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“ANNUAL REPORT |

OF

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THE BOARD OF REGENTS

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

SHOWING THE

* OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE
INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1863.

bi WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1864,- :

*

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‘se !) Pee Le ' . - ed a es

o In THE House oF REPRESENTATIVES, June 28, 1864. _
" _ Resolved, That five thousand extra copies of the Report ef the Smithsonian Institution be |
* printed—two thousand for the Institution. and three thousand for the use of the members of ;

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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS

¥ OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

SHOWING

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THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTI-
_ TUTION UP TO JANUARY, 1864, AND THE PROCEEDINGS
v ' OF THE BOARD UP TO MARCH 16, 1864. .

To the Senate and House of Representatives :

In obedience to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, establish-
ing the Smithsonian Institution, the undersigned, in behalf of the
Regents, submit to Congress, as a report of the operations, expendi-
tures, and condition of the Institution, the following documents:

1. The Annual Report of the Secretary, giving an account of the
operations of the Institution, during the year 1863.

2. Report of the Executive Committee, giving a general statement
of the proceeds and disposition of the Smithsonian fund, and also an
account of the expenditures for the year 1863.

3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents up to March 16, 1864.

4, Appendix.

Respectfully submitted, ‘
R. B. TANEY, Chancellor.

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.

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"¢ SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
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THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, - AND CON-
DITION OF THE INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR 1863.

* > » -
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JUNE 28, 1864.—Read, and ordered to be printed.

ih ene .

‘* SMITHSONIAN InstITUTION,
Washington, June 27, 1864.
‘Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the House of Representatives of the United States the annual report
of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian In-
- stitution for the year 1863.
T have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,

, JOSEPH HENRY,
: Secretary Smithsonian Institution,
Hon. S. Courax, ~
e Speaker of the House of Representatives.
.
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OFFICERS OF THE sMIT HSONIAN INSTITUTION.
a ‘\“ ms 864.
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ABRAHAM LINCOLN, Ew oficio Presiding: Officer of the Institution. °2
RoGaE B. TANEY,* ‘Chancellor of the Institution. ey
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary of the Institution. co

ae a. Assistant Secretary.

ee ee easurer.
WILLIAM J HEES, Chief Clerk.

*

A. D. BACHE,
JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, $ Executive Committee.
R. WALLACH, J ‘
2 | e%

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

H. HAMLIN, Vice-President of the United States.

ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United States.

R. WALLACH, Mayor of the City of Washington.

W. P. FESSENDEN, member of the Senate of the United States, (Maine. )

L. TRUMBULL, member of the Senate of the United States, (Illinois. )
GARRETT DAVIS, member of the Senate of the United States, hoe )

S. S. COX, member of the House of Representatives, (Ohio. )

J. W. PATTERSON, member of the House of Representatives, (New Hampshire.)
H. W. DAVIS, member of the House of Representatives, (Maryland. )

W. B. ASTOR, citizen of New York.

W. L. DAYTON, citizen of New Jersey.

T. D. WOOLSEY, citizen of Connecticut.

LOUIS AGASSIZ, citizen of Massachusetts.
ALEXANDER D. BACHE, citizen of Washington.

1

- JOSEPH G. TOTTEN, citizen of Washington.

. MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE MNS

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ABRAHAM LINCOLN, President of the United States. a) a
HANNIBAL HAMLIN, Vice-President of the United States. * **
’ ___ W. H. SEWARD, Seeretary of State. ' +.
S. P. CHASE, Secretary of the Treasury. S oe
. E. M. STANTON, Secretary of War. ’ a
G. WELLES, Secretary of the Navy. i?
M. BLAIR, Postmaster General. e = 4
E. BATES, Attorney General. ° xy
: ROGER B. TANEY, Chief Justice of the United. States.
e D. P. HOLLOWAY, Commissioner of Patents. -
~ RICHARD WALLACH, Mayor of the City of Washington. ? - *
s

HONORARY MEMBERS.

*

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, of Connecticut.
J. P. USHER, Secretary of the Interior, (ez officio

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PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION

‘SMITHSONTAN INSTITUTION.

[PRESENTED IN THE FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, AND
ADOPTED BY THE BOARD OF REGENTS, DECEMBER 13, 1847.]

INTRODUCTION.

General considerations which should serve as a guide in adopting a Plan
of Organization.

1. Witt or SurrHson. The property is bequeathed to the United
States of America, ‘‘to found at Washington, under the name of the
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, an establishment for the increase and dif-
fusion of knowledge among men.”’

2. The bequest is for the benefit of mankind. The government
of the United States is merely a trustee to carry out the design of
the testator.

3. The Institution is not a national establishment, as is frequently
supposed, but the establishment of an individual, and is to bear and
perpetuate his name.

4. The objects of the Institution are, Ist, to increase, and, 2d, to
diffuse knowledge among men.

5. These two objects should not be confounded with one another.
The first is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addition
of new truths; and the second, to disseminate knowledge, thus in-
creased, among men.

6. The will makes no restriction in favor of any particular kind of
knowledge; hence all branches are entitled to a share of attention.

7. Knowledge can be increased by different methods of facilitating
and promoting the discovery of new truths; and can be most exten-
sively diffused among men by means of the press.

8. To effect the greatest amount of good, the organization should
be such as to enable the Institution to produce results, in the way of
increasing and diffusing knowledge, which cannot be produced either
at all or so efficiently by the existing institutions in our country.

9. The organization should also be such as can be adopted pro-
visionally; can be easily reduced to practice, receive modifications,
or be abandoned, in whole or in part, without a sacrifice of the funds.

10. In order to compensate, in some measure, for the loss of time
occasioned by the delay of eight years in establishing the Institution,

8 ' PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

a considerable portion of the interest which has accrued should be
added to the principal. , ;
11. In proportion to the wide field of knowledge to be cultivated,

‘the funds are small. Economy should therefore be consulted in the

construction of the building; and not only the first cost of the edifice
should be considered, but also the continual expense of keeping it in
repair, and of the support of the establishment necessarily connected
with it. There should also be but few individuals Dagenonehy sup-
ported by the Institution.

12. The plan and dimensions of the building should be determined
by the plan of organization, and not the converse.

13. It should be recollected that mankind in general are to be
benefited by the bequest, and that, therefore, all unnecessary ex-
penditure on local objects would be a perversion of the trust.

14. Besides the foregoing considerations deduced immediately from

_ the will of Smithson, regard must be had to certain requirements of

the act of Congress establishing the Institution. These are, a library,
a museum, and a gallery of art, with a building on a liberal scale to
contain them.

SECTION I

Plan of Organization of the Institution in accordance with the foregoing
deductions from the will of Smithson.

TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

1. To stimulate men of talent to make original researches, by offer-
ing suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths; and,

2. To appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular
researches, under the direction of suitable persons.

TO DIFFUSE KNOWLEDGE. It is proposed—

1. To publish a series of periodical reports on the progress of the
different branches of knowledge; and,

2. To publish occasionally separate treatises on subjects of general
interest.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE.
I.—bLy stimulating researches.

1. Facilities to be afforded for the production of original memoirs
on a branches of knowledge.

. The memoirs thus obtained to be published in a series of vol-
ae in a quarto form, and entitled Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge.

No memoir on subjects of physical science to be accepted for
ae which does not furnish a positive addition to human
knowledge, resting on original research; and all unverified specula-
tions to be rejected.

4. Hach memoir presented to the Institution to be submitted for
examination to a commission of persons of reputation for learning in

’ PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 9

the branch to which the memoir pertains; and to be accepted for
publication only in case the report of this commission be favorable.

5. The commission to be chosen by the officers of the Institution,
and the name of the author, as far as practicable, concealed, unless
a favorable decision be made, =

6. The volumes of the memoirs to be exchanged for the transac-
tions of literary and scientific societies, and copies to be given to all
the colleges and principal libraries in this country. One part of the
remaining copies may be offered for sale; and the other carefully
preserved, to form complete sets of the work, to eupply the demand
from new institutions.

7. An abstract, or popular account, of the contents of these me-
moirs to be given to the public through the annual report of the
Regents to Congress.

Il.—By appropriating a part of the income, annually, to special objects
of research, under the direction of suitable persons.

1. The objects, and the amount appropriated, to Pe recommended
by counsellors of the Institution.

2. Appropriations in different years to different bicele so that,
in course of time, each branch of knowledge may receive a share.

3. The results obtained from these appropriations to be published,
with the memoirs before mentioned, in the volumes of the Smithso-
nian Contributions to Knowledge.

4, Examples of objects for which appropriations may be made.

(1.) System of extended meteorological observations for solving the
problem of American storms.

(2.) Explorations in descriptive natural history, and geological,
magnetical, and topographical surveys, to collect materials for the
formation of a physical atlas of the United States.

(3.) Solution of experimental problems, such as a new determina-
tion of the weight of the earth, of the velocity of electricity, and
of light ; chemical analyses of soils and plants; collection and publi-
cation of scientific facts accumulated in the offices of government.

(4.) Institution of statistical inquiries ee reference to physical,
moral, and political subjects.

(5.) Historical researches and accurate surveys of places celebrated
in American history.

(6.) Ethnological researches, particularly with reference to the dif-
ferent races of men in North America; also. explorations and accurate
surveys of the mounds and other remains of the ancient people of
our country.

DETAILS OF THE PLAN FOR DIFFUSING KNOWLEDGE.

1.— By the publication of a series of reports, giving an account of the new
discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year wm
all branches of knowled ge not strictly professional.

1. These reports will diffuse a kind of knowledge generally inter-
esting, but which, at present, is inaccessible to the public. Some of

10 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.
. ”

the reports may be published annually, others at longer intervals, as

the income of the Institution or the changes in the branches of

knowledge may indicate. :

2. The reports are to be prepared by collaborators eminent in the
different branches of knowledge. '

3. Each collaborator to be furnished with the journals and pubii-
cations, domestic and foreign, necessary to the compilation of his
report ; to be paid a certain sum for his labors, and to be named on
the title-page of the report.

4. The reports to be published in separate parts, so that persons
interested in a particular branch can procure the parts relating to it
without purchasing the whole.

5. These reports may be presented to Congress for partial distri-
bution, the remaining copies to be given to literary and scientific
institutions, and sold to individuals for a moderate price.

The following are some of the subjects which may be embraced in
the reports : °
JT. PHYSICAL CLASS.

1. Physics, including astronomy, natural philosophy, chemistry,
and meteorology.

2. Natural history, including botany, zoology, geology, &c.

3. Agriculture.

4, Application of science to art.

. Il. MORAL AND POLITICAL CLASS.

5. Ethnology, including particular history, comparative philology,
antiquities, &c.

6. Statistics and political economy. .

7. Mental and moral philosophy.

8. A survey of the political events of the world, penal reform, &c.

Ill. LITERATURE AND THE FINE ARTS.

_9. Modern literature.

10. The fine arts, and their application to the useful arts.
11. Bibliography.

12. Obituary notices of distinguished individuals.

Il.— Ly the publication of separate treatises on subjects of general interest.

1. These treatises may occasionally consist of valuable memoirs
translated from foreign languages, or of articles prepared under the
direction of the Institution, or procured by offering premiums for the
best exposition of a given subject.

2. The treatises should, in all cases, be submitted to a commission
of competent judges previous to their publication:

3. As examples of these treatises, expositions may be obtained of
the present state of the several branches of knowledge mentioned in
the table of reports. |

PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION. 11

SECTION II.

Plan of organization, in accordance with the terms of the resolutions of
the Board of Regents providing for the two modes of increasing and
diffusing knowledge.

1. The act of Congress establishing the Institution contemplated
the formation of a library and a museum ; and the Board of Regents,
including these objects in the plan of organization, resolved to divide
the income* into two equal parts.

2. One part to be appropriated to increase and diffuse knowledge
by means of publications and researches, agreeably to the scheme
before.given. The other part to be appropriated to the formation of
a library and a collection of objects of nature and of art.

3. These two plans are not incompatible one with another.

4. Tocarry out the plan before described, a library will be required,
consisting, first, of a complete collection of the transactions and pro-
ceedings of all the learned societies in the world; second, of the more
important current periodical publications, and other works necessary
in preparing the periodical reports.

5. The Institution should make special collections, particularly of
objects to illustrate and verify its own publications.

6. Also, a collection of instruments of research in all branches of
experimental science.

7. With reference to the collection of books, other than those men-
tioned above, catalogues of all the different libraries in the United
States should be procured, in order that the valuable books first pur-
chased may be such as are not to be found in the United States.

8. Also, catalogues of memoirs, and of books and other materials,
should be collected for rendering the Institution a centre of biblio-
graphical knowledge, whence the student may be directed to any
work which he may require.

9. It is believed that the collections in natural history will increase
by donation as rapidly as the income of the Institution can make pro-
vision for their reception, and, therefore, it will seldom be necessary
to purchase articles of this kind.

10. Attempts should be made to procure for the gallery of art casts
of the most celebrated articles of ancient and modern sculpture.

11. The arts may be encouraged by providing a room, free of ex-
pense, for the exhibition of the objects of the Art-Union and other
similar societies.

12. A small appropriation should annually be made for models of
antiquities, such as those of the remains of ancient temples, &c.

13. For the present, or until the building is fully completed, be-
sides the Secretary, no permanent assistant will be required, except
one, to act as librarian.

*= The amount of the Smithsonian bequest received into the Treasury of the

Dinihedy Statesiise.< 25 2 -cat eens. ceca esoee sy Sear esiecelissen=nin = $515,169 00
Interest on the same to July 1, 1846, (devoted to the erection of the build-

BND) eee seen = Jae en aewaen soe. Coeacd voewen sean e = eiesiac-ss cane 242,129 00

Annual income from the bequest .....-...-.0- s-ec----- a, ae tee ee 30,910 14

12 PROGRAMME OF ORGANIZATION.

14. The Secretary, by the law of Congress, is alone responsible to
the Regents. He shall take charge of the building and property,
keep a record of proceedings, discharge the duties of librarian and
keeper of the museum, and may, with the consent of the Regents,
employ assistants.

15. The Secretary and his assistants, during the session of Congress,
will be required to illustrate new discoveries in science, and to exhibit
new objects of art; distinguished individuals should also be invited to
give lectures on subjects of general interest.

This programme, which was at first adopted provisionally, has
become the settled policy of the Institution. The. only material
change is that expressed by the following resolutions, adopted Jan-
uary 15, 1855, viz: :

Resolved, That the 7th resolution passed by the Board of Regents,
on the 26th of January, 1847, requiring an equal division of the in-
come between the active operations and the museum and library,
when the buildings are completed, be, and it is hereby, repealed.

Resolved, That hereafter the annual appropriations shall be appor-
tioned specifically among the different objects and operations of the
Institution, in such manner as may, in the judgment of the Regents,
be necessary and proper for each, according to its intrinsic impor-
tance, and a compliance in good faith with the law.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

To the Board of Regents:

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to present, at the commencement
of another session of your honorable board, the annual report of the
condition and transactions of the Smithsonian Institution during the
year 18653.

The general operations of the Institution are so uniform from year
to year that the several annual reports can differ but little from
each other; the usual order will, therefore, be observed in this com-
munication, with only such variations as the special incidents of the
year may require.

It will be seen by the report of the Executive Committee that the
finances of the Institution are in as favorable a condition as the state
of public affairs would authorize us to expect. First. The whole
amount of money originally derived from the bequest of Smithson is
still in the treasury of the United States, bearing interest at six per
eent., paid semi-annually, and yielding $30,910. Second. Seventy-
five thousand dollars of an extra fund are in bonds of the State
of Indiana, at five per cent. interest, also paid semi-annually, yield-
ing $3,750. Third. Fifty-three thousand five hundred dollars of the
same fund are in bonds of the State of Virginia, twelve thousand in
those of Tennessee, and five hundred in those of Georgia, from which
nothing has been derived since the commencement of the war. Fourth.
A balance of upwards of $32,000 is now in the hands of the treasurer
of the Institution.

The unsettled accounts at the close of the year do not exceed two
thousand dollars.

From this statement it appears that the Institution, after erecting
a building, accumulating a large library and an extensive museum,
supplying the principal museums of the world with specimens of
natural history, and publishing a series of volumes which have been
distributed to all first-class libraries abroad, and still more extensively
at home, has upwards of one hundred thousand dollars in addition
to the money received from the original bequest. In addition to
this, the stocks of Virginia and Tennessee are quoted at about half

,

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. — =
*

their par value, and it may be a question whether they should not be

disposed of and the money otherwise invested.

A part of the original bequest, amounting to £5,015, was left by
Mr. Rush in England, as the principal of an annuity to be paid to the
mother of the nephew of Smithson. The annuitant having died, a
power of attorney was sent, in November, 1862, to Messrs. Fladgate,
Clark & Finch to collect the money; but it has not yet been received.
Although the whole legacy was awarded to Mr. Rush in behalf of
the United States, after an amicable suit in chancery, various objections
have been raised to allowing the small remainder to be sent to this
country. These objections appear to be principally of a technical

character, and are scarcely compatible with an equitable interpretation

of the facts of the case. There should be no prejudice in England
in regard to the construction placed upon the terms of the bequest and
the policy which has been adopted, since one hundred and sixty-
nine institutions in Great Britain and Ireland are recipients of the
Smithsonian publications and specimens of natural history, and have
enjoyed the advantages of its system of international exchange.

Although the financial affairs of the Institution are still in a favor-
able condition, its ability to produce results is materially diminished
on account of the advanced prices of labor and materials, and espe-
cially the high rate of exchange under which its foreign operations
are necessarily conducted. Still, all parts of the general system
have been carried on with less abatement than might have been
expected, as will be seen from the following account of the various
operations :

Publications. —The publications of the Institution, as stated in pre-
vious reports, consist of three series: Ist, Contributions to Knowl-
edge ; 2d, Miscellaneous Collections ; and, 3d, Annual Reports.

The Contributions include memoirs, embracing the records of origi-
nal investigations and researches, resulting in such new truths as are
considered interesting additions to knowledge. Twelve volumes in
quarto of this series have been published, and the thirteenth is nearly
ready for distribution.

The Miscellaneous Collections include works intended to facilitate
the study of the various branches of natural history, to give instruc-
tion as to the method of observing phenomena, and to furnish a
variety of other matter connected with the progress of science. Of
this series four large octavo volumes have been issued, and two more
¥Z nearly completed.

” % geet OF THE SECRETARY. 15

The Annual Reports to Dobinens consist, each, of an octavo volume
of 450 pages. They contain the report of the Secretary on the
operations and condition of the Institution, the proceedings of the
Regents, and an appendix, giving a synopsis of the lectures delivered
at the Institution, extracts from correspondence, and articles of a
character suited to meteorological observers, to teachers, and other
persons especially interested in the promotion of knowledge.

The thirteenth volume of the Contributions has been completed,
and is now in the hands of the binder. It contains the following
original papers:

1. Tidal Observations in the Arctic Seas; by Elisha Kent Kane,
M. D; made during the second Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir
John Franklin in 1853-55. Reduced and discussed by Charles A.
ee assistant United States Coast Survey.

. Meteorological Observations in the Arctic Seas ; by Sir Leopold
McClintock : made on board the Arctic searching yacht ‘‘ Fox’’ in
Baffin’s Bay and Prince Reg ent’s Inlet in 1857~’59. Reduced and dis-
cussed by Charles A. Schott, assistant United States Coast Survey.

3. Ancient Mining on the shores of Lake Superior. By Charles
Whittlesey.

4. Discussion of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations
made at the Girard College Observatory, Philadelphia, in 1840—'45.
Part II. Investigation of the Solar-Diurnal Variation of the Magnetic
Declination and its Annual Inequality. By A. D. Bache, Superin-
tendent Coast Survey.

5. Part ILI. Investigation of the Lunar Effects of the Magnetic
Declination. By A. D. Bache.

6. Parts IV, V, VI. Horfontal Force. Investigation of the ten
or eleven year period, and of the disturbances of the horizontal
component of the magnetic force ; investigation of the solar-diurnal
variation and of the annual inequality of the horizontal force, and of
the lunar effect on the same. By A. D. Bache.

7. Records and Results of a Magnetic Survey of Pennsylvania and
parts of adjacent States in 1840, 1841, with some Additional Records
and Results of 1834, 1835, 1843, and 1862, and a Map. By A. D.
Bache.

8. Researches en the Anatomy and Physiology of Respiration in
the Chelonia. By S. Weir Mitchell, M.D., and George R. More-
house, M. D.

Accounts have been given in previous reports of all the papers
contained in this volume, excepting that’ on the Chelonia. This

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Fe ,
paper, by S. Weir Mitchell, M. D., and George R. Morehouse, M.D.,
of Philadelphia, is a very complete study of the anatomy and physi-
ology of the breathing organs in turtles. It seems that, although at
one time, and by a single observer, the true mode of the breathing
of these animals was partially understood, it had long been neglected,
and modern physiologists have taught that turtles forced air into the
lungs as do frogs. Drs. Mitchell and Morehouse have shown that
turtles breathe like mammals, by drawing air into the lungs by the
aid of muscles situated in the flanks and on the outside of the lungs.
Their paper contains a detailed account of the anatomy of the breath-
ing organs of turtles, and is illustrated with numerous wood-cuts.
The most novel discovery described by the authors is that of a chiasm
or crossing from side to side of a portion of the nerves which supply
the muscles of the larynx. Except the well-known facts as to similar
crossings within the skull, no previous author has described any simi-
lar extra-cranial arrangement of nerves. The physiological uses of
the laryngeal chiasm has been fully studied by Drs. Mitchell and
Morehouse ; and more recently Professor Wyman, led by their dis-
covery, has described similar nerve arrangements in serpents and in
certain birds.

The authors express their indebtedness to the Smithsonian Insti-
tution for the aid with which they were furnished in obtaining the
requisite specimens for experiments and for dissection.

The following papers have been accepted for publication, and will
form parts of the fourteenth volume of Contributions :

Ist. Three additional parts of the series of discussion of the mag-
netic observations at Girard College, by Professor A. D. Bache.

2d. The result of a series of microscopical studies of the medulla
oblongata, or the upper portion of the spinal marrow, by Dr. John
Dean.

3d. A memoir on the paleontology of the Upper Missouri, by F. B.
Meek and F. V. Hayden. ,

4th. An account of the photographical observatory and various
experiments in regard to this subject, by Dr. Henry Draper, of New
York.

5th. A monograph of the ‘‘Larida’’ or gulls, by Dr. Elliott Coues.

All these memoirs, except the last, are in the hands of the printer,
or in process of illustration by the engraver.

In several of the preceding reports an account has been given of a
series of reductions of the magnetic observations made from 1840 to
1845, inclusive, at Girard College, Philadelphia, by Professor Bache.

sos REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

The first two of the papers of this series related to what is called the
eleven-year period of the variation -of the needle, which corresponds
with the recurrence and frequency of the spots on the sun. The
third paper relates to the influence of the moon on the variation of
the needle. The fourth refers to the change in the horizontal part
of the force of the earth’s magnetism coinciding with the eleven-
year period of the spots on the sun. The fifth relates to the effect
of the sun in producing daily and annual variations in the horizontal
component of the magnetic force. The sixth relates to the lunar
influence on the horizontal magnetic force.

A particular account has been given of the result of all these inves-
tigations, which tend fully to corroborate the conclusions arrived at
from observations in other parts of the world, that both the sun and
moon are magnetic bodies, and exert an influence upon the polarity
of the earth ; and also that the magnetism of the sun has variations
in intensity which are in some way connected with the appearance
of spots on its surface, giving rise to the variations in those perturba-
tions of the needle which have been called magnetic storms, and
which present a periodical recurrence at an interval of about eleven
years.

The influence of the moon is much less marked than that of the
sun, and appears: to be more analogous to the temporary magnetism
induced in soft iron.

Parts VII, VIII, and IX of this series, now in the press, are a con-
tinuation of the same subject. Part VII contains the discussion of
the effect of a change of temperature on the readings of the vertical
force instrument.

If a magnetic needle could be supported perfectly free in space, so
as to assume the direction into which it would be brought by the
magnetic action of the earth, it would arrange itself in the line of
what is called the dip, or the inclination of the needle. At the mag-
netic equator of the earth such a needle would be parallel to the
horizon, but, departing from this line either to the north or the south,
the inclination would increase continually until we arrive at the mag-
netic pole, when it would be vertical. It is plain that the full magnetic
force of the earth, in the line of the dip, may be resolved into two
others, viz., a horizontal force, or that which draws the ordinary
magnetic needle back to the meridian when it has been deflected
from this position; and, second, the vertical force which tends to
draw the end of the needle down into the line of the dip. The fre-

2s

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

quency of vibrations of a magnetic bar suspended by an untwisted
+hread, so as to be horizontal, gives the horizontal component of the
force of the earth, while the vibrations of a similar bar placed in the
plane of the dip, and poised horizontally like a*scale-beam on two
knite-edges, gives the variations in the vertical force. These vibra-
tions, however, will be affected not only by the changes in the mag-
netism of the earth, but by that in the bar itself; and as the latter
is affected by the temperature of the place, a series of observations
and discussions was necessary to ascertain the corrections due to this
cause. For this purpose the room was artificially heated and cooled ;
but the value of the correction was finally deduced from an investi-
gation of the whole series of regular observations compared with the
changes of temperature indicated by the hourly register of the ther-
mometer.

The corrections for temperature were afterwards applied. to all
the observations. The larger disturbances were then separated from
the body of the series in the same manner as had been done with
' regard to the horizontal force, by which means the effect of the
monthly and yearly disturbance of the sun is exhibited analytically and
graphically. From the results it appears that the number and aggre-
gate amount of disturbances were least in 1844; that in each year
the greatest number of disturbances occurs in March and September,
and the least number in June, or, in other words, the maximum about
the equinoxes, and the minimum about the solstices.

In an appendix to this paper the connexion of the appearance of
the aurora borealis with the disturbances of the direction and force
of the earth’s magnetism is discussed. From the result of this dis-
cussion it appears that there is a periodicity of about eleven years in
the recurrence of the frequency of the aurora, as well as in that of
the great disturbances of the needle, and that these are coincident
with each other and with the appearance of the spots on the sun.

The eighth part of the series gives the discussion of the daily and
yearly variations due to the action of the sun on the vertical compo-
nent of the magnetic force. The mean variation of the force is deter-
mined for each hour during each month and for the whole year, and
also for the summer and the winter separately. These are expressed
analytically and graphically, and an examination of the curve shows
a principal maximum about 1 p. m., and a principal minimum about
9a.m. There is an indication of a secondary maximum about 2 a.m.,
and a secondary minimum about 4 a. m.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

_In summer the curve appears to have but one greatest and one
least ordinate occurring about noon and midnight. In winter the
double feature of the curve becomes quite conspicuous.

The vertical force appears greater in May, June, July, and August,
and less in the remaining months, with a range of about a hundred
ind five hundred thousandth part of the whole force.

The ninth part gives the investigation of the influence of the moon
upon the vertical force ; also upon the direction and intensity of the
total force. The methods of investigation are the same in this as in
the preceding parts. The daily effects of the moon exhibit a prin-
cipal maximum a little before the planet passes the upper meridian,
and a principal minimum about three hours after it passes the lower
meridian. The average epoch of the tide of vertical force is about
one and a half hour in advance, apparently, of the culmination of the
moon. A secondary variation of this force, though noticed, is very
feeble. The subject of the time of greatest lunar disturbance is yet
very imperfectly developed, and more observations in regard to it

are desirable.

A comparison is also given in this paper between the observations

_ made at Toronto and Philadelphia, and their accordances or differ-
ences are stated. The effect of the moon upon the direction and inten-
sity of the total force is obtained by a combination of the vertical
and horizontal components. From this part of the investigation it
appears that the dip is greatest at 8 and 20 hours, and least at 3
hours and 153, the range being equal to 3.6 seconds; and also that
the maximum strength of the earth is greatest at half-past 12 and 11,
and least at 74 and 17 hours, the results, from the observations at
Toronto and Philadelphia, being remarkably coincident.

The next paper of the foregoing list is that by Dr. Dean, which
comprises the anatomy of the medulla oblongata, both human and
comparative, from the lowest roots of the hypoglossal nerve, through
the upper roots of the auditory, including the hypoglossal, nasal,
glossopharyngeal, abducens, facial, and auditory nerves. The ob-
jects of the investigation were principally as follows :

Ist. To illustrate the topography of the medulla oblongata by means
of aseries of photographs, which might completely map out all the

principal changes in structure as they successively occur, connected
with the development of the different nerves, with the details which
accompany the development of their nuclei and accessory ganglia.

2d. The study of the more minute histological details, such as the
course of the nerve roots, their entrance into their respective nuclei

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

and connexion with nerve cells, the connexion of the nuclei with
each other by nerve fibres passing from the roots and from the nerve
cells, the structure of the olivary bodies which possess a peculiar
interest from their resemblance in convoluted structure to the cere-
brum and cerebellum.

3d. An attempt to show, notwithstanding the apparent difference of
structure between the spinal cord and medulla oblongata, a difference
which appears very considerable at first sight, that the plan of struc- —
ture of the two is identical, that the general arrangement of parts
strictly corresponds, that the relation of the nerve roots to their
nuclei or cell groups is the same, and moreover the connexion estab-
lished between the different nuclei is carried out on the same plan.
The illustrations for this work were taken by the author himself
directly from the microscopic dissections by photography. For the
general edition the photographic illustrations have been copied on
stone with great care by L. H. Bradford. The steel plates were en-
eraved by J. W. Watts. Besides these, a limited number of photo-
graphic prints from the original negatives have been prepared by
Dr. Dean himself for private distribution, and from these negatives
other copies may be obtained either on direct application to the author
or through the medium of this Institution. 3 .

This paper, which is the result of over two years of constant study,
was referred to Dr. W. A. Hammond, of the United States army,
and Professor Jefiries Wyman for critical examination, and was recom-
mended by them for publication as a valuable addition both to human
and to comparative anatomy.

The third paper accepted for publication is on the Paleontology
of the Upper Missouri, by F. B. Meek and F. V. Hayden. _

This work contains figures and descriptions of all the known inver-
tebrate fossil remains of the various geological formations of Idaho,
Dakota, Nebraska, and portions of Kansas. About 370 species,
nearly all of which are new, are fully described, and the descriptions
are accompanigd by remarks on the relations of each species to allied
forms from other districts in this country and Europe, both living and
fossil—its geological range, geographical distribution, &c. The illus-
trations consist of about one thousand. carefully drawn figures, occu-
pying forty-five quarto plates.

In addition to full descriptions of species, the work also contains
extended accounts of all the genera to which these fossils belong, with
the synonymy of each genus, and remarks on its affinities to other
genera, both living and extinct ; and assigns the probable period of ©

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ay

its introduction, the time when it appears to have attained its maxi-
mum development, and that at which it is supposed to have died out,
if not represented in our existing seas. At the head of each generic
description the etymology of the name and the type of the genus,
when known, are given. Full descriptions of each of the families
including these genera are likewise given ; and at the end of each
family description the names of all the genera, whether living or ex-
_ tinct. The introduction contains detailed descriptions of the various
formations in which these fossils existed, with remarks on their
synchronism with other American and Kuropean deposits.

A considerable portion of the specimens described and figured were
collected by Dr. F. V. Hayden in the several expeditions into the
regions of the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone, sent by the govern-
ment under the command of Lieutenant (now Major General) G. K.
Warren, of the United States Topographical Engineers, to whose
scientific zeal and liberal encouragement we are indebted for much of
the material upon which the work is fotnded. But besides these, a
large number were collected by Dr. Hayden himself previous to his
connexion with the exploring expeditions of the government. The
specific descriptions of the fossils described in this work are therefore
to be regarded as appearing,in the joint names of Meek and Hayden,
while the descriptions of the genera, and families, and the discussion
of their relations, geological range, geographical distribution, &c.,
are to be accredited to Mr. Meek alone.

The first sketch of this work was prepared as a part of the report
to Congress of the explorations of the above-mentioned regions, but
Mr. Meek has since devoted almost three years exclusively to extend-
ing and completing the investigations; and as it is probable that Con-
gress will make no provision for its publication, it has been adopted
by the Institution, at the earnest recommendation of several eminent
naturalists, and will be published in successive parts. All the speci-
mens described are in the collections of the Institution, and as saon
as the work is completed the numerous duplicates will be distributed,
as types of the species, to various scientific institutions at home and
abroad.

Miscellaneous Collections. —Several series of articles forming parts of
the Miscellaneous Collections, as stated in previous reports, have been
undertaken, of which some have been completed, some are still in
hand, and others have been printed during the past year.

The first of these series is that relating to the shells of North
America, and will consist of the following works :

22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

1. Check lists of North American shells, by P. P. Carpenter, &c.

2. Circular relative to collecting shells.

3. Hlementary introduction to the study of conchology, by P. P.
Carpenter.

4. List of the species of shells collected by the United States ex- .
ploring expedition, by the same author.

5. Descriptive catalogue of the shells of the west coast of the
United States, Mexico, and Central America, by the same author.

6. Descriptive catalogue of the air-breathing shells of North
America, by W. G. Binney.

7. Descriptive catalogue of several genera of water-breathing fresh
water univalves, by the same author.

8. Descriptive catalogue of the Jiclaniade, or the remainder of the
water-breathing fresh water univalves, by George W. Tryon.

9. Descriptive catalogue of the Corbiculade or Cycladide, a group
of bivalves principally inhabiting fresh water, by Temple Prime.

10. Descriptive catalogue ‘of the Unionide, or fresh water mussels.

11. Descriptive catalogue of the shells of the eastern coast of the
United States, by William Stimpson.

12. Bibliography of North American conchology, by W. G.
Binney.

13. Check list catalogue of cretaceous and jurassic fossils of North
America, by F. B. Meek.

The first and second articles of this list were published in 1860, and
described in the report for that year. The third was published in
1861 as a part of the annual report for 1860. A new edition would
have been printed before this time, as a part of the Miscellaneous
Collections, had we not been disappointed by a delay in procuring
the expected use of wood-cuts for the illustration ef the work from
the British Museum. We have just learned, however, that the Mu-
seum has liberally granted the use of these wood-cuts; that they are
now being copied in stereotype in England; and consequently the
work will be completed without further delay.

The fourth and fifth articles are still in the hands of Mr. Carpenter,
who has reported progress, which leads us to expect that they will
be ready for the press during the present year.

Of the 6th, 7th, and 8th, the first draughts of the manuscripts
have been completed, and a preliminary sketch of the conclusions
of the authors as regards the names of the species has been printed
in the form of proof-sheets, and distributed to conchologists, with a
view to elicit criticisms and suggestions prior to final publication.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

Many important additions and corrections have been obtained in this
way which will add much to the value of the works. The request has
been made that these proof-sheets should not be considered as express:
ing the final views of the authors, but only intended to obtain the
information above mentioned.

The ninth article of the series, by Mr. Prime, is well advanced in
printing, and will be completed in 1864. In addition to the purely
North American species, it will contain descriptions and wood-cut
figures of those of Central and South America, as well as of the West
Indies, thus embracing all the members of the family found in the
New World.

The tenth and eleventh articles are still in process of preparation,
and the engraving of the wood-cuts for their illustration has com-
menced.

The twelfth article—the first part of the Bibliography of North
American conchology by Mr. Binney, mentioned in the last report as
in press—has been completed and distributed. It forms a volume
of 650 pages, and contains a list of the publications of American aug
thors relative to conchology in general. As might reasonably be
expected, some omissions have occurred of titles of papers overlooked
or not met with, but copies have been sent to all the working con-
chologists of the country, with the request to furnish rectifications and
additions to be: inserted in an appendix to the second part. This
second part, which is now in the press, is intended to include an
account of the writings of foreign naturalists relative .to American
conchology, and will also contain, beside the additions and corrections
of the first volume, copious indexes of authors and names of genera
and species. About 250 pages are stereotyped, and the whole work,
probably filling over 500 pages, will be finished during 1864.

The thirteenth article, check list by Mr. Meek, has been completed
and put to press. It contains a list of all the species of cretaceous
fossils described by authors up to the end of 1863, and will constitute
an important aid in the labor of cataloguing and labelling collections,
being prepared in the same style as that of the check-lists of North
American shells, published by the Institution some years ago, which
have been so much sought after by conchologists and amateurs.

Another series of works belonging to the miscellaneous collections
is intended to facilitate the study of American insects. Of this series
the several articles are as follows:

1. Instructions for collecting and preserving insects.

2. Catalogue of the described Diptera (flies, musquitoes, &c.) of
North America, by Baron Osten Sacken.

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

3. Catalogue of the described Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths, &c,)
of North America, by Dr. Jno. G. Morris.

4. Classification of the Coleoptera (beetles, &c.) of North America,
by Dr. Jno. L. Le Conte.

5. Synopsis of the described Neuroptera (dragon-flies, &c.) of North _
America, with a list of the South American species, by H. Hagen.

6. Synopsis of the described Lepidoptera of North America, part
{. Diurnal and Crepuscular Lepidoptera, by Dr. Jno. G. Morris.

7. List of the Coleoptera of North America, with descriptions of
new species, by Dr. Jno. L. Le Conte.

8. Monograph of the Diptera of North America, by H. Loew, with
additions, by Baron Osten Sacken.

9. Monographs of Homoptera and Hemiptera, (chinches, roaches,
&c.,) of North America, by P. R. Uhler.

10. Descriptive Catalogue of the Hymenoptera, (bees, wasps, &c.,)
of North America, by H. De Saussure.

These have all been described in previous reports.

* Of No. 8, (monograph of Diptera,) the first part was published in
1862. During the past year the second part has been printed, and
forms a volume of 339 pages. The manuscript of a third part is in
an advanced state of preparation by Dr. Loew, and when received
will, as in the case of the two preceding parts, be intrusted to Baron
Osten Sacken for translation under his direction. We must again, in
this connexion, express our obligations to Baron Osten Sacken for his
valuable assistance in the preparation and publication of these works.

Of No. 9, monographs of Homoptera and Hemiptera of North
America, by P. R. Uhler, the manuscript is nearly completed, and
will soon be received from the author.

Of No. 10, the manuscript of the first part (Catalogue of Hymenop-
tera) was received from the author during the past summer, and
placed in the hands of Mr. EH. Norton, of New York, who kindly
offered to translate it from the original French and superintend its
publication. It is now in the press, and will soon be completed.

In addition to the publications relating to shells and insects, the
following, belonging also to the Miscellaneous Collections, have been
prepared for the Institution:

1. Check-list of Minerals, by Thomas Egleston.

2. Instructions relative to Ethnology and Philology, by George
Gibbs.

3. Comparative Vocabulary, by George Gibbs.

4. Dictionary of the Chinook Jargon or Trade (ae of Oregon,
by George Gibbs.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

5. Monograph of the Bats of North America, by Dr. H. Allen,
United States army. .

No. 1 of these works has been prepared to aid in arranging and
cataloguing the Smithsonian collection of minerals and the distribu-
_ tion of duplicate specimens, but it will also be of value in facilitating
the study of mineralogy by furnishing printed labels and check-lists
for exchanges. It presents a list of all the described species of min-
erals, with their chemical symbols and systems of crystallization, indi-
cating those which are peculiar to the United States, the whole
arranged according to the method*adopted by Professor Dana in the
last edition of his Manual of Mineralogy. For important additions
and corrections, this work is indebted to the principal mineralogists
of this country, to whom the proofs were submitted, and especially
to Professor Dana, Professor Brush, and Dr. Genth. This list is
completed, and will shortly be ready for distribution.

No. 2 of these works was printed in the Smithsonian annual
report for 1861, but a large demand having arisen for it, it has been
reprinted with corrections and additions, and now includes instruc-
tions for philological observation, rules for recording sounds and vo-
cabularies, &c. In the latter part of the work Mr. Gibbs has received
important assistance from Professor W. D. Whitney, of Yale College.

It includes directions for the collection of various specimens, hints

for special inquiry, &c. Among the former are the skulls of Ameri-*
can Indians, which in some cases are difficult to obtain, on account
of the jealousy with which the natives guard the remains of their
dead. Numerous tribes, however, have become extinct, or have
removed from their former abodes. The remains of victims of war
are often left where they fall, and the bones of slaves and of the
friendless are neglected. Relics of these can be obtained without
offence to the living. It is, however, of essential importance that
most positive information should be obtained as to the nation or tribe to
which a particular skull belongs. This may frequently be learned
from the history of the migrations of the tribe, or from the character
of the ornaments and utensils found with it.
_ Among the specimens of art which are designated as desirable
are dresses, ornaments, bows and arrows, lances, saddles with their
furniture, models of lodges, cradles, mats, baskets, gambling imple-
ments, models of canoes, paddles, fish-hooks, carvings in wood and
stone, tools, &c.

American antiquities are especially indicated as objects of interest.
They include the tools found in the northern copper mines, articles

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

inclosed in mounds, images, pottery, also the contents of ancient
shell beds found on the sea-coast and bays, often deeply covered with
earth and overgrown with trees; human remains, or implements of
human manufacture, bearing the marks of tools or of subjection to fire,
found in caves, beneath deposits of stony material formed by drop-
pings from the roof; similar articles in salt-licks, likewise in deposits
of sand and gravel, or such as evidently belonging to the drift period.
Among other desiderata mentioned are the names of tribes, geo-
graphical position, number of individuals, physical constitution, such
as stature, proportion’of limbs, facial angle, color of skin, hair, and
eyes; inscriptions, ‘dress, food, dwellings, arts, trades, religion,
government, social life, ceremonies, mode of warfare, medicine,
literature, method of dividing time, history, &e.

These directions also include a list of words most important to be
used in forming the vocabulary of a language. The pamphlet con-
sists of thirty-four pages, and is distributed gratuitously to all who
are desirous of aiding investigations of this character.

No. 3 is a vocabulary of the principal words of which the
equivalents are desired in the languages of the American Indians.
It has been prepared with, great care by Mr. Gibbs after the usual
models, presenting in parallel columns the words selected in English;
French, Spanish, and Latin, leaving a blank column to be filled by
the required equivalents in the dialect of any given tribe. It forms
a pamphlet of eighteen pages, including two hundred and eleven
different words, and is printed on letter paper? for convenience in
filling up the blanks.

No. 4, the Chinook Jargon, is a collection of phrases made up
from various languages, Indian and civilized, and constitutes the sole
medium of communication with the Indian tribes of the northwest.
In 1853 the Smithsonian Institution published a brief dictionary of
this language, from a French manuscript presented by Dr. B. R.
Mitchell and edited by Professor W. W. Turner. The article was
in great demand, and the edition was soon exhausted. Mr. Gibbs,
having paid particular attention to the Jargon during his long resi-
dence in Washington Territory, kindly offered to prepare a new
edition with corrections and additions. This offer was readily ac-
cepted, and the dictionary has been published during the past year.

The vocabulary of the Chinook contains words of two dialects, the
Chinook proper and the Clatsop, and perhaps also of the Wakiakum.
The nation or rather family to which the generic name Chinook has
been applied, formerly inhabited both banks of the Columbia river

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. at

from its mouth to the Grand Dalles, a distance of about one hundred |
and seventy miles, and was, as is usual among the sedentary Indians
of the west, broken up into numerous bands. Mr. Hale, in his Eth-
nography of the United States Exploring. Expedition, has divided
these into the Upper and Lower Chinook. The present vocabulary
belongs to those nearest the mouth of the river, of which there were
five principal bands. The language of the bands further up the river
departs more and more widely from the Chinook proper ; indeed, so
much so that the lower Indians could not have understood the upper
ones without an interpreter. This vocabulary is not as full as could
be wished, and the only reason for publishing it in its present condition
is that the Indians speaking the language are so nearly extinct that
no better digest is likely to be made in future.

In regard to the 5th article of the above series, the Monograph of
Bats of North America, it may be stated that the mammalia of this
continent have been studied and described generally by Audubon,
‘Bachman, and also by Professor Baird of this Institution. These
authors, however, have not included in their descriptions the cheirop-
tera, or bats. * To supply this deficiency, Dr. Allen, of Philadelphia,
has given his attention for several years to the careful study of
the specimens of this animal in the principal museums of this country,
and has presented the result of his labors to the Institution in the
form of the monograph above mentioned. In this a detailed descrip-
tion is given of each of the genera and species with wood-cut figures of
the skulls, heads, eass, and tails of such species as require this mode of
illustration. The wood-cuts of this paper have been completed and
the manuscript is now in the hands of the printer.

I may mention that the Institution is indebted to Mr. Figaniere,
Portugese minister, for a very graphic account of an immense assem-
blage of bats which had been colonized for years in the upper part
~ of a mansion house which he had purchased in Maryland. This ac-
count will be republished in the appendix to this report, as well as
in the paper of Dr. Allen just described.

Reports. —The annual reports to Congress are printed at the ex-
pense of the government as public documents, with the exception of
the wood-cuts, the cost of which is paid by the Institution. Previous
to 1853 the reports were principally confined to an exposition of the
operations of the Institution, and were published in pamphlet form;
but since that date an appendix has been added to each report, which,
with the other matter, has increased the size to that of a volume of
four hundred and fifty pages. These reports now form a series of ten

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

volumes, beginning with that of 1853, and in order that this series
might contain a history of the Institution from the beginning, the will
of Smithson, the enactments of Congress-in regard to it, and the sev-
eral reports of the Secretary, previous to 1853, were republished in
the appendix to that volume.

The report for 1862 contains, in the appendix, a eulogy on the late
Senator Pearce, by Professor Bache ; a course of lectures on Polarized
Light, by F. A. P. Barnard, late president of the University of Mis-
sissippi; a course of lectures on Ethnology, by Professor Daniel
Wilson, of the University of Toronto ; an introduction to a course of
lectures on the Study of High Antiquity, by A. Morlot, of Switzer-
land, translated for the Institution by the author ; an account ‘of
the Articles on Archelogy, published by the Smithsonian Institution,
copied from the ‘‘ Natural History Review,’’ of Engfand ; a history
of the French Academy of Sciences; eulogies on Von Buch and
Thenard, a continuation of the series of memoirs of distinguished
members of the French Academy, translated by C. A. Alexander, -
esq.; a Memoir of Isidore St. Hilaire, by Quatrefages, translated by
a lady ; a prize Memoir on the Catalytic Force, by T. L. Phipson ;
on Atoms, by Sir John Herschel ; Classification of Books, by J. P.
Lesley ; Account of Human Remains from Patagonia, and Prize
Questions of Scientific Societies.

Of this report the usual number of 10,000 copies was printed, of
which 4,000 copies were given to the Institution, to be distributed in
accordance with the following rules: ‘

1. To all the meteorological observers who send records of the
weather to the Institution.

2. To the collaborators of the Institution.

3. To donors to the museum and library.

4, To colleges and other educational establishments.

5. To pubtic libraries, and literary and scientific societies.

6. To teachers, or individuals who are engaged in special studies,
and who make direct application for them.

Owing to the many changes which have taken place in the resi-
dence and occupation of the correspondents of the Institution since
the commencement of the war, it has not been thought advisable to
send the reports to all whose names are on the record of distribution,
but in most cases to wait until direct application is made by letter or
otherwise for a copy of the work. Whenever a report is sent to any
address a separate announcement is made of the fact enclosing @
blank receipt to be signed and returned to the Institution.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

On account of the large amount of printing required by the gov-
ernment in consequence of the war, the public printing office has been
taxed to its utmost power ;,documents not required for immediate
use have been delayed, and among others the report of the Institution
for 1862 is still not quite completed. It is expected, however, that
it will be ready for distribution in the course of a few weeks. The
number of copies of the report ordered to be printed by Congress
has varied in different years, and consequently in the increasing de-
mand some of the volumes have been entirely exhausted. It may be
a matter of consideration whether a new edition of the report for
1856, and perhaps for other years, might not be reprinted. To pre-
vent the future exhaustion of the supply of the reports, Congress
authorized the stereotyping of the last volume and the printing at any
time, from the plates, of the whole or any part of its contents.

In view of the great cost of paper and the space required for storage,

it has been thought advisable to stereotype the Contributions and Mis-
cellaneous Collections, and to strike off only as many copies of each
article as are required for immediate distribution. By the adoption
of this plan, the ability to supply, to any extent, copies of works
published hereafter will always exist, while no more need be printed
than are actually required.
- Ethnology.—From the first, the Institution has given considerable
attention to the various branches of ethnology. Besides the addi-
tions to Indian archelogy which are to be found in the several
volumes of its Contributions to Knowledge, it has published : everal
papers on languages. In the report for 1860, a list of original manu-
scripts was given relating to the languages of the northwest cast of
America, which had been received through the assistance of Mu. Alex-
ander 8S. Taylor, of Monterey, California.

Several of these were copied at the expense of the Inst:tution,
with the intention of securing their preservation and subsequent pub-
lication. It has also been stated that a number of these manuscripts
had been presented to Mr. J. G. Shea, of New York, to be published
in a series which he has established under the title of ‘‘ Library of
American’ Linguistics.’? By presenting these to Mr. Shea for pub-
lication and purchasing from him for distribution to learned societies
a number of copies, encouragement has been given to a laudable en-
terprize, undertaken solely to promote a favorite branch of learning,
and with but little comparative expense to the Smithsonian fund. I
regret, however, to state that the diminution of the effective income
of the Institution will prevent further appropriations at present for
this purpose. The following is a list of the works of Mr. Shea’s

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

series, of which the Institution has aided the publication by purchas-
ing copies for distribution:

1. Grammar of the Mutsun language, spoken at the mission of San
Juan Bautista, Alta California; by Father Felipe Arroyo de la
Cuesta.

2. Vocabulary of the language of San Antonio mission, California,
by Father Bonaventure Sitjar.

3. Grammar and dictionary of the Yakama language, by Rev. Mie.
Cles. Pandosy. : .

4, Vocabulary or Phrase Book of the Mutsun language, of Alta
California, by Rev. Father Felipe Arroyo de la Cuesta.

5. Grammar of the Pima or Névome, a language of Sonora, from
a manuscript of the XVIII century.

The first of these, the Mutsun grammar, was described in the last
report. The second, the vocabulary of the native inhabitants of
the San Antonio, or Sext&pay, mission ; it was printed from a manu-
script forwarded to the Institution by Alexander S. Taylor, of Cali-
fornia. The mission of San Antonio de Padua was founded in 1771.
in the Sierra of Santa Lucia, twenty-five leagues southwest of Mon-
terey ; the authors of this vocabulary being the first missionaries.
The tribe is sometimes knownas Tatché, or Telamé, though Mr. Taylor
calls it Sextapay. It is gradually disappearing ; not more than fifty
Indians still remain, although it is said they were, at one time, so
numerous that the dialects spoken by them amounted to twenty.

The third is the grammar and dictionary of the Yakamas, a people
inhabiting the region of the Yakama river—a stream rising in the
Cascade range of mountains, and emptying into the Columbia above
the junction of the Snake river. The name signifies the ‘‘ stony
ground,’’ in allusion to the rocky character of the country. The au-
thor of the grammar, Father Pandosy, was for many years a resident
among these Indians, and became well acquainted with their language.
In the destruction of the buildings of the mission by fire, during the
Indian war in Washington Territory, the original of the grammar was .
lost, and the translation, published by Mr. Shea, which was made
some time previously, alone remained. It is to be regretted that a
more extended dictionary than the one now published was also de-
stroyed at the same time.

The fourth article is a vocabulary of the same language, of which
the grammar constitutes the first of this series, and is by the same
author ; the words are given in the Mutsun and Spanish languages.

The fifth, the grammar of the Pima, with a vocabulary in the same
language and in Spanish, was obtained in Toledo, Spain, and tran;-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 62

lated by Buckingham Smith, esq. This manuscript was probably
taken to Spain after the suppression of the order of the Jesuits in
Mexico, in 1767. The Pima language was spoken by the tribes from
the river Yaqui, in Sonora, northward to the Gila, and even beyond
the Colorado, eastward beyond the mountains in the province of
Taraumara, and westward to the sea of Cortez. The phrases given
in these works will preserve the knowledge of what constituted the
food of the inhabitants ; their manner of living, their character, and
native customs, &c. This may prove of historic interest hereafter,
if the facts be nowhere else more circumstantially authenticated.

Meteorology.—From 1856 to 1861 an appropriation was made from
the agricultural fund of the Patent Office for assistance to the Insti-
tution in collecting and reducing statistics relative to the climate of
the United States. This was commenced while the Patent Office was
under the direction of Judge Mason, but was suddenly discontinued
under a change of administration. The pr8priety of an appropriation
for this purpose, from the fund above mentioned, must be evident to
every one who reflects on the intimate connexion between meteorology
and agriculture. A knowledge of the peculiarities of the climate of
a country is an essential requisite for the adoption of a system of
scientific culture. The average temperature of the spring, autumn,
and of the growing season; the ratio of the number of unfavor-
able to favorable years; the amount of rain, and moisture ; the
average time of the occurrence of late and early frosts, are all facts
of importance in the economical adaptation of the crops to a given lo-
eality, in order to obtain the maximum of produce from a definite
amount of labor.

The money received from the Patent Office was expended in assist-
ing to defray the expense of the reductions of the observations, and
as soon as the appropriation was stopped we were obliged to discon-
‘tinue this part of the operations. The Institution, however, still con-
tinues to derive some benefit from its association with the Patent
Office, in receiving through it, free of postage, the returned registers
from the different observers.

Unfortunately, the postage law adopted at the last session of Con-
gress prevents the correspondents on agriculture and meteorology
from sending their reports by mail unless prepaid. This arrange-
ment almost entirely stops the reception of these articles, for, since
the service rendered is gratuitous, the observers cannot be expected
to bear this additional burden. It is to be hoped that Congress will
so modify the law as to remove this obstruction to a correspondence
of great importance to the agricultural interests of the country.

' 39 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Owing to this restriction, the number of meteorological registers
received during the past year has been diminished, and the transmis-
sion of nearly all of them would have been discontinued had not
the Commissioner of Agriculture, in view of their value to his
department, decided to advance to some of the observers the neces-
sary postage stamps to affix to their registers. He would willingly
have sent stamps to all, but the tax would have been too heavy for
the office; he therefore found it necessary to limit the number,
and in doing so endeavored to make such a selection as would secure
registers from districts distributed as uniformly as possible in all the
States. Those observers, therefore, who have not been supplied
with stamps should infer from this no disparagement of their observa-
tions, for among those who have been omitted from the list are
some whose registers are highly prized for their regularity and
accuracy.

Before it was known that this arrangement would be made by the
Commissioner a circular was sent from this Institution to all the ob-
servers, mentioning the new feature in the postage law, and requesting
them to continue their observations, and retain the records until the
law should be modified, or some arrangement could be made by which
the observers would not be subject to the burden of postage.*

Under the new organization of the Department of Agriculture a
renewed interest has been manifested by the Commissioner in the
collection of meteorological statistics, and he has expressed the desire
to co-operate with this Institution in continuing and extending the
system of records of the weather which it had established with so
much labor and expense.

In order to obtain and diffuse a knowledge of facts of immediate
importance to agriculturists, the Commissioner has commenced the
publication of a monthly bulletin giving the state of the crops, the
condition of the weather, and various other items of importance which
are daily received from observers, and which would lose a considerable
portion of their value were they suffered to remain unpublished until
the end of the year. For this bulletin the Institution supplies the
meteorological materials, consisting of the mean, maximum, and
minimum temperature and amount of rain for each month in different
States, and also, for the purpose of comparison, the mean temperature
and amount of rain for a series of five years, grouped by States ;

* This law has been changed since the above was written, and observers can send their
meteorological registers, or other communications, to the ‘‘ Commissioner of Agriculture,” with
out prepayment of postuge.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33

together with tables of important atmospheric changes, and notices
of auroras, meteors, and other periodical phenomena. The publica-
tion has been received with much favor by agriculturists, and is
regarded with great interest by the observers, who are thus fur-
nished promptly with a general summary of the principal features
of the meteorology of each month in all parts of the country, with
which they can compare their own observations.

In view of the value of the information thus furnished by the
Institution, it is hoped that the previous appropriation will be
renewed, and that the reductions which have been discontinued for
the last four years may be resumed.

The second volume of the Results of Meteorological Observations
made for the Institution, from 1854 to 1859, and reduced by Professor
Coffin, is still in the press, its completion being delayed by the great
pressure, upon the public printing office, of government work relative
to the war. :

We are indebted to the courtesy of Captain (now General) George
G. Meade, of the topographical engineers, superintendent of the
survey of the north and northwestern lakes, and of his successor in
office, Lieutenant Colonel J. D. Graham, for a continuation of the
favor formerly extended to the Institution in furnishing us with copies
of the meteorological observations made at the different stations estab-
lished for the survey. These records are very valuable, being made
with full sets of instruments and at important places. They em-
brace observations made three times a day, at the same hours with
the Smithsonian system, 7 a. m. and 2 and 9 p. m., and at ten sta-
tions, extending from Superior City in the State of Wisconsin, at the
western extremity of Lake Superior, to Sackett’s Harbor in New
York, on the east end of Lake Ontario.

The Bureau of Medicine and Surgery of the Navy Department also
continues to furnish us with the meteorological records kept at the
naval hospitals at Chelsea, New York, and Philadelphia.

For several years previous to the commencement of the war a large
map was exhibited in the Smithsonian Institution on which was daily
represented the direction of the wind and face of the sky over the
greater portion of the United States; and in previous reports we have
frequently called attention to the fact that a properly organized sys-
tem for giving daily or half daily changes of the weather in distant
parts of the United States would be of great practical importance to
the shipping interests of the country; we have also stated the fact
that we are much more favorably situated for predicting the coming

38

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

weather than the meteorologists of Europe. The storms in our lati-
tude generally move from west to east, and, since our seaboard is on
the eastern side of a great continent, we can have information of the
approaching storm while it is still hundreds of miles to the west of us.
Not so with the meteorologists of Europe, since they reside on the
western side of a continent, and can have no telegraphic dispatches
from the ocean. The proposition, however, to furnish constant
information of this kind could not be carried out by the limited
means of the Smithsonian Institution, and, indeed, can only be
rendered properly and fully serviceable.under the direction and at the
expense of the government.

New and interesting features have been introduced into the daily
meteorological bulletin published by the Imperial Observatory at
Paris. As mentioned in the last report, these bulletins are litho-
graphed each day from records of the barometer, thermometer, wind,
and face of the sky, compiled from telegraphic reports transmitted to
the observatory from various parts of Europe. In addition to these,
they now contain daily a small outline chart of Europe upon which
are drawn diagrams showing the barometric curve of the day through
the various stations, together with the temperature and direction and
force of the wind. For the use of vessels about to leave port, a state-
ment is also given of what will probably be the direction of the wind
the next day. Chambers of commerce and intelligent seamen have
acknowledged in strong language the benefit of these daily bulletins,
thus adding to the ever-accumulating testimony in favor not only of
the speculative interest but also practical benefits of meteorology.‘
At Bordeaux, Havre, and other important ports, as soon as the bul-
letins are received, the telegraphic announcement of the weather and
the probable direction of wind for the following day are posted in
public places and furnished to the principal newspapers for publica- —
tion. The bulletin also contains extracts from the correspondents of
the observatory on astronomical and other subjects as well as meteo-
rology. With the number for December 20, a supplement was issued
with a diagram exhibiting the indications of the self-registering instru-
ments at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, during the great storm
on the English coast in the first three days of December, 1863.

Laboratory.—The principal work which has been done in the
laboratory during the past year is an extended series of experiments
on the properties of different kinds of oil intended for light-house
purposes. For a number of years past the price of sperm oil has
been constantly increasing, and from a dollar per gallon it had ad-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35

vanced last year to two dollars and forty-three cents. It became,
therefore, animportant matter to the Light-house Board to determine
whether some other burning material could not be introduced in the
place of so expensive an article. The investigation of this subject
was given in charge to myself, as the chairman of the Committee on
Experiments. The result of the investigations not only revealed
a number of new phenomena. of interest to science, but also estab-
lished the important practical fact of the superiority of winter
strained lard oil over standard sperm oil in the intensity of the light,
the steadiness and persistence of the flame, and the less care required
in attendance. This fact must have an important bearing on the cost
of lighting the extended coast of the United States, as well as upon
the commercial value of one of the staple products of the western
part of our Union. The price of lard oil is, at present, considerably
less than one-half of that of sperm, and while the supply of sperm oil
has remained stationary, or even diminished with an increasing de-
mand, the sources of lard oil in the country are abundant, and the
quantity which can be produced will be sufficient to meet almost an
unlimited consumption.

Another series of experiments was made for determining the proper
arrangements of reflectors and lenses for illuminating distant ob-
jects either by the electric or the calciumlight. These experiments
were instituted at the suggestion of the Navy Department, but as no
appropriation was made for their being carried into practice, they
were discontinued, and the knowledge obtained remains unapplied.

Collections of specimens of natural history, &c.—In several of the
preceding reports a distinction has been drawn between the collec-
tion of specimens of natural history made through the agency of
this Institution, and what is called the Smithsonian museum. The
object of making large collections of duplicate specimens is, first, to
advance science by furnishing to original investigators new materials
for critical study; and second, to assist in diffusing knowledge, by
providing colleges, academies, and other educational establishments,
with labelled specimens to illustrate the various productions of nature,
while the principal end to be attained by the public museum of the
Institution is the gratification and instruction of the inhabitants and
visitors of the city of Washington.

The collecting and distributing of a large number of specimens, for
the purpose stated, is an important means of increasing and diffusing
knowledge, and, as such, is in strict accordance with the will of the
founder of the Institution. It has, therefore, from the first received

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

much attention, and has been attended with a commensurate amount
of beneficial results. Among the collections received during the past
year have been specimens of great interest, either the results of
explorations, undertaken by the Institution, or of exchanges with
individuals or local societies. The materials thus collected belong
principally to two classes, namely, to specimens of new or rare forms
intended to advance natural history and duplicates of such as are to
be labelled and distributed for the purposes of education. Among

the former are the collections of Mr. Kennicott, whose explorations .

have been mentioned in previous reports. They are of a very valu-
able character, illustrating the natural history and ethnology of. the
northwestern portions of the continent of North America. The
specimens received in 1863, from this exploration, filled forty boxes
and packages, weighing, in the aggregate, 3,000 pounds. They em-
brace in the line of natural history thousands of skins of mammals

and birds, eggs, nests, skeletons, fishes, insects, fossils, plants, &c. *
In the line of ethnology are skulls, dresses, weapons, implements, |

utensils. instruments of the chase, in short, all the requisite material
to illustrate the peculiarities of the Esquimaux and different tribes of
Indians inhabiting the northwest regions.

In addition to the collections obtained from the British possessions
in North America, by Mr. Kennicott, specimens have been received
from other points and other parties. Among these are a series of |
birds and eggs from Labrador, gathered by Mr. Henry Connolly, and.
a large amount of new material from Mexico, collected by John Xantus, —
under the auspices and at the expense of the Institution, consisting of
birds, fishes, reptiles, shells, &c. Another series from the same country’
has been presented by Dr. Sartorius, who has, for a number of years,
been one of the meteorological observers of the Institution. Inter-
esting collections have been received, also, from Dr. A. Van Frantzius, |
of Costa Rica; from Mr. Osbert Salvin, of Guatemala; from Captain)
J. M. Dow, of Panama; specimens from Cuba have been presented!
by Mr. C. Wright and Prof. Poey; from Trinidad, by Mr. Galody, |
United States consul; from Jamaica, by Mr. W. T. March; from Ecua::
dor, by the Hon. C. T. Buckalew, now of the United States Senate.
A valuable contribution of birds and mammals has also been received
from Prof. Sumichrast, of Orizaba. These collections are all intended
to illustrate the natural history of the American continents, to the
investigation of whose extended regions the Institution has especially
directed its labors. |

In order to facilitate the preparation of a work on the birds of
America, by Prof. Baird, a circular from the Institution was dis-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. at

tributed through the State Department to the consular and diplomatic
agents of the United States in Central and South America, asking aid
in completing the collection of birds, and we doubt not that much
new and valuable material will thus be obtained.

The following are the rules which have been adopted in regard to
the disposition and use of the collections:

First. To advance original science, the duplicate type specimens
are distributed as widely as possible to scientific institutions in this
and other countries, to be used in identifying the species and genera
which have: been described.

Second. For the purposes of education, duplicate sets of specimens,
properly labelled, are presented to colleges and other institutions of
learning in this country.

Third. These donations are made on condition that due ae is to
be given the Institution in the labelling of the specimens, and in all

- accounts which may be published of them.

Fourth. Specimens are presented to foreign institutions, on condi-
tion that if type specimens are wanted for comparison or other use
in this country they will be furnished when required.

Fifth. In return for specimens which may be presented to colleges
and other institutions, collections from localities in their vicinity shall
be furnished when wanted.

In the disposition of the undescribed specimens of the collection,
the following considerations have been observed as governing prin-
ciples:

first. The original specimens are not to be intrusted for descrip-
tion to inexperienced persons, but to those only who have given evi-
dence of ability properly to perform the work.

Second. Preference is to be given to those who have been engaged
in the laborious and difficult enterprise of making complete mono-
graphs.

Third. The investigator may be allowed, in certain cases, to take
the specimens to his place of residence, and to retain them for study
a reasonable time.

Fourth. The use of the specimens is only to be allowed on condition
that a series of types for the Smithsonian museum will be selected
and properly labelled, and the whole returned in good condition.

Fiih. In any publications which may be made of results derived from
an investigation of the materials from the Smithsonian collection, full
credit must be accorded to the Institution for the facilities which
have been afforded.

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

During the past year the assorting and labelling of the specimens
have been continued, as well as the distribution of duplicates.

The whole number of entries on the record book of the Smithsonian
collection, at the end of the year 1861, was 66,075; at the end of
1862, 74,764, and at the end of 1863, 86,847; but each entry indi-
cates a lot consisting of a number of specimens. The whole number
of duplicate specimens distributed to different institutions in this
country and abroad, up to the end of the year 1863, has been 94,713.
As these specimens are distributed on the express condition that full
credit is to be given to the Institution on the labels, and in all pub-
lications which may relate to them, the name of Smithson, even
through this distribution alone, would become familiarly known in
every part of the civilized world.

It has been, from the first, one of the prominent objects of the
Institution to collect the most ample materials for illustrating the
entire natural history of North America; to determine the different
species of plants and of animals; to ascertain the distribution of the
former, and the migrations of the lftter. This object it has endea-
vored to accomplish through the agency of the different surveying
expeditions of government ; through explorations instituted at its own
expense, and by enlisting the co-operation of individuals interested
in science, and of local scientific societies. In all its efforts in this
line it has been heartily supported, and it is believed that its labors
have been productive of valuable results. The collections thus made
have been intrusted to competent investigators for examination and
description, and the results published in the different Smithsonian
series, in transactions of societies, and in various government reports.
For a list of what has already been prepared and published, either
by the Institution or under its direction, I would refer to a report on
this subject in preparation by Professor Baird.

' Museuwm.—The additions to the museum, in the line of natural his-
tory, are principally confined to the type specimens which have been
collected and described at the expense of the general government, or
under the immediate auspices of the Institution. Even thus restricted,
the specimens increase in number more rapidly than the portion of
the Smithsonian fund which can be devoted to their support will
authorize. Few persons have an idea of the labor, constant care, and
expense which attends the proper preservation of a series of objects
of natural history ; but those who have had the necessary experience
know that large miscellaneous collections can only be properly sup-
ported by governments , and, in the establishment of provincial socie-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

ties, the rule has been strongly recommended of attempting to pre-
serve nothing except what is strictly local. ‘‘It is the experience
of societies,’ says Dr. Jardine,* the celebrated Scotch naturalist,
‘‘that general collections are encumbrances, and in most instances
get destroyed for want of care, or they are dispersed. Within these
few years the really fine and valuable collection of the Zoological
Society of London, chiefly presented by the late N. A. Vigors, a
first-rate scholar and naturalist, and containing many unique things
from our scientific exploratory voyages, has-been sold. That of the
Entomological Society has also been sold, and the greater part of that
belonging to the Linnzan Society was sold during the last month,
because there was not sufficient space to keep what had been pre-
sented to them. The collection of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
is now undergoing the same process.’’

During the past year the work of labelling the specimens in the
museum, so that the common, as well as the scientific name of each
article may be distinctly exhibited, has been continued.

Explorations.—The only explorations during the past year, under
the auspices and at the expense of the Institution, are, Ist, the con-
tinuation of that of Mr. Xantus on the western coast of Mexico ; and,
2d, that by Mr. Meek in New Jersey and the lower part of Virginia.
The explorations of Mr. Xantus extended several hundred miles
along the western coast of Mexico in a region little known, and very
abundant in interesting objects.

The exploration of Mr. Meek related to the collection of complete
series of shells to illustrate the tertiary formation of the seaboard of
New Jersey and Virginia. Several series of shells were obtained,
which are in the process of being accurately labelled, and are intended
for distribution to some of the principal colleges of the country.

Exchanges.—The important aid rendered to science and literature
by the system of international exchange which has for many years
been actively carried on by the Institution, is still everywhere highly
appreciated. Our operations in this line are becoming more and
more extensive, requiring an additional amount of time, labor, and
attention, as well as largely increasing in expense. ‘The great liber-
ality of many of the transportation companies alone enables us to
carry on the system in its present extent, and we again tender our
acknowledgments, especially to the following parties, who have

* Address of Sir W. Jardine, president of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natyral History
and Antiquarian Society, December, 1863

40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

assisted us in this respect: The North German Lloyd, between Bre-
men and New York; the Hamburg and New York steamship line ;
the Cunard line ; the Panama Railroad Company ; the Pacific Mail
Steamship Company ; Adams’s Express Company, and the Hudson’s
Bay Company.

During the past year it was deemed advisable to establish a new
agency of exchanges for Holland and Belgium, and Mr. Fred.
Muller, bookseller, at Amsterdam, who was appointed the agent,
has entered upon the discharge of his duties with zeal and efficiency.
The numbers of the transactions of the societies in the countries
referred to necessary to complete the sets in the Smithsonian library,
as well as much other valuable scientific and literary material, have
been procured by him. The other foreign agents of the Institution
are still Dr. Felix Flugel, Leipsic, Mr. Wesley, London, and Gustave
Bossange, Paris.

From the tabular statement given by Professor Baird, it appears
that during the year 1863 there have been sent to foreign countries
1,426 packages, each containing a number of articles, enclosed in 61
boxes, measuring 447 cubic feet, and weighing 10,286 pounds. The
number of packages received in return for societies and individuals in
this country was 1,522, included in which, for the Smithsonian Insti-

tution, were 4,589 books and pamphlets, besides specimens of natural
history.

LInbrary.—The policy in regard to the library as has frequently
been previously stated, is to form a collection as perfect as possible
of all the tranactions and proceedings of the learned societies of the
world. The success of the Institution in this enterprise has been fully
commensurate with the expectations entertained, and the collection of
works of this class, if the accumulation continues under the same favor-
able conditions, will soon rival any other of a like kind in the world.
The liberal distribution which the Institution has made of its own pub-
lications and those of government has produced a rich return in series
of transactions which, although existing as duplicates in some of the
older libraries of Europe, can scarcely be obtained by purchase.

It was mentioned in the last report that the number of transactions
and proceedings of learned societies contained in the library of the
Institution had increased so much that a new edition of the cata-
logue previously published had become necessary. This work has
- since been put to press, and will be printed as rapidly as the care
necessary to insure acccuracy will permit. Copies of this catalogue

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 41

will be distributed to all the principal libraries of the country, and
with the liberal policy which has been adopted in regard to the books
of the Smithsonian collection, will serve to render the library more
generally useful.

By exchanges there have been received 719 octavos, 167 quartos,
and 24 folios ; of parts of volumes and pamphlets, in octavo, 2,119;
in quarto, 779; in folio, 581; maps and charts 200 ; total, 4,589.
In addition to these about 400 volumes were purchased.

Among the valuable works received during the year, are the fol-
lowing : :

55 volumes from the Royal Library of Stockholm.

Comptes-Rendus, 1859, 1860, 1861, with atlas, from the Commission
Imperiale Ar chelogique, St. Petersburg.
12 volumes and 18 parts of volumes from the Koninlijk Institut des

Ingenieurs, d’ Gravenhage.

52 volumes and 94 pamphlets from the Nederlandsch Maatschappig
ter Bevordering van Nijverheid, Haarlem.

10 volumes of its own publications from the Société pour la recherche
et la conservation des Monuments Historiques du Grand Duché de
Luxembourg, Luxembourg.

24 volumes‘and 12 parts from the Kaiserliche Akademie der Wis-
senschaften, Vienna.

9 volumes and 29 charts from the Etablissement Géographique de
Bruxelles.

21 volumes of Proceedings from the Société d’ Agriculture, Com-
merce, Science et Arts du Dept. de la Marne.

24 volumes of Proceedings and Transactions from the Institution
of Civil Engineers, London.

36 volumes and 114 charts from the Board of Admiralty, London.

Large donations from the Royal University of Norway.

Braddam’s Memoirs of the Royal Society of London, vol. ix
1745, from Mrs. Mary A. Malthie, Syracuse, New York.

26 volumes from the Regents of the University in behalf of the
State of New York.

Lectures.—The usual course of lectures has been commenced for the
present season, and will embrace the following :

Five lectures, by Rev. John Lord, of New York, on the ‘¢ Fall of
the Roman Empire.’’ Subjects——I. The grandeur and glory of the
Ancient Civilization—The external splendor of the Roman Em-
pire in its latter days. II. The internal hollowness and defects

42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of the old Roman civilization—The shame and miseries of society—
The vices of self-interest, and preparation for violence and inev-
itable ruin. III. The fall of the empire, and the desolations pro-
duced by the barbarians—The destruction of the old fabric of so-
ciety. IV. The reasons why the old conservative influences of
paganism did not arrest the ruin—The failure of art, literature, and
science, and the mechanism of governments. V. The reasons why
Christianity did not save the Empire, and the ideas which the church
incorporated with subsequent civilizations—The foundation of the
new Teutonic structure.

Three lectures, by Professor Louis Agassiz, of Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, on the ‘‘ Glacial period.”
- One lecture, by Professor J. L. Campbell, of Wabash College, on
‘t Galileo.’’

Seven lectures, by Dr. Reinhold Solger, on ‘The Races of Men.’’

Six lectures, by Professor W. D. Whitney, of Yale College, on
“Philology.’ I. History and objects of linguistic science—Plan of
these lectures—Why and how do we speak English—How language
is preserved and perpetuated—Its constant change—The study of
language an historical science. II. Ilustration of the processes of
growth and change in language—Formation of words by combination
of old materials—Mutilation and corruption of existing forms—Change
and development of meaning—Rate of progress of these changes.
III. Statement and illustration of the influences causing the growth
of dialects, and those checking and counteracting this growth—Our
language a Germanic dialect, with partly French vocabulary
languages with which it is related—Branches of the Indo-European
family of languages, and proof that they are of common descent—
Place, period, and grade of civilization of the original tribe. IV. His-
torical and linguistic importance of the Indo-European race and lan-

euage—History of the language—Its development from monosyllabic
roots. V. Survey of the other great families of language, Semitic, |
Scythian, Chinese, Polynesian, Egyptian, African, and American—
Isolated languages not included in these families. WI. Comparative
value of linguistic and physical evidence of race, and their relative
bearing on the science of ethnology—Relation of the study of language
to the question of the unity of the human race—origin of language—
Its character and value to the human race.*

The number of applications for the use of the lecture-room has

* A synopsis of this course of lectures has been furnished by the author for insertion in the
appendix to this report.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. . 43

been much less since the adoption of the rule restricting its use to
the purposes of the Institution exclusively has become more gener-
ally known. This rule, which has been widely approved of by the
- enlightened public, has precluded a large amount of unprofitable cor-
respondence and enabled the Institution to avoid an embarrassing and
inauspicious connexion with sensational expositions of the exciting
subjects of the day.

From the preceding account of the present condition of the Insti-
tution, and of its operations during the past year, as well as from the
examination of the collections and publications, it is hoped that, not-
withstanding the unfavorable condition of the country for scientific
research, and the diminished means at our command, it will appear
that the line of policy and of action originally adopted has been pur-
sued with unabated ardor and with corresponding success.

Respectfully submitted,
JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary.
WASHINGTON, 1864. ’

‘

‘

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, December 31, 1863.
Sir: I have the honor to present herewith a report, for 1863, of the opera-’
tions intrusted to my charge, consisting especially of those relating to the
printing, the exchanges, and the collections of natural history.
Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
SPENCER F. BAIRD,
Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Prof. Joseru Henry, LL.D.,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution.

PRINTING.

An accompanying table will show the works printed during the year, and
also those now in press. ‘The total number of pages belonging to works finished
within the year is:

OE quarto papers... =~... -- te oe idm alone a le aie 350 pages, 3 plates.
Octavo Miscellaneous Collections ---..2.---22------ 1,313 pages.

Of works still in press there have been printed :

Of quarto RVOLIGA MRIDOUbL caterer eis ie 108 pages.
OCT MCI a ei carbo ce relate (cb Toiee RePEc Lata OR EE ee 443 pages.

_ Making a total of 458 quarto pages, and 1,756 octavo, exclusive of the annual
report to Congress, nearly finished, and to fill 450 pages.

EXCHANGES AND TRANSPORTATION.

The system of exchanges has been in a highly successful condition during
1863, both the receipts and transmissions being fully equal to the average of
any previous year. ‘The attendant expenses of this branch of operations are,
however, great and increasing, and would long since have become almost pro-
hibitory but for the liberality exhibited by various transportation companies in
carrying the boxes and parcels cf the Institution free of any charges for freight. It
is not too much to say that thousands of dollars are thus presented by the com-
panies as a recognition on their part of the great importance, domestic as well
as international, of these operations of the Institution. Ameng the parties de-
serving of especial mention in this connexion are the proprietors of the Cunard
steamers between New York and Liverpool, and New York and Havana; the
North German Lloyd, between New York and Bremen; the Hamburg American
Packet Company, between New York and Hamburg; the Panama Railroad
Company ; the Pacific Mail Steamship Company ; the Hudson’s Bay Company ;
the Adams Express Company, &c.

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 45

The Institution is under especial obligations, for important services rendered
in this connexion, to the Hon. Hiram Barney, collector of the port of New York,
and to his assistant, Mr. George Hillier; to Mr. A. B. Forbes and Mr. Hubbard,
of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, in San Francisco, as well as to the
regular agents of the Institution.

During the year, 1863, a new literary agency of the Institution was established
for Holland and Belgium. Mr. Frederick Miller, bookseller, of Amsterdam, was
placed in charge, and he has already rendered much service. The other foreign
agents of the Institution—Dr. Felix Fliigel, of Leipsic; Gustave Bossange &
Company, of Paris; and Mr. William’ Wesley, of London—continue to dis-
charge their duties with efficiency, and to the full satisfaction of the Insti-
tution.

The number of institutions and individuals, at home and abroad, making use
of the facilities of scientific exchanges offered by the Smithsonian Institution is
continually on the increase, and it is believed that any interruption or suspen-
sion of this part of the programme of operations would be considered as a serious
calamity.

In 1862 the Institution distributed four volumes of Miscellaneous Collections,
one volume of Annual Reports, and one thick quarto volume of Meteorological
Records and Reductions. In 1863, owing to various circumstances, the Annual
Report for 1861 was the only volume distributed, although many copies of
separate papers were sent abroad. For this reason the bulk of sending, in 1863,
was less than that of previous years, but it is expected that the difference will
be fully made-up in 1864.

The following tables exhibit the details of the operations in the line of ex-
change during 1863:

A.
Receipt of books, &c., by exchange in 1863.
Volumes :
ACTA cisk i, ideals vie ge ara SS oo 5's Ree Utne ao
NANG Ns cise er ME yer ffs Bas pst tie 167
HONIG Rtsbre, 3 hes eee eaarnemcAtee eines issu. See 24
910
Parts of volumes and pamphlets :
MC EAVO «acer terete arate Co Gane ret eke tee ieee 2,119
Oidarto. . < - JEEP A oe ee laos pee wks ABE 779
Polign.. swage ipeoreite ses uaa ae. \eniss:e - cai 581
3,479
meempeanta Charts.) sams Poa ae SS eo ley Uy Saree Ba kee f 200
Total! sob Bees a4 pbik it etak ease eeee ACE se 4, 589
emer iTE DOG) LeSe Re ALI ee SUR Ne Se ee 2, 886

Reem igw HE POG 2”... icin eres PRN oe EU ae Le 5, 035

46 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
; B.
Table showing the statistics of the exchanges of the Smithsonian Institution
an 1863.
' 4 q m
3 3 So Bo i a
32], | 94 | #28 | 2
Agent and country. wa | we | Ok iS Se
‘oe Qa ore = O'S * ol oy
5 5 3 Cer
A A & E
Dr. FELIX FLUGEL, Letpsic—
Ricamdinavinesosie6 o-6,ncieen eon 1 MV E03.2 2 .nllenoeeeee | eotecreee
Soredenecee anne cease entisaclle 13 She leads See) Se eee aes
Norway --------- --------------- 4 EE cite a mm
VEIT eee ioe = ee sin oan amin 13 SL 5.2 3-2 a eee eee
RUINS IGiee ore aie So oiele aisle mio ataieiain i=l 42 COU Pconc0n|| Joie eee ste Some ees
Germany .-....-.---- ---------- - 265 AOS iiss fete ab Pe oneeee
RppbAeR ANC weep lee mnie tsieteeta cian in 30 ESE Sa ate alia eS eee All ek Ee
Belgium ....-------------------- 10 A 2 ees See) ce crue (ered ae eiesie
Piel PRU am re 378 690 | _ 26 202 | 3,500
FREDERICK MULLER, Amsterdam—
PLO barid ereete oo sine = totata eialateiere alate 40 Ble ee eee wecers sae ecener ee
ple eh siccule cetera eee 40 81 | 4 31} 1,006
GuSTAVE BossanGE & Co., Paris—
IBTANCAe een = alos esee etait sate 107 NSO- Rete cece leceocees lowes
Maly yaa epee re larele (= <i alii) a= 58 Ob wha Sete slaen eeenlecece eee
HIE ee ean, a ie i 1G i) SeceseclinseBeesiee ees
DP Uy fale retreat aint ie alten at 4 8 aces Sa See eee es
Gea as acon teeee seen 176,| .° 299). 43 88 | 2,800
W. WESLEY, London—
Great Britain and Ireland.-....... 169 316 14 106 2, 580
een tne wWOlld ono =. Sees. ansdwaee 20 40 | 4 20 400
Grand totalicsc-cscccene see ec 783 | 1,426|: 61 447 | 10,286

Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from parties im
America for foreign distribution in 1863.

Albany, N. Y.— Number of packages.
prot, James. Hall 2s. ecw. Sees Ss 2 CO eee 9
Boston, Mass.—
American Academy of Arts and.Seiences.; 1-200 eee See 116
Boston Society of Natural History .,«\.')- sce weeks ee 205
Se PIPER UC a ao bm ass 5 sine no ois m2 a alin eints)= © eee area Fe 1
Cambridge, Mass.—
Hiarvaed Olle re i. ao kk aye sie ete cieia lens ot seo Se eee ee 31
Museum of Comp: native Zoolopy «.. =p -i.0.-,-cceeeesn eee 342
A GR AMORT CU OBBEIE oc 2\n 0, sieio moh nw ihe n)s ios, oo loa 3
PROT Pie gies laren als fe edna woh v) Sano eer Swami 20
SVULCS PNLAMCOM erties clitainwis , Sie a lare/e leo lale.c Jo oie nee eee ene eee u &-

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. AT

Cleveland, Ohio— /

BE el stds PN Wa OUI te at a Bcc a pti "56 mums Sis eh cnen nue = apa 60
Columbus, Ohio—

Diigastate. board of Apriculgare, = '.\2\\1.') 2 0.262 ewe on 102
Detroit, Mich.—

miei CG un L, Graham Pepe As. csc case boa c sacle ole 56
Janesville, Wis.— .

inshtution-for theBlinge ce ee ere cote coc cc bec ae ee acces 73
Montreal, Can.—

Oley ed roih WV AL) NY SOT ex eye oh eee et pee na cen ted cite, tine a
New Haven, Conn.—

Acerca, hourngl of Seienee. ssh see tors ee een 18

Pomerean©riental Society...) 2) 52 2a on oe oe won sie eis 8

SO bee eee) UD) ath ay ed Seach teres Fer ln waUe eure cen NENT spate rae ep ett 15
ge Mork. .N,.¥.— |

Mereaniite: Library... bsg 25) o ie ek eis lee tans kes 10

New, Lok lyceum, ot-NaturalsHishory.\- 2 .7.0.0/5 sj. we eee nace 101
Philadelphia, Pa—

picadomiy Ol Natutal SCONCES. — i: joist ecnimisiesescier= ayhinig minima ER 165

Entomological Society of Philadelphia. ..52..050202.00.% 9

PiiriMnaccudscae Nes Ocalan «.2/. oe 5 ae ar 2's ee ees Se eee 100

Bre Onse UW MER YOM c.0) a 2 scles) cian le a!shaloe bee) o/nin nisinie mikioiaisr= em the 57
Santa Barbara, Cal.—

BA by LOIS (a ets Slate alain ta hile in. 2 0) atid ch home eae a 60
St. Louis, Mo.—

Bi LOUIS CAM eM Ol SCIRMCEH ere ste 5 2) a.ca: 4 x15) o'n,a.e's win sino ere 172
Salem, Mass.—

ECHO: ce) i EMMA B RE Matcha Asc le Rite wie Sie isi Gia n/dve, oda. 0 6 acketenteenaye ae 1
Toronto, Can.—

anddian Anstipaiee: Mase ak ee aaa 6
Utica, N. Y.—

piace taumatic Asians: s/t) < oan eelerdaee eee este a) 4.
Washington, D. C—

Mimied: States Coast survey os > - <5) tee a een ge cele wo = 672

United States National Observatory: -2....¢- 22222022... 149

Hinited: States. Patenta@inee 7.0) 502) Bee ee es oo 465

pupetintendent- of -Gonsasy=3.:o-cn ose te ye ss 200

Mme abt Serge 3 yee ote yg ER ete TOE Re 15
Wi indsor, Nova Scotia—

ere 4 EO Wk ene eRe eee creat ene TLD ah Ame 18

3,316

48 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

D.

Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, for
distribution in America, in 1863.

No. of
packages.
No. of
packages.

|
ALBANY, NEW YORK. BOSTON, MASS.—Continued.
ATban ty INStUtG oo. o es cee eS a enke 2 || Professor C. J. Jackson...--.....-.. 1
AIDBDVRUNDTAM ee. fee ke conn ccs mse 1 |) Professor Rogers. 2=-)-- yet ee eee ee 1
Dudley Observatory ......---------- GO") SEL. Seudders. 25252) sy aa enees 1
New York State Agricultural Society..| 29 || Charles Sprague..........-----.--.- 1
New York State Library.... -..- ---- al |\iGeorre- Lieknor's..--2--2 ee eee eee 1
New York State Medical Society - ---- 1
New York State University.......... 4 BRATTLEBORO’, VERMONT.
Droweeemmonss 255-52 2s.4 Soe Ss 1
Protesson James Hall. 2. ccsssrm< sc 4 ||, Asylumitordmsane® © a8 eee aero 1
AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS. BRUNSWICK, MAINE.
Amherst Caller’: 0025 s-5-0 Sets 2-1 4 || Historical Society of Maine......--.. 2
DP Pew hatehcock5— = <= veccre mance 2
Charles H:-Hitehcock--....2 2... 2255 J BURLINGTON, IOWA.
Professor Charles Upham Shepherd. -. 2
Iowa Historical and Genealogical In-
ANNAPOLIS, MARYLAND. stitute. .-.- - wn aetekics, canes s See
Binteibraiy ee sor te 4 BURLINGTON, VERMONT.
University of Vermont.....-----.-.- I
ee eee CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS.
Mbsonvatoly.sconce = =) couse erceee 2 || American Association for Advance-
Te STUN OW as ec mc miseloisie se siaie re 4 MeNt Of SCiGNCe --as ese eee 21
Astronomical Journal....-..-......- 2
AUGUSTA, MAINE. Harvard. Colleges: =. ¥- see sae one il
Observatory of Harvard College...-.-- 21
State Wuibrary ic <6 en aoe coee cee nee 4 || Professor. Agassizie--syee ee eee 40
G. PweBond. 3-2-2. ae— poco sere eee 4
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND. Professor El... Clarks-seccemere caer 1
Professor’ J. P:/Cooke ee asaser sso ee 1
Maryland Historical Society ......... 2) Dr. John Dean. So jaceceeree sens cee 1
Peabody: Institute... <5. 22s... J. - 1. || Hon. Edward Hverett-.--.-. 5-2. ...- 1
DOT tyds GIANGs Socess -nciees aaceee EN. Dr. BY A. Gouldetc-eesteesacesceciae 8
WrrwouniG: Moms: saccececes cece. 4 || Professor Asa Gray =-s2 esse -2 ese sees 8
ete, Uber. cose ee eeee de tees: 2 || Professor H. W. Longfellow. .-...-.-- 1
Professor J. Lovering-~-----. ..-. << 1
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS. Professor Jules Marcou ..... .......- 2
Professor B. Pemcenea-2-- ---e-- ene 8
American Academy of Arts and Sci- i, SW tPutnamecseeeeees tie eee 1
GUCOS sree antes = = ee aeciesenae S6)|(#Dr, aE Sano eeeeseae=eseseaaee 2
Boston Society of Natural History...) 65 || Professor G. A. Schmit...........-. 1
IDowalch library. o-2-. 8 scone Jo Mar., Luttle.. 2 SSae ee cee a ee Se J
Bee Berti 6 Masta | a (ORR NR
Massachusetts Historical Society. .-... 3 || Academy of Sciences ---.. ----- oe 6
si England Historico-Genealogical Mechanics’ Institute -....-...-..--.- j
BOGIOi rer cree oid dame cece! aciee 1 X
North asses REVIOW sane sccecnes 1 See peso
Perkins’ Institute for the Blind....-. 1 || Astronomical Observatory -..---.---- 7
Prison Discipline Soviety........--.- 1 || Dental Register of the West. ..-.---- 1
Pnblic UaibPar ys top acraw => woe carne s 4 || Historical and Philosophical Society
State Library 2.2 5500255. Eee iene mee 4 Of Ohio..:: ake ee eee eeeee ce eoeeneee 1
ite &: hs. Abbatteseeeee css oan x cee 1 || Mercantile Library -..-.-. .-..------ 1
SEs D0 W0 5 ERBIOIR aso Sitiy Sein eina inte A's 1 | John G. Anthony 72-2 ence. e-em 1

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

49

D.—Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §¢.—Continued.

CLINTON, NEW YORK.

Observatory of Hamilton College
Dr. C. H. F. Peters

COLUMBIA, MISSOURI.
Geological Survey of Missouri....---
COLUMBIA, PENNSYLVANIA,
Professor S. S. Haldeman .....-....-

COLUMBUS, OHIO.
Ohio State Board of Agriculture

ALO SOTA Yee sie ie cas Sree tices ee ele oe
Leo Lesquereux

CONCORD, NEW HAMPSHIRE.

New Hampshire Historical Society...
State Library

DES MOINES, IOWA.

State Library
DETROIT, MICHIGAN.

Michigan State Agricultural Society - -
Lieutenant Colonel J. D. Graham..-.
Dr. Tappan

DORCHESTER, MASSACHUSETTS.

Dr. Edward Jarvis

EAST GREENWICH, NEW YORK,

Asa Fitch

EASTON, PENNSYLVANIA.
Bbrore yi. Cotiny 2202.02.50 eee

FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY,

Geological Survey of Kentucky
State Library

GAMBIER, OHIO.

Kenyon College

GEORGETOWN, D. C.

Georgetown College
13 dS a eee
Se ass aa siren ac stern seid “

ee ———————————eeeeeeeeoeaoaoaoaoaoamaaaaaaaa9aaaaaaaaqaaaoaaoaaaeaeoaoaoaoaaoeaeeeEeeEeaeEeeEeoeaeEeeEeEeeeEeEeaeaeeEeaaEeaeEeaeaeaEeEeaeaEeaeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEee—— eee

No. of
packages. |

woe

_
Se DO

|
!

e

HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA.

State Library
State Lunatic Asylum

HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT,

Historical Society of Connecticut
State Library

HAVANA, CUBA.
Royal Economical Society...--..-.-.-
HUDSON, OHIO.

Western Reserve College...-....-.--
Professor Charles A. Young

INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA.

Indiana Historical Society
State Library

IOWA CITY, IOWA.

State Wmiversitiy y= crc sees ser
JACKSONVILLE, ILLINOIS.
Institution for the Blind-..---....---
JANESVILLE, WISCONSIN.

State Institution for the Blind... .---

JEFFERSON CITY, MISSOURI.

Historical Society of Missouri
State Library

LANCASTER, OHIO.

Dr. J. M. Bigelow

LANSING, MICHIGAN.

State Agricultural College
State Library
LEON, NEW YORK.

T. Apoleon Cheney
LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS.
State Library
LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY.

Colonel Long
Professor J. Lawrence Smith
Dy. L. P. Yandell

No. of
packages.

= om

be ee

>

bom Jock fed

50 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

D.— Addressed packagesreceived by the Smithsonian Institution, §c.—Continued.

.

MADISON, WISCONSIN.

Historical Society of Wisconsin. -----
Skandinaviske Presse-Forening - - - ---
State Agricultural Society. -.---.-----
State fabranyeases.2-2~--- -4- Beers

MONTPELIER, VERMONT.

Historical and Antiquarian Society of

WennOntea <== -4.2ee: avec re les
DiALOMPNDKAl Veco | n-/osaece ccs an
Miberi Acer: -\-26s45 f-keldenesee

MONTREAL, CANADA EAST.

Natural History Society....----.----
Professor Billings...-..--.---.------
Thomash. Blackwell- =. ..<- 22-2...
Professor J. W. Dawson....---------
DITA W OPEN. colon = sacs
rotesporl Ss unt eee asaeee =
M. Toly de Lotbiniere .----- ---..-<-

NEW BRUNSWICK, NEW JERSEY.

Geological Survey of New Jersey.--.
Professor George H. Cook...-..-.----

NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT.

American Journal of Science and Arts-
American Oriental Society. .-..-.----
WaleiCollere: sateen cmc's Sase 58
Professor Ji. W): WManasss45 5h 52 tye 253
IProvesson beuoomiseecesscee ose L ee

NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA.

New Orleans Academy of Natural Sci-

NEW YORK, N. Y.

American Acriculturist..............
American Ethnological Society. ......
American Geographical and Statistical

PUCOUV Eee coe in eee note

AStOTeMipIatyes se ee - nee ee ek coe ee
Farmer and Mechanic. ..........--.-
Histompalepocienyen =>. .oe-2.
Journal of Pharmacy -.--........- ae
Bodical Cols wees ek a syas deeue
New York City Lunatic Asylum. ....
New York Dental Journal.-.......-.
New York Lyceum of Natural History .

No. of
packages. |

—
CO Set ~

—OQ—

bet et QD CD

woe

wD

CO WR OTE

or

No. of
packages. |

NEW YORK, N. Y.—Continued.

University. eacst. aeeeecee ee eee
Wi. Coopers = a... ataaeens eee nee ee
Dr. Dimper-o aan ieee see eee
Dr: Daniel Maton=os--5--saeese esse
DEIR STOR ra no 5 ere a ere ee ee
DD. Ge lick -. aes te Aeee eee

Dr... Harper 3224 -62> es - eee
CoBGUUNG 8 soc... once ee
G. Ni vluewrenes:. .< ija-26. gasses eee

Temple Primeracies sissies -idt-me eee
John Redtielimee re. classe sees
dames TRenwiCk © pds annen tees ee
Dry Johmyloueyers seater eeeee ae
Mr. Wiheatlowen ce gaat deta ctaebee

Prt pet Bt et CD SE CD mt OD OD bet fet et et 0 CO tt

NORTHAMPTON, MASSACHUSETTS.

OLYMPIA, WASHINGTON TERRITORY,
FRermtonal Wibranyinac seems meets 2
OMAHA, NEBRASKA,
State Wibrany:i<.--,.5.4-0deaieseaee 5
OWEGO, NEW YORK.
Mr. Pumpelly- 2. oo- <2 s_sstieees vee 5
PEORIA, ILLINOIS,

Dr, Brendel. eco ee eee eee 1
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA.

Academy of Natural Sciences....-... 114
American Philosophical Society... --- ;
Central, High School... .-..- .=-2-2

Dental! Cosmos seeaever seen e = =o = ee

Entomological Society .-..-.-...----
PRaniclin, Dn siitite ies ee ee ence aeioee
Historical Society of Pennsylvania. --
Institution for the Blind.-..---.-----
Wagener Free Institute.............-
(Dr. Alien Jo eemstac saa ses ssa ene
A.D... Brownisaeecisecceme =< acceer

ou

—_
ee OOOO RE

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY.

51

D.—Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &¢.—Continued.

PHILADELPHIA, PA.—Continued.

Prd osephseidy . 22. -5- ose seule -
Hee Narrone 22248 vs ee
Bia AO) rime mes Ss oEEE8 Cig pee os
William Sharswood.......--..------
H. S. Tanner
George W. Tryon
PTOLESSOTVV BONED oes. a5- 1. ose
Floratio C.pWioed se. 2-254 2/.+ seasons

PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY.

Pralempr A. Giyob\. 5... =... --\---<
PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND.
Rhode Island Histoxical Society... ---

State Librar
ENGICssOn Ae Oaswelle sete fou sc ke

QUEBEC, CANADA EAST,

Astronomical Observatory....-.....-
WavalyWiniversity... 2c Series lk
Literary and Historical Society ..---.

QUINCY, ILLINOIS.

Dr. John Ritter

ROCK ISLAND, ILLINOIS,

WP VCN Cie ers). = <=. soe sine esis
Benjamin D. Walsh

RYE, NEW YORK.
Tok a rn eee
SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA.
EY 6 a ao oan cnn an cece
ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI.

Deutsche Institute fur Férderung der

Wissensehatien 5.26.22. s25e5
St. Louis Academy of Sciences. .-----
St. Louis University......-.-.------
Dr. George Bernays
Dr. George Engelmann .....--..-..--
re Adams Hammer: -....-2.-25esate
een Ey SHUMAT A. (== niin) ins neice
RNS on ne ola iow wen yer aeroene

No. of
packages.

—
Leek fad freed feed fe et et OD GD DO DW DO

WO & 0

Wee

— ao
Se OT et

ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA.
Historical Society of St. Paul...--.---
SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS.
ISSexe LNSbbn Leta voce eee ee
SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA,

California Academy of Natural Sci-

SANTIAGO, CHILI.
Universityscos2 secese sss ecmeie eee
SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS.

State Agricultural Society -..---.....
State Library

STOCKTON, CALIFORNIA,

State Lunatic Asylum

TORONTO, CANADA WEST.

Bureau of Agriculture and Statistics -.
Canadian Institutes. 2) 222s s2j2222 2.
Magnetical and Meteorological Obser-

vator

TOPEKA, KANSAS.

State Library

TRENTON, NEW JERSEY,

State Library

UTICA, NEW YORK,

State Lunatic Asylum
WASHINGTON, D. C.

Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography
Library of Congress
National Observatory .------4-..-..-
Navy Department
Ordnance Bureau. -.--...-.
Revenue Department .-.-.....------
Secretary of State -----). 22.2... 32
Surgeon General United States Army-
Topographical Bureau
United States Coast Survey
United States Patent Office ......----

No. of
packages.

2

Se te

oO
fet CD eet et DD CD CD eet

52 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

D.— Addressed packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, §c.—Continued.

si wd
~ 2 | ne
os | os
Ag Ags

ee Fe
WASHINGTON, D. C.—Continued. WASHINGTON, D. C.—Continued.

War Departmentic.--2-.1- +--+ =-=— 6 | T.. Posche*.0-0 ope eee es 1

Colonel J. Gaberti=-22=.--2--.----- 4 || Captain John Rodgers -...-....----- 1

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MeO Melber yea mince ee ee 1. ||, Dr. Wi: Stimpson... ---seeee ee fone 5

Captain. M. Gilliss ......- 2252-222] 24. | WevAS tread way 72-eero een ee 1

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Mien GlOveNeea = eaisae nee a sste ea ala ae L Barons VionsGerolt) 255255 20 sees 1

Dr PSV eleven hos toy oes bas 1 || Captain Charles Wilkes. ........--.- 2

Professor Hubbard. ..---. =.---- ==: 1) SiO bMS emis aces = oe eee ee eee 1

General A. A. Humphreys-.-.-...-.-- 1

Colonelis wi wliono wo eee- ss. o> = = - 1 WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS.

DP Smith MeCauleyise 5-22-22 ek. -- 1

Professor G. A. Matile --..-.-...---- | 1 | American Antiquarian Society .....--

TRG CEP ENC OS SC ae ete tee ert 273
STNG AN TOO ip A CONS aw wwe et te ttl eee 1, 522

MUSEUM AND COLLECTIONS.

It is gratifying to be able to state that the interest in the subject of natural
history, which received so material a check in 1861, and showed symptoms of
revival in 1862, has continued to manifest itself still more strongly during the
year 1863. No better indication of this could be found than in the increase in
the number of collections received by the Institution, which amounted to 264
distinct donations in 1863, while, in 1862, there were but 124.

Among the collections received have heen many specimens of great interest ;
some, the results of special explorations under the auspices of the Institution for
developing the natural history of portions of this continent; others, the sponta-
neous offerings of correspondents; and others, again, exchanges received in return
for donations of specimens on the part of the Institution. No additions have
been made by purchase, the Institution not having funds at its command for
this purpose. It has, nevertheless, been found that’ a given amount of money
can be better applied in meeting the expenses of explorations in particular
regions than in buying collections already made. he results thus obtained
are usually more varied in their character, and more important, from having
been accomplished under definite instructions, and with special reference to the
acquisition of facts and information additional to that which would be furnished
by the specimens themselves. It is not merely specimens of natural history
that are secured in the course of the several explorations, but information is
obtained respecting the habits of animals, the ethnological peculiarities of human
races, the meteorology, the physical geography, the geology of the country, &c.

EXPLORA'TIONS.

Among the explorations wholly or partially carried on under the auspices of
the Smithsonian Institution, and furnishing results of more or less interest, may
be mentioned the following :

Explorations by Mr. Kennicott—A brief mention was made in the last
report of the return of Mr. Kennicott, late in 1862, after an absence of nearly
four years in the north, his movements while there having previously been indi-

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 53

cated in the reports of 1859, 1860, and 1861. By the arrival of all his collee-
tions, and those of gentlemen connected with the Hudson’s Bay Company, who
have so liberally aided him and the Institution in the effort to develop a
knowledge of the natural and physical history of the north, we are now enabled
better to realize the magnitude of the results of these operations. The collee-
tions received in 1863 (which include some which should have arrived in the
end of 1862) filled forty boxes and packages, many of them of large size, and
weighing, in the aggregate, about 3,000 pounds. ‘They embraced thousands of
kins of birds and mae ial eggs of nearly all the birds nesting in the north,
numerous skulls and skeletons a animals, fishes in alcohol and preserved dry,
insects, fossils, plants, Xe.

Not in any way inferior in interest and importance to the natural history
collections were those relating to the ethnological peculiarities of the Esquimaux
and different tribes of Indians inhabiting the Arctic regions. It is believed that
no such series is elsewhere to be found of the dresses, weapons, implements,
utensils, instruments of war and of the chase, &c., &c., of the aborigines of
Northern America.

The cataloguing and labelling of the specimens last received is now nearly
completed, and Mr. Kennicott will then proceed to make a detailed report of the
scientific results of his operations, as well as those of the various gentlemen of
the Hudson’s Bay service who co-operated in the work. The materials at his
command will serve to fix with precision the relationships of the arctic animals
to those of more southern regions, their geographical distribution, their habits
and manners, and other particul: us of interest, and to extend very largely the
admirable records presented by Sir John Richardson relative to arctic zoology.

The Institution has already acknowledged, in many ways, its indebtedness
to the Hudson’s Bay Company, as well as to its officers, for their numerous
favors—the company itself, through its secretary, Mr. Thos. Fraser, of London;
the governors, Sir, George Simpson and Mr. Dallas; Mr. E. M. Hopkins, the
secretary at Montreal ; the chief factors, Governor Wm. MeTavish, Mr. George
Barnston, Mr. John McKenzie, Mr. J. A. Grahame, Mr. Wm. Sinclair ; the
chief traders, Mr. B. R. Ross, Mr. W. L. Hardisty, Mr. R. Campbell, Mr. Jas.
Lockhart, and others, together with Mr. R. W. MacFarlane, Mr. Le Clarke, Mr.
S. Jones, Mr. J. S. an the Rev. W. W. Kirkby, Messrs. Andrew and
James Flett, Mr. C. P. Gaudet, Mr. John Reid, Mr. Harriot, and others—all
have lent their aid towards the accomplishment of the work—every possible
facility was given to Mr. Kennicott, every privilege granted within the rules of
the company. At all the posts he was an honored guest, and he and his col-
lections and outfit were transported from point to point in the company’s boats
and sledges without charge.

In addition to collections from the region traversed by Mr. Kennicott in his
four years’ exploration, some valuable specimens have been received from other
points of British North America. Conspicuous among these is a series of birds
and eges ae Rigolette, in Labrador, gathered by Mr. Henry Conolly, of the
Hudson’s Bay Company’ s service, and brought to Boston, without charge, by
Mr. J. W. Dodge. ‘This collection embraced. specimens of the rare Labrador
falcon, and Sinai of much interest. A collection of birds and other objects
of natural history, made at Moose Factory, for the Institution, by Mr. John
McKenzie, has reached London by ship from Hudson’s Bay, and may shortly
be expected in Washington.

Exploration of Western Mexico by Mr. Xantus.—In iy last report I men-
tioned that Mr. John Xantus, so long and so well known in connexion with
explorations about Fort Riley, Kansas, Fort Tejon, California, and Cape St.
Lucas, was about proceeding to a new field of operations. He left New York
on the 11th of December, 1862, for Manzanillo, Mexico, the Panama Railroad

54 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Company and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, with that liberality they
have so steadily exhibited in their transactions with the Institution, having
given free passage over their respective routes to himself and his outfit. Mr.
Xantus arrived at Manzanillo early in January, 1863, and making this and
Colima his principal points of departure, extended his explorations in various
directions, especially among the mountain regions. He is still occupied in his
labors, the field being very extensive and of varied interest. Many of his col-
lections have already been received, and found to contain numerous species
of birds, reptiles, fishes, shells, &e., new to science, while others throw much
light on the eeographical distribution of the plants and animals of Mexico and
Central America.

Explorations in Costa Rica—For some time past much attention has been
directed by naturalists toward the natural history of Costa Rica, a region which,
from its peculiar physical conformation, indicated a fauna quite different from
that of the adjacent states. ‘The birds were particularly sought after owing to
the many remarkable forms, brought to light by travellers. It was, therefore,
with no little gratification that a collection of birds, made by Dr. A. Von Frant-
zius, an eminent naturalist and physician, resident in Costa Rica, aided by the
Hon. Ci. N. Riotte, United States minister, and Mr. J. Carniol, was received a
few mouths ago at the Institution. A careful examination of these specimens
proved that the peculiar interest of the fauna had not been overestimated, a
large proportion of the species being either new, or but recently described.
Additional collections, shortly expected from Dr. Von Frantzius, will, it is
hoped, increase still more our knowledge of the species.

Miscellancous explorations in Mexico—F ox several years past a highly valued
meteorological correspondent of the Institution, Dr. Charles Sartorius, of Mira-
dor, has made contributions of specimens of the natural history of his vicinity.
During the year several collections were received from him of much interest and
importance, especially certain species of Mexican deer, recently described, and
but little known. As Dr. Sartorius, aided by his son, Mr. Florentin Sartorius,
is now engaged in preparing an account of the animals of eastern Mexico, with
special reference to their habits, &c., it is a source of gratification to us to have it
in our power to aid him by identifying the species from his specimens, which his
remoteness from large collections and libraries prevents him from doing for him-
self. Prof. F. Sumichrast, of Orizaba, has also made valuable contributions of
birds and mammals of Mexico, and proposes to renew these whenever the con-
dition of the internal affairs of Mexico will allow of the transmission of his
collections. Dr. G. Berendt, of Tabasco, is also occupied in a similar manner
in the interest of science and of the Institution.

Explorations in Guatemala and the west coast of Central America.—Mr.
Osbert Salvin, an eminent English ornithologist, who has spent many years in
the exploration of Guatemala, has transmitted to the Institution a second col-
lection of the birds of that region. As these contain specimens of most of his
new species, and all have been carefully compared, as far as practicable, with
the types, his series of birds is of especial value, as furnishing standards for the
identification of other collections.

Additional collections of much interest continue to be sent to the Institution
by Captain J. M. Dow, of the Panama Railroad Company, so frequently men-
tioned in my previous reports. Certain rare birds and fishes collected by him
are especially noteworthy.

Trinidad.—A collection of nearly fifty species of birds of Trinidad was pre-
sented by Mr. Galody, United States consul at Antigua, embracing many species
not formerly in possession of the Institution.

Jamaica.—Myr. W. 'T. March, from whom the Institution has already received
extensive collections in Jamaican zoology, has again made an important contri-

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. D9

bution of an extensive series of birds’ nests and eggs, the materials upon which
he based a memoir on the birds of Jamaica, transmitted to the Institution, to be
published by the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, and printed in its
proceedings for November, 1863.

Cuba.— Additional collections were received during the year from Mr. Charles
Wright and Professor F’. Poey, embracing new and rare species of birds, shells,
reptiles, and fishes. Some collections, transmitted by Dr. J. Gundlach, have
not yet reached us.

Ecuador —The Hon. C. R. Buckalew, now United States senator, while
United States minister, resident at Heuador, made quite an extensive collection
of the birds of that country, which he has lately presented to the Institution.
Nearly all of the species thus obtained were new to the cabinet. ?

No collections of magnitude, from regions or localities other than American,
have been received during the year. It is not the intention or expectation of
the Institution to make general collections of the natural history of the globe,
neither its space nor available funds warranting so broad a field of operations.
By limiting its labor to America, a hope may be entertained of possessing, in
time, a complete series of the animals of the continent.

Exotic collections, as far as they are spontaneously offered, and especially
such as are necessary to illustrate the characters of American species, are
always acceptable, and the specimens gathered by the government exploring
expeditions, of which the Smithsonian Institution is the custodian, will always
be carefully preserved; but any especial efforts towards the increase of the
museum may advantageously be confined, as a general policy, to the New
World.

