected. This collection begins this year in a volume
on my excavations at Dahchour, for which Messrs. Legrain, Jéquier,
Loret, Fouquet, and Berthelot have been willing to give me their scien-
tific assistance.

The first idea of these publications came to me on my arrival in
Kgypt, but I have had recourse to my collaborators, Messrs. U. Bouri-
ant, G. Jéquier, and G. Legrain, to arrange the details for the execu-
tion of my projects. I can not sufficiently express my gratitude for
their efforts and their judicious observations, of which the first result
has been the printing of this volume from Assouan to Ombos, which I
have the honor to offer to the congress.

These are the results of the efforts of the Service of Antiquities dur-
ing these last two years. We wish, above all, to put at the disposition
of scholars all the documents that will aid them in their studies. Our
excavations, our clearings of monuments, our classification of the muse-
ums, and our publications have only this purpose.

WORK OF THE INSTITUTE.

Charged by the Egyptian Institute to represent it before you, I will
retrace in a Summary manner the work of this company since I have
had the honor to take part in it.

Our institute has not, it is true, the pretension to rival the great sci-
entific institutions of the world. It treats, only very rarely, questions
of general interest; but it is attached to the soil of Egypt, examining
it from every point of view, and in making the land of the Pharaohs
known, to its slightest details, it responds to the expectations and
hopes of its founders, Monge, Bonaparte, and that constellation of emi-
nent men who for nearly a hundred years have opened to civilization
and science these lands, formerly closed.

During the last two years technical specialists have furnished mem-
oirs to the bulletin of the institute and all have related to Kgypt. Dr.
Schweinfurth has given us attractive studies on the geology and stra-
tigraphy of the Egyptian soil; M. Piot, a curious thesis on the fossil
bones of a kind of antelope which formerly lived in the desert.

Prehistoric Egyptian, or better, the practice of stone cutting in the

612 EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITIES.

valley of the Nile has been the object of a minute investigation on the
part of M. Lajard. Thus far researches of this kind have been unfor-
tunately too much neglected. Chipped flint had been, it is true, col-
lected in nearly every part of Egypt, but without having given rise
to a complete work. We hope that M. Lajard, extending his investi-
gations, will definitely fix the laws of the use of stone in Egyptian
antiquity.

Egyptology has not been neglected in the institute. We owe to
M. G. Daressy several important memoirs, and to M. Ventre-bey the
raising of the question of the origin of the names of Memphis, of the
pyramids, of the Coptic people, of Egypt and the Egyptians, of papy-
rus, and of the Nile itself.

M. Dutilh, specializing in numismaties, has read several communica-
tions of high importance on the unedited medals of the cabinet of
Gizeh, deducing with singular sagacity and a deep knowledge of
numismatices general questions of discoveries he had made on coins.

In an ingenious paper Dr. Fouquet presented to the institute speci-
mens of the art of glass making, duly dated. One bore the cartouche
of Amenemhat IV (twelfth dynasty), the other that of Thoutmes III
(eighteenth dynasty). The special notions of Dr. Fouquet on the
enamels and glasses of ancient Egypt have absolute authority, and his
theories are of special interest.

The Christian epoch is represented by a treatise of Count Max de
Zogheb on the history of the Church of Alexandria, a work of merit,
honoring its author. ‘

After the study of antiquity, for which I shall not omit the names of
Messrs. Brugsch-bey, Groff, Ahmed-bey Kiamal, whose judicious and
competent observations enlighten the discussions of the institute, I shall
speak of the communications relative to the Mussulman epoch, a branch
of archeology in which the institute counts works of real value.

His Excellency Yakoub-Pacha Artin, continuing his researches on
Arab numismatics, has given to the institute a very remarkable memoir
on the series of the Mahdi and of the Khalife Abdoullah.

Mr. Max van Berchem, apropos of the Corpus of Arabic inseriptions
of Cairo, has presented to the institute a number of texts collected on
the monuments of that city. This collection has a high historic inter-
est, and placed in the hands of an Arabist, as distinguished as is
M. van Berchem, it can only portend very happy results for the prog-
ress of the knowledge of the middle ages.

M. Max Herz, the capable director of the Arab Museum, pursuing
his studies on the mosques of Cairo, has made the institute admire the
pleasing effects of polychrome in Arab architecture. |

This is the summary of the results of the labors of the Egyptian Insti-
tute during the two years just passed. All relate to Egypt, and though
they cover a narrow area my colleagues easily find a purpose for their
scientific activity.

REPORT UPON THE EXHIBIT OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION AND THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL
MUSEUM AT THE COTTON STATES AND INTERNA-
TIONAL EXPOSITION, ATLANTA, GA., 1895.

By G. BRown Goong, LL. D.,

Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, in charge United States National Museum.

The exhibit made by the Institution was not as satisfactory as it was
planned to be, owing to the small amount of money allotted for its prep-
aration, transportation, installation, maintenance, and return. Had it
not been possible to draw extensively from the exhibits of the Museum
that were procured for and shown at the World’s Columbian Exposition
at Chicago and from the specimens of the Museum the exhibit would
have been even less creditable. With such resources as were at my
command, I am pleased to say that an exhibit was made which,
although small, proved itself to be both attractive and instructive. In
preparing it, however, the halls of the Museum were dismantled, the
collections broken and disarranged, and the whole Museum building
presented an untidy appearance during most of last summer and winter.

The immediate charge of the exhibits was placed in the hands of
Mr. R. EK. Earll, who had in a very satisfactory manner performed
similar service at previous expositions.

The space assigned to the Institution for its exhibit was in the south-
western quarter of the Government building, and contained 5,300 feet
of floor space, exclusive of the central aisle. The approaches were by
two entrances, one to the right of the southern portal and one to the
left of the eastern portal of the building. (See Pl. LX1.)

Most of the objects, as above stated, were from the collections of the
National Museum, and they were so arranged as to enable them to be
studied in regular sequence, beginning at the southern portal. They
were grouped in alcoves 20 feet in width and from 12 to 20 in depth, on
either side of a broad passageway 150 feet in length, as shown in the
following diagram, and designated by the letters A, Q.

On the right of the main entrance were a large picture of the Smith-
sonian building, a portrait of Secretary Langley, and a complete set of
the publications of the Institution, about 200 volumes; also photographs
of apparatus and illustrations of the work in the Astrophysical Obsery-

613

614 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

atory and photographs of the National Zoological Park; a map, 20
feet by 10, showing the geographical distribution of the correspondents
of the Institution, 24,000 in number, as entered on the books of the
International Exchange Bureau; also one of the fifty sets of Govern-
ment documents which are sent annuaily abroad by the Bureau.

In making the arrangement referred to, an attempt was made—

(1) To give as good an idea as possible of the character of the treas-
ures which are preserved in the Museum, by presenting an epitome of
its contents, with contributions from every department.

(2) To illustrate the methods by which science controls, classifies, and
studies great accumulations of material objects, and uses these as a
means for the discovery of truth.

(3) To exhibit the manner in which collections are arranged, labeied,
and displayed in a great museum.

(4) To afford as much instruction and pleasure as possible to those
who visited the Atlanta Exposition, to impress them with the value of
museums as agencies for public enlightenment, and thus to encourage
the formation of public museums in the cities of the South.

DEPARTMENT OF MAMMALS.

In the entrance alcoves (A, B) was placed also the contribution of the
department of mammals. In a large wall case was a series of 43 speci-
mens to illustrate the range of forms in the class of mammalia, and in
a general way the manner in which they are classified by naturalists.

Each of the 11 orders—Primates, Chiroptera, Insectivora, Carnivora,
Rodentia, Ungulata, Cetacea, Sirenia, Edentata, Marsupialia, and
Monotremata—were represented. There were also five groups mounted
in the best style of modern taxidermy, and intended to show, by the
use of natural accessories, how the animals appeared in their native
haunts. Flanking the arch on one side was a group of Rocky Mountain
Sheep or Bighorns (Ovis canadensis), 6 in number, from Wyoming,
and on the other a group of Rocky Mountain Goats (Mazama montana),
3 individuals, collected in British Columbia and Montana, by Mr.
George Bird Grinnell. There was also a family group of the Coyote or
Prairie Wolf (Canis latrans), mounted by Mr. W. T. Hornaday, from
specimens obtained in Montana, and one of the finest examples of
mammal mounting in existence; also a family group of the Nine-
Banded Armadillo (Tatusia novemeincta), from Texas, and another of
the American Badger (Taxidea americana), from Kansas.

TYPES OF MANKIND.

Near the entrance stood a portrait statue of Osceola, the great Semi-
nole chief, who was born on the Chattahoochee River, in Georgia, in
1804, and who led his people in the Florida Indian war, which was
ended by his capture and his death in 1838. This figure was moc-
eled by Achille Colin and Theodore Mills from a portrait by George

Smithsonian Report, 1896. : PLATE LXI.

“IVLYOd
NUBLSV3

eo
Ll
Se
oc 8
n

DIAGRAM OF SPACE, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, U. S. GOVERNMENT BUILDING,
ATLANTA, 1895.

¥.

Meets tat!
Ex a

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 615

Catlin, and represents the war chief at the time of his greatest power.

Beyond the archway attention was first attracted by a series of cos-
tumed figures, which were arranged on the sides of the main hall at the
entrance to the alcoves. These were intended to illustrate the physical
characters and the ethnical costumes of twelve of the most character-
istics types of the human species. The costumes, most of which were
now exhibited for the first time, had been collected by the explorers
and correspondents of the institution, and the figures, in sculptor’s
plaster, have been modeled either from life or from abundant material
in the Museum, under the superintendence of Professor Mason and the
immediate direction of Dr. Walter Hongh. Each of the four divisions
of mankind was represented by three figures.

Although dispersed through the entire exhibit, their relation to each
other is so intimate that they are here grouped together. Their .
sequence is indicated by the large numbers above the cases.

BLACK TYPES.

(1) Papuan, of New Guinea, modeled by Theodore A. Mills, from
photographs in the National Museum.

Costume: A feather plume, earrings, and nose pin, anklets of shell-
disks with boar’s tusk pendant, armlets and wristlets of shell, and a
large waist belt of bark, carved on the exterior.

(2) Australian, from the Clarence River district, Australia, modeled
by Theodore A. Mills from photographs.

The figure carries a boomerang and wears an apron of kangaroo skin.

(3) Zulu, from Southeast Africa, modeled by Henry J. Ellicott, from
photographs by Emil Holub.

Costume: An apron of cow tails, assegai held in hand.

BROWN-RED TYPES.

(4) American Indian, of the Jivaro stock of Peru, modeled from a
life-sized painting, by a Peruvian artist, in National Museum.

Costume (collected by Lieut. W. E. Safford, U.S. N.): Apron of
feathers of tropical birds upon a foundation of bark cloth, anklets, ete.,
of seeds, beetle wings, and teeth of monkey and puma.

The Jivaros live on the head waters of the Maranon and are thought
to belong to an independent stock.

The other native stocks of North America are represented more
fully in groups elsewhere displayed.

(5) Dyak, from Borneo, modeled under the direction of W.T. Horna-
day, from photographs made by himself in Borneo.

Costume: A Malay sarong. The weapons are a spear of native
manufacture and shield with tufts of human hair and a curious
serpentine dagger of the form called the ‘“‘creese.”

(6) Maori, of New Zealand, modeled by Henry J. Ellicott, from New
Zealand photographs in the National Museum.

616 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

Costume : Robe of New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax); shoulder
cape of feathers; scepter of a chief held in both hands.

The Maoris, at present on the verge of extinction, are among the
most perfect types of physical beauty.

YELLOW TYPES.

(7) Eskimo, from Hudson Bay, modeled by Theodore A. Mills, from
photographs and from life masks in the National Museum.

Costume: Reindeer skin, with gloves of polar-bear skin, collected by
New Bedford whalers.

(8) Tibetan, from Eastern Tibet, modeled under the direction of W.
W. Rockhill, from photographs taken by him in Mongolia.

Costume: A woolen robe and boots of native manufacture.

(9) Siamese, modeled by Theodore A. Mills, from photographs obtained
by Gen. J. B. Halderman, United States minister to Siam.

Costume: Robes of native fabrics, presented by the King of Siam.

WHITE TYPES.

(10) Arab sheik, modeled by Monsieur Hébert (replica of his figure
in the Trocadero Museum, Paris).

Costume: Woolen robe or burnoose, turban of camel’s hair, with cord,
ete., gift of the Trocadero Museum.

(11) Armenian, from Erzerum, modeled by Theodore A. Mills, from
life.

Costume (collected by Talcott Williams, of Philadelphia): A turban,
embroidered coat and trousers, and robe of blue grosgrain silk shot
with gold.

(12) Berber, from North Morocco, modeled by Theodore A. Mills,
from photographs by Talcott Williams.

Costume (collected by Talcott Williams): An inner garment and outer
robe called the “haik;” gun of native manufacture.

DEPARTMENT OF BIRDS.

The birds were shown in six cases, five of which contained groups
mounted in the midst of accessories, which represented their natural
surroundings and are intended to illustrate their habits and character-
istics of different ages and sexes. (Alcoves C, D.)

Bower-Birds and their playhouses.—This illustrates the curious habits
of the Satin Bower-Dirds, of Australia which construct a “run,” or
bower of twigs, decorated with brightly colored feathers, shells,
bleached bones, and other conspicuous objects. They steal buttons
and other bright things from the natives, who, it is said, search these
bowers for objects which they miss from their homes.

Tyre Birds and their dancing mouwnd.—The Lyre Bird (Menura
superba) is peculiar to Australia, where it inhabits the densest forests.
It has a curious habit of building round hillocks, upon which the male
parades with outspread tail while uttering his curious cries.

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 617

American Flamingoes and their nests (from a photograph).—This
group shows the manner in which the Flamingo sits upon its eggs; the
Specimens are from the Bahama Islands, where the nests are made of
decomposed white coral.

Mexican Jacanas.—These specimens, from Lake Patzcuaro, in Micho-
acan, Mexico, illustrate the peculiar habit of walking upon floating
leaves of aquatic plants, for which these birds are well adapted by their
long, slender toes.

The Interrupted Dinner.—This group, mounted by Mr. IF. A. Lucas,
received a diploma of honor at the Boston exhibition of the Society of
American Taxidermists. A Red-Tailed Hawk, while eating a Grouse
or Pheasant, is attacked by a marauding Goshawk.

Collective exhibit of Birds of Paradise.—A representative collection,
including about thirty different species of this family of birds from
New Guinea, so remarkable for the beauty of its plumage.

DEPARTMENT OF REPTILES.

A group of the poisonous snakes of the United States (Alcove E), in
connection with which was shown the important illustrated memoir
upon “The Poisonous Snakes of North America,” by Dr. Leonhard
Stejneger, which had just been published by the museum. The speci-
mens had been brought together from widely separated localities. The
following species were represented :

(1) Diamond Rattlesnake ( Crotalus adamanteus), Southwestern States ;
(2, 3) Banded Rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus), Kastern States, south to
Florida and the Mexican Gulf, west to Kansas; (4) Prairie Rattlesnake
(Crotalus confluentus), Great Plains; (5) Western Diamond Rattlesnake
(Crotalus atrox), Southern United States, from Texas to the Gulf of
California; (7,8) Southern Ground Rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius),
Southeastern States; (9, 10) Copperhead (Agkistrodon contortriaz), Kast-
ern and Southern States; (11 to 13) Water Moccasin (Agkistrodon
piscivorus), Southeastern States; (14) Harlequin Snake (Hlaps fulvius),
Southeastern and Gulf States.

DEPARTMENT OF FISHES.

The Department of Fishes shows (Alcove E) a portion of a collection,
which, if exhibited as a whole, would have contained a representative
of every one of the 250 existing families of fishes. The abridged collec-
tion actually shown included 73 of the most characteristic American
families. The method of installation was a new one.

DEPARTMENT OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

This collection occupied the wall space in Aicoves C and D, and its
exhibits, arranged by Mr. F. A. Lucas, were intended to illustrate the
structure of a considerable number of the most interesting types of the
animal kingdom.

618 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

The collection was arranged in four groups, as follows:

Representative forms of invertebrate animals.—Here were exhibited
most of the orders of the invertebrate animals in such a manner as to
illustrate their external appearance, general structure, and mode of
growth. The smaller and more perishable forms, as well as certain
details of anatomy, were illustrated by enlarged models and drawings.

EHmbryology and development.—Here was shown the early stages of
various animals, showing the curious transformations undergone by
the Starfish, the Water Beetle, the Lancelet or Amphioxus, the Trout,
and the Irog; the development of the domestic fowl and the earlier
Stages of man. There was also a series of models showing the develop-
ment of the Gastrula, the most important and significant germ form of
the animal kingdom, through which all animals above the Protozoa
pass in the earliest period of development.

Modtfication of the skeleton for locomotion.—This series was intended
to show how the Fish, Turtle, Penguin, and the Seal, representing four
classes of animals, are so modified as to be all equally at home in the
water; how the bat can fly like a bird, a frog leap like a kangaroo, and
a snake swim, climb, and crawl, although it possesses no limbs at all.
The modifications of the skeleton for climbing are illustrated by a
Macaque, a Specter-lemur or Tarsier, and a Sloth; modifications for
leaping by the Jerboa, Kangaroo, and Frog; for crawling, by a Water
Snake; for digging, by the Mole and Gopher; for swimming, by the
Fur Seal, the Penguin, the Turtle, and the Golden Mackerel or Cre-
valle; for sailing, by a Flying Lemur or Colugo, a Phalanger, and the
strange little lizard, Draco volans, known as the Flying Dragon; for
flying, by a Stork and a Bat.

ore the cases are shown the skeletons of a Black Bear, a Topi
Manatee, and a Porpoise.

an enaeat models illustrating structure.—These models are on a
large scale, and are intended to show organs which are so minute in
size or so delicate in structure that they can not otherwise be exhibited.
One model illustrates the structure of the Precious Coral, and teaches
how the various single polyps are connected with each other and to
have a common circulation, so that what is eaten by one benefits all.
Others show, upon a large scale, the various organs of complicated
anatomy of a large fish, a medusa, a fluke-worm, a marine worm, a bee,
a frog, and a perch.

DEPARTMENT OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES.

This exhibit was in part a continuation of that of the Dep irtment of
Comparative Anatomy, and included, arranged nearly in systematic
order, a series of specimens representing the principal groups of
marine animals, beginning with the lowest or Protozoa, and embracing
at the other extreme the Ascidians and Cephalopods and the Amphi-
oxus or Lancelet, which is by many authorities regarded as the transi-
tion between invertebrate and vertebrate animals.

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 619

An attempt was made to show the general character of the lower
forms of animals which inhabit the ocean. The series began with the
Foraminifera, the smallest of the shell-bearing Protozoa, and ends with
the forms which are believed to be the nearest to the vertebrate animals.
Most of the types shown are familiar only to the professional naturalist,
and are not even provided with popular names; no attempt was made,
therefore, to describe this series in detail or to do more than mention
some of the most familiar types. Sponges were shown, both as they
grow and after preparation for use, and among them was the beautiful
lace-like ‘“‘Venus’ Flower Basket.” There were also sea anemones,
corals, and jelly-fishes, among the specimens illustrating the group
Coelenterata, etc., some of the most beautiful being from the Naples
Zoological Station and the explorations of the Fish Commission off the
New England coast. Among the Sea-Worms are the forms known
as Sea-Mice, Sea-Centipedes, and Tube-Worms. The group known
as Echinodermata was illustrated by specimens from each of its five
orders: (1) the Crinoids or ‘Sea-Lilies;” (2) the Starfishes; (3) the
Ophiurans or ‘“ Brittle-Stars;” (4) the Echinoids or ‘‘Sea-Eggs;” (5)
the Holothurians or ‘Sea-Cucumbers.” There were also specimens of
the Cephalopod Mollusks, including the Pearly Nautilus, the Octopus
or “ Devil-Fish,” and the Squids and Cuttlefishes.

The series ended with the representative of the so-called Protochor-
data, which includes the Ascidians or ‘Sea Squirts,” and the Lancelet,
which, as has been said, occupies debatable ground, and was also shown
in the exhibit of the Department of Fishes.

DEPARTMENT OF MOLLUSKS.

This was shown in Alcove F, and is properly a part of the synoptic
series of marine invertebrates. It was exhibited in a single table case,
and Mr. C. T. Simpson had made the most of the very small space
available in selecting specimens which showed the wonderful beauty
and variety of form in the class of Mollusks. The exhibit is described
by him as follows:

The families and subfamilies of recent shell-bearing mollusks are
arranged essentially according to Tryon’s Structural and Systematic
Conchology. Nearly all the shell-bearing families are represented.

In the collection Nos. 1 to 4 represent families of the class Cephalop-
oda, the most highly organized of the mollusks. It includes the Cham-
bered Nautilus, represented by numerous species in past geological
ages, but of which only four species are now living; the Argonauts, or
Paper Sailors, a genus in which the female only has a shell, or rather
an egg case, which is detachable from her body; the Octopuses, Cuttle-
fishes, Squids, and Ammonites, the last being extinct shells with
marvelously complicated chambers.

No.5 represents the Pteropoda, a class of mollusks having thin, fragile,
glassy shells, which float on the surface of the sea. They are sometimes
called ‘‘Sea Butterflies,” and serve as food for whales.

620 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

Nos. 8 to 136 represent the class Gasteropoda. Of these, Nos. 66, 67,
70 to 75, and 129 to 132, are families which inhabit fresh water; Nos.
119 to 128 are terrestrial, and the remainder for the most part live in
the sea. The shell of the Gasteropods is typically spiral, but varies
from a mere flat plate like that concealed under the mantle of Lima,
through conical, tubular, and coiled forms to the regular spiral. Nearly
all spiral shells are dextral (right-handed), but some few families or
genera are sinistral (left-handed), as for example the Achatinellide
(No. 118). The Gasteropods include a large number of useful orna-
mental species. Among those of economic importance are the Buce-
cinide, the Littorinide, and the Trochidw, many of which are used for
food.

‘No. 137 represents the class Scaphopoda. The shells of some of this
class are used by the Indians for making wampum.

Nos. 138 to 199a@ represent the class Pelecypoda or bivalves. Most
of these are marine, but Nos. 179 and 180 live in fresh water. Many
are beautiful and valuable, while others are injurious. The wood borers
(No. 141) destroy the piling and the planking of vessels and dry docks.
Some of the Mytilide and Ostreide are edible. The Aviculide produce
pearls and mother-of-pearl. =

The class Brachiopoda, which doubtfully belongs with the Mollusea,
was extremely abundant in past geological ages, but is now represented
by only a few species, most of which inhabit deep seas.

DEPARTMENT OF INSECTS.

This display occupied the wall space in Alcove F, and was of course
very far from completeness either as an exhibit of insects or as an illus-
tration of the wealth of material in the entomological collections of the
Museum. Here, thanks to the pains of Prof. C. V. Riley, the limited
space had been utilized to admirable advantage. The exhibit is
described by him as follows:

The chief exhibit, arranged in twenty-four frames, is designed to
illustrate the peculiarities of the various families of insects. It is
limited to Hexapods, or insects proper, and does not include the Spiders,
Mites, and Myriapods, and in fact some of the families of the true insects
are necessarily omitted. The object of this family exhibit is a two-
fold one: First, to give the student the salient characteristics by which
he may be able to refer any insect to the family to which it belongs, and
also to illustrate what are considered as family characteristics as com-
pared with the larger and lesser groupings or alliances. The second
object is to give a very good exhibit of the North American fauna,
since by selecting types illustrative of each family the beholder gets a
very fair impression of the character of the North American insect
fauna, the family illustrations all being drawn from North America.

The second portion of the exhibit is designed to relieve the monotony
of a series prepared solely for instruction by adding something pleas-
ing to the eye. Thus eight frames have been arranged as a sort of
attractive entrance to the alcove. These consist of beautiful Lepidop-
tera and Coleoptera which have been purposely chosen from the four

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 621

great sections of the globe not represented in the family collection.
Thus there are two boxes of European butterflies and moths, one of
Asiatic, one of African, three of South American, and one of South
American beetles. These ‘“‘show” cases, for such they practically are,
differ, however, from similar show collections in having each insect
properly named, so that many a specimen which has perhaps become
familiar to the museum or exposition visitor by virtue of its attract-
iveness and brillianey will here be properly introduced by name, and
thus give an added pleasure to those who wish to be able to call things
by name.

DEPARTMENT OF PALEONTOLOGY.

The exhibit occupied one double case in Alcove G, and was intended
to show, so far as could be done in a small space, the character of the
collections in the Museum and the manner in which they are arranged
and labeled. It included one hundred and sixteen species of North
American fossils, arranged according to their geological age, and is
described as follows by Mr. Charles Schuchert:

The fossils are arranged in the order of their appearance, or chrono-
logically, with a view to illustrate some peculiar characteristic of the
geological systems. The surface distribution of each system is shown
on the colored map of the United States on top of the case. The oldest
undoubted fossil-bearing horizon in North America is the Cambrian,
which is distinguished for the variety and abundance of its trilobites
or lowly organized crustaceans (shown on the extreme left of the case).
It is remarkable that so early in the history of life great diversity of
structure is attained, since this system has all the essential types of
invertebrate animals or organisms without internal hard skeletons,
such as Sponges, Corals, Molluses, and Crustaceans. In the next sec-
tion—the Ordovician system—the Mollusca or shell-bearing animals are
present in great diversity of form. These animals continue promi-
nently throughout all succeeding geological formations, and are particu-
larly abundant in the Tertiary strata. The Devonian is marked by
extensive coral reefs, of which but a few species can be here shown, on

-account of their large size; at this time peculiar strongly armored fishes
also abound. The Carboniferous system, more particularly the Lower
Carboniferous, is characterized by the development of Crinoids or
stone lilies, animals related to starfishes. A number of excellent
specimens from the celebrated locality at Crawfordsville, Ind., are
shown. This system is also peculiar for the first abundant and diverse
development of land plants whose remains have supplied the material
for the many coal seams. In the shale bands between the coal or in
the roofs of coal mines beautiful ferns abound, some of which are
shown.

In the Carboniferous air-breathing animals occur rarely, but in sub-
sequent strata land animals are more numerous. In the Jurassic, or the
system immediately below the Cretaceous, great reptile-like animals—
the Dinosaurs—abounded, some 70 feet and more in length, continuing
to the close of the Cretaceous. Among shelled animals the Ammonites
are particularly peculiar to these systems.

From the Tertiary formations of the Rocky Mountain region their
young have been exhumed, many and diverse mammals or animals that

622 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

suckle. These are the ancestors of many modern land animals now
inhabiting land areas other than North America. Among them were
very small horses with three toes on each foot, camels, tapirs, elephants,
etc. One of the characteristic sea animals of this time abounding in
the Gulf border region is the Zeuglodon Whale, a form related to both
whales and seals. A restoration of the skeleton of this long and slender
animal is shown suspended from the roof. The shelled animals of this
era at once remind us of living species.

This collection also aims to show methods of displaying fossils now
in use in the Department of Paleontology. The fossils are cleaned of
all adhering rock, and when possible a series of each species is selected
to show specific varieties, being then glued upon encaustic tiles. The
advantage of tiles lies in the fact that they will neither fade nor warp,
are more uniform in size, and nearly as cheap as paper, or thin wooden
tablets. In cases where the attached specimens must be removed, this
can readily be accomplished by soaking in water without injury to the
tiles.

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY.

In a single case in Alcove H was.a collection illustrating the occur-
rence and association of gold and silver in nature, which is thus described
by Prof. George P. Merrill:

The exhibit begins with a series of specimens showing both the native
metals and their compounds in the condition of greatest natural purity.
This is followed by a series of the same compounds with their charac-
teristic associations, but in which the metal-bearing portions are still
plainly evident, and this in turn by a third series showing selected
types of the ores aS mined, but in which, as a rule, the metal or its
compounds are scarcely discernible.

Attention is called to the fact that while gold, aside from its native
form, enters as an essential constituent into less than half a dozen
known minerals, silver occurs in upward of six times as many. Thus
gold, aside from its natural alloys with silver (electrum), bismuth, and
palladium, is found in chemical combination with other elements only
in the minerals petzite, sylvanite, krennerite, and nagyagite. Silver,
on the other hand, is found native, as an alloy with gold (electrum), or
mercury (amalgam), and also as an essential element in compounds
forming nearly forty mineral species more or less well defined.

Several of these compounds are very rare, and not at present included
in the series exhibited.

It is further to be noted, that while both gold and silver occur either
as native or in compounds of such size as to be easily seen by the naked
eye, the great majority of ores of either metal are composed in large
part of other substances with which the metal is so finely and inti-
mately admixed as to be invisible and determinable only by chemical
means or where it occurs as areplacing constituent with other elements.
Thus the most common form of gold ore is an auriferous pyrite, while
the most common silver ore is an argentiferous galena.

In the series as exhibited attention needs to be called, first to the
native gold, that is, the gold found in the metallic state in nature as
displayed in the form of nuggets, leaf gold, wire gold, and gold dust

EXHIBIT AT THE GOTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 623

from various localities; second, to the compounds of gold with silver,
tellurium, antimony, and sulphur as shown in the minerals petzite, syl-
vanite, krennerite, and nagyagite; third, to the occurrence of the
native metal with its associates, either as dust or nuggets in sand and
gravel, or impregnating quartz, slate, calcite, and other minerals form-
ing the characteristic gangue, and lastly to the series of gold ores, rep-
resenting the metal-bearing rocks as usually mined, and which, while,
as above noted, showing no trace on casual inspection of the precious
metal, nevertheless contain it in sufficient amount to render its extrac-
tion by chemical or mechanical means a profitable industry.

The silver-bearing series is arranged in a similar manner, It is to
be noted that while gold is common in deposits of sand and gravel, as
“placer gold,” silver very rarely occurs in this form, and is represented
here only by the silver-bearing sandstone from Washington County,
Utah. Native silver in the form of ‘‘wire” or “moss” silver is, how-
ever, comparatively common, as shown in the specimens from Mexico
-and Saxony. Some of the silver-bearing compounds are of great
beauty, as illustrated in the ruby silvers, proustite and pyrargyrite.

The total annual production of gold and silver for the world for 1894
is given as 8,616,892 ounces of gold, and 166,437,408 ounces of silver.

DEPARTMENT OF MINERALS.

This department (Alcove G), was represented by a collection of high
educational importance, arranged by Mr. Wirt Tassin, under the direc-
tion of Prof. F. W. Clarke, the curator, and is described as follows:

Entering the alcove the wall cases contain a series of minerals
selected and labeled to illustrate the several properties or characters
of one mineral species as compared with other mineral species, in other
words, ‘comparative mineralogy.”

The first case on the left contains a series of 143 minerals illustrating
chemical mineralogy; that is, the composition, variation in composi-
tion, and the relation of composition to form of minerals.

The chemical composition of minerals is illustrated by several typical
elements together with a majority of their combinations. It will be
observed that gold has comparatively few combinations, and that its
occurrence is practically restricted to the element; while iron, the most
usetul of the heavy metals, rarely occurs as the element, yet affords a
great number and variety of compounds.

Proceeding from left to right, the next case contains a series of models
and specimens illustrating the principal forms of minerals depending
upon molecular structure of form.

Beginning with the system of crystallization each system is repre-
sented by a typical crystal group followed by models and specimens
showing the principal forms belonging to that system.

For example, fluorite, a typical isometric mineral, is shown, then a
glass model of the fundamental isometric form, the octahedron, and
spinel; a typical octahedral mineral. Following the system of crys-
tallization are crystal aggregates, including twin crystals, parallel
growths, and imperfections of crystals.

The next wall cases contain series illustrating isomorphism, pseudo-
morphism, and the various characters depending upon the action of
the several physical forces, such as light, cohesion, mass, heat, ete.

The floor case on the left contains several minerals, arranged to show
the great diversity and beauty of their coloring.

624 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

The floor case on the right contains meteorites showing the general
character and composition of those bodies. Attention is called to the
large meteorite on the pedestal, weighing 746 pounds from Canyon Diablo,
Arizona, and to the several other meteoric irons in the case, from the
same locality. These irons are of interest because of the great size and
extent of the “fall,” over 10 tons of them having been found in the region,
and also from the fact that they contain microscopic diamonds.

SYNOPSIS OF ARRANGEMENT.—COMPARATIVE SERIES.

I. Chemical mineralogy.—Chemical composition; variation in com-
position; relation of composition to form.

Il. Physical mineralogy.—Crystallography; compound crystals; iso-
morphism, Pleomorphism. :

Pseudomorphs.—Characters depending upon light: luster, color, dia-
phaneity; characters depending upon cohesion: cleavage, fracture,
tenacity, hardness; characters depending upon mass: heat, magnetism,
and electricity; specific gravity: fusibility, magnetism, and electricity.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY.

This exhibit occupied three sides of Alcove H, and consisted of a
collection of the woods and shrubs of Japan mounted in a very original
and beautiful manner by Japanese artists. ‘To each species was devoted
a polished panel, made of its own wood, upon which were painted the
leaves, flowers and fruit, while the panel was framed with its own bark.

The collections belonging to this department are, for the most part,
not available for exhibition purposes, being chiefly dried specimens for
research work. The national herbarium contains a quarter of a million
mounted plants.

DEPARTMENT OF MATERIA MEDICA.

The exhibit of this department, Alcove H, consisted of a case illustrat-
ing the composition of a number of the principal mineral waters used
as beverages and for medicine. By the side of a bottle of the water,
as found in commerce, are placed a number of smaller bottles, which
contain the amount of each chemical substance found in the amount of
water shown in the first bottle. Here, also, is a case which illustrates
the composition of the human body by displaying in bottles the exact
quantity of each substance to be found in the body of a man of average
size (154 pounds), while in a parallel series are shown the quantities of
each element in the same man’s body.

s

DEPARTMENT OF PREHISTORIC ANTHROPOLOGY.

This exhibit occupied Alcove I, and consisted of a small, carefully
selected collection of implements and objects used by man in prehistoric
times, the specimens being mostly American,

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 625

The explanation of the exhibit is contributed by Dr. Thomas Wilson:

In this exhibit 792 specimens are displayed, as follows: Stone, 410;
copper, 110; shell, 26; bronze, 78; gold, 26; bone, 18; pottery, 124.

Anthropology is the science of man considered in all of his parts and
nature. Prehistoric anthropology is that part of this great science
which relates to man in prehistoric times. ‘‘ Prehistoric” means before
written history was begun in the locality or country under considera-
tion. History began several thousand years earlier in Egypt and the
classic Orient than in Gaul and Britain, and these fifteen hundred years
earlier than America. Knowledge of the existence of prehistoric races
began with the discovery, about the year 1806, of the ages of Stone,
Bronze, and Iron in the Scandinavian countries. It was not recognized
in its full scope until the discovery in France, about 1859, of what is
called the “‘ Chipped Stone” or “ Paleolithic” Age. Since, the antiquity
of man has been a subject of lively discussion in most countries, and
many attempts have been made to construct the history of his early
times. The announcement by Darwin of his theory of ‘‘ Evolution” as
the origin of the human species added interest to the investigation.
The study of the life, customs, culture, and, indeed, the making of the
history of prehistoric man can only be done through the investigation
of objects made and used by him. This investigation considers their
condition, the mode of their manufacture, their associations, and the
places wherein they have been buried, with the incomplete information
we get from the skeletons. In its relation to the North American Indian
we are dependent upon theobjects we find in his workshops, his destroyed
homes, or in his graves and monuments. We study his mounds and
earthworks, cemeteries, village sites, quarries, and workshops. We find
his axes, hatchets, adzes, and gouges, and from these we speculate how
he felled trees, cut wood, and made boats, sledges, and the hundred
objects of wood employed by savages. His stone quarries and work-
shops show the raw material, and how he manufactured his implements
by the processes of chipping, grinding, polishing, and drilling. The
same for horn, shell, and bone, of which we possess many thousand
objects made into beads, pins, gorgets, and other ornaments. The cop-
per and gold objects are to be studied on the same lines. Pottery was
much used by prehistoric man, and its manufacture was carried on
wherever he dwelt. The pottery exhibit is displayed on the shelves
above the flat-topped cases. To the right are specimens of European
prehistoric pottery of the Neolithic and Bronze ages. This is followed
by ware from the aborigines of the United States. The long shelves
in front contain specimens from Mexico, Central and South America.
On a pedestal is a reproduction of an ‘Ogham stone,” illustrating a
rude written language which was prevalent in Ireland at a very early
day.

THE ORIGIN AND SIGNIFICANCE OF GAMES.

In the next alcove (K), which occupied the circular tower in the south-
east corner of the building, is displayed a special collection illustrating
“The origin and significance of games in all parts of the world,”
especial prominence being” given to chess and cards. The display was
made in cooperation with the University of Pennsylvania, and has been
arranged by Mr. Stewart Culin, director of the University Museum.

The objects, arranged in a progressive series, fill 34 upright cases,
like pictures in frames, and one large table case. They form an almost

SM 96 40

626 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

complete history of cards and chess, beginning with the primitive forms
originally used for divination, down to the games of the present day.

Especial interest attaches to the fact that the clue to the origin of
both chess and cards was found by Mr. Culin, with the aid given by
Mr. Cushing, among the aboriginal people of America. The pack of
cards is shown to have originally consisted of a bundle of arrows,
marked with the signs of the world quarters. The shaftments, or
feathered part of these arrows, bearing cosmical marks, were first used
in fortune-telling, and from their use our card games arose.

In America the Indian did not get beyond the use of carved and
painted staves. The American case shows arrows of the McCloud
River Indians, of California, marked with colored ribbons, by which
they were distinguished. Side by side with them are the gambling
sticks of the Haides, of Vancouver Island, similarly marked with rings
of color and used like cards in their gambling even at the present day.
In the adjoining case, devoted to Kastern Asia, the practice arrows of
Korea are shown, and with them the derived playing cards here made
of oiled paper, yet bearing both on their backs and faces devices copied
from the cut feathers of the arrows. With them are Chinese cards with
the same emblems surviving as markers or indexes at the ends. These
cards are ‘“‘double-headers,” as indeed were the gambling sticks, carry-
ing back the idea of our common playing cards with double heads and
index marks to the most remote antiquity. The Japanese cards, in the
same case, bear emblems derived in part from the same source, while
the circular cards, called Gunify, of which a beautiful pack is shown,
are painted in colors to correspond with the world quarters. <A single
pack of the national cards of each of the principal countries in the
world follow, comprising, in Europe, Germany, France, Spain, Italy,
Switzerland, Austria, Sweden, England, and Russia. The card series
closes with the pack with pictures of the Chicago Exposition and the
cards with pictures of the Confederate flag, made in England for sale
in the South during the war.

The chess series begins, like that of cards, with the divinatory games
of primitive people, in which our game originated. America is here
again conspicuous, and, with the objects representing the first steps in
the evolution of the game, are shown other common things, such as
visiting cards and the folding fan, which Mr. Culin traces, with chess,
to the marked arrow of primitive culture. The historical chesseseries
comprises boards and men from India, Burmah, the Malay Peninsula,
the Maldive Islands, Korea, China, and Japan.

The specimens are all arr anged as in actual play.

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND INDUSTRIES.

In Alcove K was shown also a small case containing a collection of
ancient glass from excavations in the vicinity of Tyre and Sidon,
remarkable not only for its beauty of form but on account of the
entirely iridescent coloring which it has acquired through having been
buried in the soil for twenty centuries or more.

Adjoining this was a case of carved ivories from Japan. The native
sculptors have shown, with great minuteness and accuracy, the cos-
tume, tools, and methods of work of a large number of the native
mechanics before the introduction of any European implements—the
carpenter, the mason, the armor maker, the lantern maker, the umbrella
maker, the cooper, ete.

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 627

Here also was shown a collection to illustrate the development of the
ceramic art in Japan. This had been arranged by Mr. Heromich
Shugio, and, although it did not contain any considerable number of
very costly pieces, it was historically quite complete, and was described
by Mr. Shugio as follows:

Japanese history mentions that some pottery was made in a village
of Idsumi to a considerable extent from the very early days, and that
another factory was in existence in the province of Ouri during the
period of 581-660, B. ©. Twenty-nine years before the Christian era
Tenno Suijin ordered that human figures made of burnt clay be buried
with his wife, Empress Hihasubrine, in place of her attendants, as had
been customary until that time whenever any member of the imperial
family died. This humane decree abolished an abominable custom,
and the pottery in its infancy played one of the most important and
noblest acts in history.

The early productions were of more unglazed burnt clay, not like
those of the early American pottery.

The introduction of the potter’s wheel by Giyoki, a priest of Idsumi,
in 724 A. D., must be taken as the real beginning of our ceramic art.

The first elazed stoneware is said to have been made by Kato Shi-
roye, now at Seto, in the province of Owari, in 1223 A. D., after his
return from China, where he spent several years in studying ceramic
art.. From his time, Seto became the center of ceramic art, and all the
ceramic productions came to be called ‘Seto mono” in Japan, as all
the porcelains are called ‘‘ China” in Great Britain and America.

The first porcelain was made by Gordayu Shonsui, a native of the
province of Ise, who studied ceramic art in China in about 1513. His
productions were mostly made with Chinese materials, which were
brought back by him from *hat country, and they were decorated in
blue under the glaze.

The greatest progress in Japanese ceramic art has been made since
the triumphant return of the Korean expedition in 1859, when many
skillful Korean potters were brought over and the famous ceramic_fac-
tories of Hizen, Higo, Chikuzen, Satsuma, Tosa, Nagato, Yamashiro,
Owari, etc., were either established or improved by those potters.

The first potter who succeeded in decorating porcelain with enamel
paintings over the glaze was the celebrated potter Kakiyemon, of the
Sakaida family of Nangawara, a village near Arita, who mastered tnis
secret of enamel painting from Tokuzayemon, of Imri, who learned his
method from a captain of a Chinese ship at Nagasaki in 1640.

Kakiyemon was assisted in his essays in enamel painting by Gosu
Gombei, another well-known potter. In 1646 Kakiyemon is said to
have sold his decorated porcelains to a Chinese trader in Nagasaki,
and thus he has the honor of being the first Japanese potter who dec-
orated porcelains with enamels and who sold Japanese porcelains to a
foreigner. Since then his productions were bought by Chinese and
Dutch traders at Nagasaki to export. He was honored by Prince
Naheshinia Samio, of Hizen, by being appointed a special maker to
his highness. Specimens numbers 150 and 151 are his works. Although
they are not his best works, they will be found, on close examination,
to be the works of a master hand.

Nisei, the great Kioto potter, through the generosity and liberality
of Wankiu, a wealthy Osaka merchant, succeeded during 1655-1657 in.
decorating pottery with enamel painting after the newly introduced
method by peace, now so much admired as the Ninsei ware.

628 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

Number 53 in this collection is a specimen of this great potter, and
numbers 54, 55, 56, and 57 are copies after his works. Numbers 56
and 57 were copied by Okumura Shozan, of Kioto, who is, perhaps,
the best copist of Ninsei since his time, and some of his copies are
often mistaken for the originals, even by Japanese connoisseurs.

Another important epoch in our ceramic art was the discovery of
the use of saggers in baking porcelains by Tsuji Kizayemon, a noted
potter of Arita, during the Kwhmbum period (1661-1672). The por-
celains baked in saggers are called “ gokuskin yaki.” Number 152 is
a Specimen of this gokuskin yaki made by one of his descendants, who
were honored by being appointed makers to the imperial court of Kioto.
The porcelain was and is made at Arita, Okawachi (where Naheshima
ware was made), Mikawachi (where Jirado ware was made), Shiraishi,
Kameyama, ete., in the province of Hixen; at Seto, in Owari; at
Tajimi, in Mino; at Kutani, in Haga; at Kiyomidsu, in Yamashiro; at
Sanda, in Settsu; at Himeji, in Harima; at Hikone or Koto, in Omi;
at Ota and Tokio, in Musashi; at Okayama, in Kii; Wakamatusu, in
Iwashiro, ete., of which nearly all the factories are represented in the
collection. Of the important factories where the pottery (faience and
stoneware) was and is made this collection represents Satsuma, Kar-
atsu, in Hizen; Takatori, in Chikuzen; Yatsushsro, in Hogo; Shiga, on
the island Tsushima; Hagi or Matsumoto, in Nagato; Suwo; Shido,
in Samuki; Kosohe, in Settsa; Akahada, in Yamato; Kioto, in Yama-
shiro; Shigaraki, in Omi; Seti, in Owari; Tachikui and Sasayama, in
Tamba; Fujiria, in Idsumo; Iga, Sado, Kutani, in Kaga; Soma, in
Iwaki; Imbe, in Bizen; Mianto, in Idsumi; Banko, in Ise, etc.

The collection is displayed in three cases in Alcove K, by provinces,
in accordance with the following plan:

Mizen 222. --2222----2-5 Karatsu. TdZzumo) ses oe eee See Idzumo.
Arita. Fd sum 42225 ee eS Meee Idsumi.
Hirada. Yamato Ss255 0) -seshee see Akahada.
Nangawara. Surviosse ss Sosa setee aS ae Survo.
Nabeshima. Nagato ls Sani. ce ee Hagi.
Kakiyemon. Chikuzenw sso oe ss eee Takatovi.
Tsryi Gokushin. | Higo.........---.-.---.---- Yatsushiro.
Kameyama. Satsumaee a 4.eee tease Satsuma.
Bogasaki. Setisus. 2.36) hos eee Sanda.
Shiraishi. Kirko.
Taishiu (island of Tsu- Kosube.
Shima) e322 2252—5-5- Tsushima. Iwakio sass. ose ase ee ISOM,
Owarl! 3233-22 soe seed Seto. Ka gare cee oss Sse eee Kutani.
Horaku. WS62% SSRI E Ree ah eee: Banko.
Bizene eae ee ean Bizen. Sadow eae ee eee Sado.
Omisess Sess ere eos: Shigaralki. Samulsicpeten 22552 Sees eer Shido.
Koto. Yamashiro: 22/22 52-2 eos os Raku.
Kasse eee ee ae Zuishi. Kioto.
UE cmcecoos ede cassooes | NOR. Musashiice. 5-52 ese oe Tokio.
Tamba-22-------+---2-- Lamba, Ota.

Across the aisle (Alcove L) was a small series of musical instruments
intended to illustrate the character and method of arrangement of the
very extensive collection in the National Museum. A series of five
times the extent had been selected to be sent to Atlanta, but the limi-
tations of space were such as to make it necessary to reduce this, as
well as every other exhibit.

The collection is intended to illustrate a few of the stages in the pro-
gressive evolution of stringed instruments. The series begins with a
rude musical bow of Mashonaland, which is only used to mark time

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 629

and is audible only to the performer,who holds one end between his teeth.
At the other end of the series are the guitar and violin; the former
represented not only by the well-known European instruments, but by
related forms from India and Africa. Intermediate stages are shown
by a number of interesting types, named and described upon the labels.
The series selected for Atlanta contains about two hundred instruments.
The small portion of it shown gives but a meager idea of the great
collection in the National Museum, which includes some three thousand
forms.

DEPARTMENT OF ORIENTAL ANTIQUITIES AND RELIGIOUS
CEREMONIAL.

Aleove M was devoted to a collection of objects illustrative of the
Bible, arranged under the direction of Dr. Cyrus Adler, custodian of
the collection of religious ceremonials in the Museum. An attempt has
been made to show representative specimens of most of the classes of
objects which are of value to the students of the Bible, and the collec-
tion, though necessarily limited through lack of space, may fairly be
said to have constituted a miniature Biblical museum.