The most important additions, it will be readily seen, relate to the class of
birds. Desirous of extending the observations upon the birds of North
America, as published in the ninth volume of the Pacific railroad report, a cir-
cular was issued by the Institution, which has been distributed by the State
Department to the consular and diplomatic officers of the United States in the
foreign portions of America, asking aid in completing the collection of birds ;
and important additions are expected from the request thus extended. The
materials received will be used, in connexion with those already in possession
of the Institution, in the preparation of catalogues and monographs relative to
American ornithology.

Among the specimens received by the Institution during the year should
especially be mentioned the great Ainsa or Tucson meteorite.

This meteorite was first discovered by the Jesuit missionaries in Sonora, by
whom it was considered a great curiosity, exciting much speculation as to its
origin. In 1735 the “Gran Capitan de las Provincias del Occidente, Don Juan
Baptista Anza, was induced to visit the erolite,”’ and found it at a place called
* Los Muchaches,” in the Sierra Madre, and, struck with its appearance, under-
took to transport it to San Blas, then the nearest port of entry, with the view
of carrying it to Spain. With this object it was brought as far as the Presidio,
near ‘Tucson, in Arizona, and left there on account of “the ditheulty of carrying
it any further. After the withdrawal of the Spanish garrison it was taken into
the town of Tucson, set up vertically, and used as a kind of public anvil, of
which it bears marks at the present time. In this condition it was seen and
reported upon by various travellers; among others it was visited by John R.
Bartlett, July 18, 1852, at the time Commissioner of the United States and
Mexican Boundary Survey. Mr. Bartlett gives a short account of it, (Personal
Narrative, volume II, p. 297,) accompanied by a figure, (the lower one on the
plate,) where it is represented as resting upon two legs, owing to the lower
part of the ring, of which it consists, being buried in the ground. His estimate
of six hundred pounds as its weight falls far within the actual amount.

56 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

In 1857, Dr. B. J. D. Irwin, United States army, then stationed at Fort
Buchanan, south of Tucson, found this meteorite lying in one of the by streets
of the village, half buried in the earth. As no one claimed it, he publicly
announced his intention to take possession of it and forward it to the Smith-
sonian Institution, whenever an opportunity offered. Some time after, assisted
by Mr. Palatine Robinson, of Tucson, (near to whose house the meteorite lay,)
he succeeded in having it sent, by the agency of Mr. Augustine Ainza, to
Hermosillo, where it remained for some time at the hacienda of Don Manuel
Ynigo, father-in-law of Mr. Ainza.

In May, 1863, Mr. Jesus Ainza, brother of Mr. Augustine Ainza, and grand-
son of Dota Ana Ainza de Iglas, the daughter of Don Juan Bautista Ainza,
visited Sonora, and on his return brought the meteorite with him to San Fran-
cisco, where it was delivered by his brother, M. Santiago Ainza, to the agent
of the Smithsonian Institution, Mr. A. B. Forbes, of the Pacific Mail Steamship
Company, and forwarded by him, vza the Isthmus, to Washington, where it
arrived in November, and is now on exhibition, and the great object of attraction
to visitors in the Smithsonian hall. It is proper to state that, although Dr.
Irwin was authorized to expend whatever was necessary to secure the trans-
mission of the meteorite to San Francisco, beyond some small expenses paid
by him for placing it upon the truck in Tucson, no charge was made by the
Ainza family for the cost of transportation to Guaymas and delivery to the
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, performed partly with their own wagons
and partly by other means of conveyance. It was brought free of charge from
Guaymas to San Francisco by the Flint and Haliday line of steamers. While
on the route to New York the Pacific Mail Steamship Company and the
Panama Railroad Company, with that liberality which has ever characterized
their intercourse with the Smithsonian Institution, transported it without
expense to Aspinwall, and thence to New York.

The meteorite is in the shape of an immense signet ring, much heavier on
one side, where it is nearly flat on its outer surface, and presents the face used
as an anvil. ‘The greatest exterior diameter is 49 inches; width of thickest
part of the ring 9 inches, the least 38 inches ; the greatest width of the central
opening, 23 inches; width of thickest part of the ring, 174 inches. The weight
is now 1,400 pounds, but some portions have been removed from time to time,
probably reducing it considerably. Its composition is principally of iron, with
small specks of a whitish silicious mineral diffused through it.

A careful chemical and physical examination of the meteorite will be made
by Professor G. J. Brush, of New Haven, to whom the Smithsonian Institution
has committed the subject for a detailed report.

As the erolite was first brought from the mountains north of Tucson by the
great grandfather of the gentleman to whose exertions in transporting it to
Washington the Institution owes so much, it is proposed to call it the “ Ainsa
meteorite.”’ To Dr. Irwin, of the United States medical department, the Insti-
tution is also under great obligations for his agency in securing this specimen.

Dr. Irwin states that the inhabitants of Tucson have a tradition that a shower
of these meteorites took place in the Santa Catarina mountains about two hun-
dred years ago, and that there are many other masses of a similar character
yet remaining in those mountains.

This meteorite is among the largest known, and in this country is only
exceeded a little in weight by the Gibbs meteorite in the cabinet of Yale Col-
lege, New Haven, while it surpasses the latter in size, being disposed in the
form of a ring instead of a solid mass.

The Smithsonian Institution also possesses the third largest meteorite in the
country in the “Couch meteorite,” weighing 252 pounds, and brought from
Northeastern Mexico by Major General D. N. Couch, and by him presented
to the Institution. ‘

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY, 57

IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIMENS.

Continued progress has been made during the year in the determination and
arrangement of the species in the Smithsonian collections, and the cabinet is
gradually becoming more and more useful for reference and study. Any appa-
rent shortcoming in this respect will be excused in view of the fact that the
work done is mainly a voluntary contribution on the part of gentlemen engaged
in making special examinations of the Smithsonian collections, and the Insti-
tution is under many obligations for their assistance.

DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIMENS.

In accordance with the plan of the Institution, as fast as the identification
of the species is satisfactorily accomplished, the duplicate specimens are set
aside. for distribution to such museums at home and abroad as appear to be
suitable recipients. The total number of objects thus distributed to the end
of the year 1863, all properly determined and labelled, amounts to 26,651
species, and 50,601 specimens, as shown by the following schedule:

Statement of specimens of natural history distributed by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution up to December 31, 1863.

Prior to 1854. 1854 to July, | 1861 to August, Total. Special distribu-
1861. 1863. tion of shells of
Exp’g Exp’n.
Specimens. 5

wn mn m wm ro]

: 8 i 5 : § é 5 k 8

2 z 2 & 2 & 2 | & 2 &

o ° O° o oC 9 2° o oO °

o o o Oo Sz o oO o oO oO

Se a a a a a a a a

nD 2 R RQ D R R RD BS le

|
Mammals .... ..---- 5 5 404 624 172 | 216 581 SON eects | cores
rds ee ene ns 825 | 1,035] 3,162] 4,255| 1,787 | 2,494] 5,774) 7,784 |.--...-. PUERe
GPLUCH oes. .<---~ 18 22} 1,470 | 2,356 18 | 180) le oUOn i 26000) |sasee mean aaa
MISMIER See pees 2-22) \San oaiciel= deleeoee 1, 623 |< 3,921 20 28))| 516437) 93) 9492 eee eee eee
MIFURUACCAYS oo ncn bs :a|em eo oaiarsea mientras 9360) St B94. eee | Rvs teecr 9 360 TAB OS, ee ere ne eee
PUHMLOR Mee as 2c bores see lees oon 551 Gale fone e ae | sem os = 551 Uae \eeieme se Serene
Moinsis ee Ll. =: - =|. .ttisenltes ga iaiec 588 |} 1,985 310 380 898 | 2,365 | 10,934 | 44,112
Invertebrates, in- | |

REMI ER MOC ata c(ala/at |= wiara ee == fas seeee. 216 330 312 400 528 | Le eeaiase anaes paeetete ae
Eggs of birds -.--.-- 114 | 307 | 1,537 | 3,558 G28u eestor 219n ol OOM Ee ance meme
HIOEHUINVERtEDIALes-|---~-— <-|- 5 nc moe] ae ee | en le 747 | 2,238 747 | yea let et tel
IG EMOCOLUCDLALOS =... |Sroia;0 52725 | tac et aes e aeeoen hematin leeeee dee ba R aR Sey eR pee Sac is Senne ete co
Sault ee 58 OG ects ae shee ad 5 63 Goa sateen
Minerals and rocks.-|.--..--.. |S tena tetera etetettet 211 354 211 | Do eee aaletee =
BR Otal er nina a1). 1,020 | 1,527 | 10,487 | 19,650 | 4,210 | 7,368 | 26,651 | 72, 657 | 10,934 | 44,112

In the index to the three volumes of transmissions of specimens for examina-
tion, or donation, the names of two hundred and fifty-nine institutions and indi-
viduals are entered up to August, 1863.

N. B—The preceding enumeration of specimens distributed does not include
the specimens (duplicates) retained by collaborators in behalf of certain author-
ized collections—as of insects, by Messrs. Leconte, Uhler, Morris, Ostensacken,
Saussure, Edwards, Hagen, Loew, Scudder, &c.; of vertebrate fossils, by Leidy,
for the Philadelphia Academy; of fishes, by Professor Agassiz; shells, by
Messrs. Carpenter, Binney, Tryon, &c.; mammals, by Messrs. Leconte, Allen.
&c.; birds, by Mr. Cassin; reptiles, by Mr. Cope; plants, by Messrs. Torrey,
Gray, Engelman, and Eaton. ‘These will probably amount to at least 10,000
species, and 20,000 specimens additional.

The cataloguing of specimens in the record-books of the Institution has been
continued during the year, and, as will be seen by the accompanying table, now
amounts to 86,547 entries, being an increase, since 1863, of over 12,000.

58 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Table showing the total number of entries on the record-books of the Smithsonian
collection at the end of the years 1861, 1862, and 1863.

1861 1862. 1863

Skeletons and skullsseceiuc-sseco cose creda sche es oeieeeenisets 4,459 | 4,750 6, 275
Mammals = se- ase ee oe mo = oer awicew = eet ere 5,590 | 5,900 7,175
Bria.) nucck see ay Boe on. ec e te eee 23,510 | 26,157 | 31,800
PROpUUOS 6 23 nwo e Som se mem pm wn inne ms ering enema 6,088 | 6,311 6, 325
Bighes See se eee occa ce en 2 clear ineiclelele wicioin miele [atari 3,643 | 4,925 5, 075
Eggs of birds-.-.-.. -.------2---0- 2s nee te - ba ee ae nan nse 4,830 | 6,000 i, 21D
Gristicbans eae ~ fone 2 2 edo es coe mice gnte wen l > ate emia Ly Seta le clacet 1, 287
Mollngls este cn eet cies wi biscl. 266 Seee aseee = =e ene — = 9,718 | 10,000 | 10, 450
Hadintet cess. ict blawets- bce aguell-4-edsesesae Gee a 1,800 | 2,675 | 2,725
MOS S1 Betes eto he mec am alata Rae we clel ore oe ee etal setae a et 1,031 | 2,100 2,550
Maret a Geese aa apne eae ein a sok Siena a been ee ee ete 3,500 | 3,725 4, 925
Ethnological specimens --------------------------++---+---- 550 825 875
Aymelids. 22 senieiine sce scr bate en nsinasalle te ala eee eee 105 109 110

Potal sence oa tne ob sisee SS -ha Sos ce snes Sear 66, 075 | 74,764 | 86,847

LIST OF DONATIONS TO THE MUSEUM OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
IN 1863.

Atkins, L. S—Eggs of birds and shells from Ohio.

Aisa, J.—See ian

Akhurst, J—Birds from St. rit Roniaa! West Indies.

Baer, O. P.—Unionide from Indiana.

Baird, S. F.—Iron ore from Hanover station ; series of skins and eggs of birds,
mammals, fishes, and invertebrates, from Wood’s Hole and Cohasset, Massa-
chusetts.

Baird, Mrs. S. F— Leuciscus, from Potomac river.

Beadle, Rev. E. R.—Bergen Hill minerals.

Bean, W.—Collection of annelids and cirripeds of Great Britain.

Behrens, Dr.—Insects from California.

Berlin Museum—54 skins of birds of Central and South America.

Bethune, Rev. C. S—Skin of Scalops brewert, Canada.

Blackman, Mr.—Skins and eggs of birds, [linois.

Blake, W. P.—Keg of fishes from Hakodadi, Japan.

Bland, Thomas.—Spiraxis, from West Indies.

mo” George A——Embryo Canada grouse in alcohol; skins and eggs of
birds

Bouve, Thomas T.—Large erystale of beryl.

Brass, W.—Birds, imataennle) &e., Fort Halkett.

Brevoort, J. U—Fresh specimen of Zoarces anguillaris.

Bruckart, H. G.—Insects trom Lancaster county, Pennsylvania.

Buchalew, Hon. C. R.—Collection of birds of Ecuador.

Burling, W.—Skin of Halietus pelagicus from the Amoor river. (Through
Samuel Hubbard.)

Carniol, J—Skins of Costa Rican birds.

Carpenter, P. P.—Yossils from vicinity of Moscow.

Carpenter, Robbie S.—Skin of starling, Sturnus vulgaris, Warrington, England.

Clark, Lawrence-—A general zoological collection ‘from Fort Rae, Great ‘Slave
lake.

Coleman, Lyman.—Seeds of Damascus thorn; petrified wood from Cairo.

Coleman, W. T.—Birds and eggs from Canada.

Comstock, A.—Cuttings of California grapes.

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 59

Conolly, H—Skins and eggs of birds from Labrador.

Cooper, Dr. J. G.—Shells of California.

Coues, Dr. H.—Series of skins of birds of District of Columbia.

Cowles, P. W—lInsects trom Vicksburg.

Crosier, Dr. E. S—Vorticella, &e., New Albany, Indiana.

De Saussure, Dr. H—Skins of Mexican birds, and lacustrian antiquities of
Switzerland.

Diebitsch, Professor —Rana pipiens. _.

Dodd, P. W.—Skulls of animals and eges of birds from Sable island.

Dow, Captain J. M—Skins of mammals, and birds, fishes, &c., from west
coast of Central America.

Drew, Dr. F. P.—Collection of reptiles and eggs of birds from Kansas.

Drewsen, Charles—Series of Greenland shells.

Drexler, C.—sSeries of skins of birds of the District of Columbia.

Egleston, Thomas.—Series of Eurcpean fossils.

Elliot, D. G.—Skins of European gulls; skins of humming birds.

Elliot, H. W.—tUarge collection of “Uiionides: shells, &e., in aleohol, Ohio.

Engelmann, Dr —? ossils from Llinois.

Fairbanks, Professor —Box of eggs. .

Fay, Joseph S—Chlorastrolite from Lake Superior.

Flett, Andrew.—Skins and eggs of birds; Fort Normann.

Flett, James —Kges of birds, ‘ke. from in Pierre’s house.

Foreman, Dr. H—Vive boxes of minerals from Maryland.

Freiburg, Mining Academy of—Box of mineralogical and geological speci-
mens Gin Germany.

Frick, Dr—Shells of California and Japan,

Galody, M.—Skins of birds of Trinidad.

Gaudet, C. P—Skins and eggs ot birds, &c., from Peel’s river.

Gibbs, George.—Indian curiosities.

Gilliss, U. S. N., Captain.—Six boxes of microscopic soundings.

Gilpin, Dr. J. B—Series of shrews and mice of Nova Scotia.

Goldsmth, Dr. M.—Cricket from the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.

Gould, Dr. A. A—F¥orty species of Melaniade. -

Grahame, J. A—Skins of mammals, &c., Norway House.

Giebel, Dr. C—Three boxes of insects of Europe, (365 species.)

Gruber, Ferd—Skins and eggs of birds from California.

Gundlach, Dr. J—Specimenus of Gundlachia, Cuba.

Gunn, Donald.—Skins and eggs of birds from Red River settlement and Lake
Winipeg.

Haideman, Professor S. S—Types of the species of Melaniade described by
him.

Hall, W. F.—DBirds and eggs from Massachusetts.

Hamilton, R—Collection of skins and eggs of birds from Great Whale river,
(through Mr. George Barnston.)

Hardisty, W. L.—Birds, mammals, &c., from Fort Liard.

Harris, W. O.—Minerals from Chester county.

Harriot, Mr—Skins of birds from Fort Anderson.

Hays, Dr. W. W.—Fishes, &c., from Sacramento river.

Hayden, Dr. F. V.—Al\coholie specimens, Beaufort, South Carolina.

Haymond, Dr. R.—Cypris from Indiana.

Hephurn, James.—Skins and eggs of birds from the Pacifie coast.

Hibbard, Francis —Lead ore from New Brunswick.

Hibbard, James.—Antimony ores, New Brunswick.

Hitz, R. B. § George.—1,200 eggs, of twelve species of birds, from Northamp-
ton county, Virginia, with shells: &e. (See also Stimpson.) Fossils from
Aquia creek.

60 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Hoge, Mr.—Skin of boa from the Serapiqui river.

Hope, John.—Eggs of birds, fishes, &c., Great Bear lake.

Hotaling, C. F.—Rock salt from Louisiana.

Hoxie, W—Insects from Massachusetts.

Hoy, Dr. P. R.—Nests and eggs from Racine.

Hunt, General L. C—Indian knife, Klamath lake.

Irwin, Dr. W. W., and J. Ainsa-—Meteorite from Tucson, weighing 1,400 pounds.

Jeffreys, Mr.—Box of minerals of Chester county, Pennsylvania.

Jones, Strachan.—Kggs of birds, &c., from the Yukon.

Julian, A. A.—Series of fishes, &c., Sombrero island.

Keep, Rev. Marcus R—Moose horns from Maine.

Kennedy, Dr. H. W.—Collection of reptiles of Uruguay.

Kennicott, R—Insects, eggs, &c., from Illinois.

Kennicott, R., and others ——Fitteen boxes, three bales, one keg, and one chest
of Arctic collections. Mr. Kennicott’s collections principally from the mouth
of the Porcupine river, Peel’s river, Fort Good Hope, La Pierre’s house, Fort
Resolution, &e.

Kirtland, Dr. J. P-—Two boxes of western Unionidae.

Krefft, Dr. G., (through W. Cooper.)—Collection of Australian reptiles.

Krider, John —Mounted hawks.

Lapham, I. A.—Unionide of Wisconsin.

Lawrence, George N—Skins of birds from Central America and Panama.

Lea, Isaac—Box ot Unionidae, and one hundred species of Melaniade.

Lewis, James, Dr—tWLarge collection of land and fluviatile shells from the in-
terior of New York.

Lockhart, James.—Large series of zoological specimens, principally birds’ eggs,
from the Yukon; skins of birds, mammals, eggs, &c., from Fort Resolution.

Lykins, W. H. R.—Fossils from Kansas.

MacFarlane, R. W—A general zoological and ethnological collection from
vicinity of the Anderson river, Arctic America.

McGuire, J. C—Two boxes of Unionide.

Mc Kenzie, Hector —Birds’ eggs from Red river.

McKenzie, J—Birds, &c., from Fort Resolution.

Mc Kenzie, Roderick.—Birds’ eggs from Lake Manitobah.

McMurray, W.—Birds’ eggs from Winipeg river.

Mac Tavish, Gov. William.—Skins and eggs of birds, &c., from the Red River
country. :

Mann, William.—Skins of Pinicola canadensis, Lake Superior.

rene W. Thomas.—Three boxes of skins, nests and eggs of Jamaican

irds.

Meck, F. B.—Series of fossils from New Jersey and Maryland.

Moore, Carleton R—Double tail of Limulus.

Michener, Dr. E.—156 crania of birds, and 54 of mammals; two boxes of
minerals.

Onion, J. S—Plants, eggs, &e., from Fort Good Hope.

Palmer, Dr. E.—F¥ossils, minerals, &c., Pike’s Peak.

Parker, Rev. H. W.—Marine shells, United States, and two boxes of minerals
from New Bedford.

Parkinson, D. T—Skins and eggs of birds, Indian skulls, plants, &c., Fort
Crook, California

Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences —Seventy species of Melaniade.

Piper, Col., (10th regiment New York volunteer artillery.}—Rock specimens
and fossil wood from Fort Meigs, near Washington.

Poey, Prof. #.—Collection of bats and Neuroptera ; fishes from Cuba.

Poole, Henry —* Cone in cone” in slate. From a shaft sunk in the Harbor
Vein coal seam, Little Glacé Bay, Cape Breton.

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 61

Prentiss, D. W.—Series of skins of birds of the District of Columbia.
Quackenbush, Leslie R.—Fossils of the Utica slate.
Reed, John —Skins and eggs of birds from Big Island, Great Slave Lake. One
collection through L. Clarke, jr.
Reed, Peter —Sorex platyrhinus, Washington county, New York.
Richards, Thos.—Skins of birds, &c., from 'Temiscamingue.
Riotte, Hon. U—Reptiles and insects in alcohol, skins of birds, shells, &c.,
Costa Rica.
Ritchie, J. P—Skin and egg of Buteo pennsylvanicus from Massachusetts.
Rodgers, Commodore John—Ethnological collections of the North Pacific Ex-
ploring Expedition.
Ross, B. R.—A general zoological collection from Fort Simpson and vicinity.
Rousseau, E.—Box of shells from New York.
Saemann, L.—Box of European minerals.
Salisbury, Dr. S. H.—Scalops in alcohol from Fairfield county, Ohio.
Salle, A—Skins of Mexican birds.
Salvin, O.—Collection of birds of Guatemala, (150 species.)
Sartorius, Dr. C—Collection of birds, mammals, alcoholic specimens, &c.,
Mexico.
Schmidt, Dr—Birds from the vicinity of Washington, collected by the late
Chas. F. Schmidt.
Sclater, Dr. P. L.—Skins of Mexican birds.
S¢mpson, George B.—Copper spear-head, and other relies.
Sitka, Governor of.—Box of crustacea. (Through Mr. Jas. Hepburn.)
Springer, P. M.—Skins and sterna of birds, [inois.
Stimpson, Dr. W.—Three boxes of marine invertebrates of Great Britain; two
of American.
Stimpson, Dr. W. and R. B. Hitz —Three boxes shells, eggs, &c., Northamp-
ton county, Virginia.
Sumichrast, Prof. F—Mammals and birds of Mexico.
Surgeon General—Tertiary fossils, Suffolk, Virginia.
Swan, J. G.—Indian curiosities, skins of birds, eggs, shells, fishes, &c., from
Puget Sound.
- Thomson, J. H —Box of New England shells.
Tolman, J. W.—Skins and eggs of birds of Illinois.
Trumbull, George—Wavellite from Chester county.
Tryon, G. W.—One hundred and twenty-five species of Melaniade.
Olke, H.—Skins of birds from Wiinois.
Van Cortlandt, Dr. E—Mammals in alechol, skins of Lepidosteus, &c., from
Ottawa.
Frantzius, Dr.—Collection of birds and mammals from Costa Rica.
Velie, Dr. J. W—Eges of Protonotaria citrea, &c., from Illinois.
Vienna Gevlogisches Reichs- Anstalt——Collection of Austrian fossils.
Walker, R. O—Fishes, shells, skulls, &c., Allegheny county, Pennsylvania.
White, Dr—Marine shells and skulls of mammals, Isthmus, Panama.
Willis, J. .—Shells, eggs, and fishes of Nova Scotia.
Williams College Lyceum,— Eggs of Greenland birds.
Wilson, N.—Seeds of plants from Jamaica. (Through Thos. Bland.)
Wingate, J. D.—Box of shells, Bellefonte, Pennsylvania.
Woodworth, Dr. J. M—Reptiles and insects from Memphis.
Wouton, W. G.—Skins and eggs of birds of Nova Scctia.
Wright, Chas.—Birds, shells, and insects of Cuba.
Wynne, Dr. Jas —Specimen of sphinx or hawk moth from Central America.

Xantus, John—Fourteen boxes of mammals, birds, and other animals, plants
&c., from Manzanillo, Colima, &c.

62 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

LIST OF WORKS PUBLISHED IN 1863.

(155.) Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior. By Charles Whit-
tlesey. 4to., pp. 32, and one map. (Published April, 1863.) —

(146.) Meteorological Observations in the Arctic Seas. By Sir Leopold
McClintock, R. N. Made on board the Arctic searching yacht “ Fox,” in
Baflin’s Bay and Prince Regent’s Inlet in 1857, 1858, and 1859. Reduced and
discussed at the expense of the Smithsonian Institution by Charles A. Schott,
Assistant United States Coast Survey. 4to., pp. 160, and one map.

A small edition of this work was published in May, 1862, but the final issue,
with corrections and additions, took place in 1863.

(166.) Records and Results of a Magnetic Survey of Pennsylvania and parts
of adjacent States in 1840 and 1841, with some additional Records and Results
of 1834, 1835, 1843, and 1862,and a map. By A. D. Bache, LL.D., F. R. S.,
Member of Corresponding Academy of Sciences, Paris; President of National
Academy of Sciences ; Superintendent United States Coast Survey. 4to., pp.
88, and one map. (Published October, 1863.)

(169.) Researches upon the Anatomy and Physiology of Respiration in the
Chelonia. By S. Weir Mitchell, M. D., and George R. Morehouse, M.D. 4to.,
pp: 50. (Published April, 1863.)

(156.) Catalogue of Minerals, with their Formulas, &c. Prepared for the
Smithsonian Institution by T. Egleston. 8vo., pp. 42.

(140.) List of the Coleoptera of North America. Prepared for the Smithso-
nian teen by John L. Leconte, M.D. PartI. 8vo., pp.60. (Published
March, 1863.

(167.) New Species of North American Coleoptera. Prepared for the Smith-
sonian Institution by John L. Leconte, M.D. Part I. 8vo., pp. 94. (Pub-
lished March, 1863.)

(142.) Bibliography of North American Conchology previous to the year
1860. Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by W. G. Binney. Part I.
American authors. 8vo., pp. 658. (Published March, 1863.)

(171.) Monograph of the Diptera of North America. Prepared for the Smith-
sonian Institution by H. Loew. Part II. Edited by R. Ostensacken. 8vo.,
pp. 340. (Published January, 1864.)

(160.) Instructions relative to the Ethnology and Philology of America.
Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by George Gibbs. 8vo., pp. 36.
(Published March, 1863.)

(161.) A Dictionary of the Chinook Jargon or 'Trade Language of Oregon.
Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by George Gibbs. S8vo., pp. 60.
(Published March, 1863.)

Systematic index to the list of foreign correspondents of the Smithsonian
Institution, corrected to January, 1862. S8vo., pp. 16.

Appendix to the list of foreign correspondents of the Smithsonian Institution,
corrected to January, 1863. 8vo., pp. 7.

(170.) Comparative Vocabulary. Reprinted from the Smithsonian Instruc-
tions relative to ethnology and philology. 4to., pp. 20. (Published May, 1863.)

WORKS STILL IN PRESS.

(174.) Bibliography of North American Conchology. By W. G. Binney.
Part II. 8vo., 239 pages stereotyped.

(143.) Synopsis of Air Breathing Shells. By W.G. Binney. 8vo.

(144.) Synopsis of North American Vivipara, &e. By W.G. Binney. S8vo.

(145.) Monograph of American Corbiculade. By'Temple Prime. 8vo., (42
pages in type.

(177.) Check-list of North American Fossils; cretaceous formation. By F
B. Meek. 8vo.

REPORT OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 63

(172.) Paleontology of the Upper Missouri. By F. B. Meek and F. V.
Hayden. 4to.

(165.) Monograph of North American Bats. By Harrison Allen, M.D. 8vo.

a On the Microscopic Structure of the Medulla Oblongata and the 'Tra-
pezium. By Dr. John Dean. 4to.

(175.) Discussion of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations of Girard
College. By Prof. A. D. Bache. Part VII, VIII, IX. 4to.

(179.) List of publications of learned societies, periodicals, and encyclopedic
works in the library of the Smithsonian Institution, July 1, 1863.

(178.) Monograph of North American Hymenoptera. By H. De Saussure.
Part I. Edited by Edward Norton. 8vo.

LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS AND OBSERVERS

SMITHSONIAN

OF THE

FOR THE YEAR 1863.

INSTITUTION

Name of observer.

BRITISH AMERICA.

Acadia College
Baker, J. C
Clarke, Lawrence, jr
Connolly, Henr
Delaney, Edward M. J..-.

Everett, Prof. J. D........
Flett, Andrew

Hall, Archibald, M. D
McFarlane; R.....-..-.- ;

Magnetic Observatory
Murdock iG 25 -S.o.5-25 526
Phillips, H
Rankin, Colin
Richards, Thomas

MEXICO.

Laszlo, Charles
Sartorius, Dr. Charles

CENTRAL AMERICA.

Riotte, C. N
White, William T., M. D-.

WEST INDIES,

United States Consul
Julien, Alexis A

BERMUDA.
Royal Engineers, (in the
Royal Gazette.)
SOUTH AMERICA.

Hering, C. T

* A signifies Barometer, Thermometer, Psychrom-
eter, and Rain Gauge.

B signifies Barometer.

T signifies Thermometer.

colony of Surinam, Dutch Guiana.

P signifies Psy chrometer.
R signifies Rain Gauge.

N signifies no instrument,

t Above Lake Ontario.

g g ®
Station. = sy 8
. a 2 at a
Z z e) 5
3 2 © A
A e je) 4
Cm ek Feet.
Wolfville, Nova Scotia --.---------- 45 06 | 64 25 Ooi eA
Stanbridge, Canada East -.-....----.- 45 ).083|\ ava) OOM =): = 5 ec TD Sscen
Port Rae Greatislaye wakes. <-—ee]. ose o> as) sobre taelpeeees ae ese
Lat Gis MW eG ly ee Se eee aaa ee 55 loss saaac eae acsos eS os
Colonial Building, St. John’s, New- | 47 35 | 52 40 TO Be eka =
foundland. :
King’sCollege, Windsor, NovaScotia-| 44 59 | 64 07 DOONAN avec.
| Fort McPherson, Hudson’s Bay Ter- | 68 00 | 135 00 OCT teeeme eer
ritory.
Montreal, Canada Bast ....---.----- 45 30 | 73 36 57 || Avas some
HorteAmdersoniesseeeeeeeeaeeiee eee 68530 Te SOR ee eta el aati
ROT GOT Be ete te et chet] eee te rete itera Saisie sie
Toronto, Canada West ----.--..-... 43 39 | 79 21 TLOB HACE tees
Sta doliney Newari 8 yy closer eete | cleat [teeter = reciente tern
Niagara, Canada West.........-.-.- 43 09 | 79 20 hn PAs ecuatates
Michipicoton, Canada West -..--.--. A756) “Bo OGNieo eee Bre =
Kenogumissee, Hudson’s Bay Terri- | 49 50| 8400, 1,000} T.......
tory.
San Juan Bautista, Tabasco........ 17 47 | 92 36 BONIPAC Se saree
Mirador Wer Orogicnss-cceise = cece 19 15)|" 963255 eS TGOU MAL ane
Sani 0s6), Costa Rica... -.acccre science 9) 540 Ran OGn S72) | ME eee
npn yale eee ee ane sae aaa D1 Oa a eee se ees cities
TMurkisslsland & == qe cec ats ais ne wie celal | = a\x acc aime | eaters balstmter atmo (eieimteeentister ie
Sombrerotisland!=~--ecvensacte nan 18 55 | 63 27 AS | At eee.
Centre Signal Station, Saint George’s.|........|.-------|-------- PAs iniiein ats
Government Plantation Rustenberg, |...--.--|.----0+-|-...--0- AG a aiaants

No. of months
received,

e

PA MRR PNWOWN

w
Bm Wr TI

a)

ll

12
12

12

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §:c.—Continued.

S 3
. 2 z z
Name of observer. Station. County. 3 a ; =
4 S a 5
= é 2 2
A = 5 a
CALIFORNIA.
a rae Feet.
Ayres iW. ©. Mi. D-.-- -- | San Francisco ..-| San Francisco---| 37 48 | 122 27 130! | Aveo
Belcher, W. C....-------- | Marysville .....- Mapas 26eeee. 2 39 29 | 121 30 80 | B.T.R..
forott) Cnaries....-+--—-. - - Sacramento .-.--. Sacramento -.-.--. 38 31 | 121 29 60: Ree
Dunkum, Mrs. Elizab’h S-; Honcut -.....-- Wuba 2. S25 2+. SO SoA S0NT: <3. eee se sen
Logan, Thomas M., M. D..| Sacramento -«--- Sacramento. ..-- 38 35 | 121 28 AL Abscess
Parkinson, David F -.---- Presidio of San | San Francisco--.| 37 48 | 122 22 |.--..-.-. AS sea
Francisco.
mith, Ma 2. ..<---..--- Spanish Ranche-.| Plumas---..----- 39 56 | 120 40} 3,700 | B.T.R..
COLORADO.
Ly
Lutirell, James-..-.-..-..-.-- Montgomery .. --| Park .........-- 39 00 | 106 00 | 13,000 | T..-----
CONNECTICUT. ;
Gane Jarvis. s-<=220<5-- Canton 52 2062 Hartford 22%... 4200} 73 00 ODL EE RA eee
Hunt, Rey. Daniel -.----- Wonifret=- 33. - 22 Windham ....-... 41 52| 72 23 SBT PGA. 25 eciee
Johnston, Prof. John ...-- Middletown - ....| Middlesex -.....- 41 32) 72 39 LTO RAPS Ruse
Learned, Dwight W-.----- Plymouth .....-- Litchfield - ....-- 4) 40 | 73 03 |~...--. ae es
Leavenworth, D. C-.-.-.---- New Haven..... New Haven ...-. 4118] 7256 40)). BAR 3
Rockwell, Charlotte ------ Colebrook ....--.- Litchfield. ....... AD, OOH S37 0G) 3556-55 Ps ade
Yeomans, William H..--. Columbia. .....-. Tolland ......... 41040) |S i242) \. 2. 5 Te ess
DAKOTA.
Williams, Herbert G.--.--- Peet N Eee alae ela nites ADE la ee Odeo on eee aerate
DELAWARE.
Hedges, Urban D., M.D--.| Wilmington ..... Dey Cast ener ee eer eee oat Te oe ee
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
MacKee, Rey. C. B ..-.--.-- Georgetown ..... Washington ..... eae Adm CeSh nism (a wie/a,s AR Feats
Smithsonian Institution-..| Washington -.... Washington ...-- 38 53 | 77 01 600) Areas
FLORIDA.
Dennis, William C.-....-.-. Key West -..-...- Monroe, 24 =~ aa 24 33 | 81 28 16) (Bits Be:
IDAHO.
nein © 2-5 5-—------ Morinsramie. 22) |se sees 4210} 104 47} 4,472) T.......
imosseau, M1. ©.......-.--- Rorts Benton +2 .: |2e==ee aes 47 A9\\ VO 36: 1! °2) TSO Nese
ILLINOIS.
wmidrich, Werry ..--------- TUuNKi Wall. oo Bureau ...-=-5-- 4115! 89 66 69.0 eS re
BSBHEOCKG, Ur == 565------ = Riley 22-0 sss McHenry. .-..-.--. 4211] &8 20 1604 Reais s
BACON eon aa ns - Willow Creek 2.-/ ee. ----- = -<-2-2 41 45)) 88 '56') 10405) Nose e et
Baker, Nathan T......--. | Belleville........ Sti Clanineis =: 38 2 90 06 600 | B.T...
Ballou, N. E., M. D.--.--- Sandwich ..----. Doe) Kalbiciie'..2 2: 41 31 | 88 30 663) ake 22
Bandelier, Adolphus F.,jr-| Highland - ..-.... Madison ........ 38 45 69046) .ceeeees BT. 2.
Blanchard, Orestes A-.... Mimira.-.5-s eee Pankey eae AT 327) 2SOito} aes ae ote 2
Boettner, Gustav A...--.- @hicapoe--e ess Cooks. stn semase 41 54 SOr4Dt le sso Bee oss)
Brendel, Frederick, M. D..| Peoria .-.. --.--- Peoria... sce eee 40 43 | &9 3 AGO} AY 2) 2258
Brookes, Samuel..-...--. Chicago -2 2. 2-5 Cooks eee Ee 42.00 | 87 30 |.....-.. T4255 22 |
Byrne, ArthurM ..--...-. Chicago. 22e=2 8 Gopkssse ee: 32 41 57 | 87 38 Sok EDar ee
Ee: Himothy-<-... Jacksonville -. ..| Morgan. ........ 39 30} $0.06 GO| TR et
meme; PON =- 2 5-2... - | 2
Grant, Miss Ellen._.._... Manchester -..... SEOth oo. = oa Soe |} 3933] 90 34 683 "(SAS ose
Griffing, Henry .-.. ...-.- Hazel Dell..--.--- Cumberland -- --. 39 OOH 88100) |--- =. ine eeees |
Little, J. Thomas .--..... Dixon :.2..s-seee eee 30. 2 AWA SOS) S22 ----- ee Saoe|
Livingston, Prof. Wm -...| Galesburg -.----. Ranoxye. soc aet [een ae -F| aareee le oceans Aner ee on
Mead, 8. B.)MD.......: | Augusta .... <--- Hancock’: 2: << ./-. 4010); 91 00 R204 | eevee oc
Merwin, Mrs. Emily H....| Ottawa.-..------ Ba Salle-se222 =e 41 20} 88 47 SAMO | RR are
NOC SS Ol: . Pekin -..2.2c-cee Tazow ellisee AQ*S60|TaeOros||.—.-/--- iB: Doss
Rogers, O. P. and J. S....| Marengo....--..-. MeHoenty 29228 32 4214| 8&3 842 ) B. T. R..
Tolman, James W.....--. Winnebago De- | Winnebago .....| 4217] 89 12 900 | B. T. R-.
pot.
INDIANA,
Anderson, Henry H...... Rockville -.. .-.. Parke': soca <2 oon 36 00} 8700] 1,100; T.R...
Burroughs, Reuben.....-. South Bend - .... St. Joseph. -.-... 41 39 | 86 7] 600), P.BRe e8
* Above low-water mark at Quincy.
os

of months

received.

No.

rer A WOHPH MOO

He
DH ON Ww

b Hh

mo

_
2M WO WWVWMWH Wh

—, =
66

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §c.—Continued.

: oS
3 3
Name of observer. Station. County. 3 a
3 3
m o
° b
2 | =
INDIANA—Continued.
or Cray
Chappellsmith, John. .-..-. New Harmony..-| Posey ----------- 38 08 | &7 50
Crozier, Dr. ©. S...-.---- New Albany.-.---- Floyd ---.-.------ 38 02 | 8&5 29
ve Claas: Spesee.6. | Hemry ----.-.--- 39 55.| 85 20
Dawaon, William -- -- ) | Spiceland . ...... Henry -<ass+ 4-0. 39 48} 85 18
Dayton, James H ......-. South Bend...--- St. Joseph....-.. 41 39 | 86 07
Flaines, mohne ee ce 2252555 Richmond ..-.--- Wayne ...-..--- 39 52] 84 59
Helm, Thomas B ...-.---. Logansport - ....) CasS------ ------ 4045 | 86 13
Larrabee, William H..-.. Greencastle. ----- Putnam,....----.. 39 30 | &6 47
Mayhew, Royal ....------ Indianapolis ----- Marion'-- =e 39 55 | 86 00
Rambo, Edward B.....--. Richmond ....--- SW O reiterate 39 47 | &4 47
Redding, ‘Thomas B -.-.-.-.- Newcastle -.-5..| Henry .... .----. 39 55 | 8&5 27
Biices Wb so 6 soseke ene Muncie .--.-.- ".-2| Delaware. ..-..- 40 12) 88 20
IOWA.
ats: pldp Sece asocoseer Mount Pleasant..} Henry .--.-..---- 41 00] 91 38
Chamberlam, John ..--. q Ma
Dunwoody, Wm. P...-. Davenport -- ---- Seong Peete 41 30 | 90 40
Collin, Prof. Alonzo .-..-.. Mount Vernon...) Linn - -...-.-.--- 42 00 | 91 00
Doering, DASess.se---=-5 Independence. -...| Buchaven;---.---|.--.2---|2 502-2]. <2. - oe
(Doyle tet- t= ----=- == Waterloo - .-.--- Black Hawk...-- 42 30 | 92 31
Farnsworth, P. J., M. D..| Lyons ---. ------ Chintonisss.-: = -- 41 50 | 90 10
Hosters sueliass-6-- 25-6 Muscatine ..-.--- Muscatine ....... 41 26 | 92 00
Gidley, Isaac M ..-..------ BANCO nee Marshall....-... 42 00 | 93 00
Morr, cAsa, Ms Dye. -- 5 Dubuque - .----- Dubugue --- = 2-- 42 30 90 52
MeConnel, Townsend... --. Pleasant Plain-.-.|} Jefferson .....-.. 41 07 | 94 54
McCoy, Franklin, M. D. }
McCoy, Miss Elizabeth... ATP Ona ee ae is so 5| ARGRSUEDE ote eies = 43 O01 | 94 04
McCready, Daniel .--..--. MorteMadison. a.) uel en- sca ale 40 37 91 28
Marshall, Gregory ... ----. Vernon Springs..| Howard ....-.-... 43 20} 92 12
Millard, Andrew J.«..---- Sioux City..----. Woodbury .. ---. 42:33 | 96 27
Parvin, Prof. Theodore S-..| Iowa City --.---. ONTNONS eats =m raiaie AL SGulls eeease
Sheldon, Daniel ......-..- Forestville -. ---. Delaware . ...... 42 40 | 91 50
Townsend, Nathan .....-. Towa Falls... ..-. Hardin .t) 0468 42 32 | 93 20
Walton, Josiah P........- Muscatine -.-.-.-. Muscatine ..--.--- Al 25 '| 92 02
Wheaton, Alex, Camp....| Independence---.| Buchanan .....-.. 42 25 | 92 00
KANSAS,
Browne O. Ee a--- set Ridgeway ..-.---- OSEP Cr vec. aa 39 02} 95 11
Drew, Hee Wd, i Sena) WOU UREN Cyrene! arene cee ore eine 39 00 | 96 30
Fuller, Arthur N......... Lawrence -..-.--- Douglas -.-. --.. 38 58} 9513
Goodnow, Isaac T..-...- a cS
pate deep } Manhattan .. .-.. Riley tee cce dee 3913] 96 45
Soule; W. L. G. --..3---<5 Lawrence ..-.-...- Douglas .....-... 38 58 | 95 13
KENTUCKY.
Matthews, Jos. McD.,D. D.| Nicholasville -. -.| Jessamine -...... 37 58 | 8418
Woodruff, E. N..-..----- Louisville ....... Jefferson ........ 38 22 | 85 38
Young, Mrs. Lawrence --.| Louisville - .--..- Jefferson .....-... 38 O7 | 85 24
MAINE.
Brackett, Geo. Emerson. -..| Belfast ...--..-.. Wialdoi.c2-22 <a 44 23} 69 08
Dane Wyss. sec. 58 North Perry ..--. Washington ..-.. 45 00 | 67 06
Gardiner, Reqkt.-.sos5. 555 Gardiner .-.....-. Kennebec. ...... 44 41 | 69 46
epi Ge Wis oc - 55 Cornishville ----. WOT Fe oso cc otis 43 40 | 70 44
MOOG MARGE ceccic ae nce nid MisvOniceeer esas Androscoggin ...} 4400] 70 04
PAN KGD tal) stein b iaeicisiersrais Steuben .. ...-..| Washington ..... 44 44] 67 50
TG v
Pitman, Edwin... .. .. ; Nicene Re Piscataquis? <:- -.).) SSS eee See cece
Pitman) Mark. ©... 52.2.-.. Hoxcrofiia--. += =- Piscataquis ....-- 4512] 6913
Reynolds, Lauriston ...-.- East Wilson..... Franklin ..-...... 44 44] 7017
Van Blarcom, James ..... Vassalboro’ ..... Kennebec .......| 44 28 | 69 47
Wrest, Pilds)s. cto. SUS: ..-,2 Commish a5. 22... Yorke serkisce..:. 43 40 | 70 44
; a (i) Wexten= seen. Penobscot -...... 44 55 | 69 32
Wilbur, Benj. F .. .. .. 2), WeatiWaterville: |) Kennebec’. -.....|.....ces\asebeone|s-<vn—-
MARYLAND.
Baer, Miss Harriott M..--.. Sykesville ...... Carrols. 2832: 39:23 | 76 57
Dutton, Prof. J. Russel...| Chestertown ....| Kent ............ 39 12 | 75 59
Goodman, William R..... Annapolis ......-. Anne Arundel...!| 38 59! 76 29

z
“ a
oi 3
bo a
o 2
je>} a
Feet. °
Brat Wee ae
Baie aon 1
1,060 | T.R ..
A, Sosa Bo:
600 | T.R-.-
jase eee Bay =
600 | T.R..
800); Nijee ee
698 | TLR -.a.
800 | T. P. R-:
1,000) | Bass
2s eaiae ae BRB A
ae masons | TT Bisse
Tot WAS secon
ae ings =¥ Se
Wt Bases
nie raie Sate Ni =. 438
AQ PRR? a. a5
eae IN| tekiaese
pas |, SSR.
6S6a | PA eee
950 | T.R.
1500) eee:
Ae gtk TTR era
Cleon BE aoe
14258) Re) 22
Gol An cee
L eee er ee
Sie ae re
OO! | PAU is erniate
etal PRR oko
SSR #Nigss2- <=
1300) aR, ose
GOR AER ae clasts
ANOOON eke Ree
S77 ON pki eeee ee
940 || PAss ase:
creo are A thats
STOMA ooycece
sbaieiaasaente TP ae
100") PAs ee
90 | B. T.R..|
8000] Rese
130 | T.R....|
SOU -Ateeesk = ‘
re oe |
ae iar 1) Bun 2s
Se cidiate Sha Ninctieeeg
pine Bie ae
wea. ORe os ss
700) Eee 2
TT anaes
|
700) || Dae: Res
oe wera eee DB ce cme
QD) || A eiee sate

| No. of months
received.

,
WWRAAWwCeNwoens |

w

me
~—

I

BK ne
wo VW ACHKRUG JN

at ae
WKwWP WW AW

=

12
i0

12

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §c.—Continued.

5

S oO ™
; a): By) aa
: 3 = # a3
Name of observer. Station. County. = = 5 as
3 a ‘ é %
a S a 5 $3
5 2 2 % a"
’ A = ss a A
MARYLAND—Continued.
’ oy oo Feet.
Hanshew. Henry L..-..-.-. Frederick ...--.- Frederick . -...-- BO AS MlerO) | a = =e Aa jeee 1
Lowndés, Benjamin O....] Bladensburg.--.. Prince George’s..| 38 57 | 76 58 dd. | eet nhE
Stephenson, Rey. James-.-| St. Inigoes....... St. Mary’s-..-..-- 38 10} 76 41 49~|| Ba coors © 12
MASSACHUSETTS.
Astronomical Observatory.| Williamstown ...| Berkshire . ....-. 42 43 | 73 13 686 | B. T. R..- 7
Bacon, William =. ......-- Richmond...-.-.-- Berkshire .....-- 42 23.) 73 20 TWO OM Sas Rayer = 6
Barrows, N., M. D....--- Sandwich . ....-. Barnstable ...... A TASY | FORO | Ses aie ayes cient we 9
Caldyvell, John H......... Topaheld’: 22. -=-| UR8OX =o 25s Se so PEO K He So osc Tae 8
Davis, Rev. Emerson... .. Westfield. .....-.. Hampden .-.-.---.| 4206 | 72 48 USLON NESS WSS 12
Dewhurst, Rey. Eli -..--- Baldwinsville. ...| Worcester ....--. 42 37 | 72 05 847 | B. T.R 10
Palion, John ages: =. ---.- Lawrence ....-.. EISs@X) 2 :.enesrmcies 42 42) 7111 Tada Aseey =65- 3
fetcalf, John Geo., M.D-..}| Mendon ..-.-...... Worcester -..-..- 4206) | ile Saee. 2s ee Bod; He. 12
rentiss, Henry C., M. D-.| Worcester ......- Worcester =<.---- 42 16| 71 438 SRO eA. 2s es 7
Rodman, Samuel ..--..--.. New Bedford....| Bristol .....-.-.. 41 39 | 70 56 OO) | av cm roe 11
Spell) Prot by Sy. . 222. -- Amherst .... +... Hampshire --...- 42 22 | 72 34 BT a eA a ues Bes 12
MICHIGAN.
Blaker, Dr. G. H...---- :
Pern {| Marquette ......- Marquette ....... 4633 | 8733] 620| A...... 7
Kedzie, Prof. R. C.-.----.. ansinp)-2.)34-.2 Tn ham tetra ye AAD) | Banos | hm «oe Josd Ais 3.6824 5
Schetterly, Henry R.--.-. Northport -.----. Leelenaw - .-...- 49: 23:4) .80). 24) |... .--5. Dec erna 6
Bren ea. Ene ei cet. Holland <-):..5...) Ottawa .c.2--2 42 00 | 86 00 6800 a 12
Van Orden, Wm., jr------ Clifton). $25 2)4.<: Keweenaw ...... 47 0G | 88 00 800) ace aes Ls
Whelpley, Miss Florence E.| Monroe..--.-.... Monroe sees-- + 41 56 | 83 23 590 | T.R 12
Woodard) (CS. ac. -nioon Ypsilanti........ Washtenaw ..... 4215] 83 47 COL AS oe acces 10
MINNESOTA.
Grave, Mary A..-.-\.-.-.. Tamarack ....... FLORMG PIN bese ac collate cine |S oe cle TS ee 6
CO appli aan ian 2c) IN fo ee oes ae eee AMON) 5 faden es: 45 15 | 93 28 S061 | ler 3
Paterson, Rev. A. B.,D.D.| St. Paul -.......: Ramsey)---.:.=-. 44 57 | 93 05 S000) aR. =. 12
mimith, Henry I.....-...- Forest City-...--. Meeker, = si-- cs: AD AS) || (OS 28) ais. ser Tits 11
PAGING Cette aia t ooinin nal Beaver Bay -..... akew == )- me 47 17) 91 18 | 657 | B.T . 12
MISSOURL
Christian, John........... Harrisonville >. ..5|) Casseo-2b5 oas-it|o<= sasedueneees|s 206. oo viene 12
Engelmann, George, M.D-.| St. Louis..-..... St. Louis....-.-. 38.37 | 90 15 481 |) A step ates if
Fendler, Augustus. .....-. Sty Mouisten se. - 3 Sti Donises-ccc.: 32 37 | 90 16 470 |) Bo Donk e 6
Sa is a Laborville ...... Stlonisssacsa5 Se oon eQOhMss |... . 2. <2 {Rea 1
ONE DEAE clocie wans =~ Kirksville ....... A dairmeeaysaeen\ 40 38 | 9250] 1,000 | N....-..- 2
ney, George P.-.....---. Canton --5 4h! We wis seses,t-% BOT ARO dnd Bl = = 6/0 = cra ieee 12
Tidsweil, Miss Mary Alice-| Warrenton ..-.-.. Warren ......-.| 3837 | 9116 820) | iveeeeeea 7
NEBRASKA.
Bowen, Miss Anna M. J...| Elkhorn City ....) Douglas -......-. A 235) 967125) 1,000) | Mie cece 12
HAR, GON ....£-- 2-2 -. Fontenelle ...... Washington ..... 41 31 96 45 MS OOOs Wee ktanere 5
Hamilton, Rev. Wm....-- Bellevue seee- 2 Sarpy: sete serene AL TOBN pe Qo eon |ereretaieral ste ISVS taj ll
NEW HAMPSHIRE,
Brown, Branch .-.. --.-... Stratford ........ C008) 225 - =< <-sa08 BOOB Fails ote eel OUD! einen Rare lara 12
SeUHAG, TIMMS >. <2 .. = Claremont ...... Sullivan ........ 43 22 | 72 21 539 | B. T. R 12
French, Isaac §., M. D..-.| Loudon Ridge ...| Merrimack .. .-.-. 43 20 | 71 25 4734) TE Bsa 2
Nason, Rey. Elias .-....-.. FXeLer 55 sae oe Rockingham... .. 42 58 | 70 55 125) 0B. hie 9
Odell, Fletcher .... ...... Shelburne -....-- Coon = 2; o=sh. 3-5 44 23 71 06 1005). 2 12
Pitman, Charles H.-...... North Barnstead.| Belknap.....---. ASvOSul sede | 2 inie<.< 5 eee ees 10
eetith, Hennes ots North Littleton ..| Grafton... ...... BAO RW ELON S22... oe Bo 3
Whiting, Robert C........ Littleton -...-.... Grafton’ <-.:/-.5 44 20 Wee 2n00!|,....5.-. FDR, Gas 10:
NEW JERSEY.
Beans, Thomas J......... Pragress: -=\.<a-¢ MEST LON) 124216 = 12] \=,<00.-/-0 so |etar sari 30) |) buee 12
MEPOOKA? WIEN) see ots. - Bassaic Vialloyi-in i ashel Oya em nrts blocs 1c) aaicetse 2 |e -~\osicta lowe TR. 2
Cooke, Robert L ......... Bloomfield ...... BISSOX! Srnrarn thes st 40 49 | 74 08 120) || AS sa ycee il
meacon, John CO... ... 5.0. Burlington .....- BUI seb ate ols araslnsel Seis | =, 2.0 0,210.55 estate 1
Rhees, Morgan J., M. D...| Mount Holly..--. Burling Sto vih Seok fee hole oil aye seals 30) | gael ee 12
Stokes, Howard A........ Long Branch ....| Monmouth .. .... 40 20 | 74 06 LO) hip rey etree 1
Thompson, George W ..--| New Brunswick..| Middlesex ....... 40 30} 75 31 90) [DE cra aiern' ata 12
Whitehead, W.A........ Newark ....-... MOBSOX fete class acisiote 40 45 | 74 10 35 | B. T. R.. 12

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

List of meteorological stations and observers, §c.—Continued.

Name of observer.

NEW YORK.

Arden, Thos. B
Barrows, Storrs
Bartlett, Erastus B.....--
Beauchamp, Wm. M..-.--..-
Bowman, John
Cowing, Philo
Dill, John B
Denning, William H......
Dewey, Prof. Chester... 2
Kreyer, Carl T......... 5
Gregory, 8. O---<--.-.---
Guest, W. E
Heimstreet, John W..----
Holmes, Dr. E. S.- ine
House, John C
Howell, Robert.....-.-.--.
Ingalsbe, Greenville M. --.
Mack, Rev. Eli T.----.---.
MeMore, P. A..----.-----
Malcom, Wm. Schuyler. -.
Mathews, M. M., M. D.--.
Morris, Prof. Oran W...-.--
BARING wets, Me Dena c nc
Pratt. SANICM ccies == mea =e
Roe, Rev. San. W., M. D-
Russell, Cyrus H
Spooner, Dr. Stillman ..-.
Swiit, Lewis
Wakeley, Chas. C., Ruth-
erford’s Observatory.
Warren, James H
White, Aaron
Willis, Oliver R

OHIO.

{NON Fe Vee eecaocona.
AGAMA: Pe - me jscemae
Atkins, Rev. L. S
Benner, Josiah F...-.....
Clark Wim Po--- = ==
Colbrunn, Edward...-----
Cotton, D. B., M. D
Crane, George W..--..----
Dille, Israel
VOLE ede el oer i
Griffing, C.S. S......--

Engelbrecht, Lud
Fraser, James
Hammitt, John W.-..-----
Harper, George W.-.-----

Haywood, Prof. John -- ;

Hill, F. G
Huntington, George C....
Hyde, Gustavus A
Hyde, Mrs
Ingram, John, M. D
Jerome, A. E
King, Mrs. Ardelia C.-.---
Larsh, Thomas J
McClung, Charles L
MeMillan, Smith B
Mathews, Joseph MeD....
Newton, Rey. Alfred
Peck, Wm. R., M. D...-.-.-
Peirce, Warren
Phillips, R. C. and J. H.--
Samms, Dr. C. C
Schauber, Hubert A.-.---.
Smith, CH, MD: 2... .
Thompson, Rev. David. --

2!

. oa | 2
oO
3 = a ay
: = = ae |e 3
Station. County. 3 =i 5 be
S g z Eh 6UlSe
: Bt 2 on |) Se hee
A Se x oan A
Ci Ww Ciak Feet. ¥
Garrison’s -.--- - - Putnam >. .2--- 41 22| 74 02 180 8
South Trenton. -.-.} Oneida --.-..----- 43 DOM OVA Dane: <5 eee 2
Vermillion. .-..--- Oswego -..------- 43 26 | 77 26 Sele Dee Ee 12
Skaneateles - ---- Onondaga ......- 43 00 | 76 30 932 | B. T 11
Baldwinsville. ...| Onondaga -.----. 431045) WGA. esse TEES.see 12
Seneca Falls----- Senecaeo.----—- 42 54] 76 51 463 | B.T 4
AnD ooo se = Cayuga -..-.....- 4255 | 74 28)}........ eee iz
Fishkill Landing.) Dutchess..-...-. 41 34} 7418 42|)B.T.R 12
Rochester - ------ Monroe ... .....- 43 08 | 77.51 516 | Be TR 11
Theresa ....--- ..| Jefferson ....--.- 4412] 75 48 365: (DR .oe2| We
Ogdensburg --.-.-. St. Lawrence....| 44 43 | 75 37 279) Neeeeces
trove ceatesestate Rensselaer -- .--. 42 44] 73 37 58. | AMR ....
Walson- pase == Niagaras--o---< 43 20 | 78 56 250)|) Tee seas
Waterford .. ..-.. Saratoga .......- 42 47) 73 39 10) |e ene
Nichols...-.---.- ADO P Bee ates AZTOO MM ONS ee sincnie mele eee 12
South Hartford ..| Washington -.-... AS VS Fave 400: | TIR 2: 5
Flatbush .......- Kan piles eer se 40 37 | 74 02 54 | B.T.R.- 8
Fort Ann...--.-- Washington ...-. 42 3 7344 | 1,430) TR... 2
Oswego... .-...- Oswego .-.------ 43 28 | 76 30 250 | B. T.R. 12
Rochester . -.-.-- Monroeeeee eee 43 08 | 77 51 D2) || PAs ae ee 12
New York......- New York..-..-.-.. 40 43 | 74 05 25) Adee 12
Clinton 222 =2se-5 Q@neidat2ees- 3 - 43 03 | 75 15 600, |) ee Re 12
Fredonia ....---- Chautauqua ..... AQ 260M FONB4 ie woe sae Ba, es: 1
Jamestown --.-.- Chautauqua ..... 42.06 | 7919) 1,454) TR... 1
Gouverneur -.-.. St. Lawrence....) 4419} 75 29 |.....--.. BTR 12
Wampsville -.--. Madison ....-...- 43 04 | 75 50 500 | T.R--- 12
Marathon . ..---.- Cortland’S. =. -...- 42 24 \MeTGKOD) | 55. x0==' TS Ries 5
New York .:...- New York...-... 40 44} 73 59 41 | (As eaeacee 1
NUerniee = eee Rockland - .--.--- AD 30s) WES cepa ye i
Cazenovia .. .... Madison ....-..-. £2.55'| 75 46) 1,260) A 2. 2222 6
White Plains -...| Westchester ..... A105) |. TBRAON E.-cecs Doe Sees 12
Welshfield ...-.-. Geauga 225-565 41 23 | (81 12))" 1) 2050/- ik << 12
Marietta. --=~' Washington ...-.. 39 25 | 81 31 630 |e 1
Saybrook - ...-.-. Ashtabula -..-.-- 41 52} 81 OL G50 Nien e ca 2
New Lisbon ...-.. Columbiana -...-. 40 45 | 80 45 961 | B. T. R-- 12
Medina, ==... --.=. Medina) 25% <>. == 41 O7 BL 47) Teh eAvSs ac 2
Cleveland ....... Cuyahoga .-....-- 41 30} 81 40 Gbps | MEroeaeen 12
Portsmouth... --- Scioto 22k... 38 45 | 82 50 eau Poa tleee 1
Betheliz sc 2 22 =~ Clermont - ...:.- 39 00 | 84 00 Boule teers 12
Newark ......--. ickmps seer). 40 07 | 82 21 B25) ple eee 8
Austinburg -.. -. Ashtabula .....- 41 54} 80 52 BL6) |) Bo Re 12
Portsmouth....-- SLIGO =e eae al 38 42] 82 36 Dot |\eopaeke at 9
Little Hocking -.| ‘Washington -.... 39 25) USMOON eer nae. Nee ee 2
College Hill -.-.. Hamilton. ..-....| 3919 | 84 26 800" MR Sse a2)
Cincinnati ..-.--- Hamilton > ----.* 39 06} 84 27 M5008] ave seats 12
Westerville. ---.-.-. Mranklin:. 25s. - AD 04: ||) "83V000)| 6... 225 Avie taiata ital 8
Kingstones-----= FRUOSS ieee ieee = 39 29 | 83 00 (OSP) | WANES Saee 3
Dallasburg -....- Warren .. ...---| 39 30] 84 31 SOOM Ntseeeeee a
Kelley's Island...| Erie...........-- 41 36 | 82 42 OST i) asso hear 12
| Cleveland .. .. ..] Cuyahoga ....... 41 30} 81 40 643) | Bo. wae 12
Savannah -.....- Aphlandj- ==. 4WISh| MB2I3I")" 1, 098i) AS yseerl 7
New Westfield.-..} Hood...-...-.--- 4113] 88 49 692)| INR 2
Madison .. ...-.- WGK) ceemac se - 41 50 | 81 00 6205). DoR eee 2
Waton secre ea Preblavwess.. 2. =< 40 GO} -74200)) 1,400.) Lis. 22222 | 1
EN OV eterna Miaminese ve... 40 03 | 84 06 DP LOSs We lephee 5
Yast Fairfield. ...| Columbiana - .... AD ATs WOOra4s yd, 152") AC Sai sce 12
Bullsborouph +. - =| (huebland:- <2 c- < 5) <<. c eeemel eteerettall eiarelae = 2) Bie 6
Norwalk 222-25: is ith [eee AUIS tee aOee se =e pier Re 12
Bowling Green...| Wood .......---- 41 15°} 83 40 | 700 | B. T.R-- 12
Garrettsville..... Portage =¢ -=..2.|- 41 050 sh 10 900) | 0 sae 3
Cincinnati ----.-- Klamilton 2.5... 2 39 06 | 84 27 540 | B.T.R. 12
Hillsborough ....| Highland - :. ....).....<- HaGretese ck 1.2205) eas 2
Cardington ...-.- LODO eet ane © 40 30 | 83 00 |j.+...-.. Neeser | 1
Kenton... s2c.0. Hardinijeoe-c- = AL BON GARA Ew 2A B.S) 1
Milnersville . ....] Guernsey . ....-. 40M OM MEURD)|. none] aes | eee

* Above low-water in the Ohio river at Cincinnati.

ra)
Or Ie

Sa

\

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVERS.

. . ? .
List of meteorological stations and observers, §c¢c—Coutinued.

Name WPobserver:

oH10—Continued.

Thompson, Rey. Elias. --.
Thompson, Prof. H. A...
Trémbley, J. B., M. D.--.
Ward, Rev. Ll. F..---.....
RV HUGGE ALAS! Jooosseass
Williams, Prof. M. G
Nyason werot. J. H..--..--
Young, Prof. Chas. A--.. ;
PGhG. 0. (Ole a eciacasis

OREGON.

a
Tronside, R. B.. BE eosa ss
Willis, PoWassts22-cse-=-

PENNSYLVANIA.

Atwater, H. H

Bentley, E. T
Overs), Wi kee=----" =--=-
PICK ATEN. Go... sa.. <<
Brugger, Samuel.........
Darlington, Fenelon
Eggert, John

Friel, P

Hance, Ebenezer
Heisiey, Dr. John
HHCKOR Nine =5<= 22% «ote
Hoffer, Dr. Jacob R.-.--.--
Jacobs, Rev. Mo... -2-.:

SIBCONS EES Bio 5/6 55

Kirkpatrick, Prof. Jas. A
Kohler, Edward
Lyceum, Jefferson College
Martindale, Isaac C....---
Meehan, Thomas...-.--

Meehan, J
Muller, Prof. Rudolph- --.
Ralston, Rev. J. Grier. .-.
Ricksecker, Lucius E...-.
Savery, Thos. H
Smith, Wm., D. D.-..-----
Swift, Dr. Paul
Taylor, John
Walker, Robert L
Weeks, James A ..-..-..--.- |

RHODE ISLAND.

Caswell, Prof. Alexis..--.
Sheldon, H. C

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Marsh, M. M., M. D.... ;
BMA A MRE a 5. -

TENNESSEE.
Stewart, Prof. Wm. M....
UTAH.

Pearce, Harrison
Phelps, W. W

VERMONT.

Buckland, David
Chickering, Rev. J. W ---
Cutting, Hiram A
Marsh, M. M., M. D......

Station.

Croton
Westerville... -.-
Toledo
Weliington -.---.
Cincinnati -4.-<.-
Urbana
College Hill

Hudson

AMDUINN 22 s2. csc
Salem

Susquehanna De-

pot.
Tioga
Blairsville
Silver Spring. --.
Fleming
Parkersville
Berwick
Shamokin
Philadelphia .-. -.
Morrisville
Harrisburg
Harrisburg
Mount Joy

Gettysburg .@. ..

Philadelphia -. -.
North Whitehall.
Cannonsburg....
Byberry

Germantown ....

itis DET ee a
Norristown......
Nazareth
Altoona
Cannonsburg ---.
West Haverford. .
Conneilsville -. - .
Moorhead
Oil City

Providence
Providence

Beaufort

Clarksville

St. George..---..
Salt Lake City ..

Brandon
Springfield
Lunenburg
Montpelier

seeeee

County.

Licking
Franklin
Lucas: -6s-22eee
Loraine
Hamilton -
Champaign .-..--
Hamilton - ...-..-

Summit. 225...

Baker
Marion

Susquehanna...

Tioga
Indiana
Lancaster
Centresssccctsc es
Chester
Columbiathes----
Northumberland -
Philadelphia -. --
Bucks
Dauphin
Dauphin
Lancaster

Philadelphia -- --
Lehigh
Washington
Philadelphia .. -.

Philadelphia

Alleghany
Montgomery .. -.
Northampton ..-.
Blair
Washington
Delaware. -....-
PY LG) 2a aleinaicie
Alleghany

Providence
Providence

Washington
Salt Lake

Rutland

Essex

a
North latitude.

40 13
40 04
41 39
41 08
39 08
40 06
39 19

41 15

44 37
44 56

40 31
40 05
40 55
39 54
41 05
40 45
39 57
40 12
40 16
40 20
40 08

39 49

39 57
40 40
40 17
40 05

40 30
40 08
40 43
40 35
40 16
40 00
40 00

41 49
41 50

36 28

37 00
40 45

43 45
43 18
44 28
44 17

West longitude.

80 46

87 13

114 00
111 26

73 00 |

72 33
71 41
72 36

481

Instruments.

69

No. of months
received.

Be

ee
RPRONRMOOCW WwW

wow

me

_
Clio m to

* e ‘
70 APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

List of meteorological stations ae observers, &c.—Continued.
. oO m
7 = 3 a
@ is a jes
Name of observer. Station. County. = a 8 BE
= o Pe)
a e a 5 Ss 3
. o 5 3 2 $ ie
: A = 5 4 A
VERMONT—Continued.
o 4 SLs Feet.
Mead, Stephen O--...---- Rutland -........ Rutland (ayers seedee eee | eee ee eee Ni eet tics 5
Paddock, James A Craftsbury ----- Orleans --.- -.-.-. 44.40))) 72:29 | 1,100) BR -.-- 12
Parker, Joseph.....-.-.--. West Rupert ....| Bennington. .--.| 43 15] 73 11 C2700 CPaoe ee 3
Petty, McK ----.......... Burlington ....-.. Chittenden ...--- 44 27 | 7310 BOX Wane nese 12
Pollard, © 5. sos... Brookfield .. .--- Orange = -- ------ 44:02 )) T2i36)|-.--- 4. DRY, Seats 5
Tobey, James K ......... Calais -... -...-- Washington ..--. Aa 22 NV NFeO9 ace De Bie wets 1
WASHINGTON,
Swan, JamesG.......-..-. Neeah Bay ...---|--.0+e+--0-------- 28 41 | 124 37 400 ee eatces 12
WISCONSIN,
Armstrong, § ...-..------ Waterford ...-.. Racine - ..-..---- 42 48 | 88 13 |....---- eee 5
STS VeaN ae ene =e Rocky Run..---. Columbia. -.----- ASe26n| |) TOO PCO |= =n oe TUR sess 8
Ellis, Edwin, M. D...-.--- Odanah........- Ashland .. .----- 46 33 | 91 00 610); BARrosee 9
Gridley, Rey. John.....-.- Kenosha .. .----- Kenosha -. ------ 42 35 | 87 50 600 | B.T. R-- 1
Kelley, Charles W--.----- Delafield’ --—- 2. Waukesha .. ----. 43 06 | 88 36 900)) BAe 6
Lapham, Iner’se A., LL.D-| Milwaukee--.---- Miwaukee-..---- 43 03 | 87 59 POS N e Ate esters Uy
TUDE, SACOD = --- = -2a-=- Manitowoc ..---. Manitowoc - -...| 44 07 | 87 45 6587 | Bios 12
Mann, William ..-.- -.---- Superior .- -..--. Douglas .-.. --.. 46 46 | 92 03 680) Wi Sen 6
Mathews, George..--.---- Brighton 2s... - Kenosha .. ...--- 42 36 | 88 03 700.) Nb 2a. ee 6
LUGE TR ONC ROSE rn aopeseoe— Waupaca. ...--- Waupata - --..-- ASOD BOM | arc cre een 1
Porter, Henry D ......... Beloit. Jefe 22 Rock, est eessne 42 30 | 89 04 750, | Bar wR 12
Sterling, Prof. John W.--.-| Madison .. .....- Dane oe sete === 43.05 | 189925 | 1,068} A -- -—. 10
Whiting, Wm. H..-.--.--. Geneva ........- Walworth .. .... 42 205 |7a8OVal joo. oa Pe cnscs 8
Winkler, Carl, M. D..-.-.- Milwaukee-...... Milwaukee- 43 03 | 87 57 600 | B. T. R-- 2
Woods, William ......-... Weyauwega..... Waupaca.......- 4415} 88 50 BO) eae 12

DEATHS OF OBSERVERS.

Dr. 8. P. Hildreth, Marietta, Ohio, July 24, 1863.

’ 'T. F. Pollard, Brookfield, New Hampshire, August 19, 1863.
Hon. Robert Hallowell Gardiner, Gardiner, Maine, March 22, 1864.
David Buckland, Brandon, Vermont, July 19, 1864.

Colleges and other institutions from which meteorological registers were recerved

during the year 1863, included in the preceding list. :
INO) SOORES soopecmoseosse Acadia College ....-.- © Soa. 5G coeeee eer Wolfville.
King’s; College sse2 <._.- an See eee 2s Windsor.
(Canada cess aaae = soe eet Grammar Schooltes2-2 --=- 2s eee eee Niagara.
Maonetic Observatery.-....-.-.. ----...- Toronto.
Wonnechicuteees=r esses see Wesleyan University 5. =~... -sseeeesseee-— Middletown.
INOS eae lo eee ILombard) Wniwersitiy ---<- 5 qe ee ee a Galesburg.
University of Chicaco..2.- -s-sen eee Chicago.
Oye eee ape ee ae ae Comell (Collere.. 3-22. te peeeeeee cone Mount Vernon.
Griswold College): —-- .. <j-seeseeeeee =e Davenport.
Towa. State) University... eseee5. -.- 4 Iowa City.
MBING Sescee oot as cee Oak’ Grove (Seminary:. .|..2-seee esses === - Vassalboro’.
Mamyland seen <\oniciteocieens Washington Collere...—- seems see = = Chestertown.
Massachusetts ....... 52252. ‘Amherst Colleges. =. ..2caameeee-= => == Amherst.
State Lunatic Hospital.......2-2..------- Worcester.
Walliams; Collero ~.- =. 2 98e- eeesee sone Williamstown-
Michigan, sei se eee State Agricultural College..........------ Lansing.
New Jersey... oss'Coee bens Fréechold Instiiateso. .... ~<a = = =: Freehold.
New, York... 2anu> snes Institution for Deaf and Dumb. -..-.------- New York.
Erasmus Hall Academy..-.....5--..----- Flatbush.

University of Rochester -........-..----- Rochester.

METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS. 71

‘. :
Colleges, §c., from which meteorological registers were received, §c.—Continued.

eet es. eee eee | Farmers’ College eM a cota) aU bin aid ete College Hill.

| Halcyon Academy.-..-.........---.---- Croton,
| | Otterbein Universities 2.22220. Sos 2 2 Westerville.
| Wrbanat Universitgee = -52.-- 23522. S22 2 Urbana,
| Western Reserve Kclegs Be hoe | Hudson.
| Woodward EhohiSchoole- 22.2... 2. Cincinnati.
SOPOT estate ital elem iel= = Willamette University-------..-----. 2. Salem.
jeenhsylvania -.----- ----=: Central High School. -2.-2-2-2- --2..----: Philadelphia. |
iHlavertord @ollese=* pa emere === ==] West Haverford.
Jefferson College -....---. -------------- | Cannonsburg.
Biiode island... 252.2022. io eeyl VR hh Heo oS Ibe see eS seesoe Providence.
PlenuMenseos- 2. ss.-2. Luss | Stewart College. .--.--..-------.--..---- Clarksville.
iMermonti= 2 cjacnsda suis 2 ' University of Vermont ..--.-.--..-----.- Burlington.
WISCONSIN: 2.22\222p$4be=28 Beloit) College -jassae a Seto s dalle orate Beloit.
| Wisconsin University -.----.------------ Madison.

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL CONTRIBUTED IN ADDITION TO THE REGULAR
OBSERVATIONS.

Abbott, Francis —Abstract of observations made at eight stations in T'as-
mania, or Van Dieman’s Land, during the six months ending June, 1862, for
the papers and proceedings of the Royal Society.

Caswell, Prof: A., D. D—Summary for the year 1863, and comparison with
the previous thirty-two years, at Providence, Rhode Island. Printed in the
Providence Daily Journal.

Dabney, William H—Temperature of the valley of Orotava, Island of Tene-
riffe, compared with that of London, Paris, Pan, Nice, Rome, and Madeira.
Extracted from the pamphlet of the Baron of Belcastel.

Dreutzer, O. E., (consul, Bergen, Norway.)—Summary of meteorological
observations for each month in the year 1863, kept at the hospital in Bergen.
The readings of the barometer reduced to inches, and the thermometer to Fah-
renheit scale, by Mr. Dreutzer.

Gardiner, R. H—Printed summary of observations during the year 1863,
at Gardiner,. Maine, and monthly mean temperature and amount of rain for a
period of tw enty-seven years, from 1837 to 1863, inclusive.

Goddard, C. W.—Daily observations at Constantinople, from October, 1862,
to September, 1863, inclusive. Also a summary for the year 1862.

Gregory, S. O—Diagram showing the changes of the wind every day in the
year 1863, at Theresa, New York.

Graham, Colonel James D.—Register of water-level and meteorological ob-
servations, made at the following places, under the direction of Captain George G.
Meade, topographical engineers, until August, 1863, and subsequently under the
direction of Colonel James D. Graham, corps of engineers, superintendent of
the survey :

Sackett’s Harbor, New York.—July, 1861. to December, 1863.

Charlotte, New York.—July, 1861, to December, 1863.

Fort Niagara, New York.—July, 1861, to December, 1863.

Buffalo, New York.—June, 1860, to December, 1863.

Cleveland, Ohio—June, 1860, to December, 1863.

Monroe, Michigan.—July, 1861, to December, 1863.

Detroit, Michigan.—January, 1860, to December, 1863.

Tawas City, Michigan.—July, 1861, to December, 1863.

Thunder Bay Island, Michigan.—July, 1861, to November, 1863.

Sugar Island, Michigan.—November, 1863, to December, 1863.

Grand Haven, Michigan.—July, 1861, to July, 1863.

Ontonagon, Michigan.—July, 1861, to December, 1863.

‘ Superior, Wisconsin.—June, 1861, to December, 1863.

TZ APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
> 9

- .

Ives, William—Summary of observations at Buffalo, New York, during the
year 1863, newspaper slip.

Kirkpatrick, Professor James AA general abstract of the meteorological ob-
servations made at Philadelphia during the year 1863, and a comparison with
those of the last twelve years. Printed sheets from the Journal of the Franklin
Institute. ‘

Lake Winnipisseogee Cotton and Woollen Manufacturing Company, New
Hampshire-—Amount of rain for each month in 1863, at the outlet of Lake
Winnipisseogee, in the town of Laconia, New Hampshire, and also at Lake
Village, about four miles south on the same stream of water.

Lapham, I. A., LL.D—Table showing the direction and force of the wind for
each hour during the month of September, 1863, at Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
taken from the autographic record made by Burnell’s anemograph. Prepared
for the Commissioner of Agriculture by I. A. Lapham, LL.D.

Summary of observations at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, with a full set of instru-
ments, during the year 1863. (Printed slip from the Milwaukee Sentinel.)

Lewis, James, M. D—Hourly record of the temperature at Mohawk, New
York, during the year 1863, from the register made by his metallic self-recording
thermometer; also, monthly and half-monthly means, and hourly mean for the
whole year 1863.

Lippincott, James S—Meteorological observations made by Benjamin Shep-
herd near Greenwich, Cumberland, New Jersey, from March, 1856, to June,
1861. Tabulated and reduced by James 8. Lippincott, Haddonfield, Camden
county, New Jersey, for the Smithsonian Institution.

Logan, Thomas M., M. D—Monthly summaries of the meteorology and
necrology of Sacramento, California, reported for the Sacramento Daily Union
by Thomas M. Logan, M. D., secretary of the Board of Health.

Contribution to the Physics, Hygiene, and Thermology of the Sacramento
River, by Thomas M. Logan, M.D: From the Pacific Medical and Surgical
Journal. 8 pp. 8vo.

Magnetical Observatory, Toronto, Canada West, (Professor G. T. Kingston,
M. A., director.)—Mean meteorological results for the year 1862; also, a com-
parison of the same with a series of preceding years.

Mayhew, Royal—Mean temperature at Indianapolis, Indiana, for the hours
of sunrise, 7 a. m., 12 m., and 2,6, and 9 p. m., during each month in the years
1861, 1862, and 1863; also, the amount of rain in each month during the same
period.

Morris, Prof. Oran W.—Summary of observations for 1863, giving maxi-
mum, minimum, mean, and range of all the instruments for each month, as kept
at the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, New York.

Murdock, G—Appendix to Agricultural Report, being hints on meteorology,
with summaries of observations made at Saint John, New Brunswick, in the
years 1851 to 1862, inclusive, by G. Murdock, superintendent of water-works
at St. John. 8vo. 34 pages.

Nason, Rev. Elias.—Record of events in Exeter, New Hampshire, during
the year 18638, containing notices of the weather. No. 3, by the Rey. Elias
Nason. 12mo. 24 pages.

Ohio State Board of Agriculture —Fifteenth Annual Report of the board
to the general assembly of Ohio for the year 1860. Contains articles on the
influence of forests upon soil, climate, rain, and winds. P. 255 to 274.

Report for 1861. ‘'The atmospheric conditions, showing the value of ba-
rometers for agricultural purposes,”’ by C. A. Richard, of Columbus, Ohio. P. .
234 to 275.

Osservatorio del Collegio Romano.—Bulletino Meteorologico del’ Osservatorio
del Collegio Romano con corrispondenza e bibliografia per ’ avanzamento della
fisica terrestre. Published at Rome twice a month, beginning March, 1862.

METEOROLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS. ta

al o

Paine, H. M., M. D—Summary of observations at Clinton, New York, for
1862 and 1863, with a full set of instruments, giving the monthly and annual
means, maxima, and minina.

Paterson, Rev. A. B—Meteorological notes for December, 1863, at St.
Paul, Minnesota, with a comparison with the previous four years. (Newspaper.)

Rrotte, C. N.—Printed summary of observations made at seven stations in
Costa Rica in the year 1863.

Sartorius, Charles—Summary for the year 1863, with full set of instru-
ments, at Mirador, Mexico.

Secchi, P. Angelo—Alcune richerche meteorogiche sulle tempeste oecorse nel
1859-’60 memoria del P. Angelo Secchi. Estratta dagli Atti della accademi
de’ Nuovi Lincei Sessione III, dell’ Anno XIII, del 5 febbraro 1860. Rome.
1860. 28 pp. quarto.

State Department.—Statistical report on the weather and health of Frankfort-
on-the-Main during the year 1863, by William W. Murphy, consul.

Vaughan, Captain D.—Meteorological Journal and Report relative to the cur-
rents, climate, and navigation of that. portion of the lower St. Lawrence forming
the Strait of Belle-Isle. Second edition. Compiled by Captain D. Vaughan,
Quebec. Svo. 62 pp.

Whitehead, W. A—Summary of observations during the year 1863 at
Newark, New Jersey. Printed slip from Newark Daily Advertiser. Also, an
article on the “ Climate of Newark,” being an examination and comparison of
the observations made there during the last twenty years.

Wislizenus, A., M. D—Monthly and yearly mean of positive atmospheric
’ electricity, of temperature, and of relative humidity, in 1861, 1862, and 1863,
at St. Louis, Missouri, based upon daily observations at 6, 9, 12, 3, 6, and
9 o’clock. Published in the St. Louis Medical and ere Journal. Vol. I,
No.4. -

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Executive Committee respectfully submit to the Board of Regents the
following report of the receipts and expenditures of the Smithsonian Institution
during the year 1863, with estimates for the year 1864:

General Statement.

RECEIPTS.

The whole amount of the Smithson bequest deposited in the

treasury of the United States is $515,169, from which an

annual income at 6 per cent. is derived of ..........-....-- $30,910 14
‘The extra fund of unexpended income is invested as follows, viz:
In $75,000 Indiana 5 per cent. bonds, yielding (less United States

GA) wre ermal oiats.= « isis SUAS Ie Loe ane LC eles cared als 3,749 50
In $53,500 Virginia 6 per cent. bonds.
In $12,000 Tennessee 6 per cent. bonds.
In $500 Georgia 6 per cent. bonds.

In $100 Washington city 6 per bonds, yielding............-.- 6 00
SE OTANI CONG :r's.0:215 = pepe Rae Laie Re ee ee 34,665 64
Balance in the hands of the treasurer, senuary, 1863.5. loses 29,509 61
otal receipts: s+. 2.1 3e ake SREP ote MA ASe ey sn ae 64,175 25
EXPENDITURES.
For building, furniture, and fixtures............. FO Ad a Wie
Hor Seneral expensesec ec x. Sad wectenessctas 11,688 69
For publications, researches, and lectures .....-.-. 10, 761 65
For library, museum, and @allery Ob Carts. 2 co. 192595238
SL Oooo
Balance in the hands of the treasurer, January, 1864...-. 32, 353 90

STATEMENT IN DETAIL OF THE EXPENDITURES OF 1863.

Buudine incidentals:: 22s... 662 2 hb oe $1, 598 '79
eramonpoere and LXTULES ee. ie .o, 2 35.6 elec cq! ho see ol2 99
—— $2,111 78
Meetings of the Board of Regents................ 104 50
SURI En eae te ecss als a Oe es » 343 71
ET CCti renee ns ik A cee ae ML 1,090 75
BOStAgb epee oe ak osha eke s ld eee 421 46
Pransportauign, weeneral ook als Saale, cass shee 374 05
BiCHAN OCS are ee ena ak Cee ee 1,357 76

PAMALLONCRY |... ae eerie eyecare etn ee 486 09

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 75

erercneral pringms.... 00022200 2 pares nee $3 50
RMR ar ats we 2 se West cte 531 98
ME sie a oa ee gs o's wad 129 59
Marre i PCO OTA neo ais = 5: a cee eas 3 584 65.
Meera Clefi hire: ©. c's... £2. ue eee ee 311 65
PRUMIPEPRCCICEATY «co sce eee eet 3,500 00
Salaries, chief clerk, bookkeeper, laborers, &c..- - - 2,389 00

$11, 688 69
Prnibnsonian. Contributions - .. << .-2<s-4-<ae6-- 25 2,545 48
Peteidtiah reports’. 32). L272 bse eal ie. 583 85
Smithsonian miscellaneous collections ..........-. 3,535 88
Smithsonian and other publications..........-.-- 441 15
MERON 5 a0) data Siaselm cide coals 545 2,410 97
Researches and investigations. ...........-.-.--. 150 00
ea TCH ee Shwe) ee en tore gs 4 ye A ME ed 1094) 32

——_——_ 10, 761 65
Wen of books and binding: )..0 5 21/).6225 0a. 28.8 1,844 65
Pay ce serinears mw library? 2s 2. 0 og eee 2. 1,100 00
@rmeperiidon tor library ...........-2 4.sWee ee 290 35
Puessemiais tor hbravy . 2 So2Ueos 2 ee ees 24 15
Museum, salary of assistant secretary .......----- 2,000 00
Transportation for “mused”. ii: 2: .shies Se ee 695 29
Peemioniais for MUSCUM /.\. ....%,- (2... -a-~ 2. Seeieh 395 40
emloraions tor museum’. .6..-......25-...-.-- 762 39
Bepriearty. 2 Ie Oe dk So eee eee 147 00

—_——-_ 7, 259 28

$31, 821 35

The whole income during the year 1863 was $34,665 64, corresponding with
the estimate in the report for 1862. The expenditures during the year 1863
were $31,821 31, leaving $2,844 33 to be added to the balance in the hands of
the treasurer at the beginning of the year.

The amount of bills outstanding will not exceed $2,000.

The foregoing statement is an actual exhibit of the Smithsonian funds irre-
spective of credits and payments made in behalf of other parties. 'The Institu-
tion has during the year paid several bills for work done and articles purchased
on account of the government, part of which has been refunded and credited to
the appropriation from which the expenditure was originally made. Those
which have been refunded are as follows: $476 87 from the Surgeon General’s
office for books purchased in Europe through the agency of the Institution ;
and $37 from the Naval Observatory for transportation. In addition to these,
several expenditures have been made on account of the Light-house Board for
photometrical apparatus, and experiments in the laboratory, which have not yet
been refunded.

Messrs. Rice & Kendall, of Boston, have also refunded $93 80 for paper pur-
chased of them remaining in their hands not used.

‘Vhe appropriations from Congress for the preservation of the collections and
the distribution of the duplicate specimens of the exploring and surveying
expeditions of the government have been expended, as heretofore, under the
direction of the Secretary of the Interior in assisting to pay the expenses of
assistants in the museum, and the cost of arranging, labelling, and preserving
ihe specimens. The sums thus received have been credited to the museum, and
have served to diminish the apparent amount of expenditures for that object.

' %
76

»
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

4" The estimated expenditures for 1863 were as follows: $
»For building, furniture, and fixtures Ce ees th eee PS ees ea ae $2, 000
Bor seneral-cxpenpes. <.e-< > - 0. > ms nt oe penne ea ene ae 10, 500
For publications, researches,-and lectures.........--...-.-+.---- 10, 500
For library, museum, aud wallery of ati. -22-2tsccee Ae ee eee eee ee 9, 000
Mota + 3. ee ee ee a ee Ce ee ee a eee $32, 000

The actual expenditure on the building is very nearly the same as the amount
appropriated.

For general expenses the amount is larger than the estimate, and this is due
to the increased cost of materials.

For publications, &c., the actual expenditure is nearly the same as the
estimate.

For library, museum, and gallery of art, the expenditure is nearly three
thousand dollars less than the estimate, but this is on account of the expend-
iture on the collections of the remainder of an appropriation from Congress for
the distribution of the specimens.

For the year 1864 the same estimates are recommended as those made for 1863.

The committee have examined the books and accounts of the Institution for
the past year, and find them to be correct.

Respectfully submitted.

A. D. BACHE,
RICHARD WALLACH,

Committee.

. \ 4 :
rR ° a
: - JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS
fo, BOARD OR REG Nees

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

WASHINGTON, January 20, 1864.

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution, fixing the time of the beginning of their annual session on the third
Wednesday of January of each year, the Board met this day in the Regents’
room, at 104 o’clock a. m. Present: Hon. 8. 8. Cox, Hon. J. W. Patterson
Hon. R. Wallach, General J. G. Totten, and Professor Henry, the Secretary.

A quorum not being present, the Board adjourned to meet on Monday, January
29, at 73 p- m.

Monpay, January 25, i864.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 74 o’clock p.m
Present: Hon. H. Hamlin, Vice-President of the United States, Hon. W. P.
Fessenden, Hon. L. Trumbull, Hon. J. W. Patterson, Hon. H. W. Davis, Hon.
Rt. Wallach, Mr. William B. Astor, General Joseph G. Totten, Professor A. D.
Bache, the treasurer Mr. Seaton, and Professor Henry, the Secretary.

In the absence of the chancellor, Mr. Hamlin was called to the chair.

The Secretary announced the election, by joint resolution of the Senate and
House of Representatives, of Professor Agassiz, of Massachusetts, as a Regent
in place of Mr. Badger, the reappointment by the Speaker of Hon. S. 8. Cox,
of Ohio, and the appointment of Hon. J. W. Patterson, of New Hampshire,
and Hon. Henry Winter Davis, of Maryland, as Regents from the House of
Representatives.

The general statement of the funds of the Institution and of the receipts and
expenditures during 1863 was presented by the treasurer.

The Secretary submitted the annual report of the operations of the Institu-
tion during the past year, which was read in part.

The Secretary made a statement as to the policy which had been adopted in
regard to bequests and donations having special conditions attached to them,

»

78 ' PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

and gave the reasons for declining to accept a herbarium which had recently
been bequeathed to the Institution.
~ On motion it was ;

Resolved, That the action of the Secretary in this case be approved.. ~

The Secretary called attention to the unexpected delays and embarrassments
which had oceurred in obtaining the remainder of the original bequest of
Smithson left in England as the principal of an annuity to the mother of the
nephew of Smithson, and read the correspondence on the subject with the
attorneys, and also a letter from Hon. C. F. Adams, the American minister to
England.

On motion it was

Resolved, That a committee be appointed, consisting of. the Secretary, Mr.
H. W. Davis, and Professor Bache, to confer with the Secretary of State and
the British minister relative to the action of the English authorities in regard
to the money due the Smithsonian Institution.

On motion, the Board adjourned to meet on Wednesday, January 27, at 74
o’clock p. m.

WEDNESDAY, January 27, 1864.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held at the Institution at 74 o’clock
p-m. Present: Hon. H. Hamlin, Vice-President of the United States, Hon.
G. Davis, Hon. R. Wallach, Mr. William B. Astor, Professor A. D. Bache, and
the Secretary.

Mr.’Hamlin was called to the chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Professor Bache presented the report of the executive committee, which was
read and approved.

The Secretary presented the remainder of his annual report, which was read
and adopted.

He also presented a series of letters illustrating the correspondence and
operations of the Institution.*

On motion, the Board adjourned to meet at the call of the Seeretary.

Turspay, March 15, 1864.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 104 o’clock a. m.
Present: Hon. H. Hamlin, Vice-President of the United States, Hon. S. S.
Cox, Hon. J. W. Patterson, Hon. R. Wallach, Professor L. Agassiz, Professor
A. B. Bache, and the Secretary.

Mr. Hamlin was called to the chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The Secretary presented a series of works on natural history, which had
been prepared and printed at the expense of the Institution, and also the

* See end of the Proceedings, page 80.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 79

manuscripts of several others which had been offered for publication. All of
these, he stated, had been referred for critical examination to Professor Agassiz,
who would favor the Board with some remarks in regard to them.

Professor Agassiz stated that, so far as he had had an opportunity of
examining the original papers, he considered them worthy of publication; that
he would give the whole series of works on natural history, which constitute
portions of what is called the Miscellaneous Collections, a critical examination,
and present a report upon them at a future time. At present he would beg
leave to make a few remarks on the importance of adopting measures for in-
creasing the efficiency of the active operations of the Institution by relieving
them of the expense of the support of the museum, library, and gallery of art.
Unless this could be done, many valuable contributions to science offered for
publication would have to be postponed or refused. He thought that the
resources of the Institution were inadequate to carry on at the same time its
active operations, and maintain a museum, a library, and a gallery of art upon
the only footing upon which they can truly be creditably supported. Without,
therefore, making a definite motion, he would submit for future consideration
the propriety of asking the government to take charge of the museum, the
library, and the building now occupied by the Institution, with a view of main-
taining them on a more extensive scale, and relieving the Smithsonian Institu-
tion of a large expenditure which, for the advancement and diffusion of science,
had better hereafter be devoted to the active operations of the Institution. He
hoped that if such a plan would be carried out, the resources reverting to the
Institution from the transfer of the museum and library to the government,
either to form an independent organization or to be carried on hereafter as
before by the Smithsonian Institution, the active operations of the latter would
be greatly extended.

The Secretary stated that the suggestions of Professor Agassiz were in
accordance with the views which had been entertained by the majority of the
Board of Regents from the first discussion of the organization of the Institu-
tion; that the present disposition of the funds was a necessity which was im-
posed upon the directors by the requirements of the law of Congress establish-
ing the Institution, and that he had always entertained the hope that the sup-
port of the building and collections would in due time be provided for by the
general government, and a national museum be founded which would be com-
mensurate with the intelligence, extent, and resources of the country.

Professor Bache fully concurred in these remarks, and moved the following
resolutions, which were adopted :

Resolved, 'That a committee be appointed to report to the Board of Regents
any suggestions for extending the active operations of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, and for the separate maintenance of the collections.

Resolved, That this committee consist of Professor Agassiz, the Secretary
of the Institution, Mr. Fessenden, Mr. Patterson, and Mr. Cox.

The Board then adjourned sine die.

‘ :
80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

LETTERS PRESENTED TO THE BOARD OF REGENTS TO ILLUSTRATE THE
CORRESPONDENCE AND OPERATIONS OF THE INSTITUTION.

Communication from Dr. B. A. Gould, on a new discussion and reduction of the
observations of Piazzi of Palermo.

CamsBripGe, May 16, 1863.

My Dear Sir: For many years I have been strongly convinced that an
extremely valuable contribution to astronomical science might be made by a
new discussion and reduction of the observations of Piazzi at Palermo.

This eminent astronomer, with his assistants, was engaged, during the twenty-
two years from 1792 to 1813, in observing the positions of the principal fixed
stars. He was provided with the best instruments which could be obtained at
that time, and his observations have been, and must continue to be, our prin-
cipal and most trustworthy source of information as to the places of between
seven and eight thousand fixed stars at the beginning of the present century.
As nearly as I can estimate without an actual count, he must have made about
ninety thousand determinations of right ascension, and from sixty to seventy
thousand of declination, the original records of which observations still exist.
From these he censtructed his two well-known catalogues—the first in 1803,
the second in 1814—containing the mean places for 1800.0 of 7,646 stars.

His methods of observation, while, of course, far inferior in many respects to
those of the present day, were the best in use at that period; and the care and
fidelity with which they were used seem to have been unsurpassed ; and, al-
though the reductions upon which the catalogue was based seem to have been
incommensurate in precision with the observations themselves, still this cata-
logue has, for the past fifty years, been a standard authority with astronomers,
and, fora great part.of that time, their chief dependence for both the right
ascensions and declinations of stars.

The original observations of Piazzi were sent by him for safe keeping to his
friend Oriani, in Milan, and have been carefully preserved at the Observatory
of the Brera in that city. In 1845, Professor Littrou, the director of the Impe-
rial Observatory of Vienna, incited specially, as he says, by Argelander, and
encouraged by Bessel, Gauss, Schumacher, Struve, &c., commenced the printing
of these original observations as part of the series of Annals of the Vienna
Observatory, and they have thus been for several years accessible to astronomers.

When organizing the Dudley Observatory in 1856-58, it formed an integral
part of my plan, not merely to institute new observations of the heavenly bodies,
but to carry on such computations, reductions, &c., as might render available
past observations of this and the last century, which would otherwise be either
useless or of inferior value to astronomy. Various undertakings of this kind
were planned, but the first of all to be begun was the re-reduction of the whole
series of Piazzi’s observations, using the best values of the constants of pre-
cession, ‘aberration, and mutation, and investigating all the instrumental errors
with care; and I made considerable progress in arranging the details of the
computation. After communication with Professor Littrou, and an extended
correspondence with Professor Argelander on the subject, in which this distin-
guished astronomer gave me many very useful suggestions, the whole plan was
completed, and, but for the misfortunes which interfered with the usefulness
of the Dudley Observatory before its activity had fairly begun, the new cata-
logue would doubtless now have been in the hands of astronomers.

My health and opportunities of labor being now greatly improved, I am
anxious to resume this work, and write to ask for your influence and aid, as far
as possible, in furtherance of the plan. Knowing, as you do, the nature of the

’
PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 81

%

work proposed, it is almost needless to dwell upon its value to science. The
one consideration, that Piazzi’s observations must, for long years to come, fur-
nish the only means of determining the proper motions of more than five
thousand stars, is of itself sufficient. For the other stars observed by him,
they constitute a most important element in the determination. The huge
number of stars, observed in zones by Lalande, at almost the same period—more
than fifty thousand—depend for their reduction and value almost solely upon
Piazzi’s results; and the formation of a new catalogue of the latter will give an
altogether new value to the results of Lalande. The great mass of independent
observations thus rendered more accurate can speak for themselves, and it is
manifest that their usefulness will be far greater than that of the same number
of new observations made now.

Unfortunately, Piazzi’s observations do not afford all the elements now
known to be needed for their reduction, and it will doubtless be necessary to
reduce them differentially, thus greatly increasing the labor. Not merely ques-
tions of azimuth, zenith point, and clock correction, but also questions of
graduation, of irregularity of pivots, and even of refraction, must be discussed,
thus rendering the undertaking one of no small magnitude ; still it would, I am
sure, be labor well bestowed, and, as Professor Argelander wrote me in 1857,
“it would be a grand thing, * * * * and one of the most important
things that could be done.”

The first process required is the reduction to the mean equinox of 1800.0 of
all the observations just as they were given by Piazzi. This is a work which
could be carried on by ordinary computers, and would in itself be of great service,
even were the discussions of the observations to be omitted. It would consti-
tute nearly two-thirds of all the labor, and possesses the great advantage that
whatever is done, be the amount large or small, is immediately available. The
best estimate that I am able to make gives about $5,000 as the probable cost
of this reduction, to which from one-quarter to one-third should be added for
the expense of checking, comparing, and correcting mistakes. Therefore, be-
fore beginning, I desire to make sure that at least $6,000 will be available for
the purpose. There is scarcely a limit to the number of computers who could
be employed at once upon this part of the work. It might easily be accom-
plished in a single year, or it might be slowly and regularly carried on for a
long time, the expense being not very different in the two cases.

This process being completed, the remainder of the work, consisting of various
investigations, in addition to the discussion of the instrumental corrections, and
the formation of a catalogue from the observations after all reductions have been
applied, would, of course, require more deliberate study. Ft would probably
occupy at least two years, but I think the expense would be decidedly inferior
to that of the first process. Indeed, I have convinced myself that all the out-
lays needed for the whole undertaking in all its branches would not exceed
$10,000, and that if this sum were now available, the work might be completed
in two years, inasmuch as parts of all the processes could go on simultaneously.

My sense of the usefulness of this work, and my conviction that astronomers
everywhere would agree in this opinion, are so strong that I have determined
to appeal to you for aid, well knowing that your interest and moral support
will, under any circumstances, not be wanting. It is precisely such an under-
taking as the plan of the Smithsonian Institution would lead it to encourage ;
and although I can readily see that the amount needed is larger than the Smith-
sonian would probably be able to apply at any one time to the furtherance of
any one science, still I come to you with my plan, well assured that you will
willingly do what you can in its behalf, whether by some gradual appropriation
year after year, from the Smithsonian funds, in aid of what I have called the
first process, viz.: The computation of the correction to the mean equinox of

68s

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

1800.0, or in some still more active way, by enlisting interest and securing aid
from other sources.

For several months past I have devoted such time and means as I could to
the preliminary steps, and, as you are aware, I now desire only the means of
defraying the indispensable outlays, wishing to contribute my own services in
behalf of the work. ee

I am, dear sir, very respectfully and truly yours,
aga a ni B. A. GOULD.
Professor JosppH Henry,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

Project of an outline history of public education in the United States, by
Frederic A. Packard.

The proposed volume, to contain from 600 to 800 pages royal 8vo, to be
put up in a cheap form, in the manner of legislative documents, with ample
tables, indexes, &c., for easy reference. If it shall be thought best, the form
might be changed to to volumes—one embracing the original thirteen States,
and the other the remaining States and Territories. The plan of the work
would comprise the following topics : ke

I. Of universal education, considered as an essential element of free political
institutions, what should be its character and extent ?

Il. An historical sketch of the laws of the several States on the subject of
education, and the establishment of public schools, academies, and colleges. In
this connexion would be given the provisions for education under the colonial
government, and their influence on succeeding legislation.

III. An abstract or synopsis of all laws now in force in the several States
touching public education, and of contemporaneous judicial expositions of the
law, so far as they affect the essential principles of the system.

IV. A sketch of the present state of public education in the country :

(a.) Of the division of territory for school purposes, what and how made ?

(®.) Of the manner of raising money for the support of schools, and the
amount raised and expended in each decade of years, of the present century.

(c.) Of the permanent revenue for the support of schools—if derived from
a fund—when and how was such fund created, and what is its amount and in-
vestment ? what portion of the annual school expense is derived from it, and
what is its effect to stimulate or depress the working of the system ?

(d.) Of the number and average age of children under instruction, distin-
guishing the sex; the number in attendance, in proportion to the whole popu-
lation, and the average time of attendance.

(e.) Of the mode of employing teachers and determining their qualifications.

(f.) Of the number of teachers employed, distinguishing the sex ; the compen-
sation allowed; the average age of teachers, male and female separate ; and the
average amount of time employed in daily teaching, making distinct heads
of summer and winter schools.

(g.) Of the branches taught in the public schools, and the proportion of time
devoted to each.

(i.) Of the preparation and introduction of school-books ; character of them
in early schools—improvements in them; expense of them, and by whom borne ;
and the number and variety of them, in the different branches, which are in
use in the different schools.

V. Of normal schools, number, when organized, how supported, number of
pupils, terms and condition of admission; what proportion of pupils pursue
teaching for a livelihood, and what proportion of these succeed.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 83

VI. Of school-houses, their number, average capacity, manner and means of
building, and improvements in respect to site, ventilation, heating, furniture,
out-houses, &c., &e.

VII. Of school librarces, number of schools supplied with ; how and by whom
selected ; funds to purchase, and the amount and source of the same; number
and character of volumes ; cost, mode of distributing, preserving, and extent of
circulation.

VIII. Of the religious element in public schools; if less than formerly,
why? To what extent necessary and practicable ?

IX. Of popular manners and customs in the schools ; habits of thinking and
acting; domestic and social character, and qualifications for citizenship, as they
are influenced by our systems of public education.

X. Of physical education, what time appropriated to it; what facilities and
encouragements are afforded; what methods adopted, as drill, gymnasium, or
athletic games ; and what part teachers take therein.

XI. Of infant schools.

XII. Of Sunday schools.

XIII. Of colleges and other public literary institutions, so far as they afford
aid to, or receive aid from, the public schools.

XIV. Of the comparative expense and value of public education at different
periods of our history.

XV. Of lyceums, mechanics’ institutes, evening schools, and other methods of
adult education, to make other means of ,education available, or to compensate
for the want or neglect of early advantages.

XVI. Number of persons of school age that are under instruction, the pro-
portion of the population that can both read and write; the qualifications of
the pupils, upon leaving school, to engage in the active pursuits of life, with a
superior physical, moral, and intellectual character.

The materials being thus collected, would be arranged under the title of éagh
State, respectively, whatever is peculiar in its educational history and statisties
ae placed under specific heads, and what is common to all under general
heads.

For example, Maine might occupy the first chapter or section of the volume—
and we should first refer to Massachusetts for all matter preceding 1820, when
it ceased to be a province. Then would come a succinct account of all legisla-
tion on the subject, including an abstract of existing laws; then the origin,
amount, and mode of distributing any school fund. Next, a bird’s-eye view of
the actual condition of the schools, government, discipline, construction of
buildings, character of teachers, text-books, and the obvious fruits of the sys-
tem. Whatever peculiarity there may be in the climate, in the habits and
pursuits of the people, or in the condition of society, affecting favorably or
otherwise the interests of education, would find a place in aon

After completing the circle of States in this way, a condensed chronological,
historical, and statistical survey of the entire country would be in place, and
pee nciplcs or conclusions as are established by the facts stated and illus-
trated.

It will be observed that the plan contemplates the history of each State
complete in itself, and if prepared by an individual selected for the purpose,
might bear the author’s name, like contributions to a biographical dictionary or
an encyclopedia. Of course it would serve a valuable Joca/ purpose, and if
properly prepared, would secure a share of public patronage, while the whole
volume would furnish highly interesting and important information to the
country at large and to foreign inquirers.

When the outline thus sketched is well digested and matured, my purpose
would be to forward a schedule of the subjects to some qualified patriotic person
in each State, requesting his co-operation. The great advantages of having the

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

4
work done by a resident of the States, respectively, are the accuracy, fidelity,
and fulness which would be secured, the facilities for obtaining materials, and
the authority which it would bear. These considerations might induce one or
more suitable persons in each State to encounter some personal inconvenience,
especially as the service is one of vast and permanent importance, and can be
better done now than at any future period. ,

The President of the Chamber of Commerce of Bordeaux to the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution at Washington:

Sir: I am not ignorant that the Institution of which you are the Secretary,
and which labors with the most praiseworthy zeal to promote the progress of
the different branches of human knowledge, maintains relations of exchange
with the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Belles Lettres, and Arts of Bordeaux.

The Chamber of Commerce, anxious in its turn to co-operate, as far as pos-
sible, in the realization of the plans which you pursue, feels pleasure in trans-
mitting to you a copy of its publications. They comprise a collection of its
proceedings since 1850, the first volume of the catalogue of its library, &c. It
is hoped that these various publications will find a place in your collections.
The Chamber has, on its own part, founded a considerable library, which is
open to the public, and it would be happy if the Smithsonian Institution should
think proper to send us some of the volumes which it publishes, and which are
filled with documents of the greatest interest on America, and on different ques-
tions of importance. These works would thus be at the disposal of a consid-
erable number of studious persons, and they would contribute to make the
seryices of the Institution of which you are the organ appreciated in all their
extent in Europe. Be pleased, sir, to accept the assurance of my most dis-
tinguished consideration.

CARTE DEL Paxasio, MILAN,
October 31, 1862.

Sir: Through the kindness of your agent, Mr. Bossange, of Paris, we have
received the Annual Report of the Board of Regents, presented by the great
and liberal Smithsonian Institution to the Carte del Palasio’s Agricultural As-
sociation, of which we are directors and regents. Reading your valuable re-
port, we have seen with the greatest satisfaction that the interesting and useful
results of yourjabors have been approved and commended by intelligent men
everywhere. hilst expressing, honored sir, our warmest thanks for having
been deemed worthy by your Institution to participate in the gifts which the
liberality of the Smithsonian Institution renders to men devoted to science, it
will be a source of pleasure to us to endeavor to reciprocate your kindness.
To promote knowledge and facilitate its progress by stimulating men of science
to undertake general and extensive researches, and to offer the means of con-
tinuing them, is the most useful service which can be rendered to mankind.
The very extensive means which your great Institution has at its command,
the ardor with which your officers and regents began and continue their difficult
work, are infallible indications of the greatest results which will be produced.
And we do not doubt that the material and moral progress of individuals, with that
of science in general, will fully realize the anticipations of the founder, and
amply recompense the continued labors of the distinguished directors of the
Smithsonian Institution.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 85

As directors of a new institution, which we hope will also soon produce im-
portant results in agriculture, we shall be content if, in reciprocating your
kindness, we can also in any way serve the laudable purposes of your Institu-
tion by presenting the results of our own labors and researches.

Again expressing our thanks, we have the pleasure of sending some of the
publications relating to our institution, with the hope that they will be placed
in the Smithsonian library. They are the following: 1. Programme of organi-
zation of the Carte del Palasio’s Agricultural Association. 2. Annual Reports
of the Association for 1859-’61. 3. Agricultural Annals, by Dr. Gaetano Can-
toni, professor of agronomy.

* * * * * * % *
Your most obedient servants,
Sta. ANTONIO RESCHIN, Direttore.
Dr. GAETANO CANTONI, Professor.

* Orrice’Sur’t U. S. Minirary GENERAL HospIvats,
Memphis, Tennessee, September 5, 1863.

My Dear Sir: I am in receipt of your letter of the 25th ultimo, by which
I learn the pleasing intelligence that the “ great Tucson meteorite” is in a fair
way of getting to Washington at last. 1 amsure you will feel proud of it when
you see it. J knew the “Carlton specimen” was not ours, as I had‘ sent it to
Hermosilla before I left Arizona. ‘That sent in by General C. is about 750
pounds, while ours is about twice that weight.

The only history I can give you is a vague one, as there is no written record
of its advent in Tucson. The old inhabitants of that place all agree that it
was brought there from the Santa Catarina mountains, which lie to the north
of Tucson, about midway between the Rio San Pedro and that town. li was
brought in by the military stationed at the old preszdio, where it remained until
after the withdrawal of the Spanish garrison. It was then taken into town,
set up on end, and used as a kind of public anvil for the use of the inhabitants.
The smaller one was used in a blacksmith’s forge for similar purposes. In
1857 I found-the large one lying in one of the by-streets half buried in the earth,
having evidently been there a considerable time. No person claimed it, so I
publicly announced that I would take possession of it in behalf of the Smith-
sonian, and forward it whenever an opportunity offered. Mr. Palatine Robinson,
near whose house the iron‘was, assisted me in getting it sent to Hermosilla.
There was some expense attending its hoisting into the truck-wagon that took
it down to Sonora, which I paid to Mr. R. Mr. Ainsa agreed to take it, or
have it taken, to Guaymas, Sonora, for fifty dollars. |

The people of Tucson all agree that a shower of these meteorites fell in the
Santa Catarina mountains some two hundred years ago, and I have been told
that there were plenty of them remaining in the mountains. I never was in
the immediate portion of the mountain range where they report the specimens
are to be found, so I cannot vouch for the correctness of their reports. As the
country is volcanic almost entirely, I have often thought, from the fact that
iron ore is abundant in several of these mountains, that it might have been that
masses of iron mineral were reduced to the metallic state by voleanic heat. See
in the case of the famous ‘“Planchas de plata” silver mines, some one hundred
miles south of the Santa Catarina, where large pieces of pure silver have been
found reduced to the pure state by fire, which has left everything in its vicinity
in a state of calcination. One piece weighing 1,500 pounds was found and cut
in two to allow its removal to the city of Mexico by the Spanish authorities.
I think you will find allusion to those interesting and once rich mines in Brantz

Mayer.

:
86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

T believe I have given you some data about the Tucson meteorites in a
monogram published by the War Department in 1860; Medical Statistics of
United States Army, 1855-60.

I wish I could give you full information on this matter. Please let me know
when you receive it, and be assured that when I go to Washington I will pay
my respects in person to you and it.

I am very busy, so you will excuse this hurried letter, and believe me

Yours, very respectfully,
B. J. D. IRWIN,

Surgeon United States Army.

SAN Francisco, Cau., Judy 2, 1863.

Dear Sir: The aerolite which had remained so long at Alamito, for want
of a proper person to bring it here, was brought by one of my brothers, Jesus
M. Ainsa, who visited Sonora lately. We have been induced to retain it here
for a short time, to satisfy the curiosity of the San Francisco people. The
State Geological Society asked to be allowed to have a small piece for their
collection, which request was, of course, granted. With this exception the
aerolite has been preserved entirely in the same condition in mich it was found
in Arizona, and by the 13th of this month we will have the pleasure to ship it
to New York, under the care of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company.

I take this opportunity to offer my services to the Institution.

I remain, respectfully,
: SANTIAGO AINSA.
Professor Henry, \
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

San Francisco, Oa, August 26, 1863.

Dear Sir: I have the pleasure to acknowledge your favor of July 31, and
I take pleasure in complying with your request. In fact I intended to do this
before, but, owing to many engagements on hand, I have been postponing it to
this moment. y

I announced in my last that the meteorite would be sent by the following
steamer from that date; but we were asked to retain it some time longer by
some scientific men, who wished to examine it closely.

The history of this aerolite we have from our grandmother, Dofia Ana Anza

de Islas, daughter of Don Juan Bautista Anza, our great grandfather. The |

Jesuit missionaries had the earliest knowledge of this curiosity. ‘There were
various theories entertained about it; but it was generally believed to proceed
from some iron mine in the vicinity, which belief holds to this day in Sonora.
In an expedition made by Don Juan Bautista Anza, then “Gran Capitan de
las Provincias del Occidente,” about the year 1735, to the country about
Tucson, he was induced to visit the aerolite, and he undertook the work of
transporting it to Spain. The place where it was found is called “Sierra de
la. Madera,” on a spot called Los Muchadios. Through the want of proper
means and the bad state of the roads, (having to carry it to San Blas, then the
uearest port of entry,) the work of transportation was given up, and they were
satisfied to take it as far as Tucson. ‘There it remained ever since, until my
brother, Agustine Ainsa, undertook to transport it, in 1860, and present it to the
Institute. His intentions, however, were never carried out ‘antil May last,

Wises aire ee SD ce i i =

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS, 87

when another of my brothers, Jesus M. Ainsa, visited Sonora and brought it
with him on his return.

By the time of the receipt of this the aerolite must be already in Washington,
as we delivered it to the agent of the Institute about a month ago, to have it
transported to you. Your. agent spoke to us about expenses ; but we wish not
to deprive ourselves of the honor of having presented it to the Institute, and
as such we desire that you should accept it.

I would be thankful if you would send me a copy of the analysis, and of other
informat*on about the aerolite; and if you find it not too troublesome, to send
the same, with my compliments, to St. J pea s College, Fordham, New York,
where I was educated.

I have the honor to remain, your obedient servant,
SANTIAGO AINSA.

JosePH Henry, Esq.,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

[This meteorite is now in the museum, and is an object of special interest to
visitors. ]

LirTLeE GuLacE Bay, Care Breton, Nova Scortta,
* October 25, 1868.

My Dear Sir: I send you a specimen of “cone-in-cone,” which I have
lately obtained in sinking a shaft at this place upon the Harbor Vein seam of
- coal described in Professor Lesley’s report of this coal-field last year.

It was found in the band that corresponds to the black bituminous shales
below the one inch of cannel coal, and 23 feet above the Harbor series of five
feet of coal.

It was only obtained on the northwest side of the shaft, thinning out to the
south and east, or towards the “crop.” The greatest thickness of the bed was
about 7 inches. The largest “cone-in-cone’’ was 54 inches in diameter.

The journal of the strata sunk through differs somewhat from Professor
Lesley’s taken at the shore.

ft. in.
ueanedbtt-dxitt and ipravel..0e i) s2252e. Se Se oe ee 10.0
Blue shales, with cyclas shells, fish teeth, and other remains........ 3.0
Cone-in-cone s cloke id Scie eee eee eo Pee Leen CRO Haat eet tL aug sion a
Brown band, with coprolites.........--...... LUE So Oks one 3
Blue arenaceous shales ......- Beeb deee ys tet foot Jen) gl ie ee 1.0
EMAIL RAT CBUOIC « < Saipabeaiakie Dek we leie oss sleek Ol IE 2.0
Seam penis ot shales “fucomMa? sor sek 22 ee Peo. ee ee 33
eee AAMT 34. 22. Ai RR Pe OU Mae SL DARREL es A
een acontun shales 239 eos seis koe ised same CRU OE OST VEL on 2.6
Sandstone, black mark, like the fruit “‘cardeocarpon”’........---.--- 1.04
PINE EMN A hs [221 2). ce I eS RUE ee oe a I Sic ad
DIMER ICRG), 2). 2s Glee ie. 28 IRE Ste ee SUC UE LC Ouck ec 3.10
IRENE 2 os): is wc as Se he I ee RPI cok LR s6 4
mesaesnd ironstone: ballse soos! 52. WAnae = 42 ois. s 2. 7.5
Rennes.) 492 1c). Sua 1S ad per er lara eras wie 5.5
41.11

I cannot find in any work that I possess anything exactly like them, so
think they may be of interest to add to your museum.
The points of the cones are downwards.

?
88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. .

T shall be glad to hear from you about them after they have been examined.
I have sent a specimen to Dr, Dawson, Montreal, but fear the season is too
late for him to get it this year.
I remain, my dear sir, your obedient servant,
HENRY POOLE.
JosEPpH Henry,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

The above relates to a very interesting specimen of a remarkable concretion
of a clayey material, which occurs in thin slabs, entirely formed of cones, the
axes of which are all at right angles to the parallel surfaces of the slabs. The
only explanation which occurs to us of the mode of formation of this structure
is that of percolation of water charged with earthy material through a porous
rock, and filling a horizontal crevice with parallel sides, with a series of stalac-
tites and stalagmites. es

HUNGARIAN NATIONAL Museum,
Pesth, October 15, 18638.

Sir: In reply to your esteemed letter of the 29th of May, I have the honor
to inform you that the birds sent us through Dr. Flugel have been duly re-
ceived, and I beg leave to return the Hearth thanks oF our institution for the
same. Full acknowledgments have also been made in our reports, and in the
newspapers, of our obligations to the-Smithsonian Institution, which stands so
high in public opinion everywhere.

AUGUST V. KUBINYI, Director.

JosePpH Henry, Esq.,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

CuristTiaAna, Norway, November 4, 1863.

Sir: Having been appointed director of the Ethnological Museum at the
University of Christiana, I have perused a letter of the “6th May, 1862, from
the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to the secretary of this university.

As this letter alludes to the endeavors of your excellent Institution for the
collection of ethnological objects from North America, and the utility of estab-
lishing a system of exchange for European curiosities, I have made use of the
opportunity to offer you what we have in this line.

The aboriginal population of this country are the Laps or Laplanders, living
at present on vihe mountains and sea-coasts farthest north of Norway, Rovedent
and Russia. ‘Their language proves them undoubtedly to be of the Mongolian
stock in Asia, and, as such, related to the red man of America. ‘The Laps are
a remarkable instance of this race, as they are converted to Christianity and
have adopted the habits and industry of civilization, modified by the severity
of the arctic climate in their country and their peculiar mode of subsistence as
nomads with flocks of reindeer. We have procured a set of models made by
the individuals of the people themselves, and illustrative of their present mode
of existence.

In offering this small collection for your acceptance, we hope that it may
serve a scientific purpose in comparing the red man with his yellow brother in
the old continent. If it should be in your power to afford us some correspond-
ing objeets from your field of research, that is so immensely more extensive, a

a ll

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 89

‘very great desideratum in our collection would be supplied that would engage

our most earnest attention.

The articles in question are—

I. Three casts, in plaster, taken from living individuals, viz: 1, an unmixed
Lap, 39 years old; 2, a man whose father was a Fin from Russian Finland,
and whose mother was a Lap, 42 years old; 3, a man whose grandmother was
a Swede, (of the Teutonic stock, ) Cihernine Lap, 43 years.

If. Four photographie portraits: 1, mixture of Lap and Fin, 28 years; 2,
74 years; 3, 28 years; 4, 38 years—pure Laps.

Iii. A reindeer, harnessed with its sledge. The sledge is canoe-shaped, so
as to be able to move upon the deepest and softest snow whut going down into it.

IV. A pair of snow-shoes, being very long pieces of thin onde with which
the Lap can walk upon soft snow. They have straps or stirrups to put the
feet into. ‘The man moves on with the staff.

V. A pair of pack-saddles, with. which they move their luggage in summer
on the back of the reindeers ; included is a model of a wooden tub and a cask ;
two flat pieces of wood to lay across the back of the reindeer are attached.

Vi. A trunk, in which is included the wooden bowl for preserving the rein-
deer milk, and the press for making cheese out of it.

VI. A spade for removing the snow.

VIII. Two large wooden bowls.

IX. A tent; in the middle the fireplace and two pots hanging over it;
behind is a scaffolding of wood for their stores, raised upon poles, so that it
may not be attacked by dogs.

Confiding in your interest for the advancement of science, I remain, very
respectfully, your obedient servant,

LOUIS KR DAA.

JosePH Henry, Esq.,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

[These articles are now in the museum. |}

KAISERLICHE-KGNIGLICHE GEOLOGISCHE REICHS-ANSTALT,
Vienna, December 11, 1863.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit to you for the Smithsonian Institution a
series of tertiary fossils from the Vienna basin, viz:

Seupmre On eria DEUS SL cern tesa ve.2 oa ett 2 Sata /se eo ae 3 6 species.
Seanmne @erithium beds ts skeet 2s eee a oe 10 species.
Sammie vearine beds... See FP Ee eee 270 species.

Pporebe ei '.s. Cee RE A i es Meare Ree 286 species.

In the box prepared to be sent you will find, 1, the present letter; 2, a sys-
tematic éatalogue, with tabular reference to the localities; 3, a catalogue in
which the localities are kept separate; 4, a guide of geographical reference for
the localities. 'The number of specimens or lots in catalogue 3 is 622. Beside
these there are a number imperfectly determined or not belonging to Austrian
localities. The rest will give a pretty fair idea of the leading or type mollusca
of our Vienna basin. The series here offered has been composed or selected
under the auspices of Dr. Hérnes, director of the Imperial Museum of Miner-
alogy, and he placed it at the disposal of our Imperial Geological Institute, so
that I beg you will consider it as a joint offer from both establishments.

I have the honor to be, dear sir, ever most truly yours,

W. HAIDINGER.

9 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

British Museum, December 30, 1863.

Dear Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of this day’s
date, and to acquaint you that the trustees have acceded to the request made
by Professor Henry, on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, and that I have
instructed Dr. Gray to give you every facility with a view to such elecirotype
impressions being made for that Institution as are required from our wood
engravings illustrative of the conchology of the North American continent. I
shall be happy. to see you, and to give you any assistance in my power when + —
ever it may be convenient for you to call at the museum, as you propose.

Believe me, dear sir, yours truly,
: A. PANIZZI.
Dr. P. P. CARPENTER.

31 PFEIDEMARKET, HampBure,
February 4, 1864.

Dear Sir: I duly received your very kind letter of the 6th of January, in-
forming me that the director of the Smithsonian Institution would have the
kindness to send me five of the American perennibranchiates for investigation.
A few days afterwards the box was delivered into my hands, containing—

1. Menopoma Alleghaniense.

2. Menobranchus lateralis.

3. Siren lacertina.

4, Amphiuma tridactylum.

5. Siredon pisciformis.

All these amphibia being of the greatest importance for my studies, I cannot
but express to you my most sincere thanks for this most valuable assistance.
You will allow meto pay to yourrenowned Institution, in the mean time, my thanks
for the reports and other valuable works, particularly on the Zodlogy and Anatomy
of Amphibia, published at Washington, and directed to me some years ago.

I should feel most happy if you would give me a direction how I might pay
my thanks in a more material manner. You will, therefore, oblige me very
much by informing me of the desiderata in your collections. Perhaps there
might be some European fishes or amphibia which I might be able to procure for
you. Of sea snakes, which family of snakes I have described some years ago,
there are also some few species in my own possession. In minerals I am pretty
rich, having the best private collection of this branch that exists in our place.

It is only on the supposition that I might be able to furnish to the Smithso-
nian Institution some equivalent that I take the great, and, perhaps, immodest
liberty to mention, that one specimen more of the genera amphiuma, siren, and
menopoma, would be of the greatest importance for my studies. It would be
very difficult to decide all the anatomical questions concerning the named
amphibia after the investigation of only one specimen. Having the intention to
describe in a comparative manner the bones, muscles, and nerves of the famous
Salamandra Japonica, with relation to the other genera of Ichthyodea, I feel
myself in a high degree advanced by the specimens which I owe to your kind-
ness, and would be induced to hope that my little work might not remain quite
imperfect, if there would be any chance to acquire still one specimen more of
the above-mentioned three genera.

Finally, you will allow me to say that I am not now in any connexion with
the Hamburg Museum, as the address of your letter said, but that, though
being on very friendly relations with the directors of our collections, I have
given up my place among them.

With the highest regards, I am yours, very respectfully,

Dr. J. G. FISCHER.

[The specimen requested was sent to Dr. Fischer.]

PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF - REGENTS. 91

: Vienna, February 9, 1864.

My Dear Sir: Permit me to enclose here an invitation to join in a subscrip-
tion for a gold honorary medal to be presented to our most worthy Professor Ch.
Fr. Ph. von Martius, of Munich, on his fiftieth anniversary of medical dociorship
on the 30th of March, 1864.

Our most honored friends on the other side of the Atlantic should not fail in
the list; only I am sorry that by various impediments I was prevented from
* writing at an earlier period. It is now’so late that only by very good luck it
will be possible that an answer may arrive previously to the 15th of March, to
be entered in the first list which must be printed, embellished, and then bound
up, and sent to Munich from Vienna before the 30th of March. Whatever is
brought to notice later than the 30th will be appended, and what comes to hand
after the 30th up to the end of June will be given in the first complementary
report to be published on the 1st of July. Nothing will be lost, as even what
comes after that period will be published afterwards.

Every subscriber, of course, will have a bronze copy of the medal, and the
votary tablet sent to him. Subscriptions should be three florins Austrian silver
money, or more, which is about one and a half dollar American silver.

By this time you may already have received our last box with tertiary fossil
types of several localities of the Vienna basin, being a joint parcel from the
Imperial Mineralogical Cabinet and our own Geological Institution.

I am happy to hear you have now the Ainsa Tucson meteoric iron. I shall
send some of these days a paper of mine on the Carleton Tucson, which ap-
peared in the Vienna Academy Proceedings. I enclose impression from the
surface, cut, polished, and etched, and galvanographed positively and negatively.
We shall be happy, as soon as you may fix on cutting some slices off the block,
to receive a bit from you for our Imperial Mineralogical Museum of the Ainsa
Tucson too.

With all the most cordial wishes, ever most truly yours,
W. HAIDINGER.

Professor JosePH HENRY,

Secretary to the Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Orrice Hupson’s Bay Company,
Montreal, February 26, 1864.

My Dear Sir: Absence from home and subsequent indisposition have pre-
vented my acknowledging receipt of your letter of 19th ultimo at an earlier date.

The settlement you have made of Mr. Kennicott’s account is quite satisfac-
tory. There was a small deficiency in consequence of a change in the rate of
exchange when your draft reached me}; but that matter can be arranged when
we receive Mr. Mactavish’s final statement of Mr. Kirkby’s account.

The kind expressions of thanks contained in your letter are very gratifying.
We have always felt pleasure in promoting scientific research; but, in Mr.
Kennicott’s case, this was enhanced by his amiable character and prudence. It
is no easy part to play, going as a stranger into a territory inhabited by men
bound to a foreign government, and with exclusive views on many points. But
Mr. Kennicott knew how to meet the circumstances ; and from his arrival among
us until his departure was always popular, and I believe inspired a sincere
friendship and esteem among those with whom he most associated. If in
Washington, pray offer him my kind regards.

Hoping some day to have the honor and pleasure of forming your personal
acquaintance, believe me, sir, very truly yours,

EDW. M. HOPKINS.

JosePpH Henry, Esq,,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

——————————————————— 7 —_— ——_—__ +

GENERAL APPENDIX

REPORT FOR 1863.

The object of this appendix is to illustrate the operations of the Institution
by reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence, as well as to furnish
information of a character suited especially to the meteorological observers and

“
other persons interested in the promotion of knowledge.

LECTURES.

BRIEF ABSTRACT

OF A SERIES OF SIX LECTURES ON

THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE,

DELIVERED AT

*
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN MARCH, 1864.

BY WILLIAM D. WHITNEY, PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT IN YALE COLLEGE, NEW HAVEN,

THE scientific study of language is of modern date. Only its scanty and im-
perfect germs are to be found in ancient times. It lacked that wide and com-
prehensive basis of observed and collected facts on which alone such a science
can be founded. The active and searching curiosity of the past century, with
the facilities for investigation given by trade, travel, and philanthropic effort,
could not but call it into being. No single circumstance has so powerfully aided
its development as the introduction of Sanskrit to the knowledge of Hurope.
This, the most ancient and primitive of Indo-European tongues, laid the sure
foundation of the comparative philology of the Indo-European family, out of

. which has ‘grown the general science of language.

The objects of this science are twofold: 'l'o discover the nature and history
of language itself, and to elicit information respecting human history. Both
are invested with q very high degree of importance. The value of language
to man, and the absorbing interest of inquiry into its character, are palpable,
and attested by the labors and speculations of generations of scholars and
thinkers. It has also quite recently been found that language is the principal
means of ethnological investigation, of tracing out the deeds and fates of men
during the prehistoric ages. Not only does it determine the fact and the de-
gree of relationship among nations, but it gives information which can be ob-
tained in no other way respecting their moral and intellectual character, and the
growth of their civilization. Linguistic science, as a branch of the study of
human history, embraces the whole race at every period of its history. All
spoken or recorded speech is its material. The dialects of the lowliest as well
as the most highly endowed races are its care. It would fain hold up and study
every single fact in the light of every other related fact, since only thus can all
be fully understood.

To survey in detail, in these lectures, the whole field of linguistic science will
be, of course, impracticable. We can only attempt to lay down and illustrate
its fundamental principles, to gain some insight into its methods, to determine
the nature and force of linguistic evidence, to see how this is elicited from the
material containing it, to note its bearing on historical and ethnological study,
and to review briefly the principal results hitherto obtained by its means
The method followed will be the analytic, establishing principles from facts

96 PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE.

within every one’s apprehension, and proceeding from that which is well known
or obvious, to that which is more obscure. Illustrations will be sought, mainly
from among the phenomena of our own familiar speech, since every living and
growing language has that within itself which exemplifies the facts and princi-
ples of universal application in all language. We shall also avoid, as much as
possible, the use of figurative, philosophical, and technical phraseology, and
talk the language of plain fact.

Our preliminary inquiry may properly be, Why do we, ourselves, speak Eng-
lish? ‘Though a simple question, its correct answer will clear our way of
many difficulties. The general reply is obvious: We learned English from
those among whom our earliest years were passed. We did not produce the
words we use by an internal impulse, by the reflection of phenomena in our
consciousness, and the like. As soon as we were able to associate an idea
and its uttered sign, we were taught to stammer the names of the most familiar
objects, and our instruction advanced with our capacities ; our notions and con-
ceptions were brought into shapes agreeing with those they took in the minds:
about us, and were called by the names to which these were accustomed. Cer-
tain liquids which we saw, colorless and white, had not to be studied and com-
pared by us in order to the invention of a title for them. We were informed
that they were “ water” and ‘‘milk.”’ The one of them, in certain modes of oceur-
rence, we were made to know as “ puddle” and “river.” The words ery, strike,
bite, eat, drink, love, hate, and so on, were taught us by being applied to acts
and states of which we made experience. Long before any mental analysis of
our own would have given us the distinct ideas of trwe and false, they were im-
pressed upon our minds by admonition, or something stronger. ‘The ap-
pellations of hosts of objects, places, beings, which we had not seen, and per-
haps have not yet seen, were fixed in our minds, with the means of attaching
some distinctive idea to them. The amount and kind of this training varied
greatly in different cases, but we all had it, and by it alone could learn to talk
as we do. Language was the first step in our education. It came by educa-
tion, and not by inheritance. English blood would never have given us Eng-
lish speech. We could just as easily have learned to say wasser or eau as
“‘ water,” milch or lait as ‘‘ milk,’ lieben or aimer as “ love,’ &e. An American
child is brought up by a French nurse in order that it may speak French first,
and it does so. ‘The infant cast on shore alive from a wreck learns the tongue
of its foster-parents, and no outbreak of natural speech ever betrays whence it
derived its birth. The imported African forgets, in a generation, his Congo or
Mendi, and is able to use only a dialect of his master’s speech.

It is already clear, then, that English people do not, as some have paradoxi-
cally maintained, speak English by inherent natural gift, because they are
English, just as all swallows twitter, all bears growl, all lions roar, and so*on.
The special forms of spoken language are matters of imitation. 'They are kept
up by usage, and transmitted by oral tradition.

We thus learn, not English simply, but the particular kind of English which
is spoken by our instructors. A few, perhaps, get nothing from the outset but
the purest style of the language; but hardly any can escape some tinge of local
dialect, of the slang of caste or calling, even of individual peculiarities of our
teachers, inelegancies of pronunciation, pet phrases, colloquialisms and vul-
garisms, and the like. Often errors and infelicities thus acquired in early life
are ineradicable by all the care of after years.

Again, this process does not give us universal command of the resources of
the language. A child’s vocabulary is very scanty, and goes on increasing to
the end of life. The encyclopedic English tongue, as we may call it, contains
over one hundred thousand words. Of these, the most uninstructed classes ac-
quire only three to five thousand, a frugal stock of the most indispensable words
and phrases. ‘To such a nucleus every artisan, in every walk of labor, must

PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 7

add his own technical language, containing much which most English speakers
know nothing of. No small portion of the one hundred thousand words is made
up of such special vocabularies. ‘The generally educated man learns much of
many of them, but no one learns them all. Every one may find, on every page
of our great dictionaries, words which he knows not how to deal with. There
are various styles of expression for the same thing which are not at every one’s
command. Even the meanings attributed to the same words by different speakers
are different. The voluptuary, the passionate, the philosophic, and the senti-
mental, for example, mean very different things by “love’’ and “hate.” It is
no paradox to maintain that, while we all speak English, no two among us speak
precisely the same language, the same in extent, form, or meaning.

What, then, is the English language? It is the aggregate of the articulated
signs for thought current among the English people ; or, itis their average, that
part which is supported by the usage of the majority—a majority counting not
by numbers only, but by culture. It includes varieties of every kind; but it
has unity, from the fact that all who speak it may, to a considerable extent, and
on matters of the most general interest, talk so as to understand one another.
It is kept in existence by uninterrupted tradition, in which each individual takes
a part, handing down his portion of it, with his limitations and peculiarities—
books, a kind of undying individual, greatly assisting in the process. But all
traditional transmission is inherently and necessarily defective, and that of
language forms no exception. If English were a certain fixed body of words,
learned complete by every one, and kept intact, it might more easily be preserved
from alteration. As the case stands, it does not remain the same from genera-
tion to generation.

Its most noticeable mode of alteration is that whichis ever going on in its vo-
cabulary, especially its technical vocabularies. New processes ,and products,
new views and opinions, new knowledge of every kind, must find their fit ex-
pression. No well-informed man can write a chapter now upon what every one

_is thinking and talking of which would be intelligible to the well-informed man

of acentury ago. There are also changes affecting rather the form than the
content of language, of slow progress, and in their inception, in great part, inac-
curacies of speech, opposed by the conservative forces, yet as inevitable in the
end as the others. They show the influence of the great numerical majority
who do not speak with correctness, but whose errors finally become the norm
of the language. Thus, we had formerly a special preterit form spake, and good
speakers would as soon have said “he come and done it” as “‘ he spoke to me.”
Now only spoke is in common use. Three centuries ago we had only Ais as
possessive of both de and zt, but popular usage struck out a new possessive,
ats, for the latter. You we employ not only as object, according to its ancient
usage, but as subject, instead of ye, &c., &c. The influences which brought
about such changes are still to be seen in full operation about us, especially
among children and uninstructed persons, to whom the communication of the
language is imperfectly or incorrectly made. A child substitutes an easy for
a hard sound in pronouncing, drops out a syllable or two from a half-under-
stood word, says “I bringed” or “I brang” for I drought, says “mang” and
“‘mouses,” says “ gooder” and ‘“ goodest,’”’ and the like. Its own and others’
care corrects these errors; but if the caré be wanting, the error remains ; and
there are ever in existence, among the lower strata of language-users, hosts of
these deviations from correct usage, always threatening, and sometimes suc-
ceeding in making their way to the surface, and securing recognition and gen-
eral adoption. he conservative forces arrayed against them, aided by school
instruction and reading, are now so powerful among us that the language
changes but very slowly in this way, yet the examples given are truly typical,
and illustrate a force always in action. That, in these and other methods, lan-
guage actually undergoes notable change is palpably true. Go back only to
7s

oR. PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE.

our Bible translation, to Shakspeare, and much is found which is no longer good
English. Go back five hundred years, to Chaucer, and our own tongue is only
partially intelligible to us. Another five hundred years carries us to the Anglo-
Saxon of King Alfred, a totally strange form of speech, as much so as the
modern German; and yet each one of the thirty or forty generations between
us and Alfred was as singly intent on transmitting to its successor the language
it received from its predecessor as is our own.

‘These facts and conditions are of universal occurrence in linguistic history.
All language is handed down in the manner described, and is subject to the
‘same disturbing forces. The process of transmission always has been, and al-
ways will be, imperfect. No tongue remains the same during a long period-of
time. This is the fundamental fact on which rests the whole method of lin-
guistic investigation. ;

We see now what is meant when language is spoken of as having an inde-
pendent existence, as being organic, or an organism, as growing or developing,
and soon. ‘These are only figurative modes of speech. Language-has no ex-
istence, save in the minds and mouths of those who employ it. It is an aggre-
gate of signs of thought, deriving their significance from the intelligent agree-
ment of speakers and hearers. It is in their power, and subject to their will.
As they maintain it in existence, so their consenting action modifies and alters
it. It cannot be changed hastily or capriciously, because it depends upon gen-
eral consent, which can be won only for such modifications and extensions as
are in accordance with its already established rules. Individuals are constantly
trying experiments of alteration upon it, with childish errors of expression, with
bad grammar, with slang, with artificial turns of phrase, and arbitrarily coined
words. But these are, for the most part, only laughed at as blunders, or put
down as mannerisms and vulgarisms. ‘Individual authority, except in special
cases, is too weak to force itself upon public opinion. The speakers of lan-
guage constitute a republic, in which authority is conferred only by universal
suffrage, and for due cause. High political rank does not give power over
speech. ‘The grammatical blunders of an emperor do not become the: rule to
his subjects. But individuals are allowed to introduce novelties and changes
into the general speech; thus, for instance, to name their own inventions or
discoveries, if they do it discreetly and suitably ; and great masters of the art of
speech, poets, orators, are permitted to touch even the more intimate and sacred
parts of language. Is it cailed for? is it in accordance with the usages and
analogies of the language? is it offered or supported by good authority !—
such are the considerations by which, in any given case, general consent is
won or repelled, and this decides whether the proposed change shall be te-
jected, or shall become part and parcel of the universal speech.

As, then, an organic being grows by the gradual accretion of homogeneous
organic matter, as its existing parts and processes form the new addition, in order
to help the life and functional action of the being, so language extends by the
addition of material accordant with its substance, evolved by its formative
methods, and intended to secure the end of its existence, the expression of the
thoughts of those who speak and write it. It thus presents striking and in-
structive analegies with organic life ; but to call it an organism outright, as some
do, and to claim that its growth is independent of human agency, and that its
study is, therefore, to be ranked among the physical sciences, is palpably and
seriously to misinterpret it. Language is an institution, constantly undergoing,
at the hands of those who use it, adaptation to their varying circumstances and
needs. Between all determining causes and their results in its development
stands, as middle term, the human mind, seeking and choosing expression for
human thought. Its every partis ahistorical product. Its study is a historical *
science, a branch of the study of the human race, and of human institutions.

PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 99

As every constituent item of language is the product of a series of changes,
working themselves out in history, the method of linguistic investigation must
be historical. ‘l’o understand the structure and character of speech, and to
penetrate to its origin, we must follow backward the modifying processes to
which it has been subjected, endeavoring to understand the influences which have
produced and governed them. ‘This can be done to but small extent by means
of contemporary records.. We must call to our aid the art of etymological
analysis. On etymology, the tracing out of the history of individual wortls, is
founded the whole science of language. ‘To illustrate the methods of etymolo-
gizing, and to bring to light some of its results, by simple and characteristic
examples, is the object of this second lecture.

Let us look first at evidence showing the composite nature of words. We
are all the time putting together two words to form a compound; as, fear-
wmspiring, god-like, house-top, and so on. But the extent to which language is
the result of such composition is apparent only on deeper study. Fearful is
as clear a compound, on reflection, as fear-inspiring ; yet ful is, to our appre-
hension, a kind of. suffix, forming a large class of adjectives from nouns, like
the suffix ows, (in peril-ous, riot-ous, &c.;) and its independent origin and
meaning are but dimly present to the mind of one who uses the adjectives.
Fearless and its like are not less evident compounds; but the ess here is not
our word Jess, but the altered form of an older word, meaning “loose, free.’’
Again : ly, in godly, brotherly, &c., is of yet obscurer origin, and we deem it
merely a suffix; but a study of the other forms of our language, or a compari-_
son of kindred Germanic dialects now spoken, shows it to be descended from
the adjective Zzke, which has been used in all the languages of our family as
an adjective-forming suffix; we alone have given it the further and now re-
motely derived office of adverbial suffix, employable at will to convert any
adjective into an adverb. The d of such words as I loved, I hated, is proved
by the form it wears in the oldest Germanic tongues to be a relic of the past
tense did: I loved is originally I love did. Sueh and which were once so-like.
and who-like, and so on. The same is the case in the Latin part of our lan-
guage, and even in its oldest and most essential constituents. The de or ple
of double, triple, and so ‘cn, is the root plic, meaning “bend, fold ;” triple is
the precise etymological equivalent of three-fold. The two letters of am, which
seems as simple a word as aught can be, are relics of two elements: one, the
root as, meaning “be ;” the other, the pronoun mz, meaning “me, 1;” am
stands for as-mz, “be-I.”’ The third person, 7s, has lost the whole of a second

lement, 22, which it once possessed, and of which at least the ¢ is left in nearly

1 the kindred languages ; compare German is¢, Latin est, Greek esti, Sanscrit
asti, &c.

With few exceptions, all the words of our language admit of such analysis,
which discovers in them at least two elements: one radical, containing the
fundamental idea; the other formal, indicating its restriction, application, or

‘relation. ‘This is, in fact, the normal constitution of a word; it contains a root

and a suffix or prefix, or both, or more than one of both. Thus, inapplicabili-
tres contains two prefixes and three suffixes, all clustered about the root pic,
“bend ;” and it is, as it were, the fusion and integration of the phrase “ nume
rous conditions of not being able to bend or fit to something.”

Our examples show that word-analysis is, at least in part, only the retracing
of a previous synthesis. We are as sure of the actuality of the process of com-
bination by which these words were formed as if it had all gone on under our
own eyes. There would have been no such suffixes as :fwl, less, ly, &e., if
there had not been before in the language the independent words full, loose,
like, &c. No small part of the formative elements of our language can thus
be proved descended from independent words ; if a considerable part do not
admit like proof, we are not authorized to suppose that their history is different

100 PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE.

from that of the others, but only that we have not at command the evidence
which would explain it. !

The same examples show not less clearly that alteration, corruption, and
mutilation of the products of combination is a rule of the life of language.
The reason of this corruption lies in great measure in the fact that, having
once struck out a compound, we are not solicitous to keep up the memory of
its descent. We accept the word coined as a conventional sign for the idea
which it conveys, and give our attention mainly to that. Hence ease and con-
venience in the use of the word are consulted; a long vocable is contracted; a
hard combination of consonants is mouthed over into more utterable shape;
subordinate elements are defaced into conformity with the inferiority of their
consequence. So the sailor says bos’n for boatswain, to’gal’nts’ls for topgal-
lantsails, &e. This is a part ofthe wise economy of speech, a sign and means
of the integration of words, contributing to conciseness and vigor of expression.
But it is also a blind tendency, and its effect is in part destructive. It leads
to waste as well as economy; ease and convenience being consulted by the
sacrifice of what is valuable as well as the rejection of what is unnecessary—
if, indeed, it can truly be said that a people not undergoing degradation of
character ever sacrifices anything of its language which is really valuable with-
out providing an equivalent. A language may thus, at any rate, become greatly
altered, giving up much which in other tongues is retained and valued. Our
own English offers one of the extremest examples known of the prevalence of
these wearing-out tendencies.

Thus, for instance, the primitive language from which our own is descended
had a full set of terminations for the three persons plural of the verb, viz: masz,
tasi, nti—e. g., lagamasi, lagatasi, laganti, “we lie, ye lie, they lie.” In
Latin they appear shorn of their final vowel, as mus, tis, nt. In Gothic, the
oldest Germanic language, they are reduced to their initial consonants only,
m, th, nd—thus, ligam, ligith, ligand. They are still, in this form, pretty
distinctive, and sufficient for their purpose. But the prevailing custom of ex-
pressing the pronouns along with the verb lessened their necessity} and in
Anglo-Saxon they are all reduced to a single form, ath in the present, on in
the imperfect. We, finally, have cut them off entirely, and say we lie, ye he,
they lie, without any endings designating the person.

In the declension of nouns we have effected a revolution not less thorough.
Our ancient mother-tongue declined every noun substantive in three numbers,
with eight cases in each, and every adjective in three genders besides. With
us all adjective declension has disappeared, and of substantive declension we
have saved only a genitive and a plural ending, both s. In a few plurals, bs
men, mice, teeth, we have seized upon a distinction at first enphonie and acci-
dental only, and have made it significant. So also in the conjugation of our
“irregular” verbs, as sing, sang, sung ; the change of vowel was at first merely
euphonic, then became, as in most German dialects it still continues, auxiliary
to the sense, and finally, with us, it is in many cases the only means of dis-
tinction of present, preterite, and participle.

In one remarkable case, the wearing-out processes have led to the total
abandonment of a conspicuous department of grammatical structure. A dis-
tinction of gender in nouns, as masculine, feminine, or neuter, marked by dif-
ferences of termination and declension, has ever prevailed in the family of lan-
guages to which ours belongs. Even in the Anglo-Saxon, nouns were still
masculine, feminine, or neuter, not according to their natural character, but in
conformity with the ancient tradition, on fanciful grounds of difference, which
we find it excessively difficult to trace out and recognize. But in the exten-
sive decay and ruin of grammatical’ forms attending the elaboration of modern
English from Anglo-Saxon and Norman French, this whole scheme of artificial

PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 101]

distinctions has disappeared, leaving almost no trace behind. Natural gender
has replaced grammatical, and the pronominal forms he, she, it, his, him, her, its,
are our only means for its indication.

These two processes—the production of new forms by the combination of
old materials, and the wearing down and wearing out of the forms so produced,
are the principal means by which the external life and growth of language are
kept up, by whose operation spoken tongues are constantly becoming other
than they were. But they are only auxiliary to a not less striking growth in
the interior content of specch, in the meaning of words. It is as important a
part of the historical study of a word to trace out its changes of signification
_as its changes of form; and the former are even richer in curious and unex-
pected developments, are fuller of instruction, than the latter. The internal
content of language is plastic to the touch of the inspiring mind. But for
this, no variability of form or facility of combination could make it aught but a
stiff dead structure, incapable of supplying for any time the needs of a think-
ing, feeling, observing, and reasoning community. ‘Old words are applied to
new uses; the general is individualized, the individual generalized; the con-
crete becomes the’ abstract; a pregnant expression, a startling metaphor, is
reduced to the level of an ordinary phrase; delicate shades of meaning are dis-
tinguished by the gradual differentiation of synonymous words, and so on.

‘The rate at which these processes of change go on is very various. It de-
pends, in part, upon subtle and recondite causes, as upon the individual char-
acter of different languages and the qualities of the peoples who speak them—
qualities, perhaps, which exhibit themselves only in this way, and hardly ad-
mit of analysis and recognition elsewhere. In part, it depends also upon ex-
ternal circumstances, upon change of surroundings and mode of life, of mental
and physical activity. An English family, wrecked on a coral island in the
south seas, would soon find a great part of its vocabulary useless, and in a
very few generations its language would have become vastly impoverished.
A tribe from such an island, again, if suddenly transferred to the midst of
northern variety of clime, product, and occupation, would have to expand
rapidly its store of speech to keep pace with the growing wealth of its expe-
riences. As regards grammatical change, all that assists the purity of linguistic
tradition tends to keep language the same; so, especially, culture, literature,
the habit of instructién. Careiul and pervading education reduces to a mini-
mum that immense and most important class of changes which begins in popu-
lar inaccuracies. On the other hand, the intermixture of races of diverse
speech, rendering necessary the elaboration, by mutual compromise, of a new
dialect for common use, tends powerfully to the disorganization of grammatical
structure. It is such a course which has made of our English the language
which, above all others, has yielded up most of the grammatical fabric which
was its birthright and inheritance.

The processes of alteration illustrated in the last lecture are familiarly spoken
of as going on in language itself, like fermentation in bread, or deplacement
and replacement in animal tissues. But it must not be forgotten that every
Separate item of change is the work of an individual or individuals. In lan-
guage, the ultimate atoms at work are not dead matter, but intelligent beings,
acting fora purpose. Lach, indeed, acts unpremeditatedly, and for the most
par unconsciously ; each only wants to use the common possession for his own

enefit, at his own convenience; yet cach is also an actor in the great work of
preserving and of shaping the general speech. Now, the infinite diversity of
circumstances and of characters in the speakers of language tends toward infi-
nite diversity in their action and its results; each would, acting independently,
impress upon its progress a somewhat different course. Linguistic develop-

y 102 PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE.

ment is thus the product of an infinity of divergent or ¢entrifugal forces. . The
great centripetal foree which holds them in check, and combines them into a
single direction, is the necessity of communication. Man is no soliloquist, and
that would not be language which was understood and employed by one only.
Each person is, in his own way, engaged in modifying language, but no one’s
action shapes the general speech unless it be accepted by the rest and become
common usage. Hach community must speak alike; whatever changes their
tongue may undergo must be ratified and adopted by them all.

Communication being thus the force which produces uniformity of speech, it
is clear that whatever narrows communication and tends to isolate communities
favors separation of a language into dialects ; whatever extends communication
and expands the limits of communities, tends to preserve language homoge-
neous. When a race is confined within narrow boundaries, however rapidly
its tongue may undergo the inevitable: processes of change, all will learn from
each and each from all, and they will continue to understand one anothér. But
if the race grow rapidly in numbers, spreading over region after region, and
sending out distant colonies, only favoring circumstances and conditions can
preserve its unity of speech. In a low state of civilization’ a maintenance of
the bonds of community over a wide area is impracticable; the tendency is to
clannish feeling, to separation into tribes; and multiplicity of dialects is the
natural consequence. Culture and enlightenment give a wonderful cohesive
force ; political. unity, national feeling, community of traditions and faith, make
strongly in favor of linguistic unity also; a traditional literature helps yet more
powertully to the same result; but, most of all, a written literature, and a sys-
tem of popular instruction. ‘The same causes which restrict the variation of
language in time, from generation to generation, restrict it also in space, from
region to region. Moreover, as community occasions and preserves identity of
speech, so it also has power to bring identity out of dissimilarity. The fusion
of communities causes the fusion of their forms of speech; the multiplication
and strengthening of the ties which bind together the sections of a people makes
for the effacement of differences already existing, the assimilation of dialects, and
the production of homogeneous language.

Both classes of influences—those which lead to diversity and those which
produce assimilation—are always at work, and a consideration of their joint
and mutual acjion is necessary to the explanation of the history of any lan-
guage, or family of languages’; but the former are more fundamental and in-
separable from linguistic growth; the latter are more external and incidental,
more varying in their mode and scale of operation. Language everywhere
tends to diversity, but circumstances connected with its use check, control, and
even reverse the tendency. ‘The division of a formerly homogeneous language
into dialects has been the rule in human history; the extinction of dialectic
differences, whether by the extinction or fusion with others of the peoples em-
ploying them, or by extension of the sway of single dialects, has been the ex-
ception, connected with the great facts of history, as the spread of empire and
civilization under the auspices of certain races. Misled by a too exclusive at-
tention to facts of the latter class, one or two modern authors of high rank have
been guilty of the paradox of holding that infinite dialectic division is the
normal primitive state of language, which tends to coalescence and assimilation.
A greater and more pernicious error could hardly be maintained.

‘The principles h@re laid down teach us how we are to proceed in classifying
and arranging the infinity of tongues now prevailing on the earth. Many of
them, at least, are the divergent branches of more original stocks. Languages
are to be grouped by their affinities: we are to rank together first those which

;

PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 103
*

are of closest and most evident relationship, and gradually to extend our scheme
till we have done all which the nature of the case permits ; tifi the evidence on
which we found our classification fails us.

That the slightly distinguished forms of speech prevailing in the different
sections of our own country, and even the more notable dialects which are to
be found among the lower orders of population in the British isles, constitute
together a single language, is too evident to call for proof. Let the man most
ignorant of history go about the world, from British colony to colony, finding
here and there, on coast and island, in fortress and city, communities of English-
speaking people, and he will not think of doubting that they were all scattered
thither irom a common centre, and have their common language by community
of linguistic tradition. A like conclusion is almost equally palpable when we
seek after kindred for our language on the continent of Kurope. There is a
large class of evidently related dialects, occupying the Netherlands, Germany,
Denmark, the Scandinavian peninsula, and Iccland, which a very little study
‘shows us to be akin with the more important half of our own tongue, that
which comes to us from the Anglo-Saxon. There is another large class in
southern Europe, comprising the French, Spanish, Portugticse, Italian, Rheto-
Romanie, and Wallachian, which exhibit an equally clear connexion with the
non-Saxon part of our familiar speech. If we say true, while the Dutchman
says ¢rouw, the German ¢reu, the Swede and Dane tro, &c., it is because we
have all received the same word in the same sense by uninterrupted tradition
from some community which used a form coincident with one of these, or nearly
resembling them all. So, also, if we say verity, while the Frenchman says
verité, the Italian verztd, the Spaniard verdad, &e. Recorded history, in fact,
fully explains the descent of this latter class of languages from a single mother,
the Latin, as it also makes clear why our English is composed of. materials
derived from both classes. What recorded history does not explain is the
more recondite, but not less undeniable evidence of relationship which we dis-
cover between these two classes themselves, as well as between them both and
most of the other languages of Europe, together with some of those of Asia.
These are, namely, the Greek, ancient and modern; the Slavonic, occupying
Russia, Poland, Bohemia, Servia, and other provinces in the eastern part of
Austria and the northern of Turkey; the Lithuanic, around the southern shore
of the Baltic; the Celtic, of which the scanty remains are now found in Ireland,
the Scotch highlands, Wales, and Brittany; and, outside of Europe, the tongues
of Iran, as the Persian, with its ancient and modern congeners, and its remoter
kindred, Kurdish, Armenian, Afghan, and Ossetie; and, finally, the languages
of India, the Sanscrit and its descendants.

These various branches go together to make up the great family of related
languages which’ we call the Indo-European. Their relation to one another is
‘the same in kind with that of the various Germanic dialects, or the Romanic,
and differs only in degree. The resemblances and coincidences which they
exhibit are explainable only upon the hypothesis of a common linguistic tradi-
tion; their differences are fully accounted for by their divergent growth and
development during the ages which have passed since their separation. A few
selected specimens of their accordance will be enough to give here, as their
relation is now a matter of general knowledge, and few or none are found to
doubt or deny it. Examples of words corresponding in all or nearly ail the
branches are as follows (the equivalent words in two or three unconnected
languages are also added for the sake of more fully exhibiting the value of the
coincidences) :

104 PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE:

.
'
Two. | Three, Seven. Thou, | Me. | Mother. | Brother. | Daughter.
| | |

Germanic -£2 22 2. - | Twa, | Thri Sibun. Thu. Mik. Muoter. | Brothar. | Dauhtar.
Lithuanic ..--.....-.- Du. | ‘Tri | Septyni. Tu. | Manén. | Moter. Brolis. Dukter.
Slavonic | Tri, | Sedmi. | Ti. | Man. Mater. | Brat. Dochy.
a a a 5 caks| | ‘Tri. Secht. | Tu, Me. Mathair.| Brathair. | Dear.
Latin - -- | ‘Tres, , Septem. | Tu. Me. Mater. Prater. | | - 2 cee.
Greate 22: | Treis, Hepta. | Su. Me. Meter. Phrator. | ‘Thusatep.
RATBIAR fae iajcn doin > y, Tri | Hapta. Tum. | Me, AT AT Se!) aicip iit in | eee
Sanscrit Tri Sapta. Twam. | Mé. Matar. Bhratar. | Duhitar.
Avabie 011). 19.700 | Ithn. | Thalath. | Sab’, Anta. | Ana. | Umm. | Akh. Bint.
atisigh= oof. S25 | Iki. | Uch, Yedi. Sen. | Ben. | Ana. Kardash. | Kiz.
Hungarian .-........| Ket. | Harom. | Het. Te: | Engem. | Anya. Fiver. Leany.

\ 1

But, to the historical student of language, correspondences of grammatical
structure are more unequivocal signs of near relationship than ¢orrespondences
of words, being less exposed to imputation of accidental origin. As striking
and convincing an example of this kind of evidence, perhaps, as any other is
furnished in the inflection of the verbal tenses, as follows:

Ihave. | Thouhast. | He hath. | Wehaye. | Ye have. | They have.

———— $s | —_ — | | SeSESSSSSSSSSSSSSFSFeMs

MeUMgMS Fe sees Sas v eos cess 3 Haba. Habai-s. Habai-th. | Haba-m. Habai-th. | Haba-nd.
NEA WANNG. sce coc aceon sonia sje ein —mi. -si. ti. —me. -te. -ti.
RIAVORIO Seth oslo cemanlsacticee se —mi. —si. ti. —mu. -te. —nti,
(COLIC eye ok Parisien boa tem eome ee mind |U8 2 Soe ee -d. —m. -d. -t.
MATES oe ape Siar oie Sle in serena mers Habeo. Habe-s. Habe-t. Habe-mus. | Habe-tis. Habe-nt.
Greek, (dialectic)../2: cn. bans —mi. si. -ti, —mes. —te. —nti,
Persian, (modern) .-....-....... =Mpds See ee ae -d, -m. -d. -nd,
BaNECiatee eet e hora teehee =mi. =si. -ti, —masi. -tha. -uti.

These are specimens, taken from among a host of others which crowd every
part of the grammar and vocabulary of the languages in question, and their
convincing weight it is impossible to deny. It is certain that at some time in
the past, and in some limited region of Asia or Europe, there lived a tribe from
whose rude speech have descended all those rich and cultivated tongues now
spoken and written by so many great nations of both the eastern and western
continents ; but to know just where and when is beyond our power. The claim
often set up that the home of the family was in the northeastern part of the
Iranian plateau, not far from the mountains of the Hindu-Koh, rests upon no
sufficient grounds. he traditions of no race reach back far enough to be
authoritative upon such a point. Nor is the testimony derivable from language
more conclusive. And to define, even with distant approach to confidence, the
time which the tongues of the family must have occupjed in running their
career of development is wholly impracticable. That the time of Indo-Euro-
pean unity must have been thousands of years before Christ is very certain.
Recent discoveries are proving that man’s antiquity is much greater than has
hitherto been usually supposed. Respecting the origin of particular races our
knowledge is likely ever to continue exceedingly indefinite. As to the grade
of civilization and mode of life, however, of the Indo-European family before
its dispersion, their language gives us reliable, though incomplete, information.
Words which are found in the speech of all the separated branches must have
appertained to the mother tongue, and must imply the knowledge or possession,
in that primitive period, of what they indicate. By such means we learn that
the tribe was not nomadic, and that it addicted itself to agriculture and the
raising of cattle. It reared our chief domestic animals. The region it inhabited
was varied, and not near the ocean; its most marked season was winter.
Barley, and perhaps wheat also, was raised for food. Certain metals were
worked, perhaps iron among them. Weaving was practiced. ‘he arms of
offence and defence were those usual among primitive peoples—the bow, sword,

PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 105

spear, and shield. Boats were built and managed by oars. The political organi-
zation was probably that of petty tribes. The relations of the family were well
and distinctly established. Some of the stars were noticed and named; the
moon was the chief measurer of time. The religion was polytheistic—a worship
of the personified powers of nature, and its rites were practiced without a
priesthood.

The present lecture is to be devoted to the further consideration of the Indo-
European family, to a brief exposition of its importance, and of the special
interest attaching to its language, and to some account of the history of the
latter.

One source of the especial interest which we feel in Indo-European speech
is found in the fact that our own language is one of its branches. This would
call for and justify a particular attention to it on our part, even did it lack
claims to the same from men of other races. But it does, in fact, possess such
claims, and that partly by reason of the historical importance of the peoples
which speak it, and their superior gifts, which lend prominent value to inquiries
into a matter which illustrates both. Since the first rise of the Persian empire,
the various branches of this family have borne a leading part in the drama of
universal history. Greece, however, the bitter foe and final conqueror of Persia,
was the chief founder of Indo-European greatness, and the most brilliant ex-
ample of Indo-European genius; in art and literature what the Hebrew race
has been in religion, and exerting an influence as unlimited in space and in
time. Rome next, inheriting the fruits of Gréek culture, gained the empire of
the world, and impressed upon all nations a political and social unity. Chris-
tianity itself, rejected by the Semitic race among whom it appeared, was taken
up by Indo-Europeans, and added a new bond of unity, a religious one, to the
ties by which Rome bound the world together. The Germans were mainly
instrumental in overthrowing the power of Rome; they gave monarchs to nearly
every throne in Hurope, and infused new blood into the effete populations; but
their devastations ushered in a period of darkness, during which it seemed for
a time as if the Semites, inspired with the fury of a new religion, (Mobam-
medanism,) were to succeed to the empire of humanity. With their repulse and
downfall began the last and most glorious era of Indo-European supremacy, in
the midst of which we live; when the races of that family are the undisputed
leaders, the acknowledged guardians and propagators of civilization. The
establishment of the unity of this family, and the light thrown from language
upon its history, constitute the most brilliant achievement of the new science
of language, which* began with its recognition, and has developed along with
its investigation. Indo-European language furnished such a grand body of
related facts as the science needed for its sure foundation. Its dialects have a
range, in period and variety of development, to which those of no other family
approach ; they illustrate the processes of linguistic growth upon an unrivalled
scale. The records of Chinese literature*go back, perhaps, to an antiquity as
great, or greater ; but the Chinese language is almost without a history. There
are Egyptian written documents which ‘are older than anything else the world
has to show, but they are scanty and obscure, and the Egyptian tongue also
stands comparatively isolated. ‘The Semitic languages come nearest to offering
. a parallel; but they, too, fall far short of it. While their age is nearly the same,
their variety is greatly inferior; ‘they are a group of closely related dialects, not
presenting greater differences than some single branches of the Indo-European
family, as, tor instance, the Germanic. And the other divisions of the human
race hardly cover, to any notable extent, time as well as space with their known
dialects; they offer us only their extant forms of speech. Now, much may be

106 PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE.

done, even with the aid of contemporary related dialects only, toward pene-
trating their common history, because one will be found to have preserved one
part, another another, of their ancestral tongues; but conclusions so reached
will be inferior both in copiousness and in certainty to those which are derived
from a comparative study of older and younger dialects, which illustrate the
laws of change in their progress, and trace, as it were, currents and courses of
development whose direction we can follow backward with confidence. This
advantage we enjoy, to the highest known degree, in the Indo-European lan-
guages. In the Germanic branch we have several different lines of linguistic
descent, extending through a period of 1,500 years; the English going back to
the Anglo-Saxon of the seventh century; the German nearly or quite as far;
the Scandinavian to a somewhat less remote period; while the venerable Gothie
of the fourth century (oldest of all) helps notably to bridge over the interval to
the primitive language of the family. Celtie literature is much less rich, and
also less ancient, carrying us up.to or beyond the tenth century. The oldest
of the numerous Slavonic dialects, the ancient Bulgarian, has monuments a
thousand years old. The Lithuanic is of much more recent date, but in many
of its forms more antique and primitive than any of the languages hitherto
referred to. The Romanic languages, through their mother, the Latin, take
us up to a few centuries beyond the Christian era; the Greek to toward a
thousand years before Christ. ‘The varied series of Persian tongues comes
down from an antiquity nearly equalling the Greek; and the Sanscrit, the
sacred language of ancient India, exceeding all the rest in age, and yet more in
its preservation of primitive material and forms, reaches in its oldest records an
epoch removed nearly 4,000 years from our own day.

In investigating this rich and varied body of kindred tongues, the new
science of language elaborated its processes and deduced its general laws, ap-
plicable, with such modifications as the separate cases require; to other families
also. The general method of study is everywhere the same, being conditioned
by the nature of language itself, as a thing of historic growth, and by the
capacity of related languages to cast light upon each other’s history. Historie
analysis, by the aid of an extensive and careful comparison of kindred forms, is
the grand means of research. From this its fundamental method, the science,
in its growing stage, bore for some time the familiar name of ‘comparative
philology.” ‘The comparison must be made in a scientific and orderly manner,
proceeding from the nearer to the more remotely connected, from the clearer to
the more obscure; but, finally, all language is brought within its sphere, and
the full meaning of each linguistic fact is read in the light of every other,
diverse as well as correspondent.

The history of Indo-European speech has been more carefully read, and is
better understood, than that of any other grand division of human language—
imperfect as is still our comprehension of much that concerns it, partly owing
to the incomplete analysis of evidence still preserved, but partly also to the
irreparable loss of evidence. Some of the principal facts in that history are
worthy of further attention. .

The chief processes in the growth of the languages of our family have been
shown to be the combination of old material into new words, with accompany-
ing corruption and mutilation of phonetic form and independent meaning.
These processes may go on in the future to an indefinite extent, with constant
evolution from each form of speech of another slightly differing from it, until
the descendants of every existing dialect shall be so unlike their ancestors
that their relationship shall be scarcely discoverable. The question arises,
whether there has been the same indefinite progress in the past, without
traceable sign of an actual beginning. This inquiry is to be answered in the
negative; the evidence of language points distinctly back to an earliest con-
dition, or commencement of history; our analysis brings us finally to élements

PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 107

which we must regard as original. First, it must be claimed that our analyses are
real, and not imaginary; they are the retracing of the steps of a previous
synthesis. This is palpably the case with the latest of them, as in the case
of truthful (truthful) and godly (god-like) ; it is equally.clear, too, as regards
all the formative apparatus which is peculiar to the Germanic languages, since
this must have been elaborated by them from their own materials, since the ©
separation of the Germanic branch from the rest of the family. But there is
no stopping in this series of admissions. Every word-clement, separable by
analysis, of which the genesis can be shown, which can be carried back to a
word having an independent status in the language, must have been appended
as an independent vocable to the words with which it was first connected.
And even more. Considering how easily the evidence of origin becomes oblit-
erated by the processes of phonetic alteration, we may not deny a former in-
dependence to formative elements of which we cannot now trace the genesis.
The parts into which etymological analysis separates our words are, as a uni-
versal rule, those by the actual putting together of which the words in ques-
tion were once made up. In analyzing zrrevocability, for example, we take
off affix after aflix, leaving each time a word to which that affix had been
added, till at last is left only the syllable voc, which conveys the idea of ‘“call-
ing,” and which, though nowhere appearing in its naked form in actual use,
we must believe to have existed before any one of the various aflixes with
which we find it in combination was appended to it. To suchsyllables, which
we call roots, we everywhere arrive by pushing our analytical process to the
utmost, and these we believe to be the germs out of which language has actu-+
ally grown. In other words, the Indo-European languages began with an
original monosyllabic stage. From monosyllabic roots, by processes not differ-
ing in nature trom those which are still in operation, has been developed the
marvellous and richly varied structure of our modern speech. ‘Tis is a truth,
the recognition of which has been reached, almost with unanimity, by students
of language ; the objections which are urged against it by the few who refuse
it their belief are founded in misapprehension and prejudice, and are of no
avail.

The Indo-European roots are of two classes: roots of position, demonstra-
tive or pronominal roots, and roots of quality, predicative or verbal roots. The
former form chiefly pronouns and prepositions; the latter, verbs and nouns.
Pronominal roots denote the relations of things to the speaker as regards place ;
their fundamental distinction is between the ¢his and the that, the nearer and
the remoter object. They are of the simplest phonetic form, generally a sim-
ple consonant with a following vowel, composing an open syllable, and they
are but few in number. The verbal roots are more numerous, counting by
hundreds, and they are of every variety of form, from a simple vowel toa
vowel both preceded and followed by one or more consonants. Instances are:
2 and gd, denoting simple motion; ak, swift motion; std, standing; vas, stay-
ing ; sad, sitting; pad, walking; vart, turning; pat, flying; ad, eating; pd,
drinking; vid, seeing; vak, speaking; dd, giving; garbh, grasping; dik,
pointing out; dbhar, ‘bearing; kar, making; bandh, binding; bid, shining ;
bhi, growing, &c., &c. They represent each its own meaning in its naked-
ness of all limitations or applications, in a state of indeterminateness from
which it is equally ready to take on the semblance of verb, substantive, or
adjective.

The first beginnings of polysyllabism were made by compounding together
roots of the two classes. Thus, the addition to the root wah, “speaking,” of
the pronominal elements mi, sz, t, produced combinations to which usage as-
signed the meaning “I speak, thou speakest, he speaks,” laying in them the
same idea of predication which we put into the ambiguous word dove, when we
say “Ilove.” Other pronominal elements, modified or combined to express

108 PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE.

duality and plurality, formed the other numbers of this simple verbal tense.
The prefixion of an augment, an adverbial prefix, pointing to a “then” or
“there” as one of the conditions of the action, gave a past tense; reduplica-
tion, symbolizing the completion of the action, produced a perfect. The future
and the moods, subjunctive and optative, were chiefly formed by composition
with the developed forms of other roots,, signifying ‘to be” and ‘to desire.”
Expansions of the verbal scheme, down to such late formations as the Germanic
preterit (I love-d = I love-did) and the Romanic future (j’aimer-ai = j'ai &
aimer, “1 have to love,’’) are very numerous and various. The same root of
action or quality, by the addition of other affixes, in part of pronominal origin,
in part derived from other verbal roots, had its indefiniteness limited to expres-
sion of the person or thing possessing the quality or exerting or suffering the
action, or of the act or quality itself; and the forms so created became the basis
of still further modification and combination. Thus arose nouns, substantive
and adjective; for the two classes are originally and in idea but one. Things
were named as the possessors of qualities or acts, not in the way of definition
or complete description, but by seizing on some notable characteristic, and
making it stand as representative of the rest. Nouns were provided with case-
terminations; these varied the themes to which they were appended, as to num-
ber, whether singular, dual, or plural; as to gender, whether male, female, or
neither of the two, (and this, as already noticed, upon an ideal scheme of classi-
fication ;) and as to case, or kind of relation sustained to the action of the sen-
tence, whether as subject, direct object, or indirect object, with implication of
the relations which we express by the use of the prepositions ¢o, 7m, with, from,
for, and of. Hight such cases were possessed by the primitive language ; the
Anglo-Saxon retained five of them; we have saved but one of the oblique
cases, the genitive, (our “ possessive.’’) Prepositions, adverbial prefixes to the
verb, of mixed pronominal and verbal origin, were from a very early time im-
portant aids in directing and limiting the action expressed by the verb; these
only later, and by degrees, detached themselves from the verb, and came to
belong to the noun, assuming the office of its disappearing case-endings. The
article is the part of speech of most modern origin, the definite article growing
out of the demonstrative pronoun, the indefinite out of the numeral one.

At what rate these processes of growth went on at the beginning, how rapid
was the development out of monosyllabic barrenness into the wealth and fer-
tility of inflective speech, we can never hope to know. The eonditions of that
ancient period, and the degree in which they could quicken the now sluggish
processes of word-combination and formation, are beyond our ken. We know
only that, before the separation of the Indo-European tribe into the branches
which later became the nations of Europe and southwestern Asia, so much of
this linguistic development had taken place that its traces remain uneffaced,
even to the present day, in the languages of them all; and, also, that the work
was accomplished hundreds of years, if not thousands, before the light of re-
corded history breaks upon the very oldest member of the family.

é

Much of what has been shown to be true of the history of Indo-European
language is true also of that of other divisions of the human race. All the
varied forms of speech which fill the earth have grown into their present
shape by development out of such simple elements as we have called roots;
roots, too, have been everywhere of the same two classes, pronominal and ver-
bal, and the earliest forms have beeh produced especially by the combination
of the two. Linguistic families are made up of those languages which have
recognizably descended, in the ordinary course of linguistic tradition, from a
common ancestor. But these great families are found to differ from one
another, not only in their material, but also in their management of it; in their

PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 109

apprenension of the grammatical relations to be expressed by the combination
of elements, and in the general way in which they apply their resources to the
expression of these relations. Indo-European languages are what is generally
called “inflective.” By this is meant, that they show a peculiar aptitude in
closely combining the radical and formal elements, forgetting their separate
individuality, and accepting the compound as integral sign of the thing indi-
cated; submitting it then, as a whole, to the altering processes of linguistic
growth. ‘This tendency shows itself very differently in different constituents
of the language: in wntruthfully, for example, the four elements are held in-
dependently apart; while in sing, sang, sung, song, inflection has reached its
extreme result, substituting an, internal variation for original aggregation. The
value of this distinction will appear more clearly as we go on to consider the
characteristics of the other great families. We will take them up in an order
partly geographical, partly based upon their relative importance.

The second family is the Semitic, or Shemitic, so called because the descent
of most of the nations speaking its languages is traced in the Bible to Shem.
Its principal branches are: 1. The northern, Syriac or Aramaic. 2. The
central, Hebrew and Phenician. 3. The southern, Arabic, with its outliers in
Eastern Africa, the languages of Abyssinia. It is a strongly marked group,
and, though occupying but a narrow territory, is of prime consequence, from
the conspicuous part which the race speaking it has played in the history of
the world. In the great empires of Mesopotamia the Semitic race first rose to
high importance; then in the commercial and civilizing activity of the Phe-
nicians, whose colony, Carthage, long disputed the dominion of the world with
Rome. Meantime, the politically almost insignificant little people of the
Hebrews were producing a religion and religious literature, which, made uni-
versal by Christ, were to become the mightiest, elements in history. Finally,
in the Mohammedan uprising, the third branch of the race advanced suddenly
to a leading place, and for a while threatened even to reduce to vassalage the
Indo-European nations; and it is still a conquering and civilizing power in
parts of Asia and Africa.

The Semitic type of language is also inflective, like the Indo-European, but
not in such a way as implies any historical connexion between the two. The
Semitic tongues are in many respects of a more strange and isolated character
than any others known. ‘Their most fundamental peculiarity is the triliterality
of their roots, every Semitic verbal root containing just three consonants.
And it is composed only of consonants: their vocalization is almost solely a
means of grammatical flexion. Thus, g-t-/ is a root conveying the idea of
“killing ;” then gatala means ‘he killed;” qutda, “he was killed;” ugtwl,
“kill ;” gat, “killing ;” zgtal, “causing to kill;” gat, “‘murder;” qitl,
“enemy;”’ gut/, “murderous ;” and so on. Prefixes and suffixes are also used,
but to only a limited extent; there is little left for them to do; the formation
of derivative from derivative, by accumulation of affixes, is almost totally un-
known. This significant vocalization is, to our knowledge, an ultimate fact in
Semitic speech in all its forms, as is the radical triliterality ; but it seems im-
possible to regard the latter, especially, as absolutely original ; and many at-
tempts are made, with but indifferent success as yet, to reduce the roots to a
simpler and less Procrustean form, out of which they should be a development.
The different languages are of very near relationship, like German, Dutch, and
Swedish, rather than like German, French, and Russian, for instance. Nor
have they varied in the course of their gecorded history to anything like the
same extent with the Indo-European languages. Everything in Semitic speech
wears an aspect of peculiar rigidity.

The Semitic verb is strikingly unlike ours in its apprehension of the element
of time. It distinguishes only two tenses, whose chief distinction is that of
complete and incomplete action: each may be, in different circumstances, either

110 PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE.

past, present, or future. Of wealth of modal forms there is but little; distine-
tions of the action of transitive, causal, intensive, iterative, reflexive, and the
like, by so-called conjugations, are multiplied instead. In their nouns, the
Semites distinguish two genders, masculine and feminine, and three numbers ;
but cases are almost wanting, only the Arabic separating nominative, genitive, —
and accusative. The substantive verb is mostly wanting. ‘The language is
poor in particles and connectives ; sentences are strung together, not interwoven
into a period. ‘The characteristic stiffness is also shown in the development of
signification. Words applied to intellectual and moral uses remain metaphors ;
the figure shows through, and cannot be lost sight of. Semitic speech, then, is
rather pictorial, forcible, vivid, than adapted to calm and reasoning philosophy.

The next family of languages is one of much greater extent and’variety. It
covers the whole northern portion of the eastern continent, with most of Central
Asia, and parts of both Asia and Europe lying further south. We will call it
the Seythian family ; it is known also by several other names, as Ural-Altaic,
Tataric, Mongolian, Turanian. It is divided into five principal branches: 1.
The Ugrian, or Finno-Hungarian, which is chiefly European in situation, in-
cluding the languages of the Lapps, the Finns, and the Hungarians, with their
congeners in the Russian territories, on both sides of the Ural. 2. The Samoi-
edic, in Siberia, of small consequence. 3. The Turkish, or Tataric, spoken by
races who have played some conspicuous part in modern history, especially in
the dismemberment of the Mohammedan empire: its subdivisions are numerous,
and extend from Turkey in Europe to the lower Lena, in Northern Siberia. 4.
The Mongolian, the language of a people who in the 13th century overwhelmed
nearly all the monarchies of Europe, and established for a brief period an em-
pire the widest the world has ever seen: the Mongols now live in insignificance
under Chinese domination. 5. The 'Tungusic, in the extreme east, having for
its principal branch the Manchu, spoken by the present ruling dynasty and
tribe in China. .

The Scythian races have played but a subordinate part in human affairs.
War and devastation have been their chief trade: they have shown no aptitude
for advancing civilization, and but little for appropriating it. No written mon-
uments of their languages carry us back to a past at all remote. But it is
claimed of late by students of the Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions, that
one of their languages is a Scythian dialect, of the Finno-Hungarian branch,
and even that those who spoke it were the founders of the civilization of that
region. If this is established as true, it will greatly modify the aspect of an-
cient ethnological history.

The linguistic tie which binds together the branches of this great family is
but a weak one, much less unequivocal than in the other families we have noted.
There is less correspondence between them in linguistic material and forms ;
either their separation is very remote, or they have had a peculiarly mobile and
alterable structure. Their chief resemblances are of morphological character ;
they are all alike “ agglutinative ;” the combinations by which their words are
formed are of a loose nature; the root or theme is held apart from the suffixes,
and these from one another, with a distinctive consciousness of their separate
individuality. All formative elements follow the root to which they are attached ;
prefixes are unused; the root, which is monosyllabic, remaining pure and un-
changed, whatever accretions it may receive. It, however, usually affects the
suffixes, in a manner which constitutes one of the striking phonetie peculiarities
of the family. ‘The vowels are divided into two classes, heavy and light, and
only vowels of the same class are allowed to occur within the limits of the same
word; hence, the vowels of all suffixes are assimilated to that of the root. Thus,
in ‘Turkish, from 4a6¢ comes babd-lar-um-dan, “from our fathers ;’? while from
dedeh comes dede-ler-in-den, “from their grandfathers.’ This is usually called

»

PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 111

the “law of harmonic sequence of vowels.” Varieties and irregularities of
conjugation and declension are almost wholly wanting in Scythian grammar.

The rank of the Scythian languages in the general scale of human speech,
notwithstanding their euphonious structtre and great wealth of forms in certain
departments, is but an inferior one. ‘Those of the western or European branch
are decidedly the noblest, and they diminish in value eastward, the Tungusic
being the poorest of all.

There are those who would give the Scythian family a yet wider extension,
even making it include most of the other Asiatic tongues, with those of the
islands. Such sweeping classification, in the present state of our knowledge,
has no scientific value, and is even opposed to the plainest evidences of lin-
guistic structure and material. One group, that of the Tamulic or Dravidian
dialects of Southern India, is most confidently, and with most plausibility, claimed
as Scythian, and may probably yet be proved such.

China and Farther India are occupied by races whose languages form a sin-
gle class. Their distinction is that they are monosyllabic; they have never
grown out of that original stage in which, as we have seen, Indo-European
speech also had its beginning. ‘Their words are still roots, of indeterminate
logical form; they are made parts of speech only by the consenting apprehen-
sion of speaker and hearer, guided by their order and by the general require
ments of the sense. But while the different languages of the class agree in
general morphological character, they show great diversity in material, and the
nature and degree of their relationship is very obscure. The’ Chinese is infi-
nitely the most important among them. Its abundant literature goes back even
into the second thousand years before Christ. It has only about 450 different
phonetic combinations in its vocabulary; which, however, by change in the
tone of utterance, are made into rather more than twice that number of distinct
words. Yet this scanty apparatus, by the power which the mind has over its
instrument, has been the means of expression of far higher, profounder, and
more varied thought, than the majority of highly organized dialects spoken’
among men. China has been the mother of culture to the races lying south,
east, and west of her tore the rest of the world she has affected mainly
through the products of h€r ingenuity and industry.

Those who speak the Malay-Polynesian languages fill all the islands, from
the coast of Asia southward and eastward, from Madagascar to the Sandwich
group, from New Zealand to Formosa. Only the present spoken dialects are
known, and most of those but very imperfectly, sa that their groupings and
degrees of relationship are little understood: there may prove to be more than
one distinct family among them. Their phonetic form is of the simplest kind.
Their roots are prevailingly dissyllabic in form, and of nominal rather than ver-
bal meaning. Reduplication is a common mode of their development; the rest
is accomplished more by prefixes than suflixes. Anything that can properly
be called a verbal form is. hardly to be found in most of the dialects; mood,
tense, number, gender, case, are wanting.

The oldest dated monuments of ancient culture, the oldest written records,
are found in the valley of the Nile. The earliest form of Egyptian speech is
preserved on tables of stone and rolls of papyrus held by dead hands; a later,
the Coptic, has a Christian literature of the first centuries after Christ, but the
Coptic also has been extinct now for more than two centuries. It was of the
simplest structure; its monosyllabic roots had value as verbs and as nouns,
and only primary derivatives were formed from them; nor were its sutlixes,
for the most part, more closely attached than those of the Scythian family.
In some of its constructions it was as bald as the Chinese, and even more am-
biguous. It agrees with the Indo-European and Semiiic languages in distin-
guishing gender in its forms; no other human languages do this. There are
apparent signs of relationship betweeu Egyptian and Semitic which lead many

112 PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. a

scholars to entertaifi the confident opinion that the two descend from a com-
mon ancestor; this, however, is as yet by no means to be regarded as certain.
Many of the tongues of Northern Africa, and the Hottentot and Bushman, in
South Africa, are also asserted to exhibit signs of an ultimate connexion with
Egyptian. Excepting those dialects which are cither clearly Semitic, or
claimed to be of kindred with Semitic or Egyptian, Africa is filled with a —
great variety of tongues, forming a distinct family. They are, in a certain ©
way, rich in forms, and have some striking and peculiar traits. ‘The use of
preformatives characterizes them; a root never appears without a prefix of
some kind, and the prefixes are varied to accord with that of the dominant
word in the sentence, producing a kind of syntactical alliteration.

‘There remains for consideration, of the great families of human speech, only
that one which occupies the American continent. It is too ‘vast and varied to
be dealt with here in any detail. Isolation of communities and the consequent
indefinite separation into dialects have been carried in America to an extreme.
Moreover, there is a peculiar changeableness of material, hard to explain and
account for, which causes that two branches of a tribe which have been sep-
arated but a brief time speak languages which are mutually unintelligible,
and of which it is even hard to trace the relationship. But it is believed that
a fundamental unity lies at the base of all the infinite variety of American
dialects, from the Arctic Circle to Cape Horn; whatever their differences of
material, there is a single type or plan on which their forms are developed and
their constructions made. It is called the incorporative, or polysynthetic. It
tends to the aggregation of the parts of the sentence into one great word; to
the substitution of an intricate compound for the phrase with its separated and
balanced numbers.

No linguistic evidence of any réal value has yet been adduced going to show
the affinity of American with Asiatic language, nor has the time yet come for
_a fruitful discussion of the question. ‘To make a bare and immediate compari-
son of the modern dialects of the two continents is altogether futile. When
the comparative philology of the separate families is fully worked out, from
the collation and analysis of all attainable material in each, if we shall find
ourselves in a position to judge and decide the qu@8tion of Asiatic derivation,
we shall have reason.to rejeice at it. What we have to do at present is sim-
ply to learn all that we possibly can about the aboriginal languages of this
continent ; our national honor and duty are peculiarly concerned in the work,
toward which, with too much reason, European scholars accuse us of indiffer-
ence and inefticiency. The Smithsonian Institution has recently taken up the
subject, under special advantages and with laudable zeal, and all Americans
should countenance and assist its efforts by every means in their power.

Before closing this cursory and imperfect review of the great families of hu-
man language, we should glance at one or two isolated languages or groups,
hitherto unclassified. One of the most noteworthy is the Basque, spoken on
the borders of France and Spain by the representatives of the ancient Iberi-
ans, and perhaps the scanty relic of a race earlier than the irruptions of the
Scythian and Indo-European tribes. Another is the Etruscan, of Italy, saved
in scanty inscriptions, which offer an unsolved and probably insoluble problem
to the linguistic student. In the Caucasian mountains, again, appears a little
knot of idioms which have defied the efforts of scholars to connect them with
other known forms of speech. Each family has, as may be seen even from
our hasty sketch, its own peculiar characteristics, which distinguish it from
every other. By such sweeping classifications of them as into monosyllabic
and polysyllabic, into isolating, agglutinative, and inflectional, or the like, little
or nothing is gained. ‘True classification must be founded on a consideration

* . .
od PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 118
>»
of the whole complicate structure of the languages classified ; it must, above
| all, be historical, holding together, and apart from others, those groups which
give evidence of genetic derivation from a common original.

- On reviewing this division of the families of language, any one will be struck
by its non-agreement with the divisions based on physical characteristics. This

brings up the important question as to the comparative value of linguistic and
physical evidence of race. A reconciliation of their seeming discordance must
e sought and finally found, for the naturalist and linguist are both trying to
work out the same problem—the actual genealogical history of human races—
and they cannot disregard each other’s results. Their harmonious agreement
can only be the result of the greatly advanced and perfected methods and con-
clusions of both. Nothing more can be attempted here than to note certain
general considerations bearing upon the subject.

In the first place, language is no certain evidence of descent. As was shown
in the first lecture, language is not inherited, but learned, and often from
teachers of other blood than the learner. Nor does mixture of language prove
mixture of race. ‘The Latin part of our vocabulary was brought us by men of

Germanic descent, who learned it from Celts and Germans, and they from a
mixed mass of Italians. ‘These defects of linguistic evidence have always to
be borne in mind by those who are drawing conclusions in linguistic ethnology.
But their effect must not be exaggerated ; nor must it be overlooked that physi-
cal evidence has quite as important defects. The kind and amount of modifi-
eation which external circumstances can introduce into a race-type is as yet
undetermined. Many eminent naturalists are not unwilling to allow that all
existing differences among men may be the effect of processes of variation, and that
the hypothesis of different origins is at least unnecessary. Hence, as a race
may change its language, and not its physical type, it may also do the con-
trary. Language may retain traces of mixture undiscoverable otherwise. Lan-
guage may more readily and surely than physiology distinguish mixed from
transitional types. In many respects linguistic evidence has a greatly superior
practical value ; differences of language are much the more easily apprehended,
described, and recorded. Individual differences, often obscuring race-differences
of a physical characte1, disappear in language. Testimony coming down from
remote times is much more accessible and authenticable in language. Discord
between the two, or question as to relative rank, there is none, or ought to be
none. Both are equally legitimate and necessary modes of approaching the
solution of the same difficult and, in its details, insoluble problem, man’s origin
and history. Each has its notable limitations, and needs all the aid it can get
from the other and from recorded history to supply its defects and control its
conclusions. But the part which language has to perform in constructing the
ethnological history of the race must be much the greater. In laying down
grand outlines, in settling ultimate questions, the authority of physiology may
be superior ; but the filling up of details, and the conversion of a barren elassi-

fication into a history, must be mainly accomplished by linguistic science.
Another important question is, what has the study of language to say re-
specting the unity of the human race? This question can already be pretty
confidently answered, but the answer must be a negative one only. Linguistic
science can never hope to give any authoritative decision upon the subject. To
show that it can never pretend to prove the ultimate variety of human races is
very easy. It regards language as something which has grown by degrees out
of scanty rudiments. It cannot assume that these rudiments were preggeed
by any other agency than that which made their after combinations. It cannot
say how long a time may have been occupied in the formation of reots, or how
long the monosyllabic stage may have lasted ; and it must confess it altogether
8s

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| | | 114 |» PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCTE

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**on the negative side. If it may possibly be hoped that their connexion will

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possible that an original man race should have separated into tribes 2
the formation of any lan e so distinctly developed, and of such fixed forms,, —
as should leave traceable fragments in the later dialects of the atindered por-
tions. Among all the varieties of human speech there are no differences which
are not fully explainable upon the hypothesis of unity of descent. iy

That the linguistic student also cannot bear positive testimony in tater
such descent is equally demonstrable, although not by so direct an argument
There is here no theoretic impediment in the way, buta practical one. It mig
be hoped that traces of an original unity would be discoverable in all pa of
human language; only examination could show that such is not the cas |
investigation, however incomplete, has already gone far enough to le no
reasonable expectation of making the discovery.

The processes of linguistic change alter the constituent parts of language in —
every manner and to every degree, producing not only utter difference between
words which were originally one, but also apparent correspondence between
those which are radically unconnected. There are no two languages on the
face of the earth between which a diligent search may not bring to light resem-
blances which are easily proved by alittle historical study to be no signs of rela-
tionship, but only the result of accident. Now, the more remote the time of sepa-
ration of two related languages, the more numerous will be their differences, the
more scanty their resemblances ; hence, the more ambiguous will be the indica-
tions of their connexion; until finally a point is reached where it is impossible
to decide whether apparent coincidences which we discover are genuine, or only
accidental, and evidence of nothing; and, in the comparison of languages, that
point is actually reached. When we come to hold together the forms of speech
belonging to different families, the evidence fails us. It is no longer of force to
prove anything to our satisfaction. The families are composed of such lan-
guages as can be seen to have grown together out of the radical stage. If there
is community between them, it must lie in their roots alone; and to give the
comparison this form is virtually to abandon it as hopeless. To trace out the
roots of any family, in their ultimate form and primitive signification, is a task
of the very gravest difficulty. By the help of the great variety and an-
tiquity of its dialects, and especially by the Sanserit, the task can be somewhat
satisfactorily accomplished for the Indo-European tongue; but the Semitic
roots, as already explained, are of the most perplexingly developed form. Radi-
cal correspondences among the great branches of the Scythian family are hardly
sufficient to prove the ultimate relationship of those branches; and to hope that,
in the blind confusion of Malay, African, and American dialects,* linguistic
analysis will ever arrive at a confident recognition of their primitive germs, is
altogether futile. Accidental correspondences are, if anything, more likely to ap-
pear among roots than in the forms of developed speech. Authorities are much
divided upon the question whether the Indo-European and Semitic families are
proved connected, with a decided preponderance of the best and safest opinions

|
|
|
|

yet be established, with the help of evidence coming from outside of language,
the same hope cannot be entertained as to the connexion of either of these with
any other family, and yet less as to the inter-connexion of all the families.
We come, finally, to consider the origin of language. We may claim that
the problem has been greatly simplified by what has already been proved as to
the history of speech. Did we find the latter everywhere and always a com-
‘pletely developed and complicated apparatus, we might be tempted to despair of
explaining its origin otherwise than by the simple hypothesis of a miraculous
agency. But we have seen that the wealth of the noblest tongues comes by
slow accumulation from an early poverty. We have only to satisfy ourselves how
men should have become possessed, at first, of the seanty and hum bieens of
language. And, in the first place, there is no reason for supposing them

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generated by any other.agency than that which is active in their after combi-

nation and development; namely, by the conscious exertion of man’s natural
powers, by eee of the faculties conferred upon him for the satisfaction of the
necessities implanted in him. In this way, and in no other, is language a di-
vine gift. It is divine in the sense that man’s nature, with all its capacities and
mar ents, is a divine creation. It is human, in that it is a product of that
are, in its normal workings. : ,
is highly important that we make clear to ourselves what is the directly
mpelling foree to the production of language. It is not any internal and
necessary impulse to expression on the part of thought itself, although this is
ry often maintained; it is the desire of communication. One man alone would
never form a language. ‘Two children could not grow up together without ac-
quiring some means of exchange of thought. Language is not thought, nor
thought language ; noris there a mysterious and indissoluble connexion between
the two, so that we cannot conceive of the existence of the one apart from the
other. But thought would be awkward, feeble, and indistinct, without the
working apparatus afforded it in language. ‘The mind, deprived of such an in-
strument, would be, as it were, lamed and palsied. The possession of ideas,
cognitions, reasonings, deductions, imaginings, hopes, cannot be denied to the
deaf and dumb, even when untaught any substitute for spoken language ; nor,
indeed, even to the lower animals, in greatly inferior and greatly varying degree.
Thought is anterior to language and independent of it. It does not require ex-
pression in order to be thought. The incalculable advantage which it derives
from its command of speech, though a necessary implication in the gift of
speech to man, comes incidentally, growing out of that communication which
man must and will have with his fellow. A word, then, is not a thought; it
isthe sign of thought, arbitrarily selected and conventionally agreed upon.
It is the fashion to cry down the use of the word conventional as applied to
language; but, rightly understood, it precisely expresses the fact. It does not
imply the holding of a convention and formal discussion, but the acceptance and
adoption into use, on the part of a community, of something proposed by an in-
dividual ; and in no other way, as has been shown above, does anything in
language originate; nor didit, back to the very beginning. Every root-syllable
was first used in its peculiar sense by some one, and became language by the
assent of others. ;
These considerations relieve the remaining part of our problem of much of its
difficulty. Under the outward impulse to communication, thought tends irre-
sistibly toward expression: it will have expression, and, were it destitute of
articulate speech, it would have sought and found other means—gestures, atti-
tudes, looks, written signs, any or all of these. But the voice was the appointed
and provided means of supplying this great want, and no race of men, accord-
ingly, is found unprovided with articulate speech. It remains to inquire how
men should have discovered what the voice was meant for, and have applied it
to its proper use. Several theories have been proposed in explanation of this.
One, the onomatopoetic, supposes that the first names of objects and acts were
generated by imitation of the cries of animals and the noises of dead nature;
_ another, the interjectional, regards the natural sounds which we utter when in
.a state of excited feeling, our exclamations, as the beginnings of speech ; another
compares man’s utterance with the ringing of natural substances when struck,
and holds’ that man has an instinctive faculty for giving expression to the
rational conceptions of his mind. The last of these is believed to be destitute
of all value, as grounded in unsound theory, and supported by nothing in our
experience or observation. The other two are so far true that it must be granted
that exclamations and imitated sounds helped men to realize that they had in
_ their voices that which was capable of being applied to express the movements
_ of their spirits. But the study of language brings to light no interjectional

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roots; and onomatopoetic ones, although sometimes met with, are rare, at least
in the better known families of language, and in great part of late formation.
Evidence does not show, and theory does not require, that the actual beginnings
‘ of speech should have been of either character. The process of root-making
was in much the greatest part a free and arbitrary one; it was, as we may with
especial propriety call it, a tentative process, a devisal and experimental pro-
posal of signs, to be thenceforth associated by a community with conceptions
which pressed for representation. Objective and absolute connexion between
sound and sense there was none, except in words of onomatopoetic formation ;
of a subjective connexion, a geiding analogy, wee catch occasional glimpses,
or seem to catch them; they are too subtle and evanescent to be believed in.
with confidence, nor have we ground for suspecting their wide occurrence.
There is thus enough of obscurity, of uncertainty, resting upon the earliest pe-
riod of linguistic growth ; but of mystery, hardly any ; the process is not beyond

our ken, although its details are out of our knowledge. ‘3
Of all animals, man is the only one that has proved himself capable of origi-
nating a language. Yor this, the general reason, that man’s endowments are
Pe vastly higher than those of the inferior races, is the best that can be given.
When philosophers shall have determined precisely wherein lies man’s supe-
_‘Mority, they will at the same time have explained his exclusive possession of
speech. If, however, it were necessary to say in what mode of action lay that
deficiency of power in the lower animals which, more than any other, put lan-
guage out of their reach, we should incline to maintain that it was the power of
distinct reflection on the facts of consciousness ; of analyzing impressions, and
setting their parts so clearly before the internal sense as to perceive that each
: is capable of a distinct sign. Many animals come so near to a capacity for lan-
guage as to be able to understand and be directed by it, when addressed to them
by man; nor is their condition without analogy with that of very young chil-
i dren; whose power of comprehending language is developed much earlier and
. more rapidly than their power of employing it. It may well be questioned
whether, as regards capacity for speech, the distance from the unimpressible
* oyster, for instance, to the intelligent dog, is not vastly greater than that from

the dog to the lowest and least cultivable races of men. ee
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. MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE,
ke BY M. ELIE Wee none ,

ERPETUAL SECRETARY OF THE FRENCH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
‘-
-

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C, A. ALEXANDER,

-

To this Academy no species of scientific renown is alien; and if such men as
la Pérouse, d’Entrecasteaux, Baudin, Dumont d’Urville, have disappeared
from the stage of the world without having been numbered in its ranks, it was
because an inauspicious destiny arrested their career. Their place here was
already marked. To have obtained it would have been to them, next to the
consciousness of duty fulfilled, the highest of gratifications. To you, gentle-
men, the privilege of crowning their memorable labors by your suftrages would
have been a subject of the most just self-congratulation. Those labors death,
which has snatched away their authors, has not withdrawn from your domain.

‘It is still grateful to you to extol them, and your committee has concurred with

me in thinking that I could prefer no better claim to your favorable attention
than by attempting to retrace, on this occasion, the life of a colleague who knew
how to obtain and to justify all your sympathies, and whose name invariably
recalls those of the heroes of hydrography we have named, of whom he was,
with better fortunes and not less daring, the companion, the rival, or the master.

Charles-Frangois Beautemps-Beaupré was born August 6, 1766, at Neuville
au Pont, a village situated one league north of Sainte Menehold, in that part
of Champagne which now forms the department of the Marne. His father was
an unpretending tiller of the soil, and the young Francois, who seemed destined
to cultivate, in his turn, the rather prosaic fields of that worthy country, passed
his first years in youthful sports on the pleasant hills which, branching from
the Argonne, agreeably diversify the banks of the Aisne. His constitution,
naturally robust, and strengthened by country exercise, received on one occa-
sion a severe shock. While heedlessly playing with the rope of the parochial
bell he fell with violence, and sustained such injuries of the head as to make
trepanning necessary. ‘The operation was no doubt skilfully performed, for
the young sufferer became, with advancing years, a man of tall stature, of a

noble and expressive mien, and retained, for nearly eighty years, the use of the ©

exalted faculties which won him a place in this assemblage. I have not been
able to recover the name of the modest provincial surgeon to whom, under
Providence, our colleague was indebted for life and intelligence, and who, per-
haps, never knew the full value of the head he had been instrumental in re-
storing.

M. Beautemps-Beaupré passed, indeed, only the years of childhood at his’
native village. Among his relations was an eminent geographer, M. Jean Nico-
las Buache, the head of a geographical establishment derived by collateral in-
heritance from the family of Delisle—a family wholly devoted to science, and

known, through more than a century, for its connexion with almost every pub-
Tication relating to geography, astronomy, and the marine. M. Buache, visit-

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118 P MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE. - %

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tenance of his young relative. He was pleased at the idea of associating with
himself a docile intelligence which might be trained to the conduct o

. > a ;
ing Neuville au Pont about the year 1776, was struck with the asc coun-
monial business, and readily induced the little Beaupré to accompany him +

Paris. Thus the latter found himself installed, at the age of ten years, in the
midst of the hereditary traditions of a house which had become, in some sort, —

the focus of geographical studies. He was charged with the arrangement and

preservation of those charts, atlases, and globes with which we have most of us

been occupied at some period of our lives. To this labor, which would have

repelled the generality of young persons, he gave himself with unbounded de- —

votion. He lived among his dear maps, assorting, adjusting, studying them;
hence he was not long in mastering all that was necessary for understanding
them. His vocation stood revealed to him; nor, with such innate tastes, could
his eventual accession to this Academy be a matter of doubt, provided that for
him, also, the condition stipulated in the distich of La Fontaine should be
realized :

‘* Little fish to large will grow,
If God shall only life bestow.”

M. Buache, gratified at the manifestation of so happy a turn, afforded every
facility in his power for its development. .

The attention of this learned geographer was by no means confined to the
commerce of his establishment. He had assisted in the education of the three
princes who became, successively, Louis XVI, Louis XVIII, and Charles X,
and maintained with the first of these monarchs, himself a distinguished geog-

_ rapher, relations of confidence founded ona similarity of tastes and studies. It
is to be presumed that he contributed much towards shaping the views of the
~ excellent King in relation to the expedition of la Perouse, and being intrusted,
jointly with M. Fleurieu, with the preparation of instructions for. the voyage—
instructions strongly impressed with the benevolent spirit of Louis X VI—it
became necessary for him to execute in the short space of three months a nu-
merous series of charts. Naturally he turned for assistance in this labor to his

young coadjutor, with whose talent for this species of design he had been so —

much delighted; and, quite as naturally, the youthful enthusiast, in whom
there was much more than the material for a draughtsman, grew enamored,
as he proceeded, not only of the charts but of the expedition, and eagerly
pressed to be allowed to embark on one of the frigates. Happily for himself
and for science, M. Buache decided that, at the age of eighteen, there was yet
too much for him to learn to make it advisable that he should engage in such
an enterprise, and thus prevented his taking part in that fatal expedition from
which no one was destined ever to return.

The young Beaupré had not, however, escaped the notice of M. de Fleurieu,
and was transferred as engineer in 1785 from the department of the Marine, in
which he had heretofore served under the orders of M. Buache, to that of the
Controls, where, in immediate subordination to M. de Fleurieu, he was required
to assist in the execution of the charts of the Baltic Neptune.

Meanwhile the expedition commanded by la Perouse had sailed from Brest,
August 1, 1785. After having traversed the coasts of the Pacific ocean in all
directions, and moored in the harbor of Botany Bay, it had again put to sea,
March 10, 1788, in order to prosecute the route marked in its instructions.

- From that time nothing had been héard of it, and apprehensions for its safety

.

&

began to be entertained which were unhappily too well founded.
The National Assembly having petitioned the King to despatch armed ves-
sels in search of the distinguished navigator, two new frigates, Ja Recherche

and U iagerance, were designated to sail, under the orders of Rear-Admiral |
ntrecasteaux, upon this laudable mission; and this time M. Beau-

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eaupré obtained the favor of accompanying the expedition. He was |
July 31, 1791, under the title of first hydrographical engineer, to
e la Recherche, commanded by the admiral in person, and reported

imself at Brest, whither he had repaired in company with M. de la Billardiere,
the botanist of the expedition, and destined himself also to become a member
of this Academy. ' r

The two vessels sailed September 29, 1791, at which time Beaupré was
twenty-five years of age. By his labors during six years in the compilation
a Neptune of the Baltic sea, he had thus early become an experienced
chartographer, and the expedition now departing offered the happiest occasion
for the application of his talents in this line; for the admiral, being about to
explore with great minuteness all the coasts where traces of la Perouse might
be expected to be found, had received orders to determine at the same time their
hydrography with all possible compactness. i

After having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, the expedition passed in #
sight of the isle of- Amsterdam, coasted at a distance the southern shores of
New Holland, and came to anchor towards the southeast point of Van Die-
men’s Land, at the then desert entrance of the river on which now stands the
city of Hobarttown. It next penetrated into the Pacific ocean, followed the
western coast of New Caledonia and the northern of New Guinea, passed to
the northwest of Amboyna and Timor, to the west of New Holland, explored
in detail the south coast of that vast region, and, after having thus made its
entire circuit, again cast anchor, January 21, 1793, in the south part of Van
Diemen’s Land.

Having completed, during the finest month of the austral summer, import-
ant hydrographical labors commenced the previous year, and particularly the | |
survey of the straits of d’Entrecasteaux, which separate the isle of Bruny from %
the main land, the expedition again sailed, February 27, and passed anew into ,
the wide Pacific. Directing its course towards all the points where la Perouse
could be supposed to have touched or to have been driven, after his departure ~
from Botany Bay five years before, the expedition visited Tongataboo, one of =
the Friendly islands, and once more shaped its course towards New Caledonia,
which was now reached from the northwest. Some idea of the incidents and

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perils of these courses may be conveyed by a few passages of the admiral’s
narrative: ‘‘On the eve of our arrival at New Caledonia, April 17, 1793, it
blew a hard gale; the atmosphere was thick, but not so dark as to induce me
to lose a night off the Cape. I gave orders to proceed under easy sail. About
three in the morning it grew very dark, and the cries of numerous birds were
heard near the frigate, an almost certain indication at that hour, of the neighbor-
hood of land. Although day was not far off, M. Merite, officer of the watch,
prudently decided to bring to, and scarcely had objects become distinguishable,
when a low coast presented itself to view; an instant after it was discovered’ ~
to be surrounded with breakers on which we should certainly have struck but
for the precaution just mentioned; for we had been making two leagues an
hour under topsails alone, closely reefed. This dangerous ledge was recon-
noitred, and a special draught of it carefully executed. Its length from north
to south is from nine to eleven miles, and its breadth, east and west, seven to
eight. We saw to the east of this reef two small wooded islands, with a third
larger midway between them: these we have named the Beaupre islands.” *

Te
*The claims of M. Beautemps-Beaupré to a distinction of this kind were incidentally
recognized by the distinguished and lamented explorer, Sir John Franklin. Being on a visit i,
to Paris, just before his departure on the expedition which was destined to so fatal a result,
he called on M. Beautemps-Beaupré, and, speaking of Van Diemen’s Land, of which Sir
John had been governor, learned from the lips of our colleague that the latter had been the
first explorer of “s a on which now rises Hobarttown, the capital of the island. How: *

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120 MEMOIR OF Gi F, BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE. , ty

When his name was thus conferred, M. Beautemps-Beaupré had been daily
prosecuting his labors for more than twenty months under the eyes of the
admiral and his oflicers, and the testimonial may, therefore, be regarded as the
more deliberate and honorable.

“The same day,” continues the admiral, “at half after 1 o’clock, we deseried
New Caledonia, and in two hours were a mile distant from the reef on the eastern
coast of this great island, which seemed to be bordered by it, as the western
coast had been ascertained to be in 1792. * * * * Ag the entrance of
the harbor of Balade, where I proposed to come to anchor, was only marked by
an interruption of the reef which borders the coast, we followed this reef closely
in order not to miss the opening. We reached the pass by 2 o’clock, and a
favorable tack gave us hopes of gaining the anchorage, when it was signalled
that the other frigate, 7’ Esperance, had struck.”

Happily the imperilled vessel was safely extricated, and the two frigates finally
cast anchor very nearly at tlre spot where Captain Cook had done in 1774.

«The naturalists of the expedition repaired, April 25, to the neighboring
mountains, and M. Beaupré ascended with them in hopes of discovering the
reefs with which the channels of Balade are bestrown, and of fixing their position.
The sea was discernible to the east, west, and north, and the isles of Balabra,
Reconnaissance, and many other points which had been entered in the maps
of 1792 were recognized. The positions of these were determined by M.

‘Beaupré with reference to the observatory of Balade, with the view of con-
necting the trigonometrical operations of this year with those of the preceding
one. From the top of these mountains the shelf which borders the other side
of New Caledonia was perceived, and an interruption distinguished, which, after
renewed observations, seemed to correspond with that discovered the previous
year in visiting the western coast.” .
The expedition left the roads of Balade May’9, 1793, and soon after encoun-
tered the dangerous reefs which stretch to the NW. of New Caledonia; these
having been examined but imperfectly by Cook, have received the name of the
reefs of d’ Entrecasteaux. ‘Twice, at the break of day, were the ships of the
last-named navigator found to have so closely approached this barrier, that
there was barely room for the evolution by which they were extricated. Direct-
ing his course northeastwardly towards the island of Santa Cruz, the admiral
gave the name of /a Recherche to an island in the vicinity of the former, whose
latitude and longitude were determined to be, within but a few minutes, 11° 40/
south, and 164° 25’ east. During the numerous courses made by the vessels
in the archipelago of Santa Urcz, M. Beautemps-Beaupré, favored by fine
weather, succeeded in fixing the position of a multitude of points, as well on
the principal island as its accessories.

According to the method which he had adopted for making his observations, .
and which has since become of general use, he first made at each station a |
draught of the coast, in which he indicated by letters or numbers not only the ~
most remarkable objects, but wrote the measures of the angles observed, the
bearings of the points with respect to one another, the estimate of distances, &c. |
The draughts, on which were to be written the results of the observations made >

much do I regret,” exclaimed Sir John, ‘‘ that I was ignorant of the cireumstance! I should
have bestowed your name on the finest portion of the city.”’

aptain Flinders, who, in 1801-1803, conducted an expedition ‘‘for the purpose of com-
pleting the discovery of that vast country” to which he gave the name of Terra Australis,
(afterwards changed to Australia,) and who published an account of his voyage in two 4to.
volumes, accompanied by an atlas, bears testimony, as wellin notes engraved upon the maps
as in passages of the text, to the accuracy of the labors of our colleague. In the introduction
to the work it is said: ‘‘’The charts of the bays, ports, and arms of the sea at the southeast
end of Van Diemen’s Land, constructed in this expedition by M. Beautemps-Beaupré and
assistants, appear to combine scientific accuracy and minuteness of detail, with an uncom-
mon degree of neatness in the execution. They contain some of the finest specimens of
marine surveying, perhaps, ever made in a new country.”

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ae MEMOIR OF ©. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE. 121
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on board, dull not be taken with too much rapidity, for it was necessary that

the ship should not materially change its place during the time of the opera-

tion. ‘The principal operations which serve as a foundation for the charts con-
structed by M. Beaupré are such as were executed either at midday, or simul-
taneously with the observations of horary angles; that is to say, at such times
of each day as the position of the vessel was determined by astronomical ob-
servations and the chronometer. On these occasions he assembled around him
the greatest possible number of observers, and he had found or formed a great
many among the officers of the frigate. Just one minute before taking the
observations he made a sketch of the coast under view, beginning with those
parts of it which, being most remote, would undergo least change of outline by
reason of the movement of the ship; then, precisely at the moment when the
astronomical observations were taken, he measured the angular distance be-
tween the object which he had designated to his assistants as the point of de-
parture and one of the remarkable places of the coast, while each of the as-
sistants measured the angular distance of the same point of departure from one
of the other objects embraced in the survey. The results of these simultaneous
observations were afterwards transferred to the sketch which had been made
of the outline of the land. All the angular measures were taken with Borda’s

_ repeating circle.

When the sun was not too high above the horizon, one of the observers
measured the distance of that body from one of the remarkable points of the
coast; by means of the heights of the sun observed at the same moment by
M. de Rossel, and from the distance measured, M. Beaupré obtained the astro-
nomical bearing of that point, whence he deduced the bearing of all the points
between which angles had been taken.

Two compasses were always directed, during the observations, on the place
chosen as a point of departure for the angles, and the mean of the bearings
given by those instruments was transcribed in the collection of notes, and this
whether an astronomical bearing had been obtained or not. In the first case the
magnetic indication served to show the variation of the needle, and in the second
to supply, though imperfectly, the absence of an astronomical observation. If
circumstances, which, however, occurred but rarely, prevented the co-operation
of a sufficient number of observers to take simultaneously the angles of all the
remarkable points necessary to be determined, M. Beaupré arranged several
circles of reflection, so that each observer might promptly take two or three
angles, without being obliged to write them on the spot; and these observations,
made with a rapidity proportionate to the expertness of the observer, were
found to agree almost as exactly as those made simultaneously.

M. Beaupré, who drew the chart with as much facility as exactness, found a
marked advantage in embodying the results observed as promptly as possible,
for he had then all the circumstances of the observations present to his mind.
It was not seldom that he was enabled in this way to detest and remedy inad-
vertencies committed in writing the angles measured. The precision of his
graphic constructions ever rendered it practicable for him to verify, and some-
times to correct, with great probability, the positions of the ship, determined

“several times a day by astronomical observations, combined with the indica-

tions of chronometers and the estimate of courses.

The means of verification resulted, in part, from the fact that the observa-
tions of each station gave him a series of visual lines, springing essentially from
the same point, and forming known angles, whether with one another or with
the astronomic meridian, or at least with the magnetic meridian, itself deter-
mined by an observation made at nearly the same time. They resulted, more-
over, from the circumstance that all the visual lines directed from different stations
on the same object, such as a cape or a mountain, must, on the draught, intersect
one another at the representation of that object. When, at the first trial, these did

*

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122 MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE. %
. eo

not meet, a series of approximations tending to modify in an admissible degree
the position of the ship at the different stations sufficed to establish the neces-—
sary junction. ‘The approximations in question might be made with still more
rigor by calculation, and one of our most scientific hydrographers, M. de Tessan,
has even shown that the method of least squares is here applicable ;* but M. _
Beaupré adhered generally to the graphic method, which he employed with as |
much sagacity as precision.

The application of this rigorous method fixes the position of the principal
points of the chart about to be constructed, as the tops of mountains, capes, &e.
The details, such as the outline of coasts, course of rivers, &c., are afterwards
described with such degree of precision as time permits; and when a sojourn
of some duration renders it practicable to add the soundings taken at sea, as
was the case in regard to the straits of d’Entrecasteaux and other parts of the
coasts of Van Diemen’s Land, the positions of the points of sounding are fixed
by reference to the principal points determined by the bearings, in accordance
with the methods which will be presently indicated when we arrive at the
hydrographic surveys of the coasts of France. >:

The bearings taken from the 19th to the 23d May, in the archipelago of Santa
Cruz, enabled M. Beaupré to give a remarkable proof of his skill in applying
these processes, which were then new. Faithful to his method of constructing,
day by day, the chart of those parts of coasts which he would not again see, he
devoted the night of the 21st to describing the details of. the south coast of the
island of Santa Cruz; that of the 22d was similarly occupied with the north
coast; and, the ships sailing on the 23d for the Solomon islands, he applied
himself,-as soon as the land was lost sight of, to the definitive reduction of his
chart. This, like all the rest belonging to the voyage of d’Entrecasteaux, was
constructed on a scale of three lines for one minute of the equator; and as it
presented, for the discussion of which we have been speaking, nearly all the
cases to be met with in practice, M. Beaupré has caused it to be engraved in the
19th plate of the atlas, with all his lines of construction, as an example of his
manner of operating, and it is here that he has explained his method with de-
tails at which we have only been able to give a cursory glance. They may be
seen in the appendix relative to this subject at the end of the first volume of

_ the voyage of d’Entrecasteaux, an appendix which has become the vade-mecum,
and, if I may so speak, the catechism of the constructors of marine charts.

In reducing to rule, and in practicing his method, M. Beaupré fulfilled the
most cherished wish of the scientific hydrographers, who, at the close of the
eighteenth century, employed themselves with the means of giving to nautical
science all the precision of which it is susceptible. Borda, after having placed
in the hands of navigators the repeating circle of which they still make
use, had recommended its employment in preference to the compass, which
till then was exclusively relied on for surveys executed at sea. Flurieu had
equally recommended astronomic surveys. For naturalizing these scientific
processes in the practice of hydrography, it was requisite that some engineer of
a peculiar aptitude should devote himself with energy and perseverance to the
application of the new instruments and rigorous geometric methods adapted to
the accurate measurement of angles. M. Beaupré proved fully equal to this
honorable mission, and, thanks to his unceasing efforts, the voyage of d’Entre-
casteaux inaugurated the opening of a new era—that of precise hydrography.

Like all other branches of human knowledge, hydrography has been advanced
by degrees. After the invention of the compass, so far surpassed at a later
stage by mew instruments, the discoveries of Christopher Columbus and of

Vasco de Gama gave ideas a wholly new direction. Subsequently the adven-

So

* See Voyage autour du Monde, par le frégate Venus, commandée par M. Abel Dupetit
Thouars: Physique, par M. de Tessan, t. v., p. 288. ‘

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sie MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE: 123

+

turous circumnavigations of the Magellans, Mendafias, Drakes, Tasmans, and
Dampiers, made known the principal outlines of the two oceans, but with very
imperfect exactness, as may be perceived from a glance at the old globes which
are still of frequent occurrence in Paris. That, according to the happy expres-
sion of M. Villemain, was the heroic age of the navigation of discovery ; the
modern Argonauts went forth in their search for the golden fleece with an ardor
little favorable to systematic exploration, and which yet did not prevent them
from overlooking the rich auriferous deposits of California and Australia.

Towards the middle of the eighteenth century, after Buffon had published his
Natural History, the taste for voyages was revived under a form even then
much more scientific. In the course of a few years we see Byron, Carteret,
Wallis, traverse the Pacific ocean, and make the tour of the world. Cook is
sent to Tahiti to observe, June 3, 1769, the passage of Venus over the dise of
the sun. He makes two other important voyages, and after having traversed
the Pacific in all directions, and penetrated into the frozen regions of both poles,
falls in 1779 beneath the weapons of the natives of the Sandwich islands. Cook
remains the principal figure and characteristic of this period; but had fate per-
mitted the instructions given to la Perouse to have been completely carried
out, the voyage of this last would, perhaps, have afforded the best example of
what it was possible to accomplish with the hydrographic methods then in use.
These different enterprises made known almost all the lands and archipelagos
with which the ocean is strown, and furnished charts which already presented
their general form with a great degree of fidelity.

Last come the hydrographic voyages of precision. If the expedition of
d’Entrecasteaux offers the first example of them, the voyage of the Coguille,
executed under the command and published under the direction of our distin-
guished colleague, Captain Duperrey, must, perhaps, be regarded as the most
perfect type of this class of enterprises. To the same class belong the almost
too hazardous voyages of Sir John Ross among the ices of the antarctic pole,
and those not less daring of M. Dumont d’Urville.

The hydrographic study of the archipelago of Santa Cruz, which retained
around M. Beautemps-Beaupré some of the most skilful officers of the frigate,
did not so exclusively occupy the attention of Admiral d’Entrecasteaux and
other chiefs of the expedition as to divert their attention from the main objeet
of their mission, which was to seek for traces of la Perouse. They constantly
communicated with the shores, questioned the natives, examined the objects in
their possession, and observed, among other things, a piece of iron from the
hoop of a cask, set as a hatchet; but no one then suspected that there was here
a vestige of the expedition of la Perouse. ‘The admiral has minutely recorded
the reasons why no importance was attached to the circumstance.

Nevertheless the chart of the archipelago of Santa Cruz presents, in its SE.
portion, an island on which by a rather singular chance the admiral bestowed
the name of la Recherche, after that of his own frigate sent in search of la
Perouse. ‘We took the bearing of this island, says M. Beautemps-Beaupré,
for the first time from our point of station at 20 minutes after 9 o’clock, 19th
May, at a great distance, At noon, the same day, we again took its bearing,
and then lost sight of it.’ Situated at the southeast extremity of the archipel-
ago of Mendaiia, this island has been in like manner seen and lost sight of by
not a few other navigators in whose track it lay, and who little imagined that
la Perouse and his companions had paid with their lives for the honor of having
previously discovered it.

Thus two years earlier than d’Entrecasteaux, Captain Edwards, commanding
the English frigate Pandora, had discovered, August 13, 1791, this same island,
which he had named Pitt island, and had sailed around its southern shore with-
out suspecting that it concealed the remains of a world-renowned shipwreck.
Thirty years later, in 1823, Captain Duperrey, among whose officers was M.

4

at

124 MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE.

Dumont d’Urville, passed in the corvette Za Coquille, 2d and 3d August, at —
about half a degree to the W.SW. of the island. Strong eastwardly winds
prevented him from approaching nearer, but he took numerous bearings which
seryed to rectify the position of the island, and then obeyed without thought
the wind which bore him away from it, having himself no reason for supposing
that this obscure spot presented any trace of the expedition of la Perouse.

Yet the veil was about to be withdrawn. Four years after, in December, 1827,
and January, 1828, M. Dumont d’Urville was lying with the Astrolabe in the

ort of Hobarttown, situated in those parts of Van Diemen’s Land which MM.
d’Entrecasteaux and Beautemps-Beaupré had surveyed with so much care while
they were still desert. Here reports reached him, vague indeed, and even con-
tradictory, respecting a surprising discovery made by Captain Dillon, com-
manding an English vessel, engaged in commerce. This mariner, it was said,
had acquired authentic information relative to the shipwreck of la Perouse, and
had even brought away the handle of a sword which he claimed to have belonged
to that celebrated navigator.

Notwithstanding the slight authority for these reports, M. Dumont d’Urville
thought himself justified in modifying the route which his instructions traced
for him. He touched, February 10, at 'Tikopia, where he found among the
natives a lascar named Joe, a sailor and native of Calcutta, who was the same
that had sold the sword-handle to Captain Dillon. ‘This man, after a little
hesitation, acknowledged that some years before he had gone to the Vanikoro
asles, which are no other than the group of la Recherche, where he had seen
many objects belonging to the vessels of la Perouse; that he had been then
told that two very aged whites were still alive, but he himself had not seen
them.