The archeology of the Bible is represented by a collection of casts
illustrating the ancient Hittites, frequently mentioned in the Bible from
the time of Abraham down; by an Egyptian mummy secured by the
late Hon. S. 8. Cox, United States Minister to Turkey; busts of Rame-
ses II, supposed to have been the Pharaoh of the exodus, and of his
father, Seti. Assyria and Babylonia are represented by a model of a
temple tower of Babylon, especially constructed for this Exposition.
This temple tower was situated in the outskirts of the city of Babylon.
The model is made after the description of Herodotus and the report
on the ruins discovered by Sir Henry Rawlinson. There is also a cast
of a huge Assyrian winged lion, 11 feet long and 11 feet high, such as
were placed to guard the doorway of Assyrian temples; cast of the
Chaldean account of the flood, ete. Palestinean archeology is repre-
sented by casts of Moabite stone, Siloam inscription, and Temple stone.

‘The ancient religion of the Jews is represented by a case containing
a selection of the more important objects of Jewish ceremonial. Still
another case shows a collection of the gems of Palestine, with a model
illustrating the method in which the gems were placed in the high
priest’s breastplate. There is also a collection of coins struck in Pales-
tine, as well as those which appeared in Bible times in cities mentioned
in the Bible. In another case is a collection of musical instruments of
Palestine and adjacent countries, which differ in no wise from those used
‘in ancient times. To these are added a few representatious of musical
instruments from Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. A. collection of
domestic implements, such as are mentioned in the Bible, and a Hells
map of Palestine are also shown.

In this connection is also exhibited a collection to illustrate the
history of the Bible as a book and to show the important translations

630 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

which have been made of it. The Hebrew Bible is represented by por-
tions of an Egyptian manuscript of the fourteenth century, facsimile.
of the Aleppo Codex, by the first American edition of the Hebrew
Bible printed at Philadelphia in 1810; by other well-known prints in
Amsterdam, Antwerp, and ZWamburg. The Septuagint or Greek version
is represented by facsimiles of the famous Alexandrian and Vatican
codices. Following these are copies of the Targum or Aramean version,
the Syriac version, the Coptic version (represented by a manuscript),
the Ethiopic version, Gothic version, Anglo-Saxon version, the edition
of the Latin version or vulgate of St. Jerome, a Spanish-Jewish version,
the Arabic version (represented by a manuscript), and the translation
of Saadia.

The New Testament is represented in the Vatican and Alexandrian
codices, already mentioned, as well as in the Sinaitic and by the first
American edition printed at Worcester im 1800.

Finally, there is a most interesting and valuable work, consisting of
a New Testament arranged in historical order by clippings from the
Latin, Greek, French, and English Testaments, all arranged by Thomas
Jefferson. This book contains a concordance of the verses used and a
number of notes scattered throughout, all in Jefferson’s handwriting,
and is said to have been arranged by him for translation into the
Indian languages, so that the Gospels might be presented to the
Indians in a simple form.

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNOLOGY.

Alcove N was occupied by objects designed to show the more impor-
tant stages of improvement through which the appliances now in use
for the conveyance of men and goods from place to place have passed
before the present high standards of mechanical efficiency were attained.
These were selected with the special purpose of illustrating the impor-
tant influence exercised by the South Atlantic States upon the early
history of internal improvement in America and the inauguration of
trans-Atlantic commerce by steam. The theory upon which they are
arranged is thus described by Mr.:'J. K. Watkins:

The origin of many of the contrivances now utilized .by man to facil-
itate individual movement or to transport objects too heavy to be car-
ried by man belongs to a period so remote in prehistoric time that no
attempt to arrange aboriginal water or land vehicles in a definite
chronological sequence has been made.

Boats and ships.—Primitive boats, such as the catamaran and dugout
canoe, are placed at the beginning of the series, which contains among
the craft propelled by poles or oars the Ohio River flatboat and keel boat,
by the instrumentality of which the settlement of the Southern and
Western States was promoted during Colonial and Revolutionary times.
Among the sail ships are to be found the Sally Constant, from which the
first English settlers in the United States landed at Jamestown, Va., in
1609, and the Mayflower, which brought the Puritans to Plymouth

tock eleven years later.

The American steamboat.—The fine rivers of America stimulated the

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 631

exertions of several ingenious men living on the Atlantic seaboard to
adapt the steam engine to navigation. Prominent among these pioneers,
whose labors make good America’s claim to the birthplace of the steam-
boat, was James Rumsey, some of whose experiments upon the Potomac
River were witnessed by General Washington as early as 1787. A model
of Rumsey’s steamboat of 1788 and of that made by Fitch about
the same time are shown, together with the model of the first screw-
propelled steamboat to navigate the waters of any country, built by
John Stevens in 1804. Fulton’s Clermont of 1807 and Stevens’ Phanix
of 1808 are also in the series which contains a model of the steamship
Savannah, built in 1818 by Georgia capitalists, which has the distine-
tion of being the first steamship to cross the ocean, sailing from Savan-
nah, Ga., for Liverpool on her initial voyage Saturday, May 22, 1819.
The original log book containing the account of this historical voyage
is deposited in the National Museum.

The collection further embraces the following series:

1. Boats pushed by poles or propelled by paddles or oars.

2. Sailboats (driven entirely by the wind).

3. Steam boats.

The American railway.—As the South Atlantic States were foremost
in the introduction of trans-Atlantic steam navigation, so were they
early in the field of railroad construction. The first railway line
100 miles long built and operated in the world was the railroad, 159
miles long, built by the South Carolina Railroad Company from
Augusta, Ga., to Charleston, 8. C.; and the first steam locomotive built
upon the Western Continent for actual service was the Best Friend,
which was built for that road in 1830, and went into service in the
following year.

Various forms of locomotives experimented with in England and
America previous to the construction of the Best Friend are illustrated.

The first steam railway train in the South Atlantic States.—The South
Carolina Railway was built upon plans which would now entitle
it to be called an elevated railway. A model showing the method of
track construction, upon which is placed the first steam train that ran
in the South Atlantic States, December 14, 1830. Near it are placed
models of sleeping-car appliances built for railways terminating at
Richmond and Petersburg, Va., the earliest forms of sleeping berths
used in American cars.

Land vehicles.—F¥or the purpose of this Exposition the land vehicles
are arranged under the following classifications:

I, Land vehicles drawn by men or domestic animals.

1. The rolling load.
2. Sledges and rollers.
3. Vehicles with solid (or nearly solid) wheels.
4, Vehicles with wheels containing spokes.

II. Land vehicles propelled by natural or generated forces.
1. Experimental sail cars and horse-power locomotives.
2. Experimental steam locomotives.
3. Experimental electrical locomotives.

Early electrical apparatus.—In no other department of science have
American investigators, from the very beginning, been so successful,
not only in the discovery of fundamental truths, but also in the prompt
application of the principles deduced therefrom to useful purposes, as
in the domain of electricity.

The success of Franklin’s experiments in the year 1784 in the con-
struction of what he calls the “ electrical wheel” is illustrated, for the
first time, in these collections in the models of the two devices involving

632 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

the most important principles utilized in the modern motor, as described
by Franklin in his letter to Peter Collinston, London, dated that year,
and published on page 252 of his autobiography. Strangely enough no
prominence has been given to these ancient electrical machines in
subsequent scientific writings relating to the history cf electricity.

Inthe models and photographs of the apparatus designed in 1829 by
Joseph Henry, the first secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, are
found the instruments by which the electro-magnet was for the first
time utilized to convey a signal to a distance. In it is embodied the
principle upon which the modern electrical telegraph is based. The
first instrument to make a permanent record of words transmitted over
a wire by the agency of electro-magnet was designed and constructed
by Samuel F’. B. Morse in 1837. A model—an exact reproduction of the
original machine, too precious to risk removal—which is now in the
custody of the Western Union Telegraph Company, has been obtained
through the courtesy of the president of that company.

Actively associated with Morse from the date of his earlier experi-
ments was Alfred Vail, a man of great ingenuity and rare mechanical -
ability.

The original telegraphic instrument by which the historic message,
‘What hath God wrought?” was received at Baltimore May 24, 1844,
and constructed under the direction of Vail. It is one of the valuable
treasures deposited in the United States National Museum, the removal
of which being prohibited on the ground of safety, is illustrated by a
model of full size.

Linitations of space, unfortunately, prevent a more extended exhibit
of apparatus connected with the origin of the telephone, the dynamo,
and the application of the electrical current for producing light and the
transmission of power.

Following is a brief outline of the apparatus exhibited:

Itt. Early electrical apparatus (models only exhibited).

1. Apparatus designed by Benjamin Franklin.
2. Apparatus designed by Joseph Henry.
3. Telegraphic apparatus invented by Morse and Vail.

In the same alcove were shown the contributions of the Department
of History and Numismatics. These consisted of a series of coins and
medals, as follows:

(a) Principal coins occurring in the North American Colonies from
1525 to the establishment of the United States Mint, in 1793.

(b) Medals commemorative of the Revolutionary war.

Among the most interesting coins are the “‘oak tree” shillings, 1652, ~
and the ‘‘Mark Newby” penny, the “rosa Americana” penny, the Con-
tinental dollar, of the coins issued by the Colonies before the Revolution.
Here also are shown three colored sketches of birds by John J. Audobon,
the most famous painter of birds who ever lived, who was born near
New Orleans in 1781.

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.

The exhibit of the Bureau of American Ethnology occupied Alcove O,
was prepared under the direction of Prof. W. J. McGee, who describes
it as follows: t

This exhibit illustrates three representative Indian tribes of North

America, viz, Cherokee, Papago, and Seri. The Cherokee Indians rep-
resent a large and important Iroquoian family or stock; the Papago

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 633

tribe forms the leading branch of the Piman stock; while the Seri
Indians are the sole representatives of their family. It has been
thought better to make moderately full exhibits of a limited number of
tribes than to illustrate a large number of tribes incompletely. The
Cherokee tribe was selected for representation because of its local
interest; the others because they were little known and the collections
are quite knew.

The Cherokee Indians were the aboriginal owners of the pine-clad
hills and fertile valleys of what is now northern Georgia, the western
Carolinas, eastern Tennessee, and a part of Virginia. They were the
first occupants of the site of Atlanta. They lingered long in their old
hunting grounds, and while most of the tribes have disappeared from
the woodlands and mountains, a few remain in the Kastern Cherokee
reservation in Swain County, N. C., within 150 miles of Atlanta. ‘The
collections illustrating the Cherokee Indians comprises pottery and
basketry, largely of primitive types—the aboriginal bow and arrow,
with the singular blowgun, which attracted much interest among the
earliest white explorers; the eagle-feathered masks and tortoise-shell
rattles, and other paraphernalia of the primitive ceremonials; stone
implements and pipes, pottery-making tools and domestic utensils,
articles of costume and personal adornment, fishing spears, ete. The
collection was made within a few years by an expert familiar with
Indians’ customs, who was enabled to obtain the most ancient and
sacred, as well as the modern, possessions of the Indians. While many
of the articles are accultural (or affected by the influence of the higher
race), many illustrate fairly the aboriginal ideas of the Indians of south-
eastern United States. The collection fills one wall case, with the
larger articles arranged above it.

The Papago Indians are a tribe of the desert. They occupy the hot
and dry Papagueria (the most arid region of equal extent in North
America), lying south of the Gila River and west of the Sierra Madre
Mountains in Arizona and Sonora (Mexico). Their mode of life is the
blending of the nomadic and agricultural. They establish settlements
by springs and water holes, and, while the ground is moist from one of
the rare storms, they plant maize, melons, and beans, which quickly
mature; and when the spring fails, or the water hole dries up, the
rancheria is abandoned, and the people scatter in search of other
sources of water. In autumn they collect the fruits of different species
of cactus, mesquite beans, etc., and in winter they migrate to the
mountains of Mexico, where they live by hunting. Although discoy-
ered and highly esteemed by the early Spanish explorers and mission-
aries, the Papago Indians are little known outside of their own territory.
The collection exhibited is the first one of note, both as to articles
and photographs, ever brought to eastern United States. It embraces
pottery and water-tight basketry, in the making of which these Indians
excel; the crude plow, akin to that of ancient Egypt, and the still more
primitive spade or digging stick; games of divination and diversion;
musical instruments; bows and arrows, which are still in limited use,
with some of the stone implements used by ancestral tribes in the
Same region; rope-making material and apparatus; domestic utensils,
costumes, and the like. The collection is arranged in three wall cases,
one of which is allotted to the peculiar articles made chiefly of the
agave. These include the mat used for bedding, basketry, the cradle,
etc. In addition there is a large floor case showing life-size models of
Papago women engaged in pottery making, with examples of the pot-
tery made by the tribe; and the peculiar carrying basket and costumes

634 EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION.

introduced were those found in actual use among the Indians last
autumn. Many of the articles are accultural, since the Papago Indians
have borrowed from the white men such arts as seemed good in their
sight; but a part (including the pottery and basketry) are primitive,
and some represent perfectly the aboriginal condition of the tribe,
among these being the family and other fetiches still in constant use
among the Papago Indians. ‘Two additional floor cases contain models
of the Papago habitations, which are commonly built of a peculiar |
grass over a framework of mesquite poles, more rarely of adobe.

The Seri Indians occupy Tiburon Island, in the Gulf of California,
and a considerable area of the adjacent mainland of Sonora, Mexico.
They are probably the most primitive Indians remaining in North
America, They are without agriculture, and have no domestic animals
except dogs. Their food is fish and waterfowl from the sea, and game
from the land, commonly eaten raw, with the fruits of cacti, mesquite
beans, berries, acorns, etc., in season. They have been at war with
the neighboring tribes and with whites for three and a half centuries,
and lose no opportunity to rob by night, or to murder by ambush or
strategy. By reason of their warlike and treacherous character the
Seri Indians are little known to ethnologists. The articles and photo-
graphs exhibited are believed to be the first ever obtained among them.
The collection comprises the bow and arrow (the latter, according to
the testimony of Mexicans and Indians themselves, being poisoned),
robes of pelican skin which take the place of blankets, face-painting
material and utensils, basketry, and their peculiar pottery, as well as
their exceedingly meager series of implements and utensils; the col-
lection being complete except for the rude water craft and fishing nets,
which it was found impracticable to obtain. The exhibit occupies two
wall cases, with a number of articles arranged above them. It includes
also a floor case containing a life-size model of a Seri hunter, armed
with bow and quiver with arrows. The Seri Indians are notable for
tall stature, robustness of chest, slenderness of arms and legs, and dark
color of the skin. They are remarkably fleet of foot.

The exhibit includes twelve transparencies (photographs on glass),
six representing the Papago Indians with their houses, occupations,
costumes, ete., while six represent the Seri Indians with the flimsy
wickiups used on the mainland. Their seaside houses, consisting of
turtle shell elevated on rocks or poles, have never been photographed.

DEPARTMENT OF ETHNOLOGY.

At the north end of the long aisle (Alcoves P and Q) and adjoining
the eastern portal was the exhibit of the Department of Ethnology.
This space is adjacent to the eastern entrance, and is actually one of
the entrances to the Smithsonian space. On either side of the archway
were shown groups of Indian figures, clothed in their native costumes,
and engaged in their customary occupations. specially conspicuous
was the Sioux chieftain, in full war paint, mounted on his gaily housed
pony, and with feather headdress sweeping to the ground, while facing
him was a group of Kiowa Indians engaged in moving their habitation,
some mounted upon a horse, and other carried behind it by means of —
primitive appliances known as the “travois.” Beneath there was a
group of Kiowa children, another of Navajo women weaving blankets,

EXHIBIT AT THE COTTON STATES EXPOSITION. 635

also a Crow warrior painting his blanket, and a Chippeway writing an
inscription on a tablet of birch bark. Another very striking group of
seven figures represented a religious ceremony practiced by the Indians
of Prince Rupert’s Sound. The principal figure is an Indian who is
personating a cannibal, and who is about to leap into the house through
a circular door. Two men are holding him back, while four musicians
in front are playing upon their rude instruments. The remainder of
this space is occupied by an exhibit prepared at the express desire of
the ladies in charge of the Woman’s Building, showing the arts which
are practiced by women among primitive peoples, especially in North
America. This collection includes implements for basket making, pot-
tery, weaving, beadwork, sewing, agricultural implements, and appli-
ances for burden bearing. These are all fully named and explained
upon the labels. The theory which has guided Prof, O. T. Mason in
the selection of this series is explained by him as follows:

The object of this exhibit is to show the share that women have had
in the industrial progress of the world.

In that continual struggle called Progress or Culture men have played
the militant part, women the industrial part. A study of modern sav-
agery is a guide to the activities of our own race in primitive times,
and this teaches us that women were always the first house builders
and furnishers, and that they devised the utensils of the humble apart-
ments. They were the first clothiers, whether in skins at the north or
in vegetable fiber nearer the equator. It was the women who went
first to the field with baskets that they themselves had fabricated. They
gathered the seeds of plants, bore them home on their backs, ground
them in rude mortars, and from the flour made thei mush or dough.
They invented all sorts of fireplaces and ovens, pottery, and cooking
utensils, and the many things employed in the serving and consuming
of food. .

In early society women were literally the first beasts of burden, and
it was they that devised all sorts of frames for the carrying of children,
and bands and baskets for carrying loads.

Both men and women in savagery are touched with the sense of
beauty, the former in the adornment of the person, the weapon, and
the canoe, the latter in the technique of basketry, weaving, embroidery,
and pottery.

In a small space it was designed to bring together a few examples
of primitive woman’s work in order to show the paths along which the
sex has traveled in time past. The bead work, the embroidery, the per-
sonal ornament, the blankets, mats, belts, and looms, the utensils con-
nected with food the conveniences of housewifery, the bark cloth, the
delicate handwork in palm leaf, the pottery, the exquisite skin dressing,
and implements of Americans, Africans, and Polynesians were silent
witnesses of the genius, patience, and skill of women in savagery.

Itis hoped that many thousand of those who for the first time viewed
a portion of the collections of the National Museum at the Atlanta
Exposition will hereafter have the opportunity of seeing the Museum
in its entirety in Washington.

MEMORIAL OF DR. JOSEPH M. TONER.

By AINSWORTH KR. SPOFFORD.

Among the many familiar faces which we have been wont to see
gathered in the scientific, literary, and professional assemblies of
Washington, there has been no more striking or familiar presence than
that of Dr. Joseph M. Toner. Cast physically in a frame of ample
mold, with broad, full features, and a massive bald head, his mobile
countenance ever ready to relax into a smile, he was a man of marked
and engaging and impressive personality.

In attempting to summarize, however briefly and imperfectly, some
estimate of our late associate, of his mental characteristics, and of the
work which he has done in the world, we may view him in various
aspects. We may consider him, first of all, as a student and investi-
gator. He had from very early years a notable zeal for knowledge,
and this, unlike the experience of many men who become absorbed in
professional routine, may be said to have grown with him through life.
Born in 1825 of good old Pennsylvania farmer’s stock, the slender
intellectual advantages of his boyhood were supplemented by a course
of one year at the Western Pennsylvania University and two years at
St. Mary’s College, in Maryland. Choosing the medical profession for
a career, he spent two years at two medical colleges, one in Vermont
and the other, Jefferson Medical College, at Philadelphia, taking his
degree of doctor of medicine from each. These studious years gave
him a considerable knowledge of medical and hygienic literature, and
after a brief residence at Harpers Ferry in the practice of his pro-
fession, he removed to Washington for a wider field in the year 1855.
Here he at once entered upon a practice which became extensive in a
very few years. But his habits of mind gave him so strong a bent
toward scientific, historical, and literary pursuits that he almost wholly
relinquished the active practice of his profession during the later years
of his life, prescribing only for the families of a few friends.

Dr. Toner had some admirable qualities in matters of research. His
perceptive faculties were quick, his grasp of principles firm, and his
devotion to truth was paramount. He weighed evidence and authori-
ties with care, and was often known to change his judgment formed on
first impressions upon maturer investigation. At the same time, he

637

638 MEMORIAL OF DR. JOSEPH M. TONER.

had that strong tendency to build up theories which is common to
fertile minds, and had to abandon many which experience and observa-
tion failed to substantiate. Perhaps the leading characteristic of his
pursuit of scientific subjects was assiduity rather than originality. He
pursued every subject which interested him, especially in later years,
with an energy which sought out all the means of elucidation within
his reach, and he was not satisfied until he had seen and weighed what-
ever there might be in books and periodicals upon the topic in hand.

We may view him next as a writer, and his contributions to the press
were neither few nor small. His first little book, ‘“‘ Maternal Instinct,”
printed in 1864, at Baltimore, was a serious discussion of the functions
and the duties of motherhood, and evinced his earnest bent toward
practical views of life. His second book, a ‘“ Dictionary of Elevations
and Climatic Register of the United States,” published at Washington
in 1874, was more important. It was the first attempt, so far as known,
to put before the public in book form and in alphabetical order the
heights above sea level of all cities, towns, and mountains which could
be ascertained. These were scattered through very numerous sources
of information, in periodicals, Government reports, ete., and to gather
them together involved protracted and patient labor, for which Dr.
Toner’s assiduous zeal in pursuit of a cherished object well qualified
him. The book, as published, is open to the drawback that the reader
has to consult two alphabets instead of one, and this was caused by the
material growing upon him after he had printed off a large portion of
the work, which forms the first alphabet. This may be regarded as an
object lesson to authors and compilers not to be too hasty in going to
press, observing the Horatian rule of a nine years’ incubation rather
than to bring out an immature production, ever mindful of the Roman
maxim, ‘Litera scripta manet.” StiJl,itis most creditable to the subject
of our notice to have been the pioneer in a field of scientific research
which has had many more recent publications, under the auspices of
various bureaus of the Government connected with military, geological,
and geodetic surveys.

In the field of medical and hygienic literature Dr. Toner published,
in 1874, ‘“‘ Contributions to the Annals of Medical Progress and Medical
Education in the United States,” which was brought out by the
Bureau of Education. Shortly after appeared his ‘“‘Address before the
Rocky Mountain Medical Association,” afterwards expanded into a vol-
ume (Washington, 1877), and abounding in historical and biographical
material concerning early American physicians and surgeons. He very
early made it a special object to collect from the most widely scattered
sources all the information existing relating to the men of his profession
during the period of the American Revolution. It was this pursuit,
occupying several years’ labor, which first gave him that strong bent
toward historical, and especially biographical, investigations, which
finally absorbed nearly all of his time and energies. To gather this

MEMORIAL OF DR. JOSEPH M. TONER. 639

material he went laboriously through the nine folic volumes of Force’s
American Archives, al the histories of the Revolutionary period, mili-
tary journals, and personal memoirs, and medical and periodical publi-
cations without number. The result was seen in his volume entitled
“The Medical Men of the Revolution,” containing sketches of the lives
and services of nearly twelve hundred physicians and surgeons, an
invaluable compilation, which is highly regarded by the profession.
He also wrote a “‘ Necrology of the Physicians of the Late War,’ and
“Statistics of the Public Health Associations of the United States.”

Dr. Toner at one time made a special study of epidemics, collecting
every book and pamphlet on which he could lay hands, and he pub-
lished the results of his studies in several pamphlets on cholera, small-
pox, inoculation, vaccination, and yellow fever. One of his contribu-
tious to hygienic literature was ‘Free parks and camping grounds in
summer for the children of the poor in large cities,” a pamphlet twice
printed, which urges in forcible style the merits of that charity which
has organized the “ fresh-air funds” in so many cities, and which consti-
tutes one of the best and most useful forms of practical beneficence.
One of his incidental contributions to history was ‘‘ Notes on the burn-
ing of theaters and public halls,” (1876), occasioned doubtless by the
burning of the National Theater in this city. This publication em-
bodies a long and melancholy chronicle of the conflagration of buildings
devoted to public assemblies, so often fatal to human life, enforcing the
lesson which is never learned, that the sole safety of the community
lies in building public edifices fireproof in every part.

In the later years of his life the zeal and energy of Dr. Toner’s active
mind were largely concentrated upon one subject—the writings and the
military and civil career of George Washington. To this he devoted
money and time almost literally without stint. The fruits of his Wash-
ingtonian researches, which have been embodied in permanent form,
comprise more than a dozen books and pamphlets, besides numerous
articles in historical and literary magazines and in newspapers. Among
the latter were ‘ Wills of the American ancestors of George Washing-
ton,” in the New England Genealogical Register (1891); “‘George
Washingtonasan inventor and promoter of the useful arts,” published in
the memorial volume of the Centenary Celebration of the Patent System
in the United States in 1891; ‘‘ Washington’s neighbors;” ‘The home of
Washington;” ‘Excerpts from the account books of George Washing-
ton;” Washington’s youth and early career;” ‘ Kith and kin of Wash-
ington,” and ‘Some account of George Washington’s library and manu-
script records, and their dispersion from Mount Vernon,” issued by the
American Historical Association as a part of its annual papers for 1893.
The latter furnishes the only systematic account ever published of the
remarkable history of the Washington manuscripts, widely scattered
as they are, and it isof permanent value. Besides his own contributions
illustrative of the personal and public history of Washington, his char-

640 MEMORIAL OF DR. JOSEPH M. TONER.

acter, habits, social and domestic relations, etc., Dr. Toner edited and
published no less than five of Washington’s original journals and other
writings. These include Washington’s “Rules of civility and decent
behavior in company and conversation” (1888); ‘Journal of George
Washington’s journey over the mountains, beyond the Blue Ridge, in
1847-48” (1892); “The daily journal of Maj. George Washington on a
tour from Virginia to the island of Barbadoes in 1751-2” (1892); “Journal
of Col. George Washington, across the Alleghany Mountains in 1754”
(1893), and ‘ Diary of Colonel Washington for August, September, and
October, 1774” (1893). All of these were accompanied by copious notes
elucidating the text, describing the topography of the regions traversed
by Washington in his various expeditions, identifying the various per-
sons referred to in the narrative, and supplying references to books and
authorities bearing upon any of the incidents involved. In some cases
these notes far exceed the text in volume, and they are invaluable aids
- to the historical inquirer. In the case of the Barbadoes journal, Dr.
Toner went through all the literature to be found relating to that island,
giving lists of the settlers and describing the persons and places visited
by the youthful Washington (then 20 years of age) so far as possible.

We may now consider the subject of our sketch as a collector of
books and of historical material. The passion of collecting, so common
among men of literary tastes and habits of research, but which is so
seldom carried to the utilization of their stores by the collectors, was,
in the case of Dr. Toner, very early developed after he came to Wash-
ington. He was for forty years a familiar figure in nearly all the book-
stores, book auctions, and junk shops of this and of some other cities,
and though reputed a close buyer, he expended largely in amassing
medical, historical, and biographical literature. While his specialty
at first was medical science, it soon became enlarged to embrace local
history in general and what related to the city of Washington and the
District of Columbia in particular. He came to be well known as an
authority widely consulted upon matters relating to the national capital.

The writer well remembers the zeal and eagerness of the Doctor, on
our first acquaintance in 1862, to avail himself of whatever his friend
could contribute to his information respecting the authors, editions, and
prices of books. From that time on, the ample mansion on Louisiana
avenue was the constant recipient of ever fresh stores of books, pamph-
lets, and periodicals. In the pursuit of his special object, the biography
of early American physicians up to the Revolution, he was gradually
led to amass material which ultimately developed into a far wider field,
namely, first, the personal history of all American physicians, and,
secondly, the biography of all Americans inclusively. He carried out
the idea of collecting these materials to a much farther point than is
customary even among the most assiduous collectors. His aim included
the exploiting of a neglected field. Leaving to larger library collections
and to fuller purses the amassing of a great library of biographies, he

MEMORIAL OF DR. JOSEPH M. TONER. 641

set to work to gather up the obscure and forgotten facts, the disjecta
membra of his subject. With this aim he, for several years, had all
the exchanges of the newspaper offices searched for obituary notices
appearing from day to day, cut up the contents of biographical dic-
tionaries and directories of Congress, and ransacked all periodicals for
biographical sketches. The immense mass of material thus gathered he
had mounted upon uniform sheets of paper and arranged in strict alpha-
betical order, thus embodying for the readiest reference a great mass of
fugitive biographical data quite inaccessible to the ordinary inquirer.
This valuable index, arranged in two extensive cases of drawers, forms
a part of the Toner collection in the Congressional Library.

- In like manner the Doctor made another collection of obituaries and
biographical sketches of all American physicians commemorated in
periodicals.

But the specially cherished design, very nearly fulfilled, of the lat:
ter years of his life was the collection of an absolutely complete
assemblage of all the letters and other writings, printed and manu-
script, of George Washington. Dr. Toner had an idea that everything
which Washington wrote was valuable, or would become so, to his
countrymen. He found that the printed collections of Washington’s
writings by Sparks and others, who permitted themselves to amend
the grammar, the style, and the orthography of their illustrious sub-
ject, are quite untrustworthy as transcripts of what he really wrote.
So he had strictly verbatim copies made of every paper in the vast
collection of the Department of State, and followed it up by securing
exact copies of every original Washington letter found in historical
societies and library collections, public and private, throughout this
country and in Hurope. Where no access to an original could be had,
he procured and mounted printed copies, ransacking all American
books, periodicals and newspapers he could find, and watching every
print of a Washington letter, to seize it for his collection, if not already
there. This great thesaurus of Washingtoniana, much the fullest yet
gathered in any one collection, he arranged in strict chronological order
of the papers, and deposited it in his lifetime in the Congressional
Library. Thus was performed a most useful and inestimable service
to the historical student.

We may next view our associate as a patron of letters and a public
benefactor. He founded and endowed in 1872 a course of public lec-
tures, designed to encourage the discovery of new truths for the
advancement of medical science. He conveyed about $3,000 in real
and personal property to five trustees, consisting of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, the Surgeon-General of the United States
Army, the Surgeon-General of the Navy, the president of the Medical
Society of the District of Columbia, instituting thereby ‘“‘The Toner
lecture fund.” Ninety per cent of the interest of the fund was to be
applied for at least two annual memoirs or essays by different indi-

sm 96——41

642 MEMORIAL OF DR. JOSEPH M. TONER.

viduals relative to some branch of medical science, to be read in the
city of Washington, under the name of “The Toner lectures,” each
of these memoirs or lectures to contain some new truth fully estab-
lished by experiment or observation.”

As these lectures were intended to increase and diffuse knowledge,
several of them were accepted for publication in the Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections. The first of the course was by Dr. J. 4.
Woodward, ‘‘On the structure of cancerous tumors,” and was printed
in 1873. Nine other lectures, by Dr. C. E. Brown-Sequard, Dr. J. M.
Da Costa, Dr. W. Adams, Dr. E. O. Shakespeare, Dr. G. E. Waring, jr.,
Dr. C. K. Mills, and Dr. Harrison Allen, have since been published by
the Institution, the last having appeared in 1890. The original fund, of
which one-tenth of the annual interest was to be added to the principal
and the residue devoted to an honorarium for the lecturers, has grown
to over $5,000 by careful investment. It affords a practical example
of a wise method of endowment by which even a small sum may be
made to yield instruction to large audiences for a series of years.

Dr. Toner gave a gold medal for three years to proficient students in
Jefferson College, and a similar medal for many years past, known as
the Toner medal, has been awarded at Georgetown University, for the
best essay upon some topic in natural science.

His most notable public benefaction, however, was his gift in 1882
of his entire private library to the Government, the first, and thus far
the sole instance of any considerable collection being thus bestowed
by any private citizen. The gift, comprising about: 27,000 volumes—
medical, historical, and miscellaneous—besides a multitude of pam-
phlets and periodicals, was accepted by a special act of Congress, and
a bust of Dr. Toner, executed in marble by J. Q. A. Ward, was ordered
by the Library Dommnriiag, and is placed, with the nines full. length
oil portrait of him by E. F. Andrews, in the Library.

Dr. Toner, in addition to this gift in his lifetime, bequeathed by will
all his remaining books, manuscripts, pictures, and curios- to the
Library of Congress, while to the Cambria County Medical Associa-
tion, at Johnstown, Pa., he has given all duplicates of his books and
periodicals.

The Toner collection, while of course it largely duplicates what is
already in the Congressional Library, also supplements that collection
in many important directions, especially in medical journals, while the
special and unique collections in biography and Washingtoniana,
already referred to, give to it a great and permanent value. It has
been catalogued, excepting a portion of its pamphlets and serials, and
while hitherto it has never been adequately or even respectably stored,
because of the utter want of room in the Capitol, a place of honor in a
corner pavilion of the new Library building, selected by Dr. Toner,
will be devoted to the arrangement and preservation of his collection.

It may be hoped that other collectors of valuable libraries and of

MEMORIAL OF DR. JOSEPH M. TONER. 643

manuscripts may emulate the laudable example here set, and perpetuate
their names and render their collections in the highest degree useful
by endowing the American public, through its Government Library,
with the valuable stores which they may no longer use.

Dr. Toner was honored by being chosen president of several societies,
including the American Medical Association, the American Public
Health Association, each of the two Medical societies of the District
of Columbia, the Literary society, the Columbia Historical Society, the
Washington National Monument Society, etc. He was offered, but
declined, professorships in medical colleges, preferring a more compre-
hensive field of labor.

In the last few years Dr. Toner had suffered occasionally from internal
derangement of certain organs, evincing that his naturally strong con-
stitution was being slowly undermined. But he worked on, putting the
best face upon the visitations of disease, until the summer of 1896,
when he was in the midst of his vacation at Cresson Springs, Pa.,
where he suddenly breathed his last, seated in his easy chair, on the
lst of August, 1896.

In conclusion, all who knew him will concur with me that the seventy
years of our departed friend and brother represent an earnest, laborious,
and highly useful life. To few men, indeed, is it given to win so much
of public respect and honor; so much, also, of more tender regard and
sympathy. His genial companionship, his warm and widely dispensed
hospitality, and his encouraging presence and aid in every good word
and work, will be widely missed and long remembered in the city of
Washington.

MiGae Y Ca 4
Hee Rae

WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR.!

By WILLIAM J. HERES.

The record of mortality of the past few years bears the names of an
unusual number of eminent scientific men whose contributions to
knowledge or whose benefactions to mankind have elicited demonstra-
tions of sorrow in all parts of the civilized world.

It is well to be reminded of the departure from our midst of associ-
ates who, though not of wide renown, have possessed sterling merit,
and whose useful lives and faithful performance of duty entitle them
to grateful remembrance.

Arago, the distinguished secretary of the French Academy, called
the attention of his colleagues to the fact that the object of its meet-
ings to eulogize deceased members was not merely to celebrate the
discoveries of the more distinguished academicians, but also to encour-
age modest merit by appropriate recognition, and remarked that “a
scientific observer ignored or forgotten by his contemporaries was
frequently supported in his laborious researches by the thought that
he would obtain a benevolent look from posterity. Let us act,” he says,
“so far as it depends upon us, in such a manner that a hope so just, so
natural, may not be frustrated.”

The outline is here presented of the quiet and beautiful life of one
whose deeds were unmarked by public notice or applause, unhonored
by high titles or station, but who had the respect and love of all his
associates, whose faithful and efficient discharge of every duty, whose
learning, versatility of resource, self-denying industry, and personal
attractiveness entitle him to a place among those whose names should
be remembered.

William Bower Taylor, born in the city of Philadelphia May 23, 1821,
was the son of Col. Joseph Taylor and Anna Farmer Bower, both of
Philadelphia.

Colonel Taylor was a bookbinder, and in 1821 was elected colonel of
the Seventy-ninth Regiment of Pennsylvania Militia, which commis-
sion he held for seven years. He was well educated, early in life
became interested in politics, and was elected to the Pennsylvania

' Delivered before the Washington Philosophical Society, May 23, 1896.
645

646 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR.

legislature. Having removed to his farm near Millville, N. J., for the
benefit of his health, he was in 1843 elected to the legislature of that
State.

William’s mother died while he was quite young. His father pro-
vided him with a liberal education, sending him to a Baptist college at
Haddington, Pa., then to an academy taught by Prof. Walter R. John-
son, and subsequently to the University of Pennsylvania. Professor
Johnson, one of the most learned men of that time, was secretary of
the Academy of Natural Sciences, member of the National Institute,
professor of physics and chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania,
and an able writer on scientific and technological subjects.

In 1835-36 several gentlemen formed a society with the name of The
Franklin Kite Club, for the purpose of making electrical experiments.
For a considerable time they met once a week at the Philadelphia City
Hospital grounds and flew their kites. These were generally square in
shape, made of muslin or silk, stretched over a framework of cane
reeds, varying in size from 6 feet upward, some being 20 feet square.
For flying the kites annealed copper wire was used, wound upon a
heavy reel 2 or 3 feet in diameter, insulated by being placed on glass
supports. When one kite was up, sometimes a number of others
would be sent up on the same string. The reel being inside the fence,
the wire from the kite sometimes crossed the road. Upon one occasion,
as a cartman passed, gazing at the kites, he stopped directly under the
wire and was told to catch hold of it and see how hard it pulled. In
order to reach it he stood up on his cart, putting one foot on the horse’s
back. When he touched the wire the shock went through him, as also
the horse, causing the latter to jump and the man to turn a somersault,
much to the amusement of the lookers on, among whom was Taylor.

It was this incident and others of a similar character connected with
the kite club that turned his youthful mind to science, and especially
to electrical phenomena. He made a number of kites himself and also
endeavored to make a flying machine. He made a clock wholly of wood,
which kept good time.

In 1836 Taylor entered the University of Pennsylvania, became a
member of the Philomathean Society, and later its moderator or
president. He was graduated in 1840 and commenced the study of
law at the university and also in the office of Mr. Rawle, an eminent
attorney. He was admitted to the bar of Philadelphia November 15,
1843.

His retiring disposition, studious habits, stern integrity, and high
sense of honor were not conducive to securing many clients, and he
looked with aversion on the practices of attorneys who were willing
to sacrifice truth to gain an unrighteous cause. After four years’
experience of an unsatisfactory character as a lawyer, in November,
1848, he became an assistant in the drug store of his brother Alfred,
on Chestnut street near Ninth, and remained there until February 1,
1855.

WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. 647

By special invitation of his cousin, Mr. William Ellis, who was in
charge of the navy-yard in Washington, he accepted the position of
draftsman in the yard February 17, 1853, and a few months later
became foreman of the engineer and machinist department. He filled
this position acceptably until his resignation, December 31, 1853,
receiving a letter from Chief Engineer Henry Hunt, U.S. N., express-
ing “ereat regret in his leaving the situation wherein his services and
knowledge had been valuable and his deportment most gentlemanly.”

In May, 1854, he was appointed by Hon. Charles Mason, Commis-
sioner of Patents, to a temporary clerkship, and on the 1st of April,
1855, was made an assistant examiner in the division under Prof.
George C. Schaeffer, the eminent chemist, engineer, and general scien-
tist. Dr. Schaeffer used to relate of this appointment that, finding
himself in need of an assistant, he was told by the Commissioner that
a young man was in consideration for the place who seemed intelligent
and capable but spoke doubtfully as to his own qualifications for the
work. ‘Then please appoint him at once,” said Dr. Schaeffer; “he
will be just the man I want.” The augury was abundantly fulfilled,
and was the beginning of a cordial lifelong friendship between the two
men, amid various strong differences of opinion. Their debates on
matters of high interest were remembered as contests of giants by
their hearers.

Mr. Taylor was appointed principal examiner on November 10, 1857,
in the class of firearms, electricity, and philosophical instruments.
His early legal education and practice fitted him admirably for the
position of examiner and enabled him for more than twenty years
fully to meet the requirements of an office which Comiissioner Mason
declared should command the highest order of talent, “where all
learning connected with the arts and sciences finds an ample field for
exercise and questions of law that tax to their uttermost the abilities
of the most learned jurists;” and another Commissioner, Judge Holt,
said: “The ability and requirements necessary to a proper discharge
of the duties of an examiner must be of a high order, scarcely less
than those we expect in a judge of the higher courts of law.”

In 1873, the temporary position of librarian being vacant, Mr. Taylor
was detailed to this service, on account of his extensive information,
and was of great assistance to the examiners through his ability to give
them references to aid in making up reports of application for patents.

The Patent Office library was indeed a grand school of instruction
and a mine of inexhaustible wealth for a scientific inquirer. Designed
as a collection for reference in the examination of applications for pat-
ents, in order to determine the question of novelty of invention, it has
grown mainly in the direction of technological publications, including.
full sets of the periodicals devoted to special industrial art and all the
more important treatises on machines, arts, processes, and products, in
the English, French, and German languages. Besides this, there are
the records of foreign patents of inestimable value.

648 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR.

In 1876 Congress provided for the permanent appointment of a
librarian in the Patent Office at a much lower salary than that of an
examiner, and as Mr. Taylor still held the appointment of principal
examiner he was not an applicant for the new position, which was
filled by a political appomtment. Mr. Taylor then expected to be
restored to his former duties as exaininer, but by reason of smaller
Congressional appropriations, which necessarily reduced the number
of appointments, he was unfortunately legislated out of office.

In a letter dated December 6, 1376, in relation to this matter, Professor
Henry remarks: ‘M>». Taylor, I can truly say, without disparagement
to any officer of the Patent Office, is, for extent of knowledge and
practical skill in reporting on the originality of inventions, without
a superior in the office. He has long been a collaborator of the
Smithsonian Institution, is a member of the Washington Philosoph-
ical Society, and has achieved an extended reputation as an active
contributor to science by his publications. His separation from the
Patent Office I consider a public loss, and justice to himself and the
interests of the inventors require his restoration.”

In a private note to a prominent senator Professor Henry commends
Mr. Taylor to his “special attention,” and says, “He is held in the
highest estimation by all who know him and can appreciate his char-
acter. He is not only a gentleman of extensive information and refined
culture, but is admirably constituted in regard to intellectual and
moral qualities.”

While Mr. Taylor was librarian he also acted as examiner of inter-
ferences, a very important duty. In fact, Prof. Edward Farquhar, his
assistant at the time, remarks that “the various functions he discharged
in the office were endless. When acommittee was needed to revise the
whole classification of the office he was one of the leading members.
He was perpetual referee and consulting examiner in a general capacity,
as necessarily resulted from his extraordinary knowledge and readiness
to impart it, supplying more especially perhaps the principles of science
and of law than their practical applications. In the Patent Office, as
elsewhere, he was a constant fountain of instruetion to all.”

In 1872 Professor Henry strongly recommended Mr. Taylor, without
his knowledge, for a chair in one of our leading colleges, as one “who
from the clearness of his conceptions and the lucidness of his exposi-
tions has the elements of an excellent teacher.”

Other occasions offered for the employment of Mr. Taylor as a teacher
or professor, but he always shrank from assuming the duties of a pub-_
lic instructor and preferred the retirement and privacy of closet study
and editorial impersonality.

Karly in his residence in Washington he formed the acquaintance
and earned the friendship of the leading literary, and especially the
scientific men of the city, and with Bache, Henry, Schaeffer, Meigs,
and other congenial spirits, founded a scientific club, which, without

see

WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. 649

constitution, by-laws, or even officers, met weekly at the residence of
its members in turn. Hon. Hugh McCulloch, Comptroller of the Cur-
rency, afterwards Secretary of the Treasury, was one of this ‘‘charmed
circle,” all of whose members became famous for their service to their
country and the world, and in his notable work, Men and Measures of
Half a Century, he speaks thus of Mr. Taylor:

Mr. William Bb. Taylor held and still holds high rank among the
Scientific men of Washington. He was then an examiner in the Patent
Office, the duties of which he performed with great ability. He is now
employed and is doing good work in the Smithsonian. Valuable arti-
cles from his pen are sometimes seen, but he avoids notoriety, is rarely
seen in society, and seems to be perfectly content with such enjoyments
as he finds in doing his duty at the head of one in the divisions of the
Smithsonian, and in familiar intercourse with a few personal friends.
By those who know him well he is considered the most learned man
in Washington.

This opinion was also held and frequently expressed by the late Dr.
Welling, president of Columbian University.

Mr. Taylor was one of the founders of the Washington Philosophical
Society, which grew out of the Saturday Club just alluded to. He
signed the call for the first meeting, requesting Professor Henry to
preside, March 12, 1871, and on the organization of the society, March
13, 1871, was elected a vice-president. This office he held until Decem-
ber 17, 1881, when he was elected its fourth president. Between 1871
and 1881 he had presided at forty-five meetings of the society. His first
paper was presented June 10,1871, “On the nature and origin of force,”
and was published in the Smithsonian Report for 1870, which was
issued late in 1871. At almost every meeting of the society he either
presented an original communication on astronomical, mathematical,
or physical subjects, or discussed with freedom, clearness, and marked
ability the papers of others. Among his most important addresses
before the Philosophical Society was one in 1878 on the “ Life and scien-
tific work of Joseph Henry.” This work was peculiarly agreeable to
him as an ardent admirer and strong advocate of Henry’s policy, his
warm personal friend and intimate associate, and of whom he speaks
thus: ‘Few lives within the century are more worthy of admiration,
more elevating in contemplation, or more entitled to commemoration
than that of Joseph Henry.”

On the 5th of May, 1882, he made a report as chairman of a joint
committee on the Philosophical, Biological, and Anthropological soci-
eties, favoring a scheme of consolidation or union of the scientific
societies of Washington, an event which, after a lapse of thirteen
years, has only recently been in some degree accomplished.

In February, 1883, a mathematical section of the Philosophical
Society was organized, of which he became one of the leading spirits,
taking part in every meeting, and on March 24, 1886, he was elected its
chairman. On the 23d of October, 1886, he was elected to the general

650 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR.

committee of the society, which position he held until his death, giving
to every detail of business the same attention he did to solving the
greatest problem of nature.

To the Journal of the Franklin Institute, of which society he was
long a member, he contributed, in 1876, a paper on “‘ Physics of the
ether,” consisting principally of a review of a work by 8S. Tolver
Preston, of London, as well as numerous brief notices or reviews. In
the American.Journal of Science and Art, New Haven, he published a
paper in 1876 on “‘ Recent researches in sound,” and in 1885 ‘On the
crumpling of the earth’s crust.”

His ‘Kinetic theories of gravitation” was published by the Smith-
sonian Institution in 1876. An editorial in the American Journal of
Science refers to this work as ‘‘a valuable historical résumé of the
various attempts that have been made by the most eminent philosophers
to account for the phenomena of gravitative attraction from the time
of Newton to the present day, concluded by a vigorous criticism of the
leading theories, in which the author, passing over the consideration
of the statical method of explaining gravitation by pressure, finds
that kinetic systems are essentially of two classes—the hypothesis of
emissions or corpuscles, and. the hypothesis of fluid undulations—and
proceeds to show that neither form of either hypothesis can satisfy
the two Newtonian conditions of a scientific theory—verity and suffi-
ciency.”

He became a member of the American Philosophical Society of Phil-
adelphia on the 19th of October, 1877, but does not appear to have
contributed to its Transactions.

He was elected a member of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science at its twenty-eighth annual meeting, in August,
1880, and at the meeting of August, 1881, was made a fellow of that
society. The only paper he contributed to the Proceedings of this
society was on ‘‘A probable cause of the shrinkage of the earth’s
crust.”

On leaving the Patent Office, he was engaged by Professor Henry to
edit his researches on “sound” and “illuminating materials,” for the
reports of the Light House Board, and in 1878 was appointed by Henry
as an assistant in the Smithsonian Institution, a position which he con-
tinued to hold for seventeen years, until his death.

On the death of Prof. Spencer F. Baird, secretary of the Smithso-
nian Institution and United States Commissioner of Fisheries, August
19, 1887, the Washington Philosophical Society, as the senior of the
Washington scientific societies, and the one with which Professor Baird
had been most closely connected, took initial steps in arranging for a
joint meeting to commemorate his life and services. To Mr. Taylor
was assigned the theme of “‘ Professor Baird as an administrator,” and
on account of an intimate knowledge of his great work in the Smith-
sonian he was eminently fitted to discharge the duty assigned him.

WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. 651

His eulogy of Professor Baird was published in the Bulletin of the
Philosophical Society, Vol. X, 1888; also in the Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections.

He was president of the District of Columbia Alamni Association of
the University of Pennsylvania, and presided at its annual banquets.

During the life of Professor Henry no formal office existed as
“editor” of the Smithsonian publications. Every article submitted
for publication was carefully examined by Professor Henry himself, all
doubtful points discussed with the authors, and every line closely
serutinized in the proof sheets, independent of, and in addition to, the
examination made by his assistants. Mr. Taylor’s distinctive labors as
“editor” commenced with Professor Baird’s accession to the secre-
taryship.

Perhaps very few persons have an idea of the scope of this part of
the operations of the Smithsonian. It may be well, therefore, to refer
briefly to it, as by Professor Henry it was considered the most impor-
tant part of the operations of the institution, he giving it the first
place in his reports, because he believed it was to its pwolications
mainly that the institution owed recognition and fame throughout the
world.

During the last half century the relations of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution considered as a publishing agency, to the scientific public of
America has been essentially that held by the great European acad-
emies to the scientific men of HKurope. So far as works of great
importance, of high cost, and appealing to a limited but the most
learned class, are concerned, its record is excelled by none, if indeed
equaled by any other establishment.

Of the Smithsonian publications, Mr. Taylor thus speaks in his
eulogy on Henry:

To attempt the recapitulation of the various branches of original
research initiated or directly fostered by the institution would be to
write its history. Scarcely a departm:nt of investigation has not
received, either directly or indirectly, liberal and efficient assistance.
The various works submitted to the institution, even after approval,
entail a vast amount of unrecognized and little appreciated labor in
the elimination of obscurities, of redundancies, or of personalities, and
in the pruning of questionable metaphors, of perfect or hasty generali-
zations, or of incidental inaccuracies of statement or inference.

The most important duty Mr. Taylor performed as editor while at
the Smithsonian was the collection and publication of the Scientific
Writings of Professor Henry. To this labor of love, for which he was
perhaps better fitted tian any other person, he gave a year or two of
untiring devotion. He was scrupulously careful to verify every refer-
ence and to recalculate every mathematical formula used by Henry in
any of his papers, and without his abundant knowledge of Henry’s
researches and his familiarity with the whole history of discovery in
electricity and magnetism he could not have produced this valuable
work.

652 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR.

While Mr. Taylor’s learning and skill in book making were invaluable
to the Smithsonian Institution, his labors were not confined to those of
an editor. As early as 1866 he became one of the collaborators of the
institution, to whom was referred much of its scientific correspondence,
and this relation he held until 1878, when to him was assigned the
entire charge of the consideration and discussion of matters pertain-
ing to physics.

This part of the operations of the institution, while nteAD ue no
public attention, produces important results in the diffusion of knowl-
edge. Scarcely a day passes in which communications are not received
from various parts of the country, giving accounts of discoveries, or
seeking information relative to some branch of knowledge. The rule
was early adopted to give respectful attention to every letter received.
Many of these communications are of such a character that, at first
sight, it might seem best to treat them with silent neglect; but the
practice was observed of stating candidly and respectfully the objections
to such propositions, and to endeavor to convince their authors that
their ground was untenable.

Mr. Taylor had a keen sympathy with mere theorists, as well as with
inventors; with those who supposed they had discovered new systems
of the universe, as well as those who endeavored to contrive machines
to realize perpetual motion. To all these he had the rare faculty of
being able to detect and expose their fallacies without hurting their
pride or wounding their sensibilities, and, although they might not
accept his conclusions, they always seemed grateful for his criticism
and honored his candor.

From what has been said as to the engrossing occupations of Mr.
Taylor, it ean readily be inferred that his own published writings were
few. Most of his work was fragmentary and discursive, and while
voluminous in the aggregate, was very much condensed and epitomized
in each separate case.

His principal works were:

Seriptural Authority of the Sabbath, 1851

The Nature and Origin of Force, 1870.

Refraction of Sound, 1875.

Kinetie Theories of Gravitation, 1576.

Henry and the Telegraph, 1878.

Memoir and Scientific Work of Joseph Henry, 1878.
Physics and Occult Qualities, 1852.

In his history of Henry and the Telegraph, Taylor treats fully of the
growth of the electric telegraph, and shows “that prior to Henry’s
experiments in 1829 no one on either hemisphere had ever thought of
winding the limbs of an electro-magnet on the principle of the bobbin,
and not until after the publication of Henry’s method in January, 1831,
was it ever employed by a European physicist.” ‘Taylor, however, does
not claim for Henry exclusive honor for the invention of the telegraph;

WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. 653

he shows that no single individual is entitled to that distinction. He
says: ‘It was, in fact, a growth rather than an invention, the work
of many brains and of many hands; but amid the galaxy of brilliant
names who prepared the way for success and organized the triumph for
the execution of skillful artisans, none stands higher or shines with
more resplendent luster than that of Joseph Henry.”

Although so truly a “scientific” man, Taylor did not engage in
original research and experiment, a field which, if he had entered, there
can be no doubt of his brilliant success. It is possible, however, that
he was better fitted for the sphere of action in which he engaged. It
may be true that “the genius which qualifies a man for enlarging the
boundaries of science by his own inventions and researches is of a very
different class from that which confers the ability to elucidate, in a
simple and systematic course, the order and connection of elementary
truths.”

Taylor’s mental characteristics were of a very high order; few men
have been better endowed by nature or developed by study. He not
only had quick perceptions to grasp the arguments or meaning of others,
but he could find in them relations and suggestions which they had
not themselves seen. He was extremely exact and precise in stating
his own views and in making his meaning clear.

His writings are distinguished as being not merely a digest of ideas
which he had acquired from the perusal of books of others, but an able
analysis of the work of every author which exercised any influence on
the topic he had under discussion.

One trait of his character was the thoroughness with which he
pursued any inquiry, as he was never satisfied until he had learned all
that could be ascertained in regard to it. A remarkable memory
enabled him in his daily work to profit from his extensive researches.

As a conversationalist, it seemed as if any subject, even casually
started, had been the special theme of his thinking. He could adapt
himself to and equally please the profound philosopher; the crude
schoolboy, or the hard-working mechanic.

He was particularly fond of optical experiments, drew elaborate dia-
grams and plans of improved instruments, especially the stereoscope,
and made an unusually large collection (20,000) of stereoscopic views.

He frequently urged the importance of the establishment of a bureau
for indexing scientific publications, and considered the devotion of a
fund for this purpose by a millionaire who wished to secure perpetual
fame as far more likely to secure his object than by adding another
library or even a university to those now existing.

Many works with which Mr. Taylor’s name has never been connected
owed a large part of their merit and success to materials he furnished
and to his advice, revision, and criticism. The labor of hand and brain
which might have been employed in building up his own fame was
freely given to all who sought it. He was very averse to writing for

654 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR.

compensation for the public press, not wishing, as he said, to be in the
category of ‘‘penny-a-liners. ’

He was an erudite classical scholar, and his very latest reading was
in old Latin tomes. But while he enjoyed communion withthe scholars
of antiquity, he was also thoroughly acquainted with the scientific
discoveries of the present day, diligently perusing the transactions of
learned societies and leading periodicals from all parts of the world as
they reached the Smithsonian Institution, which is distinguished as
being the repository of more of this class of literature than any library
in the country. He kept well informed as to public questions and the
discussions of political economy and of general current topics.

He was a great lover of poetry, and made a large collection of the
lives and works of poets, among whom Shelley seems to have been his
favorite. He also wrote numerous notes and comments on poetical
works.

One of his literary amusements was the preparation of a story of
‘¢ The wars of the angels,” found scattered through Milton’s Paradise
Lost. Mr. Taylor cut up copies of the work, and selecting all references
to this phase of the poem, he neatly pasted them on loose pages, thus
making an interesting narrative, which he named “The wars of the
angels,” and which he thought of publishing, with critical notes and
comments, but the plan, beyond the work referred to, was never carried
out.

He was a great reader and spent most of his leisure in his library,
which was unusually large and valuable. While mainly scientific in
character, it contained special collections of much value and extent on
ecclesiastical history, translations of and commentaries on the Bible,
the Sabbath, myths, creeds, spiritualism, fine arts, besides a very large
number of grammars and dictionaries.

Among his specialties he had a complete collection of editions of
Reynard the Fox, another of Ornamental Alphabets, another of
“ Facetie,” and many thousands of engravings and photographs. He
spared no pains or expense to make the specialties in which he was
interested as complete as possible.

Mr. Taylor’s life, apart from his scientific and literary work, was
unusually quiet, serene, and uneventful. He seemed wholly destitute
of personal ambition, and was always content to receive but never to
seek preferment. His motto seems ever to have been “I serve.” He
was truly a slave to routine duty, and the bright light of his intellect
was hidden by the bushel of official exactions. In feelings and opinions
he was a decided conservative; while sympathizing with advance move-
ments in social progress, his tastes and acquaintance with the past led
him to be cautious of novelties or radical changes in the established
order of things. He had no patience with demagogues and no sympathy
with socialists. He never mingled in public affairs, never voted, and
took no part in or even attended public gatherings for the promotion

WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR. 655

of general welfare or special charities. He never married, and unfor-
tunately had no realization of the happiness, the incentive, the dignity,
and the honor of the home and family.

He had great detestation of frauds, shams, and dishonesty of all
kinds, and moreover had the courage of his convictions in denouncing
imposters and charlatans. He was not swayed by an array of numbers
or dignitaries in forming his opinions, but believed with the great
philosopher Galileo, that ‘‘ In questions of science the authority of a
thousand is not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual.”

He was courteous, kind, and unselfish in a marked degree, and was
uniformly cheerful and dignified.

He was fond of the drama, and this appears to have been the princi-
pal source of his recreation.

His penmanship was particularly delicate, refined, and distinct, and
is identically the same for the last forty years of his life. He left an
immense mass of manuscript notes on every subject to which he had
given attention. Hconomical to a degree almost approaching parsi-
mony, he wasted nothing, and condemned and despised extravagance
or display either in private or in public life.

Dr. Edward Farquhar has contributed the following remarks in
regard to Mr. Taylor’s scientific characteristics :

Of the whole philosophy and theory of evolution, whether embodied
in the researches and suggestions of Darwin, or the more generalized
thought of Spencer, he was so complete a master that he stood as an
expositor of it, perhaps as the expositor, to a very interested circle of
acquaintance.

Atomic theory was one of his most peculiar haunts, linguistics,
especially comparative philology, might have been taken for his natural
destiny; psychology was a familiar region of thought and of close
observation; rhetoric and style, of minute analysis and discrimination;
while mathematical principles he was particularly fitted to expound

because he grasped them not in mere specialty, but in their relations
with truth in general.

Mr. Lester F. Ward, one of the most learned and distinguished mem-
bers of the Washington Philosophical Society, has remarked:

Mr. Taylor, although primarily a physicist, was widely informed on
all the deeper topics of general science. His mind possessed a delicate
sensibility to suggestion from others, and was influenced wholly by the
inherent merit of the suggestion and not at all by the supposed com-
petency or incompetency of the person making it. Still, on most ques-
tions, he had settled convictions, and on nearly all important subjects
he possessed original ideas, the results of prolonged independent
thought. His conversation was particularly charming from the fact that
it combined great learning and originality with the utmost simplicity
and a complete absence of dogmatism. In a word, his entire character
illustrated how extremely liberal genuine wisdom can afford to be.

Mr. Taylor enjoyed good health nearly the whole of his life, though
for many years he had not taken the customary leave of absence from

656 WILLIAM BOWER TAYLOR.

office, for rest and recreation. An attack of the grippe in 1894, how-
ever, seemed to enfeeble him and he never regained his former vigor.
His last illness was brief. After much suffering from an incurable
malady, and submitting to a surgical operation, he died in Washington
on February 25, 1895, in the seventy-fifth year of his age, and his
remains were buried in Woodlawn Cemetery, Philadelphia, his native
city.

“O, good old man! how well in thee appears

The constant favour of the antique world,

When service sweat for duty, not for meed!

Thou art not for the fashion of these times,
Where none will sweat but for promotion.”

JOSEPH PRESTWICH.!

By H. B. WoopWarb.?

Among the more distinguished of the second generation of British
geologists—a band comprising such men as Godwin- Austen, Falconer,
Morris, Edward Forbes, Egerton, Jukes, Ramsay, and Daniel Sharpe—
the subject of our present memoir has long outlived each one of them,
and the close of his life, at the advanced age of 84, severs the most
prominent link which connected the geologists of the present day with
the old masters.

Joseph Prestwich was born at Pensbury, Clapham, on March 12,
1812, and was descended from an old Lancashire family. One of his
ancestors, Sir Joseph Prestwich, Bart., was an active fellow of the
Society of Antiquaries, aud a manuscript written by him about the
year 1798, dealing with the subject of earthquakes, was published by
Joseph Prestwich in the Geological Magazine for 1870. At one time
Prestwich entertained the idea of claiming the baronetey, which his
father had declined to take up, but, owing to the loss of documents,
this intention was abandoned.

Receiving his early education partly in London, partly in Paris at a
school attached to the College Bourbon, and partly under the famous
Dr. Valpy at Reading, Joseph Prestwich completed his studies at
University College, London. There he learned chemistry under Dr.
Turner and natural philosophy under Dr. Lardner, and he gained
some acquaintance with mineralogy and geology from a few lectures
included in his course by the professor of chemistry. That he had a
leaning toward experimental science was evident, for he subsequently
formed a laboratory, which he maintained until about the year 1860.
His own tastes would have prompted him to adopt a profession, but
circumstances caused him to enter his father’s business of wine mer-
chant, and in this he was closely occupied for about forty years, until
1872, when he retired from his office in Mark Lane.

'From Natural Science, London, Vol. IX, 1896, pp. 89-08.
2or some particulars relating to Sir J. Prestwich we are indebted to an artiele
printed in the Biograph for December, 1881, and reprinted with additions and reyi-
sions in the Geological Magazine for June, 1893.
SM 96 42 657

658 JOSEPH PRESTWICH.

The brief introduction to geological science which Dr. Turner had
given was destined to bear the most excellent fruit. Prestwich was
thus led to examine the collections of fossils in the British Museum;
and the works of Conybeare and Phillips, of De la Beche and Lyell,
became his text-books.

Entering the field of geology, as he tells us, for relaxation from the
cares of commercial life, he had in his early years only such time as
could be snatched from business at intervals, and chiefly on Saturdays
and Sundays. Fortunately his duties led him into various parts of the
country, and every opportunity was taken of making acquaintance
with the physical features and structure of the districts he visited. It
is, however, wonderful to find how much he achieved, how early he had
mastered the principles of geology, and how sound were his interpre-
tations of facts.

His holidays during the years 1831 to 1833 were for the most part
spent in the region of Coalbrook Dale, and the results of his researches
were communicated to the Geological Society of London in 1834 and
1836. This work was published in full in the Transactions of the
society, and looking at it now it may be regarded as a model of what a
memoir should be on such a subject as the coal field and its associated
strata. The Silurian and Carboniferous rocks, the new red sandstone,
the igneous rocks, and the drifts were all duly described, and what is
more remarkable, considering the youth of the author, the superficial
extent of the various rocks was shown on a map of the scale of one
inch to a mile in a manner differing in no very important particulars
from the subsequently published map of the Geological Survey. The
structure of the area and its faults were carefully depicted, while the
organic remains which Prestwich had obtained were described with
the aid of his friend, John Morris. So highly, indeed, would we speak
of this work that had the author done nothing subsequently we believe
it would have entitled him to a permanent place on the roll of those
geologists who have rendered diStinguished service.

In 1835 another paper was read by Prestwich before the Geological
Society on the ichthyolites of Gamrie in Banffshire, and this was his
first published work. In 1837 he supplemented it with observations on
the drift deposits, including those of Blackpots, and he noted the
existence of a raised beach.

These early studies give a good idea of the bent of his mind, his
attention being given to stratigraphical geology and to the physical
conditions uuder which strata were accumulated. In later years he
turned again to the coal measures in other regions, especially in
Somerset, and to their possible underground range in the southeastern
counties, while the subjects of drifts and raised beaches gained even-
tually more and more of his attention.

Prestwich was elected a fellow of the Geological Society in 1833,
when Greenough was president; and he first became a member of coun-

JOSEPH PRESTWICH. 659

cil in 1846, when Murchison was president and Sedgwick, Buckland,
Fitton, Lyell, De la Beche, and others were his associates.

He had now for some years been particularly occupied in what may
be considered his chief work—the elucidation of the Eocene strata of
the London and Hampshire basins.

Commencing in the London area he zealously traversed the country
wherever the Lower Tertiary strata were to be found, and hardly an
outlier of any importance escaped his observation. Mr. Whitaker,
who, more than any other man, has followed in the footsteps of Prestwich
over this large region, referred in 1872 to the literature of the subject,
and remarked that the period 1841 to 1860 ‘‘might well be called the
‘Prestwichian period,’ from the author who first clearly made out the
detailed structure of the London Basin.”!

After certain preliminary studies the interest and difficulties of the
subject, as Prestwich himself relates, speedily induced him to take it
up with more earnestness and determination, and eventually led him
to extend his inquiries over an area which at first he never contem-
plated. With true enthusiasm he remarked, ‘The Tertiary geology of
the neighborhood of London may be wanting in beauty of stratigraphical
exhibition and in perfect preservation of organic types, but in many of
the higher questions of pure geology—in clear evidence of remarkable
physical changes—in curious and diversified paleontological data,
however defaced the inscriptions, which is, after all, but a secondary
point, few departments of geology offer, I think, greater attractions.”
These statements were made in 1849 when De la Beche handed to him
the Wollaston medal, which had been awarded by the council of the
Geological Society. He had then completed but a portion of those
labors which established his reputation as the leading authority on our
Tertiary strata. Having already extended his researches from the
London to the Hampshire Basin, he subsequently followed the strata into
Belgium and France, correlating the divisions he had made in this
country with those established abroad by Dumont and D’Archiae.

His great aim was, by studying in detail the lithological characters
of the strata and their fossils, to mark out the main subdivisions in
the Hocene system, and to picture the ancient physical conditions
which attended their formation. By following the strata from point to
point he was enabled to record the mineral changes which many of the
subdivisions undergo, and to note the changes in fauna that accompany
these variations in sedimentary condition. He also showed how differ-
ences in the flora in certain formations pointed to distinct land areas.
Thus were fossils employed, as they should be in geological inves-
tigations, in interpreting the physical conditions of the strata after
the stratigraphical features had been determined, and in aiding the
subsequent correlation with distant deposits.

1Mem. Geol. Survey, Vol. LV., page 395.

660 JOSEPH PRESTWICH.

In his earlier papers on Kocence formations he dealt with the age and
relations of the London Clay and Bagshot Beds. He proved the con-
nection of the London Clay and Bognor Beds, and showed that they
were older than the clays and sands of Bracklesham and the clays of
Barton. He subdivided the Bagshot Beds, and correlated with them
certain strata in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. Subsequent
researches by Mr. Starkie Gardner, Mr. Monckton, and Mr. Herries,
have thrown doubt on the correlation of the Upper Bagshot Sands of
Surrey with those of Hampshire (the Headon Hill Sands); and in a
later work! Prestwich agreed that the Upper Bagshot Sands of the
London area might be partly or wholly of Bracklesham age. Ready
at all times to accept corrections when assured of their accuracy, he
was also not unwilling to admit changes in classification when the
alteration was for the general convenience. Thus he adopted the term
Oligocene for strata previously grouped as Upper Eocene. He did not,
however, agree with Mr. Whitaker in his proposal to form a separate
division, termed the Oldhaven Beds, from strata in part grouped by
Prestwich with the basement bed of the London Clay, and in part with
the Woolwich and Reading Series.

Continuing his researches Prestwich. described in full detail the
strata between the London clay and chalk, giving the names “Thanet
Sands” and “Woolwich and Reading Series” to strata previously
grouped together as the “Plastic Clay Formation.” Referring to the
important series of Hocene memoirs, which he had completed in 1854,
Edward Forbes remarked, ‘‘These remarkable essays embody the
results of many years’ careful observation, and are unexcelled for
completeness, minuteness of detail, and excellence of generalization.”

A popular account of the Eocene strata and of the superficial depos-
its that occur in the neighborhood of London was given by Prestwich
in 1854 and 1856, in the course of three lectures on the geology of
Clapham, and these were published a year later under the title of
The Ground Beneath Us. Clearly and pleasantly written, this little
work was well calculated to arouse the interest of the reader, and at
the time of its publication it was one of the best introductions to
geology which it was possible to place in the hands of a beginner.

While Prestwich gave his attention in the main to pure science, he
did not neglect the important applications of knowledge. By his pub-
lication in 1851 of A Geological Inquiry Respecting the Water-bearing
Strata of the Country around London he came to be recognized as
the leading geological authority on the subject; and in 1867 he was
appointed a member of the Royal Commission on Metropolitan Water
Supply.

He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, and vice-
president in 1870; in that year also he became president of the Geo-
logical Society. In his second address to that society in 1872 he gave

'Geology, Vol. II, page 364.
2 Address to Geological Society, 1854.

JOSEPH PRESTWICH. 661

an excellent and oft-quoted account of the growth of London as
dependent on the means of obtaining a supply of water. In the same
address he referred to the many aspects of geological science, and
remarked that, ‘‘While treating of these abstract and philosophical
questions, geology deals also with the requirements of civilized man,
showing him the best mode of providing for many of his wants, and
guiding him in the search of much that is necessary for his welfare.
The questions of water supply, of building materials, of metalliferous
veins, of iron and coal supply, and of surface soils, all come under
this head, and constitute a scarcely less important, although a more
special, branch of our science than the paleontological questions
-connected with the life of past periods, or than the great theoretical
problems relating to physical and cosmical phenomena.”

He reverted to the subject of water supply soon after he came to
reside in Oxford, publishing a pamphlet on the geological conditions
affecting water supply to houses and towns, with especial reference to
that city. He dealt in 1874 with the subject of the proposed tunnel
between England and France, and his essay, published by the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers, gained for him the Telford medal.

At an earlier period he superintended the inquiries concerning the
Bristol and Somerset coal field for the Royal Coal Commission, and
prepared reports (published in 1871) on that area, and on the proba-
bility of finding coal under the newer formations of the south of Eng-
land. With regard to the latter subject he took a favorable view, and
observed that we might look for coal basins ‘‘along a line passing from
Radstock, through the vale of Pewsey, and thence along the North
Downs to Folkestone.” The results of the Dover boring have so far
justified this conclusion, which was based on the acute geological rea-
sonings of Godwin-Austen. At various periods, moreover, he described
important well sections at Yarmouth, Harwich, Kentish Town, and
Meux’s brewery in London.

The completion of his labors among the Hocene strata allowed Prest-
wich to devote more time to the newer deposits which had on various
occasions engaged his attention.

He had examined the Norwich Crag as early as 1834, in company
with S. Woodward, and he then found a tooth of Hlephas meridionalis
in the Thorpe pit. Accompanied by Godwin-Austen, Morris, and Alfred
Tylor, he had in 1849 made a short excursion into the crag district,
and he then suggested that the fossiliferous shell bed which overlies
the Red Crag at Chillesford might represent the Norwich Crag. He
returned in 1858 to the subject of the crag in his description of the
remnants of that deposit which occur at Lenham and other places on
the chalk areas of the North Downs. Although the species of fossils
were but doubtfully identified by Searles Wood, and some authorities
came to regard them as probably Eocene, yet Prestwich contended for
their Pliocene age, and his views have been fully confirmed by the sub-
sequent observations of Mr, Clement Reid.

662 JOSEPH PRESTWICH.

In 1868 he communicated to the Geological Society the first part of
his elaborate work On the Structure of the Crag Beds of Suffolk and
Norfolk. The three parts were published in 1871. They contained
the results of his long labors, and, as he remarks, “The greater part of
my observations date, in fact, so far back as from 1845 to 1855.”

In some respects this was unfortunate, since the author had been
too much occupied to work out the results of his observations while
they were quite fresh in his mind; moreover, he did not fully realize
how much had been done by previous observers. In omitting to
notice in detail work that had been previously published, he observed,
““T may be further justified in this course by the circumstance that
my own researches are in great part anterior to most of the papers in
question”—a plea that fails to satisfy the worker who is keen on
priority of publication. One noteworthy result of this was the intro-
duction into Norfolk of the term ‘“ Westleton Beds,” for strata pre-
viously described at certain localities by Wood and Harmer under the
name of Bure Valley Beds.’ It has now been clearly shown that the
Bure Valley Beds (of the Bure Valley) are of earlier age than the
Westleton Beds (of Westleton), the former being linked with the
Norwich Crag (Pliocene), and the latter being rightly regarded by
Prestwich as Pleistocene. What may be the particular horizon in
the Pleistocene group of the Westleton Beds is still a matter of dis-
pute. No fossils have yet been found in the Westleton Beds at Wes-
tleton, and it is therefore a matter of great uncertainty as to how far
correlation is justified with the other unfossiliferous pebbly gravels of
the eastern and southern counties of England. Prestwich has, how-
ever, published a series of papers on these scattered deposits, and the
facts which he has made known must always prove of value, while his
theoretical conclusions, which have added largely to the interest taken
in the subject of gravels, can not fail to have beneficial results.

The importance of an attentive study of the Glacial Drift and other
superficial deposits was pointed out by Joshua Trimmer, and he was
followed by 8S. V. Wood, jr., who, pursuing the subject in great detail,
personally surveyed on the 1-inch ordnance maps large areas of the
eastern counties, and stimulated others, like Mr. F. W. Harmer, in
Norfolk, and the Rev. J. L. Rome, in Lincolnshire, to cooperate with
him. Prestwich, meanwhile, had made particular observations here
and there, and chiefly between the years 1855 and 1861, in Holderness,
at Mundesley, Reculvers, Hackney, Salisbury, and Brighton. He
devoted his attention more especially to fossiliferous deposits of valley
drift and to raised beaches. He described a few sections of Glacial
Drift, but did not yet enter into any general discussions with regard to
the classification of our Pleistocene deposits.

His mostimportant researches among the latter deposits were unques-
tionably those relating to the valley or river gravels, and to the occur-
rence in them of flint implements and certain fossil mammailia.

JOSEPH PRESTWICH. 663

The discoveries, made known in 1847 by Boucher de Perthes, of flint
weapons together with teeth of the mammoth in the gravels of the
Somne Valley had attracted the attention of Dr. Falconer, and he
induced Prestwich, in 1859, to imvestigate these most interesting
deposits. After careful study, in which he was joined by Sir John
Evans, he satisfied himself that the flint implements were the work of
man, that they occurred undisturbed in beds of sand and gravel,
together with remains of mammoth, Khinoceros tichorhinus, Hyena
spelea, and other Pleistocene iamenn ain.

These researches were in part stimulated by the discovery, in 1858, of
flint implements with bones of extinct animals in Brixham Cave; a
they served to confirm the previous and long-neglected discovery of
flint implements in Kent’s Hole, Torquay, made by the Rey. John
MacEnery. Sir John Evans, moreover, directed attention to the for-
gotten discovery of flint implements at Hoxne, in Suffolk, a fact
originally published in 1800. No time was, therefore, lost in visiting
this and other English localities, and the results were brought before
the Royal Society in 1859 and 1862. At the conclusion of his second
paper, Prestwich remarks: “That we must greatly extend our present
chronology with respect to the first existence of man appears inevita-
ble; but that we should count by hundreds of thousands of years is, I
am convinced, in the present state of the inquiry, unsafe and prema-
ture.” In his latest observations on the subject he has expressed his
belief “that Paleolithic man came down to within 10,000 to 12,000
years of our own time,” while he may have had, ‘‘ supposing him to be
of early Glacial age, no greater antiquity than, perhaps, about from
38,000 to 47,000 years.” (Collected Papers, p. 46.)

For his original researches on the valley deposits yielding implements
and weapons of Paleolithic man, Prestwich was awarded a royal
medal by the Royal Society in 1865. The full report on the exploration
of the Brixham Cave was prepared by Prestwich and communicated to
the same society in 1872, the animal remains being described by Busk,
and the flint implements by Sir John Evans.

About the time of his retirement from business, in 1872, Mr. Prestwich
married the niece of his old friend Dr. Falconer, and settled in a house
(Darent Hulme) which he built at Shoreham, near Sevenoaks. He was
not, however, to retire from active geological work. After the death
of John Phillips, in 1874, he was offered the professorship of Geology at
Oxford, and this he accepted, now spending a portion of his time in
that city. The duties of a geological professor at Oxford are not, per-
haps, very onerous, but Prestwich filled the office with dignity and
advantage to the university. Phillips, who excelled in eloquence, had
at times no more than three students, as geology received no encour-
agement from the university authorities. Few geologists of note have,
therefore, hailed from Oxford as compared with Cambridge, and we call
to mind only Edgeworth David (now professor of geology in the Uni-

664 JOSEPH PRESTWIUL.

versity of Sydney) and F. A. Bather (of the Geological Department.
British Museum), who, trained in geology under Prestwich, have since
gained distinction. His field excursions, however, were always higily
appreciated by many who found no time to pursue the science in after
life.

Various papers proceeded no. Yom his pen; he dealt with the much
discussed origin of the parallel roads of Glen Roy, and he wrote on the
agency of water in volcanic eruptions, believing that the water was but
a secondary cause, and that the phenomena were dependent on the
effect of secular refrigeration. He dealt also with the problem of the
thickness of the earth’s crust, and published an elaborate paper on
underground temperatures.

He also made a snecial study of the Chesil Beach, coming to the con-
clusion that it was a wreck of an oil and extensive raised beach, of
which a remnant still exists on Portland. His view concerning the
comparatively recent date of the Weymouth anticline has not, however,
proved to be sound.

During his term of professorship, Prestwich wrote his well-known
work entitled ‘‘Geology—Chemical, Physical, and Stratigraphical,” in
two volumes, published in 1886 and 1888, a work admirably illustrated.
In the first volume he remarked that among geoiogists two schools
have arisen, “one of which adopts uniformity of action in all time,
while the other considers that the physical forces were more active and
energetic in past geological periods than at present.” Advocating this
latter teaching he felt he should be ‘“‘supplying a want by placing
before the student the views of a school which, until of late, has hardly
had its exponent in Hnglish text-books.” He indeed protested on
many occasions against the doctrine of uniformity of action, both in kind
and in degree. Such, indeed, was the teaching of Ramsay in his pres-
idential address to the British Association at Swansea in 1880. That
geologist referred to the great changes, of which we have evidence in
comparatively late geological times, in the upheaval of mountain chains
and in the vicissitudes of the Glacial period; and, in regard to vol-
canoes, he believed that “at no period of geological history is there any
sign of their having played a more important part than they do in the
epoch in which we live.” Ramsay based his argument on the record of
the rocks, and, leaving out of consideration cosmical hypotheses, he
concluded that, from the epoch of our oldest known rocks down to the
present day, ‘‘all the physical events in the history of the earth have
varied neither in kind nor in intensity from those of which we now have
experience.” This conclusion may be taken to mean that any kinds of
physical change that have happened in the past, since the earliest rocks
were laid down, may happen again, and we believe that this is the real
view of the Uniformitarian. Mr. Teall again, in 1893, forcibly urged
the claims of the Uniformitarian school, pointing out “that denudation
aud deposition were taking place in pre-Cambrian times, under chemi-

JOSEPH PRESTWICH. 665

eal and physical conditions very similar to, if not identical with, those
of the present day.” All geologists seek to interpret the past by the
light of the present; but while Uniformitarians (as they are called)
demand time unlimited, their opponents, sometimes spoken of as Catas-
trophists, would rather infer a greater potency in the agents of upheaval
or denudation than grant an unlimited amount of time.

As Prestwich puts it: ‘Not that time is in itself a difficulty, but a
time rate, assumed on very insufficient grounds, is used as a master
key, whether or not it fits, to unravel all difficulties. What if it were
suggested that the brick-built pyramid of Hawara had been laid brick
by brick by a single workman? Given time, this would not be beyond
the bounds of possibility; but Nature, like the Pharaohs, had greater
forces at her command to do the work better and more expeditiously
than is admitted by Uniformitarians.” (Collected Papers, 1895, p. 2.)
He maintained that modern estimates of denudation and deposition
and of rates of upheaval and depression were no test of what happened
in the past; that, in fact, the potency of agents had diminished. Refer-
ring to the Glacial period, in his inaugural lecture on “The past and
future of geology,” delivered at Oxford in 1875, he thus expresses
himself: “This last great change in the long geological record is one of
so exceptional a nature that, as I have formerly elsewhere observed
(Phil. Trans., 1864, p. 305), it deeply impresses me with the belief of
great purpose and all-wise design in staying that progressive refrigera-
tion and contraction on which the movements of the crust of the earth
depend, and which has thus had imparted to it that rigidity and
stability which now render it so fit and suitable for the habitation of
civilized man; for, without that immobility, the slow and constantly
recurring changes would, apart from the rarer and greater catastrophes,
have rendered our rivers unnavigable, our harbors inaccessible, our
edifices insecure, our springs ever varying, and our climates ever
changing; and while some districts would have been gradually uplifted,
other whole countries must have been gradually submerged; and
against this inevitable destiny no human foresight could have pre-
vailed.”

His great text-book on geology, to which we have alluded, will remain
as a monument of his zeal and untiring labor. On its completion he
resigned his professorship and retired to his quiet home among the
chalk hills of Kent. There, however, he maintained his interest in his
favorite science and continued to labor to the very end of his days.
Soon after leaving Oxford, in 1888, he was called upon, as our leading
geologist, to preside over the meeting of the International Geological
Congress, which then held its fourth session in London.

The study of the drifts of the south and southeast of England now
absorbed most of his time, and he devoted more attention to the group-
ing of the later superficial deposits and to the great physical changes
to which they bear witness. His ideas on all these topics have not

666 JOSEPH PRESTWICH.

met with the unanimous approval of geologists, nor was such a happy
result to be expected on a complex subject where there is great room
for diversity of opinion. His views on the primitive character of the
flint implements of the chalk plateau of Kent have, however, opened
up a new and interesting inquiry, and one more likely perhaps to gain
support than his evidences of a submergence of Western Europe at the
close of the Glacial period, and their bearing on questions relating to
the tradition of a flood.

It is, however, yet early to judge of these controverted questions.
They require further detailed study and impartial consideration, and
whatever conclusions be eventually accepted, there can be no doubt
that the patient and enthusiastic labors of Prestwich on these most
difficult problems will have largely contributed to their solution.

Throughout his long life Prestwich felt deeply indebted to geology,
and, as he once put it, not merely because it was a source of healthful
recreation, but ‘‘for its kindly and valued associations, and above all,
for the high communing into which it constantly brings us in the con-
templation of some of the most beautiful and wonderful works of the
creation.”

In the early part of the present year Her Majesty conferred the honor
of knighthood upon him, but Sir Joseph Prestwich was too feeble in
health to accept it in person. He died on June 23, and was buried in
the churchyard of Shoreham, near Sevenoaks, not far from his pleasant
home of Darent Hulme.

HENRY BRUGSCH.!

By G. MASPERO.

Henry Brugsch was born in Berlin on February 18, 1827, and he
died there on September 9, 1894. He has himself told in his Recollec-
tions what he wished to have known of his life.2. To that book I refer
those who wish to know what the man was, and shall content myself
with speaking here of what we owe to the scholar.

The early years of his scientific career were entirely devoted to the
study of the language and the popular script of the ancient Egyptians.
He began these studies while still at college, alone and without any
help save that of the aged Passalacqua; but he progressed so rapidly
and so well that in 1848, when but 21 years old, he published
his first memoir, Scriptura A‘gyptiorum Demotica, ex Papyris et
Inscriptionibus Explanata,’? in which he gave the first outlines of
Demotic grammar—imperfect, it is true, and following the principles of |
exaggerated phoneticism which F. de Saucly had endeavored to
introduce into that branch of Egyptology. Lepsius criticised the
attempt of the young man with unmerciful severity.t H. de Rougé
was more indulgent. He saw as well as did Lepsius the serious faults
of the book, but he gave full justice to the power for work and the
intelligence of the author, and he tried to show him the right way. In an
article entitled, ‘‘Sur les éléments de V’écriture démotique,” he showed
him the points in which his system was wrong, and taught him the
method by which he might obtain with certainty the decipherment of
the signs and the construction of the phrases.’ Brugsch received the
lesson with gratitude, and immediately corrected his method of study.
From this time he was inspired by the principles of de Rougé, and each

1 Translated from Actes du Dixi¢me Congres International des Orientalistes, ses-
sion de Genéve, 1894. Quatrieme partie. Leide, 1897. Pp. 95-102.

?Mein Leben und mein Wandern. 8°. 1894.

’With the statement: Scripsit Henricus Brugsch, discipulus prime classis
Gymnasii Realis quod Berlini floret.

41Compare the preface of E. F. August, director of the gymnasium, to the Scriptura
Agyptiorum Demotica.

5H.de Rougé Lettre 4 M.de Sauley sur les éléments de l’écriture démotique, in
the Revue Archéologique le Série. 1848. Vol. VY.

667

668 HENRY BRUGSCH.

new memoir evinced new progress, whether it treated of the signs
employed in popular script,! or showed the identity, by means of the
demotic,’ of the hieroglyphic inscription of Phile with the decree of
Rosetta.’ The same is true of his Doctor’s thesis, in which he gave a
résumé of the grammatical system which prevailed in Egypt in the ear-
liest period ;* of an article in which he showed the identity of a Greek
fragment of our library with the demotic papyrus Minutoli 18 of the
Berlin Museum,’ and of the chrestomathy of demotic texts, accurately
translated and analyzed, which he attempted to construct.® All these
publications, so little known to the present generation, belong to the
best published in their time. The errors were numerous, it is true, and
the works have been severely criticised, but we feel everywhere the pro-
found love of the scholar for his subject, and we must admire the
infinite resources of sagacity and patience which he expended to com-
pensate for the real imperfections of his philological education. Had
he died at that time, and left nothing else behind him, he would have
been reckoned among the masters of Egyptology, in the first class
with those who, not content to walk further in the trodden path, have
opened new roads.

At first he had neglected the hieroglyphs. Now he ardently began
their study; but he had not yet made himself master of them when he
undertook, in 1855-54, with the help of the King of Prussia, his first
voyage in Egypt. There he met Mariette, and spent several months in
the Serapeum studying the recently discovered demotic inscriptions.
Next he went to the Said and remained a long time in Thebes. He
gave an account of his travels in a notice on the Natron lakes,’ but
especially in his Récits d’Egypte,* where he describes, after Cham-
pollion, and analyzes the monuments and inscriptions he had seen.
The first result of this long excursion in the land of the Pharoahs was
that it furnished him with the material necessary for his Grammaire
Deémotique. This book appeared in 1855, and it has endured for forty

1 Numerorum apud veteres “igyptios Demoticorum doctrina. Berlin. 1849. 4°.

2Die Inschrift von Rosette nach ihrem aegyptisch-demotischen Texte sprachlich
und sachlich erklart, first part of the Sammlung demotischer Urkunden. Berlin.
Folio. 1850.

° Uebereinstimmung einer hieroglyphischen Inschrift von Philae mit dem griech-
ischen und demotischen Anfangstexte des Dekretes yon Rosette. Berlin. 1846. 4°.

4De Natura et Indola lingue popularis Zeyptiorum. I. De nomine, de dialectis,
de litterarum sonis. Berlin. 8°. 1850.

» Lettre a M. de Rougé au sujet de la découverte @’un manuscrit bilingue sur papy-
rus en écriture démotico-égyptienne et en grec cursif de Van 114 avant notre ere,
Berlin. 4°. 1850.

'Sammlung demotischer Urkunden. Berlin. 4°. 1850.

7Wandrung nach den Natronkléstern in Aegypten. Berlin. 16°. 1855.

®Reiseberichte aus Aegypten, iiber eine in den Jahren 1853-54 unternommene
wissenschaftliche Reise nach dem Nilthale. Leipzig. 1855. 8°. Compare Recueil
de Monuments. Vols. I-II. Leipzig. 4°. 1863.

*Grammaire Démotique, contenant les principes généranx de la langue et de
Vécriture populaire des anciens Egyptiensl. Berlin. Folio. 1855.

HENRY BRUGSCH. 669

years. It contains all sorts of inexactitudes, and there is not one page
which could remain intact if one thought of publishing a new edition;
but, in such a case, we must never judge the value of a work by the
errors which are subsequently discovered, because it has served to
render generations of scholars better armed than was the author. We
must always inquire what the state of science was at the time a work
appears, and thus measure the excellence and importance of the serv-
ices rendered. Demotic had not been read before Brugsch fixed the
processes of reading and the syntax; as soon as his grammar appeared
it was merely necessary to employ his rules for the decipherment and
interpretation of the texts. He understood this fact so well that after
1855 he no longer gave to studies of this sort the time hitherto devoted
to them. He translated the tablets of Stobart, which gave him
the opportunity to correct the received ideas on the division of the
Egyptian year,! the bilingual papyri, which Rhind had brought from
Thebes,’ and occasionally new inscriptions, but he left it to others to
complete what he had so brilliantly begun. The study of demotie is
accompanied by an inconvenience to which the strongest will has more
than once yielded. The texts are so small and contain forms so curious
that the most careful facsimiles can never render the character. Photog-
raphy is not always sufficient to reproduce them, and it is necessary to
have the originals at hand to understand some passages with cer-
tainty. Only a museum curator, who has the papyri at his disposal,
can continue with success the study of demotic. Other Egyptologists
have always been obliged, by the force of circumstances, to give it up
after a certain time, no matter how interested they were or how
brilliantly they had begun.
But Brugsch had better work to do than to absorb himself in the
interpretation of these unthankful and most fastidious texts. Two
subjects had especially occupied him during his stay on the banks of
the Nile, the history and the ancient geography of the country. The
history still rested on the account written by Champollion-Figeac, after
the posthumous note of his brother, for the series of the Univers Pit-
toresque; while for the geography there were only the accounts of the
classical and Coptic epoch, brought together in VEgypte sous les
Pharaons by Champollion-le-Jeune, and in the Mémoires historiques
et géographique of Etienne-Quatremere. Harris had just found out
the value of the lists engraved on the monuments and had published a
few.’ Brugsch brought back new ones and by comparing them with
the old lists deduced the entire series of names under the native Pha-

‘Nouvelles recherches sur la division de ’année des anciens Egyptiens, suivies
dun mémoire sur les observations planétaires consignées dans quatre tablettes
Egyptiennes en écriture démotique. Berlin. 8°. 1855.

2A. Henry Rhind’s zwei bilingue Papyri, hieratisch und demotisch, tihersetzt
und herausgegeben. Leipsig. 4°. 1865.

*Hieroglyphical Standards representing places in Higypt supposed to be its Nomes
and Toparchies, collected by A. C. Harris, M.R.S.L. London, 4°. 1851.

670 HENRY BRUGSCH.

raohs as well as under the Ptolemies. The catalogues of vanquished
peoples and of captured cities, which the kings of the conquering
dynasties had inscribed on the walls of the temples of Thebes, showed
him the state of Syria and Ethiopia at epochs of which there was no
previous knowledge. The three volumes Inscriptions Géographiques
opened a new world to historians and geographers.! The geographers
have not, it is true, thought it worth while to explore it, but the Egyp-
tologists have done so. More than twenty years after, Brugsch again
took up a part of the subject which he had once treated. His Dic-
tionnaire Géographique, making use of the works of Diimichen, and of
the two Rougés, corrected most of the mistakes found in his previous
work, but it contains only the names of cities and districts of the valley
of the Nile;? the Asiatic countries were excluded, as well as the coun-
tries on both sides of the Red Sea, and he gave only very short articles,
one of which, entitled “‘La Table ethnographique des Anciens Egyp-
tiens,” contains views of remarkable ingenuity.’ His Histoire d’Kgypte,
published in French about 1860, embraced the discoveries of Rougé and
Mariette ;* a second French edition in 1875 was only a half success,’ but
the German edition of 1879 crowned the author’s reputation. The
history begins with the inception of the monarchy and ends with the
Macedonian conquest, presenting reign by reign and dynasty by dynasty
a brilliant picture of what is known of the destinies of Egypt. The
book has been translated into English and it is to-day the classical
work on the subject.

But lexicography and grammar, as well as history and geography,
engaged the attention of Brugsch. He early recognized the fact, too
little understood, that it is no more difficult to prepare three or four
books at the same time than it is to write a single memoir. The text
studied for a series of mythological facts often contains passages which
clear up the sense of an obscure word or render possible the correction
of a grammatical rule. If the author does not neglect to note any of
the interesting points it nearly always happens that in searching for
materials for a historical dissertation he will collect facts for a dic- -
tionary article or a grammatical monograph. It is in this way only

1Geographische Inschriften altiigyptischer Denkmiler, gesammelt wihrend der
auf Befehl Konig Friehrich Wilhelm IV von Preussen unternommen wissenschaft-
lichen Reise in Aegypten, erliutert und herausgegeben, 3 vols. 4°. Leipzig. 1857-
1860.

“Dictionnaire Géographique de l’Ancienne Egypte, contenant par ordre alpha-
bétique la nomenclature comparée des noms propres géographiques qui se rencon-
trent sur les Papyrus. Leipzig. Folio. 1879-1880.

*Diealtiigyptische volkertafel. Berlin. 8°. 1821.

4Histoire d’Egypte dés les premiers temps de son existence jusqu’ & nos jours. 1*7°
partie: L’Egypte sous les premiers rois indigenes. Leipzig. 4°. 1859.

‘Histoire d’Egypte. Ie partie: Introduction, Histoire des Dynasties I-XVII, 2°
édit. Leipzig. 8°. 1875.

‘Geschichte Aegyptens unter den Pharaonen nach den Denkmilern bearbeitet.
Leipzig. 8°. 1878.

HENRY BRUGSCH. 671.

that we can explain how Brugsch was able te publish so rapidly so
many works of importance, and that he found himself able to bring
out, six or seven years after, the Inscriptions Géographiques and the
Histoire @EKgypte, his Dictionnaire Hiéroglyphique et Démotique.
The first four volumes contained all that he had learned during the
first twenty years of his life, from 1848 to 1867; the last three added all
he had learned during the ten years following, 1868 to 1880.' The
Grammaire Hiéroglyphique appeared during this interval about 1872.
It is not one of his best works; but his dictionary has rendered and
still renders a greater service than any other work of any other Egypt-
ologist. The savants of this generation have no idea of the length of
time and amount of labor their predecessors required to create the
tools which they lacked for their work, and especially those in the field
of lexicography. They had to transcribe all the texts on slips, word
for word, losing or wasting time in work which can now be devoted to
more important researches. Brugsch collected for us_a list of words
and examples sufficient for the understanding of easy texts. It is only
necessary to correct the meanings he proposed to insert the new trans-
lations or terms unknown to him, which are but few in comparison with
what one had to do before him. Without any doubt errors abounded
and serious omissions existed; it will be necessary some day to do this
work over again, but the person who undertakes the work will often
merely need to copy Brugsch or to modify him slightly in order to pro-
duce a permanent work.