The next day, February 11, 1828, the Astrolabe sailed for the Vanikoro
islands, situated, according to the natives, about forty leagues W.NW. from
Tikopia. The vessel came to anchor, February 14, at the place of its
destination, and remained till the 17th of March. M. Dumont d’Urville, being
quite seriously indisposed, could not quit the corvette, which, besides, was, in
more than one respect, not considered in entire safety; but, after having inter-
rogated the natives, he despatched in succession several parties commanded by
responsible officers, with whom he associated his faithful surgeon, M. Gaimard,
whose recent death has been a new occasion of sorrow to the friends of science.

The chain of reefs which, at a distance of two or three miles, forms an im-
mense girdle around Vanikoro, closely approaches the southern coast near Paiou,
in front of a place called Ambi. Here it is but a mile off, and it was here that,
on a first visit, the native who preceded M. Jacquinot stopped his canoe in an
opening between the breakers, and made a sign to the Frenchmen to look be-
neath the water. There; at a depth of twelve or fifteen feet, were clearly
distinguishable, scattered here and there, and imbedded in corals, anchors,
cannons, bullets, and divers other objects, especially numerous sheets of lead ;
the wood had entirely disappeared. 'The position of the anchors seemed to in-
dicate that four of them had sunk with the ship, while two others had probably
been let go. On a second visit M. Guilbert succeeded in withdrawing from the —
reefs the following objects : An anchor of about eighteen hundred pounds weight,
without a stock, much rusted and covered with a crust of corals apparently from
one to two inches in thickness; a cast cannon, likewise covered with corals, and
so much oxydized that the metal readily yielded under the hammer; a small
swivel of brass and a blunderbuss of copper in much better preservation, one
bearing on its trunnions 548 as its number, and 144 as its weight; the other
286 and 94 for its number and weight respectively, with no other marks ; a pig
of lead and large sheet of the same metal, together with some fragments of por-
celain. The remains of a kettle had been previously procured at Nama, a vil-

_ lage of the coast.

MEMOIR OF ©. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE. 125

The following is the amount of the information obtained from the natives :
About forty years previous to 1828, (which would carry us back to 1788, the date
of la Perouse’s disappearance, ) one morning, at the close of a very dark night,
during which the wind blew with violence from the SE., the islanders suddenly de-
scried on the southern coast, opposite the district of Tauema, an enormous pirogue,
stranded upon the reefs. It was rapidly demolished by the waves, and so en-
tirely disappeared that nothing was ever recovered from the wreck. Of the
persons who manned it a few only succeeded in escaping in a boat and gained
the shore. The following day, likewise in the morning, a second pirogue,
similar to the first, was discovered on the rocks before Paiou; where, in the
lee of the island, and less racked by the wind and sea, stranded moreover on a
level shelf of twelve or fifteen feet depth, it remained some time in its position
without being destroyed. This, like the first, bore a white ensign. The
strangers who manned it landed at Paiou, where they established themselves
with those saved from the other ship, and immediately set about constructing
a small vessel from the fragments of the ship which had not gone down. ‘Their

task was completed in six or seven moons, and, as most, of the savages averred, -

all the strangers left the island. A few, however, declared that two remained
behind, but that these had not long survived.

M. de Fromelin, who also visited these shores in 1828, on the corvette la
Bayonnaise, and who had doubtless heard of the discovery of the English Cap-
tain Dillon, ascertained by examination the existence of the remains of the
French frigate on the reefs of Vanikoro.

It was a source of regret to M. Dumont d’Urville that he had not been able,
in 1828, to visit in person the place of the shipwreck; hence, when on a last
and memorable expedition he traversed anew the great ocean, he caused his
ships, the Astrolabe and the Zelée, to lie to, 6th November, 1838, near the
-eef of the southern shore of Vanikoro. Landing in a sea too rough to admit

f stopping on the reef, he discovered a space cleared of trees, which appeared
to him to have been the spot where the parties from the wreck had pitched their
camp. Near it he observed a large cocoa-nut tree which had been deeply cut
around the trunk at two metres above the ground, besides other traces of the
use of the axe at a remote date, but beyond this he noticed no new indications.

The two frigates mounted with cannon, which could be none but those of la
Perouse, for no others were known to have disappeared in these seas, had

_ doubtless encountered, but with more adverse fortune, casualties similar to those

+

which befell the frigates of Admiral d’Entrecasteaux ; of which one was near
being lost on the Beaupré islands at the time of their discovery, and the other
struck on a reef of zoophytes in the pass which forms an entrance to the haven
of Balade, but was fortunately extricated.

It was not an impossibility that the remnant of the crews of la Perouse should
be saved in the bark which they had constructed, and on which they put to sea
about the close of the year 1788. In fact, the English Captain Bligh, of the
ship Bounty, abandoned in the midst of the South sea by his revolted crew,
in an undecked shallop only twenty-two feet in length, passed, 18th May, 1789,
about fifty leagues to the south, and consequently almost within sight of the
isles of Vanikoro, and succeeded, May 29, in reaching the coast of New Holland
at the south entrance of Torres’ straits, whence they made their way to Cou-
pang, in the island of Timor. True it is, as apyears from the romantic narrative
of his adventures, that not to have perished a hundred times was due only to
the most astonishing good fortune. This fortune was denied to la Perouse and
his companions, though the boat in which they left Vanikoro but a few months
before was no doubt larger and better appointed than that of Bligh.

In similar circumstances many others have succeeded in being saved. In ©

_ reading the stirring recital of their various perils, we readily perceive that in the

fate of la Perouse there is nothing enigmatical; nor can the conclusion escape

se

a

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126 MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE.

us that the expedition of d’Entrecasteaux must have been conducted with as
much ability as zeal, when we see on the chart of the archipelago of Santa

at % Cruz, by M. Beautemps-Beaupré, two of the lines of survey directed by him

upon the island of la Recherche or Vanikoro, meet precisely at the spot where

~ still lie beneath the waves the anchors and cannons of one of the frigates of the
illustrious and unfortunate navigator.

_ The ships of d’Entrecasteaux continued in sight of the island la Recherche
almost the whole of the 19th of May, 1793. Besides the instruments of the
, Survey, there was no deficiency of telescopes pointed towards the land, through
which, if signals after the European manner had been made, the piercing eyes
_of some of the mariners could not fail to have deseried them. But the survi-
vors of the wreck were doubtless long departed or dead when the expedition
passed, which was not till five years after the disaster. As to finding under
the waters of the sea the remains of the shipwreck, that would have been a
stroke of good fortune such as seems in general not to have attached to any-
thing connected with the expedition of la Perouse. Perhaps, however, d’En-
- trecasteaux might have had that melancholy satisfaction, if his officers had
paid more attention to the piece of iron, mounted as a hatchet, which was seen
in possession of the natives of Santa Cruz, for it had very possibly been pro-
cured from the remains of the wrecked frigates. But who will venture to say
that in their circumstances he would himself have divined it. +
However that may be, the hour had now come for the departure of the ex-
pedition. Sailing from Santa Cruz it pursued its prescribed course, and thus
separated itself more and more from the principal object of its research; yet,
thanks to the indefatigable zeal of M. Beautemps-Beaupré, it continued to ren-

_ der eminent service to hydrography. It traversed the archipelagos of the Solo-

mon and Louisiade groups, the coasts of New Britain and New Guinea; but a de-
plorable incident awaited it on these obscure shores. Admiral d’Entrecasteaux
died July 20, 1793, after a short illness which presented some of the symptoms of
scurvy. The captain of the frigate ’ Esperance had already fallen a victim
to fever in the port of Balade. Very soon scurvy and dysentery had decimated
the crews which left France in 1791, while the loss among the higher officers
divided itself with impartial severity between Paris and Coblentz. Not that
there was any suspension of the surveys, which continued to produce excellent
charts, but a feeling prevailed that it was time to desist. The two frigates
were turned towards the island of Java, and entered the port of Sourabaya,
where the voyagers learned that the day of their arrival was not only October
27, 1793, but, at the same time, the 6th Brumaire of the year IT.

The expedition was here broken up and its different members returned sep-
arately to Europe. In his passage, M. Beautemps-Beaupré stopped some time
at the Cape of Good Hope. He had preserved the minutes of his charts, but
the fairly executed transcripts, with other scientific documents collected by the
expedition, were captured on the return by the English, by whom, however,
they were restored at a later period. Yet, to avoid the possibility of their dis-
appearance, he employed the time of his stay at the Cape in making a new
copy, which his friend M. Renard, chief surgeon of the expedition, undertook
to convey privately to the representative of France in the United States of
America. He himself embarked on a Swedish vessel, which landed him at Goth-
embourg, where M. Fournier, French consul, procured him the means of
re-entering his own country.

Arrived at Paris August 31, 1796, after an absence of five years, he rejoined
his excellent friend M. Fleurieu, and resumed, under his direction, the prepara-
tion of the Neptune of the Baltic sea, being at once named hydrographic engi-
neer of the first class, and under-keeper of the general depot of the marine. In
1798 the editing and publication of the charts of the voyage of d’Entrecasteaux
were officially confided to him. This great performance, which did not appear

*?

. *
MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS -BEAUPRE. 1%
till 1808, was a work of prolonged execution, but the co-operation which he

gave it did not engross him exclusively, and from the 20th J uly, 1799, to the
26th June, 1804, he was charged in’ chief with making the hydrographic survey

of the course of the Scheldt, and with a succession of other hydrographic mis- _ af
sions relative either to the Scheldt or to the coasts of the North sea. [as
Admiral Rosily, director of the depot of marine, being designated at the end
of the campaign of 1802 to make an inspection of these labors, informed himself. 3
of the methods followed by M. Beautemps-Beaupré, as well in fixing the posi- ;
tions of shoals and of soundings as in the construction of the plan. He gave #

his complete approbation to these methods, which consisted essentially in the
combination of the accurate measurement of angles by means of the circle of
reflection, with the employment of the geometric principle of the “ problem of |
three points,”’ a combination whose application to submarine topography is one %
of the best titles of M. Beautemps-Beaupré to the respectful consideration of
hydrographers.

In 1804 the Nautical Description of the Coast of the North Sea from Calais

to Ostend was published under the auspices of the depot of marine. ‘This work

gives in detail the description of the shoals which obstruct the port of Dunkirk,

and of those which are comprised between Dunkirk and the entrance of the

Scheldt, as well as the nautical instructions necessary for mariners who frequent
those shores. The chart which accompanies it was reproduced. at the hydro-
graphical office. of London, with an English title, as having been executed by
Admiral Beautemps-Beaupré ; for the English were not slow in ascertaining,
though a little vaguely, that under that name there existed a hydrographer
worthy of the highest confidence. In the following years M. Beautemps-
Beaupré explored the course of the Scheldt, till then but little studied, and, for *
the first time, demonstrated the practicability of the ascent of that river by
ships-of-the-line as high as Antwerp, an indieation which furnished a basis for $
the plans of the Emperor at that point. Charts of minute detail embody the
results of these labors, before the termination of which M. Beautemps-Beaupré
was advanced in his position as hydrographical engineer and officer of the
marine, and was named (August 5, 1804) a member of the legion of honor. He e:
had by this time, indeed, become pre-eminently the hydrographer of the Em-
peror Napoleon. The latter, when a city or department required an important
and difficult construction, was accustomed to say: “ I will send Prony thither.”
When the matter in hand was the elaboration of one of those great projects
which he had so justly at heart for the re-establishment of our maritime power,
he sent, without saying anything, M. Beautemps-Beaupré.

After the campaign of Austerlitz and the peace of Presburg, the views of
the Emperor were turned towards the coasts of Dalmatia, of which the numerous
inlets and islands, with their steep banks and deep channels, present magnifi-
cent harbors, equally sheltered from the wind and the enemy, and of great
importance to the Venetian marine. M.Beautemps-Beaupré received (February
6, 1806) an order to make the hydrographic survey of the military ports on the
east shore of the Gulf of Venice. 'To this object he devoted three campaigns,
in 1806,-1808, and 1809. He took plans of the whole coast from Trieste to the
mouths of the Cattaro, embracing the port of Pola, and the still more magnifi-
cent one of Calamota, near Ragusa. ‘The plans and surveys of coasts which
he executed have been published on a reduced scale, but the admirably drawn *
originals remain one of the ornaments of the depot of marine.

After the battle of Wagram he was sent by General Maureillan, governor of
Zara, to the headquarters of the French army at Vienna, as bearer of a conven-
tion of armistice relative to Dalmatia. He received, on this occasion, from the
hand of the Emperor, the decoration of the iron crown. Being ordered to
report himself; with his charts, to the minister of marine at Paris, he had
scarcely arrived at that city when he was named member of a commission :

a

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-+

*

‘

i

128 MEMOIR OF C. F, BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE. 1

charged with duties relating to military operations on the coast of Zealand,
__ where the English had made a descent. Recurrence to him was the invariable

“ie _ rule in everything bearing on the affairs of the Scheldt, and in the intervals of

>. his labors in Dalmatia he had been repeatedly required to return thither. His
ae indefatigable activity was equal to all demands.
.*.. Anew phase in his life now opened to him. The death .of his venerable
. master and friend, M. de Fleurieu, had left a place vacant in the first class of
the Institute in the section of geography and navigation. M. Beautemps-Beau-
pré consented, with much distrust, to become a candidate. To make the report
on his titles to a nomination fell to the lot of M. Arago, who, observing the
number and variety of his labors, said to him: “ You must have lived a hundred
years !”’ He had lived, however, but forty-four, and was nominated, September
24, 1810, by a large majority. One of his principal competitors was Admiral
de Rosily, director of the depot of marine, his official chief and constant friend.
The transient rivalry produced no change in their feelings or relations. In our
peaceful contests, he who loses to-day frequently succeeds to-morrow, and the
merit of one aspirant places in higher relief the merits of others. Admiral
Rosily was himself an hydrographer of much experience and great knowledge.
In 1787, during the voyage of la Perouse, he had executed, by order of the
King, on the frigate Venus, which he commanded, the hydrographic recon-
naissance of the Red sea. In 1816, zealously supported by M. Beautemps-
Beaupré, he, too, became a colleague of the Academy in the section of free
academicians.

In 1811 the empire had been extended as far as Hamburg and Lubeck. M.
Beautemps-Beaupré, who, at the beginning of his career, had labored on the

_ Baltic Neptune under M. Fleurieu, was now charged with the hydrographic
exploration of the northern coasts of the empire beyond the Scheldt. From
1811 to 1813 he made a series of surveys in the departments of Holland, as
well as at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, in view of the estab-
lishment of a great military port. ‘The decision, founded on his investigations,
being in favor of the Elbe, he was charged, with the selection of the most
favorable site on the left bank of that river, and made a complete hydrographic
survey of its course. |

In 1815, during the hundred days, the Emperor, at a reception in the Tuil-
leries, stopping abruptly before M. Beautemps-Beaupré, said to him, with an air
of chagrin: “ We are still very far from the Elbe—and your charts ?” “ Sire,”
replied M. Beautemps-Beaupré, ‘1 considered it my duty to send them to the
United States by an American vessel.” “ J¢ zs well,” rejoined the Emperor,
gratified at recognizing in this trait the man who had been the confidant and
faithful instrument of his great designs. At a later period the charts were
remitted to the government of Hanover, and M. Beautemps«Beaupré was named
a member of the Royal Society of Sciences of Gottingen.

Justly honored for so long a series of services, he might have now resigned
himself to a well-earned repose, but his was not the temperament for such an
indulgence, and at an age when many think of closing their career he com-
menced a new one. Since his return from the Cape of Good Hope in 1796,
he had been unable, by reason of. the war, to extend his labors beyond the
waters closed to the enemy, and, with the exception of his exploration of the
coasts of the North sea, after the peace of Amiens in 1802, he had been obliged
to confine himself to some of the rivers of Germany and the equally protected
inlets of Dalmatia. The return of peace again made the ocean free, and the
opportunity of revisiting it was seized with alacrity by M. Beautemps-Beaupré,
for whom it seemed to revive the brightest days of his early manhood.

Admiral Rosily, director of the depot of marine, had the merit of imme-
diately comprehending what the occasion required and allowed, and Louis —
XVIII that of entertaining his proposals with favor, notwithstanding the em-

2
MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE. 129

barrassments of the times. The ordinance directing the immediate prepara-

tion of tlie pilot of the coasts of France was signed June 6, 1814, but the labor —

could not be commenced till 1816. By an ordinance of the former date, M.

Beautemps-Beaupré was named hydrographic enginecr-in-chief* and joint

keeper of the general depot of the charts, plans, and journals of the marine.
The condition of French hydrography at that time was an anomaly result-

ing from circumstances. The administration of Louis XIV had occupied itself —

with the hydrography of the coasts of France, and the engineer Lavoye had
executed, about 1670, charts of the coasts of Brittany which were quite passa-
ble, or at least very much. superior to those which represented the parts of the
coast comprised between the mouth of the Loire and the shores of Spain. A
century afterwards, in 1776, the government ordered a hydrographical recon-
naissance of the coasts of France under the superintendence of la Brettonniere,
captain in the navy, and Mechain, astronomer for the marine and member of
the Academy of Sciences; but it would seem that those distinguished person-
ages were rather charged with the collection of materials for rectifying the
errors of the old charts, than with the execution of such a detailed and com-
plete survey as might meet the wants of the service under al! circumstances.
There remain in the archives of the depot of marine but few documents rela-
ting to their operations, which extended, however, from Dunkirk to the Bay
of Cancale. .
Since that time geography had made in France important advances with
which hydrography had by no means kept pace. Before the close of the
eighteenth century there were geographic charts of a great part of the globe, com-
petent to convey a general and sutfiiciently precise idea of the continents and
seas. France particularly had been enriched with the map of Cassini, known
also by the name of the map of the Academy, a work of great merit for that
time in point of execution, and of great utility. it may be said, however, with
truth, that towards the end of the last and in the first years of the present cen-
tury, the art of constructing geographical charts received improvements by
which it was essentially revolutionized. This amelioration was consequent
upon the establishment of the metric system, which had necessitated the meas-
urement of the meridian of France, from Dunkirk to Barcelona, and afterwards
to Formentera. To the chain of triangles established in the execution of this
measurement a comprehensive triangulation was subsequently attached, ex-
tending over the whole of France, and in the sequel over considerable portions
of Spain, of Italy, and of Great Britain. In the prosecution of these vast and
difficult labors several members of the Academy have borne a conspicuous
part: MM. Delambre, Mechain, Biot, Arago, Mathieu, Puissant, in conjune-
tion with most of the members of the corps of topographical engineers and
sundry officers of the military staff. On the triangles of the meridian has been
based the trigonometric system of the new map of France, published by the
depot of war. In England, savants of the highest merit, Colonels Mudge,
Roy, Sabine, and the most distinguished officers of the ordnance corps, have

* Tt may occasion surprise that M. Beautemps-Beaupré, employed and appreciated as he
was by the Emperor Napoleon I, should have retained till 1824 the title of ingenieur-hydro-
graphe ordinaire; but this will be more easily understood from the following letter written
July 20, 1819, by M. le due Decrés, who had been minister of the marine under the empire:
** All the world appreciates the services rendered by M. Beautemps-Beaupré with a zeal, per
severance, and talent above all praise; but I, who have maintained ciose relations with him
for many years, cannot but regard him with sincere attachment, and owe him many thanks
for the proofs of friendship which he has always given me. There are persons who, without
the least claim, are always soliciting; these are numerous. There are others, forming but a
small minority, who, with the most incontestable claims, never solicit anything. The fact is,
that during the eighteen years of my official relations with M. Beautemps-Beaupré, he ceased
not to occupy my attention by his labors, but never once invoked it by a solicitation. Since.
he forgets himself, it is but right that justice and friendship should remember him,”

ois

130 MEMOIR OF CG. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE.

combined their operations with those of our own countrymen, and have com-
menced the publication of a magnificent chart of England, designated by the
name of the Ordnance Map.

To place French hydrography on a level with geography, while rescuing
it from the momentary abandonment which war had necessitated, was now the
object of interest. ‘The instructions which M. Beautemps-Beaupré received
for this purpose were framed by Admiral Rosily, chief of the marine depot,
and M. de Rossel, who had become one of its joint directors, after having aided
in the hydrographical labors of the expedition of d’Entrecasteaux. 'T' hese in-
structions indicated the west coast of France as first claiming attention, since
among all those to whose hydrography navigators had need of daily recur-
rence, this was most noted for its defect of exploration. It was to Brest,
therefore, that M. Beautemps-Beaupré repaired, and here two schooners had
been built for him, whose names, /a Recherche and 7’ Astrolabe, gratefully re-
called the memory of la Perouse and d’Entrecasteaux. To these were joined
the light vessels necessary for the accomplishment of his mission.

In indicating the objects proposed for his attainment, he was left at liberty
to adopt that mode of operating which long experience in labors of this nature
might induce him to select. He thus found himself authorized either to unite
all the means placed at his disposal on a small extent of coast, in order to pro-
educe promptly a description of it, or to distribute them over several points.at
the same time.

The first was the mode on which he determined; as well because he had
already proved, as he himself tells us,* its efficiency under various cireum-
stances, as because it was the only one which would enable the depot of marine
to publish in succession the collective results of each campaign. By concen-
trating the operations of the engineers successively on small extents of coast, it
was in his power to verify in some measure daily the labors of each of his as-
sistants. ‘hus, for instance, when an engineer, in sounding, encountered some
obstruction which had escaped former researches, he gave notice of it, and M,
Beautemps-Beaupié was in a position to make a personal investigation imme-
diately. To this mode of operating he owed the advantage of being able to
combine all his means at the same moment on a dangerous position, when the
weather was favorable. In this way he has often succeeded in terminating in
a single day, or even a few hours, the examination of dangers situated far in
the offing, the description of which would have. required the employment ‘of an
isolated engineer during a whole season; of this kind were the reconnaissances
of the western extremity of the bank noe race of Sein, the flats of Roche-
Bonne, &c.

The years 1816, 1817, 1818, were exclusively devoted to the survey of the
maritime position of Brest, and ite results, forming the first part of the Pdlote
Frangais, were published in 1822. The operations of 1819, 1820, 1821, and
of the first part of 1822, sate the survey of that part of the western
coast of France comprised between the point of Penmarch (Finisterre) and
the isle of Yeu, (Vendée,) and furnished’ the materials of the second part
of the above work, published in 1829. From 1822 to 1826 the survey was
extended to that part of the coast comprised between the isle of Yeu and Spain,
and its results appeared as the third part in 1832. In 1839 the fourth part
was given to the world, representing the labors of five years from 1829 to 1833,
and embracing a description of the coast between the isle of Brehat and Bar-
fleur. In 1834, 1835, and 1836, the operations were extended from the latter
point to Dunkirk. Finally, in 1837 and 1838, the survey was made of
that portion of coast comprised between the isle of Brehat and the

* Exposé des Travaur Relatifs a la Reconnaissance Hydrographique des Cétes Occidentalis
de France, par M, Beautemps-Beaupre, p. 3.

~

MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE. 131

northern rocks of the Passage du Four, (Finisterre,) where operations had
stopped in 1818, and thus were completed the materials for the fifth and sixth
parts of the Pi/ote Frangais, which appeared in 1842 and 1844. The six
atlases contain twenty-one general charts, sixty-five special charts, thirty-one
plaus of double elephant size, fifteen of half elephant, and fourteen of quarter
elephant size, two hundred and seventy-nine tables of surveys taken of the
principal dangers of the west and north coasts of France, and one hundred and
eighty-four tables of high and low water observed during the progress of the
twenty seasons spent upon the same coasts. The account (/’ Exposé, &c.)
of these hydrographical labors, executed under his orders, was so drawn up by
M. Beautemps-Beaupré as to serve as the complement to the second chapter of
the appendix attached to the first volume of the voyage of d’Entrecasteaux.
In justifying this form of composition, he pleads that, when that appendix was

ublished, his practical knowledge of the best means for reconnoitring maritime
Be rections could not be so positive as that acquired during his first ten cam-
paigns (1817 to 1827) on the coasts of France. It is certain, nevertheless, that
in everything essential his method was definitely fixed at the time of the pub-
lication of d’Entrecasteaux’s voyage in 1808; and in the preface to that work
it is thus spoken of by M. de Rossel, an authority of undoubted competency :
“ Navigators will in general find in this appendix hydrographic instructions of
a far more complete nature than any heretofore published. M. Beautemps;
Beaupré has here given also several expeditious methods for sounding a coast
and marking the depths on the chart. These methods, of which he availed
himself for his operations conducted on the coast of France, (before 1808,) by
order of the minister of marine, are so useful that it would be unjust to with-
hold them from navigators, as well as those of which he made use during the
campaign.”

From these judicious observations of one of the masters of hydrographic
science, it will readily be inferred that the operations which M. Beautemps-
Beaupré conducted on the coasts of France differ in several essential particulars
from those with which he was habitually occupied in the voyage ot d’Entre-
casteaux. In the latter, which pertain generally to what is called surveying
under sail, the end principally in view was to fix the position of the remarkable
objects seen on the land, capes, mountains, &c., by means of observations
directed towards those objects from certain points in the course of the ship, de-
termined with especial care. The operations on the coasts of France, within
an extent generally less wide and with much less rapidity, had in view to fix
various points of the sea, rocks, places of sounding, &c., with reference toi cer-
tain objects determined on land, mountains, steeples, semaphores, and other
signals. ‘This was almost an inverse operation to the preceding; yet this also
required numerous admeasurements of angles, which were obtained with the
same reflecting circle, and the geometric constructions were derived essentially
from the same trigonometric principles, although the proposition of the “ problem
of three points”? was here more frequently employed.

As the bearings taken from the sea were directed upon all the remarkable
objects of the land, it was necessary that the position of these should be deter-
mined by geodetic measurements made ashore with all the precision attainable
by science. For this reason a triangulation was executed on land embracing
all the points of the coast. This was effected for the western coasts of Irance,
from Brest to Saint Jean de Luz, by M. Daussy, and for the northern and
southern coasts by M. Bégat, both members of the corps of hydrographical
engineers of the marine. ‘These triangulations have been connected with the
grand triangulation which serves as a base for the new chart of I'rance pub-
lished by the corps of the e¢at-major, and have been found so exact that they
have been finally incorporated in that fundamental system. MM. Daussy and
Bégat have deduced from their trigonometric labors a complete table of the

132 MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE.

positions of all the remarkable objects of the coasts of France which can be
seen from the sea; and it was by bearings directed upon these points, rigor-
ously determined, that M. Beautemps-Beaupré and his assistants fixed the posi-
tions of the points of the sea which were to be marked on the charts and plaas.
The bearings were invariably taken with the reflecting circle, in the managt-
ment of which valuable and delicate instrament M. Beautemps-Beaupré had
acquired great dexterity. Nor was he less expert in constructing graphically on
the first rough draught of his chart the points observed by his method, founded
on the geometrical principle of the “problem of three points.” He was
master in a surprising degree of the varied constructions deducible from this
principle, and applied them, as the case might require, with the utmost readi-
ness and sagacity.

It is usually by means of the circumferences of circles described with the ob-
served distances that the points of station are obtained; but when this construc-
tion presents some difficulty by reason of the length of the radius of the circle,
the nearness of centres, &c., it is practicable to substitute one of those somewhat.
numerous and generally quite simple constructions which elementary geometry
deduces from the same fundamental theorem. ‘Thus, in many circumstances,
calculation may be used to find the radii and centres of the circles to be described.
M. Beautemps-Beaupré recommends for these constructions, combined with
‘ealculation, the employment of the tables of natural tangents and sines.

The seale adopted by the hydrographic engineers for the first reduction of
labors was six lines for 100 toises, or zq455 equal to six times that of the
che. of Cassini. 'The charts, and even plans, however, have been generally
published on a scale much smaller, but M. Beautemps-Beaupré soon recognized
the propriety of not only collecting the materials requisite for the execution of
the new charts of the coasts of France, but of exerting himself, moreover, to
bring together in the archives of the depot of marine all the documents which
might be useful in the sequel for forming a judgment of any projects relating
to navigation. He suffered himself to be deterred neither by the difficulties nor
magnitude of the work, and the depot found itself eventually in possession of a
collection of five hundred and twenty-seven quarto volumes, containing the
documents requisite to execute at need, on the largest scale, the plan of all parts
of the western and northern coasts of France to which the attention of govern-
ment might be called.

One of the most essential and useful parts of marine charts is the indication of
the depths of the sea at different points obtained by the sounding line and denoted
by figures on the chart. M. Beautemps-Beaupré was equally skilled in making
and in marking the positions of soundings, and it is with the authority of a
practised master that he recapitulates in the Exposé des Travauz, &c., the rules
of the difficult art of submarine topography. It was seldom that an obstruction
or peril escaped him, though he seems to take pleasure in citing, for the instrue-
tion of his successors, instances in which his researches were bafiled for years
in succession. One day notice was given him that a vessel had touched upon
a rock at a point where none was known to exist. He sought for it a long time
without success, but at last his line fell upon it. The rock was simply a peak
whose diameter scarcely exceeded that of.the lead of the sounding line.

It is necessary to take account in soundings of the constant variations of the
level of the sea by reason of the tides. “'The first thing to be done,” says our
hydrographer, “at the commencement of a campaign, on a coast where the water
through this cause continually changes its level, is to place a certain number of
scales, divided into feet and inches, on which those changes shall be observed,
since it is by means of observations of this kind that we are enabled, in giving
the chart its definite form, to reduce to the lowest water’ level the soundings
made at all hours of the day and tide. ‘To reduce the soundings is to subtract
from the depths found on different days and at all hours of the tide, for every

MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE. P38
/

point of the coast sounded, the suitable number of feet, in order to transfer to
the plan only the depths of water found at each point at the precise instant of
lowest depression. ‘the tables of high and low tide, at many principal points
on the coasts of France, are extracts frem the large body of observations which
served for the reduction of the soundings.” (Ezposé des Travaux, &c., p. 10.)

As M. Beautemps-Beaupré has more than once remarked, the soundings in
many parts of the sea are far from being necessarily unchangeable. It is readily
conceived that they must vary as well from the effect of deposits produced at
some points as of erosions which take place at others. He had said, as early
as 1804, in his nautical description of the coast of the North sea: « We forewarn
navigators that our work must not be regarded as everywhere authoritative, ex-
cept for a limited time, on account of the changes which are in progress in the
shoals upon these shores.’”’ ‘To the same effect he observes with reference to
the western and southern coasts of France: ‘* All banks of sand and ooze un-
dergo changes of position and of depth of which navigators should ever be dis-
trustful, since the best charts can only give, as regards dangers of this kind,
insufficient information when some time has intervened since their construction.
And this applies especially to such banks when they obstruct the mouths of
rivers. Hence the necessity of sounding annually the principal channels, and,
indeed, of frequently renewing the charts of the entrances of rivers.” It may
be added that the comparison of the successive charts of the same region will
some day furnish valuable data respecting the accumulation of sub-marine
alluviums.

It was to the class of researches just spoken of that our colleague dedicated
his last hydrographic labor. He had not taken final leave of the sea in closing,
in 1839, his survey of the northern coast of France. In 1841, at the age of
seventy-five, he cheerfully complied with the invitation of Admiral Baudin to
join him in an investigation of the changes produced in the system of bars at
the mouth of the Seine within the seven preceding years. It was then that for
the first time he had at his disposal a vessel moved by steam, and the superior
facilities thus furnished for hydrographic enterprises drew from him the remark,
“That he would gladly recommence his career if it were only for the pleasure
of prosecuting hydrography with such advantages.”

Though he cheerfully acknowledged that the marine had done in his behalf
all that was practicable, yet he had never, during his operations on the coasts
of France, possessed other resources for transportation than those supplied by
the sail and oar. He had generally at his command a company of eight or ten
hydrographical engineers and officers of marine, and from this school of prac-
tical hydrography have proceeded many of each class who have since been in-
trusted with the most important labors in remote as well as neighboring seas.
Among them have appeared at different times our present colleagues, M. Daussy,
Admiral du Petit Thouars, and M. Dortet de Tessan; MM. Givry and Gressier,
to whom was intrusted, under our distinguished and regretted colleague, Admi-
ral Roussin, the hydrography of the coasts of Brazil; MM. Monnier and Le
Bourguignon Duperré, who have furnished us a magnificent chart of our colony
of Martinique, and have commenced the hydrographic survey of our Mediter-
ranean coasts, and those of Italy; MM. Begat, Keller, Chazallon, Lisusson,
Delamarche, de la Roche-Poncié, now actively prosecuting the grand hydro-
graphic enterprises of the depot of marine; MM. Darondeau and Vincendon
Dumoulin, who have so honorably associated their names with our great voy-
ages of circumnavigation and other important labors; MM. Le Saulnier de
Vauhello, Lapierre, Jehenne, De Villeneuve, who, as officers of our marine,
have in different quarters of the world rendered signal services to hydrography.

Familiar with all the hazards of the sea, M. Beautemps-Beaupré exercised a
consummate prudence in the employment of his assistants, and was justified in
saying to the Academy, when he presented it with the sixth and last volume of

134 MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE.

the Pilote de France: “It completes the satisfaction I feel at having brought
to a successful close so considerable a work as that which I now submit to the
Academy, that never in the course of twenty campaigns, amidst the innumerable
dangers which beset our coasts, hi ve I had to deplore the loss of one of my
Gomiades by any accident of the sea.’ Nor was he less emphatic i in acknowl.

edging the zeal and science of those te had taken part in his labors, and we
feel rh it it was with equal pride and pleasure that he took another oecasion to

say: “ Practical knowledge may advance, and methods be hereafter improved,
but we believe ourselves fully justified in affirming, that under no circumstances
can greater zeal be exerted than has been displayed by all our fellow-laborers.”
Hence, when Louis Philippe, in 1844, named him grand officer of the legion of
honor, the entire cor ps of hy drographic: ul engineers felt themselves recompensed
in the person of their v enerable chief.

Kindness of disposition did not preclude, in the case of our colleague, great
firmness of character, as was abundantly manifested amidst the vex aati in-
separable from labors like his; especially was his constancy of purpose proved
by a circumstance which would have discouraged most others. Although he
embarked young, and at the outset was tossed fur two successive years on the
most stormy seas, he ceased not at any time to be subject to sea-sickness, and
it was amidst sufferings from this malady, which so completely subdues the
stoutest spirits, that for fifty years it devolved on him to measure angles with
the nicest precision, and note the details of soundings, while exposed on slight
vessels to the waves which often swept over himself and his draw ings; yet “hie
paid no attention to these things, and disliked to have his infirmity observed by
others. ‘lo his assistants, Wow even his sufferings could not be unknown, and
must have contributed to the sympathetic ee with which he was regarded
by those, whether officers or mariners, with whom his labors brought him into
contact.

Jt was indeed natural that, with such a character as his, M. Beautemps-
Beaupré should be loved by all who approached him, and it may be readily
imagined that the 25th September, 1848, which witnessed his official retirement,

was, for the depot of marine and the whole corps of hydrographic engineers, a
day of undissembled regret. Equally may we conclude that it was a day of
festivity when, February 2, 1853, M. Ducos, minister of marine, came, in the
name of the Emperor and in the presence of the corps of engineers, to inaugurate
the bust of our colleague in the grand gallery of the depot, whose iny aluable
documents have in great part been collected by himself or under his orders, or
at least by the methods with which he has endowed hydrography. On this
interesting occasion, Admiral Mathieu, the worthy and learned director of the
depot, pronounced a discourse, from which I must content myself with trans-
cribing the following passage: “In having constantly before our eyes the ven-
erable: features of him who was once our chies, and who has created that admi-
rable hydrographic science which is the torch of navigation, we shall recall
without ceasing his vast and conscientious labors, his useful counsels, his devo-
tion to duty, his rigid probity, and at every moment of the day, so to speak, we
shall pay him the abate of respect and gratitude due to him by so many titles.”’
‘To this address M. Ducos cordially responde d: “This bust,” he said, in closing
his remarks, “is entitled to our respect, for it is that of M. Beautemps- -Beaupré,
so much endeared to the navigators of all nations and of every sea. In dedi-
eating this efiigy of the man of science, whom you justly consider the founder
of the depot of marine, in the place which has been the witness of the labors of
his long career, it would seem to be no strained metaphor which should liken
this tribute of your regard and veneration to one of those beacons ereeted by
his counsels and exertions by which you would ingeniously recall to his sue-
cessors the modest point of departure, and the glorious point of success which
they too may realize.” The bust is perfect in its resemblance, faithfully repro-

2

MEMOIR OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE.” 135

ducing the noble features, the kindliness, united with penetration. which charac-
terized the original. Under a physiognomy impressed with so much goodness,
we are easily persuaded that we see one of those ancient savants of the primitive
type whose renown is the property of ages. ‘To the skilful statuary (M.
Desprez) who executed it, the more honor should accrue, inasmuch as M. Beau-
temps-Beaupré had reached the age of eighty-six without having ever permitted
any one to take his portrait. After the ceremony, the minister, the admiral,
and the whole body of assistants proceeded to the modest residence of M.
Beautemps-Beaupré, in the street des Sacnts-Peres, there to render to the illus-
trious old man in person, and amidst the applause of all present, an homage
which must have sensibly touched his heart.

Nor were the scientific bodies, to which he belonged by more than one
title, less conscientious in their acknowledgments. In 1824 he had been named
member of the bureau of longitudes, and assiduously attended the meetings
whenever he was in Paris. His advice in all that regarded navigation was
here listened to with invariable deference. He had been also named one of the
commission of light-houses from the commencement in 1826, and was especially
intrusted with the suitable location of those invaluable aids to navigation. The
active and influential part which he took in the deliberations of the board was
warmly acknowledged at his funeral by M. Leonece Reynaud, the skilful con-
structor of the light-house of Brehat, the site of which was fixed by M. Beau-
temps-Beaupré himself, after the difficult and dangerous exploration of the
Roches-Douvres at the entrance of the British channel. His character, his long
experience of the sea, his solicitude for the public good, conspired, with the
intrinsic wisdom of his counsels, to secure their constant adoption. Even on
his death-bed his thoughts were still occupied with the interests and dangers
of maritime enterprise; and if he manifested a sensibility, it was to the assur-
ance that the member of the commission of light-houses had completed the
work of the hydrographer, and that thenceforward all important questions
bearing on the lighting of our sea-coast were resolved.

Whatever related to the sea interested him to the last. In 1853 a commission
was appointed to investigate, under the direction of M. Dumas, certain ques-
tions touching the existence of the ¢angwe, a product of marine origin which the
sea throws up at the entrances of certain rivers of Normandy and Brittany.
Agriculture dreaded the disappearance of this fertilizer. The commission, de-
sirous of consulting M. Beautemps-Beaupré on this production of shores which
he had so thoroughly explored, repaired in a body to his residence. The aged
navigator recovered all his animation im speaking of places which he had so
often visited: “We know not,” he said, “how the tangue is reproduced at
those points; it is the fowl which lays golden eggs; it must not be interfered
with.”

In the presence of the great spectacles of nature, M. Beautemps-Beaupré had
contracted a taste for natural history. If he did not cultivate it himself, he
zealously aided those who did. In the expedition of d’Entrecasteaux he had
formed intimate relations with its botanist, M. de la Billardicre, and it was he
who brought to France the beautiful nautilus vitré now in the Museum of
Natural History which was bequeathed to the government by M. de Kermadee,
captain of the Lsperance, on his death in New Caledonia. Many of our col-
leagues recall with sensibility the cordial and obliging reception extended to
them on our coasts by M. Beautemps-Beaupré while prosecuting his own
arduous hydrographic labors.

Reared among the savants of the close of the eighteenth century, he had pre-
served that almost religious respect for science which was one of their dis-
tinctive characteristics. Hence the dignity, united with friendliness, which per-
vaded all his relations. ‘He was,” said the Marchioness de Laplace, whose
remembrance is itself a eulogy, ‘a man of an antique character.” He possessed

136 MEMOIR OF CG. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE.
‘

that elevation of sentiment which Plutarch so well knew how to paint. Reverses —
of fortune, which would have overwhelmed another, were encountered by him —
with stoic firmness. Involved at an advanced age in the failure of a banker,*
he lost by that event the savings of his whole life; but he contented himself
with saying affectionately to Madame Beautemps-Beaupré, “'This event, my
love, makes us younger by thirty years,’”’ an expression which supposed in her
an elevation of sentiment equal to his own. Few marriages, indeed, have been
so happy as that which he contracted, in 1804, with Madame Fayolle, widow
of a commissary general of marine. Both were nearly eighty when death sepa-
rated them by the removal of the w ife; it was the first cloud which had dark-
ened their union.

M. Fayolle, issue of the first marriage of Madame Beautemps-Beaupré, found
in our colleague a second father, and, as hydrographical engineer, was for many
years one of fine most distinguished and useful assistants.

M. Beautemps-Beaupré had always had a weakness of the breast; at the age
of eighteen some physicians had even augured an early decline. W hen he
embarked to take part in the expedition of d’Entrecasteaux, it was generally
thought that he would never again see France. ‘This prognostic was fortu-
nately falsified; but an penne cough attended his whole life, and in later
years subjected him to much annoyance.

It will scarcely be forgotten among ourselves that, at our sessions, he was a
model of punctuality. He signed our record the 23d of October, 1853, but
thenceforward was forced to renounce his attendance. 'This privation, and the
sufferings which occasioned it, he bore with a resignation full of cheerfulness.
One of our colleagues having called to see him, and expressing the hope that a
strong constitution would again restore him to us, he replied with a smile, “I
am duly sensible of your kindness, but I shall soon be eighty-eight.” Firm in |
a Christian faith, M. Beautemps-Beaupré accepted death without a murmur.
“Let us not repine,” said Admiral Baudin at his grave, “that, in subjecting
him for several months to the supreme trial of excessive suffering, God afforded
him the opportunity of setting an example of resignation and unalterable
serenity.”

He expired March 16, 1854, surrounded by a devoted family, which numbers
two inheritors of his distinguished name—M. Pierre Beautemps-Beaupré, presi-
dent of the Chamber of Commerce of Grandville, and M. Charles Beautemps-
Beaupré, imperial procurator at Mantes. In this Academy he succeeded M. de -
Fleurieu, his master and friend, and has himself been succeeded by M. Daussy,
who, from 1811, had been his most constant collaborator, and who efliciently
contributed to secure to the hydrographic survey of the coasts of France
geodetic bases of irreproachable precision.

* The banker, who was his relative, might have been prosecuted for fraudulent bank-
tuptcy. M. Be autemps- -Beaupre threw in “the fire the only paper which could have pro-
cured his condemnation, saying, ‘‘1t is not I who will ever be instrumental in disgracing a
relative.”

*
OUTLINE OF THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY

Ps OF THE

BOvAL. SOCLETY. O02 «L0N DON

PREPARED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C. A. ALEXANDER,

“The principal advantage of academies consists in the philosophical spirit naturally en-
gendered by them, which spreads itself throughout society, and extends to all objects. The
isolated inquirer may resign himself without fear to the spirit of system; he only hears afar
off the contradiction which he incurs. But in a learned society the conflict of systematic
opinions soon results in their overthrow ; and the desire of being mutually satisfied necessarily
establishes between the members anagreement to admit nothing but the results of observation
and calculation. Hence, as experience hus shown, true philosophy has been generally dif-

-fused since the rise of academies. by setting the example of subjecting everything to the

examination of a rigorous analysis, they have dissipated the prejudices which had too long
tyrannized in the sciences, and in which the best intellects of preceding ages had shared.
Their useful influence over opinion has, in our day, dispelled errors which had been received
with an enthusiasm that in other times would have perpetuated them. Equally exempt from
the credulity which would admit everything, and the prejudice which disposes to the rejection
of whatever departs from received ideas, these enlightened bodies have always, in difficult
questions, and with reference to extraordinary phenomena, wisely awaited the answers of ob-
servation and experiment, which they have at the same time solicited by prizes and by their
own labors. Proportioning their appreciation, as well to the magnitude and difficulty of a
discovery as to its immediate utility, and convinced by many examples that the most sterile
in appearance may some day lead to important consequences, they have encouraged the re-
search for truth in regard to all objects, with the exclusion of those only which the limits of
man’s understanding render forever inaccessible. Finally, it is from their bosom that those
great theories have arisen whose generality places them beyond the common reaeh, and which,
spreading themselves by numerous applications over nature and the arts, have become inex-
haustible sources of light and fruition. Wise governments, convinced of the utility of such
societies, and considering them as one of the principal foundations of the glory and prosperity
of empires, have not only instituted them, but attached them to their own service, that they
might derive from them that knowledge which has often proved of the highest public’ advan-
tage.” —(Laplace, Precis de l’ Histoire de l’ Astronomie, p. 99.)

“The development and advancement of science,” it has been remarked, “are
signally indebted to three among modern associations: the Accademia del
Cimento at Florence, which endured, however, but for a short time; the Royal
Society of London; and the Academy of Sciences at Paris.” The first of these
was established in 1657, under the patronage of the Grand Duke Ferdinand II,
acting upon the advice of Viviani, the great geometrician. ‘The name adopted
by this society implies as its object the investigation of truth by experiment
alone, and its members, whose number was unlimited and included the distin-
guished names of Castellio and Torricelli, were held to no other obligation but
an abjuration of all authority and a resolution to inquire after truth, without
regard to the doctrines of any previous system of philosophy. Nor did the
Academy pass away without leaving a record of its labors. A volume, con-
taining reports of the experiments made under its auspices, was printed in 1666,
including, with many others, those on the supposed incompressibility of water,
the universal gravity of bodies, and the property of electric substances.

For England, after Italy, is claimed a priority in the formal inauguration of a
similar and purely scientific association, and the date of the establishment of

138 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE

the Royal Society, which is referred to 1660, certainly preceded by six years
that of its French rival. But, independently of the consideration that the
period had arrived when the state of experimental science urgently demanded
the realization of those splendid visions of associated activity which had long
before kindled the imagination of Bacon, * the chronological origin of the illus-
trious bodies in question is involved in some obscurity in consequence of their
previous existence as private and spontaneous reunions of certain learned men
of the age. Ilence the title of the “ Invisible College,” which we find applied
by Boyle to the future Royal Society, while as yet it existed only in this in-
choate state, a period of which the following passageg convey to us some inter-
ene notices ;

és About the year 1645,” says Dr. Wallis, “while I lived in London, (at a
time when, by our civil wars, academical studies were much interrupted in
both our universities,) besides the conversation of divers eminent divines as to
matters theological, | had the opportunity of being acquainted with divers
worthy persons inquisitiye into natural philosophy and other parts of human
learning, and particularly of what hath been called the New Philosophy, or
Experimental Philosophy. We did, by agreement, divers of us, meet weekly
in London on a certain day, to treat and discourse of such matters. Our, busi-
ness was (precluding matters of theology and state affairs) to discourse and con-
sider of philosophical inquiries, and such as related thereunto, as physic,
anatomy, geometry, astronomy, navigation, statics, magnetics, chymics, me-
chanics, and natural experiments, w ith the state of these studies as then culti-
vated at home and abroad. We oe discoursed of the circulation of the blood,
the valves im the veins, the vene lactea, the lymphatic vessels, the Copernican
hypothesis, the nature of comets and new stars, the satellites of Jupiter, the oval
shape (as was then supposed ) of Saturn, the spots on the sun and its turning on
ats own axis, the inequalities and sclenography of the moon, the several phases
of Venus and Mercury, the improvement of telescopes and grinding of glasses
for that purpose, the weight of air, the possibility or impossibility of vacuities
and nature’s abhorrence thereof, the Torricellian experiment in quicksilver, the
descent of heavy bodies and the degrees of acceleration therein, and divers other
things of like nature, some of which were then but new discoveries, and others
not so generally known and embraced as now they are.’

“For such a candid and impassionate company as that was,” says Dr. Sprat,
in his History of the Royal Society, “and for such a gloomy season, what could
have been a better subject to pitch upon than natural philosophy? To have
been always tossing about some theological question would have been to make
that their private diversion, the excess of which they themselves disliked in
the public; to have been eternally musing on civil business and the distresses
of their country was too melancholy a reflection. It was mature alone which
could pleasantly entertain them in that estate. Their meetings were as frequent
as their affairs permitted; their proceedings, rather by action than discourse,
chiefly attending some particular trials in chemistry or mechanics. They had
no rules nor method fixed; their intention was more to communicate to each
other their discoveries, which they could make in so narrow a compass, than
an united, constant, or regular inquisition. Thus they continued, without any
great intermissions, till about the fatal year 1658, when the continuance of
their meetings might have made them run the hazard of the fate of Archimedes;
for then the place of their meeting (Gresham College) was made a quarter for
soldiers.”

“There arose at this time,” says Dr. Whewell, alluding to the period ante-

oO
cedent to the epoch of Newton, “a group of philosophers who began to knock

*See the ‘‘New Atlantis,” of Lord Bacon.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 139

at the door where truth was to be found, although it was left for Newton to
force itopen. These were the founders of the Royal Society.” «* The men who
formed the Royal Society,” says Bishop Burnet, “were Sir Robert Moray,
Lord Brouncker, a profound mathematician, and Dr. Ward, a man of great re-
search, and so dexterous that his sincerity was much questioned. But he who
labored most, at the greatest charge, and with the most success at experiments,
was the Hon. Robert Boyle, a devout Christian, humble and modest almost to a
fault.” Among other names connected with the Society in its earlier stage, or at
the period of its formal organization, and still memorable in science, literature, or
the arts, may be distinguished those of Bishop Wilkins, Sir Kenelm Digby,
Evelyn, Denham, Clarke, Cowley, Willis, Wren, Ashmole, &c.

« The first journal book of the Society, a plain unpretending volume, bound
in basil, yet destined to receive great names and to be the record of important
scientific experiments,” opens with the date of November 28, 1660, and with
the proceedings of a meeting which may be regarded as organic in relation to
the form and permanence of the Society. Here it was determined that mect-
ings should be regularly held every Wednesday during term time; that a con-
tribution of ten shillings on admission, and of one shilling weekly, should be
levied on each member, whether present or absent, as long as he should please
to maintain his connexion with the association, and a list was formed of the
names of such persons, known to those present, as were judged willing and fit
to unite with them in their design. Ata subsequent meeting a committee of
three or more (as occasion might permit) was empowered to frame a constitu-
tion, which was submitted and adopted at a general meeting on the 12th of
December following. By this, the standing officers of the Society were declared
to be three: a president or director, a qrensuidr: and a register; the first to be
chosen monthly, the two latter annually. An amanuensis and operator are
styled “servants belonging to the Society,” and receive salaries, the former 40,
the latter 4 pounds per annum. The stated number of members was fixed at
fifty-five, with permission that all persons of the degrees of baron or above
might, at their choice, be admitted as supernumeraries. It was provided that
no candidate should be elected the same day he was proposed, and that at least
twenty-one members should be present at each election. Tor such election,
the amanuensis, it is ordered, shall provide “several little scrolls of paper of
equal length and breadth, in number double to the Society present. One-half
of them shall be marked with a cross, and being rolled up shall be laid in a
heap on the table; the other half shall be marked with ciphers, and being
rolled up shall be laid in another heap. Every person coming in his order
shall take from each heap a roll, and throw which he please privately into an
urn, and the other into a box. ‘Then the director. and two others of the
Society, openly numbering the crossed rolls in the urn, shall accordingly pro-
nounce the election.”” ‘'wo-thirds of those voting were necessary to a choice.

The Society having included, as we have seen, two poets, Denham and
Cowley, among its members, was fairly entitled to a greeting from the muse.
This it received through the ingenious pen of Cowley, in verses whose philoso-
phical truth as well as originality of illustration may perhaps still justify
quotation. After deploring the fate of philosophy, which for three or four
thousand years had been kept by unwise or dishonest tutors in a state of
nonage, he tells us:

Bacon, at last, a mighty man! arose,
Whom a wise king and Nature chose

Lord chancellor of both their laws,
And boldly undertook the injur’d pupil’s cause.
* * *

From the long errors of the way,
In which our wandering predecessors went,
And, like the old Hebrews, many years did stray

i

140 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE

In deserts, but of small extent,

Bacon! like Moses, led us forth at last

The barren wilderness he pass’d—

Did on the very border stand

Of the bless’d promis’d land,

And from the mountain’s top of his exalted wit,
Saw it himself, and show’d us it.

If the poet has somewhat overstated the claims of Lord Bacon as the herald
of experimental philosophy, he seems to have been gifted with a clearer vision |
of the future achievements of the Society, which he thus apostrophises :

From you, great champions! we expect to get
Those spacious countries but discover’d yet ;
Countries where vet, instead of Nature, we
Her image and her idols worship’d see.
* * ~ *

* * * *

New scenes of heaven already we espy,

And crowds of golden worlds on high,

Which from the spacious plains of earth and sea
Could never yet discover’d be

By sailor’s or Chaldean’s watchful eye.

Nature’s great works no distance can ubscure,
No smallness her near objects can secure:
Ye’ave taught the curious sight to press

Into the privatest recess

Of her imperceptible littleness ;

Ye’ave learn’d to read her smallest hand,

And well begun her deepest sense to understand.

Cowley possessed other claims than merely literary ones to scientific fellow-
ship; he had taken a degree in medicine and written, elegantly at least, on
plants and trees. He had besides, as Dr. Sprat assures us, accelerated the
foundation of the Royal Society by the publication of a proposition for the ad-
vancement of experimental philosophy, which is still found among his works,
and though the form of his proposed “ college’? was not adopted, it cannot be
denied that he has comprehensively, if quaintly, stated the objects to which
such an institution would necessarily be destined: “'To weigh, examine, and
prove all things of nature, and detect, explode, and strike a censure through
all false moneys, with which the world has been paid and cheated so long, and

(as I may say) set the mark of the college upon all true coins, that they may
pass hereafter without any further trial. Secondly, it will recover the lost in-
ventions, and, as it were, drowned lands of the ancients. ‘Thirdly, it will im-
prove all arts which we now have, and, lastly, discover others which we yet
have not.”

It cannot but afford a curious insight into the state of natural knowledge at

this early stage of the labors of the Society, if we glance at the manner in

which it proceeded to deal with the currency of which Cowley speaks, in order
to explode what was spurious and accredit what was genuine. With this view
a few entries from the journal are here given:

“Dr Clarke was entreated to lay before the Society Mr. Pellin’s relation of the production
of young vipers from the powder of the liver and lungs of vipers.

“*Sir Gilbert Talbot promised to bring in what he knew of sympatheticall cures. Those
that had any powder of sympathy were desired to bring some of it at the next meeting.

“The Duke of Buckingham promised to cause charcoal to be distill’d by his chymist, and
to bring into the Society a piece of unicorne’s horn.

“Sir Kenelm Digby related that the calcined powder of toads reverberated, applyed in
bagges upon the stomach of a pestiferate body, cures it by several applications. [Digby
delighted in the marvellous, and is said to have fed his wife on capons fattened with the
flesh of vipers, in order to preserve her beauty. ]

“* A circle was made with powder of unicorne’s horne and a spider set in the middle of it,
bat it immediately ran out severall times repeated. The spider once made some stay upon
the powder.

on letter was introduced treating of a petrified city and its inhabitants.” &c., &c.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 141
'

Other entries there are undoubtedly, and in greater number, which show that
the spirit of inquiry was rapidly finding its true direction: Investigations of
the mechanical properties of the air, by Boyle; experiments with the pendu-
lum, by Sir Christopher Wren, who is said to have first suggested its oscilla-
tions as a standard of measure; observations on the ‘“ anatomy of trees,” by
Evelyn; instructions for the guidance of curious observers “in the remotest
parts of the world.” Even what now seem Indicrous tentatives with the pow-
der of toads and vipers, or frivolous inquiries respecting the witch-hazel and
still more wonderful Lepas anatifcra,* itis more just to regard as obligatory and
conscientious efforts to bring the questionable opinions of the day, however
trivial, to the assay of direct experiment. The time will probably not soon
come when science can claim absolute exemption from like humble labors ; not,
at least, “ While,” to borrow the words of Sir Thomas Brown, “ the spirit of
delusion, though expelled from his oracles and more solemn temples, still runs
into corners, exercising minor trumperies, and acting his deceits in inferior
seducers.”’

The Restoration, in diffusing a general sense of permanenceand security, was
highly favorable to the objects of the association, and Charles II had enough of
curiosity, perhaps of wisdom, to look with a patronising eye on inquiries which
threatened to interfere neither with his indolence nor pleasures. He held sundry
communications with the philosophers, and even proposed subjects for investi-
gation, before proceeding to what has been uncharitably called the only wise
act of his reign—the incorporation of the Royal Society.

In the instrument by which this was effected, the King, after protesting his
zeal for all learning, especially for those studies which aim by solid experiments
to strike out something new in philosophy, or bring to perfection what already
exists, (novam extundere philosophiam aut expolire veterem,) declares himself
founder and patron of the Socicty, conferring on it the name of the Royal
Society of Loudon pro scientia naturali promovenda.t

Its government is deposited in the hands of a president and council, to the
number, including the president, of twenty-one, all of whom were, in the first
instance, nominated by the crown. For the succession, it is provided that an
election shall annually take place on St. Andrew’s day, in which a president
shall be chosen from among the members of the existing council, and ten of this
latter body shall be removed, and their places supplied by others; on which
occasion not less than thirty-one members of the Society shall be present, (the
president or his deputy being always one of them,) and a majority of that num-
ber shall determine the choice in each instance. Other officers of the Society
are a treasurer, two secretaries, two or more curators of experiments, one clerk,
besides two mace-bearers to attend on occasion upon the president. Power is
given to the president and council to make from time to time such laws and
ordinances as shall seem to them useful and necessary for the better government
and regulation of the Society; and grants of certain pieces and parcels (pecios
et parcellos) of land, of no great extent, are made to the learned body, to be
held of the crown by the tenure of free and common soceage. A somewhat
singular concession is that which authorizes the Society to demand the bodies
of such executed criminals as may be desired for dissection—a circumstance

* Sir Robert Moray, first president of the Royal Society, signalized the meeting at which
he was elected by presenting a paper relating to barnacles, in which he affirmed that he had him-
self seen, in the western isles of Scotland, trees to which were attached multitudes of shells,
each containing a small but perfectly shaped sea-fowl, or solan-goose. He candidly confesses,
however, that he did not see the products of these extraordinary limpets alive.

t ‘The epithet natural,” says Dr. Paris, in his Life of Sir Humphrey Davy, ‘‘ was here
intended to imply a meaning of which few persons are probably aware. At the period of the
establishment of the Society, the arts of witchcraft and divination were very extensively en-
couraged, and the word natural was therefore introduced in contradistinction to supernatural.”

142 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE

pointing perhaps to the large proportion of medical men which entered at that
time into the association. Finally, it is provided that if abuses should occur or
dissensions arise, the Archbishop of Canterbury and certain high officers of
state shall be invested with powers for removing such abuses and deciding such
controversies.*

The first president of the Society, after the incorporation, was Lord Brouacker;
the secretaries, Dr. Wilkins and Henry Oldenburg; all appointed by the crown,
“Some idea may be formed of the activity of the Society at this period by the
following list of eight committees appointed on the 30th March, 1664: 1.
Mechanical, consisting of sixty-nine members. 2. Astronomical and optical,
fifteen members. 3. Anatomical, consisting of Boyle, Hooke, Dr. Wilkins, and
all the physicians of the Society. 4. Chymical, comprising all the physicians
of the Society, and seven other Fellows. 5. Georgical, consisting of thirty-two
members. 6. For histories of trades, consisting of thirty-five members. 7. For
collecting all the phenomena of nature hitherto observed, and all experiments
made and recorded, consisting of twenty-one members. 8. or correspondence,
consisting of twenty members.” Oldenburg, about this time, received, as he
tells Boyle, the agreeable assurance from his correspondents in Paris, that ‘‘the
English philosophers were doing more for science than all the other nations of
Europe, as well in curious and detached particulars as in the great works given
to the public.”

The labors of the Society were destined to be soon interrupted by the plague
of 1665, which drove the members very generally from London. Oldenburg,
however, remained at his post, and continued his correspondence on scientific
matters during the whole period of the pestilence. When the meetings of the
Society were resumed, the sources of the late calamity became naturally a sub-
ject of investigation, and on this occasion the animalcular origin of the epidemie
was suggested. But “the vermination of the air as the cause of the plague”

was supposed to have received its strongest confirmation in Italy, where Dr.,

Bacon, who had long practiced physic at Rome, was said to have observed that
«there was a kind of insect in the air which laid eggs hardly discernible with-
out a microscope; which eggs being, for an experiment, given to be snuffed up
by a dog, the animal fell into a distemper accompanied with all the symptoms
of the plague.”” Hooke, however, had observed that, during the summer in
question, there was, in London at least, a very great scarcity of flies and insects.

A second interruption of the meetings was occasioned by the “great fire” of
the following year, for, though the apartments of the Society in Gresham Col-
lege escaped, that edifice was required for the purposes of the corporation of
London. A removal of the meetings to Arundel House, at the invitation of
its owner, led in the sequel to a donation of his valuable library, which thus
became the nucleus of that of the Society. The collection consisted -of 3,287
printed books, chiefly first editions after the invention of printing, besides 544
volumes of Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Turkish, and other rare manuscripts, of

which the greater part, of both-classes, had been purchased in Vienna by an ~

ancestor of the noble house, and comprised the curious and costly collection
formed by the celebrated Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary. About this
time also the foundations of a museum, or “collection of natural things,” was
formed, which, it will not surprise us to be told, comprised, among other articles,
‘the stones taken out of Lord Balearres’s heart, a bottle full of stag’s tears, a
petrified fish, the skin of an antelope which died in St. James’s park, a petrified
fcetus,’”’ and other equally extraordinary objects, which the language of the age
not unaptly termed “rarities.” ‘The rival museum of the Tradescants already
contained “two feathers of the phoenix tayle” and “a natural dragon!”

* The charters and statutes of the Society may be seen at large in the appendix to WELD’S
HisToRY OF THE ROYAL Socrery, a learned and interesting work, on whose statements the
present brief account is founded.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 143

A subject which at this time attracted general attention was the transfusion
f blood trom the veins of one animal to those of another as a means of restoring
health or prolonging life. As usual, the most extravagant expectations were
indulged by the unreflecting in regard to the eflicacy of this process, and the
Society, rightly judging the verification of its virtues to fall within their domain,
after trying with impunity the experiment of transfusion on that customary
victim of scientific curiosity, the dog, set themselves in quest of a human sub-
ject for further investigation. It was first proposed to try the practice upon
“some mad person in Bedlam,” probably with a view to test the effects upon the
mental as well as bodily sanity, but the physician in charge of the hospital re-
fused his assent. A poor student was, however, soon found, who, for the price

of a guinea, consented to undergo the operation, and indicated a sheep as the
animal whose blood he was willing to receive. ‘The experiment was conducted
at Arundel House, in the presence of the Society and of other distinguished in-
dividuals, and was attended with such encouraging circumstances as to lead to
its repetition some wecks afterwards, on which occasion eight owaces of human
blood were taken, and about fourteen ounces of sheep’s blood injected. ‘The
patient, we are told, was ‘well and merry”’ after the operation, his pulse and
appetite being better than before, but respecting the permanence of these good
results we are Icit somewhat in the dark. 'The condition of the patient’s mind,
as well before as after the experiment, may be judged of from the mystical
reason he assigned, when questioned why he had elected to. have the blood of
a sheep transfused rather than that of some other creature: Sanguis ovis sym-
bolicam quandan faculiatem habet cum sanguine Christi, quia Christus est
Agnus Dei. The Society had thus far met with better fortune than some of the
cotemporary inquirers in both Germany and France, where death had in more
than one instance been the result of similar proceedings, exposing those who
conducted them to the danger of prosecution for manslaughter. ‘Tidings of
these disasters at once turned the current of public opinion in England, and led
to the abandonment of further investigation on the part of the savants.

There can be no doubt that the inquisitive spirit of the Society, though often
directed to subjects which no longer appear either dignified or important, had
already exercised the happiest influence on the course and habits of public
thought. Inquiry was propagated, and a salutary scepticism everywhere man-
ifested its encroachments on the domain of popular delusion. Under this point
of view, the iustorian of the Society is justified in signalizing the fact that
although “during the civil wars upwards of eighty individuals were executed

in Sufiolk alone for supposed witchcraft, there were but two witches executed in
England after the Royal Society published their Transactions.’ A body which
at once prosecuted researches on the theory of eclipses, the nature of comets,
and the causes of pestilence, could afford but little countenance to the wide-
spread delusion which associated the last of these phenomena in some myste-
rious concomitance with the two former. When even the scrupulous Boyle had
thought fit to give to one of his scientific treatises the title of The Sceptical
Chemist, there could be not much hope for alchemy and its attendant frauds.
In other fields, too, the habits of philosophical speculation which, if the Royal
Society did not introduce it; at least effectually promoted by influence and ex-
ample, gave rise to reforms which, as Buckle remarks,* rendered the reign of the
mean and spiritless voluptuary Charles II one of the brightest epochs in the na-
tional annals, with reference to laws then passed and principles then established.

The zeal of the Society for furthering and stimulating experimental inquiry
was manifested at an early period by the adoption of a resolution “that such
of the Fellows as regarded the welfare of the Society should be desired to oblige

*History of Civilization in England, vol. I, p. 275.

7

144 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE x

themselves to entertain it, once a year at least, with a philosophical discourse,
grounded upon experiments made or to be made; and in case of failure, to for-
feit €5.” ‘This voluntary engagement on the part of Fellows, deemed “able
and likely’’ to furnish such discourses, was at the same time made an imperative —
obligation on each member of the existing council. For one, the indefatigable
Hooke is recorded in the journal-book as having produced new experiments
and inventions at almost every meeting. An agent was salaried to traverse
England and Scotland in search of zoological and botanical specimens, and this
at a time when a default on the part of many members in the payment of the
weekly subseription had so crippled the resources of the Society as to render
even its existence precarious. An active foreign correspondence had contributed
to secure to it an influence abroad searcely inferior to that which it enjoyed at
home, as was testified by the learned of Europe, among others by Leibnitz,
Malpighi, and Leuwenhoeck, in the dedication of their works to the Society, or
a submission of their labors to its judgment. It is a coincidence not unworthy,
perhaps, of notice, that about the time when “one Mr. Leuwenhoeck,” as we
find him ealled in the correspondence, recommended to the notice of the Society
his improved microscope, by the assiduous use of which he eventually arrived
at the distinction of being esteemed ‘the father of microscopical discoveries,” a
“poor Cambridge student,’? named Isaac Newton, presented to it his reflecting
telescope, “ the first perfect reflector known, and made by the hands of Newton
himself.’* ‘Thus science was simultaneously endowed with the perfected means
of realizing both terms of Cowley’s poetical prophecy—the penetration alike
“of the crowds of golden worlds on high,” and “ the recesses of nature’s imper-
ceptible littleness.’”” The presentation of the telescope was soon followed by
the adoption of the inventor into the Society, the year 1671 being the date of
the accession of the great philosopher, destined, in the eloquent language of Dr.
Young, “to advance with one gigantic stride from the regions of twilight into
the noonday of science.”

From this period the history of the Royal Society becomes so thoroughly
interwoven with the general history of science that it is manifestly impossible,
in a sketch necessarily confined within the narrow limits of the present, to do
more than touch upon a few prominent points illustrative either of the progress
of the Society or of the knowledge which it has cultivated.

On the 8th of February, 1671-’72, Newton communicated to the Society his
investigations respecting “light, refractions, and colors, importing light to be
not a similar, but a heterogeneous thing, consisting of difform rays.” For these
discoveries the author received the “solemn thanks” of the Society, at whose re- .
quest they were published in the Philosophical Transactions, being the first of
Newton’s productions which saw the light. His experiments had been made
in 1666, when he was only twenty-three years of age. No sooner, however,
was his theory of light given to the world than it was vehemently attacked,
both as regarded his conclusions and the accuracy of the experiments from
which they had been deduced; Hooke and Huyghens appearing among the
number of his assailants. So true is it, as Biot has remarked, that “by un-
veiling himself Newton cbtained glory but at the price of his repose.”

* Newton’s telescope, says Weld, was the first reflecting telescope directed to the heavens,
though James Gregory had previously (1663) described the manner of constructing one with
two concave specula. Newton perceived so great disadvantages in Gregory’s plan, that, ac-
cording to his own statement, ‘‘he found it necessary to alter the design, and place the eye
glass at the side of the tube, rather than at the middle.”’ Newton’s mechanical labors led to |
his being sometimes regarded abroad as a maker of telescopes, and we find him styled in a |
book of that period, Artefex quidam anglus nomine Newton. It is suggestive to consider into |
what gigantic proportions the instrument constructed by the Cambridge student has been
developed under the hands of Herschel and Rosse. Newton’s first telescope is nine inches
jong; the length of Lord Rosse’s six-feet reflector is sixty feet.

|

ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 145

Tn 1686 the MS. of Newton’s immortal work, Philosophie Naturalis Pron-
cipia Mathematica, was presented to the Society; and being accepted with
thanks, it was ordered ‘that the printing of the book be referred to the con-
sideration of the council, and that it be put into the hands of Mr. Halley to
make a report thereof.” The council, duly sensible of the slenderness of the
Society’s finances at that time, were glad to devolve upon Halley, who agreed
to accept it, the “ business of looking after and printing the work at his own
charge.’”’ In the course of the preparations for that purpose, it became neces-
sary for Halley to inform the author that Hooke claimed to have “some pre-
tensions upon the invention of the rule of the decrease of gravity being recip-
rocally as the squares of the distances from the centre,” though he admitted
the demonstration of the curves generated thereby to belong wholly to Newton.
When apprized of this claim, the illustrious geometer determined upon the sup-
pression of the entire third book of the Principia. ‘“ Philosophy,” he said, ‘is
such an impertinently litigious lady, that a man had as well be engaged in law-
‘suits as have to do with her. I found it so formerly, and now I am no sooner
come near her again but she gives me warning.’ In the controversy relative
to his optical discoveries he had written to Oldenburg: “I intend to be no
further solicitous about matters of philosophy, and therefore I hope you will
not take it ill if you find me never doing anything more in that kind.” It
required much remonstrance and entreaty on the part of Halley to induce New-
ton to abandon his intention of suppressing the third book, De Systemate Mundi,
without which the celebrated work might have borne the title, De motu Cor-
porum Libri duo. In view of all the circumstances it is difficult to deny the
justice of the remark made in Regaud’s Essay on the First Publication of the
Principia, that “it is hardly possible to form a suflicient estimate of the im-
mense obligation which the world owes in this respect to Halley, without whose
great zeal, able management, unwearied perseverance, scientific attainments,
and disinterested generosity the Principia might never have been published.”

Halley had been elected a Iellow of the Society in 1678, on his return from
his voyage to St. Helena, made chiefly with a view to astronomical observa-
tions, of which the fruit remains in his Catalogus stellarum australium, but
rendered subservient also to the science of terrestrial magnetism, of which he is
styled by a high authority the father and founder. “ ‘To him,” says Sir John
Herschel, ‘ we owe the first appreciation of the real complexity of the subject
of magnetism. It is wonderful, indeed, and a striking proof of the penetration
and sagacity of this extraordinary man, that with his means of information he
should have been able to draw such conclusions, and to take so large and com-
prehensive a view of the subject as he appears to have done.” Halley’s com-
munications to the Socicty on this subject consist of a chart, the first of its
kind, showing the variation of the compass, based on the idea of employing
eurves drawn through points of equal declination, and of papers published in
the 180th and 195th numbers of the Philosophical Transactions. In the last
of these occurs a striking passage, in which he expresses his belief “that he
has put it past doubt that the globe of the earth is one great magnet, having
four magnetical poles or points of attraction; near each pole of the equator two;

magnetical poles, the needle is chiefly governed thereby, the nearest poles
being always predominant over the more remote.” Amid the efforts which are
now directed to this subject, it will not be uninteresting to observe with how
much modesty this early explorer defers the solution of his difficult problem
to later times. ‘The nice determination,” he says, “of this and of several
other particulars in the magnetic system is reserved for remote posterity ; all
that we can hope to do is to leave behind us observations that may be confided
_ in, and to propose hypotheses which after ages may examine, amend, or refute.”
And he proceeds to urge upon all navigators and lovers of natural truths to

s

;
| and that in those parts of the world which lie near adjacent to any one of those

146 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE

make or collect observations of this kind in all parts of the world, and to com.
municate them to the Royal Society, “in order to leave as complete a history
as may be to those that are hereafter to compare all together, and to complete
and perfect this abstruse theory.” |

Another science which at this era engaged the attention of the Society was |
geology, or, as it was then termed, “the Natural History of the Earth;” the
chief representatives of which, before the Society, appear to have been Dr,/
Lister and Dr. Woodward. Of the former, Lyell remarks : “ He was the first.
who was aware of the continuity over large districts of the principal groups
of strata in the British series, and who proposed the construction of regular.
geological maps.’’ Woodward published an essay towards a Natural History;
of the Earth, which attracted much attention and was elaborately reviewed ini
the Transactions. Dr. Whewell, moreover, has noted as ‘one of the most re)
markable occurrences in the progress of descriptive geology in England, the for--
mation of a geological museum by William Woodward as early as 1695.)
This collection, formed with great labor, systematically arranged, and carefully;
catalogued, he bequeathed to the University of Cambridge; founding and en-,
dowing at the same time a professorship of the study of geology. The Wood-|
wardian Museum still subsists, a monument of the sagacity with which its
author so early saw the importance of such a collection.’”’*

An official connexion of the Society with the progress of astronomical obser-:
vations resulted from its relations to the observatory of Greenwich (founded:
1675,) of which, after having done much to sustain and advance it during the
many years while it remained neglected by government, the Society finally:
became the formal difectors or visitors by royal warrant. Under this authority:
the Society are required to exact from the astronomer royal for, the time being
an account of the annual observations made, to inspect the instruments of the
observatory, and to superintend and, if deemed proper, to direct its operations.
If, therefore, so eminent an authority as M. Struve has singled it out as a point)
well worthy of remark and encomium, that the astronomers of this illustrious;
observatory have maintained one unchanged system or plan in their labors:
during the long period from the origin of the establishment to the present day,
something of this uniformity may reasonably be aseribed to its connexion with
and subordination to a fixed and self-perpetuating body like the Royal Society,

The application of steam, which in our day has acquired so astonishing a
development, did not fail to find among the early Fellows of the Society
at least one curious inquirer, whose speculations and projects are preserved im
the Transactions. Dr. Papin, inventor of the well-known digester for softening)
bones, and whose “ philosophical supper’’ prepared upon that plan may still be
enjoyed by the readers of Evelyn’s Diary, is noticed in 1690 as having in¥
vented a method of draining mines by the force of “ vapor,” in which, though
much was wanting to the practical perfection of the engine, the philosophical,
principle of the condensation as well as elastic force of steam is observed and)
pointed out. Ata later period Dr. Papin communicated to the Society an ex4
tension of this principle to the propulsion of boats “to be rowed by oars moved
with heat,” and had the honor of having his project referred to Sir Isaac
Newton, from whom it received a conditional approval.t

* Woodward, whatever his scientific merit, seems to have been of an irascible tempera-
ment. He was expelled from the council of the Society for insulting Sir Hans Sloane an
refusing to apologize. He fought a duel with Dr. Mead, occasioned by a dispute, as Voltaire
says, sur la maniere de purger un malade. Woodward's foot slipped and he fell. ‘* Tak
your life!”’ exclaimed Meade. ‘‘ Anything but your physie,”’ replied Woodward.

+The better known project of Savery, whose engine was able, through the introduction of
a vacuum, to perform double the work of that devised, at a sti!l earlier day, by the Marquis
of Worcester, was exhibited before the Society (1699, ) and the certificate granted by that body)
to the ingenious contriver, was the means of his obtaining a patent from the Crown for #
manufacture of steam-engines.—W eld, I, 357. |

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ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON 147

While the Society was thus pursuing its diversified and prosperous career,
Charles II, ‘founder and patron,” had died, having entertained no inter-
course with the learned corporation during his later years, except to send it a
receipt for the cure of hydrophobia, compounded, after the manner of that
time, of as many simples (agrimony roots, dragon roots, star of the earth,
&e., &c.) as could well be disposed of in one preparation. Lord Brouncker
had resigned the presidency after fifteen years of acceptable service, and had
been followed in succession by Sir Joseph Williamson, (1677,) Sir Christopher
Wren, (1680,) Sir John Hoskins, (1682,) Sir Cyril Wyche, (1683,) Samuel
Pepys, (1684,) Lord Carbery, (1686,) Lord Pembroke, (1689,) Sir Robert
Southwell, (1690,) Lord Halifax, (1695,) and Lord Somers, (1698.) The
Society was soon to remove from the precarious quarters which it had here-

_ tofore oceupied to a house of its own in Crane Court, Strand, and, as appears by

one of its statutes, had found reason to place some further restriction on the too
indiscriminate and easy admission of Fellows.

On the withdrawal of Lord Somers, in 1703, Sir Isaac Newton was elected
to the presidency, the duties of which he continued to fulfil for 24 years with
exemplary punctuality. His treatise on Optichs was now presented to the
Society, a work prepared long before, but which he had decided to withhold
from publication during the lifetime of Hooke. The remark suggested by the
death of that able but morose and jealous man of science seems, therefore, to
be fully justified: La Société y gagne plus que la geometric n'y perd ; but, as
if the sensitiveness of Newton was doomed never to be freed from impor-
tunate molestation, the dispute respecting the authorship of the Infinitesimal
analysis soon supervened ; a dispute in which Newton, indeed, maintained his:
usual reserve, but which his own partisans, equally with those of Leibnitz, con-
ducted with so much asperity and prejudice that the contest might have seemed
one of honor or interest between Germany and England.* At the instance of
Leibnitz, a committee was appointed by the Royal Society, in March, 1712, to
examine the evidence bearing on the matter in question, and, in April following,
were submitted, in a report, the reasons which led the committee “to reckon
Mr. Newton the first inventor.” ‘That this did not satisfy or silence the parti-

sans of Leibnitz will be readily believed ; but at this distance of time we may

acquiesce in the opinion pronounced by the historian of the Society, that
Newton was the zmventor of Fluxions as early as 1666, but that Leibnitz has
the merit of having first given full publicity to his discovery of the Differential
Calculus in 1673. ‘ Had Newton done this,” says Mr. Weld, “a controversy,
painful in its nature and unsatisfactory in its results, would have been avoided.
But all admit that he labored more for the love of truth than of fame; and
this is one of the reasons why Newton is the greatest of philosophers.”

This great man died.on the 20th March, 1727, being, perhaps, the only one
who has ever lived whose genius and virtues could sustain the exaltation of
his epitaph: Svb: grantulentur mortales tale tantumque exstitisse humani generis.
He was succeeded in the presidency of the Society by Sir Hans Sloane, who
had long acted as secretary and vice-president, and whose merits as a botanist,
habits of business and official assiduity, relieved the council of embarrassment
in a choice, even after Newton. Martin Folkes, (elected 1741,) Earl of
Macclesfield, (1752,) Earl of Morton, (1764,) James Burrow, (1768,) James
West, (1768,) Sir John Pringle, (1772,) bring down the succession in the

presidency to the protracted official term of Sir Joseph Banks, (1778—1820.)

There are points of interest, however, in this long interval, upon which it is
proper to touch even in so rapid a sketch as the present.

*M. Arago seems to have been willing to make France a third party to this memorable
competition, for, in his Notices Biographiques, vol. III, p. 522, he brings forward the claims
of ‘his countryman, Fermat of Toulouse, as an earlier inventor of the Calculus than either
Newton or Leibnitz.

JAs ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE

From an early date the Society seems to have labored under two especial
causes of embarrassment: want of pecuniary means, arising chiefly from the
failure of members to pay the stipulated contribution, and a constant tendency
to extend. the honor of membership to persons whose pretensions were of doubt-
ful validity. We learn with some surprise that, while a few were occasionally
exempted from the payment of the small weekly contribution, (among whom
at one time was Sir Isaac Newton,) there were many others of ample means
who suffered their liabilities to accumulate until the Society, to which no
doubt they prided themselves in belonging, was reduced almost to the point
of inaction. Nor does it increase our respect for this class of delinquents to
find that when, in 1728, the Attorney General had given his opinion that the
Society was authorized to sue for such arrears, and steps were taken for that
purpose, the liabilities were generally discharged and the Society placed in
comparative ease.* The extent of the second inconvenience may be appreciated
from a saying ascribed to D’Alembert, who, in allusion to the extreme prodi-
gality with which the honors of the Fellowship were distributed, used “jocularly
to ask any person going to England if he desired to be made a member of the
Society, as he could easily obtain it for him, should he think it any honor.”
The necessity, therefore, for some additional restriction being sensibly felt, the
Society sought legal advice as to their powers in that regard, and were advised
that, while their charter did not appear to authorize them to limit the Fellows to a
certain number, it clearly empowered them to describe and ascertain the quali-
fications of persons to be elected. A statute was thereupon enacted, which has
since been steadily observed, by which it is required that all candidates, except
peers and some other privileged persons, shall be proposed at a meeting of the
Society by three or more members, and that a paper signed by them and set-
ting forth specifically the qualifications of the candidate, “shall be fixed up in
the meeting-room at ten several ordinary meetings before the said candidate
shall be put to the ballot.’ It appears that candidates were also expected to
send in a paper on the branch of science with which they were most conver-
sant.

Another but more occasional source of disquietude has been a jealousy
sometimes manifested of undue influence or irregular procedures on the part of
the presiding officer. ‘This exhibited itself to some extent even towards New-
ton in the course of the preliminary steps for the removal of the Society’s
quarters to Crane court; but it broke out with excessive violence against Sir
Joseph Banks, in 1784, upon the alleged charge of improper interference with
elections, and particularly of having favored the pretensions of naturalists in
preference to those of mathematicians. Groundless as this charge is shown to

have been,t and factious and overbearing as was the conduct of Dr. Horseley,—

who, with very slender scientific pretensions, affected the leadership of the
mathematical party, this schism not only disturbed the harmony of the Society,
but seemed for a time to threaten its stability.

The influential part borne by the Society in the introduction of the reformed

ealendar into England may render an allusion to it in this place not irrelevant. —

By this change, which took place on the 2d September, 1752, “ eleven nominal

days were struck out, so that the last day of old style being the 2d, the first ¢

of new style (the next day) was called the 14th instead of the 3d. The same

* Before the incorporation, ten shillings were required of members on the admission and a
weekly payment of one shilling. By the statutes of 1663 the initiatory fee is advanced to
forty shillings, the weekly payments remaining as before. In 1847 the former charge had
become ten pounds, and the weekly contribution been converted into an annual one of four

pounds, to be paid in advance, Liberty is given to compound for the whole by the payment,
in some cases, of forty, in others of sixty pounds. '

t See Lord Brougham’s Lives of Philosophers, p. 363,

ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 149

legislative enactment which established the Gregorian year in England in 1752,
shortened the preceding year (1751) by a full quarter. Previously the eccle-
siastical and legal year was held to begin with the 25th March, and the year
A. D. 1751 did so accordingly; that year, however, was not suffered to run
out, but was supplanted on the Ist of January by the year 1752, which it was
enacted should commence on that day, as well as every subsequent year.’’*

The attempt to retrace here, even in the most summary manner, the philo-
sophical labors of the Society would suggest a starting contrast between the
narrow limits allotted to this outline and the vast field which it would be neces-
sary to traverse. How mere a catalogue of names and of terms would be the
result of any attempt to recall those achievements in every department of
natural science which have distanced imagination and rendered the fictions of
poetry tame and spiritless in comparison! Especially would this be the case
as we approached that wonderful era of discovery, the close of the eighteenth
century, which suggested to Cuvier the imposing retrospect with which he
opens the Eloge of Hatiy: “The laws of a geometry, as concise as compre-
hensive, extended over the entire heavens; the boundaries of the universe en-
larged, and its spaces peopled with unknown stars; the courses of celestial
bodies determined more rigorously than ever, both in time and space; the earth
weighed as in a balance; man soaring to the clouds or traversing the seas with-
out the aid of winds; the intricate mysteries of chemistry referred to certain
clear and simple facts ; the list of natural existencies increased tenfold in every
species, and their relations irrevocably fixed by a survey as well of their in-
ternal as external structure; the history of the earth, even in ages the most
remote, explored by means of its own monuments, and shown to be not. less
wonderful in fact than it might have appeared to the- wildest fancy: such is
the grand and unparalleled spectacle which it has been our privilege to con-
template!”} And in the realization of each and all of these surprising results
the Royal Society of London has borne its effective part, yielding to none in
the reflected lustre of its long line of brilliant names: its Herschels, Bradleys,
Maskelynes, Youngs, Priestleys, Daltons, Watts, Wollastons, Davys, Buck-
lands, Murchisons, Faradays, and Airys. For, as the illustrious savant just
quoted has elsewhere said with equal force and generosity, ‘‘ The philosophers
of England have taken as glorious a part as those of any nation whatever in
the labors of the intellect which are the common heritage of the civilized world ;
they have dared the ices of either pole, nor is there any nook of the two oceans
which they have not visited; they have multiplied tenfold the catalogue of the
kingdoms of nature; by them the heavens have been made populous with
planets, satellites, and stupendous phenomena; they have counted, so to say,
the stars of the galaxy; if chemistry has assumed a new face, the facts which
they have furnished have essentially contributed to the transformation; to them
we are indebted for inflammable air, pure air, phlogisticated air; they have dis-
covered the decomposition of water; new metals in large number have sprung
from their analyses; by them only has the nature of the fixed alkalies been
demonstrated ; finally, at their voice, mechanics has become pregnant with
miracles, and placed their country above all others in nearly every species of
productive industry.”

* Herschel’s Astronomy, p. 413. So great was the popular repugnance to the change of the
style or calendar, that the mob pursued the minister in his carriage, clamoring for the days
by which, as they supposed, their lives had been shortened; and the illness and death of the
astronomer Bradley, who had assisted the government with his advice, was attributed toa
judgment from heaven. It is also related that when the grandson of Lord Macclesfield, who

ad likewise been prominent in effecting the change of style, was standing a contested elec-
tion for Oxford, the mob insultingly called out to him, ‘‘Give us back, you rascal, those
eleven days which your grandfather stole from us.’’—Weld.

t See Smithsonian Report, 1860, Memoir of Haity.

$ Cuvier, Eloge of Sir Joseph Banks.

150 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE

Among the incentives and rewards of scientific research employed by the
Society are three medals, derived from funds bequeathed or granted for that
yurpose. st. The Copley medal, the fruit of a legacy bequeathed in 1709 by
Sir Godfrey Copley, and termed by Sir Humphrey Davy “the ancient olive-
crown of the Royal Society,” being regarded as the most honorable within its
gift. This has been annually awarded, with a few intervals, since 1736, in
conformity with a resolution then adopted by the Society, “that the medal
should be adjudged to the author of the most important scientific discovery or
contribution to science, by experiment or otherwise.” It cannot but be peeu-
liarly gratifying to an American to find that when, in 1753, on the d ath of the
surviving trustee of the legacy, the adjudication devolved on the president and
council for the time being, the first award of the medal was made to Dr.
Franklin, On this occasion the Earl of Macclesfield, in his address as presi-
dent, stated that the council, “keeping steadily in view the advancement of
science and useful knowledge, and the honor of the Society, had never thought
of confining the benefaction within the narrow limits of any particular country,
much less of the Socicty itself.” The money value of this medal is five pounds,
and it bears as a legend the motto of the Society, Nullius in verba. 2d. The
Rumford medal, derived from the interest of a fund of £1,000, given by Count
Rumford, in 1796, for the purpose of promoting discoveries in heat and light.
This premium is duplicate, consisting of two pieces struck in the same die, the
one of gold, the other of silver, and by the terms of the gift is to be awarded
“once every second year.’ The device on this medal is a tripod with a flame
upon it, and the inscription from Lueretius, Noscere gue vis et causa. It is
gratifying to note that the first adjudication of this prize was justly made to
the founder himself, “for his various discoveries respecting light and heat,”
while the names of Malus, Fresnel, Melloni, and Biot, among later competitors,
show that this, too, is freely accorded to foreign merit. 3d. 'The Royal medal,
which, again, is duplicate, consisting of two gold medals of the value of fifty
guineas each, a beneficence projected by George IV in 1825, though not actually
realized till the reign of his successor. These medals, bearing on one side the
likeness of the reigning monarch, and on the reverse the figure of Sir Isaae
Newton, with emblematical accompaniments, are given for such papers only, on
important and completed discoveries, as have been presented to the Royal
Society, and inserted in their Transactions. Here, also, the distinguished names
of Struve, Encke, Mitscherlich, and De Candolle, in the list of recipients, ap-
prise us that this recompense has been liberally offered to the competition of
all countries.

The subjects for which these prizes have been awarded are almost too multi-
farious for classification, and afford no indifferent criterion of the astonishing
progress which has been made ‘since the day when the founders of the Royal
Society went forth to collect May dew for its supposed cosmetic virtues, or with
the Virgula divina in search of the hidden treasures of the earth.” Yet those
early inquirers are perhaps not less entitled to honor for the fidelity and hero-
ism (for heroism it was at that epoch) with which they adhered to experiment
amidst the difficulties and obseurity which surrounded them, than those who,
following them in the use of the same irresistible instrument, continued to press
forward with firmer and more rapid steps in the pursuit of abstract science, as
if conscious that in ¢iat and its applications rested the sole hope for mankind of
any real and sustained progression. Nor ean cither of the two classes cited
justly claim pre-eminence over the intrepid explorers of to-day, who, undeterred
by the seemingly exhaustive research to which the heavens and the earth have
been subjected, still lift their minds to new and mightier enterprises, and, having
encircled the entire globe with observatories and observers, shrink not-from
grappling with problems as subtle and inconstant as magnetism or the winds,
and vast as the secular movements of suns and constellations.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 151

‘When we reflect,”’ says Mr. Weld, “on the benefits conferred on mankind
by the discoveries of modern science, Englishmen must feel an honest pride in
the fact that so large a proportion have emanated from the Fellows of the Royal
Society. Mor will that pride be diminished, when it is remembered that from
first to last the Society has received no annual pecuniary support from govern-
ment, nor assistance of any kind, beyond the grant of Chelsea College, shortly
after their incorporation, and more recently, the use of the apartments they now

occupy in Somerset House.* While the members of the French Institute re-

ceive a yearly stipend, the Fellows of the Royal Society pay an annual sum for
the support of their institution and the advancement of science. It would be
repugnant to the feelings of Englishmen to submit to the regulations of the
Institute, which require official addresses, and the names of candidates for ad-
mission into their body, to be approved by government before the first are
delivered or the second elected. The French savans are, it is true, ennobled
and decorated by orders, which the wiser among them, in common with true
philosophers of any country, regard with indifference. Nobly did Fourier say
of Laplace: ‘ Posterity, which has so many particulars to forget, will little care
whether Laplace was for a short time minister of a great state. ‘The eternal
truths which he has discovered, the immutable laws of the stability of the world,
are of importance, and not the rank which he occupied.”

As a consequence of this independence and self-support, it was necessary that
the Royal Society should be numerous, and by a consequence not less necessary,
as Cuvier remarks, “ that, as in all political associations where the participation
of the citizens in the government is in inverse ratio to their number, those to
whom the Society intrusts its administration should exercise over its labors, and
to a certain extent over the course and progress of science, an influence more
considerable than can be readily conceived of by the academies of the conti-
nent.” ‘That the Society has been fortunate in the zeal and ability of those
called to preside over it, will have been observed in the course of the preceding
sketch. It remains to be added that, on the death of Sir Joseph Banks, in 1820,
the chair was for a short time occupied by Dr. Wollaston,t followed in the same
year by Sir Humphrey Davy; by Davies Gilbert, in 1827 ;f the Duke of Sus-
sex, in 1830; the Marquis of Northampton, in 1838; Earl of Rosse, in 1849 ;
Lord Wrottesley, in 1854; Sir Benjamin Brodie, in 1858; and General Sabine,
in 1861. The latter still worthily occupies the chair. .

As something has been said above of financial embarrassments at an earlier
period of the Society, it is gratifying to state, on the authority of Mr. Weld,
referring to the year 1848, that this condition of things is wholly changed; be-
sides certain tracts of land, the Society then held in the public funds upwards
of £33,000; its income:being derived from rents, dividends, annual subscriptions,
admission fees, compositions, and sale of Transactions and Proceedings. The
number of Fellows, at the same date, was 821, of whom thirteen were honorary
and forty-seven foreign. ‘The library of the Society, then containing upwards
of 40,000 volumes, is extremely rich in the best editions of scientific books.
Fellows are allowed to borrow books under certain regulations, though still more
use is made of the library for purposes of reference. ;

The sessions of the Society commence in November and continue until June.
At the ordinary meetings, after the usual preliminary business, one of the see-
retaries announces the presents made to the Society, which are so numerous that

* Whither the Society removed in 1780.

tIn reference to the extraordinary tact and acuteness of Wollaston as a physicist, it was
said by Magendie that ‘‘his hearing was so fine he might have been thought to be blind, and
his sight so piercing he might have been supposed to be deaf.”

tMr. Gilbert will be remembered by Americans as having pronounced the eulogy on Simith
50n, contained in the first Smithsonian Annual Report.

152 ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

’

their titles fill, on an average, two folio pages weekly during the session.
Certificates of candidates for election are then read, and next such paper or pa-
pers as may have been communicated to the mecting. For these papers formal
thanks are returned, and they become thenceforth the property of the Society.
Discussion on the subject treated of in the paper follows, after which the meet-
ing is adjourned, and the Fellows repair with their friends to the library where
they partake of tea, a custom introduced, it is stated, by Sir Humphrey Davy.
A conversazione ensues, which lasts until about eleven o’clock. The council
meets monthly, or more frequently, if necessary. The scientific committees
assemble as occasion requires. ‘Those annually appointed are: Mathematics,
astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, botany, zoology, and animal physiology.
The number of members varies from fifteen to thirty, the latter number repre-
senting that of physics which is the largest. The Philosophical Transactions
are generally published in two parts, (June and November,) which form a vol-
ume, though occasionally a third or even a fourth part appears. Besides the
Transactions, abstracts of the papers and minutes are published monthly, and
these, now extending to more than ten volumes, are entitled Proceedings of the

Royal Society.

Set BNR

ace

—

Ba ih

=

Se

pksscy

A BRIEF SKETCH

OF THE

MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES,

BY CHARLES M. WETHERILL, PH. D., M. D.

Arter the electric current had been applied to the decomposition of inorganic
bodies, and it had been discovered that hydrogen, the metals, and the bases
appeared at the negative pole, while oxygen, chlorine, and the acids were mani-
fested at the positive pole, the assumption that electrical attraction was the
bond of union in chemical combinations was very natural, and the electro-
chemical theory growing out of these experiments became speedily adopted by
chemists. ‘The theory explained satisfactorily all known phenomena; it gained
additional support from the discovery that the chemical elements and com-
pounds were separated by electricity from their combinations in the ratio of
their equivalents. In those days it was assumed, and at the present time it
is manifest, that any theory not embracing organic as well as inorganie com-
pounds would be untenable, and hence arose the radical theory, first applied
to inorganic salts, but afterwards thoroughly studied and developed in respect
to organic compounds.

As the present sketch is intended less for chemists than for others who may
be confused at the appearance of the formule of organic compounds given in
modern chemical essays, the author may be pardoned in citing facts and
formule trite to chemists. He would also take occasion here to aceredit to the
Lehrbuch of Graham Otto many of the illustrations, as well as some of the
arguments, employed in the present sketch.

The nature of electrical attraction renders the idea of b¢nary compounds in
chemistry imperative, if we assume that electricity is the bond of union in such
compounds.

Berzelius imagined the elementary atoms laden with electricity and with
positive and negative poles, but so that in the atom of one element the positive
electricity predominated, while in that of another element the negative elec-
tricity was in excess. ‘This excess of (+ or —) electricity communicated its
characters to the element, making it positive or negative. If two atoms of dif-
ferent electrical character are brought sufficiently near to each other, they
mutually attract each other, forming a compound atom, which is itself positive
or negative according to the predominance of one kind or the other of its
electricity. The new compound atom was, therefore, susceptible of further
attraction by another compound atom of different electricity, and so on, the
attraction becoming weaker,as the compound atom becomes more complex.

Ampére imagined the atoms of positive elements to have positive nuclei with
negative atmospheres or envelopes, and atoms of the negative elements to have
negative nuclei and positive envelopes. Hence a positive and a negative atom
upon coming together would mutually polarize each other; the + and — E of

their nuclei would draw them together to form a compound, and the + E of

154 THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES.

their respective envelopes would be driven off and combine to produce the
electrical phenomena always attending chemical action.* .
According to this view all chemical compounds are binary; they are
capable of being decomposed by the electric current, which attracts the atoms
from each other according to their character, the positive appearing at the
negative pole, the negative at the positive pole.
In writing formule the positive atom or atom group is placed BEFORE the

t- +-— + —
negative one, thus: KO; SO3; KO, 803.7

The most complex formule are constructed according to this binary method.
In alum = KO SO, + Al, O; 3503 + 24HO the sulphate of potassa atom
is positive, and united to an electro-negative atom of sulphate of alumina to
form a still more complex atom of positive character, which is united to the
negative group of atoms 24HO. When, however, the atom becomes so com-
plicated, it is difficult to determine the electro-chemical character of its imme-

a ee

* Por views as to polarity in chemical compounds, see the excellent treatise upon the cata-
lytic force, by T. L. Phipson, Smithsonian Report for 1862, page 395.

ter the convenience of those whose memory may require refreshing as to chemical
symbols and combining quantities, or atomic weights, we subjoin the following table.

SYMBOLS AND PROPORTIONAL NUMBERS OF THE ELEMENTS.
(From Odling’s Manual of Chemistry. )

I Ey OTO penis. os sete etme = 1 Mg | Magnesium
Zn Pimie;: sls. AG ess SH
Fl Wilmore: 4 Pes) sts) ae 19 Cady) |pCadmiumy. fet a ssaete
Cl (OIMOMINGY. os 5 ne Som) see 35.5
Br SC OMMMGRee a atemce tselace 80 He | Mercury, (Hydrargyrum) .. 100
I odine Seah nerset seas 127 Pb Lead, ( Plumbum) ....------ 103.5
Ag Silver, (Argentum) ...---.- 108
OPP OXYGEN 2-2 co cesacece 16*
Ss DGD NUe erate ee tee 32* Cr Chromiumy. 32 4se eee 26
Se Bcleaiumn ss 22 S928 so as 80* Mn | Macanese=-s.- 3 esac eee at
T Wellunrum S30 hs. 322 128* Fe Tron, )|Chentum)) teseo eee 28
. Ni Nickél\....05-r5c¢ ga5eeaeueee 29
N AAO CDS seein ee cine orstn 14 Co Coballt*: 72.5 (2 aoe 30
it PHOSpHOUOUR mn <a 31 Cu _ | Copper, ( Cuprum)--.------- 31.7
As USOC wee ce ans et ee se 7d |
Sb | Antimony, (Stibium) ...--. 120 Al ‘Aluminums a2428 28262). 6.% 13.7
Bi Bismiathy 2 foie Ven Seta 208 Zr Aiceconigimysaeeeee eee eee 33.5
Ce Centum 1,4: = ee eee 46
C SEDO eter a aie aia ee ha) leatherman eee 47
Si LLICON. 2s eee ees see 28For aD Didy minim seers 48
Ti sitar Sees Beasts Ae 48. 5* || U Uraniunraets ee ees sr 60
Sn Dany (Stannpums) S'- 35-2 ,4 118*
LE RT 2 rr 138* Mo. | Molybdenum,.-2..-5-=---.- 48
Vd Vanadium’ ss scesers eee 68.5
B Berone 2222. see see aks 11 W Tugsten, (Wolfram) ...---- 32
Li Lithium...... bik Bde cc ke 7 Au. .|. Gold, ( Aamum)s---taxia2h-- 197
Na Sodium, (Natrium).....-.- 23
Kk Potassium, (Kalium)....-- 39 Ro J ONAN L2H SHO eeeee 52
; Rn? >| Ruthenitiatseeee se sea =e 52
Ca WRIOINM S-\5h.2.5..2. Sew< 20 Pa Palladian SH sosski 2 Zo5. 53
Sr PPODURDON 2 a) tS! dnc reme 44
Ba Laer eb 68.5 || Pt Platinum eee ee oe 98.5
Wek Ir [ridiammees steer a a cen 98.5
G Glucinum ......-......... 457 108" || Ossie oe as 99.5
yy Matias tease sk seck 32
Th SDH OL sats eects we ci 59.5

eee
* These elements have had their equivalents doubled to conform to the type theory.

THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES. 155

diate constituents. In the above example the 24HO may be drivenoff by heat,

but not by electricity simply; and from other considerations it is impossible to

decide from analysis alone whether water is an acid or a base, as it possesses,
according to the substance with which it is combined, each of these characters ;

in oil of vitriol it is a base HO SO ; in hydrate of potassa, an acid KO HO.

There is still another method of imagining the grouping of. the atoms in a
complex atom to form a binary compound. ‘This involves the essence of the
radical theory.

SO; does not redden litmus nor form salts with bases; its compound with
HO (oil of vitriol) possesses this property. We may imagine this acid to be
HO, SOs, according to the principles just laid down; or to be H SOx, a binary
compound, in which His + and SO,is—. If for hydrogen we substitute potas-
sium or any metal, we will have sulphate of potassa or the salt corresponding to
_ themetal. SOy,is, therefore, a compound radical in the sense in which the word
has been employed in chemistry, although it has not been isolated. When
water and anhydrous sulphuric acid are brought together, this compound radical
is generated by the decomposition of water in the manner illustrated above.

It is, however, more particularly in the case of the bases that the theory of
compound radicals has been developed.

The example of ammonia illustrates an inorganic compound radical; if, in-
deed, it may at present be called inorganic.

The gas ammonia NH; (in a manner analogous to that of anhydrous sulphuric
acid) acquires basic properties only by the action of water; NH3, HO—NH,O.
NH, is the compound radical, ammonium. It has never been isolated ; it is an
hypothetical group of atoms playing the part of a metal.

The following table illustrates the parallelism existing between compound
and simple inorganic radicals :

Comp. radical ammonia. Simple radical potassa.
= -- + =
ire CO } Oxide. ( K+0
NH, + S Sulphide. J K+5
NH, + Cl Chloride. Ki Ol
NH, + SO, { Sulphate. K + SO,

When organic chemistry began to be developed, the compounds first studied
were those containing different proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
together with a few containing nitrogen. ‘These were studied in their analogies
to inorganic compounds, and the assumption of a large number of organic
radicals became imperative. For example, if ether (Cy H;O) were the oxide
of a radical (Cy H;) called ethyl, the compounds of ether could be brought into
comparison with those of oxides of the different metals, (Cy H;,) being a com-
pound organic radical, which group of atoms plays the part of a metal, thus:

EB 6s, 5c ca co arn pea a ect odes (CyH5)

Ether CRS fa Ith NSE alates eke aie) Sal alls arare te ime) moka (CsH5)O

PAU Gy ja) 5 ays a es eB olen area, (C,H;)O, HO

Whlomde) of ethy le. seca cose -) 5,25 ae bale (CyH;)C1

Nitrate of the oxide jof,ethyle..-..-.....-...- (C,H;) O, NOs

Acetate of the oxide of ethyle.......... (CyH;)O,(CsH3)O3
Sulphate of the oxide of ethyle......... (CyH5)O, SO3
POMPOM: ACI a oc sta ris pe <minyin ee, a's (CyH;)O, SO; + HO, SO;
Sulphovinate of the oxide of zinc ....... (CyH;)O, SO3 + ZnOSO3
aR ERD tea y = ae A he RINE sd olan K

a ol ee a a KO

“Ebydrage; po tages viajes aiergia iain ihe ad 6 KO, HO

Chloride potaspini. fo... acta ccness--- KCl

156 THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES.

Nitrate potassa........--------+---s-- KO, NOs

Acetate potassa....----.---------+---- KO, (CyH3)O3
Sulphate potassa......-----2----+----- KO, SO;

Bi-sulphate potassa.--..--.- ah Deas ae KO,SO, + HO, 503
Sulphate potassa and zinc....-.-------- KO,SO; + ZnO,SOs

Upon this principle, and notwithstanding the fact that for a long time the
organic radicals were entirely hypothetical, the development of organic radicals
went pari passu with the study of organic compounds. The following illus-
tration shows how the organic acids were subjected to the radical theory.

PRT ise n,n (C,H)O ....with radical acetyle.... (C,H)
Propionic ..... (C,H;)O3 e. propyle .-. (Osis)
BEYTIO c= sie. (CgH,)O3 na butyle -... (CsH;)
Valerianic...-. (CyoHs)O3 ee valyle. eeee (CyoHs,) &e.

The theory is so simple, so well known, so satisfactory in the explanation
of the phenomena to which it is applicable, that the reluctance to abandon it,
especially by chemists educated under its influence, is natural. That it has
been attacked vigorously, and almost to its fall, is owing to the present great
wealth of chemical compounds, and the discovery of phenomena which cannot
readily, if at all, be brought in subjection to it.

Daily the realm of chemistry is extending, and the boundary line between
organic and inorganic compounds is becoming more and more indistinct. If to
the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen has been assigned a
greater facility of mutual chemical attraction, the reason lies less, perhaps, in a
peculiarity of the nature of these atoms, than in the kind of experiments to
which they have been subjected. Continually, elements formerly called in-
organic are added to organic compounds, and it isnot too much to expect that
the same chemical attractions exist between all of the elements as between
C, H, O, and N tuter illis. If the right of combining, in indefinite number of
atoms, the original organic elements, gives rise to so many ‘ changes,”’ 7. €., com-
pounds, what would it be if each of the sixty-four elements could play an equal
part with these?

The number of possible chemical compounds would approach infinity, and
could only be conceived by the aid of comparison. It would be no exaggeration
to compare their number with the distance trom the earth of the fixed stars ex-
pressed in feet, or even with the diameter of that great orbit in which our solar
system is supposed to be moving.

It is true that theories are not formed to mect future wants; but, nevertheless,
a general consideration that the radical theory was becoming daily insufficient
for the rapid increase of chemical facts, urged thoughtful men to invent a theory
which should, at least, generalize chemical compounds, and bring them into the
proper order and connexion to render their more perfect study possible. A
satisfactory theory has not yet been invented, and chemists are loath to aban-
don totally the electro-radical theory for that of types pure and simple.

While the radical theory was in a very flourishing condition, certain newly ob-
served plienomena demonstrated that we could substitute electro-negative chlo-
rine for clectro-positive hydrogen in a compound without changing the chemical
character of the body to a great extent. Thus, by the action of chlorine (Cl)
upon olefiant gas, (Cy H,,) four Dutch chemists had many years ago discovered a
peculiar compound, which has received the name of Dutch liquid, and whieh
has the composition Cy Hy Cl. When upon this body the action of chlorine
was continued, supported by sun light, it was discovered that a series of liquids
could be obtained having the same character as Dutch liquid, but differing in
that the hydrogen was replaced atom by atom by chlorine, thus:

THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES. 157

Dutch liquid C,H,Cl, == (C,H,)Cl,
int sabeHinition C,11401, — (¢. { op )Ch

2d se C,H,ClL, — (c, \ cp) Ok
sd «GHC = (Gf Gch
4th € C,Cl, —— (C4Cl4) Cl,

If upon the members of this series an alcoholic solution of potassa act, one
equivalent each of hydrogen and chlorine is separated, and we obtain the fol-
lowing compounds:

From Dutch liquid C,H,yCl, we obtain Case ;

“ 1st substitution C,H;Cl, “ Cee ;
2

“é 2d 6 C,H,Cl, ‘““ Cae,
ae 3d ss C,HCl,; ve C,Cl,;

which demonstrates that in Dutch liquid and its chlorine compounds the latter
element exists in two conditions: one in which it takes the place of hydrogen,
atom by atom, and another in which it unites with carbon and the compound
atom thus formed. In other words, the negative atom of chlorine drives out
and takes the place of the positive atom of hydrogen. To bring these phe-
nomena in accord with the former electro-chemical theory, we would have to
assign to the atom of chlorine a preponderating positive and a negative charac-
ter at the same time, which was deemed inadmissible.

The same difficulty occurred with respect to the negative atom oxygen, to
which, according to some, a place had to be assigned sometimes inside of the
positive radical.

The behavior of acetic acid with chlorine gas in sun-light affords a strik-
ing example of the substitution of Cl for H. By this reaction, from Cy Hy O,
(acetic acid) there arises, by the substitution of chlorine for hydrogen, chlor-

5 F I : ; ;
acetic acid, | C, Ol \ Ox ) and between the two acids there is a great chemi-
3 ;

cal similarity. They each saturate the same amount of base, and when acted upon
by the same reagents, give rise to analogous products. Thus, by heating with
excess of alkali, acetic acid becomes carbonic acid (2 C Oz) and light carburetted
hydrogen, (C2 H,,) while by the same treatment chloracetic acid becomes

2C Oj and ©, Cl. ; or chloroform, which may be regarded as light carburetted

hydrogen, in which a portion of the hydrogen is replaced by chlorine. By the
action of nascent hydrogen, chloracetic acid is regenerated to acetic acid. It
is true that these difficulties might be reconciled by the assumption of both a
__——s*negative and positive character being assumed under different circumstances
by the same atom. This must be done in certain instances to bring the mod-
ern type theory in accord with the electro-chemical theory, and, indeed, the
experiments of Schoenbein upon ozone, and the phenomena of the action of
certain bodies in the “nascent” state, would render this assumption not un-
likely ; but the immediate result of the experiments cited was to hold the
electro-chemical theory in abeyance, and to develop the theory of types.

The first type theory was a theory of the classification of chemical com-
pounds, and was analogous to the natural history system of classification into
orders, genera, and species. ‘There was a “molecular” or ‘ mechanical” type

TAS THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES.

which corresponded to the “order ;” a “chemical” type to the “ genus ;” and

the various members under the same chemical type corresponded to the

“* species.” ;
Compounds of the same molecular type consisted of the same number of

atoms; but not in binary groups, as the electro-chemical theory required.

Under each molecular type were the chemical types, consisting of the same —

number of atoms (as before) but similarly arranged. ‘The individuals of the
same chemical type consisted of the same number of atoms, similarly arranged,
but differing in the kind of atoms. ‘The following example will illustrate the
theory :

MOLECULAR TYPE OF TWELVE ATOMS...

a eivaciee Acetic acid. .... GC, 2tO} Individuals of 1st chemical
1st chemical’ type | Chloraceticacid. CCl, HO, } type...
Sa chesmiesl tvat Wictolol'.)S4¥et GC, Hs O2 Individuals of 2d chemical
me apie ype | Mercaptan..... ©, Hg 8S. ; type.

These all belong to the same molecular type of twelve atoms. The first
two and the last two belong, respectively, to the same chemical type; the atoms
are regarded as being similarly arranged, because acetic and chloracetic acids,
on the one side, and alcohel and mercaptan on the other, bear a great analogy
to each other in their compounds and in the products of their decomposition by
the same reagents. The following method was adopted for writing the for-
mule according to this theory:

Acebie acid): 52 BAe Nee C, me } Ou
Chloracetic acid........4.. C.F fb O,
Acetate of potassa......--- C4 ZS \ O4
Acetic ethér s/o: 24 alee ee C4 1a.) ; O,
Chloracetic ether ........- Cy (Cull) } Ox
The following contain Cz H, O,, but the atoms are arranged differently
Bubyiie seid ns eee a oe bo,
WAGClIC ether sch. ciliayert Sgr C, Gal) ; Ox
Propionate of methyle....... Co (Cath) \ Or

It will be observed that chlorine, in the type, takes the place of the upper
hydrogen atoms and potassium, and the radicals the place of the dower ones,
thus indicating the different nature of the several hydrogen atoms in the type;
and, further, that this theory Was obliged to assent to the idea of “ radicals,”
namely, groups of atoms playing the part of single atoms.

The type theory met with many supporters, some of them the best thinkers
which have enriched modern chemistry ; it met with many variations, some
of which penetrated far into the realms of fancy; but it would probably have
fallen into disuse had not the discovery of the compound ammonias directed
the attention of the chemical world to this method of imagining the constitution
of chemical compounds. .

At the same time that attention to this subject was arrested, homologous
series were discovered, (by a type theorist,) and important laws with respect,
to them, such as the relative boiling points of their members, their vapor den~

THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES. 159

sity, atomic volume, &c., became known; out of which accessions to our knowl-
‘edge was developed the modern type theory.

The compound ammonias are bases bearing a very great analogy to ammo-
nia, their salts being strictly analogous. By the former radical theory it would
be impossible to assign to them satisfactory formule ; but by the assumption
that they are constituted after the pattern or type of ammonia, their formule
become very simple. They are ammonias, in which one or more atoms of hy-
drogen are replaced by one or more radicals, thus:

ual
Type H ¢ N= Ammonia.
f
Ethylamine. Diethylamine, Triethylamine.
(C,H;) (C,H) (C,H)
H §N. (C.H;) $N. (O.H;) SN.
H H (C,H)

The laws alluded to above which enable a more correct conception of the
chemical constitution of bodies are as follows:

1. The law of even atoms.—The remarkable fact has been discovered that
(the eqivalents of O and H being 8 and 1) by* far the greatest number of
organic compounds contain an even number of carbon atoms; further, that the
sum of the atoms of hydrogen, chlorine, iodite, bromine, nitrous oxide, (N O,,)
nitrogen, and metal is an even number; which is also true for the sum of their
oxygen and sulphur-atoms. For example, in Benzoic acid Cy, Hs O, the number
of carbon atoms is an even number, and so is that of the hydrogen and of the
oxygen atoms.

2. The law of atomic volume.—The greater portion of organic compounds ex-
perience in the vaporous condition a condensation during the combination of
their elements to four volumes—in other words, in the state of vapor their
atom occupies four times the volume of an oxygen atom. This. law, it will be
remembered, is seen by comparing the quotients arising from a division of the
equivalents of compounds by the specific gravity of their vapors, and gives the
result that the atomic volume of the atoms of the elements and their compounds
bear a simple relation to each other, as may be seen from the following table
which is quoted from its bearing upon the type theory : ;

Names of bodies. Symbol. Division of the | Relative atomic| Atomic volume,
equiv. by the volume, Oxygen=1.
sp. gr. of vapor.

Suiphur oe eae wees bee eee ee re Lae ee EC 2.41 4
Beer Cen ek 2 tat i. ojos cugiebee Osras5 he ioe haere 1
PMOSDNOTUS sa 2-15 i abe esse Bese chas nate aig 7.22 2
epemerer es oe Lk je iE pe meey poyss 14, 44 2
Meropen =2-2eicis co... ys. Neaesau |. ats 14, 44 2
ES ee Gliget oats. Pies 14.44 2
SODAS SO 8 ee a Diesen) oss for 14.44 2
Mee ees ke to, Pes rene eon L274 14, 44 2
eis tee SE MEU LT oes HOMAes ik vers 14, 44 2
Sulphuretted hydrogen. ....-.-.- RS FE) 2 ce eynte ot 14, 44 2
Coens i a ee CORas 22 30 red 14. 44 2
Protoxide of nitrogen......---- INGE AE. 8 2h a Tet 14, 44 2
Deutoxide of nitrogen...-..--.- IN@s sos 2 5 oo : aes 28. 88 4
Ehydrochiorie acid: ....2...:--.- HOMES .ese pt, 28. 88 4
TTT re INGE Fs See ae Lg 28. 88 4
Chloride of ethyle------...---- Oo He Clee... uri 28. 88 4
Beene acid... ere Cus Ou 2. Sia. 28, 83 4
Valerianate of ethyle......---- Cr On p20. 28. 88 4

160 THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES.

So closely do chemical compounds conform to this law that it is used daily —
to control vapor density determinations ; the experiments show whether the a
condensation is to 1, 2, or 4 volumes, and whether, accordingly, the equiva- —
lent of the body is to be divided by 7.22, 14.44, or 28.88, to calculate the den- —
sity of its vapor. The calculation is more accurate than the actual experiment _
on account of the superior accuracy by which the equivalents have been deter- —
mined. ‘The law of even atoms, and the observation that in most organic com-
pounds the condensation is to 4 volumes, serve often to determine the formule —
of organic compounds. Thus, to acetone was formerly assigned the formula ~
C, H, O, which satisfies neither law; by doubling its formula (and there is
no chemical reason to the contrary) it becomes Cg Hg O2, which satisfies both laws.
For the same reason the formula of ether (C4 TI; O) may be doubled to Cg Hyp Oo.

Again: it has been doubted from its origin and chemical behavior whether
amyle obtained from amylic alcohol (Cy) Hy, Oy) should have the formula Oy
Hy), or Cop Hy; but the latter formula agrees with the law of even atoms, and
with a condensation to four volumes.

3. The law of homologous series —Another law influencing strongly the de-
termination of chemical formule, and which is one of the most remarkable
among the discoveries of modern chemistry, is that of homologous series.

©

The following is an example : i °

Serres (C, Hy x2.)

Bodics. Formule. Boiling point. Sp. gr. at | Sp. gr. of
00 ¢. vapor.
Mitiviesbubyle2. 25202... 2... { e a AU aa oe 62°C.| 0.701 2.9
Bithyle/amyle:---2..-.-------- an 4 : =O gees} 85° 0. 707 3. 46
_. = 5 Oa ne 3G ye $C H---| 108° | 0.716 | 3.94
IBNtVIOTAINYIO oe oan a0 cos ao oe = == Oyg Haot 1 aloe> 0.725 4, 42
Cio H ‘ m
cee Faee Ee ks oe. eae 2 Oi His.-svaiase 0.741 4,91

The members of this series are subject to the “same law;’’ they advance
from the lowest by an increment of C2 H». A general formula for the series
would be C,, H(, + 2,) n being an even whole number. Their boiling points
as well as their specific gravities in the liquid and in the vaporous condition
rise gradually. We have, from its position in this series, an additional reason
why amyle should have the formula Cy) Hy, and not Cy Hy. Indeed, as may
be scen in the table, amyle is regarded as having (in combination) Cy) Hy, but,
when 7 the free state, two of its atoms are joined together to form a compound
atom Ox, Hy». ‘The following are additional illustrations of homology . |

J. Hyprocansons. i II. Actps.

as Oe Che
Siihvlene wees. ee Geatligy |) Orme: aie git: fed he's ow Gs Hip,
Propplete eee So... Os. He |. Acetic ... «pst beige oniee Cz, Hy Og
Dutviciiew se: ). <2. >See Ge Hy. -| Propionic spe eeee wee ee Cg Hg Og

Amy lene eae e wenn ene een eeee Cio Hy Butyric eo or oo Us H, Ox :

PUBCTIO 5 GN cst win ets eee Cy Hy Valerianic..... ve we cls ore Cio Hy On
Palmmitic . .» «tccagn sa Sete en Laan
Stearic ...... a= Sewenese C35 Hog O4

THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES. 161

III. ALcouois IV. Basss. V. HypDROCARBONS.
©, E(w'42H03) Cy Ha _5N) umn
Formylic .... C, H, O, | Aniline..... Cy.H, N | Benzole ....... Cy He
Ethylic -.... C,H. ©: || "Voludine-..-) Cig ho iN, | Toluole 2 32.2 Cy, H,
Propylic.... Cs; H; O, | Xylidine ... Cys Hi N | Xylole.......- Cig Hin
mtyiie ..... Cs Hy O2 | Cumidine... CygHj3N | Cumole ....... Cig Hy
memylic..... . Cio Hip O2 | Cymidine-..- Cy His N | Cymole ....... Coo Hig

w-e e ee ee we ee ee ee es

Aethalic .... C2 Hs, Oz

The most remarkable phenomenon connected with homologous series is not
the uniform law according to which the formule are developed; but that the
successive increment of the atoms Cz Hy contributes to a certain regularity of
physical and chemical character; thus, neighbors in the series have greater
analogy to each other than to more distant members. The acids and alcohols
quoted advance (at the normal temperature) by degrees from liquids to solids ;
and chemically, formic and acetic acids on the one hand, and palmitic and ste-
aric acids on the other are analogous. ‘The boiling points increase with regu-
larity ; for example, in series II and III every addition of C, Hz adds 19° C.
to the boiling point. Though this regularity of boiling point applies to other
series, the difference is not the same for all; thus in series V every increment
of C, H, adds 24° C. to the boiling point.

It would create too great a diversion from the main object of the present
article to enter further upon the nature of homologous series. ‘The curious law
may, however, be cited with respect to certain series of acids, ethers, and alco-
hols, viz: that if two of them have an equal number of hydrogen and oxygen
atoms, and one has X more atoms of carbon, the latter will boil at X 14.5 degrees
centigrade higher. For example:

Benzoic acid, Cy, Hs Ox; boiling point, 253°

Propionic acid, Cg Hg O4; a 137
Difference, Cg Soe eo 116°

Angelica acid, Ci) Hg Oy; boiling point, 185°

Butyric acid, Cs Hg O4; ee 156°
Difference, Cy, 9 96 -14-5-=—=---29°

On the other hand, if the number of atoms of carbon and oxygen is the
same, and one compound contains X equivalents less of hydrogen, its boiling
point will be X 5 C.° higher.

Angelica acid, Cy Hs O4; boiling point, 185°

Valerianic acid, Cyo Hy O,; ee 175°
Difference, H, os oe 10°

Not only are the members of the same series subjected to one and the same
law, but some of the series are connected with each other. The importance of
this fact is very great, since it enables a systematie grouping of chemical com
pounds. From the character of well-studied bodies, and from the analogies
alluded to, we are able to pronounce a judgment upon the chemical constitution,
nature, and behav::: of new bodies.

This connexion of the series is as follows:

From alcohol C, Hg O2 we may obtain by the addition of oxygen, and by the
subtraction of hydrogen, acetic acid, (Cy Hg Oz) + Oy = (Cy Hy Oy) + 2 HO.
Hence, in general terms, if from the series (C, H (+42) Oz) we subtract Hp, and
add O, = (C, H,, O4,) we obtain an acid analogous to acetic acid. Moreover,

s

162 THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES.

by subtracting 2 H O from (C, Ha+e) O,) we obtain C, H,, or the series of
hydrecarbons (I.) Ethylene is thus actually obtained from alcohol.

Again, from every acid of the series C, H,, O, we may obtain an amide C,
i (n+1) N Op.

The law of homology conduced strongly to the type theory by contributing
a better knowledge of the chemical constitution of bodies. By its study, radi-
cals containing oxygen were definitely accepted. Thus, (in series II,) acetic
acid (Cy Hy O,) is not formed from ethylene (C, Hy) by the addition of O,, but
from alcohol (Cy Hg Oz) by the addition of O., and by the subtraction of H2 in
such manner that the radical (C4 H O2) is formed ; which makes acetic acid (C4
H, O,) = (Cy Hy Oz) H O,. As a proof of the existence of such a radical in
acetic acid, we may obtain its compound with chlorine by the action of oxychlo-
ride of phosphorus upon acetate of soda, and we may restore this chlorine com-
pound to acetic acid by the action of water upon it.*

(NO,) is another radical containing oxygen. By acting upon benzoie acid
so as to substitute (NO,) for hydrogen, we have nitro-benzoic acid—that is, Cy,
He, Oy, becomes Cis H; (NO,) Ox.

These considerations have been leading us gradually to the ideas of modern
chemical types. Such a type is a group of atoms of which the individuals bear
a certain relation to each other, and forms a pattern for imagining all chemical
compounds, between the atoms of which a similar relation is supposed to exist.
It may be illustrated by certain blocks glued together, or by a cage of wire with
compartments, in which the blocks may be placed, thus:

THE TYPE—WATER.

Examples of the type of water:
Sulphuretted Hydrogen. Hydrate of Potassa.

Acetic Acid.

* See examples of reactions by the type method toward the close of this article.

i

THE MODERN THEORY OF CEEMICAL TYPES. 163

The four compounds represented above are supposed to be constituted after
the pattern of water, which is the type. Thus, if the oxygen atoms of the type
are replaced by sulphur atoms, we have sulphuretted hydrogen.

If, in the type, we substitute for the hydrogen block, upon the left hand, a
potassium block, the result is hydrate of potassa. If, on the other hand, we re-
move a right-hand block of hydrogen, and substitute a block representing the
radical acetyle, we have acetic acid. And if we replace each hydrogen block
of the type, one with a potassium block and the other with an acetyle block,
there results acetate of potassa.

In the above illustration the compounded blocks are of one size, thus repre-
senting a volume of four oxygen blocks, and conforming to the law of conden-
sation of organic compounds to four volumes. We must bear in mind that the
individual blocks may be larger than an oxygen block when outside of the
type, though condensed to the size of such block in the compound. For ex-
ample, 2 volumes of oxygen+4 volumes of hydrogen == 6 volumes, which are
condensed, by combination of’ the gases, to 4 volumes of vapor of water.

Hydrogen constitutes another type, thus:

HYDROGEN TYPE.

Benzole and Acetone examples of this type are represented thus:

Benzole. Acetone.

164 THE MODBRN THHORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES.
# *

_ Ammonia gives another type, thus:

AMMONIA TYPE.

Ethylamine and Aniline are examples of this type, and are thus represented :

Ethylamine. Aniline.

ee
E

The sezes of these hydrogen and ammonia types are equal to that of the
water type, viz: four volumes.

With this preliminary illustration the following table (from Graham Otto’s
Lehrbuch) may be quoted :

165

THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES.

“OUI[LUB.YINT

‘oprmreznog ‘oprmeyooy | ‘oprure;Aueqd-;Aozueq-1q, | ‘ourmmeyAqyo-11y, | camrure,Aqyo-1q | ‘oururep Ay ‘onary
H H Ort ip) | Ae 0 ~ Ft | H H H
‘N H ‘N H "N4 *O pee et ao ‘Ny “H *O AN a EL "N H ‘N H
0 °H MO 50 *H 0 | sry) | "HD "HO | 1'D (ON) "H "9 °H 9
| '
H
"NS H—N‘°H VINOWNY dA], FHL OL ONIGUOONDVY SaNnodWog
H
| |
“prow “poe ‘apAqo ‘op Ay | ‘m08
“aUILOTY atyooRLo[YA | omoppoorpAyy ‘aphyopty | jo epruekg | jo opnory9 *9T10]00V ‘op Aq ‘gjozueg | -orpAy op Ayjopr
i a *H*O } H ; H ee ee ; ‘a Pes oe a9 ioe ‘9
10 10 10 0 °H 70 N°O | 10 *0 “H*O Ee | H H
|
= — 9 NGDOUGAPF, AdA YT, FHL OL ONIGUOOOY SANNOdWO/)
"plone ‘prow ‘oT Aqq0 ‘ot Aq0 JO opt ofAq}o
dia snorpAyuy | ooo snorpAyuy | Jooprxojooyeurdy | -xo Jooyryoovs0[q | Jooprxo jo SIS DY, ‘OTOL *IOT]O VSSv}OT “"ESSBI0g
04 STON “6 -e "HW *O “ i oe. “t y aH 7) “ $6 oH “ ae 9 “6 yn "90 “6 —
oN ©? 0 'H "9 Ol ND Oot070 | Ort0 HD Ol 9 Ke ou OVs
‘op Ato ‘ar Aya jo ‘oy Ayyout “10T]}9 “TUN TTOUIUR
‘plow oyoovrI0[yO “plow ore0V | JO oprxo jo oyV.4IN | Oprxo Jo oywozueg | Jooprxo Jooywyooy | o[Aq}0 a ‘oyoory | Jo oprxo oyerpéTT
7) gL “ i 6 . 9 2 ; at 7) “% ; *H %0 “ eee WD “ es 0 “ a
©2 % tH 9 Or oH 9 ©? "on © 0 HD ©2*0 HD Ov Hr 9 ot Oy
*PIO’ OLIN “plow OTUIIO iT ‘essnyjod oyRyINy ‘essvjod oynjooy | “eImouUR oR}OOW ‘qpouNy ‘yrds poo, | “essvjod oyerpApT
‘6 “ H se 9. “ ; w ‘ } HN So oO ‘ ee °0 te ; w
of dh 0} colt 0} sn O2 OH "0 °° "HD Oe ai 2a ovr
“of T= FT = UALVMA AdAT, AHL OL ONIGHODOW SaNaodWwoy

166 THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES.
°

The table illustrates the method of writing the formule of bodies according
to the types of water, hydrogen, and ammonia, to which they respectively belong.
Determinations of the specific gravities of the vapor of water and of hydrogen
show that the formule H O and H (O =8 and H = 1) agree to a condensation of
‘wo volumes. In order, therefore, to make types of these bodies, their formule
must be doubled so as to correspond to a condensation of four volumes, which
is the atomic volume of the greater part of organic compounds.

The formula for ammonia N Hz already corresponds to four volumes, e. g.,
2 vols. N+6 vols. H=8 vols. condensed to 4 vols. N H3.

It will be observed that, in the table, compounds of a basic character are
placed to the left hand, those of acid nature to the right hand, while salt or
neutral bodies occupy positions in the middle of the table.

It will be observed, further, that in the formule of the bodies according to the

types a ; O, and . } the electro-negative elements are placed in the bracket

to the left hand, and these are distinguished into a superior atom of hydrogen,
capable of being replaced by chlorine, &c., or an acid radical, and an inferior
atom of hydrogen susceptible of being exchanged for a metal or basic radical,
while the electro-negative elements, oxygen, sulphur, &c., occupy positions to
the right hand, outside of the bracket.

The relations existing between anhydrous or hydrated acids or bases; the
difference between hydrogen acids and oxygen acids ; the nature of acid, base, or
salt, are more readily perceived by a close examination of the table than by the
most extended description. It will be seen by this inspection how the ammonia

salts are represented. ee \ O, is the acetate of ammonia. By adding H
H

to the type ammonia we have a new type : N, ammonium, which enables
H

the formation of salts, according to the ammonium theory, by introducing this new
type into the type of water. Thus diethyle-methyle-amyle-ammonium would be

CG. He H ) C, H; O2

CG, i: C, H; l C, Hs

C. I. N. Its hydrated oxide C, H; N Oy». Its acetate C, H; N On.
C. I. C. H; i C, H; :

se Cy) Hy Cyo Hn

The homologous series may thus be generalized by this system of nomencla-
stag © H :
ture—e. ¢., ordinary alcohol is ; Oz; bo is any alcohol, and
é : C.Hs§~?? Cn Hayy f 2%

t

On alae Ye \ any corresponding acid of the same homologous series.
Another principle, which has been adopted in the type method, consists in

the assumption of radicals capable of replacing H, or H; in the types. Such

radicals are diatomic when they replace Hy, and are represented thus, (/’,) and

triatomic (’’’) when they replace H;; and the types of water, hydrogen, and

ammonia are doubled or trebled to form new types by which bibasie or tribasic

acids or salts may be represented. Thus:

BIBASIC ACIDS,

Type. Sulphuric acid. Succinie acid. Tartarie acid.
H. S, O,' C3y 0, J o
11, | He $ O ey Oe mE

TRIBASIC ACIDS,
Type. Phosphoric. Meconic., Citric.

i : P QO. mt G H O mt 1 i ty
HY Oe Hy. } Os oF, Oh: ee ee

* ¥ s
a

THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES. 167
i
The following are examples of the duplication and triplication of the hydro-
gen and ammonium types: :
Type. Chloro-sulphuric acid. Chloride of succinyle.
H, , S2 OF ; Cs Hy, Ou t
Hy, Cl, 12
Type. . Succinimide.
H, Cs Hy O24"
H, No. + H, No.
2 Hp
Type. Oxychloride of phosphorus.
He P O,!/
H; Cl;
Type. Citramide.
H; C2 Hs On!”
H; e Nd. Hi; N3.
3 Hy

These derived types are connected with the primary types by the hypothesis
that a “polyatomic” radical may replace several atoms of hydrogen in the
primary type. Thus—

Type. Anhydrous sulphuric acid. Anhydrous succinic acid.
11 f 02 S,0." 10, Co H.0." } 0,

Tyne. Sulphurous acid.
at 8, 04"}

Type. | Succinimide.
i N. Paar br
H

The following examples illustrate the use of the type method of expressing
a chemical reaction—e. g., that of hydrochloric acid with hydrated oxide of
ammonium.

By the former method it would be—

NH,0 +H Cl=NH,Cl1+ HO
By the type method—

H cly— Gl H
yufOt uf=nuft Hye
Again: by the action of oxychloride of phosphorus upon acetate of soda,
chloride of acetyle is formed together with phosphate of soda, which reaction
is represented.
By the former method—

iP OC, a 3 CN: 0; C, Hy; Os) == 3 N,O, P O; + 3 (C4 H, Oz) Cl.

By the type method—
P O,!" C, H; Oz ee Er O,!” ° C4 H; Oz
Cl, Vis ( Na On) = Na bos +3 { Cl.

Some regard the type method of imagining a body as essential in the nature
of matter; to these the type of the same body is invariable, with which, if

¥

168 THE MODERN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TYPES.

e
phenomena agree not, the reason is sought, and the correct type determined by
experiment. ¢ é ,

But others employ this method as a means of comparing chemical reactions,
and as suggestive of new experiments. Such write formuls sometimes according
to the old nomenclature, and sometimes take great liberties with the types, |
viewing the same body in different types; for example, taking aldehyde
C, H3 O02

tH t

(C, Hy Oz) according to the type es thus: or, according to the

fa ;
type : t Os, thus: 4 _ ; 5:

A very serious defect, in-my opinion, in the type method is that it places the
hydrogen acids and salts in a different type from the oxygen acids and salts;
while the analogies existing between these acids and salts furnish urgent reason
why they should have the same constitution, which similarity chemists have
always labored to discover. Itis not fair to constitute a type ammonia founded
on the chemical analogies of it and the compound ammonias, and at the same
time place hydro-chloric and nitric acids in different types. And yet, by the
present method, they cannot come in the same type, because, first, oxygen can-

not come in the hydrogen type, ; <a ; and second, in the water-type

z O, the oxygen outside of the bracket is differently combined, compared

with the oxygen of an oxy-radical replacing H. Thus nitrate of potassa must

be a ; O», and not yes : ; , (since Oy and Oy are differently combined,) and

chloride of potassium can only be =

In concluding the subject, it may be observed that by the former method of
writing formule, the binary nature of chemical compounds, owing to the polarity
of their atoms, was kept prominent; while this is not the case with respect to
type formulz, although in these the polarity of the atoms is not denied, but
kept in subordinate view. in

Whatever be the faults or merits of the type method, it has, by placing bodies
before us in a new relation, suggested experiments (which, perhaps, would not
have been otherwise suggested) which have led to important discoveries. At the
present time, not to understand this method of writing formule is to be excluded
from following the course of modern chemical progress.

RESEARCHES ON THE PHENOMENA

WHICH CHARACTERIZE AND ACCOMPANY

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY

IN HIGHLY RAREFIED ELASTIC FLUIDS.*

BY PROFESSOR A. DE LA RIVE.

Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Memoires de la Société de Physique et
d@’ Historie Naturelle de Geneve, tome XVII, 1863.

I was led in 1849, in my first memoir on the aurora borealis,t to show that:
the electric light which is produced in a vacuum of from four to five millimetres
is obedient to the action of the magnet. I subsequently found that this experi-
ment, in which, to produce electricity, I at first used an ordinary electric instru-
ment, and then the hydro-electric machine of Armstrong, succeeded still better
with Ruhmkorff’s induction apparatus. The employment of this apparatus
has since supplied the means of studying in a surer and more commodious
manner the propagation of electricity in rarefied gases, and thus the assurance
has been obtained that, while an absolute vacuum will by no means transmit
electricity, the presence in any space of the smallest quantity of ponderable
matter in the state of an elastic fluid suffices for such propagation. 'T'o the con-
clusive experiments of M. Gassiot we essentially owe the demonstration of this
important principle. It has been observed that the transmission of electricity
through elastic fluids is effected with more or less facility, according to the na-
ture and density of the fluid, and that it is accompanied, when the gas is very
much rarefied, by an appearance which has been called the stratification of
electric light, consisting in the phenomenon of a succession of strata alternately
luminous and obscure, presented by the luminous electric discharge. The
action of the magnet on this light has likewise been studied. M. Plucker, after
numerous and important experiments, has ascertained its law in connecting it
with the formation of magnetic curves. Lastly, different explanations have
been offered of the stratification of -electric light, some based on the peculiar
mode of the production of electricity by Ruhmkorff’s apparatus, others referring
it, not to the character of the apparatus producing the electricity, but rather to
that of the medium which propagates it.

The phenomena just cited had awakened in me a lively interest, and I have
for some years more particularly studied them. I have encountered great diffi-
culties in this pursuit, as, on account of the necessity, in operating on highly’
rarefied elastic fluids, of having apparatus which will properly maintain a vacuum,
as well as very delicate instruments to appreciate with minute exactness the
degree of rarefacation. The establishment at Geneva, conducted by so skilful.
a machinist as M. Schwerd, has, however, enabled me in a great measure to

~ For a table of French measures, compared with English, see the last page of this Report.
t Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tome XXV, p. 310; and Comptes Rendus del’ Academie.
des Sciences, tome. XXIX, p. 412.

170 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING .

surmount these difficulties, and to arrive at results which I can with confidence
present to the society. \

My earlier researches, which had chiefly for their object the study of the
general phenomena, were directed only to hydrogen and nitrogen, two gases,
differing greatly as regards their physical and chemical properties, and offering,
moreover, the advantage of being at once simple, unalterable, and without action
on the metals serving as electrodes. Atmospheric air, on which also I have
often operated, acts very much as nitrogen, whether because the proportion of
oxygen it contains is small in comparison with that of the nitrogen, or because
this oxygen, at least in great part, quickly disappears by reason of the trans-
mitted eleetricity, which, converting it into ozone, facilitates its combination
with the metal of the electrodes. I have also, in some cases, mixed with the
gas submitted to experiment a little vapor of water or of alcohol.

Electricity has, in my experiments, been produced by a Ruhmkorff induction
apparatus of mean force, set in action by one or two pairs of Grove’s cups,*
and operating by means of the ordinary cut-off. The electricity thus produced
is transmitted by means of copper wires covered with gutta-percha through the
gaseous mediums, more or less rarefied, contained in glass vessels of different
forms, tubes, jars, spherical or ovoid globes, &c. These vessels are to be carefully
closed with good taps, and furnished with metallic electrodes of divers forms
and natures, which serve to introduce the electric currents.t In the circuit
which these currents are destined to traverse we place distilled water in a small
glass trough, some twenty centimetres in length by five in width and three in
depth. ‘I'wo plates of platina fixed respectively at the extremities of the trough,
and whose surface is exactly equal to the transverse section of the stratum of
water, serve to establish this water in the cireuit. The purpose of the interpo-
sition of the water is to determine the intensity of the’ electric current by means
of an expedient which permits, with that view, the employment of a very deli-
cate galvanometer. ‘I'wo wires of platina, each inserted in a glass tube, are
attached vertically to solid supports, so as to be immersed in distilled water at
their lower extremities, which extremities project from the glass only a milli-

* The battery in question is but a particular form which I have given to Grove’s apparatus
to render its management more convenient and prompt. It is constructed as follows:

A glass jar with a large opening of about ten centimetres, closed with a glass stopper rubbed
with emery, contains about a litre of nitric acid. When the pair is to be used, we remove the
stopper and replace it by a porous cylinder of such diameter that it can enter freely into the
jar by the opening. This cylinder, long enough to be plunged nearly to the bottom of the
jar, has on its upper portion an annular protuberance, by means of which it rests on the edge
of the opening. It contains sulphuric acid diluted with water, and a tube or strip of zine im-
mersed in the acid solution. It is, besides, surrounded externally with a thin plate of platina,
to which is soldered with gold a wire, also of platina, which terminates outside, traversing
the annular projection of the porous cylinder. The zinc and the platina wire each carry
nippers, by which the conductors are readily attached. There may be several similar
pairs, and nothing is easier than to arrange them in series, so as to obtain a battery more or
less powerful. But a single pair is sufficient, if well mounted, for nearly all electro-dynamic
experiments. and particularly for the demonstration of the laws of Ampére, as well as for the
production of the phenomena attending the discharge of the Ruhmkorff apparatus in rarefied
gases.

It is not necessary often to change the nitric acid, since the jar contains a large quantity.
The same acid may serve for several days and for many experiments. It is of advantage,
however, frequently to change the acidulated water which fills the porous tube—a very easy
and unexpensive operation. Finally, an important precaution to be taken is, that, when we
cease to use the pair, the porous cylinder should be withdrawn from the nitric acid, care bein
taken immediately to replace it with the stopper rubbed with emery, and the cylinder should
be immersed in a bottle filled with pure water. Thus the emanations of the nitrous vapors,
and the penetration of the nitric acid through the porous cylinder, are avoided. We should
guard against immersing the amalgamated zines in the same water in which the porous
abe have been plunged, for the smallest trace of nitric acid in water suffices to alter the

t Por electrodes I have chiefly used balls of platina, one centimetre in diameter.

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 171

metre, in accordance with the plan of Dr. Wollaston, while their upper extremi-
ties communicate respectively with two ends of the wire of a galvanometer,
whose coils are well isolated by means of resin. ‘The supports which bear the
platina wires are movable along a division in such way that the two extremi-
ties of the wires immersed in the water may be made to approach one another as
closely as possible, or be separated very nearly the whole length of the stratum
of water. By means of a micrometric screw, the relative distance of the two
points of platina may be so varied as to be appreciable to nearly the tenth of
a millimetre. These two points draw off an almost insensible proportion of the
electric current which traverses the trough filled with water—a proportion, how-
ever, which suffices to act in a distinct manner on the needle of the galvanometer.
The proportion drawn off depends for a current of constant intensity on the dis-
tance of the two points, so that, if the intensity be variable, it is the variable
distance to which it is necessary that the two points shall be brought, in reference
to one another, in order for the indication of the galvanometer to remain con-
stant, which measures the proportion drawn off in each case, and thus, by a ratio
easily determined, the absolute intensity of the current.

Finally, a good pneumatic pump, to which a second complementary one may
be joined, enables us to bring the gas to an advanced degree of rarefaction. As
to the elastic force of the gas, that is. measured by a manometer of mercury
very carefully constructed, with which, by means of a cathetometer, a difference
of pressure of even the fiftieth of a millimetre may be appreciated.

§ L—GENERAL PHENOMENA PRESENTED BY THE TRANSMISSION OF
ELECTRICITY IN RAREFIED GASES.

The Ruhmkorff apparatus, of which I have availed myself, gives in the in-
ducted wire two successive and alternately contrary discharges. Hence, if
these discharges encounter in the circuit which they traverse only good con-
ductors, such as metallic wires, and even distilled water, no deviation is re-
marked in the galvanometer, because the discharges being alternately in a
contrary direction, and in rapid succession, their opposed double action is
neutralized. But if the circuit comprises an elastic fluid very much rarefied,
the resistance which it opposes to the passage of the two successive discharges
causes one of them to predominate, so that the phenomena take place as though
there were but a series of discharges all in the same direction. The explana-
tion of this difference is, that the two discharges, or inducted currents, though
equal in quantity, have not the same tension, the direct, which have a less
duration, having a stronger tension. It thence results that when the circuit is
interrupted by a body which is a bad conductor, such as an elastie fluid more
or less rarefied, the direct currents can alone be transmitted, so that the direc-
tion of the inducted current which traverses the elastic fluid is the same with
that of the inductive current, and the latter changing, the other changes at the
same time.

The pressure at which a discharge of a given intensity begins to pass through
a gas varies with the nature of that gas, with its degree of rarefaction, and with
the dimensions and form of the vessel which contains it. Moreover, the dis-
charge does not pass immediately upon the electrodes being put in communica-
tion with the poles of the Ruhmkorff apparatus. For that a certain time is
necessary—a time so much longer in proportion as the resistance is grcater,
whether arising from the nature or density of the elastic fluid, or from the effect
of the form and dimensions of the vessel. Thus, in a long tube, from 2 to
5 centimetres in diameter and from 30 to 50 centimetres in length, it requires
several minutes before the discharge can be transmitted, however rarefied the
gas. But the first discharge having once passed, the succeeding ones pass
with facility, and follow one another so rapidly as to produce on the galva-

172 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

nometer the effect of a continuous current. The passage ef the discharges may
even be interrupted for many minutes without the loss of the capacity which
the gas had acquired of immediately transmitting them. To lose it completely
we must wait a long time, or renew the gas, and consequently again rarefy it.
An equally important fact to be noticed is, that the discharges once transmitted,
there may be gradually introduced, while they are passing, a new quantity of
the same gas, which amounts to an augmentation of the density, without their
ceasing to pass; the pressure may thus be carried to almost double what it was»
at the beginning. ‘The direction of the discharges has no influence on this
train of phenomena; for, the discharge having once effected a passage, its
direction may be changed at will, without a cessation of immediate transmission.
This result, which I have had occasion to verify in many and very different
cases, would seem to show that the gaseous matter opposes a certain inertia to
the establishment of that particular disposition which the transmission of elec-
tricity requires, and which determines the tension which precedes that trans-
mission; but that this disposition once established, it subsists long after the
passage of electricity has ceased, provided no disturbance intervene in the state
of the gas. It had long been supposed, particularly in the theory of Grotthus
on electrolytic decompositions, that something analogous occurred in the trans-
mission of voltaic currents through liquids; it had thence been inferred that
the tension of the poles of the piles induced in the liquid in which these poles
were plunged, a polarization, which preceded the passages of the current. Only
these two effects succeeded one another in a time so short as to be inappre-
ciable, while with gases they would be found to be separated by an interval
of more or less duration, but always appreciable.

I shall restrict myself here to certain numerical results,—results of but little
importance indeed, since it is impossible to deduce from them a law, in view of
the numerous causes which occasion them to vary. They serve only to show
the accuracy of the general principle which I have just indicated. We may.
also infer from them the great superiority of hydrogen over nitrogen and atmo-
spheric air, as regards its conducting power—a fact already noticed by several
experimenters.

In a tube 5 centimetres in diameter and 16 in length, the discharge, when
the tube was filled with atmospheric ‘air, only began to pass when the pressure
was reduced to 20 millimetres; with nztrogen it passed under a pressure of 24
millimetres, and with hydrogen under that of 36 millimetres. It is true
that subsequently, under the same conditions of intensity, and still with
hydrogen, the discharge passed at pressures of 42, and even 48 millimetres;
when rendered still stronger, it has been transmitted under a pressure of
even 72 millimetres. With a tube having a like diameter of 5 centimetres,
but only one metre in length, the same discharge only began to pass through
nitrogen under a pressure of from 4 to 5 millimeters; with hydrogen it passed
only under a pressure of from 12 to 13", Afterwards, when stronger, and
again with hydrogen, it passed under a pressure of 18, and even 20™™. When
the discharge begins to be transmitted, it exhibits itself in very minute jets
or streams, more or less intermitted; afterwards these streams combine to form
a larger and more continuous one. In a jar filled with hydrogen the discharge
passed from an isolated central ball to a ring 12 centimetres in diameter,
making the distance of the transmission but 6 centimetres in a space of hydro-
gen which might be called unlimited. In this case it was transmitted under a
pressure of 125™" in the form of streams more or less intermittent and undu-
lating, darting from the central ball to all points of the ring indifferently. At.
90" the discharge gave rise to a continuous stream, susceptible of being in-
fluenced by magnetism.

We see, by the instances just cited, that the pressure under which, for any
given gas, the discharge can pass varies with so many circumstances, that its

*
THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 173

determination is of little importance. Not so, however, when the discharge is
once transmitted in regard to the influence which the pressure of the gas it
traverses exerts on its intensity. The following are two comparative experi-
ments made with nitrogen and hydrogen. ‘These two gases were successively’
introduced into a tube 5 centimetres in diameter and 50 in length; the dis-
charge passed between two balls of platina one centimetre in diameter, placed

respectively near each extremity of the tube, so that the passage across the
gaseous medium was quite 50 centimetres in extent.

Nitrogen —The intensity of the discharge was measured by means of that
of the derived current received by the two points of platina plunged, at a fixed
distance of 120™™, in the distilled water which was placed in the circuit :

Pressure. Intensity of derived current.
COYLE cia eh ae Galvanometer almost insensible.
7mm ane ee Bs ao
ee eee ais, hc cual 13° to 16°
PST eye ere ere 2O- foroOr
SO Ae ies, cseare Soe
Sie Sait eee neg 38° to 40°
cre Se Sa Aiea AD ows

Hydrogen.—Proceeding at first as in the case of the nitrogen, the two points
of platina which received the derived current were left at a fixed distance from
one another:

Pressure. Intensity of derived currents.

BO ee cr cuete a ears anelace © Sie ees to ee
96mm Fe ee ee RN Sere. 6 RL Lee OF ORES 5°
1S™2 AS he ancleh oe Paty, Mr hee eda lah ins oft Be Lorn pk 6°
15mm Re ae ee eT PROT EEeL e Oe. iete he
a ia aya eRe elt Te tae Cee eter 13°
Se eee ars Meares eto eee sere tees ele 40°

gmm fe at aE Oe Sen EN 50°

For pressure of less than 9 millimetres the points of platina were in each
case brought nearer together, so as to have a constant current. At a distance
of 55™™, the derived current, which under a pressure of 9™™ had been 50°, was
reduced to 40°. The following series was then obtained; and here, in order
to restore the derived current to 40°, it was requisite, in proportion as the press-
ure diminished, to bring the points closer together, so as to render the interval
of derivation smaller:

Pressure. Distance of points.
ONS “st. 57a er teeta ts oars (a es tare tanene nies, g Pore fe Gone
gmm #24} Wb ds ee ee my A EASSE AE DOREY Seep eae 45mm
7mm Bele ta op ee ee Sa a! Bales 540k Zl Re somm
g™m Be pa he a ES AR gh ds ee ee CO 95mm
§tmm et Fra) UE | Pag Le gu. aE Tg fae es 90mm
4mm Be te he hi SD eR Ro Me Aah tod ort) te SS. Sad Peg er oe EBS 1722
gum Piet et) | oh GU ee as bee eae 0 a 14™m
omm Baha whl bh MR es bh SEA Tre Le 1Q™m

Thus, as far as 2™™ of pressure, the intensity of the derived current, and
consequently the conductibility of the gas, goes on increasing as well for the
hydrogen as for the nitrogen; but we see how much more considerable is the
conducting power of the hydrogen than that of the nitrogen, since, under a
pressure of 9™™, all other circumstances remaining the same, the derived cur-
rent is, with the nitrogen, scarcely sensible, while it is 50° with the hydrogen.

+

: .
174 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

In two other comparative experiments, the pressure and the distance of the
electrodes were made to vary alike for the nitrogen and hydrogen. The two
gases had been successively introduced into the same ovoid globe. The fol-
lowing table gives the intensity of the derived current for three different dis-
tances of the electrodes under different pressures, when x¢rogen is in the ball:

Pressure. Distance of the electrodes.
14 cent. 7 cent. 1 cent.
20mm Bs ies iS A) ne 10° Dao 55°
ee Ate. bia spent 40° Ay oo
hmm Ween te he eee 50° 55° 57°
PPOs «BA ano yet Nee coe 55° 55° 57°

When for nitrogen we substitute hydrogen, the results differ somewhat,
especially in the lower pressures, and when the electrodes are in close proximity
with one another, which proceeds probably from the circumstance that the
gaseous medium, in view of the form of the vessel, may be regarded as having
an almost indefinite breadth. In a large receiver, in effect, where the current
passes between a central ball and a concentric ring having a diameter of 12—
centimetres, the intensity of the derived current is very little increased by
diminishing the pressure beyond 10™. That intensity, measured by the de-
rived current, amounts, under a pressure of 15™™, to 35°; under a pressure of
10™™, it attains 45°; then augments gradually as far as 5™™, when it reaches
its maximum of 50°, which it never exceeds, manifesting rather a slight ten-
dency to become less under 2™™. By raising the central ball so as to give to.
the electric sheet a conical instead of circular form, the conductibility is not
sensibly diminished. Under the same circumstances the atmospheric air does
not present a resistance much greater than the hydrogen; thus the intensity
of the derived current is 35° at 5™™ instead of 50°, and at 2™™ is 45°. How-
ever, with the tube of one metre in length, hydrogen must be subjected to a
much weaker pressure in order to transmit the discharge, but its conductibility
increases very rapidly with the diminution of that pressure. ‘Thus, the appa-
ratus of derivation being placed in the circuit, we have:

Pressure. Intensity of the derived current.
gp LS Pena nie geraiel aks Se leah eee epee 0°
ARON ns Baden CLE pki d. SI hen en ney oe ee 1S
Se ey ciee. SS ees cvepalS savannah cae ey rep een 22°
SSUNDD, as eys store SS = nfs be orsnevotevesrers wa cyoh walle
SD DOTS, gh es a 8 pe et eae ee | ee Hoe

Finally, with the same tube, one metre in length and 5 centimetres in
diameter, a sensible and regular augmentation in the intensity of the derived
current has been obtained, for the same pressure and in the two gases alike, by
a corresponding diminution of distance between the electrodes. The compari-
son of the numbers indicates, that, when the gas is sufficiently rarefied to be a
good conductor, that is, to permit the discharge to become, so to say, continu-
ous, it follows, like liquids and solids, in its conductibility, the law of the inverse
of the length. It has been already seen that the influence of the section
and of the volume is very considerable ; but I have not been able to determine
its law in a precise manner.

Thus far I have considered the propagation of electricity in gaseous sub-
stances only in relation to the resistance they oppose to it—a resistance variable
with their nature, their density, and their dimensions. I have but glanced
at this part of my subject, to which I shall return at an early occasion, as I
propose to extend my researches to a much larger number of gaseous substan-—

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 175

ces. I pass now to phenomena of quite another order, and which relate to the
mode itself in which the propagation of electricity is effected in gases—a mode
which manifests itself under the form of stratification of the electric light.

§ IL.—INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING THE STRATIFICATION OF THE
ELECTRIC LIGHT.

It is known that at a certain degree of diminution of the elastic force of
a gas which transmits the electric current, that current becomes stratified —that
is to say, is decomposed into strata alternately obscure and luminous. The
stratification commences by the appearance of certain slight strise or furrows on
the side of the positive electrode; then gradually, as the elastic force dimin-
ishes, the current, which was at first very narrow, dilates, and the striz grow
larger. Next appears an obscure space, separating the extremity of the lumi-
nous columnfrom the negative electrode, which is itself surrounded with a bluish
atmosphere. This atmosphere continues to dilate, and the obscure space to
lengthen, in proportion as the rarefaction cf the gas increases.

In order to obtain the stratification of the electric light, it is necessary to di-

-minish the pressure of a gas in proportion as the gas offers more resistance to

the transmission of electricity. Thus in hydrogen, under a pressure of 18™™,
the electric stream, which consists as yet of but a small rose-colored filament
from three to four millimetres in diameter, is seen to divide into very distinct cir-
cular sheets, alternately obscure and luminous, the breadth of which is one-fourth
of a millimetre. These striz, at first more distinctly marked at the positive elec-
trode, become general throughout the whole electric current, whatever be its
length ; and, in proportion as the pressure diminishes, the stream becomes en-
larged, so as even to occupy the whole interior of a tube five centimetres in di-
ameter. At the same time the breadth of the alternately obscure and luminous
divisions so increases that, under a pressure of 2™™, it is about 5™™, These di-
visions are themselves annular, as I have satisfied myself by closing the tube
which contains the rarefied gas, at one of its extremities, with a glass disk,
which permits the whole interior of the tube to be seen in the direction of its
length.

When the striz begin to appear, an obscure space, as has been said, is seen
to form in front of the negative electrode, increasing in proportion as the press-
ure diminishes, so far as finally to occupy a length of ten centimetres—a length
which is independent of that of the gaseous column. However, by observing
with attention this obscure space, we discover, beyond an interval which is per-
fectly black, and of a well-defined length of from 2 to 3™™, a palish, rose-colored
gleam, which is only visible in utter darkness. This gleam, which has the form
of a cone, whose base is the last section of the luminous column, only appears
when the pressure has become very slight and quite inferior to that under which
the obscure space is manifested. It is accompanied by the appearance, in the
same obscure space, and at unequal intervals, of several still more luminous
rings, (I have counted as many as four,) which contrast, by their immobility and
their well-defined outlines, with the agitated striz or divisions of the rest of the
current. Let us add, that the luminous and stratified part of the current, which
is much the longest, is so much the more distinctly and sharply separated from
the obscure or palish part, as the electric discharge is more intense.

The bluish atmosphere which surrounds the negative electrode is also en-
larged in proportion as the pressure diminishes, and nearly in the same ratio
as the striez. At the same time, its brightness becomes less vivid, and its exte-
rior outline less sharply defined. This bluish atmosphere, which at first
enveloped only the negative ball, at last, and in proportion as the pressure |
diminishes, equally envelops, in all its length, the metallic rod which supports
the ball; at least, if this be not covered with an isolating coat, which indicates,

176 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

on the part of negative electricity, a great facility in dispersing itself in the
ambient medium, when once that medium is rarefied.

The agitation of the striz in the luminous part of the current becomes very
considerable under the slight pressure of two millimetres. It manifests itself
at first very sensibly in the neighborhood of the positive electrode, from which
the Inminous stream issues under the form of an outspreading cone, which, in
proportion as the pressure diminishes, becomes more and more cylindrical, until
it assumes altogether the form of a cylinder of whose circular base the electrode
is the centre, the agitation of the striz being, at the same time, general through-
out the whole extent of the current. ‘

When the discharge is effected in a cylindrical jar, between a ball serving as
a negative electrode and a metallic ring of which that ball is the centre, and
which serves as a positive electrode, the bluish atmosphere which surrounds the
ball enlarges by several centimetres at a pressure of 2™™, and its exterior out-
line is covered with small filaments, presenting a tuftlike appearance. ‘These
filaments are probably formed by the series of molecules which transmit the
discharge. They are much more distinct with hydrogen (a good conductor)
than with other gases. If the ball serves as a positive electrode, it is surrounded
with a lively rose-colored halo of about a centimetre in diameter, presenting
well-marked stratifications ; then comes a dark annular space, which terminates
at the ring, which is itself completely invested with an envelope or sheath of
clear violet, with opaline tints.

Nitrogen presents the same phenomena as hydrogen, though the stratification
of the electric light does not begin, except under a much feebler pressure. In
the long tube (one metre in length) the agitation of the stria, under-a pressure
of 2™™, is even more considerable than with hydrogen. 'These strive seem to
form an animated helix, with a movement of rotation around its axis. The
light is also more vivid, the tint being of a peach-blossom rather than pale rose,
color. The phenomenon is of a most brilliant description. Further, there is
the same obscure space in the vicinity of the negative electrode, the same
glimmer of palish rose color at a weak pressure of from 1 to 2"™™ in this obscure
space, the same appearance in this glimmering mist of well-defined and motion-
less rings more luminous than the space which surrounds them.

Atmospheric air corresponds in its phenomena with nitrogen. I have ob-
served only that here the agitation of the striz is less striking, and the light of
a rose color less deep than in nitrogen.

The appearances which I have just described are, therefore, within some
mere shadings, precisely the same in hydrogen, nitrogen, and atmospheric air ;
they are equally the same, whether these gases are dry. or contain the vapor
of water or of alcohol in more or less quantity ; there are no differences, except
that the pressures at which the various phenomena, and the tints of light which
accompany them, are observed, vary with the nature of the rarefied elastic fluid.
We cannot, then, attribute the effects just considered to an electro-chemical
decomposition which cannot take place in a simple and well-desiceated gas, nor
to any action appertaining to the chemical nature of the elastic fluid. They
are evidently the result of a mechanical action which accompanies the trans-
mission of electricity—an idea first advanced by M. Riess, who showed that an
analogous phenomenon presents itself, under a little different form, it is true, in
liquids and in solids.

The phenomenon in rarefied elastic fluids would consist in the alternate con-
tractions and dilatations of the gaseous medium produced by the series of dis-
charges, always more or less intermittent, of which the electric stream is formed.
In fact, whether it be by Ruhmkorft’s apparatus, or an ordinary electric machine,
or by a hydro-electric machine of Armstrong, that the stratifications are pro-
duced, there is never a continuous discharge, but, in reality, a series of dis-
charges which may sueceed one another so rapidly that the intermission shall

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. Eve

not be betrayed, even by a galvanometer. But it does not the less exist, as M.
Gassiot has shown in operating with a pile of Grove at high tension, which,
with the same electrodes, and in the same medium, will give rise, first to strati-
fications, and afterwards, when the current has become continuous, to a voltaic
arch.

The mechanical action of the series of discharges on the rarefied elastic fluid
may, indeed, be directly verified by the very marked oscillations of the column
of mercury of the manometer placed in communication with the elastic fluid,
whieh accompany the propagation of electricity in that fluid. These oscilla-
tions rise to two or three tenths of a millimetre in hydrogen, under a pressure
of 16™™, They begin to be sensible when once the stream passes, that is to

say, at 36™™ of pressure; attain their maximum of three-tenths of a millimetre

between 20 and 12™™ of pressure ; and diminish rapidly in descending from 12
to 5™™, at which last pressure they no longer take place. With nitrogen and at-
mospheric air, and employing the same tube 16 centimetres in leneth and 5 in
diameter, the oscillations begin, at the moment when the stream passes, under
the pressure of about 20™™; attain their maximum of from four to five tenths of
a millimetre between 12 and 8™™ of pressure; and then continue to diminish
until 2 or 5™", at which pressure they cease to be sensible.

With the tube one metre in length, and even with that of 50 centimetres, I
have not succeeded in observing any appearance of oscillation accompanying
the transmission of the electric current, whatever might be the gas enclosed in
these tubes, and whatever the pressure to which it was subjected. On the other
hand, I have obtained very distinct ones, of one and two tenths of a millimetre,
under pressures varying from 30 to 15™™, in a jar 20 centimetres in height by
16 in diameter, filled with rarefied hydrogen, and in which the electric stream
passed from a central ball to a ring 12 centimetres in diameter concentric to
that ball. ‘This last result shows that the absence of oscillations in the long
tubes has léss connexion with the volume of the gaseous medium, which is less
than in the vessel of the last experiment than with the influence of the sides
of the tubes which embarrass the movement of the gas. It is also a proof that
the oscillations proceed from a mechanical action, and not from an elevation of
temperature. As regards their intensity, the oscillations evidently depend on
the greater or less resistance which the gaseous medium opposes to the trans-
mission of the electric current, since the oscillations are more considerable with
nitrogen than with hydrogen, and diminish as the pressure does, reckoning from
a certain point of the pressure, which is that at which the discharge can take
place in a complete manner, and at which the intensity of the oscillations attains
its maximum.

The stratification of electric light would appear then to be a phenomenon
analogous to the production of undulations of sound, that is to say, a mechanical
phenomenon proceeding from a succession of isochronous impulses communi-
cated to the rarefied gaseous column by the series of electric discharges rapidly
succeeding each other. We find a new proof favorable to this view of the phe-
nomenon in the perturbation which a displacement of the gaseous matter occa-
sions in the stratifications, and, consequently, in the disposition of the elastic
fluid which permits those stratifications to appear. To produce this perturba-
tion, it suffices to introduce into the tube in which there is a rarefied elastic
fluid, and while the electricity is in process of propagation, an additional
quantity of the same gas already enclosed therein, so as to increase the pressure
by one-fourth or one-half of a millimetre at most. Let us see what then occurs
with hydrogen, remarking ‘that the effects are the same with the three tubes,
respectively, 15, 50, and 100 centimetres in length.

We begin by rarefying the gas to the extent of 2™™, so as to have the phe-
nomenon of the stratifications as distinct as possible. We then introduce a
small quantity of hydrogen; if the introduction takes place on the side of the

12s

178° PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

negative electrode, strise of a fine rose color are immediately seen to form in the
obseure space, their diameter being that of the stratified column—that is, of
the tube, while they are at the same time very narrow and well defined. They
are gradually propagated in the tube, confounding themselves with the original
strix, which are much larger and less distinctly limited; then, as soon as the
entrance of the gas is arrested, the luminous column is’ seen to recede slowly
from the negative electrode, and resume gradually its primitive appearance.
When the introduction of the gas takes place on the side of the positive elee-
trode, in place of the strie occupying the whole cavity of the tube, we see a
brilliant stream of very small diameter (2 to 3™™) distinctly striated, and quite
similar to a minute spiral spring (7essort a boudin,) advance along the axis of
the tube in the relatively obscure interior of the luminous column, which itself,
as soon as the gas begins to enter by the positive as well as by the negative
electrode, immediately advances so as to occupy almost entirely the obscure
space up to the negative electrode, from which it is only separated by the in-
terposed stratum, 2" in thickness, which it cannot surmount. ‘hen, the intro-

duction of the gas once stopped, everything returns quickly to the normal state. _

By whichever of the two extremities of the tube the gas is made to penetrate,
we see, on the entrance of the gas, a very subtle mist of a roseate white color
make its appearance, and diffuse itself in the tube; but this, as soon as the in-
troduction of the additional quantity of gas has ceased, passes over from the
negative to the positive electrode, leaving the obscure space to form itself anew,
and momentarily hiding in its passage, by enveloping them as it were with a
light cloud, the successive stratifications of different parts of the column; then
this mist disappears, and the luminous column resumes its primitive appearance,
which it maintains so long as nothing is changed either in the electric current
or the state of the gas traversed by it. The appearance of this mist, which per-
fectly resembles that 1 have mentioned as existing in the dark space of the
column in a state of repose, well denotes the agitation into which the introdue-
tion of a small additional quantity of gas throws the whole column—an agitation
so conspicuously manifested by the progression of the strize and their encroach-
ment on one another. The phenomenon presents this further feature : that the
definiteness and brightness of the striz in the gaseous portion introduced, which
make them so plainly distinguishable from the gas which was already in the
tube, enable us to follow the progressive movement of that portion from one end
of the tube to the other. ‘Vhe experiment may be repeated several times in
succession by successive introductions of additional quantities of gas, provided
that each time the pressure be not increased more than 4 of a millimetre, and
that the total pressure do not in all exceed 5 or 6™™.

With nitrogen and atmospheric air the incidents are the same, only we can-
not push the experiment so far, the pressure at which the phenomenon ceases
to take place with these gases being much less than it is with hydrogen. The
narrow striz which display themselves at the moment of the entrance of the gas
on that side where the entrance takes place are also less distinct and less bril-
liant, but there is equally a momentary disappearance of the obscure space, the
production of a roseate mist, and progression of this mist, on the cessation of
the introduction of gas, from the negative electrode to the positive. With the
three gases alike, we see, when the introduction is effected on the side of the
negative electrode, the mist advance at first like the slender striated thread
which follows the axis of the tube from the positive electrode to the negative ;
then, having arrived at this extremity of the tube, it turns back, passing over,
as has been said, from the negative to the positive electrode.

This mist evidently proceeds from a portion of the gas which, in entering the
tube, is excessively dilated, and becomes visible by the electricity which trav-
erses it. From the slowness with which the mist is propagated we may judge
of the feeble degree of elastic force in the gas. It is to the same cause probably

—_— —_

CO ————————

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 179

that we should ascribe the slowness with which the mixture of the gas which
is entering the tube with that already present is effected—a slowness which is
manifested by the circumstance of the definite and narrow strie appearing in
the new portion of gas, while in the old the striz are much larger, and by no
means so distinctly defined—a phenomenon which can only proceed from the
former not being, at the moment when it enters the tube, so much dilated as the
gas which was already there. In fine, the fact that the gaseous column with
narrow striz is much larger when the gas which produces it enters on the side
of the negative electrode than when it enters on that of the positive, is a proof
that, before the new introduction of gas, the gaseous column already in the tube
was much more dilated in the neighborhood of the negative electrode than on
the side of the positive. So, then, the passage of the electric discharges very
rapidly succeeding one another across a rarefied gaseous column would pro-
duce therein, when the rarefaction had reached a certain degree variable with
the nature, and consequently with the conductibility of the gas, first, a consid-
erable dilatation of the gaseous matter around the negative electrode, and next,
beginning in this dilated portion of the column, a succession of alternate con-
tractions and dilatations as far as the positive electrode. It is highly probable
that the same effect takes place when the gas is not sufficiently rarefied for
producing stratification of the electric light. But in that case, the greater
elastic force of the gas, joined with the necessarily less rapid succession of the
discharges, allows the immediate return of the contracted and dilated strata to
their state of normal density, and thus prevents that double state from mani-
festing itself; while when the gas is less elastic, and the discharges succeed one
another more rapidly, the state of dilatation and contraction of successive strata
produced by a first discharge still subsists when a second arrives, the result
being that it becomes sensible.

The transmission of electricity, then, through a gaseous column occasions a
movement in the particles of gas, and that movement seems to be an impulse
emanating from the negative electrode. Might not this effect be attributed to
the static electricity with which the molecules are charged, and which would
augment their constitutive repulsion? We know, and it is seen by the lumi-
nous aureoles which surround the negative ball and rod, that, at an equal tension,
the negative electricity issues more readily than the positive from its metallic
electrodes in order to penetrate into the rarefied ambient medium. Hence, the
portion of that medium nearest to the negative electrode must be more charged
with static (negative) electricity than is (with positive) the portion of the rare-
fied gas near the positive electrode; it is not, then, surprising that the repulsion
of the gaseous molecules, and consequently the rarefaction of the gas, should be
greater in the first of these two portions than in the second.* Now, why does
negative electricity diffuse itself more easily than positive under the same con-
ditions of intensity, magnitude, and position of electrodes, nature and rarefaec-

tion of the ambient medium? Here is the mystery, or at least a point of most

interesting consideration as regards the theory of electricity.

§ I1I.—PARTICULAR PHENOMENA PRESENTED BY DIFFERENT PARTS OF
THE STRATIFIED ELECTRIC CURRENT.

The gaseous column traversed by the electric current is composed, as we
have said, when it has been brought to a certain degree of rarefaction, of strata
alternately dilated and contracted, with an obscure space greatly dilated in the
neighborhood of the negative electrode. The more dilated parts of the column
offering less resistance to the transmission of electricity must remain obscure,

* The fact that the electricity of tension is more easily propagated around the negative than
around the positive electrode may be readily verified by experiment, as well as the permanent
state of electric tension of the gaseous column during the passage of the electric current, what-
ever may be the rarefaction of the gas.

180 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

while the more contracted, with less capacity of conduction, grow warm, and
become luminous, even when it, is the same discharge which: traverses them.
We should here expect a phenomenon exactly analogous to that which is pro-
duced when we place in the circuit of a voltaic pile a chain formed of alternate
wires of platina and silver, having the same length and diameter ; although they
both transmit the same current, the wires of platina, offering most resistance,
grow hot, and become even incandescent, while those of silver, being better
conductors, remain cold and opaque.

To demonstrate that in fact the space remaining opaque offers less resistance
to the transmission of electricity in the stratified column than the luminous part
of that column, I have arranged two small disks of platina, 7™™ in diameter,
each attached by a point in its circumference to the end of a wire of platina,
enclosed in a tube of glass, in such a way as to be kept parallel to one another
at a distance of three centimetres. ‘The two disks are connected in a solid
manner, though very carefully isolated, and without any possible electric com-
munication except by means of the wires of platina soldered to their.circumfer-
ence, and enclosed in a tube of glass. The free extremities of the two wires of
platina can be respectively placed in communication with those of the wire of a
galvanometer. ‘The apparatus is arranged in such manner that the two disks
of platina may be introduced into the stratified electric stream so as to cut it
transversely, and to have their centres situated in the very axis of the stream.
They thus serve as sounds destined for the derivation of a part of the current,
and the intensity of that derived portion, which is so much less as the conduc-
tibility of the interval of derivation is greater, is measured by the deviation of
the needle of the galvanometer put in communication with the free extremities
of the platina wires which support the disks; these wires, as has been said, are
themselves enclosed in tubes of glass where they traverse the recipient which
contains the rarefied gas, with a view to their remaining well isolated, and that
the disks alone may be in contact with the gaseous substance which transmits
the discharges. Now, it suffices to change the direction of these discharges in
order that the sounds, without being displaced, shall be immersed either in the
obscure space near the negative electrode, or in the luminous space near the
positive one. ‘The apparatus is, moreover, so contrived that the sounds may be
placed in other portions of the current. It is proper to add, that the electrodes
between which the electric stream passes are two disks of platina, each five cen-
timetres in diameter, placed parallel to one another at a distance which may
vary from forty to thirty centimetres, and consequently, like the little disks
serving as sounds, perpendicular to the axis of the stream.

The following are some experiments made successively with nitrogen and
hydrogen :

NITROGEN, OR ATMOSPHERIC AIR.

Pressure of the gas, Intensity of the derived current.
Sounds near the positive electrode. Sounds near the negative electrode,
Se a nnn RAR ERS ee COO, 2 oo SP eae eee 18°
TY is Ag oy ea ot ee BOS 02 hope ha eye es 8°
eet ota nie ate age ee tw eeaiere gh Or ys = octane eae ese 0 3°
HYDROGEN.
BEEN, atcyonaie ater dH Ret 90°)? 2). Le ee Sols ais |e
Se tat clakiclsc ahs. okie Me S28 227, oe EMATENS thee SSCS s 65°
AUER ah AYaisra clatetierercice «84 B20). a eee 9°
AN A atcbare) Ay aka to es ace Lo oOo. le SShicis epee ee acs 0°

We see from these tables that the intensity of the derived current diminishes
with the pressure, although the transmitted current be much stronger, which
shows With what rapidity the resistance of the gas diminishes in proportion as
its rarefaction increases. But at the same time the diminution of the derived

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 181

current, and consequently that of the resistance, is much greater when the
sounds are immersed in the obscure space neat the negative electrode than in
the luminous part of the stream near the positive one. Thus, under the press-
ure of 2™™, it is impossible in hydrogen to perceive the least derived current
in the black space, while this derived current is at the same time 35° in the
luminous space; at a pressure of 15™™ it was 90° in the nei&hborhood of the
two electrodes alike, but there was as yet no formation of the obscure space,
and consequently the state of density of the gas was the same at the two ex-
tremities of the tube. ‘The resistance of the obscure space is also very feeble
in nitrogen under a pressure of 2™™, since the derived current is only 3°, while
it is 18° in the luminous space; but the difference between the two derived
currents is less than in hydrogen. This difference results from the fact that
hydrogen, having a conductibility much superior to that of nitrogen on the one
hand, the absolute intensity of the current is greater, which explains why we
have 35° instead of 18° in the luminous space; on the other hand, the derived
portion must then be less where rarefaction still more augments the conducti-
bility of the gas, which accounts for our having 0° in place of 3° in the obscure
space.

Let us here remark, that all the results which show the unequal resistance
presented by different parts of the same gaseous column to the propagation
of electricity are readily comparable with one another, since it is the same elec-
tric stream which successively traverses these different and unequally conducting
parts.

If we place the sounds in a portion of the stream which is 4 of the distance
from one of the electrodes, and consequently % from the other, we have for
the intensity of the derived current, under a pressure of 2™™ in air or nitrogen,
8° when the negative electrode, 12° when the positive, is nearest to the sounds.
In hydrogen we have 20° and 36°. Thus, the conductibility of the gaseous
column goes on diminishing gradually from the obscure space, where it is at its
maximum, to the space near the positive electrode, where it is at its minimum.

By placing the sounds always in the same portion of the stream, we can
find in the intensity of the derived current a sufficiently exact expression of the
degree of resistance of different gases at different degrees of pressure, provided
we take care, by means of a rheostat, to give to the principal current in each
case the same degree of absolute force. This is an investigation with which I
am at present occupied, and which is not yet finished. e

We see, then, that the obscure space near the negative electrode offers much
less resistance to the passage of the current than does the luminous part near
the positive electrode. It thence results that, for the same reason that the less
conductive portion of the gaseous column is more luminous than that with
greater conducting capacity, which remains nearly dark, the temperature of the
first should be higher than that of the second—an inference which experiment
has fully confirmed.

Two thermometers of mercury, with cylindrical reservoirs, were placed in the
interior of the tube, which is 16 centimetres in length and 4 in diameter, at the
respective distance of one centimetre from each of the electrodes—a distance
sufficient, as was ascertained, to annul the cooling or heating influence of those
electrodes. That the influence would rather have been refrigerant, was found
susceptible of verification by bringing them nearer the reservoir of the ther-
mometers, which is not surprising, in view of their dimensions, (full metallic
balls one centimetre in diameter.)

By causing the electric stream to traverse the rarefied nitrogen or hydrogen,
a great difference was at once perceptible between the temperature acquired by
the thermometer placed in the dark space near the negative electrode and that
acquired by the thermometer placed in the luminous space near the positive
electrode. These differences observe nearly the same ratio between the press-

182 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

ures of 1 to 10™, even when the absolute temperatures, with which they must
not be confounded, vary with the pressure and with the nature of the gases.
Thus, even when there is no longer any sensible obscure space at the negative
electrode, the thermometer is less elevated there than in the neighborhood of
the positive, which proves that the gas is there more dilated and of more con-
ducting capacity: The difference of temperature, then, should be a still more
sensible criterion than the difference of brightness, of the greater or less electric
resistance of different parts of the gaseous column. The absolute temperature
is in general less in hydrogen at all degrees of rarefaction than in nitrogen and
atmospheric air, which offer more resistance to the passage of electricity. ‘The
difference between the two thermometers was, moreover, never so great in hydro-
gen as in nitrogen, or atmospheric air. Thus it was at the maximum of 45°*
in hydrogen, under the pressure of 9 to 12™™, the thermometer having risen,
in two minutes, from 21° to 264° at the negative electrode, and 21° to 31° at
the positive. In nitrogen the maximum difference was 5° under the pressure
af 5™™, (20° to 24° at the negative thermometer, 20° to 29° at the positive.)
In atmospheric air the maximum difference was, at a pressure of 6™™, 6°, (from
18° to 26° at the negative thermometer, and from 18° to 32° at the positive.)
At a pressure of 20™™ the difference was not more in hydrogen than 24°, (from
21° to 284°, and from 21° to 26°;) in metrogen but a half «degree, (from 20° to
to 25°, and from 25° to 25$° ;) and in atmospheric air it was null, (from 19° to
28° at the two thermometers alike.) When there is no longer a difference be-
tween the indications of the two thermometers, or that difference is very slight,
it will be observed that the appearance of the luminous stream is perfectly
uniform through its whole extent.
Here we give a table of some experiments :

ATMOSPHERIC AIR, (duration of the experiment, two minutes.)

Pressure. Positive thermometer. Negative thermometer. Difference.
ait aia oie TO iGied po nee eee TGS Ot a ee tere 4°
ee aii TS? a0 elo eee 16° Oona a wee 5$°
Yokes Pg uO eae cee ae SS VO Ona eee 6°
ere ete tate cone yes EA ol LSPs tO Sia eee eee 34°

eee ete iatr 18S MG oan eckeeiine TOF Oto 20 ee ae ieoe 3°

15mm .4 eee ROG boot Wee cis 8s 1S 20° Rela alata a

eel LOE ORM eee st rerete etc 19° ioe 28o Pe eesaein. 0°

NITROGEN, (duration of the experiment, two minutes.)

eae ee eed De | PaO Ae ose caput kas 10°. tO ie tee ee ae
ae oe 20a2 #0 2B psc aeninx 208° toeacen 3°
eee See PF MOuG 0 bin mie Heke OP ny. CO pete tee fey 5°
a 207" tordds 2-2 veer 20° BOG Ce een ute 44> 5
= ees Oe HO BLS tele Mine <evel,, QOS) Mis ieee ne be 4°
Le es BLS TOE braced inte bain eb Seat Ne Faye ane 3°
29mm, ...... 20°. i Sato rn... D0°. foe ae so
HYDROGEN, (duration of the experiment, two minutes.)
Ger de cide ee QL? tern2ae wale -ape 2 NEO Bema bait oi 3 2°
5mm... 1... Q0° to P84? s wee > 20° #OVPTA. 2b alice ci 3°
eee. Sto BOT tee, 20° tebe ee chs 35°
APPA. 36 shi CLP toed ida ceive cic - RO° ti SG ee siti. ae 4$°
LB sy oman tel! A030? eke waibicis 21° to RGE ice danaixs 4°
QO sigs alee BU? to RBA? aise 2 21° to AGB veel sities 24°
30™™. 2... RL 40,269 4 ee 2-1 21° fo QBAO esc wee 14°

* The thermometric indications are in degrees of Reaumur.

¥
;

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 183

The following is the result of an experiment in which the duration of the
passage of the current was prolonged beyond 2 minutes, through atmospheric
air at a pressure of 5™™;

Duration of passage. Positive thermometer. Negative thermometer. Difference.
pee steep -34 « AS toss ace septs i 40! 26° scr :ctewee 5°
os atin = 80:37? )\eee 228 — to 30$°......... 64°
Seite e aap os =) HOMO: ass aaloe See | 12 stn eeeya 8°
Pi cine. 36 == £0437 Wc) Su eesnis ==5s" (OG 7 FS fete Sie a
MD a ereatate my ninie == ihO ABP ou ismian ad 2 Sn MOA 2 aid 2h. AP

In proportion as the duration of the experiment increases and the absolute
temperature rises, the differences: between the temperatures indicated by each
of the two thermometers become proportionally less ; the indications of the two
thermometers end by approximating, and even becoming the same after the
lapse of a certain time. Hydrogen and nitrogen give the same results.

The numbers which express the temperatures in the preceding tables cannot
be given as being of perfect exactness; they vary, in effect, in their absolute
values with the intensity of the electric stream; but they are sufficiently con-
stant and exact to demonstrate: 1st, that there is a sensible elevation of tem-
perature, which accompanies the propagation of the electric current in rarefied
gases; 2d, that this elevation is sensibly less in the neighborhood of the
negative electrode than near the positive, when once the gases are sufficiently
rarefied for the discharge to pass easily and the electric light to be stratified ;
3d, that the absolute elevations of temperature at the two electrodes, and their
differences, vary with the density and the nature of the gas.

A fact which shows well all the calorific and luminous power of electricity,
is, that hydrogen reduced to 14™™ of pressure can become luminous and be
heated in a very sensible degree* by the passage of electricity, although at that
pressure it has a density so inconsiderable that a cubie centimetre of the gas
does not weigh more than barely => of a milligramme.

When we sce matter so subtle as hydrogen reduced to one or two millimetres
of pressure, becoming luminous under the influence of electricity, the temptation
ean hardly be resisted of surmising an analogy with the matter at once so subtle
and so luminous which constitutes the cometary bodies. This analogy becomes
still more striking when we examine closely the appearance presented, in the
tube which contains the rarefied hydrogen traversed by the electric current, by
those species of luminous mists which manifest themselves at the moment when
we introduce a little gas into the tube, and which we also sce in the obscure
space when a certain degree of rarefaction has been attained. Undoubtedly the
gaseous matter is there still more rarefied than it is in the rest of the mass where
it is already extremely so, and it offers at the same time a remarkable resem-
blance with the luminous matter which constitutes the comets.

§ IV.—INFLUENCE OF MAGNETISM ON ELECTRIC CURRENTS PROPAGATED
IN HIGHLY RAREFIED GASEOUS MEDIUMS.

This influence, whose existence I have shown under the form of a rotation
communicated by the pole of a magnet to the electric currents which radiate
from it, is, as might be expected, and, as M. Plucker has evinced by several re-
markable experiments, general. The luminous filaments which display them-.
selves in rarefied gases, traversed by the discharges of the Ruhmkorff apparatus,

* The heating of the gas must in fact be very considerable to be capable, in two minutes, of
raising by nearly 3° the temperature of a thermometer whose reservoir is a cylinder of mer-
cury 2} millimetres in diameter by 3 centimetres in length. Besides, the single fact that the |
gas is luminous well evinces its high temperature; for the light is evidently but the effect of its
incandescence.

184 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

are attracted or repelled by magnets as electric currents circulating in metallic
wires would be. In a word, this action is subject to all the laws of electro-
dynamics, with this difference, that all the parts of the mobile conductor being
independent of one another, instead of being united with one another, as they
are in a rigid wire, they completely obey the forces which act upon them, and
take the positions of equilibrium which result therefrom. Hence it is that the
luminous filament takes the form of a magnetic curve; a necessary condition, in
order that the equilibrium should take place, since the action of the magnet on
the element of the current is then nothing, the direction of the action being per-
pendicular to that clement when it is a tangent to the magnetic curve.

I have verified in sundry cases the law just recited, and have even succeeded
in showing that, conformably to the law of Ampcre, two electric streams having
the same direction in a rarefied gas attract each other as two voltaic currents
transmitted across movable metallic wires would do. I have not realized the
repulsion of two electric streams passing in contrary directions, by reason of the
practical difficulty which I have hitherto encountered in constructing an appa-
ratus for the purpose. I do not, however, renounce the hope of being able to
do so. I shall return to this subject in an article in which I propose to consider
the mutual action of electric currents on one another. I restrict myself, for the
present, to an investigation of the effects of magnetic action on those currents.

My researches on this subject comprise two series of experiments : first, those
in which the electro-magnet from which the electric action emanates is placed
externally to the rarefied gas thrqugh which the electric stream is propagated;
secondly, those in which the magnetized iron is situated in the gas itself.

One of the most simple cases is that in which one of the tubes of which I
have spoken in preceding experiments is placed either axially or equatorially in
relation to the poles of a strong electro-magnet. The following is what is ob-
served when care has been taken to rarefy well the gas which transmits the
electric current. The portion of this current submitted to magnetic action is
condensed towards the walls of the tube in the part nearest, or that most remote
from, the magnetic poles, according to the direction of the current and that of
the magnetization; the striae become much more compressed and more brilliant.
If the portion of the tube placed in the neighborhood of the electro-magnet is
that where the negative electrode happens to be, the obscure space is immedi-
ately seen to become luminous, and to present close and brilliant striz as would
be the case with the constantly luminous portion of the current which seems to
advance. At the same time, the bluish photosphere which surrounds the neg-
ative ball contracts to at least half its size, becoming more brilliant, and the sort
of bluish sheath which surrounded the metallic rod, at the extremity of which
is the negative electrode, completely disappears.. All that bluish atmosphere is
concentrated on the ball. It seems that all the gaseous filaments, which may
be considered as so many conductors of the discharge, instead of radiating from
all points of the negative ball and rod, and being disseminated through the
entire gascous mass as far as the positive electrode, radiate only, when the
magnetic action is exerted on them, from the negative ball, becoming condensed
towards the walls of the tube, on one side or the other, as far as that portion of
their course at which, the action being no longer sensible, they resume their
normal position. ‘his condensation explains why the part of the current which
was obscure because the gas was there too much dilated, becomes luminous, and
why that part which was already luminous becomes more slender and brilliant,
with stratifications more closely compressed. The action of the magnet pro-
duces the same effect which would be produced by a local augmentation of
density in the rarefied gaseous matter. Further, it is not necessary that the
action of the magnet should take place exactly on the obseure part in order to
its becoming luminous; it equally becomes so, even when the magnetism acts

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 185

on another portion of the current, provided it be not too remote from the neg-
ative electrode.

The consequence of the explanation just given, and which it is easy to verify
by experiment, is, that the portion of the gas which transmits the discharge
must, when it is subjected to the action of the magnet, become a more imperfect
conductor, and that consequently the electric current must, on the whole, en-
counter a greater resistance in its passage along the interior of the tube when
one part of the tube is approached by the electro-magnet than it encountered
previously.

Thus the tube of one metre being filled with rarefied hydrogen, and the ap-
paratus of derivation placed in the circuit,* we obtain the following results :

Pressure. Intensity of the derived current.
Without magnetization. Magnetization at the Magnetization at the
; : positive electrode. negative electrode.
EO Tk pcVs ist cr's ay vaveh ats Bebo, Seah ch eparee tune aie SOCK ata De ets 28 20g
Smm. .....-. Syren ORLA elon ates ebctaets SOP Ss teertenve «SYS. 10°

With the tube 50 centimetres in length, filled with nitrogen, we have:

Pressure. Intensity of the derived current.
Without magnetization. Magnetization at the Magnetization at the
positive electrode. negative electrode,
Gil Ts Se et ee EAI risen, SERN sae i. UD ASPAY s DA SOME T Area Unc be of 49°
ee Pa sr. 2 ys Sie Lb aC Bie ert Sole Mt A ee 1
GUT Pad F deb S Goat | «aes 71 oe ee eee a BOS Sh Bae 129

The effects are more marked when the tubes are placed equatorially between
two soft-iron armatures of the electro-magnet, which are immediately in contact
with the walls of the tube, than when they are placed axially on the poles
themselves. We see that there is a much greater increase of resistance when the
magnetism acts on the portion of the current near the negative electrode than
when it acts on the portion near the positive electrode. The reason of this
difference is, that the first portion which, as we have seen in the preceding
paragraph, is endued with a much greater share of conductibility, must natu-
rally experience a more considerable diminution of that property by the con-
densation of the gaseous matter produced by the action of the magnet, than is
experienced by the second portion, where the gas is less rarefied. The direction
of the magnetization has no influence on the results: it has no other effect than
to elevate or depress the current, which, when the magnet does not act, is simply
horizontal.

Among the experiments which I have made regarding the influence exerted
by the exterior action of magnetism on rarefied gases enclosed in tubes, I will
further cite those in which the tube is convoluted into a flat spiral terminated
by two prolongations perpendicular to the plane of the spiral which serve to in-
troduce and rarefy the gas, as well as to give a passage to the discharges; the
tube of the spiral and its prolongations is a little less than one centimetre in
diameter, and its total development nearly eighty centimetres. It is necessary
that the gas should be rarefied at least as much as 2™™ for the discharges to
pass when nitrogen or atmospheric air is employed. With hydrogen, a press-
ure of 5 or 6™™ suffices for their transmission. But whatever the gas or its
degree of rarefaction, it is only after the lapse of some minutes from its being
placed in the circuit that the discharge begins to pass. It is evidently neces-
sary that it should be sometimes charged with static electricity for the resist-
ance to the establishment of the continuous stream to be surmounted. But that

*It should not be forgotten that here the derived current is proportional to the principal
current, so that its intensity may be regarded as being quite approximately the measure of
that of the discharge which traverses the tube.

186 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

Cc

resistance once surmounted, we may interrupt the passage of the discharge with-
out incurring the necessity of waiting more than an instant for the transmission
to recommence, when we close the circuit anew, provided the interruption does
not exceed an hour or two. The luminous current presents, with hydrogen
under a pressure of 5 or 6™™, very neat and distinct striz of a rose color; ata
pressure of 2™™, they become much larger and less distinct ; the color is also
paler. The same occurs with air and with nitrogen, but the effects are more
striking with hydrogen. A remarkable appearance presented by the current in
the interior of the spiral is, that it seems to undergo a very distinct movement
of rotation, in a direction which appears to vary with the direction of the dis-
charge ; but this last result is not very constant, which has led me to think that
the rotation is only apparent, and that it is the effect of the discontinuity of the
discharges which constitute the current, a discontinuity which produces the
illusion of a displacement. This point, however, deserves to be studied anew.

In order to observe the action of magnetism on the spiral current, I place the

spiral of glass between the two poles of the electro-magnet in such a way that -

its plane shall be the same with that of the two polar surfaces, the two prolon-
gations being thus rendered vertical, the one above, the other below, that plane.
The magnetization, according to its direction, either condenses the current
towards the interior walls of the spiral tube, or, on the contrary, repels it towards
the exterior walls, rendering it very diffuse. In the first case, it becomes highly
brilliant, and the stratifications are very distinct; in the second case, they are
but slightly visible, and the current itself is much larger and quite dim. It
appears to undergo, in even a more sensible manner, the movement of rotation,
ot which we have spoken. A quite curious fact is, that in the vertical branch
of the tube which is below the spiral, and consequently between the two
branches of the electro-magnet, the current divides itself, under the influence of
the magnetism, into two streams or filaments, which tend, respectively, to one
and the other side of the tube. Of these two filaments, one is very small, and
of little brilliancy, in comparison with the other. The cause of this separation
consists, very probably, in the fact that the inductive current of the Ruhmkorff
apparatus is really composed, as we have already taken occasion to say, of two
successive and opposite inductive currents, one having much more tension, and
passing almost exclusively through the gas, while the other is transmitted with
much difficulty, but yet passes, in very small proportion, it is true, since the
action of the magnet separates it from the principal current, which is the only
one in general that it is requisite to consider in this kind of phenomena, because
it is by much the strongest.

I have sought to determine in the case of the spiral tube, as I had done with
the large rectilinear tube, the influence of magnetization on the resistance of the
gas to the transmission of the discharge, and I have obtained a rather curious
result. ‘The two points of platina of the apparatus of derivation being at a dis-
tance of ten millimetres from one another in the distilled water, I obtained a
derivative current of 20°, the spiral tube being filled with hydrogen under the
pressure of 2", The spiral was placed vertically between the two horizontal
armatures of the electro-magnet which were exactly in contact with its two
faces. As soon as the magnetization took place, the derivative current was re-
duced to 15°, when the discharge was repelled, and driven towards the exterior
walls of the spiral with an apparent movement of rotation, and it was raised, on
the contrary, to 25°, when the discharge was condensed towards the interior
walls of the spiral. Does this influence of the direction of the current or of the
magnetization depend on the particular form given to the stream, or to the small
diameter of the tube, in comparison with its development in length? It is a
point for future elucidation.

I pass now to the case where the magnetic pole is in the midst of the gas
which transmits the discharge. I have first operated with a spherical globe,

)
’
,
t
|
!
:

;
THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 187

about fifteen centimetres in diameter, furnished with four tubulures situated at
the respective extremities of two diameters of the globe, which intersect one
another at right angles. ‘Two cylindrical rods of soft iron are fixed by means
of two of these tubulures in the interior of the globe, in the direction of
the same diameter, so that their interior extremities may be at a distance of
about eight or ten centimetres from one another, while their exterior extremities
project from the tubulure nearly two centimetres. It is these exterior extremi-
ties which are to be placed in contact with the poles of a strong electro-magnet,
in order that the interior extremities may thus become two magnetic poles.
The two other tubulures serve to introduce into the interior of the globe two
isolated metallic rods, terminated by balls which are at a distance of about ten
centimetres from one another, and which serve as electrodes to the electric
stream whose direction is thus equatorial, that is to say, perpendicular to the
right line which joins the two magnetic poles. As long as the rods of soft iron
are not magnetized, the electric stream remains perfectly rectilinear ; but so soon
as magnetization takes place, the stream, which we will suppose to have a hori-
zontal direction, takes the form of a half circumference of a circle situated either
above or below the line which joins the magnetic poles, according to the direc-
tion of the magnetization or that of the discharge. The form of the luminous
are is that of a half ring much flattened, as well as widened. ‘The striz are
strongly marked in it, more than they were in the rectilinear current, and its
exterior part is much serrated, especially when the gas contains a little vapor
of alcohol or ether. If the electric current, instead of being equatorial, is axial,
that is to say, directed from one of the magnetic poles to the other, these two
poles serving it as electrodes, it experiences no sensible modification under the
influence of magnetization.

If, however, the discharge is made to pass between a ball of brass and one
of iron, placed at the extremity of an iron rod so as to be capable of being mag-
netized, there is observed, at the moment of magnetization, a movement of de-
pression, or of elevation in the luminous atmosphere which surrounds the ball
of iron. This movement pertains evidently to the change of direction under-
gone by the electric filaments which radiate from the ball. But the best mode of
studying the action of magnetism in the cases where the magnetized bar is in the
interior of the gas, is to make use of a bell or cylindrical jar sixteen centimetres
in diameter by twenty centimetres in height, in the axis of which is placed a
rod of soft iron having a diameter of about three centimetres, whose rounded
end is situated at the middle of the axis of the cylinder. This rod is planted
in a circular disc, which serves to close the jar. A metallic ring, about twelve
centimetres in diameter, formed of wire from 3 to 4™™ in diameter, and having
for its centre the top of the iron rod, is situated in a plane perpendicular to the
axis of the jar. This ring communicates, by means of a rod covered with an
isolating coat which is soldered to it, with one of the poles of the Ruhmkorff
apparatus, while the other pole is placed in communication, outside the jar,
with the extremity of the rod of soft iron, which, in the interior of the jar, is
also covered with an isolating coat, except at its summit. It is between this
summit and the ring of which it is the centre that the discharge takes place.
In order to magnetize the rod of soft iron, it now suffices to place it in contact,
by its exterior extremity, with the pole of an electro-magnet, taking care to
place between the two a thin strip of caoutchouc to serve as an isolating layer, so
that the whole apparatus shall be well isolated. The cylindrical jar is also
closed at that one of its two extremities where the rod of soft iron is absent,
and it is there furnished with two cocks, of which one serves to form a vacuum,
and to introduce a gas which is more or less rarefied ; and the other, constructed
in Gay Lussae’s manner, permits the introduction into the ball of a greater or
less quantity of vapor of whatever nature.

188 . PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

I have made many experiments with this jar by filling it successively with
atmospheric air, with nitrogen, and with hydrogen, at different degrees of rare-
faction, these gases being at times perfectly dry ; at others, containing a greater
or less proportion of vapor, either of water or of alcohol. 5 /

Atmospherie air and nitrogen, when both dry, give nearly identical results,
with this difference, that the light is more vivid and clearer with nitrogen. If
the soft iron be taken for the positive electrode, and the ring for the negative
one, the luminous current is seen to form, at a certain degree of rarefaction, a
sort of peach-red envelope around the top of the soft iron, and a sheath of a
pale violet color along an are of a greater or less number of degrees around the
ring. At avery weak pressure this sheath encompasses the whole ring, while
the top of the soft iron is completely enveloped with a rose-colored aureole,
from which issues a very short stream of the same shade, and presenting the
form of a large virgule, or comma. ‘This virgule, when the iron is magnetized,
is distinctly seen to turn in one or the other direction, with the aureole from
which it emanates, according to the direction of the magnetization. The violet-
colored sheath which surrounds the ring is also seen to turn in the same direc-
tion with the rose-colored aureole, although they are separated by a space
completely obseure. By changing the direction of the discharges, there will be
seen at the negative electrode a violet-colored envelope, which only covers the
whole surface of the top of the iron rod when the gas is very much rarefied, and
at the positive electrode, brilliant points, separated from one another by a roseate
glimmer which surrounds the entire ring, and whence emanate regular stratifi-
cations, internally concentric to the ring. When the gas is not greatly rarefied,
there is seen to issue from the ring a luminous jet which tends to the summit
of the central rod of soft iron, being only separated from it by a small, black
space, and which undergoes a movement of rotation in one direction or the
other, like the hand of a watch, according to the direction of the magnetization.
Tn this case there is but a portion of the top of the iron rod which is covered
with the violet envelope, and this luminous segment turns with the brilliant jet.

I have made a great number of experiments, under the conditions just indi-
cated, with atmospheric air, with nitrogen, and with hydrogen, whether dry or
more or less charged with vapors. I shall proceed to give a description of them
in a Summary manner, first remarking, however, that, whatever be the gas and
its degree of elasticity, whether it be dry or impregnated with vapor, the rapidity
of rotation is always much greater when the ring serves as the positive than
when it serves as negative electrode, and that this rotation, which increases in
rapidity in proportion as the tension diminishes, ceases to be appreciable at a
much less tension in the second case than in the first.

In my earlier experiments I had made use of a large globe, twenty-five cen-
timetres in diameter, in which the ring was twenty centimetres in diameter,
and the central iron rod three. This globe was furnished with two tubulures,
one serving to introduce the iron rod,,whose top reached the centre of the
globe, and its lower extremity issuing from the tubulure, so as to be capable of
resting on the polar surface of an electro-magnet. The other tubulure was
closed by a cock, which served to introduce the gas and vapor, and from it there
issued an isolated conductor, which supported the ring and admitted of its being
placed in the circuit. The discharge thus passed between the summit of: the
rod of soft iron and the metallic ring.

This globe was filled with air rarefied to 4™, The discharge took place
under the form of a stream which turned with a rapidity of sixty revolutions
per minute when the ring was positive, and twenty when it was negative. At
a pressure of 6™™ the velocity was only forty revolutions per second in the
former case and twenty in the latter. With vapor of alcohol, at a pressure of
5", the velocity was respectively twenty-two and eleven revolutions per minute.

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 189

After these first experiments, which served as my introduction to this sort of
researches, I resumed the study by availing myself of the jar of twenty by six-
teen centimetres, described above. ‘The following are the results obtained with
dry atmospheric air :

Pressure. Number of revolutions in a minute.
Ring, positive. Ring, negative.

I SO a5) aha; of. ane che fs 2/25) aaa aN OE Pe eis) sis \aseys. ccs Avan eye age 3

IO ee os nays Be SleVewanarerg one SoU Mmm cesta ha. as ok a a 55
EINE oS ojo a iw oo oc ieee eey abies aie S Oe Ss ahsetape ree ale ye a 5 obs 63
REE Goo jhe cis ce d/Slosm ye wis See TS ON RAPP eM el So, bil, Soe 100
oe ier. Mek iio tt 3 ails Lite Me ne] ace 5 Men ae acter eet ciate a. oo ehaS 128
ee II os | cis ateieycra eke oe, nes SP ee Meet ete Aiea eee acts a a3

At 9™™, with the ring serving as a positive electrode, there is no longer a
stream, but a dilatation of the discharge, forming a sector of from 30° to 45°;
and this sector obeys the movement of rotation as the stream before obeyed it.
But it enlarges, in proportion as the pressure diminishes, and at 6™™" forms a
complete circular sheet, and it is then that the rotation, which, up to this point,
had increased in rapidity, becomes no longer sensible. When the ring serves
as a negative electrode it is covered with a violet sheath, whose size likewise
increases in proportion as the pressure diminishes, but which occupies only half
the circumference of the ring under a pressure of 4™™, It is seen to turn very
rapidly, but at a pressure of 2™™ it occupies the whole circumference of the
ring, and there is no longer any sensible rotation. At the summit of the mag-
netized iron rod there is a roseate aureole, from which, as has been said, emanates
at one point a very short jet in shape of a comma, which turns with the violet-
colored sheath, from which it is separated by a very considerable obscure interval.

It should be remarked that, at a pressure of 6, of 4, and sometimes of even
3mm, it most often happens, when the ring serves as positive electrode, that at
the first moment of the circuit being formed there issues a stream which turns
too rapidly to allow its velocity of rotation to be measured, but which quickly
expands so as to form, for so ne instants, a sector which continues to revolve,
and soon after a complete circular sheet, which no longer manifests any movement.

It does not follow that the action of magnetism is annulled when the gas is
too much rarefied for the continuance of a sensible rotation. ‘That action is
manifested under another form, as is shown by experiments made under a
pressure of from 3 to 2™™. Thus, if the ring serves as negative electrode, the
violet sheath which surrounds the soft iron is seen, at the moment when this
last is magnetized, to subside sensibly, and to rise at the instant of its being
demagnetized. If, on the contrary, the ring serves as positive electrode, the
rose-colored sheet which fills the interval between the ring and the summit of
the central rod of iron is raised, as well as the violet sheet which issues from
that summit, at the moment of magnetization, and depressed at the instant of
demagnetization.

The following is a more complete experiment with dry nitrogen, and shows
that rotation begins to manifest itself at stronger pressures when the ring is
positive than when it is negative:

Pressure. Number of rotations in a minute.
Ring, positive. Ring, negative.
PAPER. ah. tas jx af tan af anne A ase cake fate aes tay = Serie ear 9
Bee Ee si). '5).=\ >, 2.013) eee Crilics 4 ia repo ters (Sp etsyer aye sare 3
Pe east onc! as 13) naomi Ae chai fae Seas 0 tape apcccteyt die’ aie 36
Nahe ad ia ta( hn: sink = cae Ole Seta Sen ag syheta) sh hence ays ol
SE at a, 3a) 6 el Re eye ten aia outta ture e fay ai ahi ay 59
Be Nacale hic» 12)3[d1aspap sso oe DELS or ay bi sighspalaiaatorayaya, « ePokapae 70
BEE a a, 854) dhs rss a aval Seana east averaieis ahi odmralane bie pis 115

5mm PN eee hes catiacrasulneeane Man

190 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING

At 4™™ the rotation is too rapid to allow its degree to be observed; at 3mm
it appears completely to cease. The rose-colored aureole is very vivid when
the summit of the rod of soft iron is positive. When there is no longer any
rotation, there is observed, as with atmospheric air, a movement of depression
and of ascension under the influence of magnetization.

The presence of vapor modifies in some important particulars the results
obtained with dry gases. The following is an experiment made with ordinary
air subjected to a pressure of 2™™, into which vapor of water has been intro-
duced in successive quantities, so as to increase that pressure solely by the
effect of the presence of the vapor:

Pressure. Number of rotations in a minute.
Ring, positive. Ring, negative.
PaO te Ors oi Sissi euandus aioe oabgt age aie! seit tetas o aieystej alos ce ie
PP, I. Piva, cpaicigeian= ar aienetohe acute eid Sr yn) = nis eyatepetet aaa
Fe eee = ihapnic aiatas ales ee ai aed ae 92
Rania = das sags- eusyctenaiaiahe mosis TAOS a ie ake ie piaeiaiee eye eevee 70
ee aka aid ee aie aie tein ee UD De eh ate, orca eae a eee a tarates See 52
ees ie is eyagaiteNeteve! = cene is aha ioKe QO be oe sya aucusss ad cya totais caarete 50
A ee cna ct unis A cgasede. SUsteeee SOR es sta cies eee eel oetae ies 48

We see that at an equal pressure the rapidity of rotation is greater with
vapor of water than with dry air, which is attributable probably to the greater
facility with which the electric discharge is transmitted. With the external
air of a mean humidity, we have, with a pressure of 14™™, 72 revolutions
instead of 80 when the ring is positive, and 44 instead of 48 when it is
negative.

But the most characteristic fact produced by the presence of watery vapor
is the division, under the influence of magnetism, of the single current into
several small distinct and equidistant currents, which turn like the radii of a
wheel. ‘This division is only observed when the ring serves as a positive
electrode. At a pressure of 6™™ the single current begins with turning, then
expands, whereupon the rotation is no longer perceptible; but at the pressure
of 8, of 10, and of 12™™ this current, from the commencement of its rotation
under the action of magnetism, divides into five or six small streams which
turn, as was just said, like the radii of a wheel; while, when the air is dry, the
current never divides; but, under a weak pressure, it merely expands into a
sector or a circle of which all the parts are continuous.

When the ring is negative, and there is vapor present, it will be seen that
the current which issues from the summit of the iron rod presents, where it is
in contact with the iron and at the moment when this is magnetized, instead of
a continuous surface, a series of small brilliant points, which seem points of
emanation for as many small currents, too little distant from one another to
become distinet. Here, then, this current, which does not divide into separate
filaments, simply undergoes dilatation or expansion at the point where it is in
contact with the iron.

‘The vapor of alcohol produces similar effects with the vapor of water. The
single current is, in this case, much more brilliant than with dry air or with the
vapor of water; it presents fine stratifications, which give it an appearance not
unlike that of a caterpillar. Magnetization expands and divides it into several
currents, sensibly larger than those observed with the vapor of water. If,
however, the diameter of the ring is too large, greater, for instance, than fifteen
centimetres, the subdivision of the current is not effected without difficulty,
unless the intensity of the discharge and that of the magnetization be very
considerable.

The following is an experiment in which, the rarefied gas being hydrogen,
different portions of alcoholic vapor were successively introduced. The pressure

THE PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY. 191

of the dry and pure gas was in the commencement 5™™; at this pressure, as we
shall forthwith see, the hydrogen transmits the discharge only under the form
of a luminous sheet. The pressure was afterwards augmented solely by means
of the vapor of alcohol, with the following results :

Pressure. Nuniber of revolutions in a minute.
Ring, positive. Ring, negative.

TN Bo Tuminons sheet i... -..-..5 92
Dee i can oe bh ao) Pas, oc Oar oiete te, acs ne age .aiee Soe o2
ee a a faa a toate aE tam OA ae ere acena sss. dace es 48
Ei yc. 2 altos hata ia ks Be re ne ee ais eo et fa 38
{SRC 1 arene pore eaegee A ata eee ea eae ee hhh 32
i ood, al so Stems yo hai SO ey oop ere ere a inle awk, 5 3 20
aE ee ee Ne oes te a Ck Ps RE a a ee a 18
Pte Sls A aaa ra a DN a aa Sameer arc eee a ae) 10
Se eae aN ea a Pea So ese el Ae oe eee crane eet 10

The division into distinct currents, more or less numerous, was manifested
when the ring was the positive electrode.

When pure and dry hydrogen is adopted as the medium in which the dis-
charges take effect, the phenomena of rotation are obtained with great difficulty.
At rather strong pressures, such as that of 128™™, we have a number of currents,
but these currents are too intermittent to allow of the magnet’s acting upon them.
At 90" I have obtained a small stream under the form of a bluish-white
filament, which, the ring being positive, turned at the rate of thirty-five times
per minute; but, at the lapse of some instants, it became subdivided into a
multitude of small, irregular streams, and rotation was no longer perceptible. As
far as 40™™, the action of the magnet was indistinct. At 30™™, the negative
ring was covered with small violet sheaths, at equal intervals, which seemed to
experience, at the moment it was magnetized, a tendency to move in one direc-
tion or the other, according to the direction of the magnetization. The same
was the case with the small brilliant points, likewise distributed at minute in-
tervals, with which the ring, when positive, is covered. At 5™™, and still more
at three and at two, the ring is entirely covered, when it is negative, with a fine
violet-colored sheath, which becomes contracted under the influence of the mag-
net. ‘The top of the iron rod, which is then positive, is surrounded by a beau-
tiful white aureole, slightly tinged with rose, three centimetres in breadth, and
stratified in a very marked degree. Magnetization sensibly contracts this au-
reole, and compresses its strize without diminishing their number, clevating it,
and, at the same time, giving it the form of a pear resting with its base on the
magnetic pole. When this pole is the negative electrode, there issues from it,
as we have seen, a brilliant tuft of a violet color, which conforms itself to the
action of the magnet. ‘

All the phenomena just described show, in a striking manner, the molecular
differences which various elastic fluids present, as regards one another, even at
an advanced degree of rarefaction. Thus.in hydrogen, although that gas is a
very good conductor of electricity, electric currents can, with difficulty, and,
indeed, scarcely at all, obey the action of the magnet, probably by reason of the
slight density of the gas. In air, and in nitrogen, it is quite otherwise, and still
more when these gases are humid. ‘The singular property possessed by the
electric current of dividing itself into several small and distinct streams, instead
of diffusing itself, under the influence of magnetization, when the medium which
transmits it contains a more or less quantity of vapor, would seem to indicate
in the vapor a greater cohesion than in the gases properly so called, if, indeed,
we may employ the term cohesion when the question relates to elastic fluids so
much rarefied. It might also be possible that this division into streamlets is

*

192 PHENOMENA ACCOMPANYING PROPAGATION OF ELECTRICITY.

the result of an optical illusion, due to a very rapid succession of jets emanating
from different points, and which, in reality, are not simultaneous. This is a
point for examination.

However this may be, it is evident that the study of the stratification of elec-
tric light, and of the action of the magnet on the discharges in different gaseous
mediums, discloses differences between those mediums which can only result
from their difference of molecular constitution. Density, in particular, would
appear to have a great influence on this order of phenomena, since we see hy-
drogen manifest them in so feeble a degree, while the vapors of water, and
especially of aleohol and ether, present them in so decided a manner. The
proper nature of elastic fluids, opposing more or less resistance to the transmis-
sion of electricity, must, doubtless, also play its part. It might not be impos-
sible then, that, in a more detailed and more exhaustive study of the phenomena
with which our attention has been occupied, and more particularly of those re-
lating to the action of the magnet on electric currents propagated in much rare-
fied elastic fluids, we may be able to find the means of acquiring some new ideas
on tke physical constitution of bodies, and on the manner in which the propa-
gation of electricity is therein effected.

REPORT ON THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HESTORY OF GENEVA,

FROM JULY, 1862, TO JUNE, 1863.

BY PROFESSOR MARCET, PRESIDENT.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

«

In proceeding, as has been the custom of my predecessors, to present an
account of the labors of the society during the year just elapsed, it is but
proper that I should acknowledge how greatly my task has been facilitated by
the scrupulous exactness with which the reports of our several meetings have
been drawn up by our secretary, M. Ed. Claparéde. Among the topies claiming
my attention, many have been already communicated to the public, or are*about
to be so, through the medium of scientific journals ; as regards these, therefore,
I shall restrict myself to an indication of the titles, or a very summary analysis
of the conclusions arrived at.. In the arrangement of subjects I cannot do better
than adopt the division into two sections, that of the physical and that of the

natural sciences, first proposed by M. de la Rive, and since observed by the
greatcr part of the presidents who have succeeded him. I shall follow, more-
over, the example of my immediate predecessor in touching very lightly on the
discussions which have taken place cither on the occasion of original memoirs
read before the society or of verbal.reports on recent discoveries made in other
countries; not that these discussions have not often possessed a genuine interest,
but because it is essential, if this valuab'e observance is to be retained by us,
that the appreciation of the labors of others, the verbal communications in
which one is sometimes led to enunciate ideas arising at the moment and perhaps
not always sufficiently considered, should receive no greater publicity than that
which results from the reading of the journal of our sittings.

PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

Our indefatigable colleague, Professor Gautier, has continued to keep the
“society well informed of the discoveries made in astronomy. His communica-
tions have been numerous and diversified; we must here limit ourselves to the
mention of the most important. M. Gautier presented to the society, in the first
place, a report on the observations of M. d’Arrest, of Copenhagen, relative to
the number and to the variability in brightness of the nebula, as well as to
certain points, still doubtful, which would tend to indicate a proper movement
in some of those bodies; secondly, an account of a memoir of M. Lamon on the
periods of the variations of magnetie declination, and the analysis of researches
by M. Maine on the flattening of Mars, which he estimates at j4; thirdly, a
report on some recent observations of M. Donati on the comets, and on a memoir
of the same author relative to stellar spectra: M. Gautier announced on this
13s

194 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

oceasion that Father Secchi also was occupied in the study of stellar spectra
compared with the solar spectrum ; fourthly, M. Gautier presented lastly to the
society a plate of I’ather Secchi, representing the different appearances of the
nucleus of the comet of 1862, differences which, as M. Wartmann, sr., has
pointed out, might result, at least in part, from the circumstance that the
observations took place at different hours.

Professor Plantamour announces that he has collated the series of observa-
tions made for twenty years on the latitude of the observatory of Geneva.
That latitude would be 46° 11/ 58.75, with a mean error of some hundredths
of a second. : ‘

Meteorology and terrestrial physics establishing a natural bond between
astronomy and physies properly so called, we shall first direct our attention to
several communications which we owe to Professor Plantamour. Besides the
annual meteorological summary for Geneva and Saint-Bernard, published, as
usual, in the archives of the physical and natural sciences of the “ Bibliotheque
Universelle,” M. Plantamour has communicated to the society an interesting
memoir relative to observations made at Geneva, for thirty-five years, on the
force and direction of the winds. He has found that in winter the number of
northeast and that of southwest winds balance each other; the northeast pre-

dominates in spring and in autumn, the southwest in summer. ‘The general ~
resultant is a little west of north, which proceeds from the fact that the mean |

direction of northeast winds more nearly approximates to north than does the
mean direction of southwest winds to south. ‘The above results are somewhat
modified if the origin of the winds be taken into account and if local are dis-
tinguished from general winds. 'The former depend chiefly on the vicinity of
the lake and the variation of temperature in the twenty-four hours, giving rise

to a regular breeze morning and evening, analogous to breezes of the land and

sea. ‘lhe memoir of M. Plantamour has been lately published in his extensive —

work on the climate of Geneva. (See page 14, et sequent.)

The same savant read to the socicty a memoir on the diurnal variations: of
the atmospheric pressure, a memoir likewise published in the work just men-
tioned. After having passed in review and combated as insufficient the theories
proposed by MM. Krail and Dové, M. Plantamour coneludes in favor of that
proposed by M. Lamon, according to which the phenomenon of the diurnal
variation would depend on two distinct influences, one resulting from the tem-
perature properly so called, the other from a kind of electric attraction, whose
nature is as yet completely unknown, but owing probably to the action of the
sun. M. Plantamour founds his preference for this theory over the preceding
on the consideration that it furnishes the means of explaining the double diurnal
oscillation which is observed in the barometer, while the influence of the tem-
perature, it would appear, ought to produce but a single one. The author
presents, in support of his opinion, a comparative table of the:diurnal variation
of the temperature and of the barometer for Geneva and Saint-Bernard.

To complete our analysis of what relates to terrestrial physics and meteor-
ology, I have still to notice two communications, one from Professor de la Rive,
relative to an aurora borealis observed in the month of December, in which the
rotation of the arch from east to west was perfectly evident, and another from
M. Louis Soret, who has presented to the Society an apparatus constructed
according to his directions in the workshop of M. Schwerdt, an apparatus de-
signed for the measurement of heights by a determination of the temperature of
the ebullition of water. In the construction of this instrument, the chief object

of M. Soret has been to attain a perfect precision in thermometrical indications, —

a condition which has heretofore been wanting. He has sueceeded, on the one
hand, by surrounding the ball of the thermometer with two envelopes of vapor
instead of one, in abating the variations of temperature proceeding from with-
out; and, on the other hand, he prevents the effect of an ebullition often too

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 195

much precipitated, by immersing the bottom of the lamp of alcohol, by the flame
of which the water is to be made to boil, in a bath of cold water. The sole, yet
somewhat grave objection which has been advanced against this apparatus, is,
that in astill greater degree perhaps than the barometer, it requires to be observed
with scrupulous care, and demands precautions which can searcely be ex-
pected on the part of observers who are not physicists.

If we pass now to physics properly socalled, we shall see that, as in the
past, it is electricity which has played the principal part in the communications
made to the Society during the year under review. Our colleague, M. de la
Rive, has communicated to us, at two consecutive meetings, the results of his
researches on the phenomena which characterize and accompany the propagation
of electricity in highly rarefied elastic fluids. In the classification of his ap-
paratus, M. de la Rive insists more particularly on the means which he has em-
ployed to measure the intensity of the discharges or transmitted currents, by
availing himself of a derived current taken by means of two small sounds of
platina, in the distilled water placed in the circuit of the principal current.
He also describes a manometer which enables him to appreciate to nearly the
fiftieth part of a millimetre, and, for practiced eyes, even to the hundredth part,
the tension of the elastic fluid submitted to experiment. 'The researches of
M. de la Rive have been directed to atmospheric air, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
He has studied, in the case of each of these gases, the influence of the dimen-
sions and form of the gaseous mass, as well as of the pressure, on its capacity
for transmitting electricity. He has described the successive appearances
which the electric light assumes, in proportion as the pressure of the gas dimin-
-ishes, and particularly the variable form and size of the stratifications of that
light, together with the formation of a violet-colored photosphere around the ball
serving as a negative electrode, and of a black space, from five to ten centi-
metres in length, which separates that photosphere from the stratified luminous
column. He has satisfied himself, in the course of a great number of ex-
periments, that these appearances of electric light in rarefied gases are
due to a mechanical effect produced by the transmission of electricity, an idea
which had already been advanced by M. Riess. M. de la Rive has suc-
ceeded in showing, by direct experiments, that the mechanical effect in ques-
tion consists in a considerable dilatation of the gaseous matter near the negative
electrode, followed by alternate contractions and dilatations in the column up to
the positive electrode. First. He was easily able to verify, by means of the
manometer, the existence of the oscillatory movement in the gaseous column,
and the variations in its intensity, which depends, as he has shown, on the
nature, degree of tension, and dimensions of the gaseous mass in question.
Secondly. Hehas demonstrated experimentally thatif, by means of small sounds
of platina suitably arranged, derived currents are taken in different parts of the
luminous column, all traversed by the same discharge, great differences will be
found in the intensity of these currents, differences which prove that the ob-
scure parts possess a greater conducting capacity, and are consequently the most
dilated. With hydrogen, the best conductor of the gases, no derived current
is obtained in the obscure part of the column. Thirdly. M. de la Rive points
out that the indications of the thermometer placed in different parts of the
stratified column conduct us to the same results, by evincing great differences
between the temperatures of those different parts ; the more obscure parts being
sensibly less warm than the luminous, which proves that the former are better
conductors. The author has obtained a great number of numerical results, in-
dicating the differences of temperature, at different pressures of various portions
of the gaseous column traversed by the discharges.