Such a variety of production would have been sufficient for the activity
of an ordinary man. Brugsch could only satisfy himself by joining to
this speculations on the astronomy and religion of ancient Egypt. He
had begun with investigations on the constitution of the Egyptian year ;
later he published his Matériaux pour servir a la reconstruction du Cal-
endrier Egyptien,’ and still later he devoted two volumes of his Corpus
Inscriptionum Aegyptiacarum to new studies of these unfruitful sub-
jects.2 He had been during his youth a friend of Gladisch, and he was
imbued with the more than strange ideas of that scholar. The documents
he possessed concerning the mythology and religion of the ancient Hgyp-
tians he collected into a large volume, confused and without clearness.‘
This book is already a work of his old age, in which fatigue and dis-
couragement are perceptible. Age had taken away nothing from his
physical and intellectual vigor, but life had become hard, and he felt

! Hieroglyphisch-Demotisches Worterbuch, enhaltend in wissenschaftlicher Anord-
nung und Folge den Wortschatz der heiligen und der Volks-Sprache und Schrift
der Alten Aegypter; nebst Erklarung (in deutscher, franzéscher und arabischer
Sprache) der einzelnen Stiimme und der davon abgeleiteten formen. Unter Hinweis
auf ihre Verwandschaft mit den entsprechenden Wortern des Koptischen und der
Semitischen Idiome. Tvols. 4°. Leipzig. 1867-1880.

2Leipzig. 1863. 4°.

’Thesaurus Inscriptionum Aegyptiacarum: I. Astronomische und Astrologische
Inschriften. II. Kalendarische Inschriften. Leipzig. 4°. 1863-1884.

4Religion und Mythologie der Alten Aegypter, Leipzig. 8°. 1888.

672 HENRY BRUGSCH.

keenly the want of a permanent position with a sufficient income for his
needs and for a style of living in keeping with his great reputation.
He began to write for publishers; and the works he published, his
World of Tombs,! his Voyages in Persia and to the turquoise mines,” or
to the oasis of Khargeh,’ his Thesaurus Inscriptionum Aegyptiacarum,
his manual of Egyptology,’ his Egyptian Commentary on the Bible,’
show traces of haste. The bitterness and the resentment of a blighted
life appeared in his speech and in his writings. Often when he came
back from a visit to his beloved Egypt he recovered his joyousness and
prepared a work written in the best spirit of his early days. Such is
his essay on the so-called famine stele, discovered by Wilbour.® This
pleasant frame of mind would soon be obliterated in Europe, and the
reading of his Recollections shows that toward the end he was not always
just to the men of the new generation. He died more admired than
loved by all those who owe so much to him, although he never quite
secured the respect and the sympathy inspired by his friend Mariette
in all who met him.

I do not allow myself to pass judgment on his work, for I profited too
greatly by him not to award him a profound recognition. Like all
Egyptologists, I have myself corrected hundreds of his errors or incor-
rect opinions. I have been troubled by the disorder which reigned in
the composition of his works and by the ignorance he affected toward
the works of others; but how many qualities did he not have to fully
compensate these defects. Three men have contributed more than all
others to make Egyptology what it is. Champollion founded it; EH. de
Rougé has created for it a method; Brugsch forged the tools which for
a long time have served and will continue to serve the science of

Egyptology.

'Die Aegyptische Griberwelt. Leipzig. 8°. 1868.

2 Wanderung nach den Tiirkis-Minen und der Sinai-Halbinsel. Leipzig. 8°. 1866.

5 Reise nach dea grossen Oase El-Khargeh in der libyschen Wiiste, Beschreibung
ihrer Denkmialer und wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen iiber das YVokommen der
Oasen in den altiigyptischen Inschriften auf Stein und Papyrus. Leipzig. 4°. 1878.

4Die Aegyptologie, Abriss der Entzifferungen und Forschungen auf dem Gebiete
der igyptischen Schrift, Sprache und Alterthumskunde. Leipzig. 8°. 1891.

> Steinschrift und Bibelwort, 2d ed. Berlin. 8°. 1891.

6 Die biblischen sieben Jahre der Hungersnoth nach dem Wortlaut einer altiigyp-
tischen Felsen-Inschrift, Leipzig. 8°. 1891.

A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER!

By HARRISON ALLEN, M. D.

le

JOHN ADAM RYDER,’ the first child of his parents, was born Ieb-
ruary 29, 1852, near Loudon, Franklin County, Pa. His parents are
Benjamin Longenecker Ryder and Anna Frick Ryder. On his father’s
side he was descended from Michael Ryder, who was one of three sons
whose father came from England and settled near Cape Cod, Massa-
chusetts. Michael Ryder removed from Massachusetts to Pennsylva-
nia, where his descendants have since lived. His paternal grandmother,
Elizabeth Longenecker, the wife of Adam Kyder, was of German origin.
She was born in Lancaster County, Pa.

Anna Frick Ryder, the mother of John Ryder, was born in Maryland.
She is in part of Swiss descent. The maternal grardmother, Anna
Kelso, was of Scoteh origin. Her great-grandfather was William,
Earl of Kelso. At the time of the persecution of the Presbyterians in
Scotland during the reign of Charles II, the Harl of Kelso, together
with his wife, infant son, and brother James, were compelled to leave
Scotland. They sought refuge in Ireland, where James Kelso was cap-
tured, taken to London, and executed. The estates were confiscated.
A grandson of William Kelso, above referred to, came to America.

1 Printed in Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
April, 1896, pp. 222+239. Bibliography not reprintdd.

2Tn the preparation of this sketch the list of questions prepared by Mr. Galton in
his monograph on ‘‘Men of Science” was sent to the family of Dr. Ryder, and the
details in all respects are based upon the answers received. ‘The expressions of
opinion of the speakers ata meeting held at the Academy’s Hall, April 10, 1895,
have been frequently quoted. The words ‘‘ Memorial Pamphlet,” when following a
quotation refers to a brochure entitled ‘‘In Memoriam,” which comprises addresses
delivered at that meeting in the following order: Dr. Harrison Allen, Dr. Bashford
Dean, Prof. Horace Jayne, Prof. E. D. Cope, Mr. H. F. Moore, and Prof. W. P.
Wilson. The brochure was printed for private distribution by a tew admirers of
Dr. Ryder in the fall of 1895. The writer desires to express his acknowledgments
to many of Dr. Ryder’s associates for information, especially to Rev. Jesse Y. Burk,
secretary of board of trustees, University of Pennsylvania, Mr. W. C. Seal, of Phila-
delphia, Prof. J. S. Kingsley, of Tufts College, Massachusetts, Mr. Edward Brooks,
superintendent of the public schools of Pennsylvania, and Mr. Herbert A. Gill, sec-
retary of the United States Fish Commission,

SM 96—43 673

674 ' BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER.

It will be thus seen that Dr. Ryder was twice removed from ancestors
who combined [nglish, Scotch, German, and Swiss traits.

Dr. Ryder’s father was by training a farmer. He became interested
in horticulture, and at one time conducted a large nursery. His talents
for invention are of an exceptional order. He has improved mechan-
ical devices for preserving and curing fruits, vegetable and animal
products, and has become widely known in connection with their
manufacture and introduction.

Dr. Ryder’s inventive ability can be traced in great measure to his
father and remotely to the Longenecker branch of the family. His
mother, however, possesses inventive skill in no mean degree. Ryder
had no taste for music. In this respect he resembled his mother, since
the taste was well developed in the father. He had a natural facility
for drawing, although he never cultivated it beyond what was neces-
sary for the illustration of his papers and for. the class room. This
talent also is traceable to his father. His taste for natural history is a
direct inheritance from his mother. While Dr. Ryder never became
much interested in medicine, many phases of his researches are so
closely allied to this science that he may be said to have inherited the
taste from his father, who, although never having studied medicine
systematically, had that turn of mind which is constantly tending to
contemplate the nature of disease. A paternal aunt of Dr. Ryder
studied medicine. She was never graduated. Her medical opinion
was frequently sought for and valued in the community where she
lived. She was also of an inventive turn of mind.

Dr. Ryder early exhibited a taste for natural history. When 3 years
old he was constantly bringing into the house brightly colored stones,
insects, and other natural objects. At 8 years he knew the botanical
names of all the plants in his father’s nursery. While very young he
was noted for a habit which distinguished him throughout life, namely,
of always having his mind occupied with something apart from the
duties in hand. Thus, while heiping his father at pruning or grafting,
he would recite aloud passages from a favorite author, a copy of which
would be found in his pocket. On one occasion, his father hearing
hearty laughter, asked him the cause of his mirth. The boy replied
that he wondered how Diogenes felt living in such a small place as a
tub, and what fun he must have had searching for the honest man.

Every farmer in those days kept a few swarms of bees.. While Mr.

tyder was not a professional apiculturist, he knew in common with
his neighbors a good deal about the raising of bees. Ityder developed
an interest and without being specially instructed became proficient in
the care of bees, and throughout life often reverted to their habits for
many points in the economy of insects.

At 3 years of age he began to receive instruction from his maternal
grandmother, from whom he early mastered the rudiments of German.
He attributed his subsequent fluency in German (for he could speak if

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER. 675

like a native) to this early impression. A little book entitled ‘ Biblische
Naturgeschichte fiir Kinder” bears his name on the cover with the
date of 1860. ;

Ryder spent the life usual to a country boy. He possessed great
energy of body and was fond of walking, rarely, if ever, using a horse
to ride, although the stable was at his command. He attended the
country school from the age of 6 or 7 until his fifteenth year, when he
ranaway. Soon afterwards he was sent to the academy and then to the
normal school at Millersville, from which he also ran away, and did not
return home, but lived the life of a tramp for some days before he was
detected. He was severely punished for both these escapades. It
appears that Ryder was always very sensitive and never associated
with boys of his age in the sports customary to youth, but wandered
about alone through the woods and meadows, collecting insects and
plants. He sooned earned the nickname of ‘‘ Crazy John.” In the end
his father prudently interviewed the principal of the academy and
made special arrangements which enabled Ryder to live on more agree-
able terms. But he was unbappy under restraint. Class work was
distasteful to him and discipline of any kind resented. In order to
secure his obedience it was sometimes necessary to give him directions
adverse to those which it was intended for him to obey. Preferring to
study in his own way, he spent the greater portion of his time in the
library of one of the local literary societies. He read every book it
contained. He was greatly influenced by Horace Mann’s “Thoughts
for a Young Man,”! a copy of which he procured. In 1875, in writing
to his brother, he said: ‘‘ Be careful of this book; five dollars would not
buy it if I were unable to get another.” In 1868, when in his sixteenth
year, he wrote home asking for a microscope, books on natural history,
chemical apparatus, etc. His restless spirit caused him to drop out of
the school for good after a few months.

He taught school in the neighborhood of Loudon and afterward in
the high school of the county for three years. He was quite successful
and was much esteemed by all who were brought in contact with him.

We now find Ryder in his twenty-second year with the best equip-
ment it was possible to secure for him in a rural district. His tastes
were defined, and he at once made up his mind to devote himself to the
study of science. This decision was quickened by the failure of his
father in business, so that Ryder was thrown entirely upon his own
resources. Of a proud disposition, he refused all assistance from his
relatives, and learning that the Jessup Fund of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia afforded assistance to young men who were
desirous of devoting themselves to the study of natural history, he
came to Philadelphia in the spring of 1874, and appealed to Mr. Thomas

1A few Thoughts for a Young Man: a Lecture delivered betore the Boston Mer-
cantile Library Association on its 29th Anniversary. By Horace Mann, Boston:
Ticknor, Reed and Fields, 1850,

676 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER.

Meehan, an old friend of his father, for advice. Mr. Meehan states that

tyder visited him at his residence in Germantown. His funds were
low, and to save money he had walked the entire distance, 12 miles,
from Philadelphia. Mr. Meehan was interested in Ryder, who was,
however, urged not to attempt to live on the small amount of $5 a week
permitted by the fund. But Ryder was not to be deterred. He felt
confident that he could in some way manage, and accordingly, armed
with a letter of introduction, he visited the academy and made formal
application. This was, at first, unsuccessful, but in the latter part of
the year he was duly appointed. He remained in the academy as a
beneficiary of the fund for six years. ;

Little is known of his private life during the greater part of this time.
In 1879, Mr. J. S. Kingsley, now Professor of Biology in Tuft’s College,
Massachusetts, was his associate, and through him it is ascertained that
Ryder lived on the top floor of No. 1113 Chestnut street. His chamber
and laboratory were one. Upper rooms in business blocks were then
cheap, and food at moderate prices, offered for the use of employees of
newspaper offices in the neighborhood, could be obtained day and night.
The markets and restaurants of Philadelphia furnish plain, wholesome
food at rates which compare favorably with those in any American city.
Meals at 15 cents each are important factors in solving a problem of
living on 70 cents a day. It was the custom of the proprietor of the
restaurant frequented by Ryder to put aside for him the oyster shells,
which, after each meal, were inspected for organisms. In this way he
discovered the sponge Camaraphysema. Doubtless the work on the
habits and food of the oyster, on which Ryder’s fame in a measure rests,
began in these desultory studies.

It was a time of formative plans. Among these may be recalled—
an educational scheme by which the teachers in the public schools were
to be prepared for imparting the elements of biology to their pupils; a
course of popular lectures at the Wagner Institute; and a series of
papers on natural history for a Philadelphia paper. None of these
came to anything.

Such a life in a region of stores and warehouses is well enough dur-
ing the week. The days and nights are separated by the changes in
light—but not by changes in habit. But on Sunday the business part
of a city is but little better than a desert. Ryder was in the habit of
spending this day, when the season favored his so doing, in the sub-
urban districts, or in Fairmount Park. It was on such excursions he
discovered Scolopendrella and Eurypauropus.

The previous education of Ryder was one inadequately qualifying
him for the career of a naturalist. This, indeed, is not less than that
required to equip a student for any intellectual career whatsoever.
How immeuse the labor when one is compelled to equip himself! The
naturalist must be a linguist (for there is scarcely a modern European
language which may not possess a treasure for his needs); he is all the

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER. 677

better for being a draughtsman; he should command a good literary
style; he should be a mathematician and physicist. Ryder, in these
preparatory years, attempted all these things but the last. His
endeavors to acquire new languages and a good literary style were
unending. One of his favorite pastimes was to read an essay of Addi-
son twice and then write out the essay from memory. He would then
compare his sketch with the original. THis tastes in art were not
formed, and he rarely alluded to the subjects embraced among the
humanities.

Mr. W. P. Seal, the well-known aquarium expert, was of great value
to Ryder at this time in bringing him all the unusual specimens he
detected while making collections of fresh water fishes and plants in
the neighborhood of Philadelphia. At the end of his service in the
Academy, Ryder had contributed thirty-one papers, most of which
were based upon studies made in the museum or on low forms of life.

In 1880, the National Government was desirous of having investiga-
tions prosecuted in behalf of the United States Fish Commission on
the life history of the American food fishes and other aquatic animals,
especially their embryology and growth, the character of their food
in the early as well as the later stages of life. In the judgment of
Professor Baird, who was at that time Commissioner, no one in the
country possessed the qualifications to meet the provisions of such
investigations in so high a degree as Dr. Ryder.

He was at once invited to undertake the work, which not only gave
him an opportunity of systematizing his studies (these were already
embracing the higher problems in biology), but had the advantage of
placing him in a better paid position.

It is true that up to this date Ryder had given no special attention
to fishes, but he had obtained a general knowledge of the subject at
the academy; his inherited talent for invention lent itself readily to
the details of field work, while his acquaintance with the lower forms
of aquatic life fitted him for the study of the food of fishes, the study
of their young stages, their parasites, etc.!

Dr. Ryder always referred to this period with interest. His first
detail was to the field, but, in 1882, Professor Baird transferred him to
the National Museum, occasionally only assigning him to field work.
He was extraordinarily active during the six years he remained on the
Commission. He contributed twenty-nine papers on the oyster and
oyster culture, and fifty papers on the development of fishes, their
food material and methods of development. AIl his contributions
were carefully prepared and showed extensive knowledge of the sub-
jects treated. He discovered, in 1888, a byssus in a young stage of

\(1) The following papers, prior to 1880, related to Dr. Ryder’s contribution to
ichthyology: ‘‘On the origin of bilateral symmetry and the numerous segments of
the soft rays of fishes;” ‘‘ Phosphorescence of very young fishes;” ‘‘‘The Psorosperms
found in Aphredoderus sayanus.”

678 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER.

the long clam Mya arenaria. Professor Baird, in commenting on this
discovery in his report for that year, believed “it to be of economic
importance since the young individuals now ean be freely handled and
transported.” Mr. Bashford Dean remarks: “I have heard it said
that Dr. Ryder had, in his scientific work, grown up with the Com-
mission; it might, I think, be said even as justly that the Commission
had, in a measure, grown up with him.”* His personality and methods
had stamped themselves upon every officer of the Commission to
which he had been originaily attached as an expert. He “merited the
confidence and esteem of everyone, from the Commissioner to the
humblest attendant.”

On the occasion of his resignation, 1886, Professor Baird expressed
himself in a personal letter in these words: ‘In view of the many years
of your connection with the Fish Commission and the valuable services
which you have rendered by the exercise of your professional skill and
ability, I accept your resignation with very great regret.” His work,
however, on the commission did not at once cease. He was employed
in May and June, 1888, to investigate the sturgeon fisheries in the Del-
aware River” During the remainder of the summer of the same year
he had charge of the station at Woods Hole.

His interest in the study of cetacea began while on the commission.
Although his work on this subject was never extensive, perhaps no
other group of observations better illustrate the higher characteristics
of his mind.

In 1886 it was determined by the authorities of the University of
Pennsylvania, at the suggestion of Prof. Horace Jayne, to found a
chair of Comparative Histology and Embryology. As stated by Pro-
fessor Jayne, *‘It was seen that a course was needed which would give
students a thorough knowledge of comparative microscopic anatomy,
together with the development of the tissues and of the different kinds
of animal forms.”! The chair was offered to Dr. Ryder and accepted,
though “he hesitated at first,” to again quote Professor Jayne, ‘‘ because
he mistrusted his power to teach and handle large classes of students,
a mistrust which was never shared by his friends.” In many respects
the change from the duties of a biological expert on the Fish Commis-
sion to those of a professorial position was beneficial. He was now
enabled to systematize his time and permitted to extend the range of
his inquiries. By renewal of associations at the Academy of Natural
Sciences he was assisted also in keeping thoroughly in touch with the
progress of his favorite science.

In illustration of the zeal with which he prepared himself for his new
duties the following extract is taken from a letter written to Mr. Seal,

2 Report of Fish Commission, Bulletin, 1888, page 251.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER, 679

of embryos of warm-blooded vertebrates, which I have never enjoyed
until this season; and unless one can give his whole time to the work of
opening hundreds of females with great care and have the means and
time to preserve the material obtained it is but very little use to bother
with the subject. I have eviscerated about five hundred rats, mice,
field mice, moles, bats, and muskrats. I have a fine lot of embryos of all
stages nicely preserved. Besides this I have obtained 250 sparrow’s
eggs in all stages of incubation, which I have also put in good condition.”

After an experience of nine years, terminating only in his death, it
ean be said of him that all the expectations raised at the time of his
appointment were more than realized. He proved himself to be a dili-
gent teacher and an esteemed colleague. As matters appear to be
arranged for men of Ryder’s attainments, a university position is the
best available. Speaking for the persenal side of his career, it may be
said of him, as Iam sure he might have said for himself, that to receive
the respectful admiration and affection of pupils and to influence for
good the mental development of youth is for any man a sufficient reward.
A former pupil, Mr. H. I’. Moore, says of him: ‘* What he may have
lacked in some of the usual attributes of a successful teacher was more
than compensated for by his keen sympathy, his painstaking care, and
his skill with crayon and pencil. If he had found a point of interest in
his work he usually invited us to enter, and would unfold to us his
hopes and aspirations with the enthusiasm and simplicity of youth.”
Yet, after all is said, one must agree with his friend, Mr. W. V. McKean,
that “Ryder was essentially the kind of investigator that it would have
been a public benefit to have established in an amply endowed univer-
sity chair, so that he might be entirely free to pursue his researches
unhindered by any mere task work.”

Dr. Ryder enjoyed perfect health until 1882, when he contracted
malaria while engaged in some researches in conhection with his work
on the Fish Commission, at Ridge, Md. He suffered from a recurrence
in 1888, while residing in Philadelphia. About this time dyspepsia
announced itself. He suffered greatly and became much emaciated.
In the summer of 1890 he visited Hurope, but returned scarcely at all
improved. He had an attack of the prevailing influenza in 1894, and
from this time more serious and obscure impairment of the general
health ensued. He died March 26, 1895, after an acute illness of a few
days, aged 43 years.

Dr. Kyder’s death was unexpected, and expressions of regret were
universal. The daily papers published detailed accounts of his life and
services. Immediately after the death the board of trustees of the
university held a meeting, at which Dr. S. Weir Mitchell made a feel-
ing announcement. The board then passed the following resolution:

The trustees of the University of Pennsylvania deplore the loss sus-

tained by it in the death of John A. Ryder, Ph. D., professor of com-
parative histology and embryology. Called to that chair in 1886, he

680 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER.

quitted for it a congenial field of labor under the United States Fish
Commission, in which he had rendered great service to the Government
and acquired for himself a world-wide reputation. henceforth he
devoted himself equally, and with a fidelity and effectiveness that ended
only with his life, to the work of a teacher and that of an investigator.
His characteristic traits were modesty, unselfishness, and sincerity in
the search for truth. To these were added a rare talent for investiga-
tion, strong intellectual capacity, and unremitting industry; and these
inured not only to the benefit of the school in which he taught, but to
the distinct advancement, both in theory and in application to the science
of biology, to which his life was consecrated.

The funeral services were conducted by Prof. George F. Fullerton,
vice-provost, and the Rev. Dr. H.C. McCook. His body was cremated.

A memorial meeting, held in the hall of the Academy ot Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, April 10, was participated in by members of
the faculty of the University of Pennsylvania, representatives of the
American Philosophical Society, the United States Fish Commission,
and the Academy.!

Dr. Ryder was elected a member of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia January 29, 1878, and of the biological section of that
body November 15, 1886. He was director of the section from 1886 to
1888. He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society
December 17, 1886. The University of Pennsylvania conferred upon
him tbe degree of doctor of philosophy, 1886, THe was also a member of
the following societies: The Zoological Society of Philadelphia (life
member), the American Morphological Society, the American Society of
Naturalists, the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
the Association of American Anatomists, and the Historical Society of
Pennsylvania.

J0t

Dr. Ryder was a man of restless mental activity. Plan after plan
was discussed in his early letters. No defense was offered for this
eagerness of spirit. On the contrary, he says in one of his outbursts:
‘‘T see more worlds ahead of me to conquer, so that I have little time
to attend to number one, that often restive and troublesome person
who is always reaching for toys he ought not to have, greatly to the
disadvantage of more serious matters.” Circumstances annulled most
of his numerous enterprises, but the ideas were, without exception,
admirable, and some of them were afterwards realized by others. In
In 1879 he proposed to establish in Philadelphia, in conjunction with
Mr. W. C. Seal, a depot of material for biological laboratories and
class-room demonstrations. It was intended that Mr. Seal would
collect and preserve the specimens which Dr. Ryder would undertake
to identify and to furnish all other information. It was designed to
embrace marine and fresh water as well as terrestrial forms. In asso-
ciation with his friend, Mr. J. S. Kingsley, he at one time thought of

1 See note on page 673.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER. 681

writing a book on the infusoria, a work that yet remains a desideratum.
Dr. Ryder had aready knowledge of the group. In later years he con-
stantly reverted to it for illustration in his studies of the movements of
protoplasm. <A third undertaking on the embryology of fishes was
proposed. It never went further than the title-page. In 1887 he
seriously contemplated a text-book on general embryology. It was to
be “copiously illustrated and to set forth the principles from new
points of view.” ‘To this task he intended devoting two or three years.
In 1893 he published, under the auspices of the University of Pennsyl-
vania, a pamphlet entitled ‘‘The Synthetical Museum of Comparative
Anatomy as the Basis for a Comprehensive System of Research.”

It is a remarkable fact that Dr. Ryder, in his active and versatile
career, never wrote an extended memoir. Everything he prepared for
the press was the direct outcome of the practical tasks upon which he
was officially engaged.

His work in zoology! was not large. Reference to the bibliography
shows that twelve papers may be so classified. He onee said: ‘The
species makers are caviare to me.” But he himself did not escape the
fate of most biologists in the making of species.

I have given my impressions of his disinclination to study species
elsewhere : ”

Incompetent hands the elucidation of species is not, as it has oppro-
briously been said to be, a dullard’s task of taking an inventory of na-
ture, but the study of the ultimate forms which those organisms assume
which breed true. The shifting of color schemes, the exhibition of the
effects of food and climate on size in whole or in parts, and of other
eauses by which minute differentiations are started and maintained,
are of unending interest and worthy of the best powers of the nat-
uralist. If Ryder had been more closely identified than he was with
the careers of the great academicians who had preceded him it would
in no whit have detracted from the value of his philosophical labors.
One can not but regret, if for no other reason than for his health’s
sake, that he discontinued those fruitful excursions to our woods,
ponds, and rivers, by which he contributed so notably to our micro-
‘fauna.

While Dr. Ryder did not identify himself with zoology, his reputation
may be said to rest in great part upon his labors on the morphology of
the early stages of the development of fishes. This work, for the most
part, represents that accomplished by him as an expert on the Fish
Commission. His interest in the subject of the nature of species was,
however, a deep-seated one, and he was constantly reviewing masses
of data which he had accumulated in attempting to explain the tenets

'Dr. Ryder made a few.observations in physiological botany. Early in his career,
viz, 1877, he noted the disposition of the tendrils of Cocculus indicus totwine. (Proce.
A. N.S., 1877, 3.) In 1879 he observed the honey glands of the leaves of Catalpa,
and the habits of bees respecting them. (Proc. A. N.5S., 1879, 6; Pastime, 1881, II,
8; Am. Nat., 1878, 4.)

2Memorial pamphlet.

682 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER.

of evolution. That these attempts should have been largely in the
direction of dynamics was to be expected, since he was enabled to apply
to the problems his talent for mechanies and invention. He also had
at hand the conclusions of many contemporaries who were with him
eagerly seeking for a hypothesis of evolution not embraced in that of
natural selection.

As early as 1874 he wrote :

I think I have discovered a law which offers a way to the solution of
the variations of forms in animallife. This law I propose to call the law of
the dynamies of phylogeny. Inreading over Herbert Spencer’s brilliant
essay on the circulation of sap in plants and the formation of wood, I
saw the solution of the problem. Here is field enough for a Darwin.
I almost shrink from the task when I consider its magnitude. Cleavage
of muscular fiber; the processes of bone; the arrangement of the
bony layers ; the change of form and length and of position of bony
processes ; their relations as a whole ; their relations to the muscles ;
their form, arrangements, etc., all proclaim a common law, while every
abnormality, injury, reparative expedient, still further strengthens it in
my mind, and is the only thing that will demonstrate to the world the
truths of the doctrines of unity of Jaw and universal evolution. It’
completes Darwin’s work on a grander scale than Darwin ever dreamed
of. It still further declares that there is one eternal ever-active cause,
operating in lines of constant and mathematical precision. If Dr.
Haughton, of Cambridge, can demonstrate the mathematics of the
bones and muscles, surely someone else can study the dynamics that
creates them.

His first work in speculative biology was an attempt to explain by
such reasoning a law of reduction of digits in the mammalia.' In the
same year he endeavored to establish a dynamical theory to account
for the modifications in the forms of tooth structure and to correlate
this structure with the shapes of the lower jaw and other parts of the
skull. In the following year he discussed the mechanical genesis,
degeneration, and coalescence of vertebral centra in a gigantic extinct
armadillo,

He developed a theory on the origin of the amnion in 1886, and his
explanation of the different types of placentz in 1887. In 1889 he
defended the thesis “that the segmentation of the soft rays of the fins
of fishes are simply fractures due to flexures, and that on the caudal
fin they possess probably the same direction as the intermyomerice fis-
sures.”? Ryder’s bibliography contains fourteen titles of papers which
illustrate similar lines of reasoning.

In the same year we have evidence of additions to his methods, for,
while keeping to the lines already indicated, he added others of a differ-
ent character, and sustained by broadly contrasted methods of expres-
sion. Allusion is made especially to his studies of the contractility of
protoplasm, which is first mentioned in his paper on “The fore and

1 Law of Digital Reduction, Proc. A. N.S., 1877,
4, D. Cope, Memorial pamphlet,

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER. 683

aft poles, the axial differentiation, and a possible anterior sensory
apparatus of Volvox minor,” and in his paper on ‘The origin and
meaning of sex.” These papers began a series which (included in the
bibliography under numbers 174, 186, 190, and 191) dealt not so much
with problems in dynamics as with the old vital doctrines, or, as would
be expressed in modern phrase, metabolism, ‘The origin and mean-
ing of sex” appeared in the Biological Bulletin, University of Pennsyl-
vania, 1889. Extensions of opinion were printed in the Proceedings of
the Academy, 1889, and in the American Naturalist, 1889, 501. Ile
held that overnutrition led to all forms of sexual reproduction; that
the male and female elements are contrasted in their tendency to
undergo segmentation—the female element having lost the power to
undergo such segmentation spontaneously (excepting in parthenogen-
esis)—while the male element is accompanied by an increase of seg-
mental power. * * * “Sex probably arose simultaneously and inde-
pendently in both female and male as soon as certain cells of coherent
groups became overnourished and incapable of further segmentation
unless brought into contact and fused with the minute male element,
or one which is the product of an increase of segmentational power
which is transferred to the female element in the act of fertilization.”
Important applications were made of the hypothesis to the study of
variation, the evolution of sexual characters, and, as the author believed,
a consistent and simple theory of inheritance which is in liarmony with
all the facts of reproduction. At this time he was in a state bordering
on exaltation. “I sat up late last night after the whole thing flashed
across my mind in an instant,” he writes, “‘and did not sleep for two
hours after I went to bed because by brain was going like a dynamo,
thinking out detail after detail of my hypothesis. * * * Wolfe and
Schwann mark two eras in the history of hypothesis. I shall mark a
third if I live to complete the sketch of the vast hypothesis. * * *
My disappointments vanish into the uttermost inane when I think of
what it has been possible for me to achieve.”

After such strong evidence of his belief in the value of this theory, it
is hard to understand how he practically dropped the subject. Subse-
quent to the dates above given, I have come across no reference to it,
nor is any mention made of the matter in the estimates of his work that
have appeared since his death.

It is impossible to understand Ryder’s attitude toward evolution
without regarding his disbelief in the “cult” usually known as Weis-
mannism, which embraces the opinions that acquired characters can
not be transmitted, and that a portion of each organism is carried
unchanged from parent to offspring. He said, in his paper on sex,
‘The hypothesis which assumes that the germ plasma is precociously
set aside in order to render it unmiscible with the somatic plasma, and
therefore immortal, is based upon a fundamental error of interpreta-
tion of the facts of morphology.” In another place, av address entitled

684 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER.

“Dynamies in evolution,” 1893, he said: “Experimental investigations
in embryology will make no solid progress until the mischievous influence
of such speculations have been eradicated from the minds of the present
generation.” These opinions remained unmodified to the day of his
death. Perhaps the best expression of his views can be found ina
lecture delivered at Woods Hole, 1894, and a second lecture, entitled
“A dynamical hypothesis of inheritance.”

The last phase of his scientific life is the most instructive, namely,
that relating to the application of geometery and the differential eal-
culus to the study of organic forms. The idea that anatomy and mathe-
matics can be of mutual assistance generally comes to savants too late
for practical use. Against the example of Helmholtz we cite many
failures. Mathematics came to John Goodsir too late for anatomy, and
anatomy to Fechner too late for mathematics. When. Ryder saw the
necessity of preparing himself in these sciences (for his early training
had excluded them), he set to work to supply the defect with character-
istic energy. He studied geometery and the calculus in spare hours.
He became enthusiastic for them. He declared geometry to be the
noblest of the sciences. He read the writings of Lord Kelvin carefully;
his admiration for them was unbounded. At the time of Ryder’s death
two works lay on the bed; one was a text-book on the differential cal-
culus, the other a volume of Lord Kelvin’s works.

It is difficult to fix a time when the mathematical explanation of the
mechanies of evolution occurred to him. We have seen that he was
influenced by Haughton as early as 1874. If we can draw an inference
from the reading of the paper entitled ‘‘The fore and aft poles of
Volvox minor,” previously quoted, and, again, the essay ‘‘The polar
differentiation of Volvox minor” and “Specialization of possible anterior
sense organs” (No. 174, Bibliography), the idea apparently suggested
itself by studies in the early Academy days on the infusoria, and later
on the development of simple organisms. The same conception occurs
in his papers on ‘‘ Energy in biological evolution;” ‘‘Of the represen-
tation of the relative intensity of the conflict between organisms ;”
“Hnergy as a factor in organic evolution;” ‘‘Mechanical genesis of the
form of the fowl’s egg;” “The adaptive forms and vortex motions of the
substance of the red blood corpuscles of vertebrates;” ‘The correla-
tion of the volumes and surfaces of organisms.”! One of the last demon-
strations he made was at a meeting of the Bibliographical Club of the
University of Pennsylvania, when he exhibited contractile films of gela-
tin in illustration of the mechanical conditions underlying the problem
of the arrangement of the convolutions of the brain.

In January, 1890, he writes:

It is my hope to reduce the doctrine of evolution into a simple realiza-
tion of Newtonian principles. The three’great Newtonian laws of motion

1See Bibliography, Nos. 182, 184, 186, 187, 189, and especially Nos. 190, 191, 192, 195,
199, 200, 204, 205, 206, and 207. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phil., April, 1896.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER. 685

are at the bottom of the whole matter. Some day I shall be able to
tell a great deal that I have kept to myself in order to test its truth.
* * * Tamengaged—and will be hereafter almost entirely—in deter-
mining the factors and processes which have effected the evolution and
divergence of species. * * * I haveatlast worked out anew theory
of inheritance which must ultimately replace those of Weismann and
Darwin, or at least furnish the foundation by which the data and phe-
nomena of variation and inheritance can be coordinated with the great
universal principle of the doctrine of the conservation of energy. The
speculations of Darwin, Haeckel, Weismann, Brooks, De Bries, Strass-
burger, and Nageli looking to a theory of inheritance are irreconcilable
with the fundamental postulates of physical science, and must be aban-
doned. This also renders the conflict between the hypothesis of Darwin
and those of Lamarck one of. primary importance, and sharply defines
the line of battle between the thinkers who range themselves under the
banner of one or the other of these prophets of transformism.

While it is impossible to say what Dr. Ryder would have accomplished
in his attempt to use mathematics as a medium of expression of biolog-
ical problems, this much can be said, not only for him, but for all others
similarly placed, that a course of training in geometry and the higher
mathematics should be a part of the equipment of the student in biology.
It does, indeed, seem pitiable that, ascending the heights of knowledge,
he finds, as he nears the top, that the key which he believes can alone
open the temple erected there has been left behind.

1008

Dr. Ryder was 5 feet 11 inches high, of a slender, slightly stooping
figure. While spare, he had a robust physique. He was of nervous
temperament. His complexion was light—the hair flaxen. He was
plain—almost careless—in his dress. He had a habit of sitting cross-
legged and swinging one foot when deeply engaged in thought or study.
He was of a genial disposition and enjoyed gatherings with his students
after class hours, or discussions with his colleagues and friends at the
academy and other places. His learning was great, especially in con-
temporary literature, and nothing appeared to give him so much pleasure
as talking of the work of his colaborers; but he disliked what are called
‘social functions,” and toward the latter part of his life was rarely
present at them. From the beginning of his scientific career to his
later years he did not require much sleep, taking about six hours daily,
though his habits in this respect were never regular. He had great
energy of mind, and power of accomplishing a large amount of brain
work. His memory was remarkably retentive—he never forgot anything
he once heard or read. In addition to his early attainment of German,
he read, for scientific purposes, French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Danish,
Swedish, and Russian.

His sense of duty was highly developed. He believed that the power
of the will over action was practically without limit. Yet the motive
for the exercise of the will must be from within. Hence can be explained

686 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER.

his apparent obstinacy of disposition as a child, his aversion to class
work at school, and his independence of convention, both as to thought
and action, in mature life.

Some time prior to his appointment on the Fish Commission, Mr.
W. V. McKean invited him to write articles on natural history for the
Public Ledger. But Ryder could not overcome a distrust that his
essays would be too technical for popular favor. That he should have
declined an offer apparently so advantageous to himself at a time when
he needed money is an evidence of the rigid scrutiny to which he sub-
jected all his actions. None but his most intimate friends knew of
the costs he often paid to maintain his freedom of mental action. They.
were met without a murmur. But in their payment he doubtless drew
largely on that vital energy without which long life is impossible.
His dearest friend said of him: “ His self-sacrificing devotion cost him
his life.”

But, under the stern repression lay a childlike, affectionate nature.
He was not happy unless he had one or more of his family with him;
he was continually writing to the absent ones. His domestic letters
contain full accounts of how he lived, whom he met, and of his enthu-
siam for his discoveries. Those who knew him only as a scientist had
but little conception of the spirit that actuated him. His work was
not a series of merely intellectual achievements, but back of it all lay
the feeling that he was bringing something bright and interesting from
the outside world to adorn the home.

His affection for kin extended to his friends. His relations with Pro-
fessor Baird were almost those of son. His anxiety and distress at
Professor Baird’s last illness found expression in all the letters he
wrote at that time. Asis common with such natures, his sense of jus-
tice was keen, though no instance can be shown in which his indigna-
nation was not excited by the general sense of wrong implied in the
situation rather than by any personal feeling.

Dr. Ryder’s religious training was that of the strict orthodox Christian
faith as expressed in the teachings of the Mennonites. His paternal
grandmother, who directed his education, was a woman of deep piety.
For the faith of his parents he always entertained the protoundest
respect, aud at least toward the latter part of his life was inclined to
return to it. At the age of 18 he studied the Bible closely; and,
ever afterwards, no matter how limited his traveling effects, a copy of
the New Testament was always among them. Though, as shown by
his letters, he departed from the tenets of his early education, one can
not doubt that he retained all the force of a severe mental and moral
discipline that such teaching implies. He was faithful in friendship,
singularly frank and sincere in disposition, and disliked violent lan-
guage, dispute, or criticism. He was, always severe to himself, but
sacrificing in spirit to those whom he loved.

While a Jessup Fund student he became a devoted listener to the

tev. Mr, Mangasarian, an Armenian preacher, who, at that time, heid

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF JOHN ADAM RYDER. 687

a pulpit in a Presbyterian chureh in Philadelphia, but who afterwards
became a leader in an independent organization allied to the Society of
Ethical Culture. In speaking of Mangasarian in one of his letters, Dr.
Ryder uses the following language: “‘He has all the charm of the
finished orator, combined with rationalism and advanced evolution.”
Ryder greatly admired Emerson. Hespoke of him as “the sanest man
of the nineteenth century.” In writing to a friend who was in mental
distress, he advised him to read Emerson. He carried his admiration
even to matters of scientific import. In his last paper he quotes from
this writer the saying: ‘To a sound judgment the most abstract truth
is the most practical.” He was much influenced by the teachings of the
Stoics. ‘I would strongly advise you,” said he to a friend, ‘‘to get
hold of the thoughts of Mareus Aurelius, when you are ost provoked
or vexed in spirit, and take their lessons to heart. Wpictetus will do
equally well, only I think Marcus is calculated to humble and content
aian.” His letters contain many expressions of trust in an Infinite
Beneficence, and he would have agreed with Epictetus as to ‘‘ Whither
dost thou tend after death, that is to nothing dreadful, but to a place
from whence thou camest, to things friendly and akin to thee.”

We admire Ryder not so much for what he accomplished as for the
indomitable spirit that actuated him. With imperfect equipment, with
engrossing occupation, and—for much of his intellectual life, at least—
with impaired health, he attempted the solution of the most difficult
problems. It is not for us to consider in what degree he succeeded.
Had Bacon, Franklin, or Darwin died at 43, or had their days been
absorbed, as his had been, in cares and the routine of task work,
how much less would have been their achievements! It is enough for
us to know that we are studying in Ryder’s life phenomena of a mind
of the first order, and that we have iost by his death one of the brightest
of the group of workers to which he belonged.

ND ane

A.

Pago
Abbot, C.G., in charge astrophysical observatory .......--.--......-...-... 27
report on astrophysical observatory by...----.-..-.. ..--....- 73
ADO, Wildhienin 104, Comme Nuns) Diy pe eosesecooecceses s5ocee seeees saan cone 8, 29
Explorations Diypmscaioq~ octamer aa setee meee eae ae ae 31
ANDOU RONEN, CxO MNO Se stan eeE eo eres secoesaemseaooedaciacs Hose doeesar 592
Abou-Sir, excavations at ....-..- Ulcede esagoicnce bHodod Gadboa beamoayowsod dans 592
RODE Ol MACMUTTEMUS Gi osesce deaasandcore soeaes Cocco aodeou cease 606
ACMESOM CL DORUNGIUIMN MINKE oosecccseses psooed sooo bSedod cane coud deeb couse 229
Acoustics, researchesiin, by Helmboltz:.* 222222.) 24225 ees es sce eee cee eee ee 104
A@amdg) IBC eIiO kD Ges ace Bbele seo CSS Ge Se ceo Se eG BOGE a ROSIE CM RECS oa ns _ 224
Adams, John Quincy, mill established by .---....---.---.---.....--.------- 25
AGAMsSwhoOveRtwn.. reappoimbeds Re@emt 2. 245s oes sees = eee eee eee see 2
JRSM OLE GLO) MMS WNGOUMOW) ooo coos ceos beso beacon obsose cae , Xd, 2
Adams, W.I., history of exchange service, by..-.-.---..----.----.----.--.--- 55
NGM sae elonenr lecture Dye 22 see. aia nine aes elyere ns ces geo ae ae ier cee 642
Adler, Cyrus, history of Smithsonian publications, by ....-...-.-.-...-.---- 13
religious ceremonial exhibit by........-- Byiiels as oto geeeioioe ee ee 629
LOW On UO NUL REAL. Wi Diypere sears oe seer eee means aah See mel ears eee 74
Aghmimisuirani@n, SSCROIED AY S) 1) NOR ON oo 55 c46des cane abso cooacedous cobUcobaae 2
AGOGO, Melo CrgNeINNeMUs Wills S66 scoco secs a saeece boed Soon cube cececae 6
Aerodynamics, investigations by Helmholtz in-...--......--......--...--.- 100, 109
researches! yy Wane le yams see ee San eeeee eee eer eee eee 5
Aerostatwobservations with 2 ess oo. 8s ce eeee anes sen lene eee ec ee 125
PNGASSIZ TLOTESS OL .CILG Cy as a1 = iin yepee Soap eioie sie tes ele Scheie ceils eames 480
Aoriculiunal Wepartment, exchan@es Ofee sees. sss ceetic sao ee eee ce eee see 49
Ahmed-bey Kiamal, at Gizeh Museum .............---.-..--2--.5---------- 610
OM ey Maha EMOTES 255-65 655550 cuod oseoes naco coud 612
PACHTER ATL CMMI O MM Vy ILI VI OMIY, «erty niente cee, cine ace oie yen En RPE mye e eS crea eie ee 9
Ate Gxqotmed|, lihines eimal Whole GM .5oos6 daesa badoos cbosases base coce xii, 9, 11, 75
BOSCALCIES OM eet ne ers Steers sale Se persia e nine bee) Weta te | eaey vee So ee ee 9
OKA vOLYeIN ON CM EN baOke copys stacey e Oe maine (enemas ema eee ere ei 129, 132
iq id en ewereseanchesionees eee sees eee eee se ee ae sea erajs a aeee oat 135
organic matter in, determination of. ---- 22222. .--2 222,22 -22-2-2225522- 9
BOLO x ELIMICTNUS wal Ma yore c sp soyees pays, a reve ees orate jaioeseje slayer, cision ee 138
HDDS, TOME NOTED, ON Rea ec ee em are Een G aco wee o caete 125
vibrations in tubes, Helmholtz on ..-...-..--------------++--+-------- 108
PANIES RO COLE Cor Clb Ces) taresnys Sebrd Sp Site asia a ala acauvie elo) Mh cislavs ehepe ay nie -m atjoxeatage oth Berea & 153, 158
PLES ATMA BGs MUS CUM Ab ..2 1c rmicm soc \- Boe wins foe) a Se siclelejne Seelaye em Sele yey le 609
AMcenia pexchanee a Cen bMM 21-52 S28 s scichenie rect cister = is pets Seionseietemnsree ete 51
Allen, Harrison, biography of J. A. Ryder, by..---.-..--.------------------ 673
ony Naplestableicommittheetse-.-= sce re ee eee e eee eee 14
MOTEL WMS CHRO UY rere Sakis Se i ahstale rer evelaysiaye'e Ss Se) cee ere eevee 542
Alloys of the rarer metals, Roberts-Austen on......----.---.----------- ---- 497

SM 96 44 689

690 INDEX.

Page.