M. de la Rive completed his communication at a subsequent session, by ex-
plaining to the Society the modifications produced in the phenomena relative to
the propagation of electricity, through highly rarefied mediums, by the action of

196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

a strong magnetic power. This action tends to augment the resistance of the
gascous substance (o the transmission of electricity, by condensing the gaseous
filaments, and has in particular the effect of rendering luminous the obscure
part of the column, by contracting the previously too much dilated gas which
oceurs there. Lastly, the attention of M. de la Rive was especially drawn to
the rotatory and expansive action of magnetism on the electric discharge. THe
has succeeded in obtaining, in regard to this point, certain very constant facts,
such as those relative to the duration of the rotatory movement of the discharge,
which varies with the direction of the current, the nature of the gas, and its
degree of density. He has also remarked the very great difference which the
phenomenon presents, according as the rarefied gas is dry or contains vapor
of water or of alcohol. In the first ease, the luminous discharge expands under
the influence of magnetism into a sheet which forms the surface of a sector, or
even that of a full circle when the gas is very much rarefied. In the case in
which vapor is present in the rarefied gas, the discharge, instead of expanding,
divides into a greater or less number of small partial jets at equal interspaces,
forming, as it were, a star animated by a movement of rotation around its centre.
These phenomena, and others of the same kind, have led M. de la Rive to
establish a difference between permanent gases and vapors, in reference to the
point of cohesion, or rather their molecular constitution. The author termi-
nated the reading of his memoir with some general considerations on this exten-
‘sive subject; announcing that, for the present, conclusions too absolute would
be premature, and that he abstains from presenting them until he shall have
completed his researches by extending them to a greater number of gaseous
substances. :

If we have enlarged a little more than is usual in an analysis of the memoir
of M. de la Rive, we find a justification, not only in the importance of the sub-
ject, but in the circumstance that the results which he obtained have been here-
tofore published only in fragments. ‘The entire memoir is about to appear in
the seventeenth volume of the Memoirs of the Society, now in the press.*

It should be added, that we owe to M. de la Rive the model of a new system
of Grove’s apparatus. ‘lhe modification which he has introduced into the bat-
tery of that physicist is essentially calculated to render its management more
commodious and prompt. Lis instrument, which is extremely manageable, and
is furnished with conductors of alumina, possesses the advantage of requiring
little manipulation, and of rendering superfluous the removal of the nitric
acid; the same acid suffices for the service of several days.and many experi-
ments. With the help of a single pair of this battery, M. de la Rive has been
able to repeat all the principal experiments of the clectro-dynamics of Ampére—
experiments which usually require five or six pairs of Grove or of Bunsen.

Besides some verbal communications by Professor Wartmann relative to
electrical phenomena, particularly to the limit of pressure which permits a
spark to pass through a gascous medium, as well as to the influence which the
state of tension of a gascous medium exercises on the passage of a current, the
savant just named cugaged the attention of the society by an account of some
of the principal subjects diseussed in the last reunion of the British Association
at Cambridge, at which he was present. Among the communications made on
that occasion, M. Wartmann cites more particularly the observations of M.
Nasmith relative to the structure of the sun. ‘lo avoid the inconvenience of a
too great light, M. Nasmith, instead of introducing the solar rays dircetly into
the eye,*places near the object glass a lens which is plane on the side next the
eye, but concave on the opposite side, so as to disperse the luminous rays and
allow the study of only the quantity of light reflected by the plane surface.
Lhe author has thus been able to ascertain that towards the hour of noonday

A full translation of this interesting memoir is given in this report.—See page

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 197

the luminous envelope of the sun presents a great number of spindle-shaped
images, which might be compared to willow leaves strewn confusedly over its
surface. Of these M. Wartmann has presented to the Society a photograph
taken from the original designs of M. Nasmith. These images seem to be dis-
placed one by another, sometimes parallel to their axis, sometimes by an angu-
lar movement. The preceeding observations have been confirmed by M. Prit-
chard, who announces that they may be repeated with a good telescope of from
three to four inches. M. Wartmann also gave an account of experiments in
telegraphic electricity by M. Wheatstone, which he witnessed, and by which
it is practicable to obtain despatches written with extraordinary rapidity.

The same physicist communicated to the Society a note relative to an clee-
trical phenomenon observed by M. Alizier, teacher at Geneva, July 24, 1856,
on the summit of the Oldenhorn. Of a sudden the staves borne by M. Alizier
and the persons who accompanied him began to sound in the manner of the
posts of the telegraph. In a few moments a heavy storm of hail descended.

Professor de la Rive, on his return, in May, 1863, from a sojourn in Paris,
reported to the Society several new scientific facts which he had gathered. He
drew attention, in particular, to an investigation of M. Helmholtz, by which that
savant had arrived, simultaneously with M. W. Thompson, at the conclusion
that the earth cannot be liquid in its interior. He also thinks himself entitled
to affirm that it is not necessary to recur to the hypothesis of aerolites falling
continually into the sun, in order to explain the persistence of the high tem-
perature of that body. It suffices to admit that the sun, having become heated
by an undetermined cause, is now growing cold with extreme slowness; for,
according to M. I[elmholtz, the calculations heretofore made greatly exag-
gerated the rapidity of refrigeration in regard to that body, because they
neglected to take account of an important element, namely, that the sun
diminishes in volume as it grows cooler, and that this contraction must de-
velop new heat.

M. de la Rive presented to the Socicty, in the name of his son, M. Lucien de
la Rive, a memoir on the number of independent equations in the solution of a
system of linear currents. his memoir, being wholly mathematical, is not
adapted to analysis.

Professor Marcet has continued to impart to the Society many facts relative
to nocturnal radiation; among others, to an altogether abnormal refrigeration
of the surface of the ground, and of the stratum of air in immediate contact
with it, which he has remarked during the first days of March in localities
turned towards the north, not only at the hour of sunset, but even during the
warmest hours of the day. The author attributes this extraordinary cooling
of the surface to the concurrence of several atmospheric circumstances, but
more especially to the extreme dryness which had prevailed for some time, and
which, as Tyndall has proved, peculiarly facilitates the radiation of terrestrial
heat.*

M. Mareet has taken advantage of the residence of his son in Australia, to
induce him to repeat at Queensland, under the 22d degree of south latitude,
the experiments on nocturnal radiation, which have been recently made in our
temperate climates. It would seem to result from these experiments that the
phenomenon of the inerease of temperature at certain periods of the day, when
we ascend some fect above the surface of the earth—a phenomenon so well
authenticated in our temperate climates—is not remarked in the regions of the
torrid zone either at the rising or setting of the san; or if it takes place, it is
in a degree seareely sensible, hardly ever execeding 0°.4 Cent. M. Lucien de
la Rive has recently made some observations in Egypt, on the banks of the
Nile, which would appear to lead to an analogous result. M. Marcet explains

* See Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, April, 1863,

198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

this apparent anomaly by attributing it to several causes, but more particu-
larly to the great quantity of water, under the form of elastic vapor, held by
the atmosphere in tropical regions, especially in countries but little remote
from the sea—vapor which, it is known, possesses the property of intercepting
in a high degree the dark heat emitted by the ground, and which would
thus contribute to render so much less apparent the effects produced by the
nocturnal radiation.

Communications on chemistry proper have this year been less numerous
than usual. We have scarcely anything to cite but some remarkable researches
of Professor Marignac on the tungstates, the fluo-tungstates, and the fluo-
borates. The subject, although of great importance, and treated in a masterly
manner, is too special to allow of my presenting here even a summary analysis.
We may, besides, direct the reader for a detailed extract of the memoir to the
comptes rendus of the Academy of Sciences, in anticipation of its appearance
in extenso in early numbers of the Annales de Chimie et de Physique.

Dr. W. Marcet has drawn the attention of the Society to investigations made
by him on the digestion of fats, particularly on the mode in which the emulsion
of those substances is effected by means of the bile, and prebably also of the
phosphates, which occur abundantly in animal food. 'The same chemist also
communicates experiments, which he has recently undertaken, on the compo-
sition of the gastric juice, and on the changes which it undergoes as to the
degree of acidity during the act of digestion.

NATURAL SCIENCES.

The natural sciences, and more especially geology and paleontology, have
this year had a large share in the labors of the Society. We should mention,
in the first place, several important communications of Professor A. Favre;
and, first, his geological chart of portions of Savoy, Piedmont, and Switzerland,
in the neighborhood of Mont-Blane—a chart drawn on a scale of zzg5g9> and
which is the result of persevering and conscientious labors pursued since 1840.
M. Favre has also presented us with the geological chart of the Jura mountains
pertainmg to Basle—the first published at the expense of the confederation,
under the care and direction of M. Miiller. It is designed on a seale of s54355-
There is reason to fear, however, that the enterprise cannot be continued in
such wide proportions, and that it will be necessary to return to the scale of
yooo00: Lhe chart is accompanied by a publication in two series—one for the
Jura, the other for the Alps.

M. Favre also read to the Society a memoir containing a detailed description
of the mountain of the Voirons, of which he has determined the succession of
the different strata. This memoir will soon appear in the text which will ac-
company the chart of Savoy.

The same geologist read to the Society a critical analysis of MM. Koechlin-
Schlumberger and Schimper on the transition deposit of the Vosges—a deposit
referred at present to the old carboniferous series. He also presented, in the
name of M. Studer, a geological memoir on the Balligstock and the Béatenberg,
situated on the borders of the Lake of Thounc—a memoir which has been pub-
lished in the Archives of the Physical and Natural Sciences.

Professor Pictet read to thé Society a note containing critical observations on
the subject of a new stratum, which M. Coquand proposes to introduce into the
series of cretaceous formations—a stratum already known under the name of
“alpine neocomian,”’ and to which he proposes to give that of “ barémian,”
considering it as the equivalent of the yellow stone of Neuchatel. M. Pictet,
without disputing the propriety of a new name, does not admit, between the

a and the yellow stone of Neuchatel, so precise and restricted a paral-
elism.

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 199

The same savant called the attention of the Society to an alleged reptile with
feathers, found in the jurassic of Solenhofer, and described by M. Wagner
as possessing at once the tail of a reptile and the feathers and feet of a bird.
This fossil has been acquired for the British Museum by M. Owen, who will
soon publish a detailed description of it. .

The Society has continued to keep itself informed of the facts relative to the
«fossil man.” Its interest has been particularly excited by the discovery of
the human jaw-bone of Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville. M. Pictet, who took
occasion very recently to study, at Paris, this bone, and the hatchets which ac-
companied it, has set forth to the Society the reasons which seemed to him to
render the authenticity of those objects incontestable, notwithstanding the doubts
at first expressed on this subject by eminent paleontologists. More recently we
have learned with much interest that a sort of scientifie congress had been con-
voked at Paris, and the authenticity admitted with unanimity. It remains to
solve the question of antiquity—that is to say, to decide what place the deposit
of Moulin-Quignon should occupy in the series of quaternary and modern
formations. .

«M. Renevier has communicated to us a photographic view of the Diablerets,
geologically colored, and has, at the same time, given to the Society an account
of some recent geological excursions in the vaudese Alps. He has been enabled
to complete the series of jurassic formations in this district by the discovery, in
the Diablerets, of a stratum of bajocian, (inferior oolite,) and of a stratum of
bathonian, (greater oolite,) the first being characterized by a gigantic fucoid.
Finally, M. Renevier announces grains of “chara”? in the nummulitic of the
Diablerets.

We arrive now at organic natural history, and it remains to speak of botany
and zoilogy.

Botany.—Professor De Candolle has presented to the Society several in-
teresting communications relative to vegetable physiology and to botany proper;
particularly a paper on a new character observed in the fruit of oaks, and on
the best division to adopt for the genus “ Quercus ;”’ a memoir entitled Studies
on species, occasioned by a revision of the family of Cupulifere, in which the
author discusses the system of Darwin, and the theory, applied to the vegetable
kingdom, of a succession of forms proceeding from the deviations of an anterior
form. Both these memoirs having been published in the archives of the physical
and natural sciences of the Bibliotheque Universelle we shall here content
ourselves with indicating them to savants who are interested in questions of
this kind.

Besides the original memoirs just cited, M. de Candolle brought to the notice
of the Society some interesting results of observations made by M. Schubler
“on plants cultivated in Norway.’ The author has shown us in what degree
the deficiency of heat, in northern regions, appears to be compensated by the
prolonged action of the light due to the length of the days; to such an extent
that, in proportion as we advance towards the north, the coloration and sapidity
of plants seem to increase rather than diminish in intensity.

M. de Candolle has also drawn attention to two memoirs of Dr. Hooker. The
first relates to a plant discovered on the African continent, opposite Fernando-Po,
to which he has given the name of Welwitschia. This plant, whose trunk is a
cone of little height, surmounted by a torous (dosselé ) table attaining a diameter
of six feet, presents the singular character of having but two leaves, which are
indeciduous cotyledons. It is the only vegetable known whose cotyledons are
not caducous. The second memoir of M. Hooker relates to the celebrated
group of cedars of Lebanon, which is found to be established on the moraine
of an ancient glacier, and which this botanist visited in 1860. M. Hooker is
inclined to think that, in the present circumstances of climate, this tree could,
with difficulty, establish itself on the mountain where it is found, and pronounces

200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

the opinion that the old cedars which now exist there are but the remains of —
an ancient forest, dating from an epoch more favorable to the development of
the species. It is certain, in the mean time, that the cedar of Lebanon, that of
the Himalaya, and that of the Atlas present varieties which it is difficult to
distinguish from one another, Hence M. Ilooker is disposed to admit that
they all descend from one primitive form, which has spread itself over a vast
region when the climate was more temperate than it is at present.

To Rev. M. Duby we are indebted for a note relative to observations made
at Bombay, on a champignon or fungus which attacks the feet of the natives,
and produces a malady known in the country under the name of * podeleoma
mycetoma.”’ The bones of the foot and lower leg are gradually perforated
through and through, and the champignon, which bears spores very similar to
those of the oidium, lodges in the cavities thus formed, under the shape of a —
spongy mass. M. Duby has also occupied our attention with the very ingenious
observations of M. Darwin on “the mode of fecundation of the red flax.” The
same botanist’also announces that he has observed in the Cadlistachys linearis
a very remarkable movement of the inferior leaves which, at the decline of day
embrace the stem, while the superior leaves embrace the ear.

Zoblogy and Physiology.—Dr. Dor called the attention of the Society to a
new theory of Daltonism, or rather to an old theory of Young, to which there
seems to be a tendency to recur at the present time. Agreeably to this theory 7
there exist in the retina three descriptions of nervous fibres; the first sensitive —
to red, the second to green, the third to violet. Daltonists, then, would be
those ii whom one of these orders of, fibres: is completely paralyzed. M. Dor
has also proposed a new scale of characters for measuring the distinctness of
vision.

M. Victor Fatio presented to the Society a specimen of a lizard of the Alps
ealled “ Lacerta nigra,’ regarded by some authors as constituting a particular
species. M. Fatio is rather disposed to consider it as being but a simple variety
of the “ Lacerta vivipara,’”’ and he adduecs the reasons which lead him to hold
this opinion.

The same physiologist read to the Society a note on the habits of the “ pléo-
bate cultripede,” of the coasts of Brittany. Te has ascertained that this batra-
chian is a nocturnal animal, which buries itself during the day in the sand, and
remains there till night in a state of complete immobility. M. Fatio has also
communicated to us a plan of geographical distribution, designed to form the
basis of an extensive work, which he has undertaken with the view of making
a complete catalogue of the vertebrata of Switzerland.

To complete what we have to say on organic natural history, we should
mention an interesting notice by M. Muller, relative to the recent modifications
which the theory of cellular organization has undergone through the influence
of the labors of MM. Briicke and Max. Schultze; and a communication of M.
Claparede, in which that physiologist renders an account of some epidemie
Instances of “trichinus spiralis” lately authenticated in Germany, and more
especially in Saxony. It is now known that the larva of this parasite continues
to live in the flesh of the hog when iusufiiciently smoked. Now, a single pair
of these animalcules, arriving at maturity in the human intestine, suffice to
infect with larvae all the muscles of the body, and to occasion the gravest con-
Bequences, sometimes even death. The danger of such an infection is now so
fully realized that the inhabitants of Planen, in Saxony, have established at

_ their slaughter-house an official, provided with a microscope, and have prohibited
the sale of hogs whose flesh has uot been previously examined with the help of
that instrument.*
eae 2s ON NERC eet EN!

* Por an appendix to this part of the report see the end of this article.

|

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 201

Dr. Gosse has communicated to the Society a note of M. Campbell relative
to the frequency of goitre, in the districts near the foot of the Himalaya—a
malady with which also goats and sheep are frequently infected when they de-
seend from the mountain Lastly, Dr. Lombard has read to us a detailed
extract of observations publishe1 by M. Jordannet, a French physician, on the
climate of Mexico, considered in a medical point of vie

Having thus presented a cursory review of our proceedings during the past
year, my task unfortunately is still incomplete ; for, notwithstanding the re-
stricted number of our members, scarcely a year passes in which your presiding
officer, in his annual report, is not called on to deplore the loss of one or more
of them. This year has removed two from among us: one of them, M. Le
Royer, a retired member, of advanced age; the other, M. Etienne Melly, a
member in ordinary, whose years authorized us to hope that we might long re-
tain him. I must not close this report without briefly recalling the titles they
possessed to the esteem of the learned world and the affection of their colleagues.

Etienne Melly, born at Geneva, in 1807, early evinced a decided taste for the
physical sciences. After successfully pursuing the course of our Academy, he
went to Paris to complete his scientific studies, and on his return to his country
was attached to the Industrial school of this city as a teacher of physics and
chemistry, the study of which he may be said to have created in the establish-
ment in question, and from the superintendence of which he never desisted
until the infirm state of his health made it impossible for him to give to his
duties the care and attention which his scrupulous conscience exacted. While
thus employed he prosecuted divers physico-chemical researches of great interest,
only a part of which, owing to his characteristic diffidence, have been commu-
nicated to the public. His two principal publications appeared, the first, in
1839, in the Bibliotheque Universelle, the second, in 1841, in the first volume
of the Archives de V Electricité. ‘The former treats of certain felicitous attempts
which he had made to apply platina to other metals by means of pressure so as
to obtain.a very solid plate, and be thus: able to substitute, in certain chemical
processes, for utensils of platina, utensils of platinized copper. This mode of
platinizing offers greater assurance than that by electricity ; in that it better
resists the action of chemical agents.

The second publication of M. Melly, and that of most importance, embraces
two distinct parts: the first, relating to a more economical construction of the
battery of!'Grove, then just invented, and to the study of the chemical effects of
electricity by means of that apparatus. ‘The second part has for its object the
study of the chemical effects of the electric spark, whether produced by Grove’s
battery or by currents of induction. M Melly sets forth in his memoir the
numerous experiments by which he had succeeded in decomposing, by means
of that spark, not only distilled water, but the most isolating substances, such .
as oils, ethers, alcohol, &e. He establishes, by a well-sustained analysis of the
results he had obtained, the difference which exists between this mode of de-
composition and electro-chemical decomposition properly so called, and he shows
that it is an effect, not of electricity itself, but of the intense heat developed by
the electric spark. ;

We know that this decomposing power of heat, carried to a high degree, has
been since demonstrated in a direct manner upon water, without the interven-

tion of electricity, by M. Grove, and has been exfended upon a wide seale to a

multitude of substances by M. Deville, who has called it, “the dissociation of

bodies by heat.’ Still, there will remain to M. Melly the honor of having first,

by his ingenious experiments, called the attention of the learned world to this
important subject. Independently of what he has made known by his publi-

202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF

cations, Melly, who knew no remission of labor, often obtained interesting
results which he kept to himself, or communicated but to a few of his friends.
The distressing state of his health having compelled him, many years since, to
abandon his laboratory, he did not give way to discouragement, but continued
to devote himself with the same ardor to the microscopic investigations which
constituted the scientific interest of his latter days. Of these he has left but
few written notices; their results are contained in his collections, especially in
that of the Diatomez, of which he has left more than fifty boxes, containing as
well the Diatomeee of the environs of Geneva, as those of foreign lands and those
of types determined by known authors. As to the microscopes of which he
availed himself, it may be affirmed that never have the Alge of our country:
been studied with the help of instruments so perfect. Melly, besides, brought
an extreme carefulness to the preparation of microscopic objects; we may judge
of it by the following fact reported by Professor Thury in the interesting notice
which he read of his friend: The collection of Diatomee was twice resumed |
entirely anew by Melly, because the distilled water and alcohol which he had
employed were found to be not absolutely pure.

Of a conversation as frank as amiable, Melly had, moreover, that devotedness
for others, whose character is the most complete self-abnegation. Happy in the
success and welfare of his friends, every feeling of envy and jealousy was so
alien from his nature, that he would not even admit the existence of these evil
sentiments in another. Having suffered in his dearest affections by the loss of
a beloved consort, he remained thenceforward completely isolated. But this
isolation, far from rendering him egoistic, had still more enlarged his heart.
His gratitude, for the cares and attentions of which he was the object on the
part of his friends was as touching as amiable. The religious sentiments which
sustained him in the midst of trials so various and afflicting were always
united in him with a perfect tolerance in regard to those who did not share his
opinions. It was the fruit of an elevated and disinterested nature, such as is
rarely witnessed. He sank, February 4, 1863, after long and acute sufferings.

Auguste Le Royer sprung from an honorable family, and whose ancestors
had been pharmaceutists from father to son ; was born at Geneva, in 1793. After
pursuing his earlier studies in his native city, he went in 1811 to Strasburg,
where he passed eighteen months of preparafion in studying pharmacy, his
future vocation. In 1813 he returned to Geneva, took an active part in the
political events of the time, and in 1817 was admitted a pharmaceutist after an
honorable examination. 'Thenceforward Le Royer zealously occupied himself
in scientific labors related to his profession. It was in 1818 that the illustrious
Dumas, then ten years of age, entered himself as a clerk with Le Royer, and
subsequently became his principal assistant. Besides these friendly connexions
with Dumas, Le Royer contracted others with Dr. Prevost, taking part in many
of the physiological researches of the latter in their chemical bearing. In 1821
he was adopted as a member of this Society and of the Helvetic Society of
natural sciences. 'The departure of M. Dumas for Paris, in 1823, compelled
Le Royer to occupy himself almost exclusively with pharmacy, and I know not
that he has published anything since 1824. Nevertheless, he preserved a taste
for study, and always encouraged the scientific labors of those who approached
him. Like Etienne Melly, with whom he had more than one trait of conformity,
an extreme modesty pushed almost to timidity, joined to delicate health, pre-
vented Le Royer from making that mark in science to which he might have
pretended: 'The following is a list of the articles which he published jointly
with Dr. Prevost :

1. Note on the free acid contained in the stomach of the herbivoré, (Memoirs
of the Society of Physics and Natural History, vol. IIT, 2d part.)

2. A memoir on digestion in the ruminants, (Bibliotheque Universelle for
1824, vol. XX VIL.)

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. OF GENEVA. 203

3. Observations on the contents of the digestive canal in the foetus of the
vertebrates, ( Bibliotheque Universelle, vol. X XIX.)

Lastly, he published alone in the Bibliotheque Universelle, vol. XXVI, a
memoir on the active principle contained in the “ purple digitalis.”

Having become a valetudinarian in 1850, in consequence of rheumatic affee-
tions, Le Royer was struck, in 1860, with cerebral apoplexy, which kept him
riveted to his chair till the moment of his death, a few weeks since, without any
notable abatement of his intellectual faculties.

APPENDIX ON THE TRICHINIASIS.

We annex the following additional information in respect to Trichiniasis,
mentioned in the preceding article:

A few months ago there was a festive celebration in Hettstadt, a small coun-
try town near the Hartz Mountains, in Germany. Upwards of a hundred per-
sons set down to an excellent dinner, and having enjoyed themselves more
majorum, separated, and went to their homes.

Of these one hundred and three persons, mostly men in the prime of life,
eighty-three are now in their graves ; the majority of the twenty survivors lin-
ger with a fearful malady; and a few only walk apparently unscathed among
the living, but in hourly fear of an outbreak of the disease which has carried
away such numbers of their fellow-diners.

They had all eaten of a poison at that festive board, the virulence of which
far surpasses the reported effects of agua tophana, or of the more tangible
agents described in toxicological text-books. It was not a poison dug out of
the earth, extracted from plants, or prepared in the laboratory of the chemist.
It was not a poison administered by design or negligence. But it was a poison
unknown to all concerned; and was eaten with the meat in which it was con-
tained, and of which it formed a living constituent.

When the festival at Hettstidt had been finally determined upon, and the
dinner had been ordered at the hotel, the keeper of the tavern arranged his bill
of fare. ‘The introduction of the third course, it was settled, should consist, as
usual in those parts of the country, of Rostewurst und Gemiise. The Roste-
wurst was, therefore, ordered at the butcher’s the necessary number of days
beforehand, in order to allow of its being properly smoked. 'The butcher, on
his part, went expressly to a neighboring proprictor, and bought one of two
pigs from the steward, who had been commissioned with the transaction by his
master. It appears, however, that the steward, unfortunately, sold the pig
which the master had not intended to sell, as he did not deem it sufficiently fat
or well-conditioned. ‘Thus the wrpng pig was sold, carried on a barrow to the
butcher, killed and worked up into sausages. ‘The sausages were duly smoked
and delivered at the hotel. ‘There they were fricd and served to the guests. at
the dinner table.

On the day after the festival, several persons who had participated in the
dinner were attacked with irritation of the intestines, loss of appetite, great
prostration and fever. 'Vhe number of persons attacked rapidly increased ; and
great alarm was excited in the first instance by the apprehension of an impend-
ing epidemic of typhus fever or continued fever, with which the symptoms ob-
served showed great similarity. But when, in some of the cases treated by the
same physician, the features of the illness began to indicate at first, acute peri-
tonitis, then pneumonia of a circumscribed character, next paralysis of the inter-
costal muscles and the muscles in front of the neck, the hypothesis of septic
fever, though sustained in other cases, had to be abandoned with respect to these
particular cases. Some unknown poison was now assumed to be at the bottom

204 PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF "

of the outbreak ; and an active inquiry into all the cireumstances of the dinner
was instituted. Every article of food and material was subjected to a most
rigid examination, without any result in the first instance. But when the symp-
tons in some of the cases invaded the muscles of the leg, particularly the calves
of some of the sufferers, the description which Zenker had given of a fatal case
of trichinous disease was remembered. ‘The remnants of sausage, and of pork
employed in its manufacture, were examined with the microscope, and found
to be literally swarming with encapsuled trichine. From the suffering muscles
of several of the victims small pieces were excised, and under the microscope
found charged with embryonic trichinée in all stages of development. It could
not be doubted any longer, that as many of the one hundred and three as had
had partaken of Rosfewurst Lad been infested with trichinous disease by eating
of trichinous pork, the parasites of which had, at least in part, escaped the
effects of smoking and frying.

This awful catastrophe awakened sympathy and fear throughout the whole
of Germany. Most of the leading physicians were consulted in the interest of
the sufferers, and some visited the neighborhood where most of the afilicted
patients remained. But none could bring relief or cure. With an obstinacy
unsurpassed by any other infectious or parasitic disease, trichiniasis carried its
victims to the grave. Many anthelmintics were arrayed to destroy, if not the
worms already in the flesh, at least those yet remaining in the intestinal canal.
Picric acid was employed until its use seemed as dangerous as the disease;
benzole, which had promised well in experiments upon animals, was tried, but
was unavailing. As patient after patient died off, and the dissection of each
proved the parasites to have been quite unaffected by the agents employed, the
conviction was impressed upon every mind that a man afflicted with flesh-worm
is doomed to die the slow death of exhaustion from nervous irritation, fever, and
loss of muscular power in parts of the system essential to existence.

But medical science had only just unravelled a mystery ; and if it could not
save the victiins, it was determined at least to turn the occasion to the next
best account. ‘The cases were therefore observed with care and chronicled
with skill. All the multifarious features of the parasitic disease were registered
in such a manner that there can hereafter be no difliculty in the diagnosis of
this disorder. A valuable diagnostic feature was repeatedly observed, namely,
the appearance of the flesh-worm under the thin mucous membrane on the
lower side of the tongue. The natural history of trichina in man was found to
be the same as that in animals.

All observations led to the conviction that the trichina encapsuled in the
flesh is in the condition of puberty. Brought into the stomach, the calcareous
capsule is digested with the flesh, and the trichina is set free. It probably
feeds upon the walls of the intestines themselves, for the irritation of the intes-
tines begins before the bringing forth or*young trichine has taken place.
Copulation is immediately effected ; and within a few hours, or a short portion
of days, from sixty to eighty live embryos leave the female, and begin then
own career of destruction.

This consists, in the first instance, in an attempt to pierce the walls of the
intestinal canal. Great inflammation of the entire surface ensues, ending not
rarcly in death of the villous or mucous membrane, or in the formation of masses
of pus on its surface. Sometimes there are bloody stools. But these severe
symptoms only ensue when much trichinous meat has been eaten; when less
has been consumed, pain and uneasiness in the abdomen are produced, accom-
panied, however, in all instances by wasting fever and prostration. The
embryos actually pierce the intestines, and are found free in the effusion,
sometimes serous, sometimes purulent, which is always poured out into the
abdominal cavity. ‘Thence they again proceed towards ,the periphery of the
body, pierce the peritoncum, causing great irritation, and sometimes peritonitis,

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA. 205
‘

to the extent of gluing the intestines together to a coherent mass. They next
roceed to the muscles nearest to the abdomen; arrived at the elementary
muscular fibres, which, under the microscope, appear as long cylinders with
many transverse strie, they pierce the membranes, enter the fibres, eat and
destroy their striated contents, consume a great part of the granular detritus,
moving up and down in the fibres until grown to the size necessary for passing
into the quiescent state. ‘They then roll up in spiral or other irregular windings,
the bags of the muscular fibres collapse, and only where the trichine lie a cal-
careous matter is deposited, perhaps by the trichinz themselves, which hardens
into perfect capsules round the parasites. A muscular fibre may harbor one or
several parasites ; but every fibre invaded by a single parasite loses its character

entirely, and becomes a bag of detritus from one end to the other.

If it be remembered that one ounce of meat filled with trichine may form the
stock from which in a few days three millions of worms may be bred, and that
these worms will destroy in the course of a few weeks not less than two millions
of striated muscular fibres, an idea of the extent of destruction produced by
these parasites can be formed. We are not in a position to say to what propor-
tion of the fifty or sixty pounds of muscle required for the performances of the
human body these two millions of elementary fibres actually amount. In the
muscles nearest to the abdomen the destruction is sometimes so complete that
not a fibre free from parasites can be found. ‘This amounts to complete
paralysis. But death is not always produced by the paralysis; it is mosily
the result of paralysis, peritonitis, and irritative fever combined. No case is
known in which trichiniasis, after having declared itself, became arrested. All
persons affected have either died, or are in such a state of prostration that their
death is very probable.

Most educated people in Germany have, in consequence of the Hettstadt
tragedy, adopted the law of Moses, and avoid pork in any form. ‘To some of
the large pig-breeders in Westphalia, who keep as many as two thousand pigs,
the falling of the price of pork has been a ruinous—at the least a serious—loss.
In the dining-rooms of the hotels in the neighborhood of Hettstadt notices are
hung up announcing that pork will not be served in any form in these estab-
lishments. ‘'I'o counteract this panic, the farmers’ club of the Hettstadt district
gave a dinner, at which no other meat but pork was eaten. But it has had no
appreciable effect. The raw ham and sausages of Germany are doomed to
extinction; the smoked and fried sausages must necessarily be avoided. * *

In the south of Germany some people now say that it is the Hungarian pigs
which are most frequently affected with trichine. This rumor, like the famous
pork dinner of the farmers’ club, may, however, have been set up with the inten-
tion of quieting apprehension about the native pigs. We have already mentioned
the accident which befell the crew of a merchant vessel. They shipped a pig
at Valparaiso, aud killed it a few days before their arrival at Hamburg. Most
of the sailors ate of the pork in one form or another. Several were affected
with trichinsze and died. Of those whose fate could be inquired into, only one
seems to have escaped the parasites. Another outbreak in Saxony has carried
away twelve persons. <A fourth wholesale poisoning by trichinz is just reported
from Offenbach, the Birmingham of Hesse-Darmstadt. Of upwards of twenty
persons infected, three had already died when our correspondent’s letter left.
Numerous sporadic cases of fever, and epidemics of inscrutable peculiarity, but
referred to an anomalous type of fever, are now claimed by medical authors,
and with much show of reason, to have been outbreaks of trichiniasis, or flesh-
worm disease. Several German physicians experimentalized with a view of
finding a cure for this terrible disorder. Professor Eckhardt at Giessen, we
are tuld, has obtained permission to try the disease and supposed remedies
upon a murderer under sentence of death. We have not been told whether his
reward in case of success is to*be a commutation of his capital sentence, but

206 SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF GENEVA.

should hope this to be the case. The experiment, even if it should not have
the romantic character indicated, will probably teach some curious details of the
life of these parasites. Almost everywhere the commonest rules of cleanliness
are disregarded in the rearing of pigs. Yet pigs are naturally clean animals,
avoiding, like dogs and cats, all contact with ordure. ‘Though they burrow in
the earth, and in summer wallow in the mud, they abhor the heaps of exere-
ments mixed with straw in and upon which they are frequently kept. A due
regard to cleanliness will prevent trichine in the pig. In wild boars, of which
many are eaten in the country round the Hartz mountains, trichina has never
been found. Neither has it been met with in sheep, oxen, or horses. Beef is
the safest of all descriptions of meat, as no parasites have ever been discovered
in it. They have also never been found in the blood, brain, or heart of those
animals in whose striated muscles they love to reside.—Bratish Medical Journal.
| Lately, the common eround-worm has been found to be infested by trichine
one of the probable sources of the infection of swine.] ;

The interest excited by this case has induced a more careful investigation
into the consequences resulting from the imprudent use of hog’s flesh, and fatal
cases have been recently reported in this country. It had, indeed, been long
known among men of science that the trichina was occasionally found incysted
in the muscles of man in the United States as well as in other countries, but no
ease of death resulting from the presence of the worms is known to have been
observed till recently. In February, 1864, “an instance of the poisoning of
a whole family and the death of one member caused by eating ham” infested
with the trichina was observed by Dr. Schnetter in the city of New York.*
Dr. L. Krombein has since recorded some cases of a fatal nature noticed by
him in the western part of the State. Having been summoned to attend a man
and his wife resident in the village of Checktonaga, he found them afflicted
apparently with “acute muscular rheumatism of a somewhat peculiar charac-
ter,’’ and was sustained in his opinion by the concurrent belief of an associate,
Dr. Dingler. He subsequently surmised that the symptoms might indicate
trichiniasis; and the patients having. soon afterwards died, a microscopical
examination by Dr. Krombein, assisted by Dr. Homberger, demonstrated the
presence of ‘“trichinse both in the incysted and free state.” “The specimen
of human muscle taken from one of these cases after death, and also the sau-
sages eaten of, were examined by Dr. J. R. Lothrop and Professor George
Hadley under the microscope, and the trichina found in both in great numbers.
In the muscle the parasite was free, in the sausage incysted.”t Other members
of the family, attacked by the same parasite, were only less unhappy in escaping
a fatal end.

|The foregoing accounts, though they indicate an alarming cause of disease,
point out a ready means by which the evil may be averted, particularly in the
great pork marts of this country, namely, inspection by the microscope. It
will probably be found that the disease is exceedingly rare, but the assur-
ance which the inspection would give of this fact would be of sufficient import-
ance to warrant its adoption —J. H.]

* American Medical Times, February 20, 1864.
t Buffalo Medical and Surgical Journal, June, 1864.

q

sy

EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL RESEARCHES

ON

THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY, &c.

BY J. PLATEAU, PROFESSOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF GHENT, ETC.

From the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Brussels.

INTRODUCTION BY THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

[THe interesting investigations of which we commence in this article to give
an account consist of-a series of parts originally published in the Transactions

of the Brussels Academy. A translation of the first three parts was published

in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs; the remainder has been translated for this
Institution, and the whole will be published in this and the next volume of the
Smithsonian Annual Reports. The author has devised an ingenious method
by which a liquid may be withdrawn, as it were, from the influence of gravity,
and left free to assume the figure or external form which is produced by the
interaction of its own molecules. 'The experiments described in the first and
second parts of the series have excited much interest, and have frequently been
presented in popular lectures as precise illustrations of the mode of formation ~
of Saturn’s ring, aad almost conclusive proofs of the truth of the hypothesis
of La Place as to the genesis of the solar system...

It should, however, be observed that the force in operation in the phenomena
of the heavenly bodies and that in the experiments of our author are very dif-
ferent, and can only give rise to accidental similarities, and not to identical
results. Gravity, which is operative in the first case, is the most feeble of all
known attractions, while its sphere of action is indefinitely great. On the
other hand, molecular attraction, which is operative in the second case, is
exceedingly energetic, while its sphere of action only extends to the nearest
contiguous particles, and becomes imperceptible at sensible distances. The
great power exhibited by the earth on heavy bodies, near its surface, arises
from the combined effect of an immense number of attracting atoms. We know
that the attraction of the whole earth gives to a body-near its surface a velocity
of 32 feet in a second, and by comparing the masses and distances from the
centre of the earth, and a globe of the same density and a foot in diameter, we
can easily. calculate the velocity the latter would give a small body near its surface.
The velocity thus determined is less than that of an inch ina year. From
this result we may infer that small liquid masses, possessed of a slight degree
of vicidity, would never assume the form of a globule under the mere force of
gravitation. On the other hand, the great power of molecular attraction is
shown by the energy with which water is drawn into wood and other porous
substances.

>

/

208 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

But the difference of the two forces is still more strikingly exhibited by the
difference of their spheres of attraction. ht the case of gravitation every atom,
for example, of the earth attracts every other atom of the whole mass, eaclf
conspiring with all the others to produce the spherical form. While under the
influence of molecular attraction the atoms of a liquid globule only acts upon
the other atoms which are immediately around them; and hence the atoms in
the interior of a globule are, as it were, in a neutral condition, attracted equally
in every direction. ‘The only atoms, therefore, which are active in producing
the globular forms and in giving rise to the phenomena deseribed in this
memoir, are those at the surface of the liquid, since these are only attracted on
one side, and are, therefore, free to exert their energy towards the mass, and
their tendency to bring this into the smallest compass, namely, that of a sphere.
According to this view a globule of water may be considered an assemblage of
atoms, without attraction, compressed into the spherical form by a contractile
film, within which the atoms are enclosed. ‘The amount of contractile foree
of such a film will depend on the energy of the attraction between the con-
tiguous atoms and the degrees of curvature. To illustrate this, let us suppose
a slip of India-rubber to be stretched horizontally between two supports. If to
the middle of this we attach a small weight, the slip will sag downwards, and
the point to which the weight is attached will descend until there is an equi-
librium between the weight and the contractile force. If an additional weight
be attached, the descent will be inereased until a new equilibrium is attained,
and so on, the contractile foree will increase with the degree of bending. A
similar force is exerted at the free surface of all liquids. If this surface is hori-
zontal, the attraction will be equal in every direction in the horizontal plane;
but if at any point we press the surface so as to bend it out of this plane, the
contractile force will be called forth, tending to bring the point back into its
former position. It is this surface contractile force which causes a small globule
of water or mercury, when flattened, to spring back into the spherical form
when the compressing foree is removed. ‘Lhe more the globule is compressed,
or the greater the curvature at the circumference, the greater will be the resist-
ance. Ience, also, the smaller the bubble the greater will be the contractile
power of its surfaces, and the more energetically will it assume the spherical
form. ‘This is converse of the action of gravity, the tendency of which to
produce the globular form will be the greater in proportion to the greater size,
and consequently less curvature of the surface.

These remarks will enable the reader to comprehend more definitely the
nature of the phenomena exhibited in the following paper.

J.

FIRST SERIES.

1. Liquids, being gifted with an extreme molecular mobility, yield with
facility to the action of forces which tend to modify their exterior form. But
amongst these forees there is one which predominates so much over the rest
that it almost entirely masks their action. This foree is gravity; this it is
which czuses liquids to assume the form of vessels which contain them; and it
is this, also, which makes smooth and horizontal the portion of their surface
which remains free. We can scarcely recognize, along the contour of this free
surface, a slight curve which reveals the action of the combined forces of the
attraction of the liquid for itself, and of its adherence for the solid matter of the
vesscl. Jt is only by observing very small liquid masses, upon which the rela-
tive action of gravity is thus weakened, that we can see the influence of other
forces upon the figure of these masses manifested in a very forcible manner.
‘Thus the small drops of liquid, placed upon surfaces which they cannot moisten,

‘

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 209

assume a spherical form more or less perfect. Leaving these minute quantities,
if we wish to observe liquid masses which have freely taken a certain form, we
must quit the earth, or rather consider the terrestrial globe itself and the other
planets as having been primitively fluid, and having adapted their exterior form
to the combined action of gravitation and centrifugal force. Theory then indi-
cates that these masses ought to take the form of spheroids more or less flattened
in the direction of their axis of rotation, and observation confirms these deduc-
tions of theory. Observation shows us, also, around Saturn, a body of annular
form, and theory finds, in the combined actions of gravity and centrifugal force,
means of satisfying the equilibrium of that singular form.

If, however, we could, by some means, withdraw from the action of gravity
one of the liquid masses upon which we have to operate, at the same time
leaving it free to be acted upon by other forces which might tend to modify its
form, and if our process allowed of giving to this mass sufficiently large dimen-
sions, would it not be very curious to see it take a determinate figure, and to
see this figure vary in a thousand ways with the forces on which it depends?
Now I have succeeded, by an extremely simple means, in submitting to the
above conditions a considerable liquid mass.

2. Fat oils are, it is known, less dense than water, and more dense than aleco-
hol. Accordingly, we may make a mixture of water and alcohol having a den-
sity precisely equal to that of a given oil—of olive oil, for example. Now, if
any quantity of olive oil is introduced into the mixture thus formed, it is evident
that the action of gravity upon this mass of oil will be completely annihilated ; for,
in virtue of the equality of density, the oil will only hold the place of an equal
mass of the ambient liquid. On the other hand, the fat oils do not mix with a
liquor composed of alcohol and water. The mass of oil must therefore remain sus-
pended and isolated in the midst of the surrounding liquid, and it will be per-
fectly free to take the exterior form which the forces that may act upon it will
give to it.

This being supposed, if the molecular attractions of the oil for itself, those of
the alcoholic mixture for itself, and those of this mixture for the oil were identi-
cal, there would be no reason that the mass of oil left in the midst of the ambient
liquid should take spontaneously one form more than another, since, relatively.
to all the forces acting upon it, it would be exactly in the same position as an
equal mass of alcoholic nixture whose place it would occupy. But it is evident
that this identity between the different attractive forces does not exist, and that
the attraction of the oil for itself greatly exceeds the two others. The mass of
oil, therefore, ought to obey this excess of its own attractive forces.

We thus come to this conclusion, that our mass of oil may be perfectly as-
similated to a liquid mass without weight, suspended freely in space, and sub-
mitted to its own proper molecular attractions. Now, it is clear that such a
mass must take the spherical form.

Well, experiment confirms all this in a complete manner. The mass of oil,
whatever its volume, remains, in fact, suspended in the midst of the alcoholic
liquid, and takes the form of a perfect sphere.

3. In order to obtain this singular result with facility, it is necessary to take
certain precautions, which I will describe.

The first concern the formation of the alcoholic mixture. The density of this
mixture necessarily varies with the kind of oil which is used. For the olive oil
which I employed, and for the purity of which I cannot vouch, the proper mixture
marked twenty-two degrees on the areometer of Beaumé. If, therefore, any one
wishes to use olive oil, he may always consider the above vulue as a first approx-

imation, and, by successive attempts, will bring the liquor at length to the exact

_ point which it ought to reach. ‘To accomplish this, a test tube is filled with

°
the liquor, into which a little oil is afterwards poured by means of’a long-necked

funnel, which reaches about half way down the test tube. The oil, on reaching
14s

' soe

910 ‘THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the liquor, forms a globule, to which a diameter of about two centimetres * must
be given, and which a little shake will detach from the mouth of the funnel if
it does not detach itself. Then, accordingly as this globule falls to the bottom
of the liquor or rises to its surface, we conclude that the quantity of alcohol of
the mixture is too great or too small; we therefore add to this a little water or
alcohol, taking care to stir it well, and recommence the experiment of the test
tube. ‘Ihe same operations are repeated until the globule of oil remains sus-
pended in the liquor, without appearing to have a tendency either to fall or rise.
The mixture may then be considered as approaching very nearly the desired
point. I say very nearly, for the globule of oil of the test tube, being of small
dimensions, has more difficulty in moving in the liquor than spheres of a large
diameter, and it may seem to be in equilibrium of density with the surrounding
liquid, whilst for a larger volume of oil this equilibrium does not exist.

4. When the alcoholic mixture, which I presuppose to be contained in a
large glass flask of the ordinary form, has attained this point of approximation,
the next thing is to introduce the mass of oil. or this purpose the long-necked
funnel which has been mentioned above must be again used, and this must

reach to a certain depth in the liquor contained in the flask. Letting the funnel -

rest on the neck of the latter, we pour the oil slowly. Then, if the alcoholic
mixture is by chance exactly in the requisite proportions, the oil forms, at the
extremity of the neck of the funnel, a sphere, the volume of which increases
gradually in proportion as we add this last liquid. When the sphere has at-
tained the volume we desire, the neck of the funnel is withdrawn with caution;
the sphere which adheres to it rises with it toward the surface of the liquor,
and the oil which it still contains is added to-the preceding. Lastly, when the
sphere has nearly reached the surface of the alcoholic mixture, a little shake
detaches it from the funnel. Ordinarily, however, the mixture has not so exactly
the desired density. We then see, in general, several successive spheres of oil
formed, which, detaching themselves one after another from the mouth of the
funnel, fall slowly to the bottom of the flask, or rise to the surface of the alco-

holic liquor. In this case all these spheres should, in the first place, be unitea

into one, which is easily done by the following means. We introduce into one
of them the end of an iron wire. The adherence which the oil contracts with
“this metal then allows the sphere in question to be easily conducted in the am-
bient liquid, and to be led to join with a second sphere.t By continuing this
treatment, we soon succeed in uniting all. Then, according as the whole sphere
shall remain at the bottom or on the surface of the liquor, add cautiously to the
latter a certain quantity of water or of alcohol; and, after having corked the
flask, we next turn it several times slowly, and so as not to disunite the sphere
of oil, until the mixture is well effected, which will take place when we no
longer perceive any striz in the liquor on looking through it at a window.
Lastly, the same operation is to be repeated until the sphere of oil is perfectly
in equilibrium in the surrounding liquor.

5. If the experiment has been made, as I have supposed, in a flask of the
ordinary form, that is to say cylindrical, the mass of oil does not, however, ap-
pear exactly spherical; it is widened in the horizontal direction. But this is
only an optical illusion, attributable to the form of the flask. The latter, with
the liquor which it contains, acts in the manner of a cylindrical lens whose axis

’

* See table of measures at the end of this volume.

tIn order thus to compel two spheres to unite, it does not suffice to put them in contact
with one another. They might touch for a long time without mingling into one; one would
say that they are enveloped in a resisting pellicule which opposes their union. It is also
necessary, therefore, to introduce the extremity of the metallic wire into the second sphere, as

if we wished to break the partition which separates the two masses. The union is then effected
immediately. I’shall revert to these phenomena hereafter.

a i a ie

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 211

would be vertical, and enlarges in appearance the horizontal dimensions of the
object. .

In order entirely to avoid this illusion, we must use a vessel of plane smooth
sides, formed of plates of glass set in a metal frame, (§ 8.) We then have, ina
complete manner, the curious spectacle of a considerable mass of liquid present-
ing the form of a perfect sphere, and imitating, in some measure, a planet sus-
pended in space. ‘

Instead, also, of the above vessel, a glass balloon may be used, which is more
imple and less expensive. In this case, indeed, the mass of oil only appears
in its real figure when it occupies the centre of the balloon; but the apparent
distortion is small, as long as the sphere is not moved considerably from this
centre. A vessel of this kind is very convenient for most of the experiments
which I shall describe in this part of the memoir; but it would not serve for
those which I shall have to make known subsequently?

6. Now, having obtained, by means of the process above detailed, a fine
sphere of oil well suspended, and presenting, I will suppose, a diameter of six
to seven centimetres, we shall observe the following circumstances, which it is
important to notice before we proceed further :
in the first place, the equilibrium, previously well established, is soon dis-
turbed of itself. At the end of a few minutes we see the sphere quit its place,
and rise with extreme slowness towards the upper part of the ambient. liquid.
If a little aleohol be then added to restore the equilibrium, on treating the mix-
ture by the process of § 4, this equilibrium is again broken in the same manner
at the end of a certain time. In fine, it is only by continuing for some days to
- maintain it by the successive addition of small quantities of aleohol that we
come to obtain a permanent equilibrium, which is then no further: disturbed,
except by an accidental cause, of which we shall speak in the following. para-

_ graph. If the temperature does not fall below 18° centigr., the above phenomena

are the only ones observed; but sometimes, if the temperature remains below
that limit, and always, if it is below 15°, another effect is manifested, namely, a
diminution in the transparency of the oil.

These phenomena are owing to a gradual chemical action which takes
place between the oil and the alcoholic mixture. The first of these would be
very inconvenient in most of the experiments; but, happily, it may be obvi-
ated. This can evidently be effected by employing the two liquids only when
they have already exerted upon one another all the action of which they are
capable. The oil and the aleoholic mixture which I -used are now inert with
regard to one another, because, having been employed a great number of times,
they have bad time to exercise the whole of their mutual action. Besides, it is
easy, in a short time, to bring the two liquids to that state of relative neu-
trality, by agitating them together in order to divide the oil, and thus to
aceélerate the action, then separating them by a suitable process. ‘This opera-
tion requires some precautions, which we shall examine in § 24, in order not to
interrupt the course of the memoir by details which are not now indispensable.
In all that follows we shall always suppose that two liquids thus prepared are
employed.

7. Another cause disturbs the equilibrium between the sphere of oil and the
ambient liquid. his is the variations of temperature, which alter the equality
_of the two densities; and the degree of sensibility of such a system in this re-
spect would hardly be conceived. For example, when the vessel is carried
into a room a little warmer or colder than that in which it had been before, the
sphere soon falls in the first case and rises in the second. On the mere appli-
cation of the hands to the outside of the vessel, it will be seen, after a few see-
. onds, that the sphere begins to fall.

We must be continually on our guard against these effects of temperature ;
otherwise, they disturb the experiments. The following is a recent instance

212 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

«
which oceurred to me. The oil and the alcoholic liquor were enclosed in dif. —
ferent flasks, and the latter contained a very slight excess of aleohol. Having, —
by chance, carried these two flasks into a room warmer than that in which they —
had been, I first introduced into the mixture a certain quantity of oil, which, by
reason of the slight excess of alcohol, descended slowly to the bottom of the —
flask. A short time afterwards I poured in another quantity of oil, and I was’ ©
surprised to see this, on the contrary, rise towards the upper part of the mix-
ture. The reason of the singular difference was this: the alcoholic mixture
inclosed in one of the flasks was very considerable in quantity relatively to the
oil which the other contained. Now, at the first moment the liquids, not
having sensibly changed their temperature, ntaintained between them the same
relation of density ; but after a short time the oil, by reason of its small volume,
having become warmer than the alcoholic mixture, had thus become relatively
lighter. The warmth of the hand which held the flask in pouring out the oil
must have also contributed to the effect in question.

8. Now let us suppose a fine sphere of oil in permanent equilibrium in the
surrounding liquid, and let us endeavor to submit it to other forces than its
own attractions.

The first idea which presents itself is to try the action of centrifugal force.
For this purpose it is necessary to impress on the sphere of oil a movement of
rotation around one of its diameters, and which is effected by introducing into
this sphere a small metallic disc, which is made to turn upon itself by means
of an axis which traverses it perpendicularly. ‘This dise carries the oil with it
by its adherence, and the whole mass of this liquid takes a movement of rotation.

Before explaining the effects which result from this movement, I shall deseribe
in detail the apparatus I have employed—an apparatus by the aid of which all
the experiments succeeded perfectly and with the greatest facility. It is rep-
resented in fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

The vessel is with plane sides, formed of rectangular plates of glass set in
an iron frame; the sides are each 25 centimetres broad and 20 high. The »
small dise and its axis are also of iron, a metal whose prolonged contact with
oil does not stain it as copper does. The diameter of the dise is about 35 milli-
metres, and the axis is formed of an iron wire about 14 millimetre thick. This

aR

-- WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. males

axis is fixed by its lower end into a hole pierced in the middle of the plate of
glass which forms the bottom of the vessel. This hole is closed below by a |
small plate of iron cemented to the glass. The upper end of the axis is screwed '
to a larger wire, which forms the prolongation of it, and which, held with a
moderate degree of friction, [a frottement douz,]in apiece of which I shall speak
hereafter, receives at its other extremity the handle by means of which the dise
is turned. When the whole system is in place the dise ought to be half way
up the vessel. ‘The square plate of glass which closes the vessel above is
pieced with two openings, each furnished with an iron neck, which is closed
with a stopper of the same metal. One of these openings is in the middle of
the plate, and its diameter is 55 millimetres. It is through the stopper which
closes it that the rod passes, @ frottement doux, which receives on the one side
the axis of the disc, and on the other the handle. (See figure 2.) The other

\
‘
,
N

opening is smaller, and is placed near one of the angles of the plate. It serves
for introducing into the vessel either the metallic wire, by the aid of which we
unite the partial masses of oil, or additional portions of alcohol, or of mixture at
another degree, (§ 9,) &c., when these operations are to be performed without
removing the disc from its place. Lastly, this same plate is cemented into an
iron frame, which is turned up all round, so as to fit upon a vessel as a lid upon
abox. The upper edges of the vessel have been ground with emery all to-
-gether, after their being placed in the frame, so that the upper plate of glass fits
exactly upon them; and by rubbing these edges and the metallic steppers with
a little oil, the vessel, when the plate and stoppers have been placed, may be
considered as perfectly closed and keeping the mixture without evaporation of
alcohol.

In my apparatus the plates of glass are fixed to the metallic framing by a
resinous cement, and this is slightly attacked by the alcoholic mixture. It
would perhaps be better to use some glazier’s putty; for the alcoholic mixture,
being prepared so as not to act any more upon the oil, (§§ 6 and 24,) this latter
cement would probably not suffer any alteration. However, the resinous mastie
resists to such a degree, that I have been able to leave the alcoholic liquor,
without inconvenience, in the vessel for whole months.

The apparatus which I have just described is the best suited for obtaining,
in all their beauty, the phenomena, which are the objects of these experiments;
but, as I have said above, a hollow sphere of glass of pretty large dimensions
might be used with less cost, and without too much disadvantage, at least for
the experiments treated of in this part of the memoir. This ought to be fur-
nished with two tubular openings, one of which would serve for introducing the
system of the disc, and the other would effect the same object as the second
opening of which we have spoken above.

I shall, however, in what follows, suppose all along that the plane-sided ves-
_ sel above described is the one employed.

: * iD

214 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS :

9. The apparatus being properly arranged, the next thing is to operate so as _
to cause a sphere of oil to surround the dise in such manner that their two
centres are sensibly coincident. ‘To attain this point, let us first endeavor, be-
fore introducing the dise into the vessel, to bring the centre of the sphere to —
remain at the height at which that of the dise should be. It would be extremely
difficult to accomplish this by suspending a sphere in a homogeneous alcoholic i
mixture, as we have hitherto supposed; for then there is no reason why the —
sphere should not stand higher or lower; and, if even by chance it were placed —
exactly at the desired height, the movements which would be produced on in- ©
troducing the disc would very probably change this height. It is, therefore,
necessary to employ a more sure. process, and the following succeeded perfectly.
We begin by causing the alcoholic mixture to contain a small excess of alcohol.
Then, the vessel being furnished with its lid, and the stopper which closes the
central opening being lifted up, the mixture is introduced by this opening in
such quantity that the vessel be not completely filled. A certain quantity of
a mixture, less charged with alcohol, and marking only 16° on the areometer
of Beaumé, is then cautiously added. This, from its excess of density, falls to
the bottom of the vessel, where it spreads itself in a horizontal layer. The oil
is then introduced, which, by reason of the small excess of aleohol contained in
the upper mixture, descends through the latter till it rests upon the denser layer
of the lower mixture, either in a single mass or in several partial masses (§ 4.)
This being so, we unite, if the case requires it, the isolated spheres into a sin- —
gle one; then we stir the liquor cautiously with a glass rod, so as to mix im-.
perfectly the layer at the bottom with the higher layers, but without dividing —
the mass of oil, and the system is then left to rest. It will be seen that there ~
must hence result in the alcoholic liquor a state of density increasing from the —
upper layers of less density to the lower of greater density than that of the "
oil; and that, in consequence, the mass of oil will necessarily remain in stable —
equilibrium with respect to the vertical direction, in a certain layer whose mean ~
density is equal to its own. Now, in performing the operation with the neces-
sary precautions—that is to say by stirring the liquid only a very little, then —
leaving it to rest to observe the effect which results, again stirring it and leaving —
it to rest, and so on; lastly adding, if necessary, a small portion of mixture at —
16°, or of pure alcohol, according to circumstances, we easily succeed in causing
the mass of oil to remain exactly at the desired height, and, as we have seen,
without tendency to a change of position in the vertical direction.* In geome-
trical strictness, truly, this mass of oil cannot then be any longer perfectly —
spherical; it must be flattened a little in the vertical direction; but, if we have —
operated so that the increase of the densities is very feeble at the height at ~
which the oil stands—and we easily obtain that result by suitable trials—the
flattening in question is completely insensible to the eye, and the mass appears —
exactly spherical. : a

For the experiments which we have to deseribe, the most convenient diameter —
to give to the sphere of oil is about 6 centimetres. We easily accomplish this
by first forming a less sphere, and adding successively fresh portions’ of oil, ©
which we unite with the first.

The next thing is to place the dise. This being attached by its axis to the ©
rod which passes through the metallic stopper, (§ 8,) we begin by oiling it as —
well as the axis, then introduce it slowly into the alcoholic liquid, and cause it
to penetrate by its edge into the sphere of oil. As the dise has previously ©
been oiled, the sphere envelopes it without difficulty, and, what is remarkable,

2 |

* The different liquid layers thus superposed tend of themselves, it is true, to mix; but, as
they are placed in the order of their densities, this spontaneous mixture proceeds only with
extreme slowness, and it requires a great many days for the liquor to become homogeneous.
No inconvenience therefore results from this for the experiments }

4

, WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 215

&

gradually of itself. assumes such a position that the axis of the dise traverses it
diametrically. This effect is evidently owing to the attractive action of this
axis, or rather of the coating of oil with which it has been moistened—an
action which tends to operate in a symmetrical manner all around it, and thus
brings the entire sphere of oil into a position symmetrical with respect to this
same axis. Now it will be seen that the centre of the sphere tending, on the
one hand, to remain at the height of that of the disc, on aecount of the super-
position of the alcohelic layers of unequal density, and, on the other hand, to
place itself in the axis of the disc, on account of the symmetry of the
attractive actions exerted by the latter upon the oil, the centre of the sphere
and that of the disc will coincide, and will thus remain in a fixed position.
Only the sphere will then be slightly elongated in the vertical direction by the
attraction of the axis of the disc; but this elongation is very trifling if the
sphere present, as we have supposed, a diameter of 6 centimetres.

10. The sphere of oil being thus suitably placed, we slowly turn the handle.
We then presently see the sphere flatten at its poles and swell out at its equator,
and we thus realize on a small scale an effect which is admitted to have taken
place in the planets.

However, although the results may be of the same nature in the case of the
great planetary masses and in that of our little masses of oil, I must not omit
to remark here that there is an essential difference between the forces which are
in play in the two cases. In the first, the foree which tends to give to the great
planetary mass a spherical figure, and against which the centrifugal force acts,
is universal attraction ; in the second, the force which acts the same part with
regard to the small mass of oil, is molecular attraction, which is subject to
different laws. But as, on either hand, the aggregate of the actions reduces
itself to a contest between centrifugal force and another force tending to pre-
serve the spherical form of the liquid mass, it appears that the results must be
analogous, if not identical, with respect to the figure which that mass assumes.

[This, we do not think, is quite correct. The forces which produce the equi-
librium of the ring are as follows: First. The centrifugal force which tends
to throw the atoms from the centre of motion. Second. The force developed
by the external and internal horizontal curvatures, the direction of which is to-
wards the centre. Third. The force developed by the external and internal
vertical curvatures, one of which acts towards the centre, and the other from
the centre. The roundness of the ring is caused by the combined action of the
external and internal curvatures, which, under no circumstances of velocity of
rotation, would produce a flattened ring —J. H.]

In order to observe, in all its beauty, the phenomenon on which we are en-
' gaged, the handle must, at first, be turned with very little velocity—a tum in
five or six seconds. The effects are even then very decided. If we after-
wards apply a somewhat greater velocity—for example, a turn in four seconds—
the flattening at the axis, and the swelling at the equator, are seen to be more
considerable, and they are further augmented by increasing the velocity of the
handle to one turn in three seconds. Before proceeding further we may remark
that, in these experiments, the handle must not be turned too long, for the mass
of oil which, in the first moments, presents exactly a figure of revolution,
eventually loses this form. At each fresh trial, therefore, the system must be
left to repose. ‘The oil then resumes its spherical form, and slowly, of itself,
replaces itself in the proper position. ‘The change of form which supervenes
when too many turns are given to the disc occasions results of a particular kind,
and which are not without interest. I shall speak of them by-and-by, (§ 22.)
11. Now, if instead of moving the handle slowly a considerable velocity is

given to it, as two or three turns in a second, new, and very curious, phe-
.

216 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

nomena are manifested. The liquid sphere first takes rapidly its maximum
Fig. 3.

of flattening, then becomes hollow above and below
around the axis of rotation, stretching out continually
in a horizontal direction, and, finally abandoning the
disc, is transformed into a perfectly regular ring,
(fig. 3.)
. ‘This ring is rounded transversely, and appears to have
a circle for its generatrix. At the moment of its form-
ation its diameter increases rapidly up to a certain limit;
when this is reached the movement of the dise must be
stopped. The ring now remains for some seconds in
the same state. ‘Then, the resistance of the ambient
liquid weakening its movement of rotation, it returns upon itself and changes
back into a sphere around the dise and its axis.

The velocity of the handle most suitable for producing a beautiful ring, is
about three turns per second. The ring thus obtained has a mean diameter of
9 to 10 centimetres. 1

12. Whef, at the instant of the formation of the ring, the mass of oil which
constitutes it separates from the disc, a singular circumstance is observable ; the
ring remains united to the disc by an extremely thin pellicle or film of oil,
which fills all the space between them. But at the instant that, the ring havin
reached its greatest extent, we stop the motion of the disc, this pellicle breaks
and disappears of itself, and the ring then remains perfectly isolated.

It may be conceived that this pellicle is not a circumstance essential to the

, phenomenon of the formation of the ring; and we shall see, in another part of
these experiments, that it is probably. connected with an order of faets wholly
different.

13. The heavens exhibit to us also a body of a form analogous to our liquid
ring. I allude to Saturn’s ring. That, indeed, is flattened, whilst the trans-
verse contour of ours appears altogether round ; but Ido not think that this dif-
ference is so great as it appears at first.

In fact, the centrifugal force, which goes on increasing from the inner cir-
cumference of the ring of oil up to its outer circumference, necessarily tends
to stretch this ring in the direction of its breadth, or, in other words, to flatten it.
But the flattening must be of very small amount; for, on account of the in-
considerable dimensions of the ring, and the slowness of its angular movement,
the kind of traction wHich results from the variation of centrifugal force must
be very trifling in comparison with the forces developed by molecular attrae-
tion. ;

14. It appears to me, then, that we may reasonably admit that our ring of
oil is in reality slightly flattened, and that in consequence it only differs from
that of Saturn, with regard to general form, in the less quantity of flattening.*
But further, in the system of Saturn, the flattening of the ring is in part deter-
mined by the attraction of the central planet. Now, at the first moment of
the formation of the ring of oil, the latter is submitted to a particular force,
which plays a part analogous to that of the above attraction. In fact, this
attraction acts with the greatest intensity At the inner cireumference of Saturn’s
ring, and thence decreases rapidly in the rest of this body. Now, at the first
moment of the formation of the ring of oil, we have seen (§ 12) that the latter
remains united to the dise by a thin film of the same liquid, and we may con-
vince ourselves that this film exerts, on the inner circumference of the ring,
a considerable force of traction. In fact, if we stop the movement of the disc
a little too soon, that is to say a little before the ring has reached its maximum

* I leave out of the question here the subdivision of the ring of Saturn. This subdivision,
as is known, is not essentially connected with the conditions of equilibrium of the ring.

q

| ey

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. zp

of diameter, the film of oil does not break, and the ring then returns upon
itself (§ 11) with a much greater rapidity than when the film of oil is broken,

and the ring remains isolated. ‘The traction which the film of oil exerts on the
imner circumference of the ring ought therefore to produce an effect analogous
to that of the attraction of Saturn, that is to say, contribute to increase the
flattening. Well, the ring of oil before the rupture of the film presents a very
marked flattening. In order to obtain it perfectly, care must be taken that the
sphere be well centred in relation to the dise, before beginning the experiment;
and it is useful to turn the handle with a velocity somewhat less than that
indicated at § 11 ; the most suitable velocity has appeared to me to be about two
turns ina second. As soon as the film of. oil breaks the flattening disappears,
and the generatrix of the ring becomes, as Wwe have seen, sensibly cireular.*

_ 15. Geometricians, who have investigated the figure of equilibrium of a liquid
mass in rotation, have only regarded the case in which the attraction which
counteracts the centrifugal force is that of universal gravitation, and they have
demonstrated that elliptical figures in that case satisfy this equilibrium. Are
we thence to conclude that the annular form developed by the rotation of our
mass of oil results from the different law which governs molecular attraction,
(§ 10,) and that, in the instance of the heavenly bodics, the figure of an iso-
lated ring could not be produced by the sole combination of centrifugal force and
of the mutual attractions of the different parts of the mass? I am not of that
opinion, and I think it, on the contrary, very probable that if calculation could
approach the general solution of this great problem, and lead directly to the
determination of all the possible figures of equilibrium, the annular figure
would be included among them. This general and direct solution presenting
very great difficulties, geometricians have contented themselves with trying
whether elliptical figures could satisfy the equilibrium, and with proving that
they in fact do satisfy it; but they leave the question in doubt, whether other
figures would not fulfil the same conditions. In truth, M. Liouville, in his
last researches on this subject,t appears at first view to have nearly solved
the question, by introducing the consideration of the stability of the figure of
equilibrium, and showing that for each value of the moment of rotation, or, in
other words, for any initial movement, whatever, of the mass, there is always
an elliptical figure, either of revolution or of three unequal axes, according to

*T had thought that it would be possible to obtain rings isolated and greatly flattened by
operating upon larger masses of oil, for then, the ring having a larger volume, the influence
of the molecular attraction should be less. But I have found that, in operating on larger
masses, it was necessary, in order to obtain the ring in a regular manner, to employ a more
feeble velocity of rotation, so that, if the influence of the molecular attraction was diminished,
that of the centrifugal force was so equally. The flattening, then, did not become more sensi-
ble; or, if I have sometimes imagined that I observed any, I have not been able to reproduce
it at will. I have operated thus on spheres which were, successively, about 10, 11, 12, and
14 centimetres in diameter, with discs of a diameter of from seven to nine centimetres, and in
a vessel with plane surfaces, having a bottom 35 centimetres square, and a depth of 25 centi-
metres. The effects, however, thus obtained re very beautiful. The rings are magnificent;
present a considerable diameter, and remain souci.nes for eight to ten seconds before return-
ing on themselves. With a sphere of ten centimetres diameter, a disc of seven, and a velocity
a little less than one turn of the dise per second, we obtain, in a very beautiful and very
marked manner, the flattening resulting from the traction of the film of oil.

These experiments, however, are inconvenient and difficult, on account of the large dimen-
sions of the vessel, and the great quantity of alcoholic liquid necessary to fill it.

It may be conceived, moreover, why a larger mass of oil requires a less velocity of rotation
to produce a regular ring. It is precisely because the molecular attraction has less influence;
whence, it resuits that, if we attempt to employ the same velocity of rotation which would
give a beautiful ring with a less quantity of oil, the mass disunites, and is scattered into
spherules.

+ The memoir of M. Liouville was communicated to the Academy of Sciences in the sitting
of the 13th of February in this year. An analysis of it may be found in the Journal L’In-
stitut, No. 477.

218 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the cireumstances, which constitutes a form of stable equilibrium. It appears, —
in effect, natural to admit that, for a given disturbance of a liquid mass, there is _
but one single final state admissible; and, in this case, this state must necessa- —
rily possess stability. However, I do not deem the conclusion which may be

drawn from these results so general as it appears at first sight. Without doubt, —
for a primitive disturbance given, there is only one final state possible, and that —
state must be stable. But the condition of stability of a found figure of equi- —
librium does not necessarily involve the consequence that this figure will con
stitute the final state in question, for it may happen that several figures of equi-
librium, corresponding to the same primitive disturbance, might equally possess
stability, and that the choice of the mass for one of these figures may have been —
determined by other circumstances; for example, by the modifications which —
its movement experiences in the first moments of rotation. In fact, it is by ©
examining these modifications, to which the attention of geometricians has not —
been directed, that I shall attempt to arrive at the mode of generation of annular ~
figures.

16. When the mass begins to revolve upon itself, the angular velocity of the
portions remote from the axis, which are carried off by their centrifugal foree,
necessarily goes on diminishing. This diminution is esvecially apparent on
the equator of the mass, and it is the more considerable in proportion as the
initial movement of rotation was more rapid. It thence results that, in the first
instants of a sufficiently rapid rotation, there will bea great difference of angular 4
velocity between the portions which are near the axis and those which are near
the equator. Nevertheless, if we admit for a moment that, in virtue of the
adherence of the liquid for itself, and of the friction of its several parts, the
portions which turn most rapidly communicate by degrees a part of their ve-
locity to the others, so that in the end the result is a mean angular velocity,
corresponding to the same moment of rotation, and equal in all the points of the
mass, this may take an ellipsoidal figure. But long before the feeble forces, of
which we have just spoken, can bring about this mean result, another order of
phenomena would be manifested, which may impede the development of the
elliptical figure and give rise to an annular form. .

In fact, it follows necessarily from the preceding considerations that, in the
first instants of a rotation sufficiently rapid, the centrifugal force at the equator
of the mass will be much less than that which would correspond to the above
mean velocity ; and that, on the other hand, the centrifugal force of the portions
near the axis will be by much superior to that which would correspond to the
same mcan velocity. ‘The liquid next the axis will, therefore, be driven towards
the liquid of the equator, whence there will necessarily result the formation of
a sort of circular cushion, (dowrrelet,) more or less marked. In other words, —
the mass will soon become hollow in the middle, and will swell out all around.
Now as soon as this phenomenon takes place, it will be conceived that the at-
traction exerted by this bourre/et on the liquid remaining around the axis must _
be an addition to the action of the centrifugal force, and contribute to increase —
the volume of the bourrelet at the expense of the central liquid. Hence, there-
fore, it may evidently result that all the liquid will leave the axis for the bour-
relet, and the latter become in a manner a veritable ring.

This generation of the annular figures would therefore be independent of
the law which the attraction follows, and would be, in consequence, the same
in the ease of universal attraction and in that of molecular attraction.

17. It is easy to verify this mode of generation upon our mass of oil, or at
least to assure ourselves that during the formation of the dourrelet and of the
ring, the angular velocity is much less at the equator of the mass than towards
the axis. For this purpose I shall first point’ out that when a certain number
of experiments have been performed upon the same mass of oil, and this has
been several times disunited and reformed into a single sphere and into a ring,

te
a
*
=

a
——

jee

- WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 219

it always holds within it a multitude of small bubbles of alcoholic liquor, which
borne along by the oil that surrounds them, render the movements of the differ-
ent points of the mass perfectly observable. Now, if the experiments which
we have described be repeated with the aid of a sphere of oil thus filled with
alcoholic bubbles, the following results are observed. So long as we give to
the disc such slight velocities only as are sufficient to produce a simple flatten-
ing, there is not a great difference of angular velocity between the portions
next to the axis and the portions adjoining the equator; but this difference
becomes very considerable when the dise turns more rapidly, and the bourrelet
and the ring are developed.

' We may thus prove, by means of the small alcoholic bubbles, that the mean
angular velocity is established in the ring once formed, and that all the points
of the latter perform their revolutions in the same time.

Furthermore, in our experiments upon the masses of oil, there are two foreign
fotces which act, in addition to the causes which we have noticed, to facilitate
the development of the dourrelet and of the ring. One is the resistance of the
ambient liquid, which contributes to weaken the angular velocity of the equa-
tor of the mass; the other is the action of the hand which keeps up the motion
of rotation of the disc, and consequently hinders the central portions of the
mass from participating gradually in the slackening of the’equatorial portions.
But that which is produced by these two foreign forces would be equally pro-_
duced by a greater initial velocity of rotation if we could annul them.

18. When, by the aid of a moderate velocity of the disc, we limit ourselves
to producing the flattening of the mass, the two foreign forces of which we have
just spoken necessarily hinder the latter from attaining an angular velocity
equal in all its points, even though we keep turning the disc. The result is,
that the mass cannot take exactly the figure which would correspond to that
equality of angular velocity. ‘That which it adopts is a figure of revolution;
but on placing the eye at the height of the centre of the mass, it is easily recog-
nized that it is not an ellipsoid. The curvature at the equator is too small,
and this is the more evident in proportion as the flattening is more consider-
able.

Now, is this difference between the figure thus produced and that which would
correspond to the case of universal gravitation solely the result of the action of
the two foreign forces in question, or is it in part caused by the difference of the
laws which the two kinds of attraction follow? In other words, if we could

_ eliminate or render insensible the differences of angular velocity of the several

_ parts of the mass of oil, would the figure produced be an ellipsoid or not? Now,
we should render these differences of angular velocity insensible if we could
impress a movement of rotation on a mass of oil suspended in an isolated man-
ner, without interior system, in the alcoholic liquid, and then leave it to itself.
In this case the resistance of the ambient liquid would be exercised, indeed,
on the exterior of the mass; but nothing maintaining the constancy of velocity
of the central parts, these, by virtue of the strong self-adherence of the oil,
would participate eventually in the slackening of the exterior portions, and we
might consider the mass as having each instant an angular velocity equal
throughout.

Now, it is very easy to realize the above by availing ourselves of the fact
that, when the ring of oil is formed, it returns, after some time, upon itself, (§ 11.)

_ At the instant when the ring is well developed, and when we have just stopped
the disc, we lift the latter cautiously by means of the metallic stopper which
bears its axis. Then the mass of oil, which is again formed by the return of
the ring upon itself, continues still to regolve for some time, completely isolated
the ambient liquid. Its figure is then, as well as the eye can judge of it, a
perfect ellipsoid of revolution, which gradually approximates to a sphere in

220 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID’ MASS

proportion as the rotatory motion becomes weaker.* ‘Thus, the difference of

the laws which govern the two sorts of attraction appears not to influence the

nature of the figure taken by the mass that turns upon itself. é

19. A liquid mass can only assume and preserve an annular form under the
influence of a sufficient centrifugal force. ‘Thus, as we have seen, when the
resistance of the alcoholic liquid-has diminished below a certain limit the velocity
of rotation of the ring of oil, the latter, obeying the preponderating action of the
molecular attraction, returns upon itself, loses its annular form, and reconstitutes
itself into an entire mass, first ellipsoidal and then spherical. But if, by a
method which I shall describe, we prevent the ring from agglomerating thus,
and still leave the action of its centrifugal force to diminish, we then witness
the appearance of other phenomena well meriting interest. In order to produce
them perfectly, in place of the dise of 35 millimetres, a dise of about 5 centime

* T had expected to be able to obtain a revolving isolated mass by means of another process,
viz: by forming a splexre of oil in the middle of a cylindrical flask so arranged as to be able
to turn upon its axis; then causing this flask thus to turn with rapidity, until all the liquid
within, aleoholic mixture and mass of oil, had taken the same motion; then suddenly stop-
ping the flask. In effect, it seems that then the alcoholic liquor being the first to lose its
rotatory motion by the friction against the stationary sides of the flask, a moment must
occur when the mass of oil maintains an excess of angular velocity over the ambient liquid,
and that then the effects of centrifugal force upon that mass may manifest themselves. But
the experiment gives few results. First, it is extremely difficult to keep a mass of oil in the
middle of the flask. We keep it tolerably in the axis of the latter, because, if we have suc-
ceeded in placing it so that its centre is little removed from that axis, the rotation of the am-
bient liquid brings it there, and then retains it there very well. But it is not the same in the
direction of the height of the flask. If a homogeneous alcoholic mixture be employed, and
the sphere of oil is placed, before turning the flask, a little higher or lower than-the middle of
the height of the latter, it quits its place when the flask turns to ascend, in the first case, or
to descend, in the second, until it comes to be dispersed against one of the two bases of the
flask. This effect is attributable, I think, to the fact that the two bases exercising upon the
sections of liquid which touch them a motive action much greater than that to which the
parallel sections of the interior of the mass are subjected, there ensues near these bases, at
the commencement of the rotation, an excess of centrifugal force which determines a ten-
dency upwards and downwards of the liquid near the axis. It is therefore necessary to en-

deavor to place the sphere of oil in a position very near to the middle of the height of the ,

vessel. Unfortunately we cannot use for this purpose the process of superposition of the al-
coholic layers of unequal density, (§ 9;) for then, in the rotation of the flask, the denser in-
ferior layers come necessarily, by the excess of centrifugal force which results from their ex-
cess of density, to rise against the sides, causing the less dense liquid to occupy the axis; and
in this movement the mass of oil is drawn downwards, and is also dispersed upon the bottom
of the vessel.

By employing a homogeneous alcoholic mixture and a sphere of oil of only about three
centimetres diameter, I however succeeded several times, by dint of patience, in giving to

this sphere a sufficiently exact position in the flask to be able to keep it at the same height ’

until it had itself taken the rotatory movement of the whole system. But then, when I
stopped the flask, a violent internal agitation was produced, which almost always dispersed
the oil in innumerable spherules throughout the alcoholic liquid, or at least destroyed its form
in a completely irregular manner. I attribute these effects to the following cause. When
the flask is stopped, the portions of the alcoholic liquid which touch the sides and bases, losing
first their centrifugal force, the more internal portions, which still retain theirs, make their
way through them, dividing them, and this confusion is soon propagated to the axis, where
it gives rise either to the dispersion or to the irregular disfiguring of the mass of oil.

In the cases in which I have been able to give a suitable position to the sphere of oil, I
‘have observed a curious effect; namely, that in the first instance of the rotation of the vessel
the mass of oil quits the spherical form, and becomes elongated in the direction of the axis
of rotation. This elongation is easy explained: the movement of rotation is communicated
to the portions of the mixture which are nearest the axis above and below the mass of oil,
before being able to communicate itself with the same intensity to the latter: hence, in the
different points of this mass, there must result a less centrifugal force than in the points of
the alcoholic mixture situated at the same distances from the axis of rotation. Thence a rush
of the oil to the axis, and an elongation of the mass of the latter in the direction of this same
axis. But, on continuing the rotation, the 4l comes to receive the same movement as the
surrounding liquid, and it also resumes gradually the spherical form.

On stopping the flask, not suddenly, but in a rather rapid manner, I succeeded once in
obtaining a result sufficiently regular, and I observed, as I expected, the sphere become flat-
tened considerably in the direction of the axis of rotation. ,

t

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 224

tres was substituted *, which renders necessary, in order to form the ring well,

a less velocity of rotation than with the preceding disc, (the most suitable ap-
pears to me to be a little less than two turns in a second.) Now, instead of
stopping the movement of the disc at the instant when the ring has attained its
greatest development, we must continue to move the handle. The film of oil
will then break in a little time, as if the dise had been stopped; but, the latter
continuing to revolve in the alcoholic liquor, the portions of that liquor which
are in contact with it will themselves assume a rotatory movement, and the
centrifugal foree which results from it will drive them continually towards the
ring, so that the latter'will not be able to return upon itself. Now, ia these
circumstances, we soon see the ring lose its regularity, then divide into several
isolated masses, each of which immediately takes the spherical form. Thus the
ring, when it cannot preserve its figure on account of the decrease of its cen-
trifugal force, and an obstacle prevents its reforming itself into a single sphere,
resolved itself into several isolated spheres. As soon as the separation begins
to take place, the movement of the dise must be stopped.

This is not all: one or more of these spheres are then almost always seen
to assume, at the instant of their formation, a movement of rotation upon them-
selves—a movement which constantly takes place in the same direction as that
of the ring. Moreover, as the ring, at the instant of its rupture, had still a re-
mainder of velocity, the spheres to which it has given birth. tend to’fly off at a
tangent; but as, on the other side, the disc, turning in the alcoholic liquor, has
impressed on this a movement of rotation, the spheres are especially carried
along by this last movement, and revolve for some time around the dise. Those
which revolve at the same time upon themselves consequently then present the
curious spectacle of planets revolving at the same time on themselves and in
their orbit. The movement of rotation of these masses is, however, too slow, in
relation to their diameter, to cause any sensible flattening. Finally, another
very curious effect is also manifested in these circumstances. Besides three or
four large spheres into which the ring resolves itself, there are almost always
produced one or two very small ones, which may thus be compared to satellites.

The experiment which we have just described, presents, as we see, an image
in miniature of the formation of the planets, according te the hypothesis of
Laplace, by the rupture of the cosmical rings attributable to the condensation

of the solar atmosphere.

20. When some oil is introduced into a mixture containing a little excess of
alcohol, a phenomenon is observable, which is connected with that of the reso-
lution of the ring into isolated spheres. If the oil be poured in with sufficient
rapidity it forms a long cylindrical train, extending from the beak of the funnel
to the bottom of the vessel, where the mass gathers. Now, this kind of tail,
which connects the mass of oil with the beak of the funnel, remains as long as
the oil which forms it has a sufficiently rapid movement of translation—that is
to say, as long as we continue to pour; bunt, as soon as we cease to pour out,
and the movement of translation is slackened, the train of oil is instantly re-
solved into several isolated spherules.

21. The formation of a ring analogous to that of Saturn naturally inspires
the desire to carry further the resemblance to the system of that planet, and to
seek, whether, by some modification of our experiment, it would not be possible
to contrive so that a sphere of oil should remain in the middle of thering. Now,
I have succeeded in producing this effect, by means of a process which I shall
proceed to describe; only that this experiment must be regarded merely as a scien-
tific sport, for the circumstances which give rise to the result have evidently no anal-
ogy with those which can have occasioned the configuration of the system of Saturn.

* This substitution is accomplished by detaching the upper end of the axis of the first dise
from the large wire which passes through the metallic stopper (§ 8,) and screwing in its
place the end of the axis of the new disc.

222 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

It is first necessary to be able to give to the dise a considerable velocity of —
rotation. ‘To do this, we adapt to the upper part of the vessel a system of two
pulleys—one small, and fixed on to the prolongation of the axis of the dise at —
the place of the handle, which is taken away; the other larger, and to the axis
of which the same handle is attached. In my apparatus the diameters of the
two pulleys are, respectively, 12 and 75 millimetres. In the second place, the
diameter of the sphere being always nearly six centimetres, that of the dise ©
should be only two centimetres. Lastly, the dise should not have, as in the
preceeding experiments, its centre coinciding with that of thesphere. It should
be placed lower, toward the inferior part of the latter.

Matters being thus arranged, the handle is turned with a velocity which ex-
perience soon enables us to determine. In my apparatus this velocity ought to be
about two turns and a half per second, which nearly corresponds to fifteen turns
of the dise in the same time. We then see, in general, a ring rapidly formed,
which extends itself, leaving in its centre a mass of oil, to which it remains
united by a thin pellicle. At the instant when the ring has attained a sufficient
development, (and by habit alone can this be correctly learned,) the rotation is
suddenly stopped. The pellicle then breaks, the ring remains completely iso-
lated, and the central mass forms into a sphere. We have thus, during some
instants, a curious representation of the system of Saturn, except the flattening
of the ring. The ring returns rapidly, afterwards, upon itself, and is again —
united to the central sphere. This experiment does not offer any great diff-
culties. It requires, however, some skill to succeed perfectly.* 4

22. In describing (§ 10) the experiment in which the flattening of the sphere is —
effected by the immediate action of the dise, I have remarked that the movement’ —
of the latter should not be continued too long, because the mass of oil then —
comes to lose its form. Now, if we continue, nevertheless, to turn the handle,
with a view to observe the results of this disfigurement, we see manifested new
and very capricious effects. : p

The sphere being well centred with relation to the disc, if we give velocities
of one turn in six, five or four seconds to the latter, we begin, after seven or —
eight turns, to see the mass of oil elongate itself horizontally in one direction,
taking a form which*resembles much an ellipsoid of three axes; and, what is
more singular, this kind of ellipsoid is placed in an eccentric manner with rela-
tion to the axis of rotation. Figure 4 represents, for a velocity of a turn in.

Fig. 4.

i

four seconds, the mass viewed from three different sides; that is to say, from
above and in the two lateral directions of the smallest and of the largest hori-
zontal axis: the dotted parts indicate the positions of the dise and of the axis of
rotation. The aspect of the mass seen fromabove shows thatitis slightly bentin one
direction; but this effect is evidently owing to the resistance of the ambient liquid.

When once the mass has taken this form, it preserves it indefinitely as long
as the movement of the dise continues; it continues to revolve eccentrically

* On communicating this very experiment to the academy, in the sitting of April, 1842,
(see the Bulletins, ) I stated that it was necessary to vary the velocity of rotation. I have
since found that, having adopted a convenient velocity, it was best to keep it uniform,

vel
id

.
|
7
/

Ni } WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 220

round the latter, and with a velocity much less than that of this dise. This

inferior velocity, I may add, evidently also proceeds from the resistance of the

ambient liquid.

If a greater velocity is given to the disc without, however, passing a certain
limit—if, for example, we give it one turn in three seconds, the phenomena are
still of the same kind; only the mass is more elongated, the flexure due to the
resistance of the ambient liquid is more decided, and the Fie. 5
form is more removed from an ellipsoid. Figure 5repre- % ~~ |
sents the mass viewed on the side, and showing to the eye i
its greatest length.

If the velocity of the disc is increased to a turn in two
seconds, the phenomena become less constant and less y
regular. We should say that there is, for this velocity, a }
transition from one order of phenomena to another, and that the mass hesitates
between the two.

In fact, with a velocity still alittle greater, namely, about one turn in a second
and a half, the phenomena begin again to be regular and constant, but they are
different from the first. ‘They are exhibited in all their beauty when the velocity
is increased to a turn ina second. ‘The mass then is at first deeply hollowed
around the axis, as if the ring was on the point of being developed ; and it re-
mains under this form of a circular bourrelet during sixteen to eighteen turns of
‘the disc; we then see it elongate gradually according to a horizontal diameter,
but no longer eccentrically, so that; seen from above, it presents an elliptic
figure sometimes very perfect, of which the disc occupies the centre, (fig. 6.)

‘This ellipse then lengthens more and more, rather rapidly, and begins to bend

Fig. 6. Fig. 7.

by the resistance of the ambient liquid, (fig. 7.) Lastly, on a sudden the mass
becomes strongly inflected from both sides, and its form Fie. 8

seen from above is then as represented in fig. 8. The ee
mass afterwards preserves this last form in a perfectly
fixed manner, as long as the movement of the dise con-
tinues. ;

23. However capricious these phenomena may appear,
chance, or accidental causes, have still no part in them.
I have repeated a great number of times the experiments detailed above, and
the effects have aways been identically the same for the same velocities.

After having seen the stable figures which the mass takes in these cireum-
stances, we cannot help making a comparison between these figures and the
ellipsoids of three axes of MM. Jacobi and Liouville, (§15,)—ellipsoids which
are also always, as the latter of these geometricians has shown, figures of stable
equilibrium. Would the identity of the phenomena in the case of universal
éravitation and in that of molecular attraction hold good so far? Doubtless
the singular figures which we have just described are not ellipsoids ; but their
aspect admits of our attributing the difference to the resistance of the ambient
liquid, which on one side determines the flexures of which we have spoken,
and on the other maintains a permanent inequality of angular velocity between
the portions adjoining the disc and the more distant portions. Calculation alone
could inform us up to what point the above comparison is well founded; the
complete solution of the problem, for the case of molecular attraction, would per-
haps not present difficulties so insurmountable as for that of universal attraction.

{ ) 2
224 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

24. In all the experiments which I have described in this mémoir, I have
supposed that the oil and the alcoholic mixture were rendered chemically inert
with regard to each other, and I have said (§ 6) that it was easy in a short space
of time to obtain two such liquids. I proceed now to detail the process by
means of which this object is attained.

We begin by making a mixture of alcohol and distilled water, containing a
certain excess of alcohol, so that when submitted to the trial of the test tube
(§ 3) it lets the small sphere of oil fall to the bottom rather rapidly. After
having formed the mixture in quantity more than sufficient to fill the vessel

which is to serve for the experiments, we introduce into this same mixturea

quantity of oil about double what is considered necessary for these experi-
ments.* Ifa flask is not at hand large enough to contain the whole, we divide
the masses among several separate flasks: but care must then be taken that
each one may contain the same proportions of water, alcohol, and oil. After
this we invert these flasks rapidly a great number of times, but without shaking
them, until the oil has been divided into spherules of the size of a pin’s head ;
the whole is then left to rest. Then if the alcohol of the mixture is in proper
quantity, the spherules should sink with extreme slowness, so as to take about
a quarter of an hour for the greater part to collect at the bottom of the flasks.
If it is otherwise, water or alcohol is to be added, as may be required; the con-
tents to be mixed by inverting the flasks several times, as above, then left
again to settle, and the operation thus to be recommenced until the result is
obtained which I have described. When this point is obtained the whole is

thrown upon filters, care being taken to cover the funnels containing these.

last with plates of glass. This precaution is necessary in order to prevent,
as much as possible, the evaporation of the alcohol, and for another reason, of
which we shall speak hereafter. 'The alcoholic liquor passes the first through
the filters, ordinarily carrying with it a certain number of very minute spherules
of oil. When the greater part has thus passed, the spherules become more
numerous. What still remains in the first filters, namely, the oil, anda residue
of alcoholic liquor, is then thrown into a single filter placed on a new flask.
This last filtration takes place much more slowly than the first, on account of
the viscosity of the oil. It is considerably accelerated by renewing the filter
once or twive during the operation. If the funnel has been covered with suffi-
cient care the oil will collect into a single mass at the bottom of the flask, under
a layer of alcoholic liquor.

The preceding operations have thus given us the following results: On the
one hand, the inert alcoholic mixture, still holding a small, excess of alcohol,
and containing a certain number of small spherules of oil; on the other hand,
the oil equally inert, and covered with a little of this same aleoholic liquid.
Now, a second filtration completely clears the first from the spherules which it
holds. With respect to the oil, it is extracted from below the alcoholic layer
by means of a small siphon, armed with a lateral tube, and received into a dry
flask, which is to be perfectly corked. In this manner we have the two liquids
separate and inactive, with regard to each other. .When it is desired to use
them, if we perceive that the alcoholic liquid is a little too dense, we correct it
with pure alcohol; and if, on the contrary, there is too little density, we correct
it with alcohol at 16 degrees. In this latter case we must not use pure waters
because this, when it mixes with the prepared alcoholic liquor, produces in it a
cloudiness more or less decided.

The various trials I have made relatively to the above process, have led me
to ascertain that the two liquids, when they have not been submitted to this
preparation, are both modified by their mutual contact. The alcoholic liquid

“ It is indispensable to have the two liquids thus in excess, on account of the quantities
which are necessarily lost during the different operations which we shall describe, and in the
preparation of the experiments.

ne pee oer Seen eae ee

# WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 225

|} dissolves some oil, and this in its turn probably dissolves someyalevhol. It is
| especially from the modification which the oil undergoes that its great diminu-
~ tion of relative density results, (§ 6.) Now, when the oil thus modified remains
| exposed to the air, it passes again gradually to the state of fresh oil, and resumes
| its former density. It is partly to avoid this that [ have recommended the fun-
nels which enclose the filters to be kept constantly covered, and the oil to be
kept in a flask perfectly corked. As for the alcoholic mixture, it is evident that
this last. precaution is equally necessary. -
25. Before I conclude, I must forewarn those persons who may wish to repeat
my experiments of two effects which sometimes occur, and which cause disturb-
-ance in the operations if the experimenter does not know the means of pre-
venting or destroying them.

When some oil is introduced into a mixture containing an excess of alcohol, it
happens sometimes that the mass which has sunk to the bottom of the vessel
contracts adherence with this bottom and spreads itself out more or less on its
surface. There is then no means of removing it entire; but the spreading of
the adhesion may be prevented by contriving that the bottom of the vessel
should be occupied by a layer of a mixture more dense than the oil, (§ 9.)

The second effect to which [ allude is presented in the inverse case—that is
| to say, when the sphere of oil, instead of reaching the bottom of the vessel, rises,
_ on the contrary, to the surface of the alcoholic liquor, either because this liquor
| contains too little alcohol, or on account of a lowering of temperature, or because
| we have not been able to use prepared oil. When this happens the mass flat-
tens at first, more or less, at the surface of the mixture, as it this last opposed
‘aresistance to it. Then, after some time, it makes its way through, and then pre-
_ sents a portion of plane surface, more or less extended, on the level with that of the
_aleoholic liquor. But what occasions trouble is, that then, so to speak, it has

- contracted an adherence with this same surface, from which it is not detached
_ without great difficulty. It is, at first, easy to prevent the production of this
effect by pouring on the surface of the liquor a small layer of pure alcohol; and
this same means will serve also to destroy the effect in question, if it is already
produced. In this latter case we may again invert the vessel with caution.
The movement thus imparted to the ambient liquor suflices, ordinarily, to detach
the mass of oil, with the exception of a small portion, which almost always re-
mains adhering to the surface. t

26. Lastly, I have already mentioned the fact that, after a certain number of
experiments, the oil becomes filled with small spherules of alcoholic liquor.
Now, reciprocally, the ambient alcoholic liquor is also often’ sprinkled with a
multitude of small spherules of oil. It is scarcely necessary to remark that,
when all these spherules have become too numerous, and we desire to restore
the liquids to their original transparency, this is easily accomplished by filtra-
tions similar to those of which I have spoken above, (§ 24.)

27. We have been hitherto engaged with the figures assumed by a liquid
mass abstracted from the action of gravity and submitted to the attraction of
its molecules, either when this mass is at rest, or when a movement of rotation

upon itself is imparted to it. Notwithstanding the difference of the laws which

the attractive forces follow in this case and in that of the large planetary masses,
we have seen produced, on a small scale, a striking representation of the
_ majority of the phenomena of configuration relative to the celestial bodies. In
_ the second part of this investigation we shall submit our liquid masses to new
forces, and we shall then see developed a series of phenomena quite as curious
_ but of a different class.

dents ain,

Sek Ag

«

¥

>

“

_ Nore.—Professor Faraday, who has repeated many of M. Plateau’s remarkable and beau-
_ tiful experiments, coloured his oil green, for the purpose of rendering it more distinctly visible
_in‘the spirit, by dissolving in it a little oxide of copper. This, he states, is easily done by
_ heating a little oil with the oxide, and then mingling that with the rest.

a 15s

%
:

996 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

SECOND SERIES.
PREFACE.

AT the period when attacked by the disease which has entirely deprived me of sight, I had
terminated the greater part of the experiments relating to this series, as well as the following.
M. Duprez, correspondent of the Brussels Academy, and M. Donny, had the kindness to
undertake those which were still wanting. I constantly directed their execution; nearly all
were made in my presence, and I followed all the details. I shave therefore considered
myself justified, in order to simplify the description, in expressing myself in the course of.
this investigation as if I had made the experiments.

With respect to the theoretical portions, I am indebted to the able assistance of one of my
colleagues, M. Lamar!e, who has most kindly devoted many long hours to listening to the
details of my investigations, and to aiding me in the explanation of several difficult points,
I am also indebted to another of my colleagues, M. Manderlier, for the execution of a part
of the caleulations.

May I be permitted to express in this place my gratitude to these devoted friends?
Thanks to their generous help, science is still an open field for me: notwithstanding the
infirmity with which I am afilicted, I am able to put in order the materials I have collected,
and even to undertake fresh researches. ; in .

Preliminary considerations and theoretical principles. General condition to
be satisfied by the free surface of a liquid mass withdrawn from the action of
gravity, and in a state of equilibrium. Liquid sphere.

1. The process described in the previous memoir enabled us to destroy the
action of gravity upon a liquid mass of considerable volume, leaving the mass
completely at liberty to assume the figure assigned to it by the other forces to
which it is subject. This process consists essentially in introducing a mass of
oil into a mixture of water and alcohol, the density of which is exactly equal
to that of the oil employed. The mass thengremains suspended in the sur-
rounding liquid, and behaves as if withdrawn from gravity. By this means we
have studied a series of phenomena of configuration, dependent either simply
upon the proper molecular attraction of the mass, or upon the combination of
this foree with the centrifugal force. We shall now abandon the latter force,
and introduce another of a different kind, the molecular. attraction exerted be-
tween liquids and solids; in other words, we shall cause the liquid mass to
adhere to solid systems, and study the various forms assumed under these cir-
cumstances by those portions of the surface which remain free. In this way
we shall have the curious spectacle presented by the figures of equilibrium ap-
pertaining to a liquid mass, absolutely devoid of gravity and adherent to a
given solid system.

But the figures which we shall obtain present another kind of interest. The
free portions of their surface belong, as we shall show, to more extended figures,
which may be conceived by the imagination, and which, in the same condition
of total absence of gravity, would belong to a perfectly free liquid mass; thus
our processes will partially realize the figures of equilibrium of a mass of this
kind. ‘Phe latter are far from being confined to the sphere; but among them
the sphere alone is capable of being completely formed, the others presenting
either infinite dimensions in certain directions, or other peculiarities which we

shall point out, and which equally render their realization in the complete.

state impossible.
Moreover, the results at which we shall arrive will constitute so many new
and unexpected confirmations of the theory of the pressures exerted by liquids
upon themselves in virtue of the mutual attraction of their molecules, a theory”
upon which the explanation of the phenomena of capillarity is based.
Lastly, in our liquid figures we shall discover remarkable properties, which.
will lead us to some important applications.

Ere LL

ee eS

Ll ae he eae:

ow See.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE-ACTION OF GRAVITY. 227

2. In order to guide us in our experiments, and also to enable us to com-
prehend their bearing, we shall first consider the question in a purely theoretic
point of view. The action of gravity being eliminated and the liquid mass
being at rest, the only forces upon which the figure of equilibrium will depend
will be the molecular attraction of the liquid for itself, and that exerted between
the liquid and the solid system to which we cause it to adhere. The action
of the latter force ceases at an excessively minute distance from the solid ;
hence, in regard to any point of the surface of the liquid situated at a sensible
distance from the solid, we have only to consider the first of the two above
forces, 2. e., the molecular attraction of the liquid for itself.

The general effect of the adhesive force exerted between the liquid and the
solid is to oblige the surface of the former to pass certain lines; for instance,
if a liquid mass of suitable volume be caused to adhere to an elliptic plate, the
surface of the mass will pass the elliptic outline of the plate. At every point
of this surface, situated ‘at a sensible distance from this margin, the molecular
attraction of the liquid for itself alone is in action.

Let us now examine into the fundamental condition which all points of the
-free surface of the mass must satisfy, in virtue of the latter force.

The determination of this condition and its analytical expression are com-
prised in the beautiful theories upon which the explanation of the phenomena
of capillarity is based, although geometricians have not specially studied the
problem of the figure of a liquid mass void of gravity adherent to a given solid
system. We shall, therefore, now resume the principles and the results of the
theories in question, at least those which relate directly to our subject.

3. Within the interior of a liquid mass, at any notable distance from its sur-
face, each molecule is equally attracted in every direction; but this is not the
case at or very near the surface. In fact, let us consider a molecule situated
at a distance from the surface less than the radius of the sphere of sensible
activity of the molecular attraction, and let us imagine this molecule to be the
centre of a small sphere having this same radius. It is evident that one por-
tion of this sphere being outside the liquid, the central molecule is no longer
equally attracted in every direction, and that a preponderating attraction is
directed towards the interior of the mass. If we now imagine a rectilinear
canal, the diameter of which is very minute, to exist in the liquid, commencing
at some point of the surface in a direction perpendicular to the latter, and ex-
tending to a depth equal to the above radius of activity, the molecules con-
tained in this minute canal, in accordance with what we have stated, will be
attracted towards the interior of the mass, and the sum of all these actions» will
constitute a pressure in the same direction. Now, the intensity of this pressure
depends upon the curves of the surface at that point at which the minute canal
commences. In fact, let us first suppose the surface to be concave, and let us
pass a tangent plane through the point in question. All the molecules situated
externally to this plane, and which are sufficiently near the minute canal for
the latter to penetrate within their sphere of activity, will evidently attract the
line of molecules which it contains from the interior towards the exterior of
the mass. If, therefore, we suppressed that portion of the liquid situated ex-
ternally to the plane, the pressure exerted by the line would be augmented.
Hence it follows that the pressure corresponding to a concave surface is less
than that which corresponds to a plane surface, and we may conceive that it
will be less in proportion as the concavity is more marked.

If the surface is convex, the pressure is, on the contrary, greater than when
the surface is plane. To render this evident, let us again draw a tangent plane
at that point at which the line of molecules commences, and let us imagine for
a moment that the space included between the convex surface and this plane is
filled with liquid. Let us then consider a molecule, m, of this space sufficiently
near, and from this point let fall a perpendicular upon the minute canal. The

228 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

action of the molecule m upon the portion of the line comprised between the
base of the perpendicular and the surface will attract this portion towards the
interior of the mass. If afterwards we take a portion of the line equal to
the former from the other side of the perpendicular, and commencing at the base
of the latter, the action of the molecule m upon this second portion will be equal
and opposite to that. which it exerted upon the first; so that these two portions
conjointly would neither be attracted towards the interior nor the exterior of
the mass; if beyond these two same portions another part of the line is com-
prised within the sphere of activity of m, this part will evidently be attracted
towards the exterior. The definitive action of m upon the line will then be in
the latter direction. Hence it follows that all the molecules of the space com-
prised between the surface and the tangent plane which are sufficiently near the
line to exert an effective action upon it, will attract it towards the exterior of

the mass. If, then, we suppress this portion of the liquid so as to reproduce. .

the convex surface, the result will be an augmentation of the pressure on the
part of the line. Thus the pressure corresponding to a convex surface is greater
than that corresponding to a plane surface, and its amount will evidently be
greater in proportion as the convexity is more marked.

4. If the surface has a spherical curvature, it may be demonstrated that, rep-
resenting the pressure corresponding to a plane surface by P, the radius of the
sphere to which the surface belongs by 7, and by A a constant, the pressure
exerted by a line of molecules, and reduced to unity of the surface, will have
the following value : Po A eT eran eee ee (1.)

r

r being positive in the case of a convex, and negative in that of a concave
surface.

Whatever be the form of the surface, let us imagine two spheres, the radii of
which are those of greatest and least curvature at the point under consideration.
It is evident that the pressure exerted by the line will be intermediate between
those corresponding to these two spheres, and calculation shows that it is ex-
actly their mean. Denoting the two radii in question by R and R’, the press-
ure exerted by the line, referred to the unity of surface, would be

AKU RT '
Pee a Se oe ld ee ene a :
+Hatw): (2)

The radii R and R’ are positive when they belong to convex curves, or, in other
terms, when they are directed to the interior of the mass; whilst they are nega-
tive when they belong to concave curves, @. e., when they are directed towards
the exterior.

5. From the preceding details we can now easily deduce the condition of
equilibrium relative to the free surface of the mass.

The pressures exerted by the lines of molecules which commence at the dif-
ferent points of the surface are transmitted to the whole mass ; consequently,
for the existence of equilibrium in the latter, all the pressures must be equal to
each other. In fact, let us imagine a minute canal running perpendicularly
from some point of the surface, and subsequently becoming recurved so as to
terminate perpendicularly at a second point of this same surfaze, it is evident
that equilibrium can only exist in this minute canal when the pressures exerted
by the lines which occupy its two extremities are equal; and if this equality
exists, equilibrium will necessarily exist also. Now, the pressures exerted by
the different lines depend upon the curves of the surface at the point at which
they commence; these curves must therefore be such, at the various points of
the free surface of the mass, as to determine everywhere the same pressure.

Such is the condition which it was our object to arrive at, and to which in
cach case the free surface of the mass must be subject.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 229

The analytical expression of this condition is directly deducible from the
general value of the pressure given in the preceding paragraph; we only require
to equalize this value to a constant, and, as the quantities P and A are them-
‘selves constant, it is in fact sufficient to make

1 1 ‘
R yO SA tapch iets sy ee 2) SS ets Peak diced sic (3.)
the quantity © being constant for the same figure of equilibrium.

This equation is the same as those which are given by geometricians for ea-
pillary surfaces, when, in the latter equations; the quantity representing gravity
is supposed to be O.

R and R’ may be replaced by their analytical values; we are thus led to a
complicated differential equation, which only appears susceptible of integration
in particular cases. Yet the equation (3) will be useful to us in the above sim-
ple form. Now we know that the normal plane sections which correspond to
the greatest and the least curvature at the same point of any surface form a
right angle with each other. Geometricians have shown, moreover, that if
any two other rectangular planes be made to pass through the same normal,
the radii of curvature, p and p’, corresponding to the two sections thus deter-

5 ; sth able ds ST aes 5
mined, will be such that the quantity —-+ — will be equal to the quantity
pp
1 if
ROR Hence the first of these two quantities may be substituted for the

second; and, consequently, the equation of equilibrium, in its most general
expression, will be

a kites teas Q ft ee ee wee eee ee ee ee ee (4.)
p

in which equation p and p' denote the radii of curvature of any two rectangular
sections passing through the same normal.

6. These geometric properties lead to another signification of the equation
(4.) We know that unity divided by the radius of curvature corresponding to

_. any point of a curve is the measure of the curvature at this point. The quantity

1 1
— + — represents, then, the sum of the curvatures of two normal rectangular
pp |

sections at the point of the surface under consideration. This being admitted,
if we imagine that the system of the two planes occupies successively
different positions in turning around the same normal, a sum of curvatures

‘1 eer ns 1
p i p" pl! ele per pry
_and, according to the property noticed in the preceding paragraph, all these
sums will have the same value. Consequently, if we add them together,
and let m denote the number of positions of the system of the two planes,
the total sum will be equal to x times the value of one of the partial sums,

1 F ae
+ —, &ce., will correspond to each of these positions ;
P

or to 7 C oe =) Now, this total sum is that of all the curvatures
pp

a ie a, —., &e., in number 2z, corresponding to all the sections determined
p p! me pe
y the two planes. If, then, we divide the above equivalent quantity by 2z,

the result = G ee aa ) will represent the mean of all these curvatures. Now,
ee

as this result is independent of the value of x, or of the number of positions
occupied by the system of the two planes, it will be eaually true if we suppose

>

930 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

this number to be infinitely great, or, in other words, if the successive positions —

of the system of the two planes are infinitely approximated, and consequently
if this same system turns around the normal in such a manner as to determine
all the curvatures which belong to the surface around the point in question.

The quantity 3G + 7) represents, then, the mean of all the curvatures of
=P P

the surface at the same point, or the mean curvature at this point. Now if, in

enh :
assing from one point of the surface to another, the quantity — + — retains
Pp 8 pa

i i :
the same value, ¢. ¢., if for the whole surface we have — + ——Q, this sur-
Pei Pea

face is such that its mean curvature is constant.

Considered in this purely mathematical point of view, the equation (4) has
formed the object of the researches of several geometricians, and we shalb profit
by these researches in the subsequent parts of this memoir.

Thus our liquid surfaces should satisfy this condition, that the mean curve
must be the same everywhere. We can understand that if this occurs, the
mean effect of the curvatures at each point upon the pressure corresponding to
this point also remains the same, and that this gives rise to equilibrium. Hence
we now see more clearly the nature of the surfaces we shall have to consider,
and why they constitute surfaces of equilibrium.

6*. We must now call attention to an immediate consequence of the theo-
retical principles which have led us to the general condition of equilibrium.
According to these principles, each of the lines of molecules exerting upon the
mass the pressures upon which its form depends, commences at the surface and
terminates at a depth equal to the radius of the sensible activity of the mole-
cular attraction, so that these lines collectively constitute a superficial layer,
the thickness of which is equal to the radius itself, and we know that this is
of extreme minuteness. It results from this that the formative forces exerted
by the liquid upon itself emanate solely from an excessively thin superficial
layer. We shall denominate this consequence the principle of the superficial
layer.

all the curvatures in it are the same at each point; also when our mass is per-
fectly free, 7. e., when it is not adherent to any solid which obliges its surtace
to assume some other curve, it in fact takes the form of the sphere, as shown
in the preceding memoir.

8. Before proceeding further, we ought to elucidate one point of great im-
portance in regard to the experimental part of-our investigations. The liquid

mass in our experiments being immersed in another liquid, the question may |
be asked whether the molecular actions exerted by the latter exert no influence .

upon the figure produced; or, in other words, whether the figure of equilibrium
of a liquid mass adherent to a solid system, and withdrawn from the action

of gravity by its immersion in another liquid of the same density as itself, is

exactly the same as if the mass adherent to the solid. system were really de-
prived of gravity and were placed in vacuo. Now, we shall show ithat this
really is the case. ‘The molecular actions resulting from the presence of the
surrounding liquid are of two kinds, viz., those resulting from the attraction of
this liquid for itself, and those resulting from the mutual attraction of the two
liquids. Let us first consider the former, imagining for an instant that the
others do not exist. The surrounding liquid being applied to the free surface
of the immersed mass, the former presents iz intaglio the same figure as the
latter mass presents in relief. Those molecules of this same liquid which are
near the common surface of the two media must then exert pressures of the same

7. A spherical surface evidently satisfies the condition of equilibrium, because -

i

in,

i.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 231

nature as those which we have considered throughout the preceding details,
towards the interior of the liquid to which they belong, and these pressures
must consequently also impart a figure of equilibrium to the surface in intaglio ;
so that if the immersed mass of itself had no tendency to assume any one figure
rather than another, the surrounding liquid would give it a determinate one, by
compelling it to mould itself in the above hollow figure. This is why a bubble
of air in a liquid assumes the globular form, solely in consequence of the pres-
sures exerted by the liquid upon it. Now let us suppose that the immersed
mass has assumed that figure which it would acquire 7 vacuo if really deprived
of gravity; the analytical condition of paragraph 5 would then be satisfied as
regards this mass. Now at each point of the common surface of the two media,
the radii of curvature p and p’ have the same absolute values, both in the case
of the immersed mass and of the hollow figure of the surrounding liquid, except

. that their signs are contrary, according as they are considered as referring to
one or the other of the two liquids. ‘To pass from one of the two figures to
the other, we need therefore only change the signs p and p’, or, what comes to
the same thing, change the sign of the constant C. Changing the sign does
not destroy the condition of equilibrium; and consequently, if the immersed
mass is in equilibrium as regards its own molecular attractions, the same will
hold good in the case of the hollow figure of the surrounding liquid. The
pressures of the latter liquid cannot, therefore, by themselves produce any
modification in the figure of equilibrium of the immersed mass.

Let us now introduce the second kind of molecular actions, 7. e., the mutual
attraction of the two liquids, and see what will be its effects. Let us imagine,
for an instant, that the immersed mass, or, for the sake of fixing the ideas, the
mass of oil in our experiments is replaced by the same kind of liquid as that
which surrounds it, z. e., by the alcoholic mixture. In other words, supposing
the vessel to contain only the alcoholic mixture and the solid system, let us
limit, in the imagination, a portion within the liquid of the same figure and
dimensions, and situated in the same manner as the preceding mass of oil. It
is then clear that the molecules of the mass near its surface being, like those
of the interior, completely surrounded by the same kind of liquid beyond their
sphere of activity, these molecules will no longer exert any pressure upon the
mass; consequently, the pressures which would exist if this mass could be
isolated must be considered as destroyed by the attractions emanating from
the surrounding liquid. The latter forces are, therefore, all equal and opposite
to the pressures in question. Now, as these are all equal to each other in ac-
cordance with the figure which we have attributed to the imaginary surface of
the mass, the attractions emanating from the surrounding liquid will also all be
equal to each other. If we now replace the mass of oil, the attractions emanating
from the surrounding liquid may certainly alter in absolute value, but it is evi-
dent that they will retain their directions, and that they will remain equal to
each other. We therefore see that they will only diminish, by the same quan-
tity, all the pressures exerted by the mass of oil upon itself; consequently, as
all the differences remain equal to each other, the condition of equilibrium will
sti!l be satisfied as regards that mass. It is evident that the same mode of
reasoning may be applied to the pressures exerted by the surrounding liquid
upon itself—pressures which will retain their directions, all of which will only
be diminished to the same extent by the attractions emanating from the oil, so
that the condition of equilibrium will still be satisfied as regards the hollow

figure of the surrounding liquid. ‘Thus the whole of the molecular actions due
to the presence of the surrounding liquid will not tend in any way to modify
the figure of equilibrium of the immersed mass, which figure will, consequently,
be idettically the same as if that mass were really void of gravity and were
placed i vacuo. We can, therefore, leave the surrounding liquid completely

232 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

out of the question, its sole function being to neutralize the action of gravit
upon the mass forming the object of the experiments.

9. We shall now pass to the experimental part. And first, to avoid useless
repetition, we shall say a few words relative to the apparatus to be used. As
the liquid always consists of a mass of oil immersed in an alcoholic mixture of
the same density as itself, our solid systems will all consist of iron, and this for
the following reasons: In ordinary circumstances oil contracts, I believe, per-
fect adhesion with all solids; but this is not exactly the case when the same
oil is plunged into a mixture of water and alcohol ; for then, in the case of cer-
tain solids, as, e.g., glass, the phenomena of adhesion sometimes undergo modi-
fications which give rise to trouble In the experiments. We shall meet with
an instance of this in the subsequent parts of this memoir. Now, the metals
do not present this inconvenience ; moreover, the form which we have given to
most of our solid systems would render their construction of any other sub-
stance besides a metal difficult. Now, among metals we prefer iron, not copper,
because oil removes nothing from iron, whilst by prolonged contact with copper
it slightly attacks it, acquires a green color, and increases in density, which is
a great inconvenience.*

When we wish to use one of these solid systems of iron, before introducing
it into the vessel, it must be completely moistened with oil; and for this pur-
pose it is not suflicient simply to immerse it in this liquid, but it must be eare-
tully rubbed with the finger. The presence of this coating facilitates the
adherence of the liquid mass.

We shall continue to make use of the vessel with plane walls, described in
the preceding memoir, § 8;+ a common-shaped bottle, and the flask previously
mentioned (§§ 5 and 8) in the same memoir, are not well adapted, because they
do.not exhibit the true figure of the mass.

When the solid system is composed of a single piece, it is supported by a
vertical iron wire, which is screwed to the lower end of the axis traversing the

metallic stopper; but for certain experiments the solid system is formed of two .

isolated parts, and then only one of them is attached to the axis, as I have
stated; the other is supported by small feet which rest upon the bottom of the
vessel. It need not be mentioned that those liquids only which are prepared
in such a manner as to-be incapable of exerting any chemical action upon each
other can be employed, (§§ 6 and 24 of the preceding memoir.)

In addition to the little funnel for introducing the mass of oil into the vessel,
the iron wire which serves for uniting the isolated spheres, &c., of which I have
spoken in the preceding memoir, the experiments require some other accessory
instruments, as, In the first place, a small glass syringe, the point of which is
elongated and slightly bent. It is used as a sucking-pump, to remove, for in-

* In a letter which Dr. Faraday did me the honor of sending to me, regarding the pre-
ceding memoir, he informed me that, when about to repeat my experiments before a numerous
audience, wishing to produce a still greater difference in the aspect of the two liquids, he
dissolved intentionally a little oxide of copper in the oil, so as to render the latter of a green

color. The compound haying thus been made beforehand, and rendered perfectly homoge-

neous, and the alcoholic mixture having been regulated according to the density of the modi-
fied oil, the presence of the copper in solution could not produce any inconvenience ; but in
this case also the solid systems should unquestionably be made of iron.

tIn making the experiments rela.ing to the present memoir, I found that it was requisite
slightly to modify the apparatus in question. The second perforation in the plate forming
the lid of the vessel should be but little smaller than the centrat aperture ; its neck should be
less elevated; and, lastly, it should be placed near the other; if left as preyiously described
and figured, the employment of the accessory instruments which we sha!l describe would be
impossible. Moreover, the neck of the central aperture should be furnished with a slight
rin, so that it may be easily taken hold of when we wish to remove the lid, as, e. g.,, when it
is required to attach a solid system which is too large to pass through this same aperture to
the axis which traverses the stopper. Lastly, the vessel should be furmished with a stop
cock at its lower part, so that it may be easily emptied.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 233

stance, a portion of the oil composing the liquid mass, whes it is required to
diminish the volume of the latter, or to withdraw the entire mass of oil from the
vessel, an operation which is sometimes required, &c. In the second place, two
wooden spatulas, one being slightly bent, the other straight, covered with fine
linen or cotton stuff. When these spatulas are introduced into the vessel , and
the cloth with which they are furnished is thoroughly impregnated with the
alcoholic liquid, the mass of oil does not adhere to them. Hence, by means of
one or the other of these spatulas, the mass can be moved in the surrounding
liquid, and conducted to the place which it is required to occupy in the interior
of the vessel without any of it remaining upon the spatula. This is the pur-
pose for which these instruments are intended. After they have been used,
care must always be taken to agitate them in pure alcohol before allowing
them to dry. If this precaution ‘be omitted, the alcoholic mixture with which
they are impregnated, on evaporating, would leave the small quantity of oil
which it held in solution upon their surface; and when the same instruments
are used again, the mass of oil would adhere to it. In the third place, an iron
spatula, the uses of which we shall point out in the proper place. Lastly, as it
is necessary, in all the experiments which we shall relate, that the alcoholic
liquid should be homogeneous, the process indicated in the preceding memoir
(§ 25) cannot be used to prevent the mass of oil from becoming occasionally
adherent to the bottom of the vessel; but the same result is obtained by cover-
ing the bottom with a panesS piece of linen.

New experiments in support of the theoretical principles brought forward in the
preceding observations. Figures of equilibrium terminated by surfaces of
spherical curvature.. New principle relating to layers of liquids.

10. The facts which we shall first describe may be considered as constituting
the experimental demonstration of the principle of the superficial layer, (§ 6, dzs.)
Let us imagine any solid system to be immersed in the liquid mass, and let us
give to this mass such a volume that it may constitute a sphere which com-
pletely envelops the solid system without the latter reaching the surface at any
point. ‘Then, if the above principle be true, the presence of the solid system
will exert no influence upon the figure of equilibrium, because, under these
circumstances, the superficial layer, from which the configuring actions emanate,
remains perfectly free; whilst if these actions emanated from all points of the
mass, any unsymmetrical modification occurring in the internal parts of the
latter would necessarily produce one in the external form. ‘This is confirmed
by experiment. ‘The condition of a solid system completely enveloped by the
mass of oil would be somewhat difficult to realize; but it must be remembered
that, in the experiments relating to the preceding memoir, the system of the disk,
by means of which the mass was made to revolve, was very nearly in this con-
dition, because it did not reach the external surface of the mass excepting at
the two very small spaces which gave passage to its axis. But we then saw
(§ 9 of the preceding memoir) that when the mass was at rest, its sphericity
was only very slightly altered by the presence of this system. 'The theoretical
condition may be more nearly approached by taking a very fine metallic wire
for the axis of this same system; in this case the alteration in form is quite
imperceptible. ‘The axis being supposed to be vertical, the disk may, moreover,
be placed so that its centre coincides with that of the mass of oil, or is situated
above or below the latter without producing any diiference. I shall relate
another fact of an analogous nature. In the course of the experiments, it some-
times happens that portions of the alcoholic liquid become imprisoned in the
interior of the mass of oil, forming so many isolated spheres. Now, however
these spheres may be situated in the interior of the mass, not the least alteration

__ is produced in the figure of the latter.

934 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

11. Again, let us cause some kind of solid system to penetrate the liquid —
mass; but now let the'mass be of too small a volume to: be capable of com-_
pletely enveloping this system. The latter will then necessarily reach the
superficial layer ; and, if the principle in question be true, the figure of the _
liquid mass will be modified, or, in other words, will cease to remain spherical. _
This does really oecur, as we might have expected ; the liquid mass becomes i)
extended at those portions of the solid system which project externally from —
its surface ; it finally either occupies the whole of these portions, or only a part —
of their extent, according to the form and the dimensions of the solid system,
and thus assumes a new figure of equilibrium. We shall meet with examples fp
of this hereafter, (§§ 14, 15, 17.) é.

12. Instead of causing the solid system to penetrate the interior of the liquid _
mass, let it simply be placed in contact with the external surface of the latter. x
An action being then established at a point of the superficial layer, equilibrium _
must be destroyed, and the figure of the liquid mass ought again to be modified.
This really occurs; the mass becomes extended upon the surface presented to
it, and consequently acquires a different shape. This result might also have
been anticipated from what occurs under ordinary circumstances, when a dro
of water is placed upon a previously moistened solid surface. “One might be ;
induced to believe that, as regards the actual result, this case is referable to —
that of the preceding paragraph or that in paragraph 10; for it appears that —
the liquid mass, becoming extended upon the solid system so as to obtain the —
new figure of equilibrium, should ultimately occupy or envelop this system in
the same manner as if the latter had been made to penetrate its interior directly. _
Under certain circumstances this must occur; but the experiments which are
about to be related will show that under other circumstances the result is
totally different. t

13. Let us take for the solid system a thin circular plate,* attached by its
centre to the iron-wire which supports it, (Fig. 1,) and let us produce the

“i. Steel

ee

Fig 1. Fig. 2.

adhesion of its lower surface to the upper part of the mass of oil.t Directly
contact is completely established, the oil extends rapidly over the surface pre-

* The diameter of that which I have used is 4 centimetres. I mention this diameter for
the sake of being definite. Jt is evident that in our experiments the dimensions of the appa-
ratus are completely arbitrary, except that if these dimensions exceed certain limits, the
operations will become embarrassing in consequence of the large quantities of liquid which
would be required.

+ In order that this operation may be effected with facility, the sphere of oil must first
yemain in the surrounding liquid beneath the central aperture in the lid; the plate being then
introduced into the vessel, we have merely to lower it by means of the axis traversing the
stopper to bring it towards the liquid mass. If the latter does not occupy the position in
question, it must be previously placed there by means of a spatula covered with lincn, (§ 9)
It must be remarked here, that true contact between the plate and the sphere of oil does not
usually ensue immediately; a certain resistance has to be overcome, analogous to that treated
of in the note to paragraph 4 of the preceding memoir; but to overcome this, the liquid
sphere need only be gently moved by means of the plate. The slight resulting pressure
soun causes the rupture of the obstacle and the production of adhesion.

oy UeweaAs ze

Ine
iq

ale eee ge BEN DOE

poor me de

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 235

_ sented to it; but, what is remarkable, although the precaution has been taken
_ of rubbing the whole of the system, (§ 9,) that is, the two faces of the plate as
_ well as its rim, with oil, the oil terminates abruptly at this rim without passing

to the other side of the plate, and thus presents a sudden interruption in the
curvature of its surface. In the case in question, the new figure acquired by
the mass is a portion of a sphere. This portion will be as much larger in pro-

rtion to the complete sphere as the volume of oil is greater; but the curvature
will always terminate abruptly at the margin of the plate. (See Fig. 2, which

_ represents a section of the solid system and the adherent mass in the ease of

three different volumes of the latter.)

The cause of this singular interruption of continuity is readily understood.
The rim of the plate reaching to the superficial layer, it is natural that some-
thing peculiar should occur along this margin, and that the continuity of form

_ should cease at that point where a foreign attractive action is exerted without

transition on the superficial layer.

14. Let us again make use of the above plate; but instead of presenting one
of its faces to the exterior of the sphere of oil, let us insert the plate edgewise
into the interior of this sphere.* The liquid will necessarily extend over both
faces of the solid; and if the diameter of the primitive sphere were less than
that of the plate, the oil will be seen to form two spherical segments upon the
two faces in question, the curvatures of which will still terminate abruptly at
the margin of the plate. These two segments may be either equal or unequal,
according as the edge of the plate has been introduced into the liquid sphere in
such a manner that the plane of the plate passes through the centre of the
sphere or not. ‘The upper segment will be slightly deformed by the action of
the suspending wire; but this effect will be less sensible in proportion to the
thinness of the wire in question. Fig. 3 represents the result of the experiment
with two unequal segments. The discontinuity of the curvatures is a very
general fact, which we shall frequently find to recur in the course of our
experiments; it will hereafter lead us to very important consequences.

Fig. 3. Pig. 8.

15. I have repeated the same experiment, substituting a plate of an elliptic
form for the circular plate. In this, as in the preceding case, the oil extends
over both faces of the solid, so as entirely to cover them; and, if the volume of

* This operation is performed as follows: The stopper to which the system of the plate is
attached is kept at some distance above the neck of the central aperture, in such a manner,
however, that the latter is immersed to a sufficient depth in the alcoholic mixture. The
plate can then be moved with tolerable freedom, and it is conducted towards the liquid
mass For this purpose the latter ought previously to occupy a suitable position. Imme-
diately the liquid mass is cut, the piate is kept still until the action is termimaicd, after
which the stopper is carefully placed in the neck. A process the reverse to the preceding
may also be made use of. The liquid mass is first made to occupy a position near the second
aperture, and a sufficient distance from the axis which passes through the centre of the cen-

_ tral aperture; then, having fixed the solid system firmly in the position which it is to occupy,

move the liquid mass towards it, and when this has been cut, allow the action to continue

aninterruptedly. These processes are also employed in other experiments, and it is enough

to have pointed them out once. In some cases the second is the only practicable one. This.
may be easily decided upon in making the experiments.

936 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the liquid mass is not too great, the curvatures again terminate abruptly aléng_
the rim of the plate. By gradually augmenting the volume of the primitive
sphere of oil, without, however, rendering it sufficiently large to allow of the
mass completely enveloping the plate so as to retain the spherical form, a limit
is attained at which the edge of the plate ceases to reach the superficial layer
of the new figure of equilibrium except at the two summits of the ellipse. The
discontinuity in the curvatures then only occurs at these two places. Figs. 4
and 5 exhibit the result of the experiment in this case. In Fig. 4 the long axis
of the ellipse is presented to view, in Fig. 5 its short axis.

16. All the facts which we have hitherto detailed show that so long as the
interior of the mass is modified its external shape undergoes no alteration ; but
that directly the superficial layer is acted upon, the mass acquires a different
form. ‘I'o complete the proof, by experiment alone, that the configuring actions’
exerted by the liquid upon itself emanate solely from the superficial layer, the
only point would then be the possibility of reducing a liquid mass to its super-
ficial layer, or at least to a thin pellicle, and to see if in this state it would
assume the same figure of equilibrium as a complete mass. Now this is com-
pletely realized in soap-bubbles; for these bubbles, when detached from the
tube in which they have been made, assume, as is well known, a spherical form,
i. e., the same figure as that which we find a complete mass acquires in our
apparatus when withdrawn from the action of gravity and perfectly free.
When the mass adheres to a solid system, which modifies its figure, it is clear
that the entire ‘configurative action is composed of two parts, one of which

belongs to the solid system; and we find that this system only exerts if when
acting upon the superficial layer; the other belongs to the liquid, and emanates
directly from the free portion of this same superficial layer. The facts which
we have related show clearly what is the seat of this second part of the whole
configurative action, but they do not make us acquainted with the nature of
the forces of which it consists. On referring to theory, we find that these forees
consist in pressures exerted upon the mass by all the elements of the superficia!
layer, pressures the intensity of which depend upon the curvatures of the surface
at the points to which they correspoud. Hence it follows. that the mass is
pressed upon by every part of its superficial layer, with an intensity depending
in the same manner upon the curvatures of the surface. For instance, a mass
the free surface of which presents a convex spherical curvature, will be pressed
upon by the whole of the superficial layer belonging to this free surface, with a
greater intensity than if this surface had been plane; and this intensity will be
more considerable in proportion as the curvature is greater, or as the radius of
the sphere to which the surface belongs is less. Let us see whether experiment
will lead us to the same conclusions.

17. The solid system which we shall employ is a cireular perforated plate,
(Fig. 6.) It is placed vertically, and attached by a point of its circumference
to the iron wire which supports it. Let the diameter of the sphere of oil be less
than that of the plate, and let the latter be made to penetrate the mass by its
edge in a direction which does not pass through the centre of the sphere. At
first, as in the experiment at paragraph 14, the oil will form two unequal
spherical segments ; but matters do not remain in this state. 'The most convex
segment is seen to diminish gradually in volume, consequently in curvature,
whilst the other increases, until they have both become exactly equal. One
part of the oil then passes through the aperture in the plate, so as to be trans-
ferred from one of the segments towards the other, until the above equality is
attained.

Let us now examine into the consequences deducible from this experiment,
judging from the preceding ones, and independently of all theoretical considera-
tions. When the oil has once become extended over both surfaces of the plate,
in such a manner that the superficial layer is applied to every part of the

’

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. aan

margin of the latter, the action of the solid system is completed; and the move-
ments which subsequently ensue in the liquid mass, to attain the figure of
equilibrium, can only then be due to an action emanating from the free part of
the superficial layer. It is, therefore, the latter which compels the liquid to pass
through the aperture in the plate; and the phenomenon must necessarily result
either from a pressure exerted by that portion of the superficial layer which
belongs to the most convex segment, or by a traction produced by the portion
of this same layer belonging to the other segment. Our experiment not being
alone capable of determining our choice between these two methods of explaining
the effect in question, let us provisionally adopt the first, ¢. e., that which attributes
it to pressure.+ In our experiment, this pressure emanates from the superficial
layer of the most curved segment; but it is easy to see that the superficial layer
of the other segment also exerts a pressure which, alone, is less than the pre-
ceding. In fact, if for the most curved segment a segment less curved than the
other were substituted, the oil would then be driven in the opposite direction.
Hence it follows that the entire superficial layer of the mass exerts a pressure
upon the liquid which it encloses, and that the intensity of this pressure depends
upon the curvatures of the free surface. Moreover, as the liquid proceeds from
the most curved segment to that which is least so, it is evident that in the case
of a convex surface, the curvature of which is spherical, the pressure is greater
in proportion as the curvature is more marked, or as the radius of the sphere to
which the surface belongs is smaller. Lastly, since a plane surface may be
considered as belonging to a sphere, the radius of which is infinitely great, it is
evident that the pressure corresponding to a convex surface, the curvature of
which is spherical, is superior to that which would correspond to a plane surface.
All these results were announced by theory. They pertectly verify, then, that
part of the latter to which they refer, and this concordance ought now.to decide
in favor of the hypothesis of pressure. This same part of the theory was already
verified, in its application to liquids submitted to the action of gravity, by the
phenomenon of the depression presented by liquids in capillary tubes, the walls
of which they do not moisten; but the series of our experiments, setting out
with the elements of the theory, and following it step by step, yields far more
diréct and complete verification. Our last experiment leads us to still further
consequences. The liquid passing from one of its segments to the other, so
long as their curvatures have not become identical, and the pressures corre-
sponding to the two portions of the superficial layer becoming equal to each
other simultaneously with the two curvatures, it follows that the mass only
attains its figure of equilibrium when this equality of pressure is established.
We thus have a primary verification of the general theory of equilibrium which
governs our liquid figures, a condition in virtue of which the pressures exerted
by the superficial layer ought to be everywhere the same. Moréover, it is
evident that if a superficial layer, having a spherical curvature, exerts by itself
a pressure, this principle must be true, however small the extent of this layer
may be supposed to be. It follows, therefore, that an extremely minute por-
_tion of the superficial layer of our mass, taken from any part of either of the
two segments, ought itself to be the seat of a slight pressure; consequently,
that the total pressure exerted by the superficial layer is the result of individual
pressures emanating from all the elements of this layer. This was also shown
by theory. Further, following the same train of reasoning, we see that the
intensity of each of the minute individual pressures ought to depend upon the
curvature of the corresponding element of the layer, which is also in contormity
with theory. Lastly, as in a state of equilibrium the two segments belong to
spheres of equal radii, the curvature is the same in all points of the surface
of the mass; whence it follows that all the minute elementary pressures are
equal to each other. The general condition of equilibrium (§ 5) is, therefore,
perfectly verified in the instance of our experiment.

238 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

18. The principle of the superficial layer, applied to the preceding expéri-
ment, allows of the latter being modified in such a manner as to obtain a very
remarkable result. When the figure of equilibrium is once attained, the per-
forated plate acts upon the superficial layer by its external border only. ‘The
whole of the remainder of this plate then exerts no influence upon the figure in
question. Hence it follows that this figure would still be the same if the aper-
ture were enlarged, only the greater the diameter of the latter the less time is
required for the establishment of the equality between the two curvatures.
Lastly, we ought to be able to enlarge the aperture nearly to the margin of the
plate without changing the figure of equilibrium ; or, in other words, to reduce
the solid system to a simple ring of thm iron wire. Now, this is confirmed by
experiment; but, to put it in execution, we cannot confine ourselves, as before,
to making the solid system penetrate a sphere of oil of less diameter than that
of this same system, and subsequently to allow the molecular forces to act, be-
cause the metallic wire, on account of its small extent of surface, would not
exert a suflicient action upon the superficial layer to cause the liquid to extend
so as to adhere to the entire surface of the ring. The mass would then remain
traversed by part of the latter, and its spherical form would not be sensibly
altered if the metallic wire were small; the liquid surface would merely be
slightly raised upon the wire in the two small spaces at which it issued from
the mass. ‘To speak more exactly, under the circumstances in question two
figures of equilibrium are possible. One of these differs but very slightly from
the sphere; it is not symmetrical with regard to the ring, one part of which
traverses it whilst the other part remains free. The second figure is perfectly
symmetrical as regards the ring, and completely embraces its margin; its surface
is composed of two equal spherical curves, the margins of which rest upon the
ring; in other words, it constitutes a true doubly convex lens of equal curva-
tures. This is the figure which it is our object to obtain. For this purpose

we first give the sphere of oil a diameter slightly greater than that of the

metallic ring; we then introduce the latter into the mass so that it is com-
pletely enveloped; lastly, by means of the small giass syringe, (§ 9,) some of
the liquid is gradually removed from the mass.* As this diminishes in volume,
its surface is soon applied to every part of the margin of the ring, and the
volume continuing to diminish, the lenticular form becomes manifest. After-
wards, by withdrawing more of the liquid, the curvatures of the two surfaces
may be reduced to that degree which is considered suitable. In this way a
beautiful double convex lens is obtained, which is entirely liquid except at its
circumference. Moreover, in consequence of the index of refraction of the
olive oil being much greater than that of the alcoholic mixture, the lens in
question possesses all the properties of converging lenses; thus, it magnifjes
objects seer through it, and this magnifying power may be varied at pleasure
by removing some of the liquid from, or adding more to, the mass. Our figure,
therefore, realizes that which could not be obtained with glass lenses, 7. e., it
forms a lens, the curvature and magnifying power of which are variable. The
diameter of that which I formed was 7 centimetres, and the thickness of the
metallic wire was about $a millimetre. A much finer wire might have been
used with the same success; but the apparatus would then become inconve-
nient on account of the facility with which it would be put out of shape. By
operating with care, the curvatures of the lens may be diminished so as almost
to make them vanish; thus I have been enabled to reduce the lens which I
formed, and the diameter of which, as I have stated, was 7 centimetres, to
such an extent that it was only 2 or 3 millimetres in thickness. Hence we
might presume that it would be possible to obtain, by a proper mode of pro-

* The point of the instrument is introduced into the vessel through the second aperture in
the lid.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 239

ceeding, a layer of oil with plane faces. This is, in fact, confirmed by expe-
rience, as we shall see further on.

19. 'T’o render the curvatures of the liquid lens very slight, the point of the

*syringe must naturally be applied to the middle of the lens, because the maxi-
mum of thickness exists there. Now, when a certain limit has been attained,
the mass suddenly becomes divided at that point, and a curious phenomenon is

produced. The liquid rapidly retires in every direction towards the metallic
circumference, and forms a beautiful liquid ring along the latter; but this ring
does not last for more than one or two seconds, after which it spontaneously
resolves itself into several small, almost spherical masses, adhering to various parts
of the ring of iron wire, which passes through them like the beads of a necklace.

20. The reasoning which led us, at the commencement of paragraph 18, to
reduce the primitive solid system to a simple metallic wire representing the line
in the direction of which this system is met*by the superficial layer belonging
to the new figure of equilibrium, may be generalized. We may conclude that
whenever a solid system introduced into the mass is not met by the superficial
layer of the figure produced, excepting in the direction of small lines only, sim-
ple iron wires, representing the lines in question, may be substituted for the
solid system employed. But if the volume of the primitive solid system were
considerable, it would evidently be requisite to add to the mass of oil an equiva-
lent volume of this liquid, to occupy the place of the solid parts suppressed.

There is, however, an exception to this principle ; it occurs when the solid
system separates the entire mass into isolated portions, as in the experiment of
paragraph 14; for then these portions assume figures independent of each other,
and which may correspond to different pressures. In this case the suppression
of one portion of the solid system would place the figures primitively isolated

in communication, and the inequality of the pressures would necessarily induce

~ achange in the whole figure. Excluding this exception, the principle is gen-
eral, and the result of it is that well-developed effects of configuration may be
obtained on employing simple iron wires instead of solid systems. The experi-
ment of the biconvex lens furnishes one instance of this, and we shall meet with
a great many others hereafter. Nevertheless, to be enabled to comprehend the
influence of a simple metallic wire upon the configuration of the liquid mass, it
is not requisite to consider this wire as substituted for a complete solid system;
it may also be considered by itself. It is, in fact, clear that the solid wire
acting by attraction upon the superficial layer of the mass, the curvatures of
the two portions of the surface resting upon it ought not to have any further
relation of continuity with each other. The metallic wire may, therefore, de-
termine a sudden transition between these two portions of the surface, the eurv-
atures of which will terminate abruptly at the limit which it places to them.

The principles which we have established ought undoubtedly to be considered ,

as among the most remarkable and curious consequences of the prineiple of the

_ superficial layer, and one cannot avoid being astonished when we

see the liquid maintained in such different forms by an action ex- 7 7
erted upon the extremely minute parts of the superficial layer of
the mass.

21. We have experimentally studied the influence of convex
surfaces of spherical curvature; let us now ascertain what experi-
ment is able to teach us in regard to plane surfaces and concave

surfaces of spherical curvature. Let us take for the solid system a
large strip of iron, curved circularly so as to form a hollow cylinder,
and attached to the suspending iron wire by some point on its outer

surface, (Fig.7.) To prevent the production of accessory phenomena
in the experiment, we shall suppose that the breadth of the metallic
band is less than the diaieter of the cylinder formed by the same band, or that it
isat least equal to it. Make the mass of oil adhere to the internal surface of this

»

w
940 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS ~

system, and let us suppose that the liquid is in sufficient quantity then to project
outside the cylinder. In this case the mass will present on each side a convex
surface of spherical curvature, and the curvatures of these two surfaces will be
equal. This figure is a consequence of what we have previously seen; and we
must not stop here, for it will serve us as a starting point in obtaining other
figures which we require. Apply the point of the syringe to one of the above
convex surfaces, and gradually withdraw some of the liquid; the curvatures of
the two surfaces will then gradually diminish, and with care they may be ren-
dered perfectly plane. It follows from this first result that a plane surface is
also a surface of equilibrium, which is evidently in conformity with theory. Let
us now apply the end of the syringe to one of these plane surfaces, and again
remove a small quantity of liquid. The two surfaces will then become simul-
taneously hollow, and will form two concave surfaces of spherical curvature, the
margins of which rest upon the metallic band, and the curvatures of which are
the same. Finally, by the further removal of the liquid, the curvatures of the
two surfaces become greater and greater, always remaining equal to each other.

Hence it results, first, that concave surfaces of spherical curvature are still
surfaces of equilibrium, which is also in accordance with theory. Moreover, as
the plane surface left free sinks spontaneously as soon as that to which the in-
strument is applied becomes concave, it must be concluded that the superficial
layer belonging to the former exerts a pressure which is counterbalanced by an
equal force emanating from the opposite superficial plane layer, but which ceases
to be so, and which drives away the liquid as soon as this opposite layer com-
mences to become concave. Again, as further abstraction of the liquid deter-
mines a new rupture of equilibrium, so that the concave surface opposite to that
upon which we directly act exhibits a new spontaneous depression when the
curvature of the other surface increases, it follows that the concave superficial
layer belonging to the former still exerted a pressure, which at first was neutral-
ized by an equal pressure arising from the other concave layer, but which be-
comes preponderant, and again drives away the liquid, when the curvature of
this other layer is increased.

Hence it follows, first, that a plane surface produees a pressure upon the
liquid; second, that a concave surface of spherical curvature also produces a
pressure; third, that the latter is inferior to that corresponding to a plane surface;
fourth, that it is less in proportion as the concavity is greater, or that the radius
of the sphere to which the surface belongs is smaller. These results were also
pointed out by theory, and had already been verified in the application of the
latter. to liquids submitted to the action of gravity, by the phenomenon of the
elevation of a liquid column in a capillary tube, the walls of which are moistened
by it.

Reasoning upon these facts, as we have done at the end of paragraph 17 in
regard to convex surfaces of spherical curvature, we shall arrive at the conclu-
sion that the entire pressure exerted by a concave superficial layer of spherical
curvature is the result of minute individual pressures arising from all the elements
of this layer, and that the intensity of each of these minute pressures depends
upon the curvature of that element of the layer from which it emanates. Our
last experiment, therefore, perfectly verifies that part of the theory which relates
to plane and convex surfaces of spherical curvature. Lastly, in the state of
equilibrium of our liquid figure, the curvature being the same at all points of each
of the two coneave surfaces, it is again evident that all the minute elementary
pressures are equal to cach other, which gives a new complete verification of
the general condition of equilibrium.

22. The figure we have just obtained constitutes a biconcave lens of equal
curvatures, and possesses all the properties of diverging lenses, z. e., it dimin-
ishes objects seen through it, &c. Moredver, as the curvature of the two sur-
faces may be increased or diminished by as small degrees as is wished, it follows

5 So png nena ce aman ee aL eR in IE eae

”

“ - WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. DAY

that we thus obtain a diverging lens, the curvature and action of which are
variable. °
23. Now let us suppose that we have increased the curvatures of the lens
until the two surfaces nearly touch each other by their summits.* We might
presume that if the removal of the liquid were continued, the mass would be-
come disunited at that point at which this contact took place, and that the oil
would recede in every direction towards the metallic band. ‘This is, however,
not the case; we then observe in the centre of the figure the formation of a
small sharply defined circular space, through which objects no “longer appear
diminished, and we easily recognize that this minute space is occupied by a
layer of oil with plane faces. If the removal of the liquid be gradually con-°
tinued, this layer increases more and more in diameter, and may thus be ex-
tended to within a tolerably short distance of the solid surface. In my experi-
ment, the diameter of the metallic cylinder was seven centimetres, and I have
been enabled to increase the size of the layer until its circumference was not
more than about five millimetres from the solid surface; but at this instant it
broke, and the liquid of which it consisted rapidly receded towards that which
still adhered to the metallic band. The fact which we have just described is
very remarkable, both in itself and in the singular theoretical consequences to
which it leads. In fact, that part of the mass to which the layer adheres by its
margin presgnts concave surfaces, whilst those of the layer are plane; now the
existence of such a system of surfaces in a continuous liquid mass seems in op-’
position to theory, since it appears evident that the pressures cannot be equal
_ inthis case. But let us investigate the question more minutely.
|. 24. According to theory, the pressure corresponding to any point of -the sur-
face of a liquid mass, as we have seen, (§ 3,) is the integral of the pressures
_ exerted by each of the molecules composing a rectilinear line perpendicular to
| the surface at that point, and equal in length to the radius of the sphere of
activity of the molecular attraction. The analytical expression of this integral
contains no other variables than the radii of the greatest and of the least curva-
ture at the point under consideration, (§ 4,) consequently the pressure in
_ question varies only. with the curvatures of the surface at the same point. This
is rigorously true when the liquid is of any notable thickness; but we shall
show that in the case of an extremely thin layer of liquid there is another
element which exerts an influence upon the pressure. Let us conceive a liquid
layer, the thickness of which is less than twice the radius of the sphere of sen-
sible activity of the molecular attraction. Let each molecule be conceived to
be the centre of a small sphere with this same radius, (§ 3,) and let us first
consider a molecule situated in the middle of the thickness of the layer. The
little sphere, the centre of which is occupied by this molecule, will be intersected
_ by the two surfaces of the layer, consequently it will not be entirely full of
liquid; but the segments suppressed on the outside of the two surfaces being
equal, the molecule will not be more attracted perpendicularly in one direction
than in the other. Now let a small right line, normal to and terminating at the
two surfaces, pass through this same molecule, and let us consider a second
molecule situated at some other point of this.right line. The little sphere
which belongs to the second molecule in question may again be intersected by
the two surfaces of the layer; but then the two suppressed segments will be
unequal; the molecule will consequently be subjected to a preponderating at-
| traction, evidlently directed towards the thickness of the layer. The molecule
_ will then exert a pressure in this direction, and it must be remarked that this
pressure will be less than if the liquid had any notabie thickness, the molecule

* To effect this operation, the point of the syringe must not be placed in the middle of the
figure, as in the case of the doubly convex lens; but, on the contrary, near the metallic
band, as this is now the point where the greatest thickness of the liquid exists.

168

"

7

i
242 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS ©

being situated at the same distance from the surface ; for in the latter case the
little sphere would only be eut on one side, and its opposite part would be per-
fectly full of liquid. It might also happen that the little sphere belonging to
the molecule in question in the thin layer is only cut on one side ; the molecule
will then still exert a pressure in the same direction, but its intensity will then
be as great as in the case of a thick mass. It is easy to see that if the thick-
ness of the layer is less than the simple length of the radius of the molecular
attraction, the little spheres will all be eut on both sides; whilst if the thickness
in question issecomprised between the length of the above radius and twice this
same length, a portion of the minute spheres will be cut on one side only. In
both cases the pressure exerted by any molecule being always directed towards
the middle of the thickness of the layer, it is evident that the integral pressure
corresponding to any point of either of the two surfaces will be the result of the
pressures individually exerted by each of those molecules, which, commencing
at the point in question, are arranged upon half the length of the small perpen-
dicular. Now each of the two halves of the small perpendicular being less than
the radius of the sphere of activity of the molecular attraction, it follows that
the number of molecules composing the line which exerts the integral pressure
is less than in the case of a thick mass. Thus, on the one hand, the intensities
of part or the whole of the elementary pressures composing the integral pres-
sure will be less than in the case of a thick mass, and, on the other hand, the
number of these elementary pressures will be less; from this it evidently follows
that the integral pressure will be inferivr to that which would occur in the case
of a thick mass. P always denoting the pressure corresponding to any point of
a plane surface belonging to a thick mass, (§ 4,) the pressure corresponding
to any point of either of the surfaces of an extremely thin plane layer will there-
fore be less than P. Moreover, this pressure will be less in proportion as the
layer is thinner, and it may thus diminish indefinitely ; for it is clear that it
would be reduced to zero if we supposed that the thickness of the layer was
equal to no more than that of a simple molecule.

We can obtain liquid layers with curved surfaces; soap-bubbles furnish an
example of these, and we shall meet with others in the progress of this investi-
gation. Now by supposing the thickness of such a layer to be less than twice
the radius of the molecular attraction, we should thus evidently arrive at the
conclusion that the corresponding pressures at either of its two surfaces would
be inferior in intensity to those given by paragraph 4, and that, moreover, these
intensities are less in proportion as the layer is smaller. We thus arrive at the
following new principle :

In the case of every liquid layer, the thickness of which is less than twice the
radius of the sphere of activity of the molecular attraction, the pressure will not
depend solely upon the curvatures of the surfaces, but will vary with the thick-
ness of the layer.

25. We thus see that an extremely thin plane liquid layer, adhering by its
edge to a thick mass the surfaces of which are concave, may form with this mass
a system in a state of equilibrium; for we may always suppose the thickness
of the layer to be of such value that the pressure corresponding to the plane
surfaces of this layer is equal to that corresponding to the concave surfaces of
the thick mass. Such a system is also very remarkable in respect to its form,
inasmuch as surfaces of different nature, as concave and plane surfaces, sue
ceed each other. This heterogeneity of form is, moreover, a natural consequence
of the change which the law of pressures undergoes in passing ff)m the thick
to the thin part. .

26. As we have already seen, theory demonstrates the possibility of the ex-
istence of such a system in a state of equilibrium. As regards the experiment
which has led us to these considerations, although the result presented by it |
tends to realize in an absolute manner the theoretical result, there is one circum- +

.

~ WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVIT 943

stance which is unfavorable to the completion of this realization. We can un-
derstand that the relative mobility of the molecules of oil is not sufficiently
great to occasion the immediate formation of the liquid layer with that excessive
tenuity which is requisite for equilibrium ; the thickness of this layer, although
very minute, absolutely speaking, is undoubtedly, during the first moments, a
considerable multiple of the theoretical thickness. If, then, we produce the
layer without extending it to that limit to which it is capable of increasing
during the operation, and afterwards leave it to itself, the pressure correspond-
ing to its plane surfaces will still exceed that corresponding to the concave
surfaces of the remainder of the liquid system. Hence it follows that the oil
within the layer will be driven towards this other part of*the system, and that
the thickness of the layer will progressively diminish. The equilibrium of the
figure will then be apparent only, and the layer will in reality be the seat of
continual movements. The diminution in thickness, however, will be effected
slowly, because in so confined a space the movements of the liquid are neces-
sarily restrained; this is why, as in the experiment in paragraph 17, the mass
only acquires its figure of equilibrium slowly, because there is a cause which
impedes the movements of the liquid. The thickness of the layer gradually
approximates to the theoretical value, from which the equilibrium of the system
would result; but unfortunately it always happens that before attaining this
point the layer breaks spontaneously. This effect depends, without doubt,
upon the internal movements of which I have spoken above. We can imagine,
in fact, that when the layer has become of extreme thinness, the slightest cause
is sufficient to determine its rupture. The exact figure which corresponds to
the equilibrium is therefore a limit towards which the figure produced tends;
this limit the latter approaches very nearly, and would attain if it were not itself
previously destroyed by an extraneous cause.

Our experiment has led us to modify the results of theory in one particular
instance; but we now see that, far from weakening the principles of this theory,
it furnishes, on the contrary, incomplete as it is, a new and striking verification
of it. The conversion of the doubly concave lens into a system comprising a
thin layer is connected with an order of general facts: we shall see that a large
number of our liquid figures become transformed, by the gradually produced
diminution of the mass of which they are composed, into systems consisting of
layers, or into the composition of which layers enter.

27. If by some modification of our last experiment we could succeed in ob-
taining the equilibrium of the liquid system, we might be able to deduce from
it a result of great interest—an indication of the value of the radius of the
sphere of activity of the molecular attraction. In fact, we might perhaps find
out some method of determining, the thickness of the layers; these might, for
instance, then exhibit colors, the tint of which would lead us to this determina-
tion. Now we have seen that in the state of equilibrium of the figures, half the
thickness of the layer would be less than the radius in question; hence we
should then have a limit above which the value of this same radius would exist.
In other words, we should know that the molecular attraction produces sensible
effects, even at a distance from its centre of action beyond this limit. Our
experiment, although insufficient, may thus be considered as the first step
towards the determination of the distance of sensible activity of the molecular
attraction, of which distance at present we know nothing, except that it is of
extreme minuteness.

28. Let us now return to the consideration of thick masses. It follows from
the experiments related in paragraphs 13, 14, 17, 18, and 21, that when a con-
tinuous portion of the surface of such a mass rests upon a circular periphery,
this surface is always either of spherical curvature or plane. But to admit this
principle in all its generality, we must be able to deduce it from theory. We
shall do this in the following series, at least on the supposition that the portion

944 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

of the surface in question is a surface of revolution. We shall then see that
this same principle is of great importance. We may remark here that in the
experiment in paragraph 23 the layer commences to appear as soon as the
surfaces can no longer constitute spherical segments. Now we shall again find
- that in the other eases, when a full figure is converted, by the gradual with-

drawal of the liquid, into a system composed of layers, or into the composition |

of which layers enter, the latter begin to be formed when the
fig. &. figure of equilibrium, which the ordinary law of pressures would
determine, ceases to be possible. 'The mass then assumes, or
tends to assume, another figure, compatible with a modification
of this law. Such is the general principle of the formation of
layers under the circumstances in question.

29. After having formed a converging and a diverging liquid
lens, it appeared to me curious to combine these two kinds of lens,
so as to form a liquid telescope. For this purpose, I first substi-
tuted for the ring of iron wire, in paragraph 18, a circular plate
~—< / of the same diameter, perforated by a large aperture. (Fig. 8.)

bal This plate having been turned in a lathe, I was certain of its being
perfectly circular, which would be a very difficult condition to fulfil in the case of
a simple curved iron wire. In the second place, I took for the solid part of the
doubly concave lens a band of about twoycentimetres in breadth, and curved
into a cylinder three and a half centimetres in diameter. ‘These two systems
were arranged as in Fig. 9, in such a manner that the entire apparatus being

suspended vertically in the alcoholic mixture by the iron wire a, and the two
liguid lenses being formed, their two centres Were at the same height, and ten
centimetres distant from each other. In this arrangement the telescope cannot
be adjusted by altering the distance between the objective and the eye-piece ;
but this end is attained by varying the curvatures of these two lenses. With
the aid of a few preliminary experiments, I easily managed to obtain an excel-
lent Galilean telescope, magnifying distant objects about twice, like a common
opera-glass, and giving perfectly distinct images with very little irisation.
8. o which represents a section of the system, shows the two lenses com-
ined.

Figures of equilibrium terminated by plane surfaces. Liquid polyhedra.
Laminar figures of equilibrium.

30. In the experiment detailed at paragraph 21, we obtained a figure pre-
senting plane surfaces. ‘These were two in number, parallel, and bounded by
circular peripheries; but it is evident that these conditions are not necessary

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. QA5

in order to allow plane surfaces to belong to a liquid mass in equilibrium. We
can understand that the forms of the solid contours might be indifferent, pro-
vided they constitute plane figures. We can, moreover, understand that the
number and the relative directions of the plane surfaces may be a matter of
indifference, because these circumstances exert no influence upon the pressures
which correspond to these surfaces, pressures which will always remain equal
to each other. Lastly, it follows from the principle at which we arrived at the
end of paragraph 20, relative to the influence of solid wires, that for the estab-
lishment of the transition between a plane and any other surface, a metallic
thread representing the edge of the angle of intersection of these two surfaces
will be sufficient. We are thus led to the curious result, that we ought to be
able to form polyhedra, which are entirely liquid excepting at their edges.
Now, this is completely verified by experiment. If for the solid system we
take a framework of iron wire representing all the edges of any polyhedron,
and we cause a mass of oil of the proper volume to adhere to this framework,
we obtain, in fact, in a perfect manner, the polyhedron in question; and the
curious spectacle is thus obtained of parallelopipedons, prisms, &c., composed
of oil, and the only solid part of which is their edges.

To produce the adhesion of the liquid mass to the entire framework, a
volume is first given to the mass slightly larger than that of the polyhedron
which it is to form; it is then placed in the framework; and, lastly, by means
of the iron spatula, (§ 9,) which must be introduced by the second aperture of
the lid of the vessel, and which is made to penetrate the mass, the latter is
readily made to attach itself successively to the entire length of each of the
solid edges. ‘The excess of oil is then gradually removed with the syringe,
and all the surfaces thus become simultaneously exactly plane. But that this
end may be attained in a complete mannez, it is clearly requisite that the
equilibrium of density between the oil and the alcoholic mixture should be
perfectly established ; and the slightest difference in this respect, is sufficient to
alter the surfaces sensibly. It should also be borne in mind that the manipu-
lation with the spatula sometimes occasions the introduc-
tion of alcoholic bubbles into the interior of the mass of
oil. These are, however, easily removed by means of the
syringe.

31. Now, having formed a polyhedron, let us see what
will happen if we gradually remove some of the liquid.
Let us take, for instance, the cube, the solid framework of
which, with its suspending wire, is represented at Fig. 11.*
Let the point of the syringe be applied near the middle of
one of the faces, and let a small quantity of the oil be drawn
up. All the faces will immediately become depressed simul-
taneously and to the same extent, so that the super- ~
ficial square contours will form the bases of six similar hollow figures. We

_ should have imagined this to have been the case for the maintenance of equality
between the pressures.

If fresh portions of the liquid are removed, the faces will become more and
more hollowed; but to understand what happens when this manipulation is
continued, we must here enunciate a preliminary proposition. Suppose that a
square plate of iron, the sides of which are of the same length as the edges of
the metallic frame, is introduced into the vessel, and that a mass of oil equal
in volume to that which is lost by one of the faces of the cube is placed in con-
tact with one of the faces of this plate; I say that the liquid, after having
become extended upon the plate, will present in relief the same figure as the

* The edges of all the frames which I used were 7 centimetres in length.

246 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

face of the modified cube presents in intaglio. Then, in fact, in passing from
the hollow surface to that in relief, the radii of curvature corresponding to each
point will only change their signs without changing in absolute value; conse-
quently, (§ 8,) since the condition of equilibrium is satisfied as regards the first
of these surfaces, it will be equally so with regard to the second.

Now, let us imagine a plane passing through one side of the plate, and tan-
gentially to the surface of the liquid which adheres to it at that point. As
‘Jong as this liquid is in small quantity, we should imagine—and experiment
bears us out—that the plane in question will be strongly inclined towards the
plate; but if we gradually increase the quantity of liquid, the angle comprised
between the plane and the plate will also continue to increase, and instead of
being acute, as before, will become obtuse. Now, so long as this angle is less
than 45°, the convex surface of the liquid adhering to the plate will remain
identical with the coneave surfaces of the mass attached to the metallic frame,
and suitably diminished ; but beyond this limit, the coexistence in the frame
of the six hollow identical surfaces with the surface in relief becomes evidently
impossible, for these surfaces must mutually intersect each other. Thus, when
the withdrawal of the liquid from the mass forming the cube is continued, a
point is attained at which the figure of equilibrium ceases to be realizable in
accordance with the ordinary law of pressures. We then meet with a new
verification of the principle enunciated in § 28, 2. e., that the formation of
layers commences. These layers are plane; they commence at each of the
wires of the frame, and connect the remainder of the mass to the latter, which
continues to present six concave surfaces. In fact, we can, imagine that, by
this modification of the liquid figure, the existence of the whole of this in the
metallic frame again becomes possible, as also the equilibrium of the system ;
for there is then no further impediment to the concave surfaces assuming that
form which accords with the ordinary law of pressures ;
and, on the other hand, in supposing the layers to be suffi-
ciently thin, the pressure belonging to them might be
equal to that which corresponds to these same concave sur-
faces, (§ 25.)

On removing still further portions of the liquid, the layer
will continue to enlarge, whilst the full mass which oc-
cupies the middle of the figure will diminish in volume,
and this mass can thus be reduced to very minute dimen-
sions: Fig. 12 represents the entire system in this latter
state. It is even possible to make the little central mass
disappear entirely, and thus to obtain a complete laminar
system; but for this purpose certain precautions must be taken, which I
shall now point out. When the central mass has become sufliciently small,
the point of the syringe must first be thoroughly wiped; otherwise the oil
adheres to its exterior to a certain height, and this attraction keeps a cer-
tain quantity of oil around it, which the instrument cannot absorb into its
interior. In the second place, the point of the syringe must be depressed to
such an extent that it nearly touches the inferior surface of the little mass.
During the suction this surface is then seen to become raised, so as to touch
the orifice of the instrument, and the latter then absorbs as much of the alco- |
holic mixture as of the oil; but this is of no consequence, and the minute mass
is seen to diminish by degrees, so as at last completely to disappear. The
system, then, consists of twelve triangular layers, each of which commences at
one of the wires of the frame, and all the summits of which unite at the centre
of the figure; it is represented in Fig. 13. But this system is only formed
during the action of the syringe. If, when this is complete, the point of the
instrument is slowly withdrawn, an additional lamina of a square form is seen

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. DAT

to be developed in the centre of the figure, (Fig.14.) This, then, is the defini-
tive laminar system to which the liquid cube is reduced by the gradual diminu-
tion of its mass.

Fig 13 Bly. 4.

32. In the preceding experiment, as in that of paragraph 23, the thickness
of the layers is at first greater than that which would correspond to equilibrium.
If, then, the system were left to itself whilst it still contains a central mass, we
should imagine that one portion of the liquid of the layers would be slowly
driven towards this mass, and that the layers would gradually become thinner.
Moreover, it always happens that one or the other of the latter increases after
some time, undoubtedly for the reason which we have already pointed out,
(§ 26.) Hence, for the perfect success of the transformation of the cube into
the laminar system, one precaution, which has not yet been spoken of, must be
attended to. It consists in the circumstance that, from the instant at which
the layers arise, the exhaustion of the liquid must be continued as quickly as
possible until the central mass has attained a certain degree of minuteness. In
fact, as soon as the formation of the layers commences, their tendency to
become thinner also begins to be developed; and if the operation is effected too
slowly, the system might break before it was completed. When the central
mass is sufficiently redueed—and experience soon teaches us to judge of the
suitable point—the action of the syringe must be gradually slackened, and at
last the other precautions which we have mentioned must be taken.

We are able, then, to explain the rupture of the layers so long.as there is a
large or small central mass; but when the laminar system is complete, we do
not at the first glance see the reason why the thickness of the layers diminishes,
and consequently why destruction of the system takes place. Nevertheless the
rupture ultimately takes place in this as in the other case, and the time during
which the system persists rarely extends to half an hour. In ascertaining the
cause of this phenomenon, it must be remarked that the intersections of the
different layers cannot occur suddenly, or be reduced to simple lines: it is
evident that the free transition between two liquid surfaces could not be thus
established in a discontinuous manner. ‘These transitions must, therefore, be
effected through the intermedium of minute concave surfaces, and with a little
attention we can recognize that, in fact, this really takes place. We can then
understand that the oil of the layers ought also to be driven towards the places
of junction of the latter; and consequently the absence of the little central
mass does not prevent the gradual attenuation of the layers, and the final
destruction of the system.

33. If, during the action of the syringe, when the system shown in Fig. 13
has been attained, instead of slowly withdrawing the instrument, it is suddenly
detached by a slight shake in a vertical direction, the additional layer is not
developed; but the little mass in Fig. 12 is seen to be reproduced very rapidly.
This fact confirms in a remarkable manner the explanation which we have
given in the preceding paragraph. In fact, at the moment at which the point
of the instrument is separated from the system, the latter may be considered
as composed of hollow pyramids. Now it also follows, from causes relating to

.

248 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

their continuity, that the summits of these pyramids should not constitute sim-
ple points, but little concave surfaces. But as the curvatures of these minute
surfaces are very great in every direction, they would give rise to still far less
pressure than those which establish the transitions between each pair of sur-
faces of the layers; for in the latter there is no curvature in one direction.
The oil of the layers will, therefore, be driven with much greater force towards
the centre of the figure than towards the other parts of, the junctions of these
layers. Again, the twelve layers terminating in this same centre, the oil flows
there simultaneously from a large number of sources. ‘These two concurrent causes
ought then, in conformity with experiment, to produce the rapid reappearance of
the small central mass; and we can understand why it is impossible to obtain the
complete system of the pyramids otherwise than during the action of the syringe.

34. All the other polyhedric liquids become transformed, like the cube, into
laminar systems when the mass of which they are composed is gradually
diminished. Among these systems some are complete; the others still contain
very small masses, which cannot be made*to disappear entirely. Analogous
considerations to those which we applied with regard to the cube would show,
in each case, that the formation of layers commences as soon as the hollow
surfaces which would correspond to the ordinary law of pressures cease to be
able to coexist in the solid frame. Figs. 15, 16, 17, and 18 represent the

Pay 15. Fig. 18

laminar systems resulting from the triangular prism, the hexahedral prism, the
tetrahedron and the pyramid with a square base, these systems being supposed
to be complete. They are all formed of plane layers, commencing at each of
the metallic wires; and that of the hexahedral prism, as is ‘shown, contains an
additional layer in the centre of the figure.

Fig, 9. Fig. 20.

a RET TI
33. The system arising from the regular octohedron presents a singular
exception, which I have not been able to explain. The layers of which this

system is composed are curved, and form a fantastical group, of which it is
difficult to give an exact idea by graphic representations, Fig. 19 exhibits

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 249

~~

them projected upon two rectangular vertical planes; and it is seen that the
aspects of the system observed upon two adjacent sides are inverse as regards
each other. The formation of this system presents a curious peculiarity. At
the commencement of the operation all the faces of the octohedron become
simultaneously hollow; the layers in progress of formation are plane, and
arranged symmetrically, so that the system tends towards the form represented
at Fig. 20. But when a certain limit is attained, a sudden change occurs, the
layers become curved, and the system tends to assume the singular form which
we have mentioned. I have several times repeated the experiment, varying
the circumstances as much as possible, and the same effects are always pro-
- duced.

In the course of this memoir I shall point out another process for obtaining
laminar systems; it is an extremely simple one, and has moreover the advan-
tage of producing all the systems in a complete state.

36. In concluding our observations upon polyhedric liquids, I shall remark
that the triangular prism may be employed to produce the phenomena of dis-
persion. In this way a beautiful solar spectrum may be obtained by means of
a prism with liquid faces. But as the effect only depends upon the excess of
the refracting action of the oil above that of the alcoholic liquid, to obtain a
considerably extended spectrum the angle of refraction of the prism must be
obtuse; an angle of 110° gives a very good result. Moreover, it is evidently
requisite that the faces of the prism should be perfectly plane, which is obtained
by using a carefully made frame; by establishing exact equilibrium between
the density of the liquids; and, lastly, by arresting the action of the syringe
exactly at the proper point.

950 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

Other figures of Revolution besides the Sphere. Liquid Cylinder.

37. Let us now endeavor to form some new liquid figures. Those best _
adapted to theoretical considerations would be figures terminated by surfaces of
revolution other than the sphere and lenticular figures, which we have already
studied. Surfaces of revolution enjoy simple properties in regard to the radii
of the greatest and least curvature at every point; we know that one of these
two radii is the radius of curvature of the meridional line, and that the other is

re

that portion of the normal to this line which is included between the point under —

consideration and the axis of revolution. We shall now endeavor to obtain
figures of this nature.
38. Let our solid system be composed of two rings of iron
Fig. 20% wire, equal, parallel, and placed opposite to each other. One
of these rings rests upon the base of the vessel by three feet
composed of iron wire; the other is attached, by means of an
intermediate piece, to the axis traversing the central stopper,
so that it may be approximated to or removed from the former
by depressing or elevating this axis.* The system formed
by these two rings is represented in Plate VII, Fig. 20 dis;
the diameter of those which I employed was 7 centimeters.
After having raised the upper ring as much as possible,
let a sphere of oil, of a slightly larger diameter than that of
the rings, be formed, and conducted towards the lower ring
in such a manner as to make it adhere to the entire circum-
ference of the latter; then depress the upper ring until it
comes into contact with the liquid mass, and the latter is uniformly attached to
it. When the mass has thus become adherent to the system of the two rings,
let the upper ring be slowly raised; when the two rings are
Fig. 24. at a proper distance apart, the liquid will then assume the
form the vertical projection of which is represented in Fig.
21, in which the lines a 4 and ¢ d are the projections of the
rings. ‘The two portions of the surface which are respect-
_ ively applied to each of the rings are convex spherical seg-
ments; and the portion ineluded between the two rings con-
stitutes a figure of revolution, the meridional curve of which,
as is shown, is convex externally. We shall recur, in the following series, to
this part of the liquid figure. If we now continue gradually to raise the upper
ring, the curvature of the two extremities and the meridional curvature of the
intermediate portion will be diminished; and if there is exact equilibrium be-
tween the density of the oil and the surrounding liquid, the
Lig. XZ. surface included between the two rings will be seen to assume
a perfectly cylindrical form, (Fig. 22.) The two bases of the
= liquid figure are still convex spherical segments, but their cur-
—, vature is less than in the preceding figure. If the interval
_____ between the rings be still further increased, it is evident that -
= the surface included between them would lose the cylindrical
form, and that a new figure would result. This is what
occurs; but the consideration of the figure thus produced must be deferred.
Instead, then, of immediately increasing the distance between the rings, let
us commence by adding a certain quantity of oil to the mass, which will again

_,. In the experiments which we are now about to describe, the short axis represented in
Fig. 2 of the preceding memoir, and which has hitherto answered our purpose, must be
replaced by another of about 15 centimeters in length.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 251

render the surface included between the rings convex. Let us then gradually
elevate the upper ring, and we shall produce a cylinder of greater height than

Fig, 22. Fig, 24.

the first. If we repeat the same manipulation a suitable number of times, we
shall ultimately obtain the cylinder of the greatest height which our apparatus
permits. I have in this manner obtained a perfectly cylindrical mass 7 cen-
timeters in diameter, and about 14 centimeters in height, (Fig. 23.) To allow
of the cylinder of this considerable height being perfect, it is requisite that per-
fect equality be established between the densities of the oil and the alcoholic
liquid. As a very slight difference in either direction tends to make the mass
ascend or descend, the latter assumes, to a more or less marked extent, one of
the two forms represented in Fig. 24. Even when the cylindric form has been
obtained by the proper addition of alcohol of 16°, or absolute alcohol, as ocea-
sion may require, (§ 24 of the preceding memoir,) slight changes in tempera-
ture are sufficient to alter and reproduce one of the above two forms.

39. Let us now examine the results of these experiments in a theoretical
point of view. First, it is evident that a cylindrical surface satisfies the generat
condition of equilibrium of liquid figures, because the curvatures in it are the
same at every point. Moreover, such a surface being convex in every direction
except in that of the meridional line, where there is no curvature, the pressure
corresponding to it ought to be greater than that corresponding to a plane sur-
face. The same conclusions are deducible from the general formule (2) and
(3) of paragraphs 4 and 5. In fact, as we have already stated in paragraph 37,
one of the quantities R and R’ is the radius of curvature of the meridional line,
and the other is the portion of the normal to this line included between the
point under consideration and the axis of revolution. Now, in the case of the
cylinder, the meridional line being a right line,/its radius of curvature is every-
where infinitely great; and, on the other hand, this same right line being
parallel to the axis of revolution, that portion of the normal which constitutes
the second radius of curvature is nothing more than the radius itself of the

1 1
cylinder. Hence it follows that one of the terms of the quantity Rt PR dis-

appears, and that the other is constant; this same quantity is, therefore, con-
stant, and consequently the condition of equilibrium is satisfied. Now, if we
denote by 2 the radius of the cylinder, the general value of the pressure for
this surface would become
. P Al
st tad.
Now 2 being positive because it is directed towards the interior of the liquid,
(§ 4,) the above value is greater than P, z. e., than that which would correspond

252 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

to a plane surface. It is, therefore, evident that the bases of our liquid cylinder
must necessarily be convex, as is shown to be the case by experiment; for as
equilibrium requires that the pressures should be the same throughout the
whole extent of the figure, these bases must produce a greater pressure than e
that which corresponds to a plane surface.

Our plane figure, then, fully satisfies theory; but verification may be urged |
still further. Theory allows us to determine with facility the radius of those
spheres of which the bases form a part. In fact, if we represent this radius by.
z, the formula (1) of paragraph 4 will give, for the pressure corresponding to
the spheres in question,

fl
P+A.-—.
Zz

Now, as this pressure must be equal to that corresponding to the cylindrical

surface, we shall have se ‘
Se yee ae
from which we may deduce
= 2A,
Thus the radius of the curvature of the spherical segments constituting the
bases is equal to the diameter of the cylinder. ‘

Hence, as we know the diameter, which is the same as that of the solid
rings, we may calculate the height of the spherical segments; and if by any
process we afterwards measure this height in the liquid figure, we shall thus
have a verification of theory even as regards the numbers. We shall now
investigate this subject.

40. If we imagine the liquid figure to be intersected by a meridional plane,
the section of each of the segments will be an are belonging to a circle, the
radius of which will be equal to 24, according to what we have already stated,
and the versed sine of half this are will be the height of the segment. If we
suppose the metallic filaments forming the rings to be infinitely small, so that
each of the segments rests upon the exact circumference of the cylinder, the
chord of the above are will also be equal to 24; and if we denote the height of
the segments by #, we shall have

h=i(2— V3) =0.268. 2.

Now, the exact external diameter of my rings, or the value of 22, correspond-
ing with my experiments, was 71.4 millimeters, which gives 49.57 millime-
ters. But as the metallic wires have a certain thickness, and the segments do
not rest upon the external circumference of the rings, it follows that the chord
of the meridional arc is a little less than 2A, and that, consequently, the true
theoretical height of the segments is a little less than that given by the pre-
ceding formula. ‘To determine it exactly, let us denote the chord by 2c, which
will give
A=22— V4? —c*.

Now, let us remark that the meridional plane intersects each of the rings in
two small circles to which the meridional are pf the spherical segment is tan-
gential, and upon each of which the chord of this are intercepts a small circular
segment. he meridional are being tangential to the sections of the wire, it
follows that the above small circular segments are similar to that of the spheri-
cal segment; and as the chord of the latter differs but very slightly from the
radius of the circle to which the are belongs, the chords of the small circular
segments may be considered as equal to the radius of the small sections, which
radius we shall denote by 7. It is moreover evident that the excess of the ex--
ternal radius of the ring over half the chord ¢ is nothing more than the excess

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 253

of the radius 7 over half the chord of the small circular segments, which half

. 3 Y 1
chord, in accordance with what we have stated, is equal to 37° Thence we

1 1
»geta Sao 5 whence c == ay and we have only to substitute this value

~ inthe preceding formula to obtain the true theoretical value of 4. The thick-

ness of the wire forming my rings is 0.74 millimeters; hence a7 = 0.18 milli-

meters, which gives as the true theoretical height of the segments under these
} circumstances, .

h=9.46 millimeters.

I may remark that it is difficult to distinguish in the liquid figure the precise
limit of the segments, @. e., the circumferences of contact of their surfaces with
those of the rings. To get rid of this inconvenience, I measured the height of
the segments, commencing only at the external planes of the rings; 7. e., in the
ease of each segment, commencing at a plane perpendicular to the axis of revo-
lution, and resting upon the surface of the ring on that side which is opposite
the summit of the segment. The quantity thus measured is evidently equal to
the total height minus the versed sine of the small cireular segments which we
have considered above ; consequently these small circular segments being simi-
lar to that of the spherical segment, we obtain for the determination of this

versed sine, which we shall denote by f the proportion “=~, which in the
2”
ease of our liquid figure gives f—=0.05 millimeters, whence
h—f=9.41 millimeters.

This, then, is definitively the theoretical value of the quantity which was required
to be measured.

41. Before pointing out the process which I employed for this purpose, and
communicating the result of the operation, I must preface a few important
remarks. If the densities of the alcoholic mixture and of the oil are not rigor-
ously equal, the mass has a slight tendency to rise or descend, and the height
of one of the segments is then a little too great, whilst that of the other is a
little too small; but we can understand that if their difference is very small, an
exact result may still be obtained by taking the mean of these two heights.
We thus avoid part of those preliminary experiments which the establishment
of perfect equality between the two densities requires. But one’ circumstance
which requires the greatest attention is the perfect homogeneity of each of the
two liquids. If this condition be not fulfilled with regard to the alcoholic mix-
ture, 2. e., if the upper part of this mixture be left containing a slightly greater
proportion of alcohol than the lower portion, the liquid figure may appear
regular and present equal segments; all that is required for this is, that the
mean density of that part of the mixture, which is at the same level as the
mass, must be equal to the density of the oil; but under these circumstances

_ the level of the two segments is too low. In fact, the oil forming the upper
| segment is then in contact with a less dense liquid than itself, and, conse-
quently, has a tendency to descend, whilst the opposite applies to the oil form-
ing the inferior segment.* Heterogeneity of the liquid produces an opposite
effect, 2. e., it renders the height of the segments too great. In fact, the least
dense portions rising to the upper part of the mass tend to lift it up, whilst the
most dense portions descend to the lower part, and tend to depress it. Now,

——

* By intentionally producing very great heterogeneity in the alcoholic mixture, (§ 9 of the
preceding memoir, ) and employing suitable precautions, a perfectly regular cylinder may be
formed, the bases of which are absolutely plane.

954 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the quantities of pure alcohol, and that at 16° added to the alcoholic mixture
«to balance the mass, necessarily produce an alteration in the homogeneity of
the oil; for, in the first place, the oil during these operations being in contact
with mixtures which are sometimes more, sometimes less charged with alcohol,
must absorb or lose some of this by its surface; in the second place, these same
additions of alcohol to the mixture diminish the saturation of the latter with
the oil, so that it removes some of it from the mass; and this action is undoubt-
edly not equally exerted upon the two principles of which the oil is composed.
Hence, before taking the measures, the different parts of the oil must be inti-
mately mixed together, which may be effected by introducing an iron spatula
into the mass, moving it about in it in all directions, and this for a long time,
because the mixture of the oil can only be perfectly effected with great diffi-
culty on account of its viscidity. ;

T'o avoid the influence of the reactions which render the oil heterogeneous,
the operations must be conducted in the following manner: The mass being
introduced into the vessel and attached to the two rings, and the equality of
the densities being perfectly established, allow the mass to remain in the aleo-
holic liquid for two or three days, re-establishing from time to time the equi-
librium of the densities altered by the chemical reactions and the variations of
temperature. Afterwards remove the two rings from the vessel, so that the
mass remains free; remove almost the whole of this, by means of a siphon, into
a bottle, which is to be carefully corked; withdraw with the syringe the small
portion of oil which is left in the vessel, and reject this portion. Next replace
the two rings, and mix the alcoholic liquid perfectly ; then again introduce the
oil into the vessel, taking the precaution of enveloping the bottle containing it
with a cloth several times folded, so that the temperature may not be sensibly
altered by the heat of the hand.* Then attach the mass to the lower ring only,
the upper ring being raised as much as possible; mix the oil intimately, as we
have said above; then depress the upper ring, cause the mass to adhere to it,
elevate it so as to form an exact cylinder, and proceed immediately to the
measurement.

* The following is the reason why the oil must be removed from the vessel before employ-
ing it for the experiment. After having remained a considerable time in the alcoholic liquid,
the oil becomes enveloped by a kind of thin pellicle; or, more strictly speaking, the super-
ficial layer of the mass has lost part of its liquidity, an effect which undoubtedly arises from
the unequal action of the alcohol, upon the principles of which the oil is composed. The
necessary result of this is, that the mass loses at the same time part of its tendency to assume
a determinate figure of equilibrium, which tendency must, therefore, be completely restored
to it. This is why the oil is withdrawn by the siphon. In fact, the pellicle does not pene-
trate the interior of the latter, and during its contraction continues to envelop the small por-
tion remaining; so that after the latter has been removed by the syringe, which ultimately
absorbs the pellicle itself, we get completely rid of the latter.

Before using the siphon, the thickness and consistence of the pellicle are too slight to
enable us distinctly to perceive its presence; but when the operation of the siphon is nearly
terminated, and the mass is thus considerably reduced, we find that the surface of the latter
forms folds, hence implying the existence of an envelope. Moreover, when the siphon is
removed, the small residuary mass, which then remains freely suspended in the alcoholic
liquid, no longer assumes a spherical form, but retains an irregular aspect, appearing to
have no tendency to assume any regular form.

This indifference to assume figures of equilibrium, arising from a diminution in the
liquidity of the superficial layer, constitutes a new and curious proof of the fundamental
principle relating to this layer, (§§ 6 bis and 10 to 16.) M. Hagen (Mémoire sur la Surface
des Liquides, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin, 1845) has observed a remarkable
fact, to which the preceding appears to be related. It consists in this, that the surface of
water, left to itself for some time, undergoes a peculiar modification, in consequence of which
the water then rises in capillary spaces to elevations which are very distinctly less than is
the case when its surface is exempt or freed from this alteration. This fact might, perhaps, *
be explained by admitting that the water dissolves a small proportion of the substance of the
solid with which it is in contact, and that the external air acts chemically at the surface of
the Iquid upon the substance dissolved, thus giving rise to the formation of a slight pellicle
which modities the effects of the molecular forces.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 255

42. The instrument best suited for effecting the latter operations in an exact
manner is undoubtedly that which has received the name of cathetometer, and
which, as is well known, consists of a horizontal telescope moving along a ver-—
tical divided rule. The distance comprised between the summits of the two

segments is first measured by the aid of this instrument; the distance included

between the external planes of the two rings (§ 40) is then measured by the
same means. ‘The difference between the first and the second result evidently
gives the sum of the two heights, the mean of which must be taken; and, con-
sequently, this mean, or the quantity sought, 2 —f, is equal to half the differ-
ence in question.

_ The determination of the distance between the external planes of the rings
requires peculiar precautions. First, as the points of the rings at which we
must look are not exactly at the external surface of the figure, the oil inter-

osed between these points and the eye must produce some effects of refraction,
which would introduce a slight error into the value obtained. 'To avoid this
inconvenience, we need only expose the rings by allowing the liquids,to escape
from the vessel by the stop-cock, (note 2 to § 9,) then remove the minute portions
of the liquid which remain adherent to the rings by passing lightly over their
surface a small strip of paper, which must be introduced into the vessel through
the second aperture. The drops of alcoholic liquid remaining attached to the
inner surface of the interior side of the vessel must also be absorbed in the
same manner. In the second place, as it would be difficult for the rings to be
rigorously parallel, their distance must be measured from two opposite sides
of the system, and the mean of the two valves thus found taken. The follow-
ing are the results which J obtained: The mensuration of the distance between
the summits gave first, in four successive operations, the values 76.77, 76.80,
76.85, and 76.75 millimeters, the mean of which is 76.79 millimeters. But after
the alcoholic liquid had been again agitated for some time, to render its homo-
geneity more certain, two new measurements taken immediately afterwards
gave 77.05 and 77.00 millimeters, or a mean of 77.02 millimeters. The distance
between the external planes of the rings was found, on the one hand, by two
observations, which agreed exactly, to be 57.73 millimeters; on the other hand,
two observations furnished the values 57.87 and 57.85 millimeters, or as the
mean 57.86 millimeters. Taking, then, the mean of these two results, we get
57.79 millimeters as the value of the distance between the centres of the ex-
ternal planes. Hence, if we assume the first of the two values obtained for the
distance of the summits, 76.79 millimeters, we find

h—f= te Eee = 9.50 millimeters ;

and if from the second result, 77.02 millimeters, we find

77.02 — 57.79
h—f=——_o = 9.61 millimeters.

These two elevations evidently differ but little from 9.41 millimeters, the
altitude deduced from theory, (§ 40;) in the first case the difference does not
amount to the ;4,th part of this theoretical value, and in the second it hardly
exceeds ;2;ths. These differences undoubtedly arise from slight remains of
heterogeneity in the liquids; it is probable that in the first case neither of the
two liquids was absolutely homogeneous, and that the two contrary effects
which thence resulted (§ 41) partly neutralized each other, whilst in the second
case, the alcoholic liquid being rendered perfectly homogeneous, the effect of the
slight heterogeneity of the oil exerted its full influence. However this may be, these
differences in each case are so small that we may consider experiment as in accord-
ance with theory, of which it evidently presents a very remarkable confirmation.

43. Mathematically considered, a cylindrical surface extends indefinitely in
the direction of the axis of revolution. Hence it follows that the cylinder

956 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

figure of equilibrium. Hence also, if the liquid mass were free, it could not
assume the cylindrical form as the figure of equilibrium; for the volume of this
mass being limited, it would be necessary that the cylinder should be termi-
nated on both sides by portions of the surface presenting other curvatures, which
would not admit of the law of continuity. But this heterogeneity of curvature,
which is impossible when the mass is free, becomes realizable, as our experi-
ments show, through the medium of solid rings. As each of these renders the
curvatures of the portions of the surface resting upon it (§ 20) independent of
each other, the surface comprised between the two rings may then be of cylin-
drical curvature, whilst the two bases of the figure may present spherical
curvatures. We therefore arrive at the very remarkable result, that with a
liquid mass of a limited volume we may obtain isolated portions of figures of
equilibrium, which in their complete state would be extended indefinitely.

44. With the view of obtaining a cylinder in which the proportion between
the height and the diameter was still greater than that in Fig. 23, I replaced
the rings previously employed by two others, the diameter of which was only
2 centimeters. I first tried to make a cylinder 6 centimeters in height, 7. e., the
height of which was thrice the diameter; and in this operation 1 adopted a

slightly different process from that of paragraph 38. The uniformity in the ~

density of the two liquids being accurately established, I first gave the mass of
oil a somewhat larger volume than that which the cylinder would contain;
having then attached the mass to the two rings, I-elevated the upper ring until
it was at a distance of 6 centimeters from the other; this distance was measured
by a scale introduced into the vessel and kept in a vertical position by the side
of the liquid figure. In consequence of the excess of oil, the meridional line of
the figure was convex externally; and as there was still a slight difference
between the densities, this convexity was not symmetrical in regard to the two
rings. I corrected this irregularity by successive additions of pure alcohol
and alcohol of 16°, an operation which requires great circumspection, and
towards the end of which these liquids could only be added in single
Pig. 23. drops. ‘The figure being at last perfectly symmetrical, 1 carefully re-
moved the excess of oil by applying the point of the syringe to a point
at the equator of the mass, and in this manner I obtained a perfect
cylinder. Subsequently, after having added some oil to the mass, I
increased the distance between the rings until it was equal to 8 centi-
meters, 2, €., to four times their diameter. The oil was in sufficient
quantity to allow of the meridional line of the figure being convex ex-
ternally ; but the curvature was not perfectly symmetrical, and I en-
countered still greater difficulties in regulating it than in the preceding
case. ‘The defect in the symmetry being ultimately corrected, the meri-
dional convexity presented a versed sine of about 8 millimeters, (Fig. 25.)
I then proceeded to the removal of the excess of oil; but before the versed sine
was reduced to 2 millimeters, the figure appeared to have a tendency to become
thin at its lower part and to swell out at the upper part, as if the oil
- had suddenly become slightly increased in density. At this moment I
. withdrew the syringe, so as to be enabled to observe the effect in ques-
\ tion better; the change in form then became more and more pronounced;
4 the lower part of the figure soon presented a true strangulation, the
neck of which was situated nearly at a fourth part of the distance be-
tween the rings, (Fig. 26;) the constricted portion continued to narrow
gradually, whilst the upper part of the figure became swollen; finally,
the liquid separated into two unequal masses, which remained respect-
ively adherent to the two rings; the upper mass formed a complete
sphere, and the lower mass a doubly convex lens. The whole of these
phenomena lasted a very short time only.

7

included between the two rings constitutes one portion only of the complete —

a

-

7

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 257

With a vicw to determine whether any particular cause had in reality pro-
duced the alteration of the densities, I approximated the rings; then, after
having reunited the two liquid masses, I again carefully raised the upper ring,
ceasing at the height of 74 centimeters, so that the versed sine of the meridional

convexity was slightly greater than when this was 8 centimeters. The figure

was then found to be perfectly symmetrical, and it did not exhibit any tendency
to deformity ; whence it follows that the uniformity in the densities had not
experienced any appreciable alteration. I recommenced, with still more care,
the experiment with that figure which was 8 centimeters in height; and I was
enabled to approach the cylindrical form still more nearly; but before it was
attained, the same phenomena again presented themselves, except that the
alteration in form was effected in an inverted manner, @. e., the figure became
narrow at the upper part: and dilated at the base; so that after the separation
into two masses, the perfect sphere existed in the lower ring and the lens in the
upper ring. On subsequently uniting, as before, the two masses, and placing
the rings at a distance of 74 centimeters apart, the figure was again obtained in
a regular and permanent form. ‘Thus when we try to obtain between two solid
rings a liquid cylinder the height of which is four times the diameter, the figure
always breaks up spontaneously, without any apparent cause, even before it
has attained the exactly cylindrical form. Now as the cylinder is necessarily a
figure of equilibrium, whatever may be the proportion of the height to the
diameter, we must conclude that the equilibrium of a cylinder the height -of
which is four times the diameter is unstable. As the shorter cylinders which I
had obtained did not present analogous effects, I was anxious to satisfy myself
whether the cylinders were really stable. I therefore again formed a cylinder’
6 centimeters in height with the same rings; but this, when left to itself for a
full half hour, presented a trace only of alteration in form, and this trace ap-
peared about a quarter of an hour after the formation of the cylinder, and did
not subsequently increase, which shows that it was due to some slight accidental
cause.

The above facts lead us then to the following conclusions: 1st, that the cyl-
inder constitutes a figure the equilibrium of which is stable when the proportion
between its height and its diameter is equal to 3, and with still greater reason
when this proportion is less than 3; 2d, the cylinder constitutes a figure the
equilibrium of which is unstable when the proportion of its height to its diameter
is equal to 4, and with still greater reason when it exceeds 4; 3d, consequently
there exists an intermediate relation, which corresponds to the passage from
stability to instability. We shall denominate this latter proportion the Limit of
the stability of the cylinder.

45. These conclusions, however, are liable to a well-founded objection. Our
liquid figure is complex, because its entire surface’ is composed of a cylindrical -
portion and of two portions which present a spherical curvature. Now we can-
not affirm that these latter portions exert no influence upon the stability or the
instability of the intermediate portion, and consequently upon the value of the
proportion which constitutes the limit between these two states. To allow of
the preceding conclusions being rigorously applicable to the cylinder, it would
be requisite that the figure should present no other free surface than the cylin-
drical surface, which is easily managed by replacing the rings by entire disks.
I effected this substitution by employing disks of the same diameter as the pre-
ceding rings, but the results were not changed; the cylinder, 6 centimeters in
height, was well formed, and was found to be stable; whilst the figure.8 centi-
meters in height began to change before becoming perfectly cylindrical, and was
rapidly destroyed. The final result of this destruction did not, however, consist,
as in the case of the rings, of a perfect sphere and a double convex lens, but,
as evidently ought to have been the case, of two unequal portions of spheres,

17s .

258 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS ¢

respectively adherent to the two opposite solid surfaces. The limit of the
stability of the cylinder, therefore, really lies between 3 and 4.

The experiments which we have just related are very delicate, and require
some skill. In this, as in all other cases of measurements, the ‘oil must be
allowed to remain in the alcoholic mixture for two or three days, then the pel-
licle must be removed from it, (note to p. 254;) afterwards, when the mass,
after having been again introduced into the vessel, has been attached to the two
solid disks, some time must be allowed to elapse in order that the two liquids
may be exactly at the same temperature; moreover, it must be understood that
the experiments should be made in an apartment the temperature of which
remains as constant as possible. Lastly, it is scarcely necessary to add, that
when the alcoholic liquid is mixed, after having added small quantities of pure
alcohol or alcohol at 16°, the movements of the spatula should be very slow, so
as to avoid the communication of too much agitation to the mass of oil; we are’
even sometimes compelled momentarily to depress the upper disk, so as to give
greater stability to the mass, and thus to prevent the movements in question from
producing the disunion. a

46. It might be asked whether the want of symmetry, which ‘3 constantly
seen in the spontaneous modification of the above unstable figures, is the result
of a law which governs these figures ; or whether it simply arises, as we should
be led to believe at first sight, from imperceptible differences still existing be-
tween the densities of the two liquids, which differences acting upon unstable figures
might produce this want of symmetry, notwithstanding their extreme minuteness

After having concluded the preceding experiments, I imagined that to solve
the question in point, all that would be requisite would be to arrange matters so
that the axis of the figure, instead of being vertical, as in the above experiments,
should have a horizontal direction. In fact, in the latter case, the slightest
difference between the densities ought to have the effect of slightly curving the
figure, but evidently cannot give the liquid any tendency to move in greater
quantity towards one extremity of the figure than the other; whence it follows,
that if the spontaneous alteration of the figure still occurs unsymmetrically,
this can only be owing to a peculiar law.

On the other hand, if the figure really tends of itself to change its form un-
symmetrically, it is clear that, in the case of the vertical position of the axis,
the effect of a trace of difference between the densities ought to concur with that
of the instability, and thus to accelerate the moment at which the figure com-
mences to alter spontaneously. Consequently, on avoiding this extraneous
cause by the horizontal direction of the axis of the figure, we may hope to
approximate more nearly to the cylindrical form, or even to attain it exactly;
we can, moreover, understand that the difficulty in the operations will be found
to be considerably diminished.

I therefore constructed a solid system, presenting two vertical disks of the
same diameter, placed parallel with each
other, at the same height, and opposite
each other. Each of these disks is sup-
ported by an iron wire fixed normally
to its centre, then bent vertically down-
wards, and the lower extremities of
these two wires are attached to a hori-
zontal axis furnished with four small
feet. This system is represented in
perspective in Fig. 27. ‘The diameter
of the disks is 30 millimeters, but the
distance which separates them is not

ara four times this diameter. I thought that
by approximating the figure more to the limit of stability, the operations

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 259

would require still less trouble; the distance in question is only 108 millime-
ters, so that the relation between the length and the diameter of the liquid
eylinder which would extend between the two disks would be equal to 3.6.
We shall now detail the results obtained by the employment of this system.
In the first place, the operations were much more easily performed.* In the
second place, the figure still had a tendency to deformity before it had been
rendered perfectly cylindrical ; but this tendency always exhibited itself unsym-
metrically, as in the vertical figures; from which circumstance alone we might

_ conclude that the unsymmetrical nature of the phenomenon is not occasioned by

a difference between the densities of the two liquids. In the third place, by a
little management, I have pursued the experiment further, and succeeded in
forming an exact cylinder.t ‘This lasted for a moment; it then began to be
narrowed at one part of its length, becoming dilated at the other, like the verti-
eal figures; and the phenomenon of disunion was completed in the same manne,
giving rise ultimately to two masses of different volumes.

I repeated the experiment several times, and always with the same results,
except that the separation occurred sometimes on.one, sometimes on the other
side of the middle of the length of the figure. However, although the phe-
nomenon is produced in an unsymmetrical manner with regard to the middle of
the length of the figure, whether horizontal or vertical, on the contrary there is
always symmetry with regard to the axis; in other words, throughout the dura-
tion of the phenomenon the figure remains constantly a figure of revolution.
We may add here, that in the horizontal figure the respective lengths of the
constricted and dilated portions appear to be equal; we shall show, in the fol-
lowing series, that this equality is rigorously exact, at least at the commencement
of the phenomenon.

It is now evident that the alteration in the form of these cylinders is really
the result of a property which is inherent in them. We shall hereafter deduce
this property as a necessary consequence of the laws which govern a more
general phenomenon.

It moreover results from the above experiment that the proportion 3.6 is still
greater than the limit of stability, so that the exact value of the latter must lie
between the numbers 3 and 3.6. It is obvious that this method of experimént
might be employed to obtain a closely approximative determination of the value
in question; I propose doing this hereafter, and I shall give an account of the
result in the following series, when I shall have to return to the question of the
limit of stability of the cylinder.

47. In the unstable cylinders which we have just formed, the proportion of
the length to the diameter was inconsiderable ; but what would be the case if we
were to obtain cylinders of great length relatively to their diameter? Now,
under certain circumstances, figures of this kind, more or less exactly cylindri-
eal, may be realized, and we shall proceed to see what the results of the spon-
taneous rupture of equilibrium are.

* The two disks ‘in this solid system being placed at an invariable distance from each
other, it is necessary, in making a mass of oil, the volume of’ which is not too great, adhere
to them, to employ an extra piece consisting of a ring of iron wire of the same diameter as
the disks, supported by a straight wire of the same metal, the free extremity of which is held
in the hand. By means of this ring the mass, which has been previously attached to one of
the disks, is drawn out until it is equally attached to the other; tho ring is then removed.
The latter removes a small portion of the nfass at the same time; but on leaving the vessel it
leaves this portion in the alcoholic liquid. It is then removed by means of the syringe.

+ To effect this the following proceeding must be adopted for the removal of the excess of
oil. The operation is at first carried on with a suitable rapidity until the figure begins to
alter in form; the end of the point of the syringe is then drawn gently along the upper part
of the mass, proceeding from the thickest to the other portion. This slight action is sufficient
to move a minute quantity of oil towards the latter, and thus to re-establish the symmetry
of the figure; a new absorption is then made, the figure again regulated, and these proceed-
ings are continued until the exactly cylindrical form is attained.

260 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

A fact which I described in paragraph 20 of the preceding memoir, and which
I shall now describe more in detail, affords us the means of obtaining a cylinder
of this kind, and of observing its spontaneous destruction. Wheti some oil is
introduced by means of a small funnel into an alcoholic mixture containing a
slight excess of alcohol, and the oil is poured in sufficiently quick to keep the
funnel full, the liquid forms, between the point of the funnel and the bottom of
the vessel where the mass collects, a long train, the diameter of which continues
toyincrease slightly from the upper to the lower part, so as to form a kind of
very elongated cone, which does not differ much from.a cylinder.* ‘This nearly
cylindrical figure, the height of which is considerable in proportion to the diameter, _
remains without undergoing any perceptible alteration so long as the oil of which
it consists has suflicient rapidity of transference; but when the oil is no longer
poured into the funnel, and-consequently the motion of transference is retarded,
the cylinder is soon seen to resolve itself rapidly into a series of spheres, which
are perfectly equal in diameter, equally distributed, and with their centres
arranged upon the right line forming the axis of the cylinder.

To obtain perfect success, the elements of the experiment should be in certain
proportions. The orifice of the funnel which I used was about 3 millimeters in
diameter, and 11 centimeters in height. It rested upon the neck of a large
bottle containing the alcoholic mixture, and its orifice was plunged a few milli-
meters only beneath the surface of the liquid. Lastly, the length of the cylinder
of oil, or the distance between the orifice and the lower mass, was nearly 20
centimeters. Under these circumstances, three spheres were constantly formed,
the upper of which remained adherent to the point of the funnel; the latter was
therefore incomplete. We may add, that the excess of alcohol contained in the
mixture should neither be too great nor too small; the proper quantity is found
by means of a few preliminary trials.

48. The constancy and regularity of the result of this experiment complete
then the proof that the phenomena to which the spontaneous rupture of equilib-
rium of an unstable liquid cylinder gives rise are governed by determinate laws.

In this same experiment, the transformation ensues too rapidly to allow of its
phases being well observed; but the phenomena presented to us by larger and
less elongated cylinders, 7. e., the formation of a dilatation and constriction in
juxtaposition, and equal or nearly so in length, the gradual increase in thickness
of the dilated portion and the simultaneous narrowing of the constricted portion,
&e., authorize us to conclude that in the case of a cylinder the length of which
is considerable in proportion to the diameter, the following order of things takes
place: the figure becomes at first so modified as to present a regular and uniform
succession of dilated. portions, separated by constricted portions of the same
length as the former, or nearly so. ‘This alteration, the indications of which
are very slight, gradually becomes more and more marked, the constricted por-
tions gradually becoming narrower, whilst the dilated portions increase in thick-
ness, the figure remaining a figure of revolution ; at last the constrictions break,
and each of the various parts of the figure, which are thus completely isolated
from each other, acquire the spherical form. We must add, that the termination
of the phenomenon is accompanied by a remarkable peculiarity, of which we
have not yet spoken; but as it only constitutes, so to speak, an accessory por-
tion of the general phenomenon, we shall transfer the description of it to a
subsequent part of this memoir, (see § 62.) ;

49. It might be asked why, in the experiment which we have last described,
the cylinder is only resolved into spheres when the rapidity of the transference
of liquid of which it is composed is diminished. In fact, we cannot understand
how a motion of transference could give stability to a liquid figure which in a

ST

* The slight increase in diameter depends upon the retardation which the resistance of the
surrounding liquid occasions in the movement of the oil.

ot

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 261
state of repose was unstable. In explaining this apparent peculiarity, we must
remark that, as the spontaneous transformation of an unstable cylinder is effected
under the action of continued forces, the rapidity with which the phenomenon
occurs ought to be accelerated ; this may be, moreover, casily verified in experi-
ments relating to larger and less elongated cylinders; this same rapidity ought,

_ therefore, always to be very minute at the commencement of the phenomenon.

Now, in the case in question, as the changes in figure occur in the liquid of the
cylinder whilst this liquid is animated by a movement of transference, it is
evident, from what we have stated, that if this movement of transferenee is
sufficiently rapid, the changes of form could only acquire a very slightly marked
development during the passage of the point of the funnel to the mass accumu-
lated at the bottom of the vessel; so that, the liquid being continually renewed,
there will be no time for any alteration in form to become very perceptible to
the eye. Hence, so long as the rapidity of the flow is sufficiently great, the
liquid figure will appear to retain its almost cylindrical form, although its length
is considerable in comparison with its diameter. On the other hand, when the
velocity of the transference is sufficiently small, there will be time for the
alterations in form to take place in a perfect manner, and we shall be able to
see the cylinder resolve itself into spheres throughout the whole of its length.

50. We shall now describe another method of experimenting, which allows
us to observe the result of the transformation under less restrained and more
regular conditions in some respects than those of the preceding experiment, and
which will, moreover, lead us to new consequences as regards the laws of the
phenomenon. We shall first succinctly describe the apparatus and the opera-
tions, and afterwards add the necessary details.

The principal parts of which the apparatus consists are: Ist, a rectangular

plate of plate-glass, 25 centimeters in length, and 20 in breadth; 2d, two strips

of the same glass, 13 centimeters in length, and * millimeters in thickness,

perfectly prepared and polished at the edges; 3d, two ends of copper wire,

about 1 millimeter in thickness, and 5 centimeters in length; these wires should

be perfectly straight, and one extremity of each of them should be cut very
accurately, then carefully amalgamated. The plate being placed horizontally,
the two strips are laid flat upon its surface and parallel with its long sides, so
as to leave an interval of about a centimeter between them; the two copper
wires are then introduced into this, placing them in a right line in the direction
of the length of the strips, and in such a manner that the amalgamated extremi-
ties are opposite to, and a few centimeters distant from, each other. A globule
of very pure mercury, from 5 to 6 centimeters in diameter, is next placed be-
tween the same extremities; the two strips of glass are then approximated
until they touch the wires, so as only to leave between them an interval equal
in width to the diameter of these wires. The little mass of mercury, being
thus compressed laterally, necessarily becomes elongated, and extends on both
sides towards the amalgamated surfaces. If it does not reach them, the wires
are made to slide towards them until contact and adhesion are established.
The wires are then moved in opposite directions, so as to separate them from
each other, which again produces elongation of the little liquid mass and dimi-
nution of its vertical dimensions. By proceeding carefully, and accompanying
the operation with slight blows given with the finger upon the apparatus to
facilitate the movements of the mercury, we succeed in extending the little
mass until its vertical thickness is everywhere equal to its horizontal thickness,
i. é., to that of the copper wires. Thus the mercury forms a liquid wire of the
same diameter as the solid wires to which it is attached, and from 8 to 10 cen-
timeters in length. This wire, considering the small size of its diameter, which
renders the action of gravitation insensible in comparison with that of molecular
attraction, may be considered as exactly cylindrical; so that in this manner we
obtain a liquid cylinder, the length of which is from 80 to 100 times its diame-

262 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

ter, and attached by its extremities to solid parts, which cylinder preserves its
form so long as it remains imprisoned between the strips of glass. Weights are
next placed upon the parts of the two copper wires which project beyond the
extremities of the bands, so as to maintain these wixes in firm positions ; lastly,
by means which we shall point out presently, the two strips of glass are raised
vertically. At the same instant, the liquid cylinder, being liberated from its
shackles, becomes transformed into a numerous series of isolated spheres, ar- .
ranged in a straight line in the direction of the cylinder from which they origi-
nated.* Ordinarily the regularity of the system of spheres thus obtained is
not perfect; the spheres present differences in their respective diameters and in
the distances which separate them; this undoubtedly arises from slight acci-
dental causes, dependent upon the method of operation; but the differences are
sometimes so small that the regularity may be considered ds perfect. As
regards the number of spheres corresponding to a cylinder of determinate
length, it varies in different experiments; but these variations, which are also
due to slight accidental causes, are comprised within very small limits.

51. Let us now complete the description of the apparatus, and add some
details regarding the operations. As the plate of glass requirés to be placed in
a perfectly horizontal position, it is supported for this purpose upon four feet
with screws. A small transverse strip of thin paper is glued to each of the
extremities of the lower surface of the strips of glass, in su¢h a manner that the
strips of glass resting upon the plate through the medium of these small pieces,
of paper, their lower surface is not in contact with the surface of the plate.
Without this precaution, the strips of glass might contract a certain adhesion to
the plate, which would introduce an obstacle when the strips are raised vertically.
Moreover, the latter are furnished, on their upper surface and at a distance of 6
millimeters from each of their extremities, with a small screw placed vertically
in the glass with the point upwards, firmly fixed to it with mastic, and rising 8 -
millimeters above its surface. These four screws are for the purpose of receiving
the nuts which fix the strips to the system by means of which they are elevated.
This system is made of iron; it consists, in the first place, of two rectangular
plates, 55 millimeters in length, 12 in breadth, and 3 in thickness. Each of
them is pierced, perpendicularly to its large surfaces, by two holes, so situated,
that on placing each of these plates transversely upon the extremities of the two
strips of glass, the screws with which the latter are furnished fit into these four
holes. ‘The screws being long enough to project above the holes, nuts may
then be adapted to them, so that on screwing them the strips of glass become
fixed in an invariable position with regard to each other. The holes are of an
elongated form in the direction of the length of the iron plates; hence, after
having loosened the nuts, the distance between the two strips of glass may be
increased or diminished without the necessity of removing the plates. A vertical
axis, 5 centimeters in height, is implanted upon the middle of the upper surface
of each of the plates; and the upper extremities of these two axes are connected
by a horizontal axis, at the middle of which a third vertical axis commences ;
this is directed upwards, and is 15 centimeters in length. The section of the
latter axis is square, and it is 5 millimeters in thickness. When the nuts are
screwed up, it is evident that the strips of glass, the iron plates, and the kind
of fork which connects them, constitute an invariable system. The long vertical
axis serves to direct the movement of this system; with this view, it passes
with very slight friction through an aperture of the same section as itself, and
5 centimeters in length, pierced in a piece which is fixed very firmly by a suitable
support 10 centimeters above the plate of glass. Lastly, the perforated piece
is provided laterally with a thumb-screw, which allows the axis to be screwed
ete te ER ed oe

* We may remark that the conversion of a metallic wire into globules by the electric dis-
charge must undoubtedly be referred to the same order of phenomena.

-

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 263

into the tube. By this arrangement, if all parts of the apparatus have been
carefully finished, when once the little nuts have been screwed up, the two
strips of glass can only move simultaneously in a parallel direction to each
other, and always identically in the same direction perpendicular to the plate
of glass. When the liquid cylinder is well formed, and the weights are placed

upon the free portions of the copper wires, the finger is passed under the hori-

zontal branch of the fork, and the movable system is raised to a suitable dis-
tancé above the plate of glass; it is then maintained at this height by means
of the thumb-screw, so as to allow the result of the transformation of the cylin-
der to be observed. As the amalgamation of the copper wires always extends
slightly upon their convex surface, the latter is coated with varnish, so that
the amalgamation only occurs upon the small plane section. It would be
almost impossible to judge by simple inspection of the exact point at which the
separation of the copper wires from each other, to allow of the liquid attaining
a cylindrical form, should be discontinued. ‘To avoid this difficulty, the length
of the cylinder is given beforehand, and this length is marked by two faint

_ seratches upon the lateral surface of one of the strips of glass; the weight of

the globule of mercury, which is to form a cylinder of this diameter and of the
length required, is then determined by calculation from the known diameter of
the wire; lastly, by means of a delicate balance, the globule to be used in the
experiment is made exactly of this weight. All that then remains to be done
is to extend the little mass until the extremities of the copper wires between
which it is included have reached the marks traced upon the glass. Lastly, in
making a series of experiments, the same mercury may be used several times
if the isolated spheres are united into a single mass at the end of each observa-
tion. However, after a certain number of experiments, the mercury appears to
lose its fluidity, and the mass always becomes disunited at some point, in spite
of all possible precautions, before it has become extended to the desired length,
which phenomena arise from the solid wires imparting a small quantity of cop-
per to the mercury. The latter must then be removed, the plates of glass and
the strips cleaned, and a new globule taken. ‘The amalgamation of the wires
also sometimes requires to be renewed.

52. By means of the above apparatus and methods, I have made a series of
experiments upon the transformation of the cylinders; but before relating the

_results, it is requisite for their interpretation that we should examine the phe-

nomenon a little more closely.

Let us imagine a liquid cylinder of considerable length in proportion to its
diameter, and attached by its extremities to two solid bases; let us suppose
that it is effecting its transformation, and let us consider the figure at a period
of the phenomenon anterior to the separation of the masses, 7. e., when this
figure is still composed of dilatations alternating with constrictions. As the
surfaces of the dilatations project externally from the primitive cylindrical sur-
face, and those of the constrictions on the contrary are internal to this same
surface, we can imagine in the figure a series of plane sections perpendicular to
the axis, and all having a diameter equal to that of the cylinder; these sections
will evidently constitute the limits which separate the dilated from the con-
stricted portion, so that each portion, whether constricted or dilated, will be
terminated by two of them; moreover, as the two solid bases are necessarily
part of the sections in questiou, each of these bases should occupy the very
extremity of a constricted or dilated portion. This being granted, three hypo-
theses present themselves in regard to these two portions of the figure, 7. e., to
those which rest respectively upon each of the solid bases. In the first place,
we may suppose that both of the portions are expanded. In this case each of
the constrictions will transfer the liquid which it loses to the two dilatations
immediately adjacent to it; the movements of transport of the liquid will take
place in the same manner throughout the whole extent of the figure, and the

264 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS :

transformation will take place with perfect regularity, giving rise to isolated
spheres exactly equal in diameter, and at equal distances apart. ‘This regu-
larity will not, however, extend to the two extreme dilatations; for as each of
these is terminated on one side by a solid surface, it will only receive liquid
from the constriction which is situated on the other side, and will, therefore,
acquire less development than, the intermediate dilatations. Under these cir-
cumstances, then, after the termination of the phenomenon, we ought to find
two portions of spheres respectively adherent to two solid bases, each present-
ing a slightly less diameter than that of the isolated spheres arranged between _
them.

In the second place, we may admit that the terminal portions of the figure
are, one a constriction and the other a dilatation. ‘The liquid lost by the first,
not being then able to traverse the solid base, will necessarily all be driven into
the adjacent dilatation; so that, as the latter receives all the liquid necessary
to its development on one side only, it will receive none from the opposite side ;
consequently all the liquid lost by the second constriction will flow in the same
manner into the second dilatation, and so on up to the last dilatation. The
distribution of the movements of transport will, therefore, still. be regular
throughout the figure, and the transformation will ensue in a perfectly regular
manner. This regularity will evidently extend even to the two terminal por-
tions, at least so long as the constrictions have not attained their greatest
depth; but beyond that point this will not exactly be the case, for independ-
ence being then established between the masses, each of the dilatations, except-
ing that which rests upon the solid base, will enlarge simultaneously on both
sides, so as to pass into the condition of the isolated sphere, by appropriating
to itself the two adjacent semi-constrictions, whilst the extreme dilatation can
enlarge on one side. Consequently, after the termination of the phenomenon,
we should find, at one of the soild bases, a portion of a sphere of but little less
diameter than that of the isolated spheres, and at the other base a much smaller
portion of a sphere, arising from the semi-constriction which has remained
attached to it. :

Lastly, in the third place, let us suppose that the terminal portions of the
figure were both constrictions, in which case, after the termination of the phe-
nomenon, a portion of a sphere equal to the smallest of the two above would
be left to each of the solid bases. In this case, to be more definite, let us
start from one of these terminal constrictions ; for instance, that of the left. All
the liquid lost by this first constriction being driven into the contiguous dilata-
tion, and being sufficient for-its development, let us admit that all the liquid
lost by the second constriction also passes into the second dilatation, and so | -
on; then all the dilatations, excepting the last on the right, will simply acquire
their normal development; but the right dilatation, which, like each of the
others, receives from that part of the constriction which precedes it the quan-
tity of liquid necessary for its development, receives in addition the same
quantity of liquid from that part of the constriction which is applied to the
adjacent solid, so that it will be moré voluminous than the others. Hence it is
evident, in the case in point, that the opposed actions of the two terminal con-
strictions introduce an excess of liquid into the rest of the figure. Now, what-
ever other hypothesis may be made respecting the distribution of the move-
ments of transport,-it must always happen either that the excess of volume is
simultaneously distributed over all the dilatations, or that it only augments the
dimensions of one or two of them; but the former of these suppositions is
evidently inadmissible, on account of the complication which it would require
in the movements of transport; hence we must admit the second, and then the
isolated spheres will not all be equal. Thus this third mode of transformation
would necessarily of itself induce a cause of irregularity; and, moreover, it
would not allow of a uniform distribution of the movements of transport, be-

Se

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 265

_ cause there would be opposition in regard to these movements, at least in the

terminal constrictions.

It may, therefore, be regarded as very probable that the transformation takes
place according to one or the other of the two first methods, and never accord-
ing to the third, 2. e., that things will be so arranged that the figure which is
transformed may have for its terminal portions either two dilatations, or one
constriction and one dilatation, but not two constrictions. In the former case,
as we have seen, the movement of the liquid of all the constrictions would
ensue on both sides simultaneously; and in the second this movement would

occur in all in one and the same direction. If this is really the natural arrange-

ment of the phenomenon, we can also understand how it will be preserved even
when it is disturbed in its regularity by slight extraneous causes. Now, this,
as we shail see, is confirmed by the experiments relating to the mercurial
cylinder. Although the transformation of this cylinder has rarely yielded a
perfectly regular system of spheres, | have found in the great majority of the
results either that each of the soild bases was occupied by a mass little less in
diameter than the isolated spheres, or that one of the bases was occupied by a
mass of this kind and the other by a much smaller mass.

53. For the sake of brevity, let us denominate divisions of the cylinder those
portions of the figure each of which furnishes a sphere, whether we consider
these portions in the imagination as in the cylinder itself, before the com-
mencement of the transformation, or whether we take them during the accom-
plishment of the phenomenon, 7. e.,during the modifications which they undergo
in arriving at the spherical form. The length of a division is evidently that
distance which, during the transformation, is comprised between the necks of
two adjacent constrictions; consequently it is equal to the sum of the lengths
of a dilatation and two semi-constrictions. Let us, therefore, see how the
length in question, z. e., that of a division, may be deduced from the result of
an experiment. Let us suppose the transformation to be perfectly regular, and
let A be the length of a division, / that of the cylinder, and m the number of
isolated spheres found after the termination of the phenomenon. Each of these
spheres being furnished by a complete division, and each of the two terminal
masses by part of a division, the length 7 will consist cf » times A, plus two
fractions of 4. To estimate the values of these fractions, we must recollect
that the length of a constriction is exactly or apparently equal to that of a dila-
tation, (§ 46 ;) now, in the first of the two normal cases, (§ 52,) 7. e., when the
masses remaining adherent to the bases after the termination of the phenomenon
are both of the large kind, each of them evidently arises from a dilatation plus
half a constriction, therefore three-fourths of a division; the sum of the lengths
of the two portions of the cylinder which have furnished these masses is, there-
fore, equal to once and a half 2, and we shall have in this case 7 ==(m + 1.5) 4,

whence A ra ieee In the second case, 2. e., when the terminal masses con-
n fa

sist of one of the large and the other of the small kind, the latter arises from a
semi-constriction, or a fourth of a division, so that the sum of the lengths of the
portions of the cylinder corresponding to these two masses is equal to 2; con-
sequently we shall have 4— Sere

As the respective denominators of these two expressions represent the num-
ber of divisions contained in the total length of the cylinder, it follows that
this number will always be either simply a whole number, or a whole number .
and a half. On the other hand, as the phenomenon is governed by determinate
laws, we can understand that for a cylinder of given diameter composed of a
given liquid, and placed under given circumstances, there exists a normal
length which the divisions tend to assume, and which they would rigorously
assume if the total length of the cylinder were infinite. If. then, it happens

266 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

that the total length of the cylinder, although limited, is equal to the product
of the normal length of the divisions by a whole number, or rather a whole
number plus a half, nothing will prevent the divisions from exactly assuming
this normal length. If, on the other hand, which is generally the case, the
total length of the cylinder fulfils neither of the preceding conditions, we should
think that the divisions would assume the nearest possible to the normal length;
and then, all other things being equal, the difference will evidently be as much
‘less as the divisions are more numerous, or, in other words, as the cylinder is
longer. We should also believe that the transformation would adopt that of
the two methods which is best adapted to diminish the difference in question,
and this is also confirmed by experiment, as we shall see presently. Hence,
although, as I have already stated, the transformation of the cylinder of mer-
cury almost always ensues in one of the two normal methods, the result is
rarely very regular; we must, therefore, admit that slight accidental disturbing
causes. in general render the divisions formed in any one experiment unequal
in length; but then the expressions of 2 obtained above evidently give in each
experiment the mean length of these divisions, or, in other words, the common
length which the divisions would have taken if the transformation had occurred
in a perfectly regular manner, giving rise to the same number of isolated
spheres and to the same state of the terminal masses.

Lastly, since the third method of transformation presents itself, 2. e., since it
sometimes happens that each of the bases is occupied by a mass of the small kind,
if we would leave out of consideration the particular cause of irregularity inhe-
rent in this method, (the preceeding paragraph,) and find the corresponding
expression of A, it need only be remarked that each of the terminal masses
then proceeds from a semi-constriction or the fourth of a division, which will

l
n+ 0.5

54. I shall now relate the results of the experiments. The diameter of the
copper wires, consequently of the cylinder, was 1.05 millimeter. I first gave
the cylinder a length of 90 millimeters, and repeated the experiment ten times,
noting after each the number of isolated spheres produced, and the state of the
masses adherent to the bases; I then calculated for each result the correspond-
ing value of the length of a division, by means of that of the three formule of
the preceding paragraph which refers to this same result, I afterwards made
ten more experiments, giving the cylinder a length of 100 millimeters, and alo
calculated the corresponding values of the length of a division. ‘Che table con-
tains the results furnished by these cylinders, and the values deduced for the length
ofadivision. I only obtained a pertectly regular result in one ease in each series;
I have placed an * opposite the corresponding number of isolated spheres.

evidently give 2 ==

Length of the cylinder 90 millimeters. Length of the cylinder 100 millimeters.

Number of} Masses adherent to the bases. | Length |Number of] Masses adherent to the bases. Length

isolated of a isolated ofa
spheres. division. | spheres, ; division.
millims. millims,

UU ON AT OCS eon. oan alain en la 7.83 11 | One large and one small..| 8.u.

m9 HAV OALT Osos oe |! 6.67 14 | Twowlateere sce t-oeea 6.45

er bworsmalbosos s ok! le! - 7,20 14° | "Dwotlanocde2: tse 6.45

i MEMO oes 220! stn 28 5,45 14). Rwodlanoees.:s\: aesinee 6.45

14} SOWOMBN OO. ji otss2 6 ok oe: 5.81 *14 | One large und one Hae Jhonson,

Oe) ERO cts ie cian oni « 7.2 13 | One large and one sma!f..; 7.14

dt }| ‘Pwo latge.=+:.-..2 2... 7.20 11 | Pwo largest 4.2. YR 8.00

12 | One large and one small..| 6.92 14 | One large and one small..| 6.67

13 Two llatge sarah lie test 6.21 13 Two latgess 43 s-ceee. 6.90

AL s | Ra largees son aerate eas 7.20 10 8.69

TL WOUBI POs) cciiiees |

‘ WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 267

This table shows, in the first place, that the different values obtained for the
length of a division are not so far removed from each other as to prevent our
perceiving a constant value, the uniformity of which is only altered by the
influence of slight accidental causes. In the second place, out of twenty ex-
periments, it happened once only that the masses adherent to the bases were
both of the small kind. In the third place, both the perfectly regular results
have given identically the same value for the length of a division; this value,
expressed approximatively to two decimal places, is 6.67 millimeters; but its
exact expression is 63 millimeters; for the operation to be effected consists, in
the case of the first series, in the division of 90 millimeters by 13.5, and, in the
case of the second series, in the division of 100 millimeters by 15. As the two
lengths given to the cylinder are considerable in proportion to the diameter, and
consequently the numbers of division are tolerably large, this value, 6% milli-
meters, ought very nearly, if not exactly, to constitute that of the normal length
of the divisions. It is seen, moreover, that to give the divisions this closely
approximative or exact value of the normal length, the transformation has
chosen, iu one case the first, in the other case the second method.

55. Let us pursue our inquiry into the laws of the phenomenon with which
we are engaged ;, we shail soon make an important application of them, and it
will then be understood why so extensive a development is given to this part of
our work. It might be regarded as evident @ priori that two cylinders formed
of the same liquid and placed in the same circumstances, but differing in diameter,
would tend to become divided in the same manner, 2. ¢., that the respective nor-
mal lengths of the divisions would be to each other in the proportion of the
diameters of these cylinders.