Alipenelinhen; (cause Ofecs 22. ecm s eee eee eee ee Sacer eb euee see es 127
Alternating electric-current system _.._.........---..--------------------- 213
Aluminum and copper alloy, use of...-...---...-----..--- ciate eet ee teas 513
HYV ATAU CU ULE © Yeu tip Neh "UNL yee ee 229
PEdWMCblOMiOl cose eo ce oo SU ee ve ice ees ae le cee 502

Torpedo WOat Rees ios eee ee here sete me ee ieee Seen ee 513
AMMEN NET LUNGS WRERSOURES OF 3o56 co0do0 co oG00 bb4G 6000 baDCES SbboaN OnGObO sone 599
American Board for Foreign Missions, courtesies from ..-..-...-..--..----- 50
American Historical Association, annual report of ....-.........-..---.---- 16
ATOR DA TSO Ole ete. Sere <r. Sloe ase reee rei tokets c Dajte nest cgeyaeres ri mente ee 384
AmipereanduNewmanm) das) Ol cents see eel eeee ssl eee eee ee een ae eee 110
ANTI g, WMbe, Om ev emma 655655 S665 de55a605 codd6n coe Scs soucnb coouee eaeee 127
Analytical mechanics, Helmholtz on.....-..----------.----.-------------- 100
Anatomical models illustrating structure ......-............----.-.-------- 618
Anchor Steamship Line, courtesies from .......----..-----..-----.---------- 50
Anderson, Captain, on Yellowstone Park ....-.....--.---...---------------- Xvi
Andree, Richard, mentioned ...-..-- Ba See ee ee amen a SE or cet onsen 550
Anemometer, Osler, use of ........-...-.----.-.----- COE hae ina ie eee 154, 155
Angell James B. hegent of the Institution= 222.2 sseeee ee a ee X, Xl
Amig ob Mr Conidvmmard ttiys se eee ee ere a ate te ee a ce ee ey aera pee ee 165
Animal as a prime mover, Thurston on.....-..----.-.---------------------- 297
electricity identical with other forms...-.............----.-.-----. 329
heatesourceObie ts) sv sees et ee ak eine bce) th er ical een eee ae 110, 319
Animals and plants «Census Oh = ee os see ae ae se ea eee eee ee eee 458
AMtaretica, auvjanis neds aus bral ase se See ey ree yee ee eae 76
Antarctic and Arctic explorations.....-......-..-----.---- +2222. +--+ ee nee 76
Marine life sce MLM e eee Shei cen en tenes See ee 402

Anthrax, vaccination tors sso. eee ee te eo Se Ges as Behe eee 491
Antiquities of Egypt, discovery of ......-..--.---.------ Pe Tema sa sae 591
AmititOxie;STUMS. USC OL see ree ere leer erie ese ey eet 2 cree rer iy Sye pe 493
' Ants, and plants, biologic relations of..........-.---..--- CESS G aiohaeeciseen see 411
anatomical structune Of. occ Crees ese cen en eee ete ae meee mee oe 411
darimer<Iiabits Oasis so se eee e cre cre aoc aU (Se Rp pL one ee 416
harvester, habitsioti cme. vem ie oes Saee a eter gscen sie tue eee Sea od 413
eraimcellarsiohie nse Lue eee ORL NG ee eos Oe eee a a as eres 415
honey, in/Coloradop sess. cose cece sete ee oe eee Selec seen eee ene ~~ 423
leat-entbin ge Sma bits Of ees a meerr ssanios s Sel Rey iea oes alee ene eae ee 418
mests.of, Aucust Horelionr avon seeceeek eee. co ook dees ace ieeeeeere 17
parasol, habits of .....----..-----. rape Shen Faas es UR bee cal es Rae 418, 425
plant=protecting: habitsrotyc. sso. eens 1 eae) eee eee eee 427
vegetarian, habits of.............--.-. wate sel clad! se G7 Se apa nS cn Sees 417
VETOM (OL Genie eee ee ee Ee ee eee ee ed 9 es oe ee pene 412
Aphides; germ) force oft i222 ee kao seek oie oe ee anes cere ree SO een oe 302
Appropriations, Congressional, under Smithsonian Institution .....----- Podhiodhys 2)
Aquarium in Zoological Park..--...-- Ted shrek Ge ak St pee neice ess ere a cae coe 26
Arab numismatics 32222 see eine secs seicomis nie ie leeie ee = eee iage anya cee 612
Sheik COSbUME iene che = = wise auclomenerseein en etee ea see e er Seis eres nian eral 616
Arabic inseriptionges 2.25 4e- assess ec oes seks ante Seieee oe als setae seine oes 612
Arara feathering of OWS ts s22 cnc cee cee De ieeees aa sees cate eae ces e-em nee 556
Archeological expedition im Arizona 222252 2222 esse. eee eee as eee 517
explorations by Bureau of Ethnology.....-.--..----.-------- 19

research, methods afi 2 aoe sae eciee eee eas = ee eeoee es 77

Archeology; ‘Bible 3.222232 e listinche cele oe eae tise Se see ee echo m ee eee 629
Smithsonianswork: ime 2 epoch ee eee ao ene a ee eee 13

Arches, ancvent Woy pulan sees pecs ieee eee eee eee ee aeieee ieee 602

INDEX. 691

Page
Architecture, Greek, horizontal curves in-----..---.2 -<. 522 2.2. cee oot 77
PSEC UIC MANGA HaAnC ULC Ox PlOTA GIONS cs 4)5- ccc ee oes 6 ee cements oe He eee 76
animals, distribution of.-.. .- Bee Melera Gack tsk ens, seen aan in aa alee ae ep 294
CUEREMIUS ASuUy Ofa oe eRe ee ue. os ee Sool ee eee eects 295
explorations, countries undertaking -..-....----.----..----.-------- 274.
Markhamnonje esa ce ve a. coc maie skins Secesem males etanee 278
y UMMA MAY Ore MISWNE OW soadooccsoce dacs aadacs seen nosaes 292
MUL ATT O RUT er top eee ves neta ora etacsto Sn arays a “is iain Sci erate ee eyeis cre) eieiae la saee mele 402
ANHOC (WOR OWS VOI 65005 05odad Soo or oo S050 does ed Basco Geag cocceg eeda oes 163
Argentina, exchange transmissions with .........--..-....-..-.----.-.---- 51, 52, 54
PME OMMaW ani tOr CISCONMET Yo Ol </c ole s/c aie =i=)= a/c es one niwe aise ecient Halen sat, @), iil
Isepyllona@ln Aral IsEMMNSEhy Oise suis bade ns4Ge4 anaone asta steeds soon usds wade 9
ATH MING, POAC) Olt Saba sseseo sooo hoeeuo Upon Sesuceaoos So6een ee saeeee 94
Avoizoma, Elli: GhyrelNbwiss\ tl Coe once gob soe becene Seosesesneigedoee soesge Chee See 42
Hewkes/siexplorations Meese seer seen aaa oe ene eee Sh, UG), Sil, Bey, BLS, HILT
ANACTEIMIZIN COSMOTE, Cd HONG Olen sacs seed qbosob neces esesSe Shae Seeeas qopeee 616
NEMOnMickeleste elaimyenulOny Olena seers eens et eee eee ete 511
plates: experiments) with) sae occ to = isco creel aas laa teen era 510
GROW Seasii0e CuO LeXCiAMO' Casio). ele emte a ralal oils aor ease ee ee) ees ee 575
VArletiesiOl im Brazil ot See a Mee kee wee en ke ae sae eee Ute cee 561
Arivcollection: smithsoniane see stjies eee cece sea\ee cise tein Seer eee xiii, 15
Regents,resolutionionees seen eee eee Xiv
transferred to Library of Congress. .....-..---- Xiv
Ae Cignomenclalcumense dy Diversey mete sie reee eee eee eee eee eee ese 462
ATZTUN PeLOLesSOL MeN tlOMEG) ele ae acciaana)- a secla ele elie nee eset se ee ae ate 174
Ashmead, W. H., custodian of hymenoptera.......-..------..-------------- 29
ANSSOUEN I, EN ONG) WMIER) Eiise co65 bode conc coon bouegoesde cone suse shee Goes ede sone 606
preservation of antiquities ab ---2-225 2-2. 2-22 2222.2 22222 es oe 609
NSS Pia aAMbLOUMECTCS: OLe circ eee ae] Srouetnits nlofe cha cieiniasle esse Meters rel ca iene a ae one 629
Astronomical Journal, subscription to oe ietealay le eats Oh MEY Eh iS Peet aR a ete are 8
ASUROMCHI, QUCTEING IOSD EW — Ane bee bodeao odeeec sosben edges sooo Gea Beacse 671
Carly iStory Ob ssi yey SN CERN are are ular eo, Saas el Net oe 83
litepimidistamtiworlds seeps ocho cts acrylic eee ee 2
lidar a ir Owais oer en cfeys apatenvier seuss mae tay apart re a staroetatl etarenae seats ae 90
Problemsvotes SCS ee eros eaten Sh cittn Se yape ee cere saree elaine 83
Sunithsomiam; wow insite sce tales cap eversisten sara oir os ejecta 118;
Astrophysical Observatory, act making appropriation for .-...........--.---- xl vii
appLoprigbionsMorsteasees see eee eee eee ee 4
detailed pinanceslot--sse eae eee eee eee XXXKV
LOIS OIAY Ole Ls tlh le IDE NOAE NS Co5 bee desea bebe conc 13
plan for new building for..............---..--- 27
LEPortiok Work iMys sive saeco aaa ets 68
Secretary’s report on 222.-22-2-2-2222----.-- spell Us 26
statement to Regents on ..---..---- Xvi
ASLEOpMYSIcs, SM bhsoniany wOTk iW). oo\jj0 Mes class ecee oe see yee sen eens 13
AISUE Mp SPAT CtICiexplonavlomsy. so eie cece oa cljcree oe Me oe eee oes 290
Atlanta Exposition, Bureau of Ethnology exhibit at_.........---.-....----- 20, 43
Miurseumimexslulb tb sa eee ane ieee eee ae eee eee 31, 613
Smithsonian exhibit at.............-....-..--.------.- 15,613
Atlas Steamship Company, courtesies from .....----..-..--..-------------- 50
Atmosphere, dynamic phenomena of .--.....---.---.----.------------------ 129
OV LALOLY, MOVEMeNn iO J -4.o5 esis ele lanes Aelate es telecine aia = 129
upper, physical phenomena of .....----.----.---.----.-------- 125
Atmospheric actinometry, Duclaux on ...--...---..----------.------------- 9

electricity, registration of .......-..-.-..----.---------------- 155

692 INDEX.

Page
Atmospheric movements, Helmholtz om -=2-/---- 3-22-22) 22 ---5 s2sees ee ee 109
Mtomichweichtsiot oxy cenjandyhydroten ass =mis == =n eet eee eee eee 15
Miwater Vi. O- On die baries tae ees ne aaa ae ee eee ee eee 309
ATIOUS Eph AON Sy sp blany S CHD US eae seers ie ee ee ee eee 667
Australiagaaon cul turaleresounces Ota= = sen see pene eee eee 271
Climaterotees eis kek oe. Oo eee Beeses eek MN SR eet gn ne 265
evolution Ofysce eis ote Ake cca eeiyt cere ery eee ie ele sue eases 247
Takes Ane S75 soso soe ee ee Oe Se hs S See an Sa an epee 264
MOunbaAIN ay SteM Ofer a. sec \e2 tee as 2 Se eee are ete eee ee 252
physicalvecocraphy, Of-ss=ere-r ae erie e eee ee eee eae 245
TIVELS Of sane ten oe wis ae aaeieel See Se aL Ste ee ee ore ee 257
AuisiralianeMuseumyexchances)wilthaese een see ese eee eee eee see 30
NaAlIVevCOStUMES: Jefe 25 sci sok ce tase eae eee eee ie es ee 615
Austria-Hungary, exchange transmissions with ...-.....:.....-.---------- 51, 52, 54
ASTER TUNG SOOKE RNAS HEIDOM Os665 525-056 5655 oho sboobad o264 cScsce eeceee sets ILL
Averyaumlar Nee Caey LOpsa= esac 22.2 secs shark see cee oer eee ee ea 12
Avery, Robert Stanton, bequest of.......------.---- SAS EC ORS S itil

B.

Babel tow erotamo dell ote: 420 eee es ce eae ee ae 629
Babylon vantiquities Of so22 5-282 ees ses esas ei se One ere aa eee 629
Bacilias-ecolonwandaiyphoid> destructionvol sen.) .= se eee eee eee eee eee 76
BACs, CONOHS Os sosso5 sos06s65 465555 5455e BE Se SE ON al a Sta Be ey en eae 495
DOMGOMODISS, wi OUNGEUEL WMO oss cece so ces cence se soca sseesacssoSSe 487
BAGEL, ORO MANES MMU MIMOMNIGS WO) docs cocesn seus oceses oben acon Lads cade sess cece 54
Bailey ewe C OF ;COULLESIES TO Mae ey eee eee eee a eae ea eee 50
Banal Syocme@eie lik, memorial meen WO.ccccecoccso cseeds ease 6s560Sse05 S555 650
Baker; Hrank, history, of Zoological Park by. 2-22 225 4-25555-- 025-5552 = eee 13
report as superintendent of Zoological Park.....-.----.------ 67
inalloonyobserva tions onauippersale wal he eee eee sae eee eer ere ee 125
Balloonsand shipsicomparisonote 3555-22 -ee eee ee eee eee eee eee 109
Ballows Keith quote Weck. sacecetsiscitcce ane ee eee ene ce ne eee ee eee 269
Baltes ZG Xs iC OMELESTOS sk OME 92h cere ape oe even pate ees aod Epa eeere re roar 50
IBALENtS NW VtlliamAciscomeredusplb7ber oe lies eeer reset eee ae eee eae 215
BaLgemane a1exp OLA lONS) Dee eras tee eee ae Secale eee aa ete Sols
Barometerisiphon 65, ce ss8= Se cccscasee ect Save eeeas see Seema eet ee eeepee ee es 154
Barus and Wins, creda ein soe eat ie eel ae ea Se eve ee eae eee een 237
BarsanitijpA. ao GizeboMisenmeres =. mer ree eer ee seh Sara See eer emer 610
iBaselMUmiversinyeapUplCablOns LOM eee eee eeee eee eee Eee eee eee aeaoee 74
Bastian, Professor, of Berlins 2 22 222 Seto Gs, Leek eek eee eee one 549
Bather, Bi As Pe OlO MIS ber seers a eter tape eee eateries Cet Ese ais 5 tee st eevee 664
Bavaria, exchange shipments tO) sae. = ase eae eee eee eer aie eee 54
Bayliss on animalvelectricity ances} emer eee ae ere ne eee eee 390
Bazil, Hy atiGizehsMuseumess es sseecnc cee cto ee sac ee eee eee eee eee 610
Bean, Larleron i. omoceanicnchuhyolopy epee eee see aeeee eee eee eee eee eres 8, 30, 75
BeaAnmMont/ssrescarenesiOn OSiLIChUlCe see ee eee ae see eee a ee 345
Beaversin: Zoolopicall Rawls ss. 56. sosises -tee eens ace. eee eeaee meee 62
Beccarlbrolocicalistndies) byiee-s een ee eee eee eee eee 431, 456, 439, 443, 451
Becquerel’s color=bearing lms eee eee eee eee aoe Eee eee eee eee 184
investigations in vegetable electricity .......----.----..-----.- 329
pLocess/of color photosraplivyier sass ae eee eee eee 175, 176
Beddard, Pranks onvanimalicolorationes-2se ea ae eee eee eer eee 198
se Sim exchanee transmissions) Wibhps-— == eee ree eee eee eee eee 51, 52, 54
Bell; Alexander Graham wittot...02so9e aoe -1s ie eee ee es xvii, xl, 4

on mechanical tie hitters aete eee ee eee eae 6

INDEX. 693

: Page.
Bel coppern found: at Chaves Pass: 2.025. .'... 20. edegmeece ede el ae 532
Be lironele aie civonmosaibs ieee. eran. oe Seine ce tstcjes a1 tee ee ate alee a ge 419
Bellucci, Guiseppe, museum exchanges with -...-..-----....-..-----.------ 30
Bence-JONeSTON POISONOUS AChellaL ease eos aaa) e a seel eee eee eee 487
Bendire, Charles, on life histories of birds......._..........-.....-......--. 8; 31, 75
Benjamin, Marcus, on Smithsonian work in chemistry and meteorology .--- 13
IBELVeIACONtIMEe TOM ale Ob Walliams pee Sone ese ee a eee oer ae eee eee 616
Bereheme Maxavana mentioned. 2x26. 05 Soe oc o/s ccna sek cee se eemaene : 612
BeLooy Dw OnicoM position of expire dialtes s=-)9 5) seen cease eeee 9, 75
OM CHEAMIG TNAUUGE WM BME 526 ceoeeecodssda as sacese caecencesees 9

Bergmann, Carl F. W., on collecting party ........-------.----- sine eat be cess 37
Dering Sima, Gxq oloren Om moped Oi £255 S555 Sasa coss aes soe eee ass aceeae cosece 288
Bering Omivensity. history Ol ee snes se els teem ses sera eemioeissa et eels eae 77
publications from A.) se ss ae gene Sele sees 74

Bernard Clauderdiscovers!slyicogeness= = as eses=2 se eee eae eee ease = 354, 355
oneachion ofshepatiorsiyste lla seee aes see ee 319

OD PNETLVOUS! SSC oie eye hie at ars sper ey eee Ce eee 353

On phenomenavot Whe sos ocho ae oe ea ere Secs ae eee ere 394.
BeunUmiversitys publications roms seems os ses see see eee eae eee ne aeeee 74
berby lieutenant, Arctic explorations Dyjoss. 22-2222 soos eee oee ese ee 287
Berson Dr er osbadiciascensionsy bys aase> esos see eee eee eee eee eee 125
Bilblevarcheolo py Of ls fuss fo05 LMU sae R a Nene ay NUR algae ee Shapira 629
MANUS CEU bSiO hers 22 Sere eke eee eee eee mais ties mete aye nie mee eee 630
Biblical exhibit at Atlanta Exposition...---...---.---.----.--------------- 629
HipliographicaliConference invWondonk-.- .ose25--2-- ee wate e ee) eee 10
lie orap ky, Mistological reese (oe aa sates ccna cine ea cee eens meee atone 394
‘ofvchemistryBolton/setere i.e Seen eee cece Se cee 9
Olscience;plamdtorn.: = ser tcietys sce be yearn sere tages sae see 10

POLLO Cie aye es es eee St Ph ere Se ores ees ol atone eee ee ce 10
Sinithsomianiworke inverts oro sere re oie eis el eiesioee clase ee 13

Bid cderonksympabhe ticysy St cme ane y=es= ee eee eee tease tae eer 346
Billings, J. S.. delegate to bibliographical conference.......---.---.-------- 10
on destruction of typhoid and colon bacillus..--...----.-.-.-.- 76

OMIEXp Le CealE see sas eon Reese os, lise cee eee ee sail, (3, @ Tale 7s

on influence of Smithsonian in development of libraries. ---- - 13
oneNaples\tablexcommitteee eee oer eet eee cee eee 14

Binet, Alfred, on psychology of prestidigitation...........--..---.----.---- U0
Binomial nomenclature, commencement of ...--....--.-----.----.---------- 459
Biologic relations between plants and ants .........--..----.-----.-------- 411
Biological sciences, development of..---..-.-....---..--.---.-.-----.------ 343
BiOlooype Wd WwAleUSRWOG Kel Mee )o ly siete a seeps eis penne iiee seit ealaeme eee 366
processes of life revealed by microscope- .....--..----------------- 381
bimdsexhilbitiatesshlanitary Exp OSUblON eee er een ee aaa eee ee yee 616
sedi SeeCOTISUSHO bers etek era ioreare aver ael ators otic Mercier es ore ma cuee Ramet Putneiao a cete 458
lifesistories of Bendine ons .22e 0). see sacs) Hea etianle eh oa/e ee eee 8, 31, 75
lifttinoepoweriO fern sdrscc aco aee eee ce esse a oe es es on ee 314
imaTiGsbONSIIZex Ofer pie alice Ci fee ie root byain at Seid oe aie a hee 109

Bison depletioniote amet e et aness 2 sal esee & feces dene trams oe twice sujet ls xvi
Bjorling and Kalstenius, Arctic explorations by.----..----..--------------- 291
IkpaGlnenel, INAVORO GMO cong seensoedosos bopUSeSs4 5560 ccasq4 cosobe cous 460
Bleeker vr lever VaMs Crbediccrc tie sstecta ee ate ode. Seis wiaceyare lees wi aeteilelo er nlelel sete AT4
Blood Aculon Otawhicercolpus@les\—s ssemea sees eee cce case eee eee see aiee 390, 392
ANICALLICH Of POLen bial EMEL OY) sca = ese eie eee ee te sie ei l=lciasereccl 304
QOMUMEAGE), INOS Ooo Steg oadean Coos abor cans Gab Sse soeser aden Bens 389

microscopical examination of :----. +2220. ----22-++----------+------ 390

694 INDEX.

Page.
BlwesEull Observatory OStONeee eee ees ee aseenee ee eee ieee eee 163
Board of Regents. (See Regents. )
Boasiandshinksstudyotebskimoibyaeoessoeeo se ee eee eee eee eee eee eee 293
Boatsiand ships, exhilbit/of models\ofe2-5 255.25 -2- ee eee ee ee ee ee eee 630
Boehmer, George Hans, biography of...-....--..-----------.-----.-------- 28
history of exchange service by .----..----.-------- 5d
Bocariy Ohm seneineeraas sesso] eeeeee eee eee Be Ree Smee nee Se eis oa an 231
Bolivia, exchange xtransnalssl Ons) wat heee eee sone mee ere iee ae a eee eer 51, 52, 54
Bolometric werk in astrophysical observatory ...-.-...---..----.---------- 68
Bolton, H. C., bibliography of chemistry by-...--..-.-..----..---.---------- 9
catalogue) of periodicals Dyses 2-22 5-5 2] eee eee else 9, 10
on Smithsonian bibliographical work....--....--...---- Bee 13
Boltzmann, Professor, investigations by -....-..----.------.--------------- 100
BontoriwHelenesonvbleinnrlchetlerct ze asses sess ea er ae eee eee neem 77
Bonn University, publications from -...-..---.------------ Lived eet L eaters 74
Booster system in electric distri)ution ..-.....-. BERS ae ea rack ce maeer 211
Bororo bows and arrows .-..---------------------- BEE ae Sere ee OS AAS 517
Bors, .2courcesies trom cia ocnee sacle cecaiee tse asysise eee aye eee een ee 50
Botanical nomenclature, criticism of ..--.......=---- ---------------------- _ 466
BOCA, “ALCLIC Ae See eae eee Revo a a SAS ae ate ls Sato oat cette ere me eee pe 294
exhibit at Atlanta Exposition .........----.-.---..------.-------- 624
SUUGhy Oe mn Collen Ore SURSOMNS casosccscososass snbo56 Saaccocasses 345
Smithsonian work in..---....------..--. Ee Ree ens oss eee 18
Botti MiG. archeologist o) 585. cari nesses ke ee ee ne cee eee 609
Of Gizel Museumse ss ss S5ce bk Se servants oe tree tere ue aetna ees 611
Boucards A. bindvskinsg=trome: ses eemoces = oe eee ee eeeees eee ae ee ee eee 29
IORI, IOCAT OE, BOUNGOUNTES Mis cose a50ede cong b40Ge0 cao6os badace cs oaGess Sone 609
Bonlton, Bliss é& Mallett, courtesies from=--:.25--.22--'s52 42425 see- sees eeee 50
Bouriant, U., on Egyptian antiquities.......--........-----...---.-------- 610
Bower, Annactarmersoocaeer nels ek eae tees aus Pea De ene ees 645
Bower birds, exhibitotye tetas eee secs feck eee cui Aenea iepsren ate = ee eae 616
IDO WE EINHORN Soni IV AU los aor amc a ol saeco sooo aot Boo aoSceedcsesooscadasas 549, 553
characteristics brazilianssseeseseeeeseseeeeern eee eee eee 554
Bradtordtonanimalvelectricityecesseosse cee eee cee pee eee eee eee 330
Bradley, Edgar J., museum exchanges with..........--....---..----------- 30
Brain, averacesweicoht otieesa: ce soso k eae cee le sleet lay static rere aie reels 324
Cliclency: Ofsete cet tioc ee oe sees 2 ee ad eC Sie lsei otter Eee 326
Internal WOLk= Obses mass fe pees hele eet eee ec Seine eee nee eee 313
passage of electricity from the........-. 2.2.2. 2202-2 eee cece ce eee nee 331
potenbialeneroyviexpendedabyee=ae ee oe eee eee eee eee ee eee 325
Brazil -bowslandarrowsiiner esos ae eee ee eee Re eee eet ee ieee 549
exchaneestransmlssionsmwilt beasse- eee eee eee eee eee Ee eee eee aeee 51, 58, 54
Breschet; cite d's: cee te ctee Mee ee nearer la le ie a ee AIRE es 329
Breslau University, publicationstroms:-:=2242>5-+22- 42252. sse-se sees once ee 74.
Brieger, study of ptomaines by--=--s 22-22 2-20 ee see eee ene e ee eee 488, 489
Brigham City, Arizona 222822 n ess se see se eke tes Dees eee eee eee 522
British Guiana, exchange transmissions with..............-----.---------- 51
British Museum, exchanves with... -- ses ee eee ee sess ceee. eee eee eeee 30
Brodie, ‘Sir Benjamin, veitedies tesa) | hee eye) nee ee etka eee ele ree tees ee 302
srOnzZe cashing Japanyarh Oba ate ee eee eee eee ee ere 77
Brooks, Bidw ard: ico 255s ee ee See eae RICNTE se et iaey Site SOP Parone EER 673
BLOOKS,, Wie) te, ON OL FIN of Oldest) fOSSils;oeeane eee oleae een eee een aeeeee 76
Brown, hobert;on theliskimo ease see eee eee eee eee ease eee 293
BLOW U-Sequald OnINeLVelsy Stelle see ee eee eee eee ee eee 353
Brown-Séquard, C. E., Tonerlecture by... 2. Jt oe ee eee eee cee eee eee 642

Brown, Vernon H.;(& Co. courtesies tromies ase eeee ee eee ee ceeeene 50

Page.
TETPUL GIG), TB SRONSISHT CI GCSL TE eee 5 DP ec me PE SP 197
BLWICsCh kenny MOO STAD ys Ob eeeeiss ci. co. se ctisisc es ece seas se oe see anise ease 667
BPUIGVEMA|HEY Dis, eis Cove MME Bocgooeooees sodnos cocecd ooo ueseoecdoses 610
OM I EVADMEN CLUTCHES) Gooocse pecuon doce caae coudesccuds 612
Brunton, T. Lauder, on development of Harvey’s work ..........-.-...---- 77
BIyAMibiSeAreCble exploravlons! so -ae- sce estes seen sos nee sese doses cee eee 291
utialopime vellowstonet hark: 522-2 82sec cies ecco deieesecie so sscc aces tose eeenas 26
Building for National Museum, need of......---.---.------:--------------- xv, 5, 18
Biildine sy SecketaLy7s) Leportione-4-se- sacs acces ecs coe os. See sas esses ecee 5
Billy Ie COULLESIOSMLOM 2/445 ccccis cn oc ess oa selclees ae seea bese beeese 50
UNSC OMe LOLeSS Ole WORK Olea se en narece se Deu mcie Sec Ges La see ee eee s dae eee 93
bureau om ducation,/exchanves 0f.-2s--+.2-2- 6-2. 2-04 seeeeee see e255 eee 4°
Kthnology, classification of work of -....-...---...--.---...----- 32
Director owell’s\reportioneeee-= sess ee eae ee ee 32
exploravionsUb yee watoce tahoe omen earn eer 8, 33
fiMaAn ces OLS we sa5c oboe Sok ec Casson cee tet sees oee Xxil
history tO feet sk a) COS ee nore ee, merle meme ae 13
publicationsyOh sss ese. eee. oe ae 9, 41
Secretanyss Treporthomiens.ce ee coos sees oe eae eee 19
inka essomue mentioned 28s ses ce ae aeecises se cen ceremonies Pee eee oe 673

Cc.

Crailleteta inn citedy ees irs. es aoe an a hues sue Ne ete tna Meee Mee ae 137, 144
CalderonyClimacoicourtesves from) sso see see eee eee eee eee 50
Cait alisworth collections fromyss-s-m cose ose seis steal a eee 31
Cameron, RW. c& Co., courtesies from ~- 22-4 22-222 2255222242. ~ -e aoe 50
Canadavexchange; transmissions with... 22. -.2-.- 22.2205 -sesccnese one =~ 54
Canal boats run by electric trolley...-..-....-.-.----. -------------- ------ 231
Canary Islands, the Guanches of.....-.----..--.------ -------------------- 77
Canmibalismaprehistovie. csc. so jas sas eeecre cee ees ote ninco eee cee eae 542
Cape Colony, exchange transmissions with..--..--...----.---------------- 51, 52, 54
Carbonate of lime on ocean bottom.....:-.-...-.---...---.---------------- 401
Carlisle, John G., member of ‘‘ Establishment”. ........---..--------..----- i-ix
Carnivorouseplamts rsecoe sol vem Seles slecclaie sei eimiatee sisints oeeneeie seem eeeese 432
Camnot prime ipleso fs 2 si. kes el Sc sla eee Sieebanc eapenie pay ela ae 337
@aupentersDr:, quoted’... <.02..5 26562 cnt e ese a eee SPUD iy. CARER aay 302, 305
Cartography of America before 1570...-.-.....---.---.-------------- ------ : 76
CasaGrandeywin, Tepait of... csc) -)o oe Sco eee ce by eemienlse he Same seme cisine 42
Castlemwok., onacchhmatizationsa...e--s<se-sece eee eee cece eee 394
Catalogue of scientific and technical periodicals. -...........-.-------.---- 9
Census of animals and plants....--..-..... LmnsEees ee rg ana CONT RESETS 458, 459
WenamilClartrofy day aiee ete ee ee er ia elses iu eee ona No ce ners Rect ae cate 627
WoramicsmiromwvATi7 OMA seer erocie sec injs anes cee sei cis iets ee ale Sete clavererels 517
Ceremonials\of Indians, study. of. 3.2.05... 2-52 222-2 222 oe ease S22 2225 ee 20
Whacobow, description Of..24. 2/525. 2-52 sc selon slslel ese tote sees ss See ce 555
Challenger, explorations by, results of .-..-...----------------------- eas 406
Chamberlain, L. T., gems and minerals from .....-..-.-.----..----.---.---- 29
Champollion, founder of Egyptology ....-...---.---.---------------------- 672
ChanuseOromfyino machines. ©2255) j26 21-2 sleee wan enjoin ete elie cites eyes mie te 314
Chaplain, M. J. C., medal designed by.-.....--------------.---------------- 11
Charing Cross Medical School, lecture at .....-..---..-...--.-------------- 339
Chauveau on efficiency of the muscles. ..-..--.----.-----------+- +--+ ----- 315
Chaves Pass Ruins, description of --.--.---.------------------- ---2++ eee 531
Chemical energy of vevetation...-.. 222-00 .- 220. Beeb ese eee eee ee eee eee 298

transformation: Of: sa oscs ses soe oe eo aie nia cece eiege 338

696 INDEX.

Page.

Chemicaliprocesses, thermodynamics) Ofna. nese eee eee 113
Chemicals\oniocean bottoms sas. 42 ose ee ee eee eee ae eee eee 400
Chemistry and morphology, relations of physiology to............--------- 76
Witalienerey fcc seni se see oases. eee me eer etn ae nee 383
Chemistryatomichweilghtsente.5 see saceeee sar eases eee ee eee eee eee 9
Dibliooraphysioteee assess eae eee eeeeee 1 /biah@ byes ears eae ret Sparen arate 9
colomphotosraphy, 323 5c o se ete. alone eee ae a eee eer 167
development ofmsciencel oti a see ener oe ean 342
Dewarlonvliquid) cases! seas e eee ees tase eee eee eee 135
Ofsfermembation ccs orcas sae sass ol erie creer et eae ae 486
Smithsonianyworls inl 2355 S28 see sep eee ee eee 13

Cherokee Indians, exhibit showing habits of ...............--. ----.------. 43, 633
ChevlonspueblogmminywAnizonaee sense ee ee eae ee ee aaa 520, 527
Chicago University, publications from .--.-.....---.-.----.----.---------- 74
Child, R. C., in astrophysical observatory .......--..-.--.----------------- 73
Chile, exchange transmissions with ........--...-..----.----------------- 51, 52, 54
China, exchange transmissions with.............-- NES ses eee S hiv as praise a ee 51, 52, 54
Chippewayelndian, pmodeliotmesssa4-eee eee eee eee ae Cees aaa eee eee eae 635
Chittenden, k. H., on digestive proteolysis.---.---.- oa HS ee eae a 394
Ciliary action, Sharpey’s discovery of ....-....-.-.---------+--------+----- 344
Cireuitsy metalliciand incomplete {2.5 -4-e)--=oee See eeeee eeee ee eee eee 111
Circulationyot@bloodmstudyiotesss se eeee reer ose eee eee eee eee eee 346
Civil service, bureaus of Smithsonian under .____..---.-.--.-----.---------- 3
Clark A Howard, editors Teport Dy, sss. -s-eeee ea. 2 eee eee eee (fi
QHEWAKE, 186 Wicn OH GHOUOIG WOINUS oéccnsoccce doses sen0 5404 sees Sn00u cacses 9
Claypole, Agnes M., on the enteron of the lamprey. -.--..---..-.---.----.--- 394
Claypole Edith J, microscopicaleworles)y seen eee ee eee 390, 394
Cleveland, Grover, member of ‘‘ Establishment” .............-...---------- 1, tex
Chit tdwellinias invAnizona, article, ones ee cannes seo ee eee 42
Climate.of Australias csi sess. okies shal secesoak Ses cee ee aes Bee 265
Clouds; phenomena; ofeie oss asc asc elise eceoenceeee et aneee ees ae eee 126
Teseacchesonghelehiis Ole seessee reese cee ree ee oe ese ee eee 158

Coast and Geodetic Survey, exchanges of .....-.-.---..----------- Sees 49
Coins; American colonials oaysc. se cewecnae seceieeece oe» oe ee eee ee eee eee 632
Bibles jetinysines sissies see Gees Sacre ca aoe ocho ero nee eee eee en ee ee 629
Colin; Achillemodelsiby, 22227 = emcees ces seeps oes rere ee eee ets 614
@ollinsontspATchiciexplorations see one er eae eee eee 288
Colombia, exchange transmissions with .-......-------------------------- 51, 52, 54
Colorvadaptationaminatures= sess ee erro eee e eae eee ee eee eee eeeeee 195
photography, prism experiment --..--..----. 22-222 .- Sec. o-oo e <a eee 180
relation of animal coloration to ......--..-.----.------ 203

Wilemer ion. 2: sci sees 2h ee ee oa eon aaa 167

with jhody colors: .2cis2/5) 55... saiece cities ee One 189

sensation, conceptioniofessacecenose tees cick oeisp ee cies alse eee oe 99
system, shortestilimesimet in. sass:-etaoes eeincine ae eee eee pecan 98
Colors) body,inm Becguéerel/siprocess ass seel-aeee aoe ee iee eee eee 188
determinationvof 225275322). ns aloes aso eey eae ae ee eee 98
formationyofs cyan os Beas eee Seen nice eters Piste Been eens: ame 179

WMTSSB CICS OVYS, WARNINKE Ol oa a- aodansonos poo aneqoo cooo Obes ce5c ouooKeoS = 170
seriesiof transmitted ies. 2-22 sees pees eee ae tise sa abel le stetans ens 177
Columbia University, publications from ....-...---.-.--------------------- 74
Combination tones, Helmholtzionees-seee eee ee eeeeL eee ee eee eee eee 107
Combustioninilvquidigaseswreoeaer an cere eee eee coe eee eee meer 141
Comets)spectroscopicistidy ote -2--eee sero ee eee eee er Cee ane 90

Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, courtesies from.........------------- 50

INDEX. 697

Page
Comparative anatomy exhibit at Atlanta........-. Seetyole Gos sae eme 617
Congressional acts relating to Smithsonian Tango. Be ieaeeaes aie ails xly
Conservation of energy, discovery of law of...---...---.---..----.---.---- 101
Constancyromenereylaw Olsens see cete ccs esecen oleae escese ees oeee 102
Contributions to Knowledge, memoirs published ..........-....-----.----- 8, 75
Cook {OM custodian! of myriapodas: 22222-6422. 55-26. sees eso se ees eee 29
Cope win cite diss a woe eters eure sh a oe bet aes Sobie,S ince oe cles eae 383, 472
OnkJeoAPnV Gd Ob ae ee oe ae ayaa saa soos Seas i ace ae 2 eee eee 673-682
OM WOT MGS COMMINISSIONS oa cace casoss cosceo seaead ese cease 457
on Smithsonian work in paleontology .-..----.--..----..-.------- 13
OW WN GMEMAY OF GWOMUUMOD = sacccacseaas seco tedaes sesso seeuee 304
Copenhagen Zoological Museum, exchanges with. -.-..---------------.------ 3
Copermicanisystem- objections toOmmase-e-2. se aa ee eee see oa ee eee 85
Wopennicusbhe onyiOh ce See ee oe ae See aces aa pe cee 84
Copp, John Brenton, colonial costumes from. ......--.-.------------------- 29
(COPDIDEGS, TRUS ND Fete ieee re cas eee og RE ete he ey ge OSE Teco rele gue xlv
RESOlMbMOnNS NEMEemMonvwiOle tee ses coeee ee eee eee eee 2-xil
Coppersa cenineluno pene =. a/b sees cones an eae eee ae ere ace ies Seton 546
Copticrepochmhistony oft 2224. 5 cence sos cee tee eee soe an eae aee cee 669
peoplesVientre-bey Oltise- 22.2 ess Se. See eas ae aces eo aeene en oer 612
Coguilet {Dawe custodianioidipteraemseseseses cess esee ee eee eee eee 29
CornellitimiversityapublicationsMnomess sce sole eee eee eee cee eeeee ee eee 74
Cornu, Alfred, on physical phenomena of upper atmosphere---...-...--.---- 125
Coronado/s expedition, “seven cities”? of)... 2224 582.\205. s2-----4e---o4--: 536
WARES ACCOWMU Wile ooacs dosaccdaceas sondoseseeads 41
Correspondence, Secretary’s report on .-------2--22-2---.--+----+-+-----2---- 14
Correspondents, Smithsonian exchange, number of.....--..---.----.------- 22, 48
Contist lise COULLESIES MOM ses ects oaie ne Sees oatoce eee cen eee ceo eae oee 50
Costa Rica, exchange transmissions with ............--.------------------ 51,52, 54
Cotton States Exposition, Museum exhibit at......-...---.-4---.---------- 615
Comlombsvaw-torstaticelectrcityeasses-oeseenaeeeer eee oe eee eee 110
(Cox, So Sky eA OIE IMUM THONG oocaoslecocko deoceu noboes cee oea bo5cce SEue 629
Credner, Herman, Museum exchanges with..-...----..--------------------- 30
Crowawarriorvmo dell of xies ote Cee eS cr eee wens ha ee Me eet 635
Cubayexchanoe transmissions with ss---22-2404 42525265 sees oo eee eee 51, 52, 54
CulimyStewaxrt,exhilbitioteames bye-ee a. -2 (-eace cesses soe ee eee eee Oe e 625
Cullomysaie kegent) of theinstitutiona.- se eee es ee ee eee eee eee 2G SN, 2)
Cunard Steamship Company, courtesies from .-.....---.-.----.-----.------ 50
Cunopavas pueblo ruinsobs set cse42 28 eee es Shake eke ease sees bes eens 517, 535
Cushing, Frank Hamilton, archeological work of ......--- ----------.----- 8, 36, 37
onyAumiucreationeiyths-es] sees see ae ae 42
Cuiviervonltam#ilyynanmess. 2 tees cece skeet Deke eee EROS ect tote 478
Oyclichmotions, detinitionvofi=--2- eee. ces tec kts ese eee eee see see 121
D.
WaCostars. Me honerJacthunelbyn22 2222 .beeie tenes see sees cease cece eee e 642
MaAnchonn anbiquitles discovered sat) .522,.52225 62052. et etteiesc2 2 ages ncn: 595
dZWembextipnincipl open ast amer saeco ne eee Re ee ee eae 102
Dall, W. H., on nomenclature commission .-....-.-..--------------+-----+--- 457
PaAlimiser yor an veshioations Dye sss" sees ort secs aes. Sane 1 aah Senses en 389
Ci Oya CONTE) a te sbaeoecb.oo ye BoSBEe nes COOSA CES oDe aS aaae 394
Dalton on heat waste of human-machine .:-/:2222222-2--02 522-252-222. 2.2- 322
WaniellbErotessor;citedse seein ela Cie kee ey gee se Sa ean 157
Winosey, At G., of Service of Antiquities of Egypt-.-...-.-.... eee ay aah eae 607

ONUE ay pPLOlO My se oman Me Nee Serene et See oe eS eae 612

698 INDEX.

Page.
Danwan, Hrancis, cited co 228k eee sesso ee aie nee eee rae et a 422
Darwin Onwarmer ants san. Sos Phos se. ee Caen oh ele adee See Sine ae ye eee AIT
IDE NEVE) Oia) ANT RNS). CHIGAPIMNSTNS 5355 So oSo6 cobe Seda bossco onesce sesnSassaenscar 485
Davenport, C. B., on acclimatization.......-.........-2--2 2222/2222 + +222: 394
Davy, onganimalielectuilchtivyes sass set eee ae ae ene ae ee eae eee 329, 330
Dean Bashftord ont de A Ry eres a. sass se aera eee ee eee eee 673
Deep-sea fishes, Goode and Bean on..-...-:_-...-..---------.+-------+2-+-- 8, 30
OTLAMISMS VSI ZEON oo Cae ee oe sores ae ae eee ae ee 405
researches, Murray ON ss2ce ses seee eee = ee oie ete Pere eee 403
WePionsvArchiciexpedntiOMveee ere seh ee eee eee ees ee ea Cites eee 286, 287
De Morgan, J., on Egyptian antiquities....-...-.....---..----:------------ 591
Denmark, exchange transmissions with...........--.---.----------------- 51, 52, 54
Density of oceanawater .. 5.25. Cee ofc ese eee eeices se ee ee ee 400
oxygen and hydrogen, Morley on..---...----..---- eaviitels oe eee 7, 8, To
Depositsion:ocean bottomye seas ae see eee ee ee eee ee eee 400
de Schweinitz, E. A.,on war with the microbes......--..----..---+--------- 485
Despretz, electric heat used by .----.-----.----.-- eye eet taper eer en 505
Dewar, Professor, researches on liquid air by .-----..---------------------- 135
Diamonds, manutactuned sss 22 ese 2 ost eee ee eae ee ee Sees eee 514
Distary, standard’) 25 S25 225 30 ear ny Sa ks ee ae ces ce iee seat ear te eee 308
Digestion; Processes OL ss a.ok Sess ce rece ese tees okie eee eae 319, 320
Dillenius, on botanical nomenclature ............--..---.------------------ 466
Dinwiddie, William, photographer....-..---...---.-----.------------------ 39
Diphtheriayserms culltiveationtot s-a9- sees seee sees eee eee eee eee eee ae 487
Discovery, ship, Arctic explorations by..---..--..----.--------------+----- 291
Disease: germs, Study Ole <2 sci yes ec vee joiners reese lac eee ee eee ee 488
Dohrn, Dr., director of Naples Zoological Station.......----....--.-------- 15
Donné’s investigations in vegetable electricity .......--..----.------------ 329
Doolittle, Professor, astronomical work of .......-..-.---------------------- 91
Dorpat University, publications from-....-.....-..--.---.------------------ 74
Dorsey, James Owen, on Omaha Indians ...-..---.------------------------- 42
on Siouan sociology ..----. ie sine eee eges oe Maes 49
Draconianicodejof nomenclature 2 o== soe ees eee eee eee eee ee eee 462
Driesch, Hans, on mechanics of evolution........----- oo daeio sys ci bees ee 378
Du Bois Reymond) cited] 2558 eas es ae ree a ee ee eee 368
onvanimall electricity se-e-- ses ee eee ee eee 328, 331
Duclaux, Emile, on atmospheric actinometry .-......---.-.--.-------------- 9
Duméril, A. M. Constant, on family names........---..----.-----+------- +e 479
Dunean, Louis, on distribution of electrical energy.---.---..-----.--------- 207
DulPetit; om menve System: occ eep rr se cree are eet yale oteeiees ayer nee ays orem eee 353
Dutch Guiana, exchange transmissions with .-..-....---.---..--..--.------ 51, 52, 54
Dutlih, M., on Egyptian numismatics.............----.---.---------------- 612
Dutrochet/s researches onjabsorption:--2- 4a ne as eee ae 346
Dyak Costumes) 2 ons%: jcc steers js c/a Bee iuieis c cise eb oto tche yet a tee hae 615
EK.
Jorn My IDE, ene ANMEKON) IISA HOS NON 365 Gaooas couaded boobeS nooouu eoanos coUcae e613
Marth, agevot Ue eee e scree. yam eee eee Sone Serre eee ee a 88 -
crust movements and their causes .......-....---.------------+----- 233
East India, exchange transmissions with ........-.-...--..-2-2+eeeces---- 51, 52, 54
Ecuador, exchange transmissions with........--.---.---------------+----- 51, 52, 54
Editors reporton publications. eceeere sapere eeeeec cee ceereen ee aeeaee oo 15
Egypt, astronomysandrelio1on) Ofer iene ease alee i ieee eae Se hte 671
excavations in search of antiquities in.-..............----.-----.-.-- 592

exchange transmissions With’. 2 so. ateie-e eee tee see else neone 51, 52, 54

Page

MowprWistony and reoeraphy Of ->-.---2..5i.. 42 ---5.ee5- 02 cet cease aces 669
meteorology in..-.-....---.-----. ee ae Pens Se eee oe ese 150

work of Service of Antiquities of .......-..--..-----...---.-------- 591
Egyptian antiquities, publications on .-.-..--.-.-------------------------- 610
Hin's tybubewOrlksotenie so tee an ee eet ci eke et oe wees sae Bat oe 611
emmelnyntichdiscoveny: Ofeeee ou 2-65. eke. tec Fea ee 599

TA VAN SOURIS oF st ca cas hale teyn ine (alata tis dee CON aimee ae, ey ey ieee eM cere 609
peaplevand. dynastiess js2-5 see ose es ceases 22 snes See eee 670

SCL US SVU 10 fies ae sien seers =e SeinSee) Se ee eee EEL 667

Sepul Cherss (escripbionnO tens eer se ee eee oe eee ee eee eee 598
StAbIetvesMn wOOdl ssc peas ae ae oe aaa cs Hoe oct ee Opes iecice 605

SMOMOC LINN, Wie IWAN Ol -s4-sese deco sees BeosoaSens ce secd asa ee 612
ULENLCICM MT | MeENtTIONGA == 4-5 tek sn a nec sca Saas nenen a oe eee ee eee 550
JERI, Lil 9 THEN SN ATG O13) 6 YUN pe aN car ee NO ee A Aare. Us a ee et 163
HKiffel Tower, meteorological observations on.-.-....-.---..----..---------- 164.
Hamerebneodore, Quoted sie ou occ fe SE Ae | Be nee wee 173
Eimeronkcoloradaptatione: 2.25 2c. 2266 22 oe ndee eee ee se ose eee seme es 202
Electric and telephonic service, Museum expenditures for.----.-.----..---- XXix
Hlectric-are furnace, description of.-..-.....---------.-------------------- 502
currents, study of, by Helmholtz.........-.-.--------------------- 112
MI SHES Ee wena ects Seine sols” ol as Settles a ys ae maT oe cee 329
ieee Gira 7, Bcsbn CUS | O fiers Sas 2s tek ee es rae rade ode pm ne a at 209
ERACCIOMNVSVALEMIS Hs Se me lme ae ken veer hr can nat hy Mca guna a up eee ae ep 210

Crollleys ONG Amat See ems er ah ee sok ont beat CS eto Sees hes Soret 231
HICCmMICAADpALAtus Gal liy soe s.ce52 snk casas Doe bee oe oesewe whee eee 631
distribution, alternatine Currents .5------.-25e-249--42-4- 99 — see 213
Conbimuousicunrenitees --hece eae oe eee eee 213

method siOtess ee Soa ae Sees researc eee oes 211

energy, distances of transmission ....--...---.------------------ 218

TOMS SIMON WORE Ore (CS oe roca sooces eobbed Sees Gobo aces 218
transformationvotsc oe soccer je toe ecie seit se ee = es 207

LEANSMISSION Objet aie SON SNS A Ie eS os ak ei 207

MUBULVAN TION OE NMP s oa cooess cosode dobccces cocoa ceadee 223

PEeneratinig; PlAWbS) oases es ceases eee a eee eee ee Seer 208
generatorsatiNlag ara. sess ences Seen] s eaee saa ce ee ee eine 226
phenomena, researches im .......----. -2---- ------ 22-2 oe eee 112
transmission, alternating current .......----.------------------- 216
Continuousicurrenibeas= ee eerice eee eee ase See eeee 214

lis tioteplamts foresee ee eeceoe ones oe eee oe 219
lonie= distance ns sees sce e sevsu ac cioe a ea ances 230
methods of ss. nae oe ae ae Salsas San ese eee 214

Co Neel. TAMCLN/S tec aes 52 wa ee aaeije sees emew ee SoU eae 631
Electricity, animal, identical with other forms. .--.-----.-------------.---- 329
asravibaleneroys see Mec yee saa dace beats Meine suai wie cnelasleie 328
atmospheric, registration of...........----.---.------ See wae 155
in phenomena of animal life -......--...----.------------------ 76
mvestizations by, Helmholtz inlet: 2. 9254-2 .-es saeenseeeos (Sn - 100, 110
light and, according to Maxwell and Hertz. ......---.-.--------- 76

passaceot from, brains. 2 oe eshte sels cleuieatie coast ales 331

produced in muscular and nervous systems....-.-...----------- 328
static,:\Coulomb’s\law for, .-- 22-2224 2222 2le. dese sole woes ote eee 110
the-agerofiby,M. Mascant ).4- i. ceS soe otee terce = tee ete ee 76

Wie Me Lalo meee Siem ace hee Boas hea Meissen ier Nan isn reins 329
Electro-dynamics, Helmholtz on theory of...-....--..---------------------- 110

Maxwell's theory, of -. 2.22. 5.5 22o. sess ce ne ne cee ee ide ee se 119

700 . INDEX.

; Page

Riectro-macneticaheoryon iio hitije- sees ase seeie eae eee eee eee 123
Jlectrometer; Kelvans. 28tis ss steas Jobe ooe keene seen eee eee eee eee 155
Ellendorf on parasolantsic.s 28. 222225228) Se eens panes ee eee ase eee 418
Hilesmoresvand discovery nese eee etre eee eee see see eee eee 291
Ellicott sHenry: Jc, models iiyeecs 2s asec oe on ee eae eee eee 615
IBS AWAwleRra seNEIMHON Gl 4S cenea boaae5 concaesascas ono5 sacoss ononen a 5a5% 647
Elsdale, H., on scientific problems of the future...-..-.....---..----.------ 17
Hmbry ology, Gare One. 5 iccie2 eos seek secu heel cee See ee ee 384
Ryders) TESCATLCMES 1M ayers ate ae ee ee ae 679
Emerson, L. E., in astrophysical observatory......---.-----.--------------- 73
IOP RENIN An Ofna OC Nee eee wie As aes Benn AERO sc erm bo Gon 612
Enercy, amount of inidailly rations ses) so ose e eee ee eee eee eee eee 307
chemuicalvand potentialeesseeee seer ene ee eee esse ae ee ee 298
chemicals cranstormin sg ofesees eee e eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eeee 338
conservation of, discovery of law of _........--.-..--.------------ 101
electrical adistribution ofessepeece se eerie eee eee eee eee 207
expendedibyavatallemach ime) seme yee eee cise ee 313
O@viOlublom Of 4s. ete ee ae one ae ais aad Ga eed al a Nap ea 382, 383
freesand bound pas oe Ae Sele eis wets a Seay a aay epee Nee age are 115
heat isource offic: sos. os oo see eee ios Ueeinen see eee s areveleed meres pees 319
numa ny Ghar Ss bOmM sO Mes 4 ese eee fore ore eeu sents ices eee ee 297
Kelvin on dissipation of....-.........-----.-- Viger BIG ana eb ea oa 395
kinetic: Helmiboltziones2s 255.2 asthe e oko see e eee eee 116
law ote Cons bane Oe ss Nem Sei ee re sy eee wa eet ata ee ae 102
potential Helniholita ome: 5° 46.5 sen Ser ee she ee ieee eer eee 1i6
SOUTCE OLS soe en hire ah eee ee Bre oe aa Ss Lue ete 304
Quantity, ime mame See ees aera cee re eet arses ce spas Cee 305
solar; researches Onis: s2.,.0e ee yao Sescusew one Seat occ oe aude oe eee NSU ple OS
source of vital and muscular 22552-2242 25 54 sce see see eee eee 319
SOUTRCOSSObe sis woe eee ee Deals SS Oreste ats, sale See Ie ean oertye alae en 233
special products of, in man ...._.-----.--- Beer oa aera oe oe ccs 327
transformation Of j.222 sec)jesiciged Sos = amen cece h @ ese eee eee 101
Vital electricibysas: sos eins y= ome ete arn ave Say erie alae Sree 328
OTICIMIOL 2 os se seo sok Cae stisis ae ssote ea nme ttes see eee 335
WHISICEL) Cle WAliel TNGKONNG:. sc ood 455450 sou cabo deuosscncass e5ek cnc = 318
EneTrayineseMarshicollectionOtes=seee nee een oe ee aC eee eee eee eee xiil
presenteds by CW. Shervorneeeee tee esate ee ee eee eee eee eee 15
Equilibrium; 'scienceotee:-iscee nceeros fas Sele. eit ieee eee aes eee ees 101
Erlangen University, publications from .....-....-.----- Smee eS 65 6 74
Eskimo; Brownonvhabitsiotas=--eeeceaeacee ee tece sa eee eee ee eee 293
Costumes yexlib tropes sac cesta See eles ra here ial ese eae eee 616
Establishment, Smithsonian, members of --....---..----.------------------ ix, 1
Estimates tor yearendinoyJmme 30) SO eee eee eel eel eae eine 4
Ether: theory of motions Of: ee. s.c6-) see ee se eet eee eel ee eee eee 124
Ethnological collections from Winslow, Ariz ....---..--------------------- 518
exhibit at Atlanta Exposition............--..---..------.---- 634
Ethnology, Smiphsomlaniwonkones eres eee ase eee eee eee 13
Of Arctic Tegions: zie. aaa oe cera erin seem ea meee eeeeee seer 293
Of Brazillte ose Soke cite sels ae ystisvaes cle ew te nals cae oly iaretnereers 552

(See also Bureau of Ethnology. )
Bulerton, fluid motions) sac-c sec ee cclseise scrlae eile tie oleh ele oe eee eer eee ner 104
Evans, Sir John, on prehistoric implements........------------------------ 663
Byvermann,B- Wi., On eAMeLiCAn! USHOS seer eee aeeieseiceiaciseaeraee aaa 9, 30
Evershed, Thomas, on utilization of Niagara ....-..-.......---...--.-.---- 224
Everett: Protessoracited---. --- 5 se see eee eee eee oe Pay Nai a belies IE 152

INDEX. TOL

Page.
Evolution and epigenesis, Whitman on.............---...----.------------ 396
Coperonwen en orya Ofer mierien tee ee sce wins eee ace Besse ese 394
Gy MAMMNCS MIN Pee eee either ce eso Se ua nee bee oS es Soba beet ces 684
Of MOdEeTLMsOCle ty, Mel villerone sss se sae aa ae eee ae 7
OMS OLATASY SUCIDiess selec sec sais elas laces seis soeyeem stn cose emiee ae 382
OLnMmaniC me LOMO Lewes vee e ase sciesicias seers jee See ee Sessa ee 76
well wh yh anwhysis of mescal by. 5-522 -252.5- 2. Se eco tee eeec ee eee 39
PRE AU LOMA BINA: Osi bia reteene esterase tenia elercin cele = === fsctas <i steie mycin eee ease 592

Exchanges. (See International exchanges. )
Executive committee, election of members of ...--.......-----.------------ 2
MO POLLO hele efe mma e< aria istos Cae ramen ine ee ese kee xix
Peapencinirestor the institution im 1896... 2 ee ec ec ee NOX
FAS CCLOLALYES NEP OLb OMe nin seen esos ceteris ee ohele chs en ciateueie sas) ca opens 3
Expired air, Billings and Mitchell on, composition of.......--...---...----. il, 76
Bxplorations Arctic. Markham Om eeseee -2ss. seo se. eae as 2 oe see eeeee 273
Dyebmneankot Ee thnologyeesee eee e eee eee eee eee 19; 33
bya Nationale Mise ume eo esse ee neice re eee ere 31
OS) SAMIR OMIERN MMS MGMNOM soos co 5ec0tisceescosecnesce seccdas 8
OxpP SnCu UPEsS Moris syste seas late eee een eee essa] eee XX
SCM OLE RIS Olea seod bse coon obec aaosos base Goce Uscoosuour 397

F.
Habronivon cause of fermentation --22-.2--.2-2 222-22 eee eee eee eee 485
Halconer sD renmemioneds juice Wess sey ee ele oe alee a ena tale ela 663
Fano, Giulio, on relations of physiology to chemistry and morphology ..---- 76
Harada electrical imVvestigatlons! Dy. 2-2/2. 2-2 ces sees sees eee ae 113
Farlow, William G., on Smithsonian work in botany.-.---.------.----.----- 13
Harquiaar edward quoted: 1225.) se ccs. secon cae cse esse cee tees essence 648, 655
Dey Obi, TUT ONE) CONC REG Bin So oases assaeos Sone ees Sees e ere Saoreoee ae 604.
FVayrer, Joseph, at Charing Cross school --...-...----..-------------------- 341
Feathering of South American bows ..............---..------+------------ 555
HermentabionyCause Of. 2250. 5222s seca ca tee sn ssele oe sie se elee eee so seee 485
Feuyés, A., collections from .....---... iste va gets SRR as LE a Nl AO ee cle 29
ISEMABGRS de ANNI eS REO See eor aoe se BED OUO dec oan Soemmaosdsaalsdeaaqones xv,8
archeological explorations by--...-...--.-.---------- 19, 31, 33, 36
On) pUehloprUIN Sear ZONE ee ee ee ees eee 517
on Smithsonian archeological work ..-.--..--. tet ehonare 3 ke 13
onehusayens Kart Cin asiess ay yteyaresser siege ype eee 42
Photoeraphs: biyGs 22s Vets ee ehose sete ae eos eee eee meas 43
Ee @on ener myeiranstormation) 2s... 2c -..2- ace 2 Sec oie ee eee eae oe cae 315
Vield, Herbert Haviland, delegate to Zoological Congress .......----.------ 16
Finances, executive committee’s report on ....-..----.----.---------------- xix
TECAPULUVATLOMEO tcp teiarei yea cIe fate iat abein) serepe cb ela eta oye aes aol ie xli
SECEOLATYASITep Ob OMe sare -fo sips teeters Se ease Se eioeer 3
total amount administered .......-.....--.-------------. +--+ ---- xli
Rateiysheaband ieht of, aneley OM o- <2 oe ee. oe epee eed Sloe 332
lire protection, appropriation for ...--...---..----. 222-1 e eee eee ete eee Xxxl, 4
Fish Commission, collections from.........--...---.--------+--+. .+-2------- 31
ORCA GCS: Of esr 1s slows Apo wis Sais Chaney ale 49
IETS, Oss CHICO Sees Ee eos Mees oe ee ear ater s Sen Coen v ieee CPE at er eee Ry a 243
Bushes, deep-sea, Goode and: Bean OMe. -. 225. emis ci sae mene = -e ses ceee ee 8, 30, 75
LOOM OL eee ey a salt clos See tae mesial ay ehiclajeiem ie eRe oop ates 405
ClOCbnicqOno ams sine cme res et as Seen e ity erste eure ame hata fer dae 329

EMD LY OLO My NO eh y COI O Menai 3 t= =a o lest dale oe wee esis eee eae ae 681

702 INDEX.

Rishessexhibit of at Atlanta. 225 olin cose wee aera tier heey Ce eee eee
PENELICMAMESIOL eee seer seal oe eee cea ee ee Eee eee
of North and Middle America.........-......-- blade canter oye peels ep ETS

Blaminsoesnessh pitiless se ess cots ae elses ieee ee ere eee eee eee

Flight, mechanical, experiments in .-.--..-..--.--. -2 222. 222-252 eee eee

Hint Dr yonlmusculanmsystem) seessseee sesso eee eee ee eee eee eee

on) constitution of matter -2-- 22 2-2-2. 2s. es ae oe mo ee

Bilimivchipped sink Ovp teers seeac seer cree aera eer eee at sebine asec

Flint weapons in Somme Valley..-...........--...----..----. soe foeeies seit

Florida, archeologic explorations in..........-..-.-.---------+---------e--

prehistonichpeoplesioters Sosses Seer ee eee era eee eeeee Weyer
researches among Indians of..---...---..----- .--+-- --e--- - eee ee =e

Flower Observatory, Newcomb’s address at......---...---.----------------

Fluid motions, discontinuous, Helmholtz on.............-.--...---.-------

researches by Helmholtz in ...........----..----...---.----

Hiworine experiments awit lise. sme cice seer ieee ee eee ere eee

Flying machines, Chanute on ......--..--....-..-- RE Leisps mie idle aye em eye ate

WanpleyOm es seo. Sete cist eens mesa r= teas eae
HohnyGreeniangedescriiptionioteses ss —eeree ee ee eee coe e eee eee eee
Rood average daily, need Ofsccos.n. = -ceies coe etic naeei oes eee ee eee

COMP OSItIOMOfee asa 5 Rokk cela sec iine cee wets see eieeis eee eee
MUS ClE=MaA iMG sae see sa eh oa ssiahe Seems eens eee nieee a eee eee
quantity meededsdaily<aoccs esos seen eee secs ee eee eee nee
transformed into vital energy. .--- Sue aise ie ein Hise EEC ee ak ee
wses:of Churstononeres2es52 so nt eeeeen nee ccinee ee Nase eee ae

Food-energy transformation, Thurston on.........-..----.----.------------

Foraminifera, index of genera and species of ....-.....-..----.-.----------

iHorbesEHennyaOssonvAmtarctiCares. = ses eee eters eee eee eee nee

Forel;August; on ants nests 22o2)322 ss sot acs .3 Set ate eee cee ete

Fossil antelope of Egypt---..------- EEC ne NES ME eS meee bg 15s

: Fossils discovered by Prestwich... ----..----22 2-222 -5+ ee eee eee eee eee
exhibited at Atlanta Exposition.........---..--..-----.------------
mew Collectlonsiob ele fete es es ern ee eee an a ens Be aie
@ipleahn Oi Ollesng, Loy Wyo 1X IRONS 56 Ghd cade oe 6656 50554 aaedsuoseces =

Hosters Michael ongphysiologys sss5seeseen oe eee eee se eee eee eee eee

on recent advances in science ......-----..----.-----------
Quotedss2a22 228 Sacer te cere a ae ene eee

Fouquet, Dr., on Egyptian glass making ...-...2....--..------+-----------

HowkeGerard)sontstone ante a r--nee se pees ane anos eee eee eee

Fraenkel on diphtheria bacillus .......-- he eee en een Ses CMA eS

France, exchange transmissions with........-:.--.-...-...----+.-----+----

Hrankland ers citedmenemeneas- =e eee ee eee sis cfoveralerci Sa Spenre he ss ene

Prankland; Perey, citediast sot sans sesetew scorn ses cece ne aces oom ces meee

Frankland !onjfoodsscss Gaocace eels beee eS eee ee nae me eon ae Sasa eee eee

Franklin, Benjamin, electrical apparatus by ..---.---.-.-----------.-------

Frankdinis“electricalawheelvaee sci eee ee een eae tee ee eee ee

Hranz Jose band discovery tess se see oe se aaa eee eee ee eee eee ae eee

Fraser, Willoughby, on Egyptian antiquities. ..--....-.-.-----------.------

Freiburg University, publications trom. -22°.).2- 2.2. --- 25-2) = soe eee

Fritz.and: Witzigy cited s2222 5523 5 sm aeee ee a2 cones eco cis sae ones eee ee

Bunch yw dyerd& Co couctesiess rom, see eeee ere ee eee eee eee cree nee Serer

Fuller, Melville W., member of ‘‘ Establishment”.......--...---..----.----

Chancellor of the Institution ........---.----.---.----
Regent of the Institution..-...-....---------.--------
Fullerton, Georges soe ssceed cau ccae secs mate ct etiaae ee ees smoeeinee oer

INDEX. 103

G.
Page.
Gage, Simon Henry, on processes of life revealed by microscope .-.--...---- 813
Caileo onimertiay Of Masses] = 22.- occ. - enclose ee ee eee 116
Galleries authorized in National Museum ............-.--..---------------- xlvi
Galva, Chig@Oenles lD\y2255 8555 ccob Gcop Eads code os0b5s 6 5eb obese -6ee She se snune 328
Cmitery ewe on) the Gwanches) es... 5.s)2- 5. aeons eee esses ees oe one 77
CamesTOLieim awd Slomificance Ofc 222. S55 2-6 -- 2. Seana ee en sees k oes 625
PAOU), RUNG TUNES owe) Beco eoes Sees cons odes asceee seea eoesed seo sere aes 605
eae LUN cul US UEUD ULION, Olina se /\2)= sen roel cee ens ae een ee ne seam oie ee 229
Gases iim SOB WRG S65 ces bo5d500s sean coos e505 seed oud Eoee been onea bogs Soee 399
Gastric: juice nature and properties of..22-..----+.--2--...--..<-----.--2-- 345
Gatschet, Albert S., linguistic studies by...--..-----..---.----------------- 40
Gay-Lussac, aerostatic ascensions by ....-..---...-...--.-----.------+----- 125
ontanimall electricutyics. 22.56. - 5 Soe seem eee oe 330
CebelembyamGlqwitiesvab) 2.2 fea 2 cir els oes siesta ge Senin socio eie eet lec 606
Gramemlngnie, RESOAIRENES) yy Secbe5 cbcuoobsoSs bese ee Sooke bc oeo senses Kooaouee 344
Geike, James, cited.......-.--....---------- ajar ate eneeeia) MP Syn gu eed aah eee wos 247
Generic and specific names, origin of ..-...--...----------------.---------. 458
Genoa, Museum of Natural History at...-.......-.-...--...-----.----.---- 30
SHMIPMS Op WACO UIE TRNOIGIS Biiescoas so5e58dneo ee oode Sood once deco bead 16
Caouanlnyy, cay nimi, leraneINeln Oho = 635855 coke ooeg eee es coe e eee seed eas ccee 669
physical, of Australia............--- ache eae ae ae Aer 245
Smaithsomian workers ake ce dees corse sce ak lel yolaeey oe 13
Ceolosicaleagencies, ClassiticationyOt: << <2 enc 99 ies fees ea ee 233
acevoltheearth s.o0 eo echoes os se Gate he aie See aes 88
changenn Australian. soso. 05. ols fos wee + cece ease see epee 245
exhilbitpatrAlanta sl sqpositlomms ss cee. oe eee s see ee eee eee 622
forces imiearthh’s INteRl ON. =< fee seis feo bes is ee yee see ee oe cee 234
phenomenon the earths me soca eee cese eeee 233, 408
SVEN eX CIAINCS Ole mye ecto ap ay aot rae es ie se 49
mob Ol Joseph PreshwiChs s.r ics. son Sepik es ae aki aera 657
Cen Gy, Gy DINAM = 552 S3 Seconc\bccopecesatass sococoeseeones accuse Jacsecieces 611
GIGlel, CEBU O Vs soseu.coccéd secued usa uecebmeebose roe oes cdoe dene 292
Otgbngland. Prestwich Ones. 2. 2. 62 es ee eee lee eee cinco eteese 659
Smithsonian sworn (cooper ecco see toe eae sere em emus rale 13
Channeling NOLO CNIS, Oh eo. 6eees5 aseoco cosesulbaceas vocos cogobr bane eeoees 97
WLOMINCC.Ofs ies case oes eeelee oles Chaos eee ee parr Bro Oe 2 94
Germany, exchange transmissions with................-..---------------- 51, 52, 54
(CeLrmMs POLSONONS CUlIVALLOM Of. 22-5 Focace + gece foe a snc eee ee 487
Gherard,/G., cited 32-2. 24-25-22 -22c255--2-- 5 eg PE Se he trees op eee CaN Sire 466
Ghost-dance religion, Mooney on ......----.----..---------.--------------- 42
Giessen University, publications from ........-..-..----.-----------------. 74
Gillosiee, Co lke5 Chit oe Sd Sheet ede ecu onoe bool osecos Seeraene ee seerae seus meee 237, 243
(Grill eller b erieAt ees 2 ies eee ee ee ee aus saemce ec eM fe an cee eee ae : 673
Gill, De Lancy W.., illustrative work by...------.-------------.------------ 42
Calle puneatore, OMiMOoMenclabure =~ ---. <= - som fst een see a omar: 457
Smithsonian work in zoology .--..----.-----.------------ 13
Gillis; Cornelius, Arctic explorations by...2-.2 262. -222+..-22--.-02 4: -steee 276
Gilman, Daniel Coit, on cooperation of Smithsonian with learned societies. 13
Chyops, 1h By Gnidia aa aS Bale See Se ee aoe Hae eens ae in te aero eee 260
(CniohmexcCayablOMsiatse 2 cee. cress sole oe Bey ee Sea ntelaiis e ajasie Seeley i este 592
MMTISOUMMPOte se 2 2 ace, cree wie l eae RUSS meee tiie Gearing peers atey Aarts a 609
templevot the Sphinx ab 222s ssseiis mice ee ec elciaels = 22 ocean esis aoe ‘606
Gilacralvdmintwisoudly, Ole ie. soins occ a cers sie eye oe yee eels Sid eis acer sees 662
GeoloryrotMULOPCes see ee es nce acd ee ee eee eee soe eee 292
period, earth oscillations during..............----- raisins oto elas Wee ate 240

104 INDEX.

Page.
Glaisher, James, aerostatie ascensions by.------ 2-2-2 -- 22-222) - 52-2 125
CLEC Deke Kaeo res ee Dae tne oh en Pa eee nao ir a 153, 162
Glass;-anciont Dyrian: 2 ens. sss eae: tna oe ae ee Bee ae eae eee 626
Glassmaking sancien tMey pan: samen se ee .2e eee eee oe eae eee 612
Glycopen; disco verysOhesecme cee cc misseeisice te cee een oe See ee ee ee 354
Giycosicomatter, distributionneles oon e ae ek a ee 320
Goode, G. Brown, administration of Museum by -..-...------.---.--..---.- 18
ABSISLAMtjSCCTELALY Ss asec see ses coc as cee ee One: eae eee ix
biographysob: 225i: ) sees jane SEES See ee ae 13, 27
half-century memorial by.-... Unig sit besie eee eee 12
onloceanicuchthyolociyeese eee eee neon ee eee 8, 30, 75
Smithsonian asaiie at Atlanta epariion aphes o eS 612
Goodsit;, John. J 2s snes aces nlc nse tea oe ee cee Ose a CELE oe eee ae 684

Goodyear, William Henry, on Greek horizontal curves in Maison Carrée at
INSITG Sele Se cites aeeniaahel wie hcl cine ro Sein ayerelere ier Sta ses ere ere ta yO aera ae la
Goulds quoted Wan. {eae ager aia ayaa ern) a |e ea eee eee 384
Gould, George M., on method and meaning of life..-.----..--..........---- 395
Cournahrrantiquicies foun dsaite sss seee eee eee ee 606
Gowland, W., on art of casting bronze in Japan --...-....---.-.----------- Te
Grahamisiresearchesioniabsorplioniee= ss] sere ee eee ee eee eee eee 346
Creams, Chewales Seah, Os 10355 a5 55 saan cooeSe aesasssue seeca cece 29, 30
Cray ba bio memksime tic b lve Ord CSy 0 tess eye etree 650
Feadhjustim EntssaAsaore a seers | eee. ee ee eee ee eee 241
Guay, Georse phecentiot the instiiintione = ss= ne eae ae a eee xpd
TESOlMbIONG DY sss Sessa cies eee ee one oe alae Se eee es Xiv
Gray, Georveskoberticited:. +225 sees. = ee 1 ape as PIE!» RS Oa: 474
Gray, Johnitdward> Cited! 555 octwacmese seks See ois Sete Sees 480
Graye wiomassplysicaletab) es) year emma een o ea ee eee 9
Great Britain, exchange transmissions with................-.------------ 51, 52, 54
Greelyss Ar chicvexpl OnabiOn See se rise sale esate eee ae eee 288, 290
Greenland, Peary/s explorations IMs 22 a2 2nis-- See ears ee ee oe ee 290
Greenland-tolin;, eseription Otter = arse oilseed 295
Greenwich observatory, descriptionvotees =e 45--5 4-2 doer eee eee 152
CVU yt (Con GIG so ean cece sb hobo on coe oo sao a couean Soe5 seas esac s Sse 247, 251
Grietswald Wniversity, publications from----:2 22. 4522225-22---222 4424 5-- 74
Griffith, Sir Ss Wercited tau, 2 Seue ih Se Cea Net he ee ee 246
Grinnell iGeorceybird) mammals flo meee esse sees e eee eee Eee eae 614
Ciro, lh, Om lea vineIn PyNIOTUNMES onc nh sben cobacd ee see soe eae 2665 sas52254- 612
Grotian, Peeieccon on color photography a eetay acca etre aS es eib ave 2s ean open 179
IMEMMONE cic see sei So see ese see eet ee Eee 174
Guadeloupe, exchange transmissions with........:..--.---.--=.----------- 51
Guanches, thesoim Canary, lslandseees sees Seer ae ae ee eee eee ieee 77
Guatemala, exchange transmissions with.......-....---.--.--------- WB Be 51, 52, 54
Guiana bows, deseriptionot 222222 n2 == eee eae en ee 5d5
CPO EN uliEtl Goeubpooasonoocanacoss aos er onicconsdpueese sobone ssaeeeoss¢ 176
Gyratory movement) Of—ains-. ese ese oe se eee eee eee ces 129, 132

H.

Habel,,Simeon; bequest of: -2 5. 22so.c28 Sos Seek. seeeaeo ee pel elses epee xix, 3
Haddon AC; Musenmiexchances) witliees-e ie eoee= ee ee eee eee eee 30
Hadfield, Mr., chromium-steel shell made by ....---.----- aires Stare egy SNE ers 511
Hail, cause of formation Of-se- 2s see 2 es ee ere oe ee eee 130
Hairs MICLOScOplc SbUd\s O tere ee ee eee eee eee ene eae eee eer 348
Haiti, exchange transmissions) with2--. )222-e === 2-2-2 oon == eee 51, 52, 54

Halderman, J. B., Siamese costume from .----....-.- ..25.-.---- «----------- 616

: INDEX. = 705

Page.

Hales, Stephen; om circulation of sound........---.-1....-----.---.-.------ 346
Halizcentuby; memorial. contemts Obs o5- 222225 J220-: cael esas tose hee 12
nee Marshallonretlex action ol heart... 2.-- 5-245. 22-0--5s5s555 s5ee see eee 346
HallenUnuversity,; publications from: 2-2. .2--..--2-. sps----ss5 2-2 ese elke 74
IBIAS, COQWSD Ole. cSsesencu Gaobe> pan Ole see eee Re SME AOE a are Meee en ate 126
RIPE TAME MUL PAIN TC ALUM Oye joey eerie seh nine! Saas) Sb wa a Neinisine Oeics eae 126
Hambure-American line, courtesies from ---22. 222. -2242.52-- 22-1 2-2-0 - 222 50
BlamivlliCn, Vannes, IEC INAsW Olieeos esceee baba BBE pase ose eoeGas Goose sccecisese UG, 8
Eamnil con2syprinciplerotleastractlOM s2s2ee). eee seas soe] oon aeeeee os eee 117, 118
TAN SO MPa ery CHU Chevette eaten aeraie tae Sears ee crate ae iie chee aia seme sk 137
HaARcnessuNValliam Oni Solar sySteMme 2 20.22.52 22 =< s cine eect eee ese 76
EELIMNCIRE ON Olle actal OTEby a eieetel <2, Scie — cee eee ieee dee abee eet. 662
Harmon, Judson, member of establishment. ........-..-.---.--..--..-------- 1x5 I
Harrineton. Mark We on weather maine, 2222222522 2055255222 enn eens 76
FIEELIS An © Onnieroshyphical stamdardsiscs5 sss 4-e 52 eeeseece cee sees os ase 669
ELD ISS OW CUE Cusecee ea palts Sra ae citatatniclev=, sie’ iove) eelcicl ote eee pee eames Cae 157
ELV EV AZ OOH ATIMOT) sp lable sor areata eet arene nia veo ee cisi ela ais ate aoe yciseioreis a iereie tise se 511
Harvey’s treatment of heart Aisanees SINS So Slate a) atalerats We, eye Mane erase & 77
ASS ayaa mblojpumnlvestatess cise, oos ie wns OA aces eee ese ae ween oaee Se 606
IBIGATE, QOL, ENING UelNe) WANs) TIVO) SOBA ee See Soe Gagaue Sede decade ssauccecue 351
diseasestitreatmentiobe as sete eee ates Nery ue RTE pa ae ke We
muscular power of the --....- Wale Moe SR pe atte dicta de Er ieee ah a sec 315

SUMGLY OIF AOWIOM, Oi A555 55605555 oscnesoeoe see Ag Matos ars Cpa ane 346

leat eaminnal SOUNCE Olt a = feai Ss ewan te niainies Mae 2 Malas ase hayecpale Uren eee ees 101
GGA SOWIE) CO) 8S BOAO bed SeON SER OEE rare Maur tee mares aids Aare 319

ime voOlutionvor SOlay Systemsss 34-52 ss2 oes eons seis ese eee 382

Sola, WING MIC NENA, CAMA, Ly sooccoe cans cass coeescesss saceeo saaone sqes 125
mechamicalytheory oles te secon ok Ele i a oe he eee eye Somers res eee 113
pDhenomenayphiy sil oo alley ae yeaa eee ls eee ae 101
Cathe MONtlOMeGh, (yee So Cee eel yee Dec Si. er oe eee eee eee ae 148
Heating and lighting, Museum expenditures for..........-..----...-.------ XXiX
HewerteMevArab costume from: o- f-oLe--- so ssete ot base awe ce osee oc aee: 616
erdelbers: University, Helmholtz at 225-222-2225. 2222-22222 252s. oes 93
publicationsttrom).so--e ee nem se sere oe ee sees 74.

Heidenhain, Professor, on lymph formation ....---...-.-....--.------------ 317
Heights in United States, dictionary of......-.....--....---.- US sees 638
Isleiinn, IDE. Om jolennS eMNl BIS) So5 Boe Sooocousones Goeues socees sobs edad coeuce 411
Helmholtz, Hermann von, biography of ......--...----.---..--------------- 77
MUVESHGAMMOWS IY oasca sede conoss secu sneeccee ose 93

Helsingfors University, publications from -...-...--..----- Sse bere eh aR ce hare 74
Henderson, J. B., elected chairman of executive committee. _...-.-.---.---- 2
executive committee report by ..--------.---..----------- xliii

re centOte ube) Mn stitMblonie seer sae ee ease eee es eee XG, Xl

Henny osephyand the teleorapheeseescssscs ene oases eee ae ees seam ese 652
elecinicalvapparatus) Off see a2= seae= seen eee eee eee 632
onrarticollecbiomiss2 tose oe Sass Sat wees ete Se eee ee PEE xiii, 15

Oo) Whe, IEA pes boesecenicouo hue oceseeeBeDes dedemeyeuoobor 648

plans international exchanges.........--.-.----.----------- 5)
SGlembifichwRIIN Gs Of s22ce/ec oa soa tea nat ce oes saeco acide 651

Hennya tne wie Mendenkall om cao52 oss jhe sel eee ee 6 Heist oe Lee 76
Hensel, Bruckmann & Lorbacher, courtesies from...-...------------------- 50
Herbert, Hilary A., member of ‘‘Establishment”.....--..---.-------------- 1
HIeLMeNS SDT tClbedy asso. sacs aoa d bacercinie cise seUae spectlere Swete seo ecell Ss 176
HertwiesOscarvon. cell outlines s: .25--js.c22oe saoebiss Seas eae eee ete eee 395°
Hertz and Maxwell on light and electricity ......-.-.---..-.--..--------+--- 76

sm 96 45

706 INDEX.

Page.

Hertz, Heinrich citedite. 2 -scesen peer et eee ee ee ae ee eee 120
qQuoteder cen 2. sre ka oa ere ee oe spe ee eye ree 94

sketehiof dite oft of. Pisa as Se see ae Sena 77

Herz, M. Max; of Arab Museum: <2 (2) )sce6 oa-ieriao eee eee ea 612
iHesselsren. Nicolaus: cited: ee. co-- eee nee eee eee aes 461
Hewitts Je Ne Bs, lin'ouistic studies yess] 22 4-ea ss esa eee cee ae eee 40
Hieroglyphs, Egyptian, Brusch on.....-.- 266 bees See es see ee ree eee G68
Histology, physiological, Gage on .-2--- 22 2--2----2- 22-2. 0-5 - ase 381
Hutte chs, egentot the institutions =: o= s+ 5-)256 ese === eae 5 WZ
Hodge, C. F., on functional activity of nerve cells..--..--.-. ee LE eee 395
Hodce, Dr, On NELVOUS SY SLCM Ao rete aie ent eee ee 387
Hodce, 7h Wi. editorial -workOfe cone wae wari oe ee eee ee 41
ethnological) worl of grrr aoe ee ee ee eee 33, 38

Hodekins,; Thomas: G:; oits Otic. as sets ein as Se ee eee xix
Hodpkans fund s<expendiburess homies == eee ee eee eee eee eae XxX
Neerebary’s report) Of 28) ae 8 se eee ee Xi, 3

Hodgkins fund prize memoirs .--------.---.------- Meg epee, Eee = ee 9
Hodekinsstundsprizes;.amount:Obs.. es -eeee = =. eee ee ee ae 3
AWATC Of scart acum oe cies ewisetic = = eee ee xii

Secretary's report om -2-- 22222552225. -5- eee 10

Hodgkins medal of the Smithsonian Institution ..--...-..---..----....-.. 4 11
Hodgkins portrait presented to Royal Institution...-.......-...-...-...--- XVili
Hofimann,sC., cited en oe sce es esis Cet oe caro ec ee gen eee 466
Hoffmann, Walter J., on the Menomini Indians.....-........--..-.---.-.-- 4}
Holden, E. S., on mountain observatories..........-..----.---..----.------ 9, 163
on Smithsonian work in astronomy and astrophysics .--.---- 13

Holmes, W. H., on Potomac stone implements ..-.....-....-..--.---.------ 42
ony prehistoriciexiile antes eee eee eee AQ

HoltvIud £6; quoted ys ):2c eee ees acme eee eee eer ee ei ees 647
Holzapfel, Professor, mentioned ......-..----.-----..----- Sette ann eae 174
Homolobitrmins\description of -e. ee eer ee eee eee eee eee eee 521
Honduras, exchange transmissions with ........-....-----2----..f.--. 2... 51, 52; 54.
Honeydew, and ants, observations Om 22-252. 5-2 hoe eee ee See 420
Hopi Indians ancestry ofs22222 eo. Ses ie ce See See eee 539
SxPlOTALLONS 7AM ONS eyo ae nly eee eas eet a eee eee ee ere eee 521

Hornaday, W.T., coyote group mounted by...--...-.--. .----.----- .--.---- 614
mo Geli Dyers tee eters ee ere eee a kre = aes ae en 615

Horniman Museum, exchansesiwabht a. see eee eee eae eee 30
Horopter, delinition of sis 09eecia ee ee nel elected ae oes ee eee 95
Horrebow,)Danishvastronomete sar eater eee eee eee eee eee 85
Horsepowernn viltalmachiney sess = ae eeeeree eae eee ee eee eee eee ee 316
Horsley; Victorirescarches so yew aan sete eee eae tere hate ea ens 507
Hough Walter, costume dihouness Dyes eee ese e ee eee ieee 615
explorations -DYyic2o- ssa el ee Soe alee as Set Sed we a eee 36, 518

Houston, Walliam) mentioned) s2 22) asec elon eee eee eee eee 272
Howard, L. O., appointed honorary curator .......--....-..---.-----.------ 29
Howell, W.H., on physiology of secretion....-. ee is Sea dey a Seopa 395
Elowiellsh Wei eicibed pierre iee sees eerie aaa ce eee ee emer 231
lek pints Wo, OlicOl Ac Sereeaaeaa cade uooODodaoDbe OdeooE see acmiceoe seeochoood 265
Howorth, Henry, on methods of archeological research. ..----...-..---.---- 77
Hubbard, Gardiner G., elected on executive committee ......--.---.-------- 2
executive committee report by ...---.-.------------- xhii

on Smithsonian work in geography ..--.------------ 13

veSent ot the lmstiimbione ss -]s5 a- = eee ae eee eae xox

Hudson, Henry, explorations bys. - sos. saae eee ae ee ae eae 275

Humboldt, cited! 22282 ASO, Soci trcla siciet cuore Seer eee steep S ga 328

INDEX. 707

Page.

Jb, IGT, GORGE, Senet SE hers te coon ce eene He oeE nese rece: Sener me laa. 647

Eubdey/s studies at Charine Cross:School:...-- 2-2. 2.22. 2 340

Eimy hens Tone rin rs Of Saturn os sssss- Sol. es ee eee esse es ueeee eos Sone 84.

Hydrodynamics, researches by Helmholtz in. .........._-..---.-.-.-.-- 100, 104, 106

Eno me Mens liye Oles se tan et stem erro) sia wie needle sis oon seas eee Coe ees ToS 0

MiGRretactiomeO wy eae re aie elation, mr eeh errata Men at ne IN 144

RiOlhests ew Olin VaAlleOfinn tae hea ook sata t ee uh eal e ee Yee 382

I.

Meeheuc syst uly O fame ae eres lola emis! aint Soke stertortosecse Se nIoes See kph ats ees 296

iceland rexchiamoe vo emi mM ao ey clelape ma sister = -\eios ole cracees oe Perel a eee oe ere 51

Incandescent lighting plants......--......-..------- Be cobceccceerrs Cassar 209

Income, Secretary authorized to expend -...--...-..--..--.-----..--------- Xvii

Indian bows and arrows of Brazil......---.--..-.--.-----------.---------- 560

Lands cesslons sm em Olt OMe mee) s5 yal as ee aie sete See eee cases 42

linjomistics researches dni. 6s2 Seecrjen ac oso oeen lo ee aen Geko se een 40

Indians; |@herokee, Papaeo, and Ser 5225-6 2-2 seas. ss scree oe 2 ee eee eee 632

CyclopediiavOts Sa otieethecsa tee csaee Secs cs See eae seta atices sie ee 20

LV MESLOPOAMETICAM oss se eee alee se Nee pS oie ea aay Noe hel eee eB 614

Inira-red spectrum, investigation Of-2 252-2220 2226 5-225 sseneen 22 eee eee e. 68

publication of investigation of .......--.---.---------. 26

Ingletield, Admiral, Arctic explorations by --...-----...--.------.--. ------ 291

Insects, biologic relations of plants and ants .--....-..-------------------- 411
CHAMEG IONS LOL:COlle COLO aay) 4) iors) Set ear) eon ne etna alae Mae ee 3

exhibitiab Atlanta; HxpOsiblom ese ssse)see sees seem eee ees ences 620

Institute of France in 1894, by M. Loewy....-----.--...--.-----------.---- 7

inte rrenen Cee OlOLSe sean cee cies neces es a crave Secrsiae els eaeoesieoee ees sues eee 187

pLrocessiof® color photooraphiyss.sos5 sos sees eee see eee eee 194.

Interior Department, exchanges of .-.----..----..----.------ 2 eee whee 49

Inbernalinvonrlkot vital machin ezesece soc so eee ia see ee asthe 323

International exchanges, act making appropriations for ..---...-..--..-..- xlv

CUE ONE EDO OL. 55545 Soen eaee ese Se coce Eat say 46

detailed financial statement af So ae Webs Raman: xxi

fMANCOS: Ofte eae) eee aes eo oe gue aia LaaG! 4, 22,47

first appropriations TOBE SE ee See eas eee, 58

hisbonygOle seer eter ora ee eee oe eee se tee 13, 55

inadequate appropriations for_.......----..----.. 21

ODF COME See oe Be a lac arate eee yy ata aah 21

CLV SAD NO eae eae ROR SCI chee oS SELy S 55

LUIS PROVEN BE eocgonssoncsoeus Gascapedsoue csc 59

NOCEeUALYZS Le POLO ON tae ee se eee 21

Secretary’s statement to Regents on ...--.---.---- XV

StAlIStICS! ORs o5 Pace ee eases ace eiepsis conse etapa 48, 49, 54

treabyitor yess he Ramos sete sere ee a fee 58

International Niagara Commission ..-.-.-...-.---.------ ------------------ 224

Zoological Congress, delegates to ...--.-----.-----.-- ------- 16

Inwards, Richard, on meteorological observatories ......-.-.---------.----- 149

eG Chyromminimiy alll Oy assem erste eee ca ee Saree eee a aiaeere ey EE 511

USGS basen UG LOMEON S.A tomer cme pects wae Soc See ee ceased Meet eee, : 241

Italy, exchange transmissions with.........--....---.-------..----+------ 51, 53, 54

IVOLIES CATV Onl) Apa ae Gapseeis easel pues cee ncte es cialee aac ne eke 626

J.
AG OR eS OOLO DISb was lslersinie Soa ek wea sees See ceee ub ees 22 JL eioeediie 256

Jackson-Harmsworth expedition ...--. ----- 2-2-2. eee eee eee eee eee 2715

708 INDEX.

Page.
Jaxcobison pPotentialienerey ese n= ceo ee nee eee eee ee ee 117
Janssen vie at) Mont blanc Observatory oes een eee s ee ee pee eee 161, 162
observations on Mont Blame by 2222-2225. 2-222 422 =2 222 e sane 76
onyphotocraphiciphotometny sess] see eee eee 76
Japanese art of bronze casting...-...--.-....--- paeeoa eee tassdscco 225s S22 Li7t
CATO OC VOTICS teresa ne ee so erste Sects eee a ae 626
CORVIMNG GIR sacs caus 550586 sehe@ecser sac as eee ae ee See 627
Japan, exchange transmissions with..............-.-. 2222 55--+ -22ce- 1s 51, 53, 54
Jana TexGhan Cevap en ban Gos ee cys eres ropa a estar Seoye ee Re ray te 51
JayNe, VHOTACE; ON JeyAn IVY MeN ssa eee meee eee eee ee 673, 678
Jeannette, AT ChICIOTMISE Ofis 22 cere Nae sen ioae op ors ee ie tara ee 286
Jefferson, Thomas, New Testament annotated by ..---_.....-...---....--..- 630
Jena Wmiversiitye pi blcabToms strom ss sae ee a Hey eee ae 74
Jequier MAG won Howpilansantiquitlessee sees ee eee ee ees 604-610
EQUITY SEAS, POISONS OM eee e eer tere sae ae eee eee ee ee 488
Jewelry. pamerent EH Gy jp liam ec iee arse myers a cree eyes ee ee are 602, 603 -
HOUHS, GOGIEIN WHAILVETON Oe. S55 555555 ¢eeSo5as5Ke5 se Se ae Oe ee 629
Johannesen, Captain, Arctic discovery. byes 2. 22> esos eee eee 284
Johns Hopkins University, publications from..--...--..----.------..-.---- 74
Johnson; Walter Rise 2535S js ee ts eis a OSS Se aS See ee ae 646
Jonson wallace bopooraph cree sere eee eee ee 34
Johnston, William Preston. Regent of the Institution..-.-...--........___- 5K, os
Jones, Wharton; Cited 24 ae 22 Set scares Soteaes Soe Nite ee ea Ee 348
Tesearches: by: vies Ges asics Sees eee rere ae Se 344
Jones Vallance d= p00 dss au keer ee ee ee 40
Jordan and Evermann on fishes of North and Middle America.---...--..-.- 9, 30
Jordan David Starrycitedess maser ese eee eran ee eee eee eee 470
biography,oteDrCoodelbyreeeneeE eee eee ee 13
Joucuet h. (One Greel<papyelesa see see eee ye eee ae ee ee ae eae 610
Joule; QUOled accesses sec sweet ae elses eee eae. nee ee anes eee 316
K.
Kantisiconceptionsiot iS paceea eee sce ae =n eee enone ee ree eee 94
Karnak ycolossalistabwesiirom as. ases ee ane eee eee eee ee 606
Karr, W. W., acting curator-of exchanges .......22----.-2--5----------2--- 60
Keeler researches nyastronomy. byes. 2c eee es ae te ae ee ee ee eee 91
Kellett, Captain, Arctic explorations by---.--2-:-----2-.:---+.------------ 287
Kelso, Jameseenitee eee ores tetera sec ee rman cee een es eee Rees 673
Kelso, Williams i2c2nc-26 soe Se ccuete isos telcos een eaten ews See seers 673
Kelvin; Lorayelectrometemotiacnan see 2-22 n eee ee eee ee eee eee 155
onidissipationtor enero yee ene ee eee eee 395
CMUOUYE) me sane eas oobeae BS STS SAS SP PU is Min SEN 8 Be ROE 3 337, 383
on evolution of solar system)-=-2--225--55527 sass sees eeee 408
on theonyot vortex aboms =). 22 aes eee ae oe eee ee ee 104, 195
Kew, Observatory, description Ole pec see pe eee ee eee eee nee eee 157
Kidder, JH; bequest Ofs2t2s2tces a8 Los este eet see eee eee ees aaa Xvii-xli
Kiel University, publicationstromses: ee ace aces eee eee eee eee ee 74
Kinetic theoriesiot-orayvitation 25 ee ee e eee a ee een eee 650
King and Barus\cited tia. 222 eee tant e cee eeeieee 2 eee eet eo eee eee 237
Kingsbury, BoE. ,onmecturis macwlats=s se eee eet ee eee eee eee 395
Kingsley, J--S;,mentionede2= soe soee Se ees eee eee 2 eres ciel comes eee 673
Kiowa ceremonials, researches: Ones 222256 = oie oe eae ose erie ee 20, 31, 42
Kirchhott, Gustav, researchesiofssssen center ea ae eee alee eee 93-101
Kites, early electrical experiments with ----<-- 22-25 .--2-.------ ----=: oe 646

Koelreuter, discoveries yjn=s ooo. =e eaae er eer eee Se eee eet ee nee 411

INDEX. 709

Page

Koenigsberger, Leo, on investigations by Helmholtz .----..........-...-.-- 93
AGlilinkerzomkempryOlO Oye ms See acd era: ey. = Neon Sa eee Ce ee E 344
Kom-ombos, Bee iiee EET a es es a aah o O C n 606
Konigsberg University, publications from BN es Cet Miko Un Oana SLA, coupe ds 74
Keone sHeroOnicolorphotocraphys- sees = oc cease eee oe eee eee eee eee 168, 169

L.

MCOO CAND fOSSTIS TRON ys eho ee cle ek oe. sek oe oe eke ee epee We ase ee 29
PASHAN CeO MMMM OLLONS ic sae Soe snes pe eet coe ao eee eee 104, 117, 118
ajard Meson Hoypiian stomecubtine 222. 222-2- 22555222252. 552 52 seek 612
TL BUGS) IP JAN ISH REIL le ee ln Ma eh ye ta Ro Nea Gt ni oe Zp 264
Lamb, Richard, electric tow system of --....-...-.........---.------+.----- 231
Lamont, Daniel S., member of ‘‘ Establishment” -...-....----..----.-.----- i-ix
andecessionsladians memoin oneees=s soem sees eee e ees eee eee 42
ane CaN inomilal nomenclature Dyeeeae seen ee ee eee see ee eee ee 460
wanocley and Very, on heat and light of firefly: .--2-:_--2-522222.----------- 332
Wancley Ne ony pepsin-tormuniovoland ses sere eee eee sees aaa eee 395
aneleyso.b.annuall reportias Secretary.-----+se22---5 sso 5> soos eeee sees 1
experiments in mechanical flight by-----..----.------..---- : 5
UBS Oi Hams Symi NNO IV c6 soc co ssce' ss Soa dosseesocdes zaoe 12
on benefactors of the Institmtion .-..-:--..-..----------.---- 18
on history of astrophysical observatory -.--...----.--------- 13
submits Regents’ report to Congress ......---..----.---.---- il
Wagelatayvuseumexchanc es\walt ees eee eee eae aie ee ey ae 30
MTU Seal trom: Ofe =i ars see ee. eresis fesic< es | eae See ee steer cee 91
IRR RC OREO Ya aoe es 2 oS Sed mae ye Eero iat ree Ts ee 16
Watrielleon- family, names: s-235)-252 Pa. seea- ses ese Seat ee en eed eet sere 479
WearCanyonscolomphotooraphiveree feet eeee ss: aoe see eee eae eee 168, 171
onbusilliver: COlOTSE Fo. Sates et eee seen lee eurs U3 a a aie ye eae 183
each Waliniamasnitondsci:beds: ie suisse Ye ce ch eee ait ei 32 ee hoes Sea 480
Wearned societies: publications Of-52 2422 --2-s24 55-42-2225 eeeeneeee see. 10
IFeAs tection pT CLple, Ose s 2 Never eek SLU NRS ee OAC oi pos A TH En che oh et a ek il7/
Le Conte, Joseph, on earth-crust movements ---.---.----.------------------ 233
Leeuwenhoeck, minute organisms discovered by ....---.---.--------------- 485
Legrain, M. G., on Egyptian antiquities.............--...---.----.--------- 604
Meipzeaimiversiby publications from ss. ase-sese esse eee Sees Senet TA.
WennoxpRobertsmenblonedscocss. since sc slo=a eek se ess sels ase ee ee 148
TE (SYD TUDUSS CIM aes es Se es te nt eo GI Oo ee Uefa emer a 667
Wencocybes tune tlonsiOfi ss = ot cece aes ser Soe eee ie eee es 389
HAY HKD): LON OXOX0 a en er le Cee a ee ENS cee eer Meryem r ums te Uta te)
Le Verrier, Prof. Urbain, on study of metals ....-.-..----.------------------ 500
WenVierrier/s;meteorolosical chartSe..=---+-s-.2s-c-- 229s S22 see ees ae 129
Ihiberia, exchange transmissions with......----..-...-----------+-+--------- 51, 53, 54
Libraries, influence of Smithsonian in development of ..-.-...----.---.---- 13
Library of Congress, art collections transferred to ......--....----.-------- xiv
Exchampesnonis sore sace Matsa eee aa ee ieee liane 2 Se 21-49
relations of Smithsonian to .-.-.........-.------------ 18
Smithsonian deposit in -......-.-------------+------=-- 74
iibrary, Smithsonian, accessions to 22..--.-.-------s2s5 s-2s-+6-s5-+s5sen-e 74
Adiler‘onghistorysOlenceece eo caeis aceite a oe eo ie a 18
Dry Adler sireportionvssee 22.5 22 ace ote eae at es See 74
expenditures fori). ae sc2 eee trlsee asian styoqstntt XX
increased by exchanges ..--..-..=...2--2-----------: 74.
Secretary’s.Teport Ons sase, se) sos seer a2 ee 10

iene GMOte deen gelse aan.c Sai wisi ywisiew cee eRe sctecas, somes eee elie en ose aee 383

710 INDEX.

Page
IniebicsiuheonyeOmternenbaiblOnes sees ee ee ee a ee eye 486
itesaminialcamdsy.e oetaib exile vere Cho ties == ts =r 383
VENETO Gael THE NMVINVER OIE 5a Seta Adon soon so ono oSe soda be26S0 TeS5 Suns Soe See 395
onibhe: planets ee 25) cb eee seein ie Nan eres Ts eee 92
eEneroymMamifestatlOns Of eee eae ease ea eee eee ee 384
SOUT COOL peso See ele ws ec ee cages se tm tee Pee Ce 383
force, action of..--..-...--- ye Sats Bere A che gaa ates ok org eg 101
histories of North American birds, memoir on ....-......---.---------- 8
Iban eunal @leweueionniyy, Wil IEOMNORINS OM oocssc aoscac sss bs05E5 canons aa 52 252: 76
ANIMA power Obs seats ae cine oe oe eh ee ane a oe Bn ee ee 332
CSC MOMMA NGING WNW? O1 cocs55ccsacs 655550 c555e0 C55 es54ns o5S555-- 123
POVO CUCL C AeNeo ra nae vod tea ann es Hara a oe ny ee 332
ofhrethy Source Of 5 352 teases ois yen ener yee ae ee 328, 332
Letracihonof sbhnoOue bel CercTy.s tallsyeee ese es ee 126
WANS) WNT HE NMON Oil ooso socks shoeaacass cone aa 255506 5ondce saesSece 167
Neiman sete dese fees eee esas cs eo ese oe PR erie ar he eS ors 329
IbpenerKoubon, 1D ye, On ih eINeIe ENNIS sodo5 osono0 Oncooo sesc ec cacaccuaes esoccoaseaoe 416
LiMo SMES, IGN, WEAPONS Th 5552 sccca5en sono consoo cose cede4S Heanee Seas 40
studies in, by Bureau of Ethnology ---..-----..---..---------=- 20
IbnmasMNB DIS, INOMACINCIANHDORS \f oases cnccns cadase sada5s oaces0 ceSeSa onescc essesn 459
Lippman process of color photography ..-.----.----.------------------ 167, 176, 184
Dig Metyanerapp aracuUs, We wears Om Ie pee aes 136
Liquid air, new TOSCALCHES Olt coe seers se a aete epi eae ee ee 135
SpPeciiicsoma VALVES TI eas soe ek ee ye eer 141
InayGleneern, Guquerrimnenmnis With 566 cesses segs sneooc aseesd ones esees5- 144
UGG CHATS, Chg DEINE MUS WN. a5 co55 coc6 soe sac ose cee ssb050 -e55 e502 140
OmyTEN, JOOCUWNG MEM NALHIAS IN coos cocacs oSc500 co see5 odasseacuceccccs 140
ILalyaNe, ChISCOWGIYy OIF PIVCOREMN 1s 556 ccc5 soee oS 505 655559 OE abe o2o55e 25595556 35D
Hockwoodsstanetie: exp l oraitlOns sear ae eee ae = aya a ee 288, 289
Woke Ma: sro nyo ofenve tall sas eee ae 499
Wp comotiviesexd to GOL eee ee cee ey eee Ss ears er ee 631
odeesOtivervoninickeloinonkalll Osis sesee eee eee ee ee eee eee 512
Loewy, M., on Institute of France in 1894 ........---..-+--.-----5---------- 77
Ionoeneelce ry, aeiliizenl ety ysrrs en eats TT ee) ae 673
Louvain University, publications from.--...--2--.+--.------------ --------< 74
Fovett, Edward, Museum exchanges with .........--...-----.-------------- 30
Lowell, Percival, observatory founded by -..-...-.--.-----.---------------- 90
IRCA ING, TP pAOleMBIONI WOR WN cose csas escocd doosouSosean cose onsccecsocce 617
iudwae, Carl andimodern phiysioloviys 2954-26-22 25s eee eee eee eee 365
ASAMVES il Saco Ue beac ne year ee ee 370
biography ofj-< 3.522. se sti ee ee eee eee eee 370
om heart: actionscsiccacss ects foes sete Eke eee eee 346
Lund onleafcuttine antsy. 55 nssenras ase slate eee le eee ee 419
und Umiversiby. publica tions:htom pes) e eee esses Eee ee eee eee 74
Luxor preservabion ox temple ait ass os en seein eee ie eee eee eee 607
Lycett, William and Edward, poreelain from.._...---....--.---.----.------ 29
Lymph formation: study Oljaass- 5-50 aoe ee eee eee eee 377
Lyre birds, exhibttiof, 2255.5 see son tae eh te see eee eee 616

M.

MeClure’s Arcticrexplorationss225545- 2-2 poem poe eee eee eee see 288
McCook ix C aac2 2 = Sees Soci Seema aan Sete mre Pee era e ere ee eae ois erat 680
McCook on farmer ants ---..--- iopidie Tistibte Melsmisie as teebla mie SB ae becen eee 417
McCulloch} Huh, qiote dss yaar erst eee ee nee Oe eee ene eres 649

McFarland, F. M., at Smithsonian Naples table ---..---- site ndniweefoseees 15

INDEX. CET

Page.

vL@Glaty, AW disc Sat UR Ae er Ue sane ee de een ate ee es Seen Ss Sena ee yn) a Xv, 632
OM SCRIP UMASS cic! Segal Seis ecole ea! he eee iS wees &, 19, 34, 39, 42

Vie SimMe yw elon Cre ee OMMOCT a sra.sfe: oes ye a Gs Seiwicics Sine e ou a TER comeeer 257
Madera nexchanee arent ima ass. =o 52-5--5 cee oen cee ee eee Sears Sees ass 51
MAGMA MACS Mss Soe ced oo beso Sonees Soe be St aooeU EEE aa edhas ase 156
Mapnetism, terrestrial, Rticker on ......-----.....----..-2----------------- 76
MearsonsCarneeiat Nimes; Goodyear On 22-22-56 2-245 5ses-6e 22 see eee eee 77
MENenGlevomecrantalimMenviesyy= 2s Nacisis- ae tate Soe eie i eee eee eee es 346
Mialiiamescclamoesnwili Nera es a cls een eyace a: nclao cxeine cin sie nie winja’aje ove aietmeow ae Shesiate 51
Mammals saieAtlamta Exposition). -4-6 -2o2<2sss+4si2--s¢ e-eees ene ae enone 614
Mammothyteeth imjsomme Vialleyeesss. -2s25 225225 sees ose e oe nose eee eee 663
Manisa srsprINTe moO WVer wens COM OM ssa ae) a ene ne eres a see Soe 297
IVTPOTARC OSLUMNNC eee permease ay ns pela rela tata ae Soe bem wispy rere ays Sats e ge SE 615
Marbure University, publications from.--.-..-...-:--.---.---------------- 74
Marey, E. J., on work of physiological station at Paris. ...-...---...------ 76
animal electricitvussanscr os sees cee cee ees oti ene ois 329

Marine architecture, development) Of... 22245. --246--4465 ees s eee oe nese e 630
invertebrates at Atlanta Exposition........-...----.-.---.--------- 618
CHEMISTS, dO wa Mey OW sceS5 cos sce cceeae cseeen odes Sesaasso So0e 397
Markham, Clements R., on Arctic and Antarctic discoveries. --.--- Sere eee 76
Mamma rexcustoms ancien ti scccnce sec e osseous soe ssecloe se ee enececiee ocrese 542
IVDVES HC AINA SO liga acyaie ar eiare S afavs cre eho a krale ward oe we UE Se mee Sinema Oe have nike eee 91
MANTSO, CeOwae® IPo5 Gre COWIE HOM OF -obsas coccaceonac aces odecc can setaccuend xiii, 15
Martin, Thomas Commerford, on utilization of Niagara ....-.--...----.-.-- 223
Mascari on thejace) of electricity $5422. -22- ee ser fea eae eee ee 76
Mason, Charles, Commissioner of Patents............-----..-----.----..--- 647
Mason Otis. costumed founres Dyess] sss ee eee eee eee sae aoe 615
ethnolovucalvexhilbit Dygeeeeeernee eee eet ee- eee eee 635

on migration and the food quest...--....---...---.--..---- 77

Maspero, G., biography of Henry Brugsch by....--....---.------.--------- 667
Mastabadiscomenry, of. at A bDOU-SIts- 22-1. ao25- 245 cece = ee Saas ees sae eer 592
OL IDEN ONO ee teri hone beets de eel Papeete pags iat zea Sacre Deeg 596

olmMera discovery Of mea amce sey ese sale a vale ose eoaen eee tae 594
Matenignmedicare xk bitsab A blanita: eeenene sees ese caee eee eee eee ae 624.
Mathematical science, service of Helmholtz to. ..-....---..---.------------ 93
Mathematics, fundamental principles of ........---...--------------------- 293
ITM AY COMET DP ONS Of, = 540co0cce0 bone caueae Gaon veo Geaaoace 94

: Smithsomilanuw ox keine a4 ona ee Sees Seach ea lere) mer ets 13
Mato Grosso, ethnographical description of........-----..----------------- 557
Matter, properties and constitution of.....-..--.---..----.---------------- 395
Maibeuccionsanimalieleconiclhy 25-2 -2sese - sesso esc ece meses eee 328, 329, 331
Miri helssemuougallloyis sees cee oe ais ees Se elias UN eee a eee ees 513
ilenblneyy, (Creo) eynGl IDChyaile osecca dosoue cbouds ossero sas6eo doom agooS Bae 501
Maugasarian, Mr., American preacher. ..--..--=-<...---.---- +--+ «e-ee-+----- 686
MeuhVepfeatherinorOtsboOws cee sec oe eaL ee oes ee hee! ak ee 556
Tenn ayeTP TIS): CAM eXO LS Se cies Sete eye eee eee eee ME ey ne caren gees te Pe alate
METUGUUS PeXCHAN Ges walb ie aed oe Se SO ee ee MO EN ee 51
Mawley, Mr., private observing station of.......---.-.--..---------------- 165
Maxwell and Hertz on light and electricity ....-...--..-------------------- 76
Maxwwellisrelectricalilaw sien: ose m4 ino nc oan Seicecie anise ce eecees ee ce: 111
fheonyot motionstor pure ether ee. --- fvssceccecyacscee a cee se 123

Maya day symbol; Cyrus ‘Thomas on. .--- .2 4202 02222.2252.2252+5 252262 - nn. 49
WEITER Uo lor Ole Ho efi Shs ore a aes ee eae Es SPS ae ee i Ran re 376
Mayer's investigations in mechanical energy .-----.---+...---2----c--+---- 103

Maviowersmoulel- ote ship sss. s: tse. ee chomee oo aos sae eismorseis 4 eceeh see 630

AL INDEX.

Page.
Maynard, George C., custodian of electrical apparatus......-....----.-.---. 30
Mearns r.A. mammals collected’ byiaa-- eben seen eee eee eee 30, 31
Mechanical color adaptation in nature. .-......--..--.-.------.------------ 195
Hight vexperimentsan’ 5. = = eee ee ee ek ee 5
Mechanics fundamental princinles\ofas=---2- oe eee eee eee ee eee 93
Medal: Hodokans 222.0 2200) cots ete oe Seta rai Mee ee 11
Medals; Koyplianne sce asso ol. Wien oles seen eee eee ee ee ee ee ere 612
OtsthevRevolmbionaLynwaleeee ee eoee eee nee ee eee 632
Medical@biopraphy.u esos oe a oe aa ie oe 638
menoreathervevolutioneees a5 24)e- eee eee eee eee ee 638
Medicine and’surgery, recentiadvances im-—---- - 25-2 2-- == 2= se as ee eee 339
treatment otsheartiGiseascsees== ree eee eee esse eee ee el
iyphordsande colon baciilussess-sse eee ee eee ee eee eae EF
Meim-antiquities!discovered ats = sae aeons ee eee eae eee eee 604
Melville, R. D., on evolution of modern society. ..---.-.-..------------------ Ui
Memorialatablets;;smithson)s-eeeas --- 2 -ee eee ee eee ea eee xiv, 16
Mendenhall, T. C., on Smithsonian work in physics. -...-..-----.----------- 13
therHienry es oe ie eno acts ee oe epee 76
MGra. CISCOVeLYAOLibOM Dy Olea sears Soe nese ite 55 oye oe ee eee Se ne 594
Merriam iC. Hart asso cla terme Zoology ass: eens == eee eee ee 30
Merrill, George P., gold and silver exhibit prepared by.---..----.---..----- 622
Meru=Kassepulchralstemp! etotaseesseee eee stee eee eee sia eee 594
Mesa: Verde elit houses i0f 2235. ciais sis oe soe ieee a eee ee ee eee 528
Mescaly anally ses, of 232 sian. aoe aoe eee ae Ee eee tee ene 39
physiologicsaction Of 2s 25e% oaicc secs a ee ee eee 39
usedibygsouthernelin dian seperate ee eee eee ee 38
Metals; anatomiy<o fs 2 ce eek ies ees Gee Os Se Se eee 500
and their alloys, Roberts-Austen on ......-..--.-------------------- 497
attributes and onieincotg tne soe 2a see eee ee eee 498, 499
Metchnikoff, Elias, on pathology of infammation..---.--.---. peel ieUie B 395
WIGIGORO SHOWOHS oo55655 505550550 eit HOSE Ces Sele See ee ee aie eee 90
Meteorological observations on Mont Blane.-+2--:-.2:--.-----------+--2--- 76
observatories sin wanrdsOlens=-eeee=-se enter eee 149
tables} revasedieditionvofee- pee] =) soe ee eee eee eee 9, 75
MeteorolopyoteArcticsne clon Sse eer eee ee hese eee eee eee Se 28D)
phenomena of upper atmosphere ...-.....--.---.-----.-------- 125
Meung,; Jehande; citedt 455 os sees sac ce she ees ae eee, Se ee aie eee 499
Mexicanyacanas, exhibit iofes sce -22- s5e- eee eaiaae ee eee eee eee 617
Mexico,;exchangesiwith? es eo. Boab bares 2) 22 stesaareyus ees pee Sp ae pe 51, 54
explorations amon indians imeesssqeeen eae aes eeae ae eee cee 19
MeGee’sexplorations am as.sc--yasee cease cee ee see eee eee eee 33
Meyer, Hermann, on bows and arrows of Brazil .........-..----.---------- 549
Michican University, publications) tromess= oes eeeees eee seat eee eee eee 74
Microbes, war with the, de Schweinitz on ...........-.-.-.----------+----- 485 —
Microscope, processes of life revealed by .-.--..----.---------------------- 381
Microscopie analy sisiofwatercas2 2 sce sceet eam eee ae eiee see ere 384
anabomy,, development) Of aes saeneeeoe eerie e ee eae nee 347
Microscopicaliresearch yadvances intsaeeeee eee eee eee eee eee eee 34t
Migration and the food quest, by, O. I) Mason 222. - 222-2222 ==> seem 17
Millard, S. C. interpreter.......... yey char icy head care ae aie Acasa poe 34
Miller, Johannes, researches by ---2--a2se5-seceeee oer eee ee eee eee eee 344
Mills, C..K., Toner lecttire by =. 422.2522 vecbeak sees ene bee eee 642
Mulls; Theodore statue ot Osceolaibye=- seer re oer eee ee eee 614, 615
Mindeleff, Cosmos; papers by--=-: 22225 ee eee eee eee 42

Mineral exhibit at Atlanta Exposition .-......---...----.-------<-------<-- 623

Page.

MINTET AS PLM ein dextOterm ees sae ses eee see Slee yee ye oes 9
Mineralogy, Smithsonian work in ...-..------ Pk ANS POETS ott eee aie Pa 13
Minerailss chemical camposition Of -22225 22222) 522 3222 2e see. eee aes 623
Minnesota University, publications from -........----.-----..---..---.---- 74
Mitchell and Reichert on venoms of serpents ..-..----..--------.---------- 488
Mitchell awe photocraphsiDy s250-+-++--sc5-sssese ssc on else cea Secs es 34, 43
Mitchell, 8. Weir, on composition of expired air..---...---.-----..----- 9b teh JOU 75)
JRPAE Ry er sea anh See tae eens slats laure Muon ete 679
Minokahinnehwexcavations ates: .2 os csc ont ceee Love ces ee 593
MogenidmeconeWarvesberants: soe) esse eqs Sse ee eee ee ceed eae see 414
MoissanesvMe diamonds made bye s22225 2525222502 2a2ee5---- ese et ee 514
experiments with electric arc furnace .--.---.-:.---..--------- 504

Mollusk exhibit at Atlanta Exposition --..........-.---.-----.---- weseesee 619
Mono chinalpmountaim ranges e-2ss6 s2ee ee seo ss cee eee ees eee ete se ee 243
Monoeyclicisystems. Helmholtziomee- esse sess esses see ore oe eee eee: 122
Mombslslomci@bservatoryy sas: sees se oe eae Bae See eee ome meee ee oes ee 76, 159
Moomey, Janine, GONGGMOMNS hy = doacesoceboe coudes deco bdecwaosss coca ssoauede 31
onEuGhost=danceseli cloner anemone eee eee ae 42
PRESCHOOL) HUNG WVE IOMGMEMS OF cocks beencs conado o6ls Sues ence 33, 38
MOOTe mE Eo rOneAcihuy Ol a se setine ceases aa Mee a em eee Aa eeis cena eee 673
Wine aiuikae utie clear eee en eee ro 38 PUNE eae Sok EE ORES aa Coe Se IIe ae Sr eames 329
MOREA, 195,175 CN ACHIOM OHIMNEKCR |. secs tocece nadeledea adedcsnGemasons o6en eaee 39
Morcan re Den on Ho yptian amtiquitless=- sss eee oe ae ate eee eee = aes 591
Morley, Edward W.., on densities of oxygen and hydrogen ...-..-...--.----- Toes, 15
Morphology, relations of physiology to chemistry and.-......--..-----.---- 76
Morrill, Justin S., Regent of the Institution -.......---.....:-.--...--.---- dG, og
Morse, Samuel F. B., telegraph instrument by...--.---.-...-.-------------- 632
Morton, J. Sterling, member of ‘‘Mstablishment”...---.....--..-------- ---- ix, 1
Mortuary customsin! Brazile oe seoriyalees <itsalenisetc est seem haces Sec: 576
Motionstohiluidsstheony7 Oba teresa oot ie eae cae ae eee eee sees 104
Mountain-making movements, Le Conte on .-.....-..--------.--+---------- 238
Mountain observatories, E.S. Holden on ..........-...-.-.-...-.--..------- 9
COLIDUNOMP ss stake eye ase See teva senna Ae Oe reeraral 126
MountaimesystemlofeAustraliar ce seme sasees cess ce Sasa ee coe 2 oa ees clee oe 251
IMTOZATIN MGW, PINES Whi \oncacorococe sao5us GoGo se debeed Gaeeny b4a6s6 5500 51
Minlleryohannessonmphiystolo tyres ete sesacr esas ieee e oe eee eee aaee 345, 346
MiIMMIMTE SanNCle mits Gay pblanewe cee esae ely Sevaate sate sere sees eye sate eae 604, sq.
Muniz ManireleAntonioxonstrephimim oes. ae) see eyesore ee ae aero ae ae 42
MunozhyeUspricllaycountesies) from 22-2 sees ooen casos see aoe eee ne eee 50
Murbach, L., at Smithsonian Naples table.......... .----.------------------ 15
Murray, John, on distribution of marine organisms -....-...----- Bee eee 397
Muschenbrocckacitedt 2). sce = tact a eace secu wns Vaclwopine ee Ee ee 829
Miuscle-malaine food meed Of 2. )o6 ss 2- sc csies cee cn cee tease soe eale es ect eae = 303
Mascmlarysystem= conditions) Of: acon fie ae eo ieee Ee es 303
electricibysproducedsimeesercs sees eee es eee see eee 328

Muscular weariness, study of..-...-.-...--- BPS ge eg uN aU ee a ie 387
Mirseupeanlistas exchancesnwibh ate s= -Sa5criee case Coes aa te cas coe ales S sisi 30
Museum of the Smithsonian Institution .../.....-.---.---------..--------- 16
Museumsiof Woyptianvanbiquities) <-2-2,22:55-52----+-+s2-as0e222 2-22 e ee = 609
Music, tone perceptions the basis of........---.-----------------------+----- 108
Ma theandbenstommditasion of. .e bse os noe eoeees bee ok eee ek 546
MytholosyaAmentcanlin dian! saa. 2-25 ss2s)oce eee ces Soke Lee ee See ee 20
AM CLOM tph yp tlANgen eee ele tem cele ce cieein smc haa oe se eeniele 671

rdian cs tu diye.ots ese sok see elections See ee ee ee 5 41

714 INDEX.

N. 5

Page.
INGUSCM, LEGO Gx NIIP MOMNS I \yaogons edouoe coees6 abas 26 snes 2505 cee sae esH 274
Naples Zoological Station, Smithsonian table at._........---..----.--..---- xiv, 14
Nares, Sir George, Arctic explorations by .---..---..--...---..--.--.---:--- 275
NatronaleAcademiynrexchan@esiOfess eee eee ee eae nee eee 49
National; Museum: accesstongito= ss 5520s sesa- sea ee aa oe ee 29
act making appropriations for ....--..---.-.---.-..----- xlvi
aAppropriabloms forsee. fe ee eee, ey ee nt 4
assistant secretary’s report on ..-.------------ lage eee 29
compared} wath ftoreiemymtSC ums ee ee ee ee 17
detailed financial statement of.......-..--....-.---..--- XXiv
distribution of specimens by ..---..----.--------------- 30
exch bit fait Act earn eo ye aera ope tere ts mere 614
explorabions i Dy: p20: ive secmcree at ls see ee eye eee 1
firesprotectionOf. kes sess sees Go. epee ee eee 4
forelomkexchanGesiO teers = Chee ee eee eee eee 30
PalleTies an asa ee a ee er Ee ee ee 19
inadequacy of buildings for..-...-.--...----.-----.---- xv, 5, 18
publications Of: 23. 22223 a seo 52eo Le een ae eae heer ees 9, 30
purchase appropriations needed for -....-..------..----- 19
SEOREUEIA TS) TEETDOIRU OM 55.56 5545 on eees Ga5gc5 Rose onn0 Saane 16
stutement to Regents on.......-.--.--------- KV
Naittexerxcollectionyoteb OwSsssn sear eee seen eae Pee eee 575
NAIL GMs, GhisinolowMOM Ol cosace sogdau dascos esean5 soccGes cocose cSscenscsee 229
Naval Observatory, appropriation for....-....--.-----.-------------------- xlv
Navigazione Generale Jtaliana, courtesies from .-..-...---...---.---..----- 50
NENy IDS PERRET, ExqONE MENTS Oi 655 coosco codon couse oaen on5d da56 555052000 49
INOGIROMO Ay, SCCHELBNAY 1S) TRE] OOH ON oa Sa55 os 5505 baG054 sdso5u Gadass ces Gass mbaoe 27
Nectarivorous insects, habits of ...-...----..----.-------- eo oboe Sacco asbsSe 421
Nechorus; milGroscopile Studios === asee a= ee eee eee eee 390
SHOT UHOINS O1L COM Of conc onasa cacdas code canaaeqced cogaesscoeeae 395
Nenckirtinsbanalyzedyayplomaines see — ss eases ses ae eee aeeee Seer ee eee 487
Neovitalismus, address on..... ERS ace Sopa SUG ok ange Ue a Va Lia eh toe da ve e 377
Nerve, cervical syanpathenicy divasionjoty sss sae eees ee ae see 353
Nenvercellssfunciionaleachivainy, Ote= seen eee eee =e eee ee 395
MICLOSCOpIe StU dy Of ees ass eels aoe se eee PE Ee 388
Nerves, cranial sfunctionsiot: assoc sehen eee eee eee Ee eee eee eee eee 346
Vagus andsheaxbiaction sy octal e-\ne eee ee ea eee ee eae 353
Nervous action stud yioti. cc ae ete eae een Jae ee Sage ee eee eee 387
BSE OTIS RSID Me cose cadnss bos0 soba ssaueepsodesonseno fete 331
System, electricity produced in) esse eee esa! eee eee eee 328
WWiALOr S:Sbid Yu Otek a Sethe k (RN Sy set 18 ols eos seen 307
Netherlands vexchamoes ysis os 5 oe te te eet cytes ye ea rte ne sania eee 51, 53, 54
Netherlands Steam Navigation Company, courtesics from........--...----- 50
Neuhanss Dr on-Zenker/smpheoby a= eee eee tere eee ee eee eee oe 170
Neumann, i elecinicalyhy pothesis ofjeseseeeeeneeeeeaene sere eee ae 1i1
Newall sees vonsretrachionein pheauyaae eer eee eee este eae eee 166
New, Caledonia; jexchiamees) witht -sen ee eee eere ee nee eee eee ae eee 51
Newcomb, Simon, delegate to bibliographical conference ......---.----.---- 10
On problems oteastronomiyiesse = eee eeeee eee eee 83
Newtoundlandtexchansesiwitheseesreserreee eee eeeee Et eor nae acer re 51
New South Walesvexchanges 22 sec 2 eerie an face mee Se eens cee 51, 53, 54
Newton, Sir Isaac, astronomical laws discovered by..---------.------------ 84
eltedt cee. 225 ea ee et Sc ceeninaees ae. see tee ae ee eee 126

Ne WtOn’s semis eter ogee eee shes ie ae ee No ce gp ED 101

INDEX. 715

Page

NeweAealand,exchanives with ..o2<- 252. -b 2502 4552 osue dae 4 ote eee 51, 53, 54
ea Opa AMMA TOCOSSION Of. 255 c- sa2.% elt week eee eee fees be ace ses 223, 224
depthiotiwater atiacectaceead soe Pees ose Melee dee pee NS oe ee Noe 2238
INGESEPOW EL Ole ee cere Ne arc ase ook sie b re thee es SS SI ee ee 231
international commission on...---....-..------------------------- 224.
HOMO felon eee ese ee wees elec a dco ees cake tyaeid uae eS 224
UPI LUNIISIOM Oe [OWE Os pAAaaaeeed eaanoosesoesecen decane cose Gene 229
mtilizationvoh Mantinvon ss. o.2.- 52. 522 sseyee ce oe tee os eee 223
Nickelesteeltarmoramvention Of e222 sec 2252 525524 5ees dee seaeces cone ao 511, 512
JNTIG AE NAENES LOUSY! CON Genes cee Nes oe eee Pan eee ey OU ee nS 150
Nobili’s discovery of proper current..........-.......-.-.-----------.---- 4 328
Nomenclature, double names -.....----..-..-..----.---. ZR ab aed cpa hg ceo a at OS 468
DTraconianveod CiOkssk ass ee eons see he aoe eee tae See ese 462
famillyon aMesi ss oeee sk hele oy ak seme oee nae ec tee Seale eel 478
first species of genus not its type---..--.----.-.--..----.--- AT4
(GNU Ona geet epee imprstnaes Sir rele Sede eh nar has NE oh eee cr. 457
IIB TORY ROT eee ct re is ENS Uae eet ae ny ee Dees ey ee years 457
ANS LAU O feces ee ee Hoe ee Se bro Sechrest ies aca 482
INteLMAaGLOM UN COMMILSSOMEON ese esas ees eee 457
Makino OL NANOS snes see See eee cece a eae aye = 471
Misa pplied names: sks ess ee OMe aed Bale ee 465
MEETS) OP WIEHOW AROS sa5 556 seeeeeco cosabo sess coeeeonooade 475
suibfamiihyamamespsscir see eae we los n geen seen tane one 480
supertamilya names ae sae aoe cease eee ee cer eee meee: 481
CEMVA A MAM CR aise Ase chic che at eee ciel rere tete se ia a Cet aha ee 461
HY POTY MMB): eres cya efedeeind Seis leis Seds Spates ps sicieua ta sie epeh 2g sieeve 474
use of terminations ‘‘on” and “um” ..._....---.----------- AGS
Vanlantsanmdsimilaritiy of mamies: 2222s seen 469
Nordenskiold’s Arctic expeditions....-..-..---.---..--.----------+--s--e-- 282
North American ethnology, act making appropriation for ....-.....------- xvii
AN DAO OMAMOW IOP socace caansssou Gace accuses con 4
detailed financial statement of -.......-------- Xxil

(See Bureau of Ethnology. )
North German Lloyd, courtesies from.--..----.---.------------------------ 50
Northsbolesvariatlonuin sf ooe che ses sc isoce coa)s seek See keies dame ted eeneenee 91
Nomwayerexchangespwithas sews sees fo5o oes clic bel sale ee imalae ale soc eee elect 51, 53, 54
Number and measure, conception of ...-..-.---.-----.-.------------------- 99
Numismatics WAT Abe isis cents. ae ee oles Sl teks seem nee eee se eeoeaes 612
TITLE es Se ae aa eR eee yet see ee ee ee 629
CanlyeAmenic amass ae eiceiern sens Sele eat Sy es ereh ere aes atone aters Ss 632
“3p OWEN oa adee essesuissarco oq Habe CHOS OAR OES a nmoe me de ee rciorad 612

oO.

Obarrio, Melchor, courtesies from......---.-.------------------------------ 50
@bsenvatoriesssmountaime stn aor one ues cee en aoe as See ciie ames Sele ee 9, 126
Ocean, basin-making movements of.....-...---------.----.---------------- 235
Constituents Ofswaler Oe! sstmcs seis secre cise eee eee ioees cee eae er 399
density ofs2) eo! Sipe aCe Mes as Lica ae Ramee SEA Ne yee rae iy ath Se Ne 400
depositsyonybottomrotess 2c) joc ek te ee le a eS Eva cee 400
discovery of bottom of, W. K. Brooks on...--..--------------------- 76
oMeEAveStGeplheOhe ssa jase che asec ere wey seis ce tere Se ae aE eye 398
horizontal and vertical circulation of.......--.---.----------------- 399
physical and biological conditions of.....-....--------------------- 397
physical condition of, by Wharton........---..---.---------------- 76

LOM ORAL NEL Olea cera Ae ae Se eel ee Merete om Vise homens Ei 398

716 INDEX.
Page.
Oceanic ichthyology, by Goode and Bean-.-- ...-2-222- 222- s2--4-246-26 === 8, 30
Oceanology.of “Arctic Seas. 220 s2.6 wa cen Oe So hee = eis era eee eee eee 295
Oelnichs:&iC oF courtesies frome. 9-2 sees eee ee ee ea ae 50
Oilipipe-lines wee Of a2 eee ee ee ee eee eee 229
Olney, Richard, member of ‘‘Establishment” -....--....-.--.+-.-.-------- Tor IL
Olszewski, Professor, on liquid gases-.....--..---..----------------------= 136, 146
onlisolidsair: 22252 3% ae she Sed oo a eae ee a ees 138
Olimanns, Professor, Ol Mel DUES 222 oo ee eee eee eee 173
Omaha Exposition, act authorizing... ..-........-.----:--+--------+------ xviii
Indians: studiviofasst sci es = OSE Ios as eae one ae ee ee 42
Ombosvtempleiatdescripion of 552. se sss sa eee 610
preservationiot s2 2255 ess 58 se as: vs ee ee se 607
Onmmnas, Jiro IMenincmlavelh, ONGC 655 soca padoos cece adnS C6555 bo a4 osacu aaa cecs 135, 137
Optical: phenomenaiiccie st ec te es oes wee as eae eer nes een 125
TESCATCHES Ais one sei ans ceases oceans eee meee ees cee 95
Organic evolution; method Of2e 5222205 - oe ee eee eee eee Jo SELES 76
Mattern ail BereeyOns seas etas Se eee tee eee 9
Orientalvamtiquitiessexhilbitiotes sass eee ee see ea ee eee ee 628
Osborn, Sherard, Arctic explorations by.-..-.----.-------.------------------ 291
Osecola, statue ols sss os hoes as se er ee ee ee ey a ee 614
Oscillatory movement of earth’s surface .........---...---.---------------- 239
Osten-=sacken, on) pastoralvants=e- 5. + -s-241- 55h eee eee eae eee 425
@Qusertesen IL; tombiofs S255. 2 es ke 3st oe see ee een gaan See 597
Overtones study Of 6.02 sass sas ce Sek Se Ue els EMO De eee Cee 107
Owen, Richard mentioned si 2- 22 ssce 5252 sis 5a12 he seine son Se eee Deere 343
Oxysen and hydrogen; densities Of 8ssse 454 5--eese = ee eee ree eres 7, 8, 15
MNISCAWALEL ace sess we Se aes Marto ann Saat ae ead ot Seer ees 399
hiquidimanntacwmneroteees-pes esses sean eee eee eee eee 136
P.

Pacific Mail Steamship Company, courtesies from......-....-.-.------------ 50
Packard, Professor, on nomenclature commission ....-...-..--------------- 457
Paleontology, at Atlanta Exposition. ....--......-...---------------------- 621
Smithsonian worksimes a. seo eeise se eels ieee ene eee 13
Palliser shells, power of. .-..-.-----.-----.-- sfaje Sale ica Sh See eeyer iepe te arog ene ees yo)
Pampas; tribes iol the aloo cess sec eee sea So enee ae eee eee eee ene 552
AaNCTe As sO CLOSCOPICalisimdhynOhere ees e esse eee eee eee ee eee ere 391
Pannmvonsplitridyanimalematterees-eeere saree eee oe eer eee eee eee eens 487
Papago Indians, exhibit showing habits of ........---..--..-----.----.---- 633
modes of Jifeiohessce es eke oemes sec ne ee Seen ase eeeeereee 43
Papuan costumesias Scio s sar acne wine oe ieee cite eee cee e cee eeceemies 615
Papyri, Esypbtian, Study Ot-2e--. opus sei seis cia seen ease ars arenes 669
Greek, rin /GizehvMiuse mms 2552 nacre cas 2 no secem orcs Sra eneteee tases 610
Paraguay.exchangves-wabho tas oe each 2 eal sn ctes Screen ete seein serene 51
Parallax of the stars, determination of ---......-.----2-------+----22-+- --== 85
Paris Museum of Natural History, exchanges in the..--...--...-.---------- 30
Parry, wdwatd arcticexplorations) Dyeeoeeeaeee ose ee ee ses cet aaa 275
Partridge, William Ordway, Smithson tablet designed by...--..----.------ 16
Pasteur study,o fermentation Dye-seoteeeee eo seeoe core ee oe nea eee Eee 486
Patent’ Omics Tt rar yori es tee Satire ae ares a eee ose vera ne eve oe vege eee cee 647
Patholocys study" of 7e nose ook ast-5 sch erie Se ee core eR Ee eee eae neers 350
Patki people, description ot... see coe ac ee ae eee ee Eo ee ee 520, 534
Pavy; Dr-5 Cibed sac. soa ee ere ae ae en ea ae oe ee eee ore 304, 306

Pavlow, A, Museum exchanges withesseese cece ances erecee eee eee eine seee 30

INDEX. (ily:

Page.

Peary L. ALCtiC explorations Dy soc. 52 -steas cone ole ceee sae} Lasse s Sale 289
Peckham, Adelaide Ward, on typhoid and colon bacillus ..---..........--.- 76
Pembroke College, publications presented to. -..........----..----.-------- XViil
Hendulumeclockwimvention Olen. seetacise ses cis scissile 2 een Se crea oe 84.
Pennsylvania, University of, publications from -__...-.....-.......----.--..- 74.
MCE MOMAMSLUGYs Olas 9s bce ent ee cls ~ cates oo oee ae te aE es ee 95
Remodels Bolton's: catalogue, of: 25-0222... en See ee ee eo 9
Rermanent fund, Secrebary-s reporton 222222222222 52525 08225 se ee eee 3
ewe dene 1COs, COULTESIOS frOM, Hs... .2Gies ole eee esses ease eee eee 50
Herniesboncher de, discoveries Dy. 22s. 15.5. .5c- 25 sens = Se - tte see eee 663
PORT, OXCMENES, WH News ones be Pee Coreen ase Be ae Seam SecA Mand Gene eeee ee d1, 53, 54
Reruvlansbowsy description Of, 522 s2-:scecc2— oes eee se ee eee ee 55D
via COS TUT CAE es Sale ie aa oracle Stal Nectar ea ee Ra ape A nee 615
Pettigrew, on food-energy transformation ._............---.--..-.---------- 301
HahrelpseBrostws © 0. COUELESIES GLOM = 2 x5 sees eee = 2a eee = eee eye eee 50
Phihipsislandiparcot, extinetispecies sss. 4-244 2s ss-9 6s ses4 sass esses ee 29
PiilippimeMlslands exchange agcembeatesssses ese sas ses se cee eee eee 51
Photosraphic chart of the heavens ess 253225. - s2oeee eese- ae eee eee 88
Photomebey. Dyer ATNSS CVs ere see ee eee ey ey eieh e e eee 76
Phong nny Collar, Niemi? Ol. bose soesco cacbas Gasoe4 Sequin csaeees oes case 167
Physical condition of the ocean, by W. J. L. Wharton ........--------..__-- 76
geography of Australia .......--.----...--- Perec cheese ween ee 245
phenomenajot upperatmospheress: ssaeeee-e eee ee sees see oe oe 125
CADLES AS MUGS OMAN consent ege eae tak one eels eee Su) Sacr eras ene, oe are eee 9
Physics, development of science of ..---.-.----..---- raja a Waa eat One Sean Rong 342
leiglienlnollti~ Om OBIE Oo accss coscod deacce sees bosesoeseseccceuse 124
work of Smithsonian Institution in. -.-. - aera OSSe Ue eee oe 13
Ehwsiolocical) heat plenomenaleseerieeeeee cease case ee see eee eee eee 101
histolosy,sGage Onesie sere Gos sg keine Gerstein sees. Sete 381
optical researches by Helmbholtz..--......--..----..----.--.. 95
Statlonea bie aris w Ole Ot) oes ere otter pe lessee rete eee 76
Heysiolooy. Johannes sVUilleri ony ease... ona seieele = erieia aera ee eee 345, 346
Hedawaloran GMa deminer eae ete cere ee re oreis ons) anes Sean 365
ofstheysenses; Miullleriome se see ieeen os = eeies eee ee eee eee see ee 346
relations to chemistry and morphology... --..-.--.------------.- 76
FacardemVirsmMentlonederacnnr eee etre meer as ou relate efor ee ee eae 502
Ferokeninl oop LOLessOn Mle ntiONe Mme rae las aes siae ea eee eee eee eee (163
IPl@lkerines. Vy ibewin alo WIENS so eo Soe Se eaeorenatess coe aee pase ase senane 76
Pictet apparatus for liquefication of oxygen-.......-..----..----.---.------ 135
HDCSMEC AK ODSOLVALOL Y= Acs hacen wee oh cians ein hale Stwerwrere een ae ae ere dese 164
Pilling, James Constantine, biography of-......--...-....----..----..----- 43
IOneeL ship PALctiG explorablons, 1M: i. 2) 02 ae see eee eo cane oelsee 291
tie Ve OM LOSsilaamuelOperes = 12: eo cn wee See Pee ee ene Seed eR ee 611
Pitcherplants,.description of 2.42. 2222 2-c- 5 - senses ieeee 2 2-2 ne seen 446
Hake usealtrononohe sss case ames eo cia Sec ee ees ISS eda om 92
Ply sicaleconstutwtloal ob sees see seen eee ee ee 90
Plants, and ants, biologic relations of ...--...----..----------.-.---------- 411
CATMIVOTOUS eae ot ate leet a oe ete ee yrinial west MU e te sh ale eC se 432

CONISUBSYO tre reysece aes =e eieto ete Sao eee paid SLi eee Se OS Sat cee 458
HodeamevOr mans, Oens Nees ries acca tame eae eee clea tee nn SOREN 429, 453
pLotectinel characteristics Ob seas] ee sees eee. ae eee 420, 424
Poincaré, M., on light and electricity ....-.......---.---.---.--:------+---- 76
Homousimapittnic. anual matter .4_9.22252.cteche.s. esses codec e cok 486, 487
omsemillcrourcireulation Of SOUR. 22222. 6h .2es eke eee cnn cece ct casneee 346

r

718 INDEX.

Page.

Rorwevings color repro da CiOnSeesem ener er eee see ee ee ee ree eee 185, 191
PLOCESS1 Ole COLO) PHotosraphiyge asses ese ae eee eee 175

IPOMME RAs, MENTING, COUMIESIES MRM 566s Sacc doooug See5 cneoes sees bocced cose 50
Portural exchanoes: wives ee aay te sete ie eee eel aes ees rere 51, 53, 54
Pottery, from pueblos of Arizona .........-/-....--.---.---. 19) 524 530, 533; 536; 537
JapanesevexhlD it Ot emcee science ae ete ae eae ee 627
jorelaisiiOiene, eon MG og S505 sda6 S55cS5 bos 2 Scas e655 50s Se sne=e 20
Pouillet’s discovery of vegetable electricity -...--..-.-.....-----.--------- 329
POW, Om ColOns OF MoM Soo bad osessa scan coco eseg seoeocueso coed csuc 197
PONE ll, Di Wises ce is Set pe es aie wise reo een tats ey Lees hee cela rece eens ere = robe ee XV
Director of Bureau of Ethnology —..---- 22-252 22-= 5-556 19, 45

report on Bureau of Ethnology ....--..-.--.-.---.------------ 32
Prehistoricyanthropoloeyjexbibitioiee es sees es = aee eae ee 624
potterydrom Ploridak 22 ss 0.2 oe. te ee eines ee eee eee 20
MOMSCOURTIDG thn IDG c200 555560 6540 ose 6e0sb5 2566s hice Sole Speen 612

Prentiss, D. W., on physiologic action of mescal..---.-...-.-.-.-.-.-.-.---- 39
ARES LIGA MOM, TSRYEMONOLAy OE oao5 sascce n60055 coosee Sa5sse esas suecese osce G7
Prestwich, Joseph, biography of .---- Pees Sele cele ee eee meen ery Smee arene aaa 657
pridemorevAGs as Collec tlOnspii.O Meer eee eae ee 31
TARMINS) WAOYWER, ING EHIME BIS) 56 S4an cooooea ceauos soSeue Se obues5 eacs Geog esecee 297
IDPS) TNA And WHOM SENAYES 5555-55655 s0acc5 5555 eado Seon SeoSse5ess= 541
Prince Patrick Island, explorations im -----.--.-----...--------------«----- 291
Printing for National Museum, act making appropriation for. .----.-.-...-- xlvi
CAG OOMGUIORAS MOP So oso scsse5 eeee ssa es seesce XXX

Prism experiment in color photography --.--.-.--...----------.----------- 180
Problemsrotiastromomy, ose as see coe ne aes Seep Se ee ee ee 83
Processes of life revealed by microscope. .--------.------:.---------------- 381
PROWL CNYE COllomehinGm ihn MENA) 555455c5ce cong sccces cous cosa sSonsa cues ceas 195
Protein, use ole Thurston Ones sess sae oe 2 ie ens oe ee ee ee 300
Psy chicallenersies dependentom praia ss s- see ee eee eee ee 305
Bsychisna coctrinerota@ meses cae eee ee ee ee ree ee 334
JeESClNOlOerCANl SINOClIES, AEKYERNES TIM 554565 soc = b6asc0 ose6 245855 Sees Sosa eh edcs 369
Esvcholosyiorpres tiduedtanlon sess e mercer eee an eee eee eee WZ
Ptolomies, temples of the, preservation of.......-.--.---..----------------- 608
PLOMALIVE wtiTS it rem ally; SIS) Ohare sae eee eee epee ete eee ~~ 487
PLOMAINES, TONP OLSON OUS) seer sees eee een eae eee eee A88
Publications ycasht tromlsall evort ies. ter eye egy a) ee ee ae eee ee XX
expenditures ors. 52 Sane see tenet a re See eee XX

JeWHLEA IH Ore IW WIMAOBy oichco shod caeacoucss sacs essa eee See ieee 9, 41

by Egyptian service of antiquities....-. ......-..--.-------.- 610

National sMriseum ji 2c as see ae tee ee ee eee 9; 30

HEcrebary SLOP OLEOM sooo hae Careers catia eke nein eta, Be 8

Smithsonian, editor’s report on...-....-----.----------------- 15

historyiot, by Adler 22 esas ee ee eee meee 13

Tayloron. coset: sss otis Jee eee ere 651

Rueblomuins in-ArizonasDrhewAcesionpssee ae ae see eee eee ee eee eee 517
LENE DUNKS, Maken, CeCen MEUBIOIUIS) Acs = as5 onsoas once Hole nee ees coSeosboSeeS esog = 592
OLIS UM OLS Pre eee Sess Sie dey ae eae ees Mia ee AR setae eee 612

3 stone, of Dahchour. 35:2 scn ec eace se cas coe pene cee e ea ae eee ere 596

Queensland exchanges with s2522-6 sacuss sass cose cece ee eee ete 51, 53, 54
Quesnesidocprine oOfipsyichismsses ease eee see eee eee tee eee 334

INDEX. Tals,

Deku.
Page,
Races of men, exhibit illustrating .............2.--. 22522. sso 2b eee 615
Hylan de vel O PINE lb Ole cece aes Le Le velo ee oC se etsy a ell 631
HIS ba GMemWiORlda mre saece i cea olen cere =item eee ee ce mete bee 631
RalipheWalliamisia:, birds? skims\from\-— 2 o-s)2- 225205 s2- sass eee See ee es 29
Rauineanyy, WWII Ta Om IO EB ees oe a Ss ale meer Sees eee see aE ne Soke eee 144
LEK GWA Oma) OAS UDR Ree cone eee dans Ween shes Peee cores ans xii, 11
OMA O ON ete wr ereys ral Sw cin tans aap pote tyaias athe iain eee eat 9
GOWN coed cococe soesus cogemodcus sensau nseuEDancg SoeaSe 139
Ranivine ewes son ublizabion of Niaearai-2------25- 2225 4+s2so--5-5. 226 oo. 224
IRAWMNKS OM GAMO Ss 6S -2c soos ooobog one Ceo bods saeees Gooshe Sseeeo eeeo eee 344
Rations for workingmen, analysis of..-.-...-..----.----..--.--------+----- 301
Ava ZelebrotessorOf WeipZzie'> 22. she.) joc 5) oo ealslv sees Wee Seay atediee enced 549
Ray, census of animals and plants by.......----..----.-------.--------+--- 458
Renylle, Wike.. EHSUOIRO Naa S Acc e = oeicocaso SUESoo pe ErIEE ee aIe eco Oaeebe Bam aeeacee 646
Rayleigh, Lord, and Professor Ramsay, Hodgkins prize to ......-..--------- sob, i
CLE Oe eee) os Stscier mses. Serena Sieh ieee es Ril oe rie oe ae eee 148
OW OSMBOM cscontecscocowscegeuss sons eagccs samy uesuccuc sted 9
ONPCTAMIWIMN sa esis ce heh eat fee eae eee es oseseeds 504
veceipus ott hep in stituiivon tel S Gace eee eae teeta aes eee ee = eee eee XX
Recent advances in science, Michael Foster on. ..-.-...-.....---...---.---- 339
Red Stariuinescourtesles from: sere. see sees eet es ae eee eae ee 50
Rees ake On variabion Ot latitudes o252- - eo qe nae nen ce ee its one aes 76
IRSA AONE Cy DOMMES, MOAN Oita Heo ood Keo eb aebsee bees coseep aoe aaee Seer 135
Regents, biographies of, by W. J. Rhees ..-...--........--..-...-...--..---- 13
Ofetherimshitmtion list Of. ss erse ee secs pe cis eee sess eee x
OWEN A Ota MCC LINGO bees sa ne onc cetaceans: ee ciate eee xi
TROD] DOCMMLTNEINUS Olt 5 Goon sooo nodal h aden bUOOeSs Gateor Gabe caeoonsbcd 2
SISCHEUAIA HS) 182) NOM Sos os ooo obuo BREE E AES Boob poe doSac cogmboeEune 1
iveidl, CIRUINEIN oo beer buasoek Gobo pace Coenen tooeae toes sb ese ome nebn ssoeBesdiqegs 661
ETCROMECTANTUMELVES 25 sats ais Saintes co Saas Se isl as ale Poe wide Sewisloe Meee Sects 346
eon EOMANClEN bY Plies. sees. ciee os cree e ee ate san bine Hole abide deo 671
IRGIGICUS, CCREMIOOTEME, Goxliml ot Os oS sae ne boos doo Sss cates be Sead osesec usecee 629
hepiloexhibiiateA tanta Expositions: 42.22. 222-2264. sete eee cece 617
Researches by Smithsonian Institution........--...--...---.-------...---. 5
ON CINGUCUT CS ef OR IS ND perp aA 8 Sore ee a ce ene ea hy ane XxX
Resolutions in memory of Henry Coppée.-.--...----.--..-.----.---- ------- 2
REspILAvlOn sp My SlOlOMy Olgas acces lees ce as cieee eee Sees cee eon aoe 346
Revolutionsme dicallmentof theeses-s-s2ce- a2 se5 se ees nese eee eee ee 638
Rhees, William J., biography of regents by ..---.---------..-----.-----.---- 13
Wie Saylor yes 2ie san oeree ee ereacies 645
Rhind, A. Henry, on Egyptian papyri .----.....---.--------------2----- eee 669
Rice, William N., on Smithsonian work in geology and mineralogy .--.--..- 13
Richard sonyAcHy. Mentioned: jose). cecae tes cies Soci Aaa ose, su sock s eee lees 272
Remains LOLESSOL.ONECOlOTS see sects soa cece es cee ee see eee eee 98
HEGttL@yy ame Cra eeerCle aut Inu Oita ose as epee rare Lea er Se ee le ea LN ee 29
GEIISUIS: OI TNRE CUS) ONienoe das bo56 Gens SaGs ae aoe eS ase aEaseueos seme 459
directions for collecting insects, by .--.---..--...---.--..----- 30
IMSE CLES MDT by Dye mesa ee eee es ee ac Oe De ae a 620
Randileisch, Professor, cited. -.--.<- 62-22 c cin Foose cos css ccesece clases i 377
Ripple, schooner, Arctic explorations in...--....--...---.-----.-----.------ 291
Rivers of Australia, description of......---. 2.222.222 22. eee eee eee eee eee 257
Pesta SelM OOO CIA Lil ARK. f=, 2 <c.5 tate oe ecco eG w)AG 2 0) te wads Canes Sore, Sa 23, 24

Roberts-Austen, W. Chandler, on the rarer metals and their alloys........_. 497

720 INDEX.

Page.
RopINsonaieub WAL, collechionswDy,. see aees2 == eee eee eee eae 31
Rockhill Wie we bub etan costume TRO Mls = se nn iee e eeee 616
IRGHIN C2 Cowntesies A-One ee eae ee Sop esau pose aabsodesssesses- 50
Ioan GO Iles IROSE. CMCC oo ss50 5565 6000 605550 o50S5usd0n0s sa5s S505 Ss58e55555- 499
IRONS, Ce dey TWOURT coodsoose6a5cs5o cdes soeaoe0s S505 cnea sss ossc code sass A97
Romer’ sla. Onno acial itt eee eer sa ee aaa ee eee ee eee 662
iRonalds Wrancis cibed:saccr se <r ee ei ee ee eee ete ee 157, 158
IROSOWUB CIOGRES Of o6c565 chones co5550 saedes co9s59 cuoced 5550 500550 s555 055565 % 668
IROOM, Al, ILAAREMNeS, WAG MMMOMGG 555526550500 c560 bond 5505 s5a5100c5 055856 S50¢ 161
ROWE, 12), ClO, OM BGA DKON o-co06csecco 55555 soce caso 5e0c5 9500 565905005256 667
TROUT, CxOANNGES Wat 52550500 s5as5ccacses gous Sau0 sscc conse asessdSg ose 51
Rows Wallnel maa obe desert epee ieee = ee Soeur le eee 174
Hoyaleobservavoclesra rs Gree mwah = mire eel nate eee eee 152
Royal Society plan for bibliography of science ............-.-...-.---.--.- 10
Royalsepulchers in Weypb ce soe soe oe See ieee ee eee cea eee 598
Royal Zoological Museumnexchanges witha -.5- =4ee=oss= see a ee eee 30
iRioyce, Cx CevonuindianslandicessiOnsa: sees] =5 esc aee === ee == ee ee 42
Riicker, Arthur W., on Helmholtz....-........--...---. ‘Sete ee ee eee TU
Ruge, Sophus, on cartography of America before 1570 -.....--...----...---- 76
Riz, Domingos, countesies (roms se = sc — 2 ee ee ee ee 50
Rumford, Count, cited. ---..-.---- Lone ae hge noe b coniaced Piece cae barnes eae 3837
Rmsselll Wels ©! cited ee ace ce eeee eee cen e eee He See eea co eee ee 260
INESCIE Ox NeNNGOS Will, so5sce os ccoe sogoso ou dsSe ease eons sssobc seeuesooSoS: 52, 53, 54
Ima/Cleie, JACI e345 e oc coooad sou ua0S cood cons song DogGEe sabe saesc5 cose oouG GSEs 673
Ryder Anna Prick cic. stte ese sheee sv ceeceen cect 2 seme eee oe Sener 673
JenyGlene, 1eemyeviniin ILO MRE NOLO. So56 oaeccs sosasu cosa cons cosa ssesaasesoeosess 673
Ryderwohn= Adam: bioeTtaphyOlerers-eeeee esate ee sane eee 673
Ryder, Lieutenant, Danish expedition under ....-..-....-------.----------- 293
Ryder Michaelis-<:0. = cea, cebocs ees Senet ine weet oe ok ete ciete iets enone cree eee sere 673
Ss.
Sabine, Edward, on international exchanges .......-...-.--...--.---------- 55
Sa-el- Hagar) excavablons: abe es == sere eee ee ee 592
Safford, W. E., costumes collected by. ---- eae Sefer eee ais ieee nia eee een ae 615
SallyaC onstantsmodeltotsshitp) sean eee ee eee ieee eee eee: E 630
SAMMOUE Dx. OHEpPOISONStOh Germs) 9 tee eye ee ee ee ee 491
Salvadorvexcham ges) walt heer eccrine rea 52, 53, 54
Saqqaralantiquitiesstoundiatie.e .coae = eee ee ee eee 593
restoration7of tombs: abi osas seen een 2 oe oa eee ee eee 607
Saturdaya@ lib roteawias lime: Gome Ob yee ee eee eee 649
Saturn, problem of rings of...-..-.-. SN ROD er et SO Ta ee Salsas Fn 84, 91
SalleyeeMinde ones cy Pillans Chip LS ee eeee a= eer ee eee ee eee ee eee 667
Saussure’s ascent of Mount Blanc..-....-.--...---..----.-----.------=-- sae 159
Sawyer, Wells M., photographer - .-.. sah} o5 don obouoUE doueicou cog cece voaaae 387, 43
SHamaity, GOING pu ie ene BARE ORM NES Soe o aaa nae soe Goda Sas S 54.
Sayford, Irving, on polleenns aunty SUIS RE fe bee reieielo ese tei ee cre Maopoiere wereneros eons 37
Schaetter;/GeorgeiC.. chemiSitja-2 5-onaee a eo eee eile eer eerie 647
Schiaparelli’s leteae Views Of:Mars tao oss .h essences ose ese eee eeeeaee 76
Schuchent Charles tossulexcni oth ivan re eee ee ee ee 621
Schultz-Sellack, on color photography....---.-.--------------- 167, 168, 170, 177, 178
Schwarz. Ay Cushoalanvot COleOplelaleca-\ee ss eee eases = ea eee ene eae 29
Schweinfurth, Dr.,on Egyptian geology .......----.-..---------...- pocoooe 611
Science, pibliooraphveotaplan toneess. ese Ee eee eee eee eee eerie 10
TECcent advanNCes MMs as soe ieee ee eee oie ee te arate sais =e aoe 339

Scientific problems of the future, Elsdale on.....-..-...--...-------------- 77

INDEX. 21

Page
Scimtillation\ of; the stars, Cause Of --52.. 42.222 2 cess ccas cete se cesses seeeee 128
GOtinplie eat CNLC Weert ot cole sue Sel sicgs Sele cin eis ci-lefevesia sitee Soe a= a cis ewes soci © 157
Sclaitemp hal ip mMiMbleyee csc sce j2 Sees as cas cobs cle ss cses See les clececeee weeee 459, 469
bibliographysots: fi. Severe os See Se eee 30
Seal ea Cease MblONG Ger sere ce Serre Sa ciclara ga Swe L ok lehs ee ciarese ieee eeeecles 673
Sedowickmwreul.,.on general DiOlogy—-.. 225 sce hohe cee sees See iat ce 395
Seebeck’s process of color photography ....-...-...----------. 167, 172, 177, 185, 191
Senelisland of antiquitiesiatins.--../26b).5225. 2.5 cle ete estes cel hee 606
SelersDr of berlin Museum J.s2o- sees cote eee sete cb wens es asas eee e sane 549
Sellone\ire metal collections:Of. 2022-02 22.22 2b She eee ee te eek 501
Seminole Indians, researches among .......--..------------------+--------: 36
Semnpere, [enells CnisCh ASR AS Rade oeeeon coos amos Secale SEP eiceemBeInnno ara siete cee 195
Seusauionsshumane nature Of 22.2) gos sch cee coe ee ek ee dc ee ome 95
INO WET ATITMAALG pitt ere oe ek crise Nene eee arian aia 4 ene ype eae 389
Sensenpencepulons Stud ynOlaeen aac ge een Sale ce seals a Sie ae ate te lotete) ope cee ete ciel 95
Sensecmp ly STOlO Pi Ofer one acl a lets ay oe oie 8 sin Ste eed wreveiesiale wena SEES Ge wen 346
Seri Indians, exhibit showing habits of -...-......------.--------+--------- 634
modestoP life! Of eesene 22. ek ess Ee eee tee oe ae or 43
Wie Sei Mie Gre Oromia Sale a sea eh anes ay Mik en ree eRe ear OU IE LO Sarid
SELMeMtSgMUteCULO TOR ue aces Sane a ci al. chs epee seein Gene oie cue col tals sae 491
Semvularexchian Ges! witinss. se shoe) Mere see ce see eos a famiaice ioe ate se oe 52, 53, 54
SeLlvice omAntiquities of Meypt work Of... 2525-4. 284-544 4225 bess seen 591
Shakespeare: HO; mMoner lecture by = ace scetetioee aa aces ee ele oe ce 642
Sharpeyzs discovery, of ciliary actlons.4 220-5224 e50s55 22 s4 cece eee aaa 344
ShelithcapsimeMlorida vexplorationyot esse eee sae eee antes eee eee 37
Sherborn, Charles Davies, index of foraminifera by ........-...------------ 9, 75
Sherborn, Charles William, etchings and engravings from......-....-.------- 1d
Sihimon-sewediteathenlmoroty DONS) eee oe sneer nee ys eels tee 556
Shugio, Heromich, Japanese ceramic exhibit by-.......--....--..--.-.----- 627
Sismresercostumexexhibit On . oss ee eect ee We Soe wees 616
Siemens, Sir W., on electric are furnace..-......-....-.+..----:------------ 504
Slouanelmdianss Wied Mc Geelom 20 ss 2 ose mycelia cia o)ajeelejclala etesie cis 42
ROCIOlOtAy, DOTY Olle sae tess soles Ss Gohaea olen a bon een oom aoraiquac onbe 42
Sloutvantiquities discovered ab. -.5. 2.5... 2-22) ese ls be ee sete ce aes e cee 605
Sreniloy, Dito, OO JXOWSOMS Ole (XIN 8 cok eb onSo dono dedn Sonees cUdoee souncodnesee 491
IMGs eyvened GLO ed ee) ee tiie crys Ghee ees eels oti eee cer clear lovee 321
Smith, Hoke, member of “ Establishment” ...............----...---..----- ix, 1
Smith, Leigh, arctic explorations by.............-.-.-.---.-----------.---- 276, 278
Smithson, James, bequest of, Goode on..........---..--- +--+ -----------+-- 12
TITTIES: ORE esac SiS oss Se an aR ee ey See ea UI eR erate Gol 12
Smithsontmemorial tablets... 34 5 2 hose. cane ees cee) os Sete See aeie esate xiv, 16
Smithsonian buildings and grounds, Goode on ..............---.----------- 13
Smithsonian Hstablishment, history of :.-.----+.-:.22-¢+26.2b.e--e-2 ee ssee 13
MeMPSTS Ole sooo 5. cisale a dee aske es a48 okies 1
Smithsonian exhibit at Atlanta Exposition................---.-----------. 613:
Smithsonian fund, report of executive committee on ......---...---..----- xix
Secretanys heporb On. ss2sc a 5.2 etter eis reece 3
Smithsonian half-century memorial............---------------------- eee ee 12
Smithsonian Institution, administration of.....--.-.-..-.-..---------..--- 2
aLbcollectionvotass sso s5- eeeeee setae aes xiii
benetactorsjof see ee la, sete keke ie se eee 13
eqmMeste? tos. os Seti Selo es arsjslele nus oe cteetveneistersies 3
exchange correspondents of.-.......--..-----..--- 48
EXPLOTATONS RD Vises se eee nae ae ste a ceiels 8
fine protection Ofied 3. oeeer ie ane Sisco eine wee 4

sm 96——46

722 INDEX.

5 Page.
Smithsonian Institution, Government appropriations under-_..............- xli, 2,4
listrofek egenty 0 fer. a. esas eee eee x
membexrsiot Hstablishmentsseseseeeaee eee sees ix
memorial of first half century...........---.....- xiv
MUSEU OLZ Se serena serie cee nese ee 16
pUblications: Dy-eeeay- ee eee eee eee 8
receipts and expenditures of....-....-.....--..... POX
mesearches: by \ S22. sss c-cae sees een eee eee 5
Smithsonianglilbranyar Oyu SpA Gl ero nee ee ea ar eee 13, 74
Smithsonian table at Naples station.-......-.--..-22-5--2-2-+--+-----2------- xiv
Smith GRAM Cte ayes a es a ae NS soo SE SUN Ea 9 PR a pS 478
SHA As, OOS, GS oNWNR Wi occas aaocus scac cas conees GoeLes bautos Gude Sens 617
Sociologysnesearches ines. 25 .ch55 5c Ses cece sone Se ae ee eens ee 39
SOMEWE CINGIEOAy,, RERENHEINGE) OW 550 o554 0500 co05 5555 6555 Soee eno sce cosaen Hbog S30- XV1i, 68
Solarsysteme volun tiom) Ollesjee =sry tayo ore ses fore e eaeyeeTaee eee e e 382
maonitudeofis. Ss 5 yess Scsiee se esas soca ne ee 76
Solivaiy, MesHrm est, rete des se aie ye ay ee a eee te yes Sh ee even arn ee 137
ontelechricibyginyaninal elite esses ee eee eae eee 76
Soundsmechanicspotcimeulaiwonmoteess esse eee 346
THEERNRO NGS OA, yy ONO IGWMIAY. co cosc ceeoes Ssc5 ea55 sce sosa bene esse 650
Studiyvot Ovenbones=2sccss Wes ners aimee ler ee eee ee eee 107
SOUUIN AMIS HENGE), CxO MRNAS Waldcacoso sceccu coun soscconaasos noseeoeces ease 52, 53, 54
South American bows, characteristics of....-....--..---.-.-------------+--- 5d4
Spain,exchanioes: with scs ue oe elas eee clacc ee iesiea ne EE eee ee ee 52, 53, 54
SpaceskKant/siconeeptiloniOtes seerck sco ee Cee eee eee 96
Of: tWOL GiMeNSlON Snes sa et Se Pena ete eee ee ae eee 97
SHOGine camnnanes iin IGWICl OxavOEM coscac odocus canuss9edesn saccon soccse ase" 140
Spectrobolometric processes, measurement of errors in ....-.--...----.----- 68
Spectroscope: problem softs theses e- oo. oe eee ee eee eee eee eee 91
SPCcwEUM,mirasre dM Vesbi Gabon Olesen aee eae ee ee ee eee 26, 68
of the stars ...-. wicca dt Sac tSpeUae eas ahs ee pe ves eee eae a NS ee Dera te ge 90
photography of .-........-- ror NRE AE oleste essieneh Serene ate ena SE nee 174
researcheston: woos ose e ostSeis SO ee Seles gaia oN ee oe ee Eee XVii
Spider decoration on prehistoric pottery ....-........----:---------------- 525
Spofford, Ainsworth R., memorial of Dr. J. M. Toner by .----..----..--..-.- 637
onyarticollection oan sce eckson eee epee XIV

on relations of Library of Congress to Smithsonian
Institutions. 255. os senses at ee aera eee 13
Sprencel; discoveries: byee-ee eee oe ice cee eee ine Baers Ee cee 411
Sintelenaxexchaneeravent Ole er eee eee eee aaa eee ee ee eee 52
Standardidietanyabhurs ton ones sere aero eee anise see eee eee eerie 308
Starin, John H., donation to Zoological Park by .-...--..-.-.-.-.---------- 65
SfarsydistancesiotsNew CombsxOle sree see eae eee Eee ee eee eae 85, 87
motions|of. Newiconl blouse ss ose cesee er eee nee ee eee ee eee 85
States sancienitiH oy bla ase sere eee er er ie eee eee eeeeneceer 593
colossal:trom, Karmann ss So o5 seas ee oa sie ea eee eee 606
Statueties, Hoy phan, im wiOOd se. sessilis eee neice irae ears 605
Stautiers Peter explorationsuvyeee-eceeeere see nee eee eee eee eras 518
Steamboat developmentiot =e octets eet release einer tata re olteteteten telat 630
Steinen, Prof, Von den,meubioned| 22sec semios sae ee ae ee eee ceaieaineee ar 550
Stejneger, Leonhard, snake exhibit by.......--..-- +... .-------------+------ 617
Sipaalysvey Dh Oil Ahn aKODAbNS Son 655 Hb55 e500 cnoe co ges co pone se JaeeaueUSaoess 494
Spetson, ran cisulynd ee see eeaes eee eee raise eesti ae ei eetetars 224
Stevenson, Adlai E., member of ‘‘ Establishment”... .--...-.-.-.---------- rhe 1
Regent of the Institutionusssse eee ee ea eee xxl

TEpoLb SubMibpeds tues see ee ere ae iee eee ear lil

INDEX. ae

Page
Stevenson, Matilda Coxe, study of Indian mythology by ..-.-....-...-..--.-- Al
SLEWMALE PA exam der COULTESTOS (LOM a2 2 2) 221) cae cc) eee ee ieee en 50
Stiles, C. W., delegate to Zoological Congress ..-._.......-----..---+.- eee 16
ongNaplestvablercommittees sees ea aa ee eee ee oe eke 4
SWUNG Ib, 184 GIGS aOR \ KOO soe omensaatosseeseearas sodreeseecodcdoor 226
SMe MES EOTESSOL, (CUOEC meme te marie etcne cain) ai) Stal aia e e)wre xi SS skye ois mare. thee tee 371
SOMA, TAWIEUS Oe, Men NVENGOM, Of 58565 sono coocss soeees doe seq pogsoseeos o55c 669
SLOMeRaTU GELALUeH OWwACereMG-elo< [ojo avs aie clas ele « sleyete ste eine wie SiS sre, ciee seis eens 42
Stone implements of Potomac region, Holmes on..-.-........-..----..------ 42
Storr Gotlieb Conrad @hristian, quoted sss. 22.5222. sass 2255 soe see ssa eee 475
SHOISICIN, Nig, Wiltiseuhin CxelnAMNeRES Writes acoa coon Suen gicose cecces cocasuedcces 30
Strassburg University, publications from .-.......--..-.----.----.-----. ---- 74.
SHOEI, Als 1D)o AAO) (OOUMEIAY BORON Go Seco conceoenenoo eareas boo 545 buoSoe Hace xlvi
Sie wrloeiGlor, \bienins mie MNO OC a5 coe cosa Goebse cach eosese poos Geos beans 272
Sumahy ancl mevsengela, ROO olay WaldelNON7 Ol eocano seca escg sero eecsac bebo ococne Oe
Sun, nebwlowsees= +. == SocgGe penHok baeoES sopses. bones Srigesne Seen Se etie sei 408
N® SOWWHO® Oi, GAGA, boscaee a 50 coasosspssou so sses Penson bade sd ebse cose 233
LOIS MM OMEOC OLM OT cUSerO fam a a4 hereon lee sete cise eee tter ioe eels = cyeksies sia em Serer 155
Si Meny, TECeMt ACVANCOSMM, tao5)- maa 2% «isin aie ays Serie 2) wees Sao gma eee see 339
Sienonnexchanoes awithis .2oseccmec sc ook See cutest came See ec ey eo amet
SV OGe, Vivo Akon Bi Sreavliostoiane Weyer WAG) Seca escace cose egos ceca uceae4- 15
Srulizerland exchanges; with 3s ao. see a caiuee cle celts obioleises ea Seieisie scien 52, 53, 54
Aly?
Tablet, Smithson memorial, at Genoa ._..-...-.-.....------------- Sse ae xiv, 16
ManletsworstobariwtranslablomOlpees-evessee ces eeepc ee eee eee ee 669
MTG G Ong pLOPeLrbles Ole MAbtOL secs ereussecc eo ene sii eee oie eee eee cee 395
asmaniavexch amore sjwoltilwys essay voters aie m Sretcin erave tlhe ee meee leiaio = eerste 52, 53, 54.
MassinNVALo pmMinNeraliexhilbpitybycencoee | -accte sls ae aoe see ea Soe aerasiee eee 623
AON COls OSC WE A 2 se isias “bape, Sicie eine eedaine a slattnnistars aage eae Ode Sei teens 645
Taylor, William Bower, biography of, by W.J. Rhees ...-.......--.-------- 645
Weel, WGP, OM taba awiPNelenaA KANN Saa5 oss chs cone ceed cocoon dees oso noe 664
mereunonmarittiot then seek cee ecm eases netics ai sige ewes ace eels 277
Neleora hens urIMent Ori GiNah ssa). an \ aioe = = eyelets eee ee eon sae 632
Temperature, alteration and inversion of ...-.......----+---22-2- cess eeeeee 127
Observationsiabevioniteblancees es essse hee eee senate pees eeae 162
under sorOun des ssimcente es cerecee cick eee sees 152
OCS AMES ererieysloasrde/ aioe a eutrsrsisistedes Sis sited bee taeeie a kbels ote ate eben 398
ofgelle chric=a ne turn a Cease c-y-12 eee ooicleiter stirs t= eee eee 508
O1: GES OU SEA e as 8 Hao Seer SUE BE Meer Has cee ARO eis 141
DINGO GAINS WONT HAY ONE 55555 c55G sea sda 5505 bosbue esas auaead 153
Remplevoruhe Winds descripbiomeote sas. ccec ce serseelesiele cts See = eens steelers 150
MeMmInOn-NVOOGS 1). a MOLE Mo b.Se -\iaic caer cists eae ccc wewie nein Uoejo Se eiams 256
Merradelekwer Os DOWS!Ols = 5 scctien- aoc ccicinciemrcye ce cote cece setae s 25 LAE Re: 554
Pienresirialinacnetism, by A. W,Rucker:: 5.2222 2255-0526 bad S25 Vee 76
SLAMS ACTHUIS SEW Gy iOle cree isis oe sclee sis.cceiwjavsig a eaters SU Sirti Siciemevse ne 489
MeaMerart a pronistoric,, Holmes; OD 222 5 <1 2)s\ <2 Siererere cee Sew eee s fee cee 42
Thermodynamics of chemical processes..-....-..-------------- 2-2-2 eee: 113
EBELIMOME LEI pOOSLIM OTOL cet isiain Fas oe Sie eivinlee) einie)-pois c)<\e vie bie a isinietemeree 158
WATTS LIES Y Otuepe sre ere ieloev scalars sietore seejs lem ienne cimees: satan neietead areas 153, 154
diomas Cyrus ethnolusical work of2..6 05 .\s2s cee. s 6 3teee S22 ek lee 38
onyMayanday, Symib Oly <piecys cieile ric cies ec ccies cee cisini leet 42
PiOMpPsOn, benjamin .Cited!- 220 os5- 2. shee ecseisocss cecees Slee eee cee 337
Thompson, William, electrometer of. ..........---- 22-22. ---- eee eee eee eee 155

Pnpmson, Allen, On eCMpryOlOcy soo. 2 ois Cjoteeiee ase So eb ee Sowden dose 344

(24 INDEX.

Page

Thomson, J. P., on physical geography of Australia ..........-...--...--.. 245
‘Ehomson, Vi, On bheory Ot vortex atoms) --s-)-- eee eee ee eee eee 104
‘Thomson Sie Walliam, quoted es aca yaa =e leet toe eee eee 337
Thomson, Sir Weyville, on deep-sea organismS ..-....---...---.-------------- 405
Thought machine, the brains: oye). te eee 326
Thurston, R. H., on the animal as a machine ..-.. .._5..--.--.-.------------ 396
_on the animal as a prime mover .-.-...---.----.-----..----- 297

‘hibetan costume, exhibibiol eae see sa elet ite ee eee ee ee eee 616
Tidalraction jn ArcticSeasssrs. sees ios oe neers coe oe ee oe eee 296
MitianyCharlesviLe hav rile) olassaromeee ea eeee see eee ease ee a ee eee 29
Mhittamyyc. Co. oe lass collection, fromuerne a sessen eee ee eee ee eee 29
Thiidenyerofessoron ligueltaction Olean eee eee ene eee eee eee eee eee 137
Titanium reductions Of 25. 2. sree ae She a asses foo erat eee eee 504
LollyBaronyArcticiexploration iva eeeese eee eee eee eee eee ee 286
ALT) NSE crake JOP AOE 6 o5b565 Gaon bocca. saocse eclans sone unuomoem oes case 594
Tone color of vowels, Helmholtz on...-..-........----- ee Re Ee 107
ToneypercepLions as) basis Of mMuUsicCassee sn eee ee eee ter eee eee eee 108
Moner;JosephyMe memorial Obese ese eee ee eo eee eee eee eee 637
M@ouercollectioninbibrapy OL Coneressseeeeees-e ee eee eee eee eee 642
Honercoldinedalratiettersoni oles eneres eae ee = eee eee ee ee 642
Toner lecture fun diez So sece Se se eet Sane se wee ee Sosa Sen eee ee eee 641
Tonesxcombina tion Helmbolt7on eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee 107
Horiellosbnngiweycourbesies toMy see ea ee eee eee eee eee meee 51
jtonpedosboat maderotealuminum\s-ee eee oes Soe e eee eee eee eee 513
orpedotishyoriginvot powerless nes eee et eee ene eee 331
Tournetors, binomialimomenclature Wynn sea. eae ae een eee ee 460
Towerot Babelsmod elvot.ca2sa see see ieee Gece eae aa ee eee 629
Transmississippi Exposition, act authorizing.......-........--..----------- xlvili
Dransib;meridianvearly, sete 252 see oceania eee ee oe ees eee 85
Treat, Mrs., on harvester ants ..--.-- oar, bagel eeaeet US Oe ete oe ee 417
Treasnry Department, exchanges of..--...----..-------+:-- SN AS ne 49
Trephining, primitive, article on .-....---. eh Se ReEeR eth We ue Sie 42
Tressider, Captain, plate-cooling, process of......-..--.--/--------2-------- 511
Trinchera, McGee’s exploration of the.........-....- Soe LISS AC eae 33
Dries Haw), uistony ot National Museum) bygesss--- esses eeee coe ee 13
Tniberculosis; vacematwonator.s2 2 hr ene - eee oe eee ae eee eee 491
iubingent University, publications tomes sees s sss sees eee eee eee 74
Tuckerman, Edward, index of mineral springs by -..--..----------.-.----. 9
Durbines at Niagara Malis j.5.222-22. 15 5-sae oe sas Aaa a taap ee a er 226
Turin eMuseum;cexchangesswathl. =a. esate ae ae eee ee 30
Turkey; exchanges iwithi<.s- 22s2:.2 see. soca see eeee een Sater eee 52, 53, 54
Dusayant Katcinas, Vew kes Ons cnn- ssc. ie eee ee eee eee ee eee 42
Tyndall; quoted) 222 eras csink cies cee ot cen oss A ee eee 382
Types of mankind, exhibit of ....-... (io e araia male torsfereteeracieieten Saree AOR 614
Typhoid and the colon bacillus, destruction of........--.---......--...---- 76
Dy phoid-cerms cul tiviablonsOte. 5.) ee eer eee eee eee eee 488
Ty ponyms; Gill) on é 22 seisisos ieee 2 sstocees se amsins Sele ele sa ao -e ee eee eee 474

U.

Wniverse; duration ofthese. s sctoscciaae pene Ole Seen oe ere ae 89
theortes’ofsexbtent of. 222-2 sac eee cele ee oe eee eee 84

Unwin, Professor, cibdd 22955205 hoes Fe ed ee ee 231
Dresiexperiments invanimaliclectricibye- 4-2 eee eee eee 329
Uruguayvexchanges with: co-cdec cee sacs see ee eetaeiee ee eee Loca tags 52, 53, 54

Utrecht University, publications: from=s5-- 0 -- ee ee eee eae eee een ee 74

Wo
Pace

Nelecinatlonmtorsdiseases ee = ose sjocie law icnicls celts tie ains soietin egies BS claele gels 491
WAC UUIIMVeSSe1Ss AD GNVAR TOM Pas ctec sect tah, alajae canals synjnicieimieieie sie civieidisicsid =e tae wis ele 136
VEGIS MERGES Gmih NCR MC HIO UA S5 eee eees HoSononsor See neceseoon Seeeeeseoose 351
Valentine, Basil, on metals ........-.- -Gadeces Seca s5055 Bose S59 =sseue52 Cece 499
Vallot, Joseph, at Mont Blane observatory .......--------- SHS ee he pate 159
Moliny iD reinentl One de sean.) c Secs cise os ein [os bee ca ee’s ee wlekioe ce bemune ae 657
VW) ennvan ili NY re sm CCH ees en tes SC te Pa eS ee 502
NearrtioneotalatieuGes irs arse) = seta se. siais/sj-jsinis == eels wnyoe eis Se ele eens eee 76, 91
Vario Vem odo kinsiprizerayyjangded tO) =e enemas aelye sine aa sees eee xii
Ongar CMe Meee nee seit yal a Sharre sSinyatey Severe sales satel sain Seles slow we 9
Weccrablejelectricitys.- 25) score Mes pswicrje tenn Sods Seinicisceisets cdo se eeea oe 329
HOOAS WON OL Oye: t eye ee Ly eeinlajon laa ialeiecte cto clapeeiefe Sine raenee es 306
Vegetation, chemical energy of ....-..-----..------- faba eps Mee deg BS Ah ahs yates 298
Venezuela, exchanges with....--..---- ete dia colar cadets eee bese areee Sbes bh aE Oo!
MenomMioreserpentsy anbitoxim fOr. 2.- 5 eeeiame tae ee ele eles ee aoe 493
NeniLe- eye sonymame: of Mem pniscs c/s sere)i- a yccissetle ela cioe = eee soe 612
NMerdemialleyvaboricinal remaingimernry-2 5. asc ocr oe ose eee eee eee 42
FAPUZ OMA SUING Maser etme ee cian oe ci sleie ccs OSE Selene clea 521
Very, Frank W., ineteorological experiments by ....-...----..---.---.----- 130
Walbrrhions;:primciplestOti 22 scar seis Sas jeter cic Se selae)= ajejoeel aeamcee eeeloe sere Sees 108
Wile toniavexchampesnwath\ stl onesies cir an cinie i eee te ne eee 52, 53, 54
Vienna Zoological Museum, exchanges with ....-......--.-....-------.---- 30
Virchow, Rudolph, history of Berlin University by.-.--.--..---..---..---- 71
onsstudyvandtresearch y= <5 shee rset eee ae seen ane OT
Nason elniboltz/smesearcheslon sas.) @e--4 seas ee eee eee eieeee ee 96
Wasicors;topNationaleMuseum,snumiberniOfeae-—)2 45 sea > eee ee eee sae eee 30
Wilks Wiha, COmaraENg Kon Gre Uli Bea scocssioodasoneeedsansoeed GH Seee Heeorclae sore 102
\Wittall GngToA® Gs) WING) ONIN NNO We o555 oes caonsocee Sons sees wane oob ben hone doce 297
TOROE) BING CUE IMO" WAG SOW 53665 cess osecos ane a55 dona sesse5 sang cdes 333
HORE® HNC QUE Ra4, OHICE Olt Gassodocaces sou dbsa 906 suc0 mace dacp used 334
functions independent of intellect....-..-.- ER pop Ge sk Ben Shaves cask Rien ees 333
THACUNG, CNOA, OW ssesacosaces saoocd passed Sauces BeBe eaeeeoos saau0 316
DONE GING! WHDEMANTIOMS OE 56 a5se5c dacoss ogda50 s200c6 obecess 336
DING MOOV Er, InN NM ByaMONN, Bis) So 5a655556 555506 cacdac so6ken oo45 cscace 297
Warbalastaol dean dene wise s/n cite slave el ucisioe isn sie mise tases aoe acteeaeieeeetne By)
Nocelisnrocessiof, color printings. =ees sees ee ee eee see eee 194
Nolicmannionssym pathetic Sy Stem ssse sess eeaciee 2 ose eee eee sees eee 346
WeolitarsralctumiVGWobed: as firs cela Asie ce ave: ctovaioucie sla eisinw aieln aloisinen lace eee 328
MormeBaer on history of developmenite..----5---5 s----2-)s226 22 2 eee eee eee 344
NOTES COIMEM!, CUM OLCA a. 202 eases apap aio csajainh sorelas wrasasai =a isjeils aves sewers cteiere 560
Von Helmholtz, Hermann, investigations by.-...-------.---..------------- 93
NOLtexcatoms tNeOry (Ole ceeeen) cme ce Ses ctilscae seins bene wseciels eos eke Ee 104
phenomena stall Olea ay. icici joie eeciaeks wie Sele eer 105

Ww.
VN Si GLS OTe UD 4 COWEN ET Rel ie a ccc SECIS SR ae ee a ee ee SG 200, 203
Walbridge tract adjoining Zoological Park ..............-.----.-.----.---.- 24
Wallace, Alfred R., on method of organic evolution......--...-..--....---. 76
Wililachrandulrensl era cltedin sos sca cose cic o Se oc Sates Scales Men once ieee 147
Miiiler pA Sustus study Of Nerves Dy, - 22. -sec- 2242 - see eee een ee eee 357
Wau ns Gite Se So es Sater OB ENS ECS TREN ey Sa ee Se ea 329
NyareDeparhmentwexchanceslOfs. cee cs cc csc monic. on eae sclsiste wa neeeiee ce 49
WEI eICeS UC Gu berm (MOLEC sae seein a on ocd wise eee enim wee ine one oe einlal a 655

Er Gee ben) Te lOner LeCtIIbe: DY s--- ac lant seem sete wie ole bw icieieie se siniee eins es 642

726 INDEX.

Page,

War with the microbes, de Schweinitz on_-..--.-----.----:--- iui datana lob ceee er 485
Wiashineton George sletters Oh wase eee eee eee eee eee 639
library: Of 2ichs gies sess See ee eee 639

Washine-toniana, loner collectiontof sas ss44-44425eee2e oe ee eee eee eee 639
Waste and conservation of plant food, Wiley on.-...-....---..---..------- 76
Water analysisiof:dropOt.. S22 ana eee ae ee ee eee eee 384
Sea, saline consbhituentisroteas-mres sae ae =e ee eee 398
Waterspouts and whirlwinds, cause of ......-...-.---.2...--++5--------2-- 130
Water supply, geological conditions of.........-..-.-.-----.-.--- Pe ee 7 661
Watkins, J. E., technological exhibit by ..---...-...--..---- AE Gh eee 630.
Wave slenothsiotscol ons yewecrcrs cer ies catatonia el sie ere aera rte 170
Wiaiviess) airaan dietiun dl sebie OTy aol arrester te soe erate ae 110
Weather forecasting, early practice Of. 2225. -.-2-- 222-222 55 22252255) eee 149
making, ancient and modern ........--..----..- Paine Ee GA , 16

Weber, Eduard Priedrich, on vagus nerves --55-.--2-. +222 22-2222 -- 29 see = 351
Wieber,; HrnesteEHeimnichonkvacus Menyese=es see === ae eee eee 351
Weber Wallen sinysp ot heses) ote sere ise rae ee eee es 110
Weisbach, onicandaiyisiw orks .oc,csp -vomrcrerr ie tes eer acetone 316
Wieismanns Avuiomst, (quote dese. 25 iy ysenatarey hyve fees eels eel oe eae eee 173
Weellinc. viames Cy onmnemocialvolumesseeeet so seecene ees eee eee 12
LEROMMGOMS Tin WNIT Oli oasasaccccs0 soocsconSece saaSSs xviii
WiesternpAnstraliawexchanges wat heeeseee eee eter ee een: epee eee eee ee 52, 53, 54
Wieston¢s) pedestrianismy Studiys Oleaeeeee eo eee eae eee ee ees eee eee 303
Weyher, M. Ch., on gyratory movements of air.-.-.....-..--...---.------- 131, 132
Wieyprecht bayeniexpeditlOntse essere sees eee eee tease eee ee eee 276
Wharton, W. J. L., on physical condition of the ocean.--..-...--..---.---- “76
Wiheat food wale pote see cok sa wack layeesl orem gran Siete eta eres eee Lak 306
Wiheststome: Eeroress Ore cite depp eee ree ete tae eee eae ee 157
Wheeler, Joseph, Regent of the Institution. .-......-........---..--------- Sepa
reappointedve gente spate eee eee eee eee eee 2

WihirlwalNdisssCall ses: Of ia oe oes See ee Be pe Pe eae cris maps acc Oe eee ree 150
IWihitaker wir oe oloeic alllawioiks oles eee eens ee eee eee eee ee eae 559
White, Andrew D., Regent of the Institution........-.-...-...---.---.---- 3
White, Sir William, war ships constructed by ......--.-.-----.----------+- 512
VWihitelbloodxcorpuscless functions) oles eee ee orc ee eee eeree eee noes 333
Stud yO et ees ships et ees eee (Sian ae ee ee 389

WihiteiCross Winey courtesies) frome rere see eae nee eee eee eee 51
Whitman, C. O., on evolution and epigenesis............---- Ua eC ae me 396
Wiickés, Ti dian dass ake oe ee ae elektro gt a ed ae 224
Wiener .Otto,onyvcolorsphotocraphiy sees teeeee eee eee eo eee eee eee eee 167
Wiggins, Captains cited is ..8 ofc cen oa ese serine cen ee See eee oe 284
Wiley, Harvey W., analysis of mescal by-..----:---...-------22+---------- 39
on waste and conservation of plant food.........--..--- 76

Williams, Talcott, Armenian costume from. --.....---...---..--------------- 616
on primitive man and the modern savage..---.---------- 541

Wilson HB onecenerdalypl OlOoivaeseer nee ae eee ciee ten eee eee eee eee oe teeee 395
ongNaplesitableicommitbeeses-eeeeeeeee eee eee eee eee 14
Walsonihomasjexhibit arian’ edepyaes asses eeee eee eee eeene eee eee eee 625
Walson, Walliam iin appointed eke cents sseeeeeeeeseo ero eee eee eee eee ere xlv, 2
elected on executive committee......--...--..----.---- 2

executive committee report by ....---.----.----------- xhii

member of “ Wstablishment” ...-.-.............------ ix, 1

Wilson, W. PB. on J. A. Ryder ---.2..------- Meee Sue Societe. Reems 673
Wand realvand theoretical /directiontoheeeeeeeeeeee eee eee nee ee eeeeeeee 129
Windstettectionicizculationiotioceanerreree te tee eee ere eee eee eee 399

Winlock, Walliam (Crawdord, biographyjoteesseee cece coo oee eo eeeeee see 27

INDEX. 727

Page
Winlock, William Crawford, history of exchange bureau by............-.- 13
Winship, George Parker, on Coronado’s expedition .-.-...-.....-.......---- Al
Warns lowerArizonaMpueblomminsiatiete. 0.52508 Shoe adele sec eestesed ne ome 517
Maiti O CLONE onscolordecompOsitlomeess- 4. a2. sce o see cieee ea ee en le leee 195
WY @OG SS Wop ditty Ol AECL Ob ROR ieee se Serene oer AS Sealers taal nt 662
WOOGL, Io Wop CLUGGEBS CSS Uae bese Coca oe eee Se eee aaa amma Means Sees cane e 196
WY Codhwraurél, 1615 18}, O10 JOSE} Ola) JP KESWAElN, Go Sne5oean ososen eseasocesoes seoaess- 657
WOOG! WeIGl, Ue dean No 1a PNG HILO: Se Sena ee Bese to eee sano tee oc 642
Woodward, R.S., on Smithsonian work in mathematics ........-----....... 13
iforskeranel anyasei anally SIS (Otero erect s aoa ccs em alone, wteicie cele ciaieiev niece time dedlenelee elspeteiee 316
Wonk jperiommnedl loyy watiellsimerel nbn Se55 gon secs boos as55 ccc ueode- ceesee Sone 313
Mor cimomanstoodoneeded iby sess 2-/saeiice ae = ere cine etlats sien eleeis See 301, 306
Workshop of National Museum, expenditures for ...............--.--..---- XXX
Maas cesClement,oneAustralianclimates= ses sess sess ee eeeece essen. 265
\Winecler ss Tier Rereeinee NOI! Cohas ease dd omcob ene osue ace Sane cosa concede 555 169
Meniohit see ter cas ONS TCOURLESIES ROMs ae here eos er ee Saas Cee eee eee eee 50
Wright, Professor, on nomenclature commission.........--.-...------..-.-- 457
Wroblewski, Professor, hydrogen liquefied by.........-...-.-....-.-.------ 144, 145
WailiitengerofessonmentiOnedee reser ee eamec nese eee eae el eee eee: 174
WrirzpuTesUMivensiby,.plMUbltcattOns: from eee eee eee eae seas Keune Se 74.
We
Nelilowstone National) Parkvanimals trom |22ssee 2226 see eee s aoe o eee eeeee 26
SOME eo ee ae eee a tots eee (dats Slant area xvi
Z.
Zeller, Edward, paper dictated to......-.....-.-..-----.----- SN Aer Melee 99
ACME S WACO, OF CONOR DINO WHEDON? «So oseo eascan saoo4s soedee Se esas Goscen 167, 168
ANT COMMITO EES (LUC FLOM, Of ee ree iaetia ine eit shee asel Seis tke = Se spepeia sien ees soe seer 504
OCWE ND sC ouniby Max Ce seibed aes aes a eees espera etal aye ae etaye lente esse Cara raia ls) cite opiate 612
DOTNOGIOR CEMSUELS SAS a CNS E Ae SMe ECE EOE eles pthc i men igi in eS em eyes Bene ea 458
AonorncalaConenress dele waves) tOs- =e ance ese e ie scieae 5 ocleisieienee ely See eae 16
Zoological Park, act making appropriation for..........--..----.-----.---- xvii
adjustment of boundaries of............-..--.--...--.---- 23
APPLOPRUAON SHORE terete as oem eieee ae isieels sane see eee 4, 28
PO AVOLS MME vata eeys Se eca ser cyas ee ee oe a Tea rayeloe Die ene eters e Als 62
COMSUIS Olt AMAA Ibo see saeaeclossolacsacds secbae daecu™ cagece 67
detailed finances of.......---..-- Se er eet ein KXXvl
nis tonya ots biveban kos alkene sas se 2 ee eee ee eee ee 13
eM PHO VOTOGING OF OMG Wes seas cosg csc adee ss6ceo seas dceaes 61
Maelo fall dime git sc 2 screens tates ae sitios se tese + oetee ess clon 62
listroteamiimnal seiner. ci 5/2 aie s/t Som ies arenes Saree serene 63
listroksaninialsabormiin oy. ois 2os\ ces boeken aeons sess eee 66
list of animals presented to ..............---.------------ 64
NOW, TOA Way SUN). a se te HS oa eek oe aise eels pe 23, 24.
Secretary Ss reporbion. .a 2. se etc See case oot ae oe ee eee 22
Secretary’s statement to Regents on .-....-.....------.--- Xvi
Sip ernie MG Smt S te OG bOMe se spise) rere et ery eei e 61
SUI ANt, AUCING SSeS bor oecSes 6 ESE Se eee aS S eee e Eee eebeccoosposee 294
Smithsonian work in......-.- aoe agos ose2 o35056Ssa¢canecs Sos5s8eoss 13
PMC OSUUMES Oly 2 <e terc meine waite iain = =~ = = Lo GHOOnC AU OS OMOE Nee Geena Seas 615
Zuni creation myths, Cushing on .......-.....---22 2-2-2 ee ee eee eee 42
Zurich University, publications from.......-......------------0eee eee eee 74

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