In order to verify this law by experiment, I procured some copper wires, the
diameter of which was exactly double that of the first, therefore equal to 2.1
millimeters, and I made with them a new series of ten experiments, giving the
cylinder a length of 100 millimeters. This series also furnished me with only
a single perfectly regular result, which I have denoted as before by an * placed
opposite the corresponding number of isolated spheres. The following is the
table relating to this series:

Number / Masses adherent to the bases. Length
isolated of a
spheres, division.

ame manoAy STN BLL.) ene te aap pales ria aoe ai atl aIaiPmc ein a Soe Su lziarss See
SMRPOUBI OG. 56 2 iene Belctiaay cp anise 2-5 nae 4m Ses oe ENE cree
Peleus Jarve and one small2o 2.2003 2-6 uses cue est 7c ee
De omelarce and onolsmall) 22.0 22 2oi Sse Ses Sane oes wees Wade he oe
Orem BIOL So 22282 SRS SB beri whem nim apele bien atm Sasi ania ae eee
i WOMANS. 2 3.5 se em eepinaeee diene ae - mae ane pa —~ - ae inne emn inna an
6 | One jarge and one small.....-------. ----2- e+ 0~-- eee o-- oa == === ===
©! ne laree and‘one mall’. —2 2222). 2. 2. cee eee ee eee
rar SHiall 2... xls. Soetoro tang sisi eetobay Sotetten as aes dp te Se
6 | One large and one small -...--.----------.- gf Se eae ie Ses ala on

ee

By stopping at the second decimal place, we have, as is evident, 13.33 milli-
meters for the value of the length of a division corresponding to the perfectly
regular result; but as the operation which yields it consists in the division of
100 by 7.5, the value when perfectly expressed is 134 millimeters. This then
is very nearly, if not exactly, the normal length of the divisions of this new
cylinder; now this length, 13$ millimeters, is exactly twice the length, 63
millimeters, which belongs to the divisions of the cylinder of the preceding

268 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS.

paragraph; these two lengths are therefore, in fact, in the proportion to each
other of the diameters of the two cylinders.

As the perfectly regular result of the above table has given a mass of the
larger kind to each base, it follows, that to enable the divisions of the cylinder
itself to assume their normal length, or the nearest possible length to this, the
transformation has necessarily ensued according to the former method; whilst
in regard to a cylinder the diameter of which is a half less, and the total length
of which is the same, 00 millimeters, the transformation ensued according to
the second method, (§ 54.) ;

Here, also, the case in which there are two masses of the small kind to the
solid bases is the least frequent, although it occurred twice. Lastly, the differ-
ent values of the length of a division are more concordant than in the second
series relating to the first diameter, and consequently show the tendency towards
a constant value better; we also see that the normal length is that which is
most frequently reproduced.

56. According to the law which we have just established, when the nature of
the liquid and external circumstances do not change, the,normal length of the
divisions is proportional to the diameter of the cylinder; or, in other words, the
proportion of the normal length of the divisions to the diameter of the cylinder
is constant.

As we have seen, the diameter of the cylinder in paragraph 54 was 1.05 mil-
limeters, and the normal length of its divisions was very little, less than 6.67
millimeters ; consequently, when the liquid used is mercury and the cylinder
rests upon a plate of glass, the value of the constant proportion in question is
6.67
1.05

To ascertain whether the nature of the liquid and external circumstances
exert any influence upon this proportion, we shall now determine the value of
the latter in the case of a cylinder of oil formed in the aleoholic mixture, which
may be effected, at least approximatively, with the aid of the result of the
experiment in paragraph 47. 'To simplify the considerations, we shall suppose
that the transformation docs not commence until the rapidity of transference has
entirely ceased. he point of the funnel, on the one hand, and the section by
which the imperfect liquid cylinder is in contact with the mass which collects
at the bottom of the vessel, on the other hand, may then be regarded as playing
the part of the two bases of the figure. Now it is evident that, as regards the
second of these bases, the last portion of the figure which is transformed should
be a constriction ; for if it constituted a dilatation, there would be discontinuity
of the curvature at the junction of the respective surfaces of the latter andthe
large mass, which is inadmissible. But the same reason does not apply to the
other base; and experiment shows that. in this case a dilatation is formed, be-
cause after the termination of the phenomenon we always find at the point of
the funnel a mass comparable to the isolated spheres. Hence in this experiment
the transformation ensues according to the second method. Therefore, asthe:
whole length of the figure is about 200 millimeters, and as the transformation
constantly yields two isolated spheres, the mean length of the divisions has

: “ ‘ : 200i +h
(§ 53) for its approximative value - millimeters = 66.7 millimeters; I say

e

—= 6.35, which approximates closely.

the mean length, because, as the diameter of the figure increases slightly from
the summit towards the base, the divisions are probably not exactly equal in
length: It must be added here, that the transformation ensues under cireum-
stances which are always identical, and consequently, in the absence of acci-
dental disturbing causes, the above quantity ought to represent the normal
length of the divisions, or the nearest possible length to the latter. Now, I

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 269

estimate the mean diameter of the figure before the transformation at about 4

7]: 66.7
millimeters; we should consequently have = 16.7 as the approximative

value of the proportion between the normal length of the divisions and the
diameter of the cylinder. This is, therefore, approximatively the constant pro-
portion sought in the case of a cylinder of oil formed in the alcoholic mixture ;
now this proportion, as is evident, is much greater than that which belongs to
the case of a cylinder of mercury resting upon a plate of glass.

In fact, the length 66.7 millimeters may differ somewhat materially from the
normal length; for if, on the one hand, the whole length of the figure of oil is
considerable in regard to its diameter, on the other hand, the number of divisions
which form there is very small. Let us then see, for instance, what is the least
value which the normal length of these divisions may have. We must in ihe
first place remark, that in this case, notwithstanding the absence of disturbing
causes, the third method of transfor:nation is possible; in fact, as the lower
constriction is adherent to a liquid base, nothing can prevent the oil which it
loses from traversing this base to reach the large mass, so that in the third
method, also, the direttion of the movements of transport may be the same in
regard to all the constrictions, (§ 52.) 'lhis granted, as the denominator of the
expression which gives the length of one division can only vary by half
units, (53,) and as the length which we have found resulted from the division
of 200 millimeters by 3, it follows that the length immediately below would be

©

5 millimeters — 57.1 millimeters, which would correspond to three isolated

spheres and a transformation disposed according to the third method. But as.
matters do not take place in this manner, since there are never more than two
isolated spheres formed, and the transformation always ensues according to
the second method, we must conclude that the’ normal length of the divisions
approximates more closely to the length found, 66.7 millimeters, than the length
57.1 millimeters. If, then, the normal length is greater than the first of these
two quantities, it must at least be more than their mean, 7. e.,61.9 millimeters ;
consequently the relation of the normal length of the divisions and the diameter

61.
of the cylinder is necessarily greater than ae ea 15.5; now this latter num-

ber considerably exceeds the numbcr 6.35, which corresponds to the mercurial
cylinder.

Thus, the proportion of the normal length of the divisions to the diameter of
the cylinder varies, sometimes according to the nature of the liquid, sometimes
according to external circumstances, at others according to both these elements.

57. But I say that there is a limit below which this proportion caniot descend,
and that this is exactly the limit of stability. Let us imagine a liquid cylinder
of sufficient length in proportion to its diameter, comprised between two solid
bases, and the transformation of which is taking place with perfect regularity.
Suppose, for the sake of clearness, that the phenomenon ensucs according to the
second method, or, in other words, that the terminal portions of the figure con-
sist one of a constriction, the other of a dilatation; then, as we have seen. (§ 52,)
the regularity of the transformation will extend to these latter portions; z. e., the
terminal constriction and the dilatation will be respectively identical with the
portions of the same kind of the rest of the figure. Let us then take the figure
at that period of the phenomenon at which it still presents constrictions and
dilatations, and let us again consider the sections, the diameter of which is equal
to that of the cylinder, (§ 52.) Let us start from the terminal constricted por-
tion ; the solid base upon which this rests, and which constitutes the first of the
sections in question, will-occupy, as we have shown, the origin of the constric-

270 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

tion itself; we shall then have a second section at the origin of the first dilatation ;
a third at the origin of the second constriction; a fourth at the origin of the
second dilatation, and’so on; so that all the sections of the even series will
occupy the origins of the dilatations, all those of the odd series the origins of —
the constrictions. The interval comprised between two consecutive sections of
the odd series will therefore include a constriction and a dilatation; and as the
figure begins with a constriction and terminates with a dilatation, it is clear that
its entire length will be divided into a whole number of similar intervals. In
consequence of the exact regularity which we have supposed to exist in the
transformation, all the intervals in question will be equal in length; and.as the
moment at which we enter upon the consideration of the figure may be taken
arbitrarily from the origin of the phenomenon to the maximum of the depth of
the constrictions, it follows that the equality of length of the intervals subsists
during the whole of this period, and that, consequently, the sections which
terminate these intervals preserve during this period perfectly fixed positions.
Besides the parts of the figure respectively contained in each of the intervals
undergoing identically and simultaneously the same modifications, the volumes
of all these parts remain equal to each other; and as thefr sum is always equal
to the total volume of the liquid, it follows that, from the origin of the trans-
formation to the maximum of depth of the constrictions, each of these partial
volumes remains invariable, or, in other words, no portion of liquid passes
from any one interval into the adjacent ones. Thus, at the instant at which
we consider the figure, oh the one hand, the two sections which terminate any
one interval will have preserved their primitive positions and their diameters ;
and on the other hand these sections will not have been traversed by any por-
tion of liquid. Matters will then have occurred in each interval in the same
manner as if the two sections by which it is terminated had been solid disks.
But the transformation cannot.ensue between two solid disks, if the proportion
of the distance which separates the disks to the diameter of the cylinder is less
than the limit of stability; the proportion of the length of our intervals and the
diameter of the cylinder cannot then be less than this limit. Now, the length
of an interval is evidently equal to that of a division; for the first, in .accord-
ance with what we have seen above, is the sum of the lengths of a dilatation
and a constriction ; and the second is the sum of the lengths of a dilatation and
two semi-constrictions, (§ 53;) the proportion of the length of a division to the
diameter of the cylinder cannot then be less than the limit of stability; and we
may remark here that this conclusion is equally true, whether the divisions are
able or not to assume exactly their normal length.

58. Let us now attempt to ascertain the influence of the nature of the liquid
and that of external cireumstances, commencing with the latter. Our liquid
cylinder of mercury, along the whole of the line at which it touches the plate
of glass, must contract a sight adherence to this plate, which adherence must
more or less impede the transformation. T’o discover whether this resistance
exerted any influence upon the normal length of the divisions, consequently
upon the proportion of the latter to the diameter of the cylinder, a simple
means presented itself, viz., to augment this resistance. ‘To arrive at this
result, | arranged the apparatus in such a manner as to remove only one of
the strips of glass, so that the liquid figure then remained simultaneously in
co tact with the plate and the other strip. I again repeated the experiment
ten times, using copper wires 1.05 millimeters in diameter, and giving the
cylinder a length of 100 millimeters. The following were the results :

ey

a: >

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. avs

Number o Masses adherent to the bases. Length
isolated ofa
spheres. division.

emcmedanre and ono smalls .co8s oc ote See pee 710,00
Bae neuarce and-oneismall). 32.26 odes tosgeceeebet sss ccs ous eee 11.41
Suan wires and one Small. wia< 6 6s cemmmnin suuied cue ee Ste ae wide ow Baheurle 10.00
eperte Mare ANG ONG SHOAL ecb oe eels paw de pe baal win stm bon em cannon 11.11
ce) LSBU Ue ae aes SES ES ES gy pl lg a 8.69
Seecooarees and one smalls iie) eet ee I eo. 2 11.41
Sauonelarco god. one: small \ diac ieiay boo wataten Wee on ee 11.11
ret || Layne Se eR RE He ee mire o Bec OCS cs Pee eemetee See 10.53
aero tnree And ONG SNiall o-oo oto oie. a chpts pee tomes ae ees nae os 11.11
SNES ADE Sema ee sean ar cee ee ee ee ae eae eee ae scans 13.33

It is evident that the different values of the length of a division, with a sin-
gle exception, are all obviously greater than all those which relate to a cylinder
of the same diameter, the surface of which only touches the glass by a single
line, (§ 54.) We must thence conclude that, all other things being the same,
the length of the divisions increases with the external resistance; consequently,
under the action of the same resistance, this length is necessarily greater than
it would be if the convex surface of the cylinder had been perfectly free.

In the above series neither of the results appears to be very regular; but we
can readily understand that the mean of the values of the third column will
approach the normal length of the divisions. This is, moreover, confirmed by
the tables in §§ 54 and 55. If we take in the former the respective means of
the values of the two series, we find for one 6.77 millimeters, and for the other
7.17 millimeters, quantities, the first of which is nearly equal to the length
6.67 millimeters, which may be considered as the normal length, and from
which the second does not differ much; and if likewise we take the relative
mean in the following table, we find 13.15 millimeters, a quantity very near
the length 13.33 millimeters, which in the case of the second table may also be
regarded as the normal length. Now, the corresponding mean in the above
table is 10.81 millimeters ; consequently, in the case of two lines of contact we

have — == 10.29 as the approximate value of the proportion of the normal

1.0
length of the divisions to the diameter of the cylinder, whilst in the case of a
single line of contact we found only 6.35. Hence the proportion between the
normal length of the divisions and the diameter of the cylinder increases by
the effect of an external resistance.

59. Let us proceed to the influence of the nature of the liquid. All liquids
are more or less viscid; 7.¢., their molecules do not enjoy perfect mobility with
regard to each other. Now, this gives rise to an internal resistance, which
must also render the transformation less easy; and as external resistances
increase the length of the divisions, we can understand that the viscidity will
act in the same manner; consequently, all other things being equal, the propor-
tion now under consideration will inerease with this viscidity. But, on the other
hand, with equal curvatures, the intensities of the forces which produce the
transformation vary with the nature of the liquid; for these intensities depend,

in the case of each liquid, upon that of the mutual attraction of the molecules.

Now, it is clear that the viscidity will exert so much more influence upon the
length of the divisions as the intensities of the forces in question are less.
Thus, leaving external resistances out of the question, the proportions of the

-normal length of the divisions to the diameters will be greater in proportion to
the viscidity of the liquid and the feebleness of the configuring forces.

272 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

The intensities of the configuring forces corresponding to different liquids
‘may be compared numerically for the same curvatures. In fact, let us first
bear in mind that the pressure corresponding to one element of the superficial
layer, and reduced to unity of the surface, is expressed by (§ 4,)

A fl T
eo a(atw)y

Now, the value of the part P of this pressure being the same for all the elements
of the superficial layer, and the pressures being transmitted throughout the
mass, this part P will always be destroyed, whether equilibrium exists in the
liquid figure or not; so that the active part of the pressure (that which consti-

tutes the configuring force) will have for its measure simply = G J nv)
Hence it is evident that when the curvatures are equal, the intensity of the
configuring force arising from one element of the superficial layer is propor-
tional to the coeflicient A. Now, this coefficient is the same as that which
enters into the known expression of the elevation or depression of a liquid in a
capillary tube: consequently the measures relating to this elevation or depres-
sion will give us, in the case of each liquid, the value of the coefficient in ques-
tion. Hence we may also say that the proportion of the normal length of the
divisions to the diameter of the cylinder will be greater as the liquid is more
viscid and as the value of A which corresponds to the latter diminishes. For
instance, oil is much more viscid than mereury; on the other hand, it would
be easy to show that the value of A is much less for the first than for the
second of these two liquids; lastly, this value must be much diminished in
regard to our figure of oil by the presence of the surrounding alcoholic liquid, — |
the mutual attraction of the molecules of the two liquids in contact diminishing
the intensities of the pressures, (§ 8.) This is why the proportion belonging to
a cylinder of oil formed in the alcoholic mixture considerably exceeds that be-
longing to a cylinder of mercury resting upon a plate of glass, notwithstanding
the slight external resistance to which the latter is subjected.

60. 1t follows from this discussion concerning the resistances that the
smallest value which the proportion of the normal length of the divisions to
the diameter of the cylinder could be supposed to have corresponds to that
case in which there is simultaneously complete absence of external resistance
and of viscidity; and, after the demonstration given in § 57, this least value
will be at least equal to the limit of stability. Now, as all liquids are more or
less viscid, it follows that, even on the hypothesis of the annihilation of all ex-
ternal resistance, the proportion in question will always exceed the limit of
stability; and since this is more than 3, this proportion will, @ fortiori, be
always more than 3.

Jt is conceivable that the least value considered above, 2. e., that which the
proportion would have in the case. of complete absence of resistance, both
internal as well as external, would be equal to the limit of stability itself, or
would very slightly exceed it. In fact, on the one hand, the proportion ap-
proximates to this limit as the resistances diminish, and on the other hand, if it
exceeds it, the transformation becomes possible, (§ 57;) hence we see no reason
why it should differ sensibly from it if the’ resistances were absolutely null.
The results of our experiments, moreover, tend to confirm this view. First,.
since the proportion belonging to our cylinder of mercury descends from 10.29
to 6.35, passing from that case in which the cylinder touches the glass at two
lines to that where it touches it at a single one only, (§ 58,) it is clear that if
this latter contact itself could be suppressed, which would leave the influence
of the viscidity alone remaining, the proportion would become much less than |

cates

ae

ea

— oe
°

Pe ERT IEE a

Ne itoreal nbbg bse cs

wea

“aoe

CRS

<-i5%

Sg SS Sates

a

hice es

_ 6.35; and as, on the other hand, it must exceed 3, we might admit that it would
at least lie between the latter number and 4, so that it would closely approxi-

Li a

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 273

mate the limit of stability. If, then, it were possible to exclude the viscidity
also, the new decrease which the proportion would then experience, would very
probably bring the latter to the very limit in question, or at least to a value
differing but exceedingly iittle from it. Thus, on the one hand, the least value
of the proportion, that corresponding to the complete absence of resistances,
would not differ, or scarcely so, from the limit of stability; and on the other
hand, under the influence of viscidity alone, the proportion appertaining to the
mercury would be but little renfoved from this least value. Hence it is evident
that the influence of the viscidity of mercury is small, which is moreover ex-
plained by the well-known feebleness of this same viscidity.

We can now understand in the case of other but very slightly viscid liqnids,
such as water, alcohol, &c., where the viscidity is not able to form more than a
minimum resistance, that this viscidity, notwithstanding the differences in the
intensities of the configuring forces, will also exert only a feeble influence upon
the proportion in question. Hence it results that, in the absence of all external
resistance, the values of this proportion respectively corresponding to the various
very slightly viscid liquids cannot be very far removed from the limit of sta-
bility; and as the smallest whole number above this is 4, we may in regard to
these liquids adopt this number as representing the mean approximative proba-
ble value of the proportion in question.

Starting from this value, calculation gives us the number 1.82 as the propor-
tion of the diameter of the isolated spheres which result from the transformation
to the diameter of the cylinder, and the number 2.18 for the proportion between
the distance of two adjacent spheres and this diameter.

61. There is another consequence arising from our discussion. For the sake
of simplicity let the diameter of the cylinder be taken as unity. ‘The propor-
tion of the normal length of the division to the diameter will then express this
normal length itself, and the proportion constituting the limit of stability will
express the length corresponding to this limit. This admitted, let us resume

the conclusion at which we arrived at the commencement of the preceding sec-

tion, which conclusion we shall consequently express here by stating that in
the case of all liquids the nortial length of the divisions always exceeds the
limit of stability; we must recollect, in the second place, that the sum of the
lengths of one constriction and one dilatation is equal to that of a division,
(§ 57;) and, thirdly, at the first moment of the transformation the length of one
constriction is equal to that of a dilatation, (§ 46.) Now, it follows from all
these propositions, that when the transformation of a cylinder begins to take
place, the length of a single portion, whether constricted or dilated, is necessa-
rily greater than half the limit of stability ; consequently the sum of the lengths
of three contiguous portions, for instance two dilatations and the intermediate
constriction, is once and a half greater than this same limit. Hence, lastly, if
the distance of the solid bases is comprised between once and once and a half
the limit of stability, it is impossible for the limit of stability to give rise to three
portions, and it will consequently only be able to produce a single dilatation in
juxtaposition with a single constriction. This, in fact, e~ we have seen, always. ,
took place in regard to the cylinder, in § 46, which was evidently in the above
condition, and the want of symmetry in its transformation now becomes explicable.
62. As stated at the conclusion of § 48, we have yet to describe a remarkable
fact which always accompanies the end of the phenomenon of the transformation
of a liquid cylinder into isolated masses.
In the transformation of large cylinders of oil, whether imperfect or exact,
+ (§ 44 to 46,) when the constricted part is considerably narrowed, and the sepa-
ration seems on the point of occurring, the two masses are scer to flow back
rapidly towards the rings or the disks; but they leave between them a cylindri-
18 s

274 THE FIGURES OF “EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

cal line which still establishes, for a very short time, the continuity of the one~ |
with the other, (Fig. 28;) this line then resolves itself into partial masses. It |

Fig. 28.

generally divides into three parts, the two extreme ones of which become lost |
in the two large masses, the intermediate one forming a spherule, some milli- —
meters in diameter, which remains isolated in the middle of the interval which
separates the large masses; moreover, in each of the intervals between this
spherule and the two large masses, another very much smaller spherule is seen,
which indicates that the separation of the parts of the above line is also effected
by attenuated lines. Fig. 29 (Pl. VIII) represents this ultimate state of the
liquid system. ‘The same effects are produced when the resolution of the thin
and elongated cylinder of oil of § 47 into spheres occurs, only there is in one
or the other of the intervals between the spheres frequently a larger number
of spherules, and, besides, the formation of the principal line is less easily
observed, in consequence of the more rapid progress of the phenomena. Lastly,
in the case of our cylinders of mercury, the resolution into spheres takes place
also in too short a time to allow of our perceiving the formation of the lines;
but we always find, in several of the intervals between the spheres, one or two
very minute spherules, whence we may conclude that the separation is effected
in the same manner.*

* We cannot avoid recognizing an analogy between the phenomenon of the formation ot
liquid lines and that of the formation of laminze. In fact, in the experiment in § 23, for
instance, the plane layer begins to be formed when the two opposite concave surfaces*are
almost in contact with each other at their summits; and in the resolution of a cylinder into
spheres, the formation of the lines commences when all the meridional sections of the figures
almost touch each other by the summits of their concave portions.

When treating of the layers, we have considered their formation as indicating a kind of
tendency towards a particular state of equilibrium, which results from the circumstance that
in the case of the thin part of the liquid system the ordinary law of pressure is moditied. For
the analogy between the two orders of phenomena to be complete, it would, therefore, be
necessary that excessively delicate liquid lines should connect thick masses, and should thus
form with these masses a system in equ librio, notwithstanding the incompatibility of this
equilibrium with the ordinary jaw of pressures. Now, wé shall show that this equilibrium
is in reality possible, at least theoretically. Let us always take as example the resolution
af our unstable cylinder into partial masses. When the cylindrical lines form, their diameter
is even then verysmall in comparison with the dimensions of the thick masses; consequently
their curvature in the direction perpendicular to the «xis is very great in comparison with
the curvature of these masses. The pressure correspouuing to the lines is then originally
much greater than those corresponding to the thick masses, whence it follows that the liquid
must be driven from the interior of the lines towards these same masses, and that the lines,
like the layers, ought to continue diminishing. Moreover, their curvatures, and conse-
quently their pressure augmenting in proportion as they become more attenuated, their
-tendency ‘to diminish in thickness will go on increasing, and consequently if we disregard
the instability of the cylindrical form, we see that they must become of an excessive tenuity.
But I say that the augmentation of the pressure will have a limit, beyond which this pressure
will progressively diminish, so that it may become equal to that which corresponds to the
thick parts of the liquid system.

In fact, without having recourse to theoretical developments, it is readily seen that if the
diameter of the line becomes less than that of the sphere of the sensible activity of the mole-
cular attraction, the law of the pressure must become modified, and, the diameter continuing
to decrease, the pressure must finish by also progressively diminishing, notwithstanding the
increase of the curvatures, in consequence of the diminution in the number of attracting
molecules. Hence the pressure may diminish indefinitely; for it ig clear that it would
entirely vanish if the diameter of the line became reduced .to the thickness of a single mole-
cule. Those geometricians who study the theory of capillary action know that the formule

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 275

_As we are now acquainted with the entire course which the transformation

? of a liquid cylinder into isolated spheres must take, we can represent it graphi-

eally. Fig. 30 represents the successive forms through which the liquid figure
passes, commencing with the cylinder up to the system of isolated spheres and

of this theory cease to be applicable in the case of very great curvatures, or those the radii
of which are comparable to that of molecular attraction. Now, it follows from what has
been stated, that we may always suppose the thinness of the line to be such that the cor-
responding pressure may be equal to that existing in thick masses which have attained a
state of equilibrium. In this case, admitting that the lines are mathematically regular, se
that the pressure there may be everywhere rigorously the same, consequently that they have
no tendency to resolve themselves into small partial masses, equilibrium will necessarily
exist in the system. In this case the form of the thick masses will not be mathematically
spherical; for their surface must become slightly raised at the junctures with the lines by
presenting concave curvatures in the meridional direction. This form will be the,samé as
that of an isolated mass, traversed diametrically by an excessively minute solid line, (§ 10.)
This system, like those into the composition of which layers enter, is composed of surfaces
of a different nature; but this heterogeneity of form becomes possible here, as in the casé of
the layers, in consequence of the change which the law of pressures undergoes in passing
from one to another kind of surface.

, We can, moreover, understand that the equilibrium in question, although possible theo-
retically, as we have shown, can never be realized, in consequence of the cylindrical form
of the lines. The same does not apply to the case of the plane layers; for, as we shall show
in the following series, the plane surfaces are always surfaces of stable equilibrium, whatever
may be their extent.

276 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

of spherules. This figure refers to the case of a very slightly viscid liquid,
such as water, alcohol, &c., and where the convex surface of the cylinder is

erfectly free; consequently, in accordance with the probable conclusion with
which § 60 terminates, the proportion of the length of the divisions to the
diameter has been taken as equal to 4. \

The phenomevon of the formation of lines and their resolution into spherules |
is not confined to the case of the rupture of the equilibrium of liquid cylinders;
it is always manifested when one of our liquid masses, whatever may be its
figure, is divided into partial masses. This is the manner in whieh, for
instance, in § 29 of the preceding memoir the minute masses which were then
compared to satellites are formed.* The phenomenon under consideration is
also produced when liquids are submitted to the free action of gravity, although
it is then less easily shown: or instance, if the rounded end of a glass rod be
dipped in ether, and then Withdrawn carefully in a perpendicular direction, at
the instant at which the small quantity of liquid remaining adherent to the rod
separates from the mass, an extremely minute spherule is seen to roll upon the
surface of the latter. Lastly, the phenomenon in question is of the same nature
as that which occurs when very viscid bodies are drawn into threads, as glass:
softened by heat, except that in this case the great viscidity of the substance,
and moreover the action of cold, which solidifies the thread formed, maintains
the cylindrical form of the latter @nd allows of its acquiring an indefinite
length.

63. To complete the study of the transformation of liquid cylinders into
isolated spheres, it still remains for us to discover the law according to which
the duration of the phenomenon varies with the diameter of the cylinder, and
to endeavor to obtain at least some indications relative to the absolute value
of this duration in the case of a cylinder of a given diameter, composed of a
given liguid, and placed in given circumstances.

We can understand, @ priori, that when the liquid and the external cireum-
stances are the same, and supposing the length of the cylinder to be always
such that the divisions assume exactly their normal length, (§ 53,) the duration
of the phenomenon must increase with the diameter; for the greater this is, the
greater the mass of cach of the divisions, and, on the other hand, the less the
curvatures upon which the intensities of the configuring forces depend. It is
true that the surface of each of the divisions increases also with the diameter
of the cylinder; consequently it is the same with the number of the elementary
configuring forces; but this augmentation takes place in a less proportion than
tha‘ of the mass. This we shall proceed to show more distinctly. Under the
above conditions two cylinders, the diameters of which are different, will be-
come divided in the same manner; 7. e., the proportion of the length of a division
to the diameter will be the same in both parts, (§ 55.) Now, it may be considered
as evident that the similitude in figure will be maintained in all the phases of the
transformation; this is, moreover, confirmed by experiment, as we shall soon see.
‘Hence it follows at each homologous instant of the transformations of the two
cylinders the respective surfaces of the divisions will always be to each other
as the squares of the diameters of these cylinders, whilst the masses, which
evidently remain invariable throughout the entire duration of the phenomena,
will always be to each other as the cubes of these diameters. Thus, at each
homologous instant of the respective transformations, the extent of the.super-,
ficial layer of a division, consequently the number of the configuring forces
which emanate from each of the elements of this layer, change from one figure
to the other only in the proportion of the squares of the primitive diameters of

* It is clear that this mode of formation is entirely foreign to La Place’s cosmogonie hypo-
thesis ; therefore we have had no idea of deducing from this little experiment, which only
relers to the effects of molecular attraction, and uot to those of gravitation, any argument in.
favor of the hypothesis in question—an hypothesis which, in other respects, we do not adopt.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 277

these figures; whilst the mass of a division, all the parts of which mass receive,
under the action of the forces in question, the movements constituting the
transformation, changes in the proportion of the cubes of these diameters. As
regards the intensities of the configuring forces, we must remember, first, that
the measure of that which corresponds to one element of the superficial layer
has (§ 59) for its expression 3 G -- u) This granted, if, at an homologous
instant in the transformations of the two figures, we take upon one of the divi-
sions of each of the latter any point similarly placed, it is clear from the simili-
tude of these figures that the principal radii of curvature corresponding to the
point taken upon the second will be to those corresponding to the point taken
upon the first in the proportion of the diameters of the original cylinders, so
that if this proportion be x, and the radii relating te the point of the first figure
be R and R’, those belonging to the point of the second will be xR and 2B’;
whence it follows that the measure of the two configuring forces corresponding

‘ : fet (el gt 1 A 1 1
to these points will be respéctively 3 Rt ry and a is 4 Ry =
uv

1- A 1 1 : :
Ss Gt a) Thus, in passing from the first to the second figure, the

intensities of the elementary configuring forces in all the phases of the trans-
formation will be to each other in the inverse proportion of. the diameters of
the cylinders.

I have convinced myself, by means of cylinders of mercury 1.05 millimeters
and 2.1 millimeters in diameter, (§ 54 and 55,) that the duration of the phe-
nomenon increases, in fact, with the diameter: although the transformation of
these cylinders is effected very rapidly, yet we have no difficulty in recognizing
that the: duration relating to the greater diameter is greater than that which
refers to the least.

64. As regards the law which governs this increase in the duration, it would
undoubtedly be almost impossible to arrive at its experimental determination in
a direct manner, 2. e., by measuring the times which the accomplishment of the
phenomenon would require in the case of two cylinders of sufficient length
to allow of their being respectively converted into several complete isolated
spherules, and of their satisfying the conditions indicated at the commencement -
of the preceding section. In fact I can hardly see any method of realizing such
eylinders without giving them very minute diameters, like those of our cylinders
of mereury, and then their duration is too short to allow of our obtaining the
proportion with sufficient exactness.

But we may be able to arrive at the same result, but with certain restrictions,
which we shall mention presently, by means of two short cylinders of oil formed
between two disks, (§ 46;) there is nothing to prevent these cylinders from
being obtained of such diameters as to render the exact measure of the durations
easy. In the transformation of a cylinder of this kind, only a single constric-
tion and a single dilatation are produced; but as in the transformation of cyl-
inders which are sufficiently long to furnish several complete isolated spheres,
the phases through which the constrictions and the dilatations pass are the same
for all, we need only consider one constriction and one dilatation. We can
understand that the relative dimensions of the two solid systems ought to be
such, that the relation between the distance of the disks and their diameters is
the same in both parts, in order that similitude may exist between the two liquid
figurés at their origin and at each homologous instant of their transformations.

Before giving an account of the employment of these figures of oil for the
determination of the law of the durations, we shall take this opportunity of
making several impoftant remarks. We shall only require to make use of the
law in question in that case, which in other respects is the most simple, where

278 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

the cylinders are formed im vacuo or in air, and are free from all external resist-
ance, or, in other words, free upon the whole of their convex surface. Now our
short cylinders of oil are formed in the alcoholic liquid, and it might be asked
whether this circumstance does not exert some influence upon the proportion of
the durations corresponding to a given proportion between the diameters of these
cylinders. At first, a greater or less portion of the alcoholic liquid must be
displaced by the modifications of the figures, so that the total mass to be moved
in a transformation is composed of the mass of oil and this portion of the alco-
holie liquid; but it is clear that in virtue of the similitude of the two figures of
oil and that of their movements, the quantities of surrounding liquid respectively
displaced will be to each other exactly, or at least apparently, as the two masses
of oil; so that the relation of the two entire masses will not be altered by this
circumstance. Hence it is very probable that this circumstance will no longer
exert any influence upon the proportion of the durations, except that the abso-
lute values of these durations will be greater. On the other hand, the mutual
attraction of the two liquids in contact diminishes the intensities of the pressures,
(§ 8,) and consequently the configuring forces; but it is easy to see that this
diminution does not alter the relation of these intensities in the two figures.
For let us imagine that at an homologous instant of the two transformations the
alcoholic liquid becomes suddenly replaced by the oil, and let us conceive in
the latter the surfaces of the two figures as they were at that instant. ‘The
configuring forces will then be completely destroyed by the attraction of the oil
outside these surfaces, or, in other words, the external attraction will be at each
point equal and opposite to the internal configuring force. If we now replace
the alcoholic liquid, the intensities of the external attractions will change, but
they will evidently retain the same relations to each other; whence it follows
that those corresponding to two homologous points taken upon both the figures
will still be to each other as the configuring forces commencing at these points;
so that in fact the respective resultants of the external and internal actions at
these two same points will be to each other in the same proportion as the two
internal forces alone. 'Thus the attractions exerted upon the oil by the sur-
rounding alcoholic liquid will certainly diminish the absolute intensities of the
configuring forces, but they will not change the relations of these intensities, .
consequently they may be considered as not exerting any influence upon the
durations. But it is clear that this cause will nevertheless greatly increase the
absolute values of the latter. Jor the two reasons which we have explained,
the presence of the alcoholic liquid will then increase the absolute values of the
two durations to a considerable extent ; but we may admit that it will not alter
the relation of these values, so that this proportion will be the same whether the
phenomenon take place em vacuo or inair. We shall, therefore, consider the law
which we deduce from our experiments upon short cylinders of oil as inde-
pendent of the presence of the surrounding alcoholic liquid, and this will be
found to be supported by the nature of the law itself.

But the exact formation of our short cylinders of oil requires (§ 46) that in
these cylinders the proportion between the length and the diameter, or what
comes to the same thing, between the sum of the lengths of the constriction and
the dilatation and the diameter, exceeds but little the limit-of stability. Now,
in the transformation of cylinders sufficiently long to furnish several spheres,
which would be formed ¢z vacuo or in the air, and free upon their entire convex
surface, and the divisions of which have their normal length, the proportion of
the sums of the lengths of one constriction and one dilatation to the diameter,
which proportion is the same as that of the length of one division to the diam-
eter, would vary with the nature of the liquid, (§ 59,) and we are ignorant
whether the law of the durations is independent of the value of this proportion.
The law which we shall obtain in regard to short cylinders of oil can only there-

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. ~* 279

| fore be legitimately applied to cylinders of sufficient length to furnish several

sphéres supposed to be in the above conditions, in the case where these latter
cylinders are formed of such a liquid that they would give for the proportion in
question a value but little greater than that of the limit of stability.

Now this is the case of mercury, (§ 60,) and it is also very probable that of
all other very slightly viscid liquids, (§ 60.) ‘Thus the law given by the short
eylinders of oil will be exactly or apparently that which would apply to eylin-
ders of mercury of sufficient length to furnish several spheres, supposing the
latter to be produced iz vacuo or in air, free at the whole of their convex surface,
and of such length that the divisions in each of them would assume their normal
length. Moreover, the same law would be undoubtedly applicable to cylinders
formed of any other very slightly viscid liquid, and supposed to be in the same
conditions as the preceding.

The law may possibly be completely general, 7. e., it may apply to cylinders
formed, always under the same circumstances, of any liquid whatever; but our
experiments do not furnish us with the elements necessary to decide this ques-
tion. Lastly, the transformation of our short cylinders presents a peculiarity
which entails another restriction. The two final masses into whieh a cylinder
of this kind resolves itself being unequal, the smallest acquires its form of
equilibrium considerably before the other, so that the duration of the phenom-
enon is not the same. Hence we can only determine its duration up to the
moment of the rupture of the line; consequently the proportion which we thus
obtain for both cylinders will only be that of the durations of two homologous
portions of the entire transformations. Moreover, the proportion of these partial
durations is exactly that of which we shall have hereafter to make use.

65. I made the experiments in question by employing two systems of disks,
the respective dimensions of which were to each other as one to two; in the
former, the diameter of the disks was 15 millimeters, and they were 54 milli-
meters apart; and in the second their diameter was 30 millimeters, and their
distance apart 108 millimeters. The cylinders formed respectively in these two
systems were therefore alike, and, as I have previously stated, (§ 63,) these
two figures exactly maintained their similarity, as far as the eye was capable of
judging, in all the phases of their transformations. It sometimes happened that
the cylinder, when apparently well formed, was not at all persistent and imme-
diately began to alter; this circumstance being attributable to some slight
remaining irregularity in the figure, I immediately re-established the cylindrical

form,* and the time was only taken into,account when the figure appeared to

maintain this form for a few moments. Another anomaly then sometimes pre-

_ sented itself, which consisted in the simultaneous formation of two constrictions

with an intermediate dilatation; this modification ceased when it had attained
a very slightly marked degree, and the figure appeared to remain in the same
state for a considerable period ;+ then one of the constrictions became gradually
more marked, whilst the other disappeared, and the transformation afterwards
went of in the usual manner. As this peculiarity constituted an exception to
the regular course of the phenomenon, I ceased to reckon as soon as it showed
itself, and I again re-established the cylindrical form. The estimation of the
time was only definitively continued in those cases in which, after some per-
sistence in the cylindrical form, a single constriction only was produced.

I repeated the experiment upon each of the two cylinders twenty times, in
order to obtain a mean result. As soon as one transformation was completed,

* See the second note to paragraph 46. ;
t We shall see, in the following series, to what this singular modification in the figure is
owing.

280 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

I reunited the two masses to which it had given rise, and again formed the
eylinder,* in order to proceed to a new measure of the’time. wh

The number of seconds are given below; each expresses the time which
elapsed from the moment of the transformation of the cylinder to that of the
rupture of the line. ‘These periods were determined by means of a watch, which
beat the 1ths of a second.

Cylinder Cylinder

15 millims. in diameter, f 30 millims. in diameter.

u WI " Ws
25.0 36.4 59.6 51.6
26.6 32.0 73.0 68.0
28.0 30.4 57.0 73.6 .
30.0 24.6 61.0 61.8
24.8 32.6 67.8 53.0
35.2 33.8 60.0 58.0
27.0 33.8 : Goon 63.8
30.0 20.2 54.2 60.0
30.4 28.6 61.0 52.6
29.8 32.6 52.6 oo0.2
eee —————

Mean 29’.59. Mean 60”.38.

It is evident that the numbers relating to the same diameter do not diffe”
sufficiently from each other to prevent our regarding the proportion of the two
means as closely approximating tothe true proportion of the durations. Now the
proportion of these two means is 2.04, z. e., almost exactly equal to that of the two
diameters. Moreover, it is evident that in the case of each of the latter the
greatest of the numbers obtained must correspond to that case where the cylinder
is formed in the most perfect manner; consequently it is probable that the pro-
portion of these two greatest numbers also closely approximates to the true
proportion of the durations. Now, these two numbers are, on the one hand
36.4, and on the other 73.6, and their proportion is 2.02, which number differs
still less from 2, or from the proportion of the diameters.

We may, therefore, admit that the durations relating to these two cylinders '
are to each other as their diameters; whence we deduce this law, that the par-
tial duration of the transformation of a cylinder of the same kind is in proportion
to its diameter.

I have said (§ 64) that the law thus obtained would of itself furnish a new
motive for believing that it would not change if our short cylinders of oil were
produced zz vacuo or in air. In fact the proportionality to the diameter is the
simplest possible law; and, on the other hand, the circumstances under which
the phenomenon is produced are less simple in the case of the presence of the
alcoholic liquid than they would be in that of its absence; consequently, if the .
law changed from the first to the second, it would follow that a simplification

in the circumstances would, on the contrary, induce a complication of the law,
which is not very probable. :

* This was effected by conducting the large mass towards the small one, by means of the
ring of which I spoke in the first note to paragraph 46. But care must be taken to prevent
the ring, on separating from the liquid figure, from carrying away with it any perceptible
quantity of oil; for this purpose, instead of making the entire ring adhere to the great mass,
1 left a small portion of the latter free, and, as its action was then insufficient to make the
large mass reach the other, I aided it by gently pushing the oil with the extremity of the
point of the syringe. On withdrawing the ring after the reunion of the two masses, only a
very smal] spherule of oil separated from it in the alcoholic liquid, which in the next experi-
ment I again united to the rest of the oil by means of the ring itself, as also the largest of
the spherules arising from the transformation of the line.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 281

We may, therefore, I think, legitimately generalize the above law in accord-
ance with the whole of the remarks made in the preceding section, and deduce
the following conclusions:

1. If we conceive a cylinder of mercury formed iz vacuo or in air, of sufficient
length to furnish several spheres, its convex surface: being entirely free, and its
length such that the divisions assume exactly their normal length, the time
which will elapse from the origin of the transformation to the instant of the
rupture of the lines will be exactly or apparently proportional to the diameter
of this cylinder.

2. The same very probably applies to a cylinder formed of any other very
slightly viscid liquid, as water, alcohol, &c., and supposed to exist under the
same circumstances.

3. It is possible that this law is completely general, 2. e., applicable to a cyl-
inder formed, always under the same circumstances, of any kind of liquid what-
ever; but our experiments leave us in doubt on this point.

66. Let us now enter upon the consideration of the absolute value of the time
in question for a given diameter, the cylinder always being supposed to be pro-
duced iz vacuo or in air, of sufficient length to furnish several spheres, its entire
convex surface free, and its length such that its divisions assume their normal
length. It is clear that this absolute value must vary according to the nature
of the liquid; for it evidently depends upon the density of the latter, upon the
intensity of its configuring forces, and, lastly, upon its viscidity. The experi-
ments which we have detailed give with regard to oil a very remote superior
limit; this results, first, from the two causes which we have mentioned in § 64,
and which are due to the presence of the alcoholic liquid; but with these two
causes is connected a third, which we must make known. If we imagine a cyl-
inder of oil formed under the above conditions, the sum of the lengths of a
constriction and a dilatation will necessarily be much greater in regard to this
cylinder than in regard to one of our short cylinders of oil of the same diameter;
for in the former this sum is equivalent to the length of a division; and in con-
sequence of the great viscidity of the oil, this latter quantity must greatly
exceed the length corresponding to the limit of stability. Now, it may be laid
down as a principle, that, all other things being equal, an increase in the sum
of the lengths of a constriction and a dilatation.tends to render the transformation
more rapid, and consequently to abbreviate the total and partial durations of
the phenomenon. In fact, for a given diameter, the more the sum in question
differs from the length corresponding to the limit of stability, the more the forces

‘which produce the transformation must act with energy ; moreover, as the trans-

formation ceases to take place immediately above the limit of stability, the
duration «f the phenomenon may then be considered as infinite, whence it fol-
lows that when this limit is exceeded, the duration passes from an infinite to a
finite value, consequently it must decrease rapidly as it deviates ‘from this limit ;
lastly, this is also confirmed by the results of observation, as we shall sLow
hereafter. ‘Thus, even if it wefe possible to form 7 vacuo or in air one of our
very short cylinders of oil, consequently to eliminate the two causes of retarda-
tion due to the presence of the alcoholic liquid, the duration relative to the
eylinder would still exceed that which would relate to a cylinder of oil of the
same diameter formed under the conditions we have supposed. |

I have said that the principle above established is confirmed by experiment,
i. e., for the same diameter, the same liquid, and the same external actions, if
any exist; when, from any cause, the sum of the Jengths of a constriction and a
dilatation augments, the total and partial durations of the transformation become
less. We shall proceed to make this evident. In the experiments of the pre-
ceding section, the partial duration relating to the cylinder, the diameter of
which was 15 millimeters, was, for instance, about 30 scconds, the mean, as shown
by the table. Consequently, if we Were to form in the alcoholic liquid a similar

282 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

cylinder of oil, the diameter of which is 4 millimeters, the partial duration of
this, in virtue of the law which we have found, would be nearly equal to
anil

a — 8”. Now, in the nearly cylindrical figure of oil of § 47, which

15

figure is also formed in the alcoholic liquid, the mean diameter was (§ 56) about
4 millimeters. In this and the preceding figure, the diameter, the liquid, and
the external actions then are the same; but in the former, the sum of the lengths
of the constriction and the dilatation would only be equal to 4 millimeters,
+ 3.6 = 14.4 millimeters, whilst in the second, this sum, which is equivalent to
the length of a division, was (§ 56) approximatively 66.7 millimeters. Now, on
observing this latter figure, we recognize easily that the duration of* its trans-
formation is much less than 8’. In truth, from the nature of the experiment,
it is impossible with regard to this same figure to fix upon the commencement

of the formation of a given constriction or dilatation, so that the complete dura- —

tion should considerably exceed that which would be deduced by the simple
inspection of the phenomenon; but the latter does not amount to one second,
and there cannot be any doubt that it would be going too far to extend the
complete duration, and @ fortiori, the portion which terminates at the rupture
of the lines, to two seconds. ‘Thus in the case we have just considered, the sum
of the length of a constriction and a dilatation becoming about four and a half
times greater, the partial duration becomes at least four times less.

- 67. But if, in reckoning the absolute duration in the case of one of our short
eylinders of oil, we only obtain with regard to this liquid one upper limit, and
this much too high, the cylinder of mercury in § 55 (which cylinder is formed
in the air, and the length of which in proportion to the diameter is sufficient for
the divisions to have,assumed exactly, or very nearly, their normal length) will
furnish us, on the contrary, in regard to this latter liquid, with a limit which is
probably more approximative and which will be very useful to ws.

First, in the case of this cylinder, the diameter of which, as we have said,
was 2.1 millimeters, the transformation does not take place in a sufficiently short
time for us to estimate with any exactitude the total duration of the phenomenon;
I say the total duration, because in so rapid a transformation it would be very
dificult to determine the instant at which the rupture of the lines occurs. To
approximate as closely as possible to the value of this total duration, I have had
recourse to the following process.

By successive trials, i regulated the beats of a metronome in such a manner,
that on rapidly raising, at the exact instant at which a beat occurs; the system
of glass strips belonging to the apparatus serving to form the cylinder, (§ 50 and
51,) the succeeding beat appeared to me to coincide with the termination of the
transformation ; then having satisfied myself several times that this coincidence
appeared very exact, I determined the duration of the interval between two
"beats, by counting the oscillations made by the instrument during two minutes,

and dividing this time by the number of oscillations. I thus found the yalue
0'’.39 for the interval in question. The total daration of the transformation of
our cylinder of mereury may therefore: be valued approximatively at 0.39, or
more simply, at.0/’.4. ;

But the entire convex surface of this cylinder is not free, and its contact with
the plate of glass must exert an influence upon its duration, both directly as
well as by the increase which it produces in the length of the divisions. Let
us examine the influence in question under this double point of view.

The direct action of the contact with the plate is undoubtedly very slight ; for
as soon as the transformation commences, the liquid must detach itself from the
glass at all the intervals between the dilated parts, so as only to touch the solid
plane by a series of very minute surfaces belonging to these dilated parts;
consequently, if the direct action of the contact of the plate were alone eliminated,
2. é» if we could manage so that the entire donvex surface of the cylinder should

q

e

.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 283

&
be free, but that the divisions formed in it should acquire the same length as

before, the total duration would scarcely be at all diminished.
There still remains the effect of the elongation of the divisions. The length
of the divisions of our cylinder is equal to 6.35 times the diameter, (§ 56,)
whilst, according to the hypothesis of the complete freedom of the convex sur-
face, this length would very probably be less than four times the diameter,
-(§ 60.) Now, in virtue of the principle established in the preceding section, this
increase in the length of the divisions necessarily entails a diminution in the
duration, which diminution is more considerable in proportion as it occurs in
the vicinity of the limit of stability ; consequently, if it could be managed so that
the elongation in question should not exist, the total duration would be very
considerably increased. Thus the suppression of the direct action of the con-
tact of the plate would only produce a very slight diminution of the total duration ;
-and the annihilation of the elongation of the divisions would produce, on the
other hand, a very considerable increase in this same duration. ° If, then, these
two influences were simultaneously eliminated, or, in other words, if the entire

ee

- convex surface of our,cylinder were free, the total duration of our transformation

would be very considerably greater than the direct result of observation.

Now, the quantity which we have to consider is the partial, and not the total
duration; but, under the same circumstances, the first must be but little less
than the second; for when the lines are about to break, the masses between
which they extend even then approximate to the spherical form; consequently,
in accordance with the conclusion obtained above, we must admit that the
partial duration under our present consideration, 7. e., that referring to the case
of the complete freedom of the convex surface of the cylinder, would still exceed
considerably the total duration observed, 7. e., 0!'.4.

In starting from this value 0’’.4 as constituting the lower limit corresponding
to a diameter of 2.1 millimeters, the law of the proportionality of the partial
duration to the diameter will immediately give the lower limit corresponding to
any other diameter; we shall find, e. g., that for 6 millimeters this limit would be
0”.4 + 10

2.4

If, then, we imagine a cylinder of mereury a centimeter in diameter, formed
in vacuo or in air, of sufficient length to furnish several spheres, entirely free at
its convex surface, and of such a length that its divisions assume their normal

= 1".9, or more simply 2”.

_ length, the time which will elapse from the origin of the transformation of this

cylinder to the instant of the rupture of the lines will considerably exceed two
seconds.

68. It will not-be superfluous to present here a resumé of the facts and laws
which the experiments we have described have led us to establish with respect
to unstable liquid cylinders.

1. When a liquid cylinder is formed between two solid bases, if the proportion
of its length to its diameter exceeds a certain limit, the exact value of which is
comprised between 3 and 3.6, the cylinder constitutes an unstable figure of
equilibrium.

The exact value in question is that which we denominate the limit of stability
of the cylinders.

2. If the length of the cylinder is considerable in proportion to its diameter,
it becomes spontaneously converted, by the rupture of equilibrium, into a series
of isolated spheres, of equal diameter, equally distant, having their centres
upon the right line forming the axis of the cylinder, and in the intervals of
which, in the direction of this axis, spherules of different diameters are placed ;
except that each of the solid bases retains a portion of a sphere adherent to its
surface.

3. The course of the phenomenon is as follows: The cylinder at first eradually
swells at those portions of its length which are situated at equal distances from

.

284 THE FIGURES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS

each other, whilst it becomes thinner at the intermediate portions, and the length
of the dilatations thus formed is equal, or nearly so, to that of the constrictions ;
these modifications become gradually more marked, ensuing with accelerated
rapidity, until the middle of the constrictions has become very thin; then, com-
mencing at the middle, the liquid rapidly retires in both directions, still, however,
leaving the masses united two and two by an apparently cylindrical line; the
latter then experiences the same modifications as the cylinder, except that there
are in general only two constrictions formed, which consequently include a
dilatation between them; each of these little constrictions becomes in its turn
converted into a thinner line, which breaks at two points and gives rise to a
very minute isolated spherule, whilst the above dilatation becomes transformed
into a larger spherule; lastly, after the rupture of the latter lines, the large
masses assume completely the spherical form. All these phenomena occur
symmetrically as regards the axis, so that, throughout their duration, the figure
is always a figure of revolution.

4. We denominate divisions of a liquid cylinder, those portions of the cylinder,

-each of which must furnish a sphere, whether we conceive these portions to exist
in the cylinder itself, before they have begun to be apparent, or whether we take
them during the transformation, 2. e., whilst each of them is becoming modified
so as to arrive at the spherical form. The length of a division consequently
measures the coustant distance which, during the transformation, is included
between the necks of two adjacent constrictions.

Moreover, by normal length of the divisions, we denominate that which the
divisions would assume, if the length of the cylinder to which they belong were
infinite.

In the case of a cylinder which is limited by solid bases, the divisions also
assume the normal length when the length of the cylinder is equal to the pro-
duct of this normal length by a whole number, or rather a whole number and a
half. Then, if the second factor is a whole number, the transformation becomes
disposed in such a manner that during its accomplishment the figure terminates
on one side with a constriction, and on the other with a dilatation; if the second
factor is composed of*a whole number and a half, the figure terminates on each
side in a dilatation. When the length of the cylinder fulfils neither of these
conditions, the divisions assume that length which approximates the most closely
possible to the normal length, and the transformation adopts that of the two
above dispositions which is most suitable for the attainment of this end.

5. In the case of a cylinder of a given diameter, the normal length of the
divisions varies with the nature of the liquid, and with certain external cireum-
stances, such as the presence of a surrounding liquid, or the contact of the
convex surface of the cylinder with a solid plane. In all the subsequent state-
ments we shall take the simplest case, z. e., that of the absence of external
cir¢umstances ; in other words, we shall always suppose that the cylinders are
produced tm vacuo or in air, and that they are free as regards their entire convex
surface.

6. 'T'wo cylinders of. different diameters, but formed in the same liquid, and
the lengths of which are such that the divisions assume in each of them their
normal length, become subdivided in the same manner, 7. e, the respective
normal lengths of the divisions are to each other as the diameters of these cyl-
inders. In other words, when the nature of the liquid does not change, the
normal length of the divisions of a cylinder is proportional to the diameter of
the latter.

The same consequently applies to the diameter of the isolated spheres into
which the normal divisions become converted, and to the length of the intervals
which separate these spheres.

7. The proportion of the normal length of the divisions to the diameter of the
cylinder always exceeds the limit of stability.

WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY. 285
8. This proportion is greater as the liquid is more viscid and as the config-
ng forces in it are weaker.

9. In the case of a cylinder of mercury, this proportion is mucli less than 6,
and we may admit that it is less than 4.
In the case of a cylinder composed of any otlier very slightly viscid liquid,
such as water, alcohol, &c., it is very probable that the proportion in question
is very nearly 4. Hence, in the case of the latter liquids, we have for the
_ probable approximative value of the proportion of the diameter of the isolated
_ spheres resulting from the transformation and the diameter of the cylinder, the
number 1.82; and for that of the proportion of the distance of two adjacent
_ spheres to this same diameter, the number 2.18.
10. If mercury is the liquid, and the divisions have their normal length, the
_ time which clapses between the origin of the transformation and the instant of
the rupture of the lines, is exactly or apparently proportional to the diameter
of the cylinder.
F nae law very: probabiy applies also to each of the other very slightly viscid
liquids. ,

This same law may possibly be general, 7. e., it may be applicable to all
- liquids; but our,experiments leave this point uncertain. . .
11. For the same diameter, and when the divisions are always of their normal
length, the absolute value of the time in question varies with the nature of the

liquid. es

Pia. In the case of mercury, and with a diameter of a centimeter, this absolute
_ value is considerably more than two seconds.
13. When a cylinder is formed between two solid bases sufficiently approx- .
imated for the proportion of the normal length of the cylinder to the diameter
to be comprised between once and once and a half the limit of stability, the
_ transformation gives only a single constriction and a single dilatation; we then,
obtain for the final result only two portions of a sphere which are unequal in
volume and curvature, respectively adherent to solid bases, besides interposed
spherules.
(TO BE CONTINUED IN THE NEXT REPORT.)

HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM,

COMPILED FOR THE INSTITUTION PRINCIPALLY FROM THE ‘‘AUS DER NATUR.”

THERE are two great. forces of nature everywhere present and at every
moment exerting their influence, namely, gravitation and magnetism. The
are similar in many particulars, all pervading and perhaps equally powerful.
The magnetic phenomena of the earth, however, do not manifest themselves ag
freely to the senses as those of gravitation, and the naturalist is obliged to em-
ploy refined, and, in some cases, complicated apparatus to study the laws of its
operation. In this article we purpose to present to our readers a sketch of the
earlier discoveries relative to magnetism, and in doing so we shall also briefly
explain the general principles of the science.

‘here is found in different parts of the earth a mineral of a dark color,
principally composed of iron and oxygen, which has long been an object of in-
terest to the ignorant as well as the learned, principally on account of the attrae-
tion which it exhibits for iron, and the wonderful property which it imparts to
steel needles of pointing toward the poles of the earth. Its composition may
be expressed chemically. by the formule Fe O + Fe, 03, being a compound
of the first and second oxide of iron. It is called loadstone, and occurs most
generally in primary mountains of gneiss; chlorite slate, in primitive lime-
stone, and sometimes in considerable masses in serpentine, and in trap. It is
found in great quantity and purity at Rosslay, in Sweden, in Corsica, on the
island of Elba, in Norway, Siberia, Saxony, Bohemia, and in the Hartz moun-
tains. <A hill in Swedish Lapland, and Mount Pumachanche, in Chili, are said
to consist almost entirely of magnetic ore. Extensive beds of magnetic iron ore
are found in various places in the United States, and in some of these occur’
masses of the mineral possessing polarity; such as those at Marshall’s island,
Maine, at Magnet’s Cove, Arkansas, at Goshen, Chester county, Pennsylvania,
and Franklin, New Jersey. 4 a

It has been asserted that this mineral is not magnetic in its natural condition
in the mine, but that the pieces only exhibit. this property after having been
exposed to the light; but this statement has not been verified, and is apparently
at variance with well-established facts.

The specimens of this mineral are usually so hard that they produce fire when
struck with steel, and it is this circumstance which renders them so difficult to
be worked into proper form for exhibiting in the best manner the magnetie
property.

‘he name magnet, by which the mineral is known to us, is said to be derived
from Magnesia, a city in Asia Minor, where it was first found. The Roman
poet Lucretius bears testimony to this in a passage of his celebrated poem on —
the nature of things, in which he states that the Greeks called this stone mag-
net because it was found in the country of the Magnesians.

This statement is much more probable than the account given by Pliny, who
derives the name of magnet from Magnes, a herdsman, who, in guarding his
flock on Mount Ida, foynd himself suddenly held fast to a magnetic rock by the
iron nails in his shoes and the iron point of his staff But whatever may be
the origin of the names by which the magnet has been designated in different
languages, it is a remarkable fact that they show distinctly the idea that pre-

is

HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM. 287

_ yailed in every part of the world respecting the phenomenon of its attraction
of iron. In those cases where the roots of the languages have no analogy
_ whatever, the ideas expressed by the terms are often identical. In some, in-
deed, the attraction itself is alone expressed; but in the majority of cases the
_ motive of attraction is embodied with it—a supposed affection for the iron—a
_ love for it is expressed. It is the same in the European and Asiatic languages;
_ and as the magnet is found in all, or nearly all, the countries of the Old World,
_ we can only suppose that it arose in most cases in every language independently
of.any other. Nor is this peculiarity wholly confined to the names amongst
nations of the most poetic temperament, since even the Chinese have the same
_ idea in their Thsw-chy (the common name) or lovestone. What may appear
_ most surprising is, that the name of the magnet seldom occurs in the older
poetry of any country ; but probably this arose from the unpoetic subject,
_ namely, that of iron, with which it was coupled. In the ‘poetry of later times,
however, allusion to the magnet often occurs, and in several beautiful passages.
_ of our own it would be easy to point it out, both.in expressing love and con-
stancy—the former by its attractive, and the latter by its direct power. No
phrase, indeed, is more familiar than to call the object of affection “the magnet.”

From all the records which refer to the subject, we must conclude that the

ancients had at an early period a knowledge of some of the more obvious
phenomena of magnetism, and that they possessed magnets of considerable lift-
ing power. They appear also to have been acquainted with the means of in-
creasing the attractive power of the loadstone by the application to its poles of
what is called an armature, that is, by applying pieces of soft iron to the parts
of the stone which exhibited the greatest attraction, and which, as we shall here-
after see, are called its poles. ‘hus, Claudenus, in his work entitled Magnes,
states that the wonderful stone gains power by contact with iron, and loses it
again by the separation of this metal.

The same author describes a performance in a temple in which a statue of
Venus, cut from a magnet, lifted an iron statue of Mars into the air. Lucian,
in his work on the Syrian goddess, mentions a similar performance, in which a
statue of Apollo was lifted before his eyes by the priests without being touched,
and remained suspended in the air. Pliny also relates that Dinocrates, an
architect of Ptolemy Philadelphus, commenced to build a temple at Alexandria,
in honor of Arsinoe, sister of the King, of which the vault was to be built of
magnets, so that an iron statue of the former might be suspended in the air.
This temple, however, was not finished because both Ptolemy and his archi-
tect died before it could be completed.

According to Cedrenus and Augustine, a similar performance was actually
exhibited in a temple of antiquity. The former asserts that the statue of an
ancient god was held suspended by magnetic power in the serapium at
Alexandria, and the latter, without mentioning any particular temple, states
that the suspension was such as to cause the people to believe that the statue
Was soaring in the air. Matheolus, a commentator of Galenus, relates a similar
story of the coffin of Mahomet, which is said to soar in the air in a sanctuary
built of magnetic stones.

These statements; though probably founded on a limited knowledge of mag-
netic phenomena, are now known to be fabulous, since, after a full investigation
of the subject, we are certain that it is impossible to suspend in mid air, without
contact, a piece of iron by means of magnetism. he magnetic power diminishes
very rapidly with the distance from the poles, and, in order that the iron should

be suspended, it must be placed at the exact point in space at which the at-
_ traction of the magnet upwards would be equal to the force of gravity déwn-
_ wards; but if it could be placed in this position, it would not retain it for a
moment, since the slightest jar or the least breath of air would disturb the
equilibrium, and the iron would immediately fall to the floor, or spring up into

: . ,
288 HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM. n

a |
contact with the poles of the magnet. . Some plausibility was, however, given —
to these stories, because magnets have been obtained which could sustain a |
heavy weight of iron when the latter was in contact with the poles of the latter, —
Thus, Wolf mentions examples of natural magnets which could support, by
means of an armature, from sixteen to forty times, and even three hundred and
twenty times their own weight. Dufay had in his possession a magnet of nine
pounds in weight, which could hold seventy-six pounds. As a general rule,
smaller magnets can support comparatively more than larger ones. Such, for
example, as weigh from twenty to thirty grains will sometimes support fifty _ |
times their weight, whilst magnets weighing two pounds scarcely ever sustain *
ten times their own weight. According to Dr. Martin, Sir Isaac Newton had~ |
a magnet which was set in a finger-ring, and which, though only of three
grains in weight, could hold seven hundred and forty-six grains. In the philo- — |
sophical cabinet of the university at Dorpat there is a magnet weighing forty
pounds, including the armature and a copper case, which is able to sustain
eighty+#even pounds. <A still larger one is found in 'Pyler’s museum, which
weighs three hundred and seven pounds, the armature inclusive, and holds
more than two hundred and thirty pounds. Not less considerable was the
magnet which John I, King of Portugal, received as a present from the Em-
peror of China, which weighed a little over thirty-eight pounds, and was able
to support two hundred and two pounds.

But to return to the direct continuation of our history, we should state that a
tradition of a very ancient date still exists in China respecting a mountain of
magnetic ore rising in the midst of the sea, the intensity of attraction of which
is so great as to draw the nails and iron bolts with which the planks of a ship
are fastened together from their places with such force as to cause the vessel to
fall to pieces. ‘This tradition is not confined to China, but is very general
throughout all Asia; and the Chinese historians assign to the mountain a spe-
cific place which they call Tehang-hai, the southern sea, between Tonquin and
Cochin-China. Ptolemy, also, in a remarkable passage in his geography, |
places this mountain in the Chinese seas. In a work attributed to St. Ambrose
there is an account of one of the islands of the Persian Gulf, called Mammoles,
in which the magnet is found, and the precautions necessary to be taken in
building ships without iron to navigate in that vicinity is distinctly specified.
In two passages of the work of the Arabian geographer, Cher2f: Edrisé, and in a
remarkable one in the apocryphal Arabian translation of the “Treatise on
Stones,” attributed to Aristotle, the existence of this mountain is again specifi-
eally stated. A reference to it also occars in Vincent de Beauvais, a French
writer, who had been in the holy wars; and, after his time, in the works of a
great number of European writers.

A circumstance remarkable enough is, that the Chinese writers place this
magnetic mountain in precisely the same geographical region in which it is
stated to exist by the author of the voyages of Sinbad the Sailor. This has
been justly looked upon as a confirmation of an opinion as to the oriental
origin of a great number of the tales, half fiction, half fact, which are so univer-
sally diffused among the legendary literature of every country as to appear
indigenous in each of them. We would not, however, go to the extent of saying
that a// our nursery fictions are derived from the east, though it cannot be
denied that a great number of them are of oriental origin.*

It is not surprising that the magnet which exhibited such extraordinary
physical effects should have attributed to it wonderful moral and medicinal
powers. Accordingly we find the belief entertained that it could enable its
possessor to gain the confidence of princes, the affection of women, and to
secure conjugal love, as well as eure the gout, the headache, and the heartache.

j1n a little book of seerets, extracted from Albertus Magnus and others; was one
to ascertain whether your sweetheart did really love you, and another to dis-

HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM. 289

_ cover whether your bride had married you from motives of affection or other-

wise. Both were to be effected by the mystical use of the magnet.

It has already been mentioned that on the surface of a magnet there are two
points at which the attractive power manifests itself with the greatest intensity,
and that these points are called poles. If a piece of soft iron is presented fo
one of these poles, the iron itself will become a magnet of inferior power, will
exhibit two poles, and attract a second piece of iron; this second piece of iron
will in turn become a magnet, and attract a third, and so on. The power may
thus be developed in a series of iron bars placed end to end, provided the original
magnet has considerable power. If, instead of bars of iron, small particles,
such as filings of iron, be placed under the influence of the magnet, they will
adhere together in masses, and form a kind of beard around the poles, or, if they
are sprinkled on a sheet of paper placed over the magnet, they will be attracted
to the poles and to each other, forming curves of great regularity and beauty.*

These experiments were known to the ancients, and Lucretius must have seen
them performed by the priests, since he describes them minutely in his poem
to which we have previously alluded. In this he states that iron filings con-
tained in a brass basin appeared to boil when a magnet was moved under them;
that a row of iron rings would hang one below the other on a magnet, and that
these experiments were performed by the priests in connexion with the Samo-
thracean mysteries. A similar experiment was exhibited at a festival held every
ninth year in honor of Apollo at Thebes, in Boetia, which consisted in hanging
one iron ball on another. These experiments were undoubtedly made by means
of a strong magnet inducing its power in pieces of soft iron, thlatter exhibiting
the attraction as long as they were in metallic contact with the former, but im-
mediately losing the power when the contact was severed.

It is only when the iron has been rendered hard by hammering or twisting
that it is able to retain a small amount of magnetism. But if, instead of soft
iron, bars of tempered steel are placed in contact with the pole of a magnet,
they will at first not be attracted as powerfully as those of iron; but if they
are allowed to remain in contact for some time, or if rubbed with the magnet,
they will fully acquire the magnetic property, and retain it after they have
been separated from the inducing magnet.

If a bar of steel, which has thus been rendered permanently magnetic, and
of which its poles are at its ends, be placed on a piece of cork, and allowed to
float horizontally on water, or if it be supported on a firm point at its centre of
gravity, or, still more simply, by a fine thread, so as to have free motion in
every direction horizontally, it will not remain at rest indifferently in any
direction, but will turn itself so as to point with its poles to a definite region of
the earth, the one to the north, and the other to the south. If two such movable
magnetic bars are brought near each other, the poles of both which point to the
north, and also those which point to the south, will repel each other, whilst the
pole which points to the north in the one will attract the pole which points to
the south in the other, and vice versa.

The directive property of a freely suspended magnetic bar towards certain
points of the horizon, which is generally called the polarity of the needle, was
not known to western nations as early as the attractive power of the magnet

* A very interesting experiment, which may be called the exhibition of magnetic spectres,
consists in tracing on a polished plate of steel, such as the blade of a wide handsaw, an image
in outline with a pencil, and afterwards passing slowly and with some pressure along the
lines of this image one of the tapered poles of a straight magnet of considerable power. Ifa
sheet of white paper is afterwards pasted smoothly over this steel surface, and against this,
while it is held vertically, fine iron filings are projected from a box with a perforated cover,
ee image will start into existence on the blank paper, as if by magic, in lines of bristling

S.

Tho image is interestingly shown by drawing a serpentine line on a long saw blade, to

represent a snake; the configuration of the filings gives a peculiar effect to this exhibition.

19s

~ 290 HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATITE TO MAGNETISM.

for iron. It is true that King Solomon is said to have been acquainted with
the use of the mariner’s compass, and the Hebrew Parvaim, to which he sent
his vessels for treasures, is said to have been no other country than Peru itself;
but, since Solomon employed Phenician seamen, the compass would necessarily

ave been known to the Phenicians, and from these the Greeks and the Romans —
would most certainly have learnt its application.

The claims of the Chinese to the discovery of the directive power of the
magnet, and its application to navigation, has long been affirmed and denied;
but it has of late been defended by an author of much learning and ability,
namely, Klaproth, in a letter to Humboldt. It is difficult to mention any useful
contrivance which is not in some degree known to this singular people, or any
period in history when they did not know it. The great obstacle which has
stood in the way of admitting the claims of the Chinese to many of these in-
ventions is the high antiquity to which their records profess to ascend, and their
consequent incompatibility with our own received chronology; but whoever has ~
looked with any degreé of attention upon the fragments of their scientific his-
tory, and the incidental mention made of things which were familiar to the
writers, but which did not form the principal object of the record, cannot fail to
be struck with the apparent general consistency which runs through all their
claims to high antiquity, and to be forced to the conclusion that there is still
wanting a key to that consistency which is not furnished by the sweeping
charge of the forgery of their.annals.

It has been said that the fine arts of China appear more like being in a con-
dition of gradual decay than in a state of freshness and energy, and that it may
be possible that their arts, as well as those of Egypt, were transferred from some
older people, who were in a condition of decline; but this is mere conjecture,
unsupported by any evidence, either written or oral. In regard to the Chinese,
it would appear, from the little progress they have made since they became
known to history, and their want of knowledge and appreciation of the scien-
tific principles on which art is founded, that their condition is just such as
would be produced in an ingenious people in a long time by the accidental dis-
coveries of facts, and their empirical application to the wants and conveniences of
life. After a certain time, such a people would make no further progress; the
facts which could be gathered from casual observation would be exhausted, and
the advance in civilization, as well as the increase in population, would become
exceedingly tardy.

Duhalde, in his account of China, states that the inhabitants of that country
were acquainted with the polarity of the needle in the earliest times ; that hun-
dreds of years before our era they used, in their land excursions, an instrument
in which the movable arm of a human figure invariably pointed towards the
south, as a means of assistance in finding their way through the grass-covered
plains of Tartary. Even as early as the third century of our era, about seven
hundred years before the introduction of the mariner’s compass into the Euro-
pean seas, it is asserted that Chinese vessels sailed on the Indian ocean, directed
by magnetic polarity pointing towards the south. Humboldt has shown that,
according to the “Fdn-Tsaou,” (a work on medicine and natural history,
written four hundred years before the time of Columbus,) the Chinese suspended
the magnetic needle by a fibre of silk, and found that it did not point direetly
towards the south, but deviated somewhat towards the southeast.

The directing property of the magnetic needle, and its use in navigation,
became known in Europe at a considerably later period. It is mentioned, for
the first time, by Are Frode, an Icelandic historian, who was born in 1068, ae-
cording to the testimony of Snorro Sturleson, and who must have written his
History of the Discovery of Iceland towards the end of the eleventh century.
In this work he states, in the most unequivocal manner, that, in his time, the
directing property of the magnetic stone was known. He also states that in

.

HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM. 291

the year 868 Foke Vilgerdarson, the third discoverer of this island, a noted

pirate, sailed from Rogaland, in Norway, in search of Iceland, or Gardarsholm,
as it was then called, and took with him as pilots three ravens. To consecrate
Ahese to their important purpose, he instituted a grand sacrificial ceremony at
Smoersund, when his ship was at anchor ready to sail; for, says Are Frode, the
seamen in the northern regions were as yet unacquainted with the use of the lead-
ing stone. By the term leading stone the writer designated the natural magnet,
which, in English, is still called loadstone or leadstone. It may, however, be
presumed, from this form of expression, that in Frode’s time the compass pro-
perly was not yet known, but that the natural magnet was suspended by a
thread. According to the testimony of Hansteen, mention is made of the leidar-
stone or solar-stone, in the Sturlunga Saga. Gilbert, in his celebrated work
“De Magnete,” relates that, according to the report of Flavius Blondus, the
Amalfitanes (Amalfis?) in Naples, first, about the year 1300, constructed and
applied the mariner’s compass, and this according to the direction of John
Gioja, one of their fellow-citizens. He presumes, however, that more probably
the knowledge of this compass had been brought from China to Italy, by Paul
Venetus, about the year 1260. Gioja, of Amalfi, was, nevertheless, at least the
first who-placed the magnetic needle on a point, and divided the compass, ac-
cording to the points of the horizon, into eight divisions.

That the mariner’s compass, however, was known at an earlier period in the
south of Europe, although in a rude form, is evident from a passage of a satirical
poem, which was, published by Guyot de Provins in 1203, and of which the
original manuscript is still preserved in the royal (imperial) library at Paris.
It is mentioned in this poem that the seaman easily finds the northern direction
by the assistance of an ugly, black stone, called mariniere, and this even under
a cloudy sky; that for this purpose it was only necessary to rub a needle with
the stone, and then, attaching the former to a straw, allow it to swim on
water, when it would point to the north. Cardinal Vitri, who lived about the
year 1200, also makes mention of the magnetic needle in his history of Jerusa-
lem, and remarks, moreover, that it is of inestimable value to mariners.

That the mariner’s compass was known to northern nations is evident from
the history of Norway, by Torfeus, in which it is stated therein that Yarl
Stula was rewarded with a compass for a poem written on the death of the
Swedish count Byrgeres. 'The directive force of the magnet is also distinctly
alluded to in a letter to Peter Peregrinus de Marcourt, which was written
towards the end of the thirteenth century. This letter was directed to “ Sige-
rius de Foucancourt, a soldier in the service of magnetism,” and contains a de-
scription of the magnet, of the means to find its poles, and of its peculiar
attractive property in regard to iron, and finally proves that the extremity of
the magnet which turns towards the north is attracted by the one that turns
towards the south. One of the oldest treatises on magnetism is contained in a
Latin manuscript of Peter Alsiger, which is found in the University library at
Leyden, and was written in 1269. This manuscript, which seems to have been
composed for the instruction of a friend, is divided into two parts, of which the
first contains ten, and the second three, chapters. In the second chapter of the
second part the mariner’s compass is distinctly and perfectly described; and
what is still more interesting, the author does not only mention the variation
of the magnetic needle from the true north pole, but also gives an account of
the accurate observations which he had made in regard to the amount of this
deviation. ‘Observe well,” says he, “that the ends of the magnet, and those
of the needle rubbed with it, do not accurately turn toward the poles, but that
the end which points toward the south inclines somewhat to the west, and the
one pointing to the north in an equal proportion to the east.”” The magnitude
of this deviation amounts, according to numerous observations, to five degrees.

292 HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM.

The variation of the magnetic needle from the meridian, or its declination, as
it is called, was known before the time of Columbus, to whom its discovery has
been generally ascribed. His son, Ferdinand, in the biography of his father,
written in Italian, and published at Venice, in 1571, relates that Columbus, on
the 14th of September, (on the 13th according to Irving,) 1492, when he was
at the distance of 200 leagues from the isle of Ferro, first observed the deviation
of the magnetic needle, “a phenomenon, which,” as the recorder says, “had
never been observed before.” Columbus found that at the dusk of evening the
needle, instead of pointing towards the north star, deviated about half a point,
viz., from five to six degrees towards the northwest, and on the following morn-
ing still more. Astonished at this discovery, he observed the needle for three
days, and found that the deviation increased the further he advanced to the
west. At first he did not call the attention of the crew to this phenomenon, well
knowing how easily they might be excited to revolt. The sailors, however,
soon became aware of the fact, and, on account of it, fell into the greatest con-
sternation. It appeared to them that the very laws of nature were changing as
they advanced on their adventurous career, and that they were entering into a
new world governed by entirely unknown influences. ‘They saw the compass
losing its truthful character, and asked with alarm what would become of them
without this guide on the trackless inhospitable ocean? Columbus had to tax
all his ingenuity to appease their terror. He stated to them that the needle
does not direct itself strictly towards the polar star, but towards another invisi-
ble point in the sky, and that the variation of the magnetic needle was not due
to a change in the compass, but to the motion and the diurnal revolution of this
celestial point around its pole. The confidence which the sailors had in the
astronomical knowledge of Columbus gave weight to this explanation, and their
excitement was consequently calmed. Although, as we have seen before, the
deviation was known two hundred years previous to the voyage of Columbus,
it is, however, evident from the facts just related that he made another discovery
of not less importance, namely, that of the difference of the declination in differ-
ent places of the earth.

We find more accurate notions of the declination of the magnetic needle, but
these are as late as the middle of the seventeenth century. In the year 1541
the deviation of the needle from the meridian at Paris was found to be from
seven to eight degrees to the east; in 1550 from eight to nine degrees; and, in
1580, eleven degrees and a half to the east. Norman, who first observed the
deviations in London, found it to be 114 degrees in 1596, and Gellibrand, at
the same place, in 1634, four degrees towards the east.

We have seen by what precedes that the magnetic needle does not point in
all parts of the earth precisely to the geometric pole of the globe, and also that
the amount of the deviation is not the same in all places. But it is important
further to remark that a magnetic bar, free to move in every direction, will not
remain stationary if placed in a horizontal position; on the contrary, in the
northern hemisphere the north end of the bar will turn down towards the earth,
and in the southern hemisphere the south end will assume a similar position.
The bar will only remain horizontal in the region of the equator. ‘The discovery
of this important property, which is called the dip or inclination of the magnetie
needle, has been generally ascribed to Robert Norman, (whose name has just
been mentioned in connexion with the variation,) an Englishman, an experienced
sailor, and, as William Gilbert calls him, an artist of genius. It is said the dis-
covery was made by Norman in the year 1576, but, according to authentie
documents, it was known as early as 1544 to George Hartmann, vicar of the
church of St. Sebaldus, in Nuremberg. Hartmann was in correspondence with
Albert, Duke of Prussia, one of those enlightened minds who recognized the
importance of the sciences even at their early dawn. ‘Their correspondence, com-
mencing in 1541, was principally on scientific subjects, but the letter, which is

HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM. 293

of the most interest to us at present, is dated March 4, 1544, and contains accu-

rate descriptions of three magnetic discoveries which Hartmann had shown the
year before, at Nuremberg, to Ferdinand, King of Bohemia, a brother of Charles
VY. This letter is found in the secret archives at Berlin, and was published
by Mosor. Hartmann states in this that he had discovered that the extremity
of the needle, which is intended to point to the north, must be rubbed with the
end of the stone which points to the south, and that a needle so rubbed which
has previously been accurately balanced so as to rest horizontally, will, after
the magnetization, incline or dip at one end below the horizon. Further, that
a large bar of iron placed vertically becomes so strongly magnetic as to repel
with its lower end the northern point of a compass needle. This fact is best
shown by using a large bar and a small needle.

The fact that rusted iron bars, which have remained for a long time in a
vertical position, exhibit always more or less magnetism, was first observed in
1590 by Julius Cesar, a surgeon, at Rimini, who observed that an iron rod,
which had been placed for the support of the wall of the tower of the church of
the Augustines, had become magnetic. Gassendi observed the same, in 1630,
in an iron cross which had been*thrown down by lightning from the church
tower at Aix. He found that the rusted extremities of this cross had the qual-
ities of the loadstone. When, about the year 1722, the iron cross whigh had
adorned for several centuries the spire of the church tower at Delft was taken
down for repair, the celebrated Loewenhoeck, on the suggestion of a stranger,
as he says, obtained a piece of the iron from one of the laborers, but no influ-
ence was exhibited by it on the compass needle. Some time afterwards, lrowever,
the same laborer brought him a rusted piece from the foot of the vertical bar,
which exhibited more power of attraction than the two natural magnets which
Loewenhoeck possessed.

Whilst magnetism made but slow progress by incidental observations, it re-
ceived suddenly a powerful impulse from the investigations of Dr. William
Gilbert, of Colchester, England. ‘This distinguished individual, who was phy-
sician to Queen Elizabeth, published in 1600 his “‘ Dissertation on the Physiology
of the Magnet,” a work which not only contained everything known of magnet-

-ism and electricity up to that period, arranged in a truly scientific manner, but

also a numerous and ingenious series of investigations on the subject by himself,
He was the first who advanced the proposition that the earth itself acts, in all
its parts, as a great magnet, in opposition to the opinions of those who, either
with Olaus Magnus, supposed that there existed great magnetic mountains of
such power that ships, in the construction of which iron had not been entirely
omitted, would be attracted and held fast, or with those who placed the power
of attraction in the sky, as, for instance, the astrologer, Lucas Gauricus, who
supposed that a great magnet existed under the tail of Ursa Major, a constella-
tion in the northern hemisphere to which all compass needles pointed. Gilbert
logically refuted these and similar fanciful hypotheses, and substituted his own
rational theory in their stead—a theory which, in its general principles, has
been retained to the present time. He also attempted to explain, but with less
success, the declination of the needle by ascribing magnetism merely to the
solid parts of the earth, and not to the water, so that the needle would incline
towards the continent, because a greater amount of magnetic power existed there.

It could, moreover, not escape the sagacity of a man like Gilbert, that the
magnetic terminology, as he found it, was liable to great inconsistencies. Even
in our days we are still accumstomed to call the end of the needle which points
to the north its north pole, and the one pointing to the south its south pole.
This form of expression is, nevertheless, incorrect, for if we admit that the
earth is a great magnet, and that in the vicinity of the geographical north pole

a magnetic north pole is situated, this north pole could only attract the south

pole’ of another magnet, and conseqpently the end of the magnetic needle

294 HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM.

which turns towards it should be called the south pole. In like manner the
end of the needle which points to the south should be called its north pole.
Gilbert objected to the use of this inconsistency, and introduced in its stead the
correct appellation. He did not succeed, however, in abolishing the old terms,
although physicists agreed with him, and even some of the more recent
writers on this subject have adopted his forms of expression. ‘This is the case
with the French authors on magnetism, and some of the English physicists —
have endeavored to avoid the difficulty by using the term north end for the
extremity of the needle which points to the north, and the south end for that
which is directed to the south.

The fact was still unknown, even to Gilbert, that the deviation of the mag- _
netic needle changes with time, and, upon the whole, there is but little trust-
worthy testimony to show to whom the discovery of the secular variation
of the magnetic needle is to be attributed. Although observations made at
Paris and London exhibit in different years a difference in the variations, the
idea could not be seized upon at once that the needle changed its position from
one year to another; on the contrary, it appears that the differences observed
were considered as errors of the observations. Gellibrand, however, who observed
the variation in 1634, in London, finding it different from that observed by
Gunter in 1622, and that by Burrows in 1580, concluded that the deviation was
variabfe, and therefore the discovery is generally ascribed to him. Although
the French had observed as early as 1541, 1550, 1580, and 1603, in Paris, four
different variations, and although Gunter, in London, had also ’found a devia-
tion different from that of Burrows, the honor of the discovery cannot be
ascribed to any of them, since the one who makes a discovery is he who first
clearly perceives the essential particulars of the phenomena and gives an intel-
ligible account of them; for this reason, and, indeed, with justice, the dis-
covery of Uranus is ascribed to Herschel, although Flamstead had observed
it nearly a hundred years before, but had mistaken it for a fixed star. The
fact of the yearly variation of the magnetic needle was adopted and defended
by Gassendi, in France, and was soon generally admitted, although it was
thought at the time that the motion was regular, or that the north end of
the needle moved every year an equal amount towards the west. It was,
however, soon discovered that its progress was far from being regular, but it
was still thought that the motion was so slow that the needle might be con-
sidered stationary at least for a few days. But this also proved to be incor-
rect when Father Guy Tuchart, in 1682, observed the deviation in the city of
Louvo, in Siam, in presence of the King; he found it on four, and again on
three successive days to assume different directions, either increasing or decreas-
ing. ‘The celebrated mechanist, Graham, in London, repeated these observa-
tions with better instruments in 1722, and discovered that the needle changes
its position not only trom day to day, but even from hour to hour; that, indeed,
it does the same continfally, and is, in fact, in a state of perpetual motion.
Assessar Swedenborg, in his treatise on magnetism, expressed a doubt as to the
correctness of these propositions, and asserted that they were based upon errors
of observation. ‘This induced the celebrated professor Celsius, at Upsala, to
repeat the observations of Graham. As early as in 1740 he communicated a
few results to the public, which showed the correctness of Graham’s discovery.

Celsius was also the first who, in company with Hiarter, observed the remark-
able and violent disturbances of the magnetic needle which accompany the appear-
ance of the aurora borealis, and it was he who also first established the fact of
the simultaneous motion of the needle at different places on the earth. He had
inducéd Graham, in London, to make observations simultaneously with him, in
order to ascertain whether the disturbances of the needle depends on local

changes, or on those affecting large portions of the earth. After the death of ~ |

Celsius, Olav Hiarter continued his observations and published the records of

j
HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM. 295

the whole. From the comparison of these observations with those of Graham
it was found that in Europe the needle is furthest to the east in the morning from
eight to nine o’clock, and furthest to the west in the afternoon from one to two
o’clock, when it again proceeds eastwardly until eight or nine o’clock in the
evening, when it either remains stationary for a few hours, or makes a small
movement of a few minutes back towards the west. During the night it gener-
ally moves somewhat towards the east, so that in the morning at eight o’clock
it is found a little more to the eastward than in the evening.

About the year 1756, John Canton, in London, made observations on the
daily deviations, or of the variations, as they were called, from which the

result was deduced that the regular daily motion about the time of the sum-

mer solstice is nearly twice as great as at the winter solstice. In the first
instance, it amounts to about 4, in the latter to about $ of a degree. Can-
ton endeavored to explain the daily western and the subsequent eastern varia-
tion of the needle by referring it to the influence of solar heat on the mag-
netism of the earth. He supposes, since magnetism is weakened by heat, that,
if in the forenoon the sun warms the eastern parts of the earth, the needle
will be more attracted towards the western parts, and in a similar manner in
the afternoon, when the sun has weakened the western side, the greater in-
fluence of the eastern will draw the needle more towards that direction.

Before proceeding further in the exposition of this subject, we are obliged to
take a step backwards and direct our attention to an individual who produced
an epoch in the theory of the magnetism of the earth. We allude to Dr.
Edmund Halley, of England, who in 1683 published his theory of terrestrial
magnetism, which, in some particulars, still forms the basis of our present
theories. He advanced the hypothesis that there were four magnetic poles,
twoin the vicinity of each geometrical pole of the earth, so that in different
parts of the earth the needle always directs itself in such a manner that
the influence of the nearest poles overcomes that of the more distant one. He
further assumed that the pole which at that time was nearest to England was
situated on the meridian of Cape Landsend, at the distance of seven degrees
from the north geometrical pole, and that the other magnetic north pole was on
the meridian of California, at the distance of 15 degrees from the north geometrical
pole. He placed one of the two magnetic south poles 16 degrees from the geo-
graphical south pole, and 95 degrees west from London, and the other, the
strongest of the four, at the distance of 20 degrees from the south pole, and 120
degrees west from London.

In order also to explain the successive variations of deviations, he advanced
the remarkable hypothesis that our earth is a hollow sphere within which is a
solid globe; that the two revolve around the same centre of gravity in nearly,
though not in exactly the same time ; and furthermore, that the solid globe is
separated from the exterior hollow shell by aliquid medium. He also supposed
that the internal globe, as well as the external shell, have each two magnetic
poles, and that the changing deviation of the needle was produced by the want
of perfect simultaneousness in the rotation of the two spheres. According to
this hypothesis the magnetic poles of the external shell, while they do not
coincide with the geometric poles of the same shell, always retained the same
position, and, therefore, if the needle was only affected by them, the variation
would always remain the same at the same place; but the needle being also
acted upon by the magnetic poles of the interior globe, and as these slowly
change their position relative to those of the exterior shell on account of the
difference of velocity in the revolution of the two spheres, a change in the
direction of the needle on all points of the earth’s surface must be constantly
going on.

Also after a complete rotation of the exterior within the interior sphere the
variation must again become the same. This hypothesis created at the time a

296 HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM.

great sensation, and in order to verify it and to discover from observations the
law of the variation of the magnetic needle, Halley obtained, through the in-
fluence of King William, the command of a small vessel of the royal navy, in
which he made two voyages in the years 1698 and 1699. He soon returned
from the first voyage on account of his crew having fallen sick after passing
the equator, and also on account of the mutiny of his lieutenant. In 1699 he
sailed again and cruised in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans m various directions.
From these voyages he gathered a sufficient number of observations to enable
him to prepare his celebrated prospective chart of the variations of the mag-
netic needle.

On this chart he connected with continued lines all the places on the earth
where similar and equal deviation of the needle had been observed, and thus
produced a projection of what is called the lines of equal variation, or isogonic¢
lines. ‘These lines afford a ready means of presenting at once to the eye the
totality of the phenomenon. They are also sometimes called Halley’s lines,
although, as may be inferred from a passage in Kircher, he was not the first
who constructed such charts. Kircher,,in fact, states, at page 443 of his

Jautica Magznetica, that a Father Chr. Burrus had thought he had discovered
a process by which longitude at sea might be determined, and had on account
of it claimed a reward of 50,000 ducats from the King of Spain. His state-
ment is as follows: On his voyage to India he observed, under the widely dif-
ferent meridians, the deviation of the magnetic needle, and collected also obser-
vations made by others. These observations, the number of which was not
inconsiderable, he projected on a map, and then connected the places of equal
variation by lines, which he called chalyboelitie lines. He asserted confidently
that, by means of these lines, he could accurately determine the geographical
longitude of a place by merely observing its magnetic variation. The insufli-
ciency of this method was, however, recognized at the time. Gilbert made a
similar proposal for determining longitude; but, instead of applying the varia-
tion, he thought to use the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle to obtain
the object sought.

Enler, the great geometrician, also occupied himself with the theory of the
magnetism of the earth, and endeavored to show that the hypothesis of Halley
respecting four magnetic poles was unnecessary, and to prove from mathemati-
eal deduction that the assumption of the existence of two poles was sufficient;
he determined the position of them for the year 1757. The north pole was be-
yond latitude 76° north, and longitude 96° west from Teneriffe; the south pole at
latitude 58° south, and longitude 158° west.

In recent times a large number of the most accurate and valuable observa-
tions on the declination and inclination of the magnetic needle, and on the foree
of terrestrial magnetism in different parts of the earth, and especially in the
neighborhood of the equator, have been made by Alexander von Humboldt
during his travels. It was principally from these observations that the French
physicist, Biot, endeavored to give an improved theory of the magnetism of the
earth. He assumes in this theory that the magnetic poles are not situated on
the earth’s surface, but in its centre, and in close proximity to each other, and
by means of a somewhat complicated mathematical process he succeeds in
bringing the results of observations into apparent harmony with his theory.

But one of the most zealous promoters of our knowledge of the magnetism
of the earth is Professor Christopher Hansteen, of Christiana, who, in 1817,
published his work entitled “Investigations relative to the Magnetism of the
Earth.” An incident in the beginning of the year 1807 gave the first impulse
to these investigations. Examining a physical globe constructed for the Cos-
mographical Society of Upsala, Hansteen found, at its south pole, an elliptic
figure, designated by the name of “magnetic polar region,” and it was further
inscribed on the globe that this magnetic polar region had been delineated by

aoe mga

HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM. 297

Wilke from observations made by Captains Cork and Fourneaux. One focus
of the ellipsis was designated as the stronger, the other as the weaker region.
Hansteen was induced to compare these statements with the observations, and
the comparison being satisfactory, he was led to investigate more thoroughly
the theory of Halley, which, until then, he had looked upon as a wild specula-
tion. The result of these investigations was that he became a convert to the
theory of the existence of four movable magnetic poles.

In 1811 the Royal Danish Society of Sciences had offered the annual prize
for the best answer to the question, ‘Whether it is necessary, in order to ex-
plain the magnetic phenomena of the earth, to admit the existence of several
magnetic axes, or whether one is sufficient?” At the beginning of the following
year Hansteen presented the greatest part of his work, as far as it was com-
pleted, and the society crowned his labors with its principal prize.

The most important part of Hansteen’s work is that in which he treats of
the number, the position, and the motion of the magnetic poles. From all the
observations collected by him on the variations of the magnetic needle, he con-
eludes that there are four points on the earth through which the lines of equal
deviation pass, viz., a stronger and a weaker one in the vicinity of each
geomeiric pole. Both the stronger poles, as well as the two weaker ones, are
situated opposite to each other, as if they were extreme points of the same axes.
All four have a regular rotation, the two northern ones from west to east, and
the southern ones from east to west.

In order to elucidate the nature of the magnetism of the earth in each of its
relations, Hansteen also undertook to make numerous observations, and even
made a journey to Sibéria, in order to carry on his investigations within the
region of greatest intensity of the magnetic phenomenon. This journey, besides
directly enriching our knowledge of the magnetism of the earth with valua-
ble results, had other consequences of great importance ; it called the attention
of the Russian government to this subject, and thus prepared the way for the
labors of Alexander von Humboldt, at whose request the Emperor of Russia,
with great liberality, ordered a number of magnetic observatories to be erected
in his empire. Humboldt, immediately after his return from his travels in
America, (1799, 1804,) had erected, in a garden at Berlin, an observatory, ex-
clusively devoted to magnetism, and in which observations were made, often
from four to six consecutive days, every half hour without interruption. The
proposal of Humboldt, to erect similar observatories in other places of Germany,
was not responded to partly on account of the political disturbances which were
then visiting that country, partly because its celebrated citizen was intrusted
with a mission from his government to France, and was thus hindered, for the
time, in*the pursuit of his favorite object. Arago commenced in 1818, at Paris,
an exceedingly valuable series of magnetic observations, and by comparing them
with such as were made simultaneously at Kasan, he confirmed the assertion of
his friend Humboldt in regard to the importance and necessity of corresponding
observations.

Humboldt returned to Germany in 1827, and established in the autumn of
1828 a continuous and regular series of observations. In consequence of his
solicitation, the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg and the curator of the
University at Kasan, erected an observatory at St. Petersburg and Kasan, and
under the protection of the chief of the mining corps, Count Canain, magnetic
stations were established from the south of Russia through the whole of northern
Asia. The Russian Academy sent George Fuss to Pekin, where he erected
a magnetic observatory in the garden of the Greek convent, in which Kowanko
made a continued series of observations corresponding with those of all the
other stations. Admiral Greig also erected a magnetic observatory at Nico-
lajeff, in the Crimea; and, at the instance of Humboldt, a subterranean mag-
netic station was established under the supervision of Professor Reich, in the

298 HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM.

mines ai Freiberg, in Saxony, whilst Arago, at his own expense, had a decli-
nation compass placed in the interior of Mexico, at the height of 6,000 feet above
the level of the sea. On the suggestion of Admiral Labord, the secretary of
the navy of France directed the establishment of a magnetic observatory in
1836, at Reikiavik, in Iceland, and Humboldt sent instruments for an observa-
tory to Havana. ;

In 1832 a new epoch commenced in the history of magnetic investigations ;
in that year Frederic Gauss, the renowned author of the general theory of the
magnetism of the earth, as Humboldt calls him, erected in the observatory of
Gottingen a set of instruments, constructed upon an entirely new principle. In
1834 this apparatus was transferred to a new observatory, expressly prepared
for the purpose, and placed in charge of William Weber. After this, from
Gottingen, as from a centre, was diffused over Germany, Sweden, and Italy,
a spirit of magnetic observation with the improved methods and the instruments
of Gauss. In 1836 four annual terms, each of twenty-four hours, were agreed
upon by all the observers, during which a continued series of observations were
to be simultaneously made, although the hours of these terms did not exactly
correspond with those which Humboldt had proposed, yet they were unanimously
adopted.

England had thus far taken no part in the general movement, although the
celebrated English physicist, Sir David Brewster, made application to the
government for the establishment of magnetic stations at different points of the
British possessions, but it was here again, through the influence of Humboldt,
that the desired result was obtained. He addressed a letter in April, 1836, to
the Duke of Sussex, then president of the Royal Society in London, strongly
recommending the establishment of permanent magnetic stations in Canada, at
St. Helena, the Cape of Good Hope, on the Isle of France, Ceylon, and New
Holland. In consequence of this letter, a committee of the Royal Society was
appointed in order to examine and report upon the subject. It was proposed
by this committee, in a letter to the government, not only to establish permanent
magnetic observations, but also to equip ships for an expedition to the Antarctic
ocean for the purpose of magnetic observations in that region.

(TO BE CONTINUED IN THE NEXT REPORT.)

ACCOUNT

OF SOME

RECENT RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO THE NEBULA.

BY PROFESSOR GAUTIER

Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Archives des Sciences Physiques et Natue
relles, Geneva, 1862.

THERE is no part of the vast field of the astronomy of observation which is
not at present the object of persevering explorations. I propose on this ocea-
sion to give a cursory view of those which relate to a widely extended and
highly curious class of celestial objects, which was first made a subject of
special study by the distinguished astrononters Herschel and Messier, and
since by Lord Ross, by Fathers De Vico and Secchi, and by MM. Lamont,
Lassell, and Bond; a subject which presents peculiar difficulties, and respecting
which there remains much to be cleared up. I allude to the nebule, those
small whitish patches, of feeble light, which the telescope reveals to us in great
numbers in the heavens, and which powerful ‘instruments enable us, for the
_most part, to recognize as assemblages of stars, situated at enormous distances
from the earth.

In this rapid review I shall follow, in general, the order of dates, and I shall
commence by saying a few words of a catalogue of the positions in the heavens
of fifty-three nebule, the result of observations made at the observatory of
Paris by M. Langier, principally in 1848 and 1849, and by him presented to
the Academy of Sciences of Paris at its sitting of December 12, 1853. This
catalogue, published in the Compte Rendu of that sitting, gives with the precision
of seconds of a degree the right ascensions and mean declinations of the centre
or most brilliant point of those nebule to January 1, 1850, as well as the
differences between these positions and those resulting from the catalogues of
Herschel and Messier. It is a first attempt at precise determinations of the
position of a certain number of nebule, undertaken with a view of serving to
decide, in the sequel, the question whether these bodies are really situated
beyond the fixed stars which are visible to us.

RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO THE NEBULA OF ORION.

M. Liapounoff, director of the observatory of Kazan, in the beginning of 1856
presented to the Academy of Sciences of Petersburgh, through the medium of
M. W. Struve, a memoir on the great nebula of Orion, being the result of
observations made for four years with an equatorial telescope of the power
of that of Dorpat and a meridian circle of Repsold.* He has applied himself

* I know this memoir only from a very succinct mention of it at the end of the number of
the Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society of London for March 14, 1856, vol. xvi,
p. 139. As I shall frequently have to cite this compilation, as well as that published at
Altona by Dr. Peters under the title of Astronomische Nachrichten, I shall designate them
respectively by their initial letters, M. N. and A. N.

300 RECENT RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO THE NEBULZ.
to a very exact determination, by a process of triangulation, of the positions
of all the stars which his instruments have enabled him to see in that nebula,
and to a most careful delineation of all the parts of that remarkable celestial
object, of which more than one chart vhad been already constructed, while
assigning particular names to its several regions. M. Struve, in comparing the
results of Liapounoff with those of Sir John Herschel, Lamont, and Bond, has
expressed the opinion that this nebula must be subject to changes of form and
relative brightness in its different parts.
M. Otto Struve has continued, at the observatory of Poulkova, the labors of
M. Liapounoff, and has reported the first results of his researches in a commu-
nication, of the date of May 1, 1857, presented to the Astronomical Society by
M. Airy, June 12 of the same year, and published in the seventeenth volume
of the M. N., pp. 225-230. .
In this, M. Struve begins by deseribing the variableness of the lustre of
different small stars situated in the nebula of Orion—a variableness which he
has verified as well by a comparison of his observations with those of other
astronomers as by different observations of his own.* ‘The existence of so
many variable stars,” he continues, “in so limited a space of the central part
of the most curious nebula of the heavens must naturally lead to the supposition
that these phenomena are intimately connected with the mysterious nature of
this body. * * Admitting that the rapid changes of light observed in these
small stars, whether in the region called Huygens or in that called Subnedulosa,
are connected with the nature of the nebula, it might be presumed that changes
would be equally observed in the appearance of the nebula and in the distribu-
tion of the nebulous matter. But observations of this kind are subject to so
many illusions, that we can searce be sufficiently reserved in the conclusions
drawn from them. I cannot think that the course commonly pursued by
astronomers in this species of researches—the comparison, namely, with one
another of graphic representations made at different epochs by diiferent
observers—ever conducts to results which can be regarded as indubitable.
The optic power of the telescope, the transparency of the atmosphere, varying
with different stations, the peculiarities of the observer’s eye, the measure of
skill and of experience in graphic representations of the kind—all this, joined
with the influence of the imagination of the observer, forms obstacles which it
will always be difficult to overcome in proceeding after this manner. It might
perhaps be possible, by following this method for centuries, to discover pro-
gressive changes, if any exist; but those can never be thus verified which take
place in short intervals of time. Now, the rapid variations of light in the stars
may well cause us to expect similar, and perhaps periodical, variations in the
appearances of the nebulous matter. It is therefore to rapid changes of this
sort that we should particularly direct our attention, and we shall be better able
to verify their existence by comparative observations on the degree of light and
the forms of some prominent portions of the nebula than by representing it in
its entireness. It was in this way that I endeavored to proceed during last
winter, and the impression produced upon me was a strong one that, at different
points, considerable changes occurred within the short period of my observa-
tions. I do not venture, however, to regard them as positive facts until they
shall have been corroborated, especially by observers stationed in more favorable
climates and provided with optical instrumentalities sufficient for the purpose.”’ t

* J have heretofore had occasion to speak of this work of M. O. Struve, in a Notice on the
Stars of Variable Brightness, published in the numbers of the Bibliotheque Universelle
{ Archives, vol. Xxxvi, PP. 5-89) for September and October, 1857. M. Otto Struve has
recently succeeded his father in the direction of the great Russian observatory of Poulkova.

t'The memoir of M. O. Struve on this subject has been published, I believe, in vol. ii of a
collection entitled, Melanges Mathematiques et Astronomiques.

RECENT RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO THE NEBULA. 301

M. O. Struve proceeds to mention in detail four parts of the nebula of Orion
in which he perceived most distinctly, in an intérval of some months, changes
of form or of the degree of light. The first is a bay, extending from the strazts
of Le Gentil in the direction of the trapezium of stars situated towards the
middle of the nebula. This bay appeared to him at one time altogether
obscure, like the straits; at another, full of nebulosity, and little inferior in
brightness to the surrounding portions of the region of Huygens. Dr. Lamont
first delineated this bay, which has never been seen by Sir John Herschel.
The second is a nebulous bridge, which crosses the great straits, with a point
of concentrated light about midway. M. Struve saw it in winter, sometimes as
represented by Herschel, sometimes as by Liapounoff, with much greater con-
centration of light, but always much more extended than in the representations
of these astronomers, and closely approaching the southern limit of the great
strait. Very faint traces of it are indicated by M. Lamont, while Professor
Bond did not see it at all. The third is a nebulosity surrounding star 75 of
Herschel’s catalogue, which appeared to M. Struve to be subject to great
changes of brightness. Lastly, the fourth part is a sort of narrow canal, uniting
in a right line the obscure space situated around the stars 76, 80, and 84, of
Herschel’s catalogue, with the north side of the great strait, near the exterior
extremity of the bridge before mentioned. The canal, which has not been
represented by any other observer, was distinctly seen by M. Struve March 24,
1857, while on other occasions he has not perceived the least trace of it.

This astronomer, in closing his communication, adds, that the general im-
pression resulting from his observations is to the effect that the central part of
the nebula of Orion is in a state of continual change of brightness as regards
many of its portions. In those cases where the images were most distinct,
their appearance did not seem entirely uniform from night to night. ‘These
changes in the degree of light cannot, however, be perceived in the greater
number of cases without instruments of considerable optical power; and he does
not think that achromatic telescopes of less than ten inches opening can serve
to verify them, except under atmospheric conditions extraordinarily favorable.

The twenty-second volume of the M. N. (pp. 203-207) contains the analysis
of another memoir relating to the same nebula. It was communicated to the
Astronomical Society, May 10, 1861, by Professor George Bond, who has suc-
ceeded his father in the direction of the observatory of Harvard College, at
Cambridge, near Boston. The paper bears for its title, On the spiral structure
of the great nebula of Orion.

Professor Bond the father, in a memoir published in 1848, had already
remarked that the light of this nebula seemed to present a radiated appearance
on its southern side, starting from the neighborhood of the trapezium of stars
situated towards its middle. Professor G. Bond has undertaken, since 1857,
to form a catalogue of the stars comprised in a square of forty minutes to the
side, having @ of Orion for its centre. He selected one hundred and twenty-one
- bright stars as guiding points to which to refer the smaller stars, of too feeble
light, for the most part, to remain visible under a strong illumination of the
micrometric threads. In a first sheet he has arranged two hundred and sixty-
two stars, and then subdivided the same surface into four charts, finally reunited
into a single one. The form and arrangement of the elongated luminous tufts,
alternating with the more obscure spaces stretching from the neighborhood of
the trapezium, have been determined by two independent procedures, the nebula
being first delineated as a bright object on a dark ground, and then as a dark
object on a white ground.

I cannot enter here into the descriptive details given in the analysis of Prof.
Bond’s memoir, and I shall confine myself to a report of its conclusion. The
general aspect of the greater part of the nebule of Orion is an assemblage of
tufts or curvilinear pencils of luminous matter, emanating from bright masses

302 RECENT RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO THE NEBULA.

near the trapezium, extending towards the south, on each side of an axis pass-
ing by the apex of the region called Huygens, of which the angle of position
is in the neighborhood of 180°. Some twenty of these circumvolutions have
been distinctly traced, whilst others, prpducing the same impression, are too
faint or too complicated to be described with precision. We may class, then,
according to Prof. Bond, the nebule of Orion among the spiral nebula, such as
they were, for the first time, described by Lord Ross, with the aid of his great
reflecting telescope. The nebule No. 51, of the catalogue of Messier, was the
first in which he discovered this spiral conformation, which had escaped both
the astronomers Herschel.

Prof. Bond has observed that, in a great number of cases, the masses of neb-
ulous matter are associated with stars, frequently under the form of small tufts
extending from their southern side. He cites two remarkable instances where
there is a deficit of luminous matter near stars of considerable brilliancy ; the
first, in reference to the trapezium itself, whose obscure centre has been remarked
by sundry observers; the other, to the star Jota of Orion. These peculiarities
appear to Prof. Bond to be favorable to the supposition of a physical associa-
tion of the stars with the nebule. The existence of an arrangement in a spiral
form of the parts which compose it accords with the idea of a stellar constitu-
tion; for among the objects which present this peculiarity of form are found
not only nebule resolvable into stars, but masses of stars properly so called,
such, for instance, as the grand mass of stars of the constellation Hercules,
where the exterior stars have evidently a curvilinear arrangement.

OTHER FACTS RELATING TO THE NEBUL.

M. Norman Pogson, whilst at the observatory of Dr. Lee, at Hartwell, in
1860, witnessed a change in the nebule, or mass of stars, No. 80 of the cata-
logue of Messier, situated in the constellation of the Scorpion, and very close
to a pair of variable stars R and § of the Scorpion, which have been observed
by M. Chacornae since 1853. The 9th of May this nebule had its usual aspect,
without any stellar appearance, and the 28th of the same month Mr. Pogson
saw therein a star of the 7th or 8th magnitude, which has been also observed
since the 21st of May by MM. Luther and Auwers at K6ningsberg, and which
the latter have estimated to be of something more than the 7th magnitude.
The 10th of June following, with a magnifying power of 66, the stellar ap-
pearance had nearly passed away, but the nebule had a greater brilliancy than
usual, with a clearly marked central condensation. M. Pogson does not think
that this variation can be attributed to a change in the nebule itself, but he re-
gards as singular that a new variable star, the third comprised in the same field
of vision, should be found exactly situated between the earth and that nebule.
This observation has been published in the twenty-first volume of the M. N.,

. 32.

: M. Chacornac has observed quite recently, with M. Foucault’s great reflect-
ing telescope of plated glass, so adapted as to procure a great degree of enlarge-
ment, the annular nebulz of the Lyre, and he has ascertained that it is in reality
resolvable into a mass of very small stars, closely crowded together, the bright-
est of them occupying the extremities of the small diameter. This nebule, in
an examination of several nights, presented to him the appearance of a hollow
cylinder, seen in a direction nearly parallel to its axis; and its centre, as Lord
Ross describes it, is veiled by a curtain of nebulous matter, which converts it-
self into a somewhat thin stratum of little stars. M. Chacornac adds, in a com-
munication to Dr, Peters on this subject, dated Paris, 9th June, 1862, and pub-
lished in No. 1368 of the A. N., that when the view is screened from all inter-
fering light, the scintillation of this multitude of luminous points, occupying a
large portion of the surface of the retina, produces a sort of giddiness which
is quite curious.

RECENT RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO THE NEBULZ. 305

I pass now to the labors of M. d’Arrest, relative to the nebule. This
astronomer had begun to occupy himself with this subject while he was still
attached to the observatory of Leipsic, and, since 1857, has published in the
collection of the memoirs of the Royal Society of Saxe the result of his first
observations of 230 nebulz, made with a double annular micrometer, of Frauen-
hofer’s construction, applied to a telescope of 52 lines opening and 6 feet focal
length. Prof. d’Aryest* is at present director of the observatory of Copen-
hagen, and he has continued, since the month of September, 1861, his observa-
tions of the nebulz, with a large achromatic telescope, of 11 inches opening and
16 feet focal length, the optic power of which he estimates to be intermediate
between that of Herschel’s 20 feet reflecting telescope, and that of the telescope
of the same kind with which Lassell likewise has observed the nebule from
1852 to 1854. The telescope of Copenhagen has enabled M. d’Arrest not
only to recognize all the nebule of Herschel, but to discover more than a hun-
dred new ones among 776 observed in eight months. He has been enabled also,
under favorable circumstances and with some difficulty, to see certain nebulsz
indicated by Lassell.

M. d’Arrest, making his observations alone, soon perceived that he could
scarcely combine the observation of celestial objects of very feeble light with
the microscopic reading of the circles of his instrument. It follows that his
new catalogue will not assign, with all the precision attainable, the absolute
position of each object on the celestial sphere. This position is only given to
the minute of a degree in right ascension and in declination ; but as the nebule
are very carefully compared with the neighboring small stars by the help of
annular and thread micrometers, we shall thus have competent means for ascer-
taining with precision their proper movements in respect to those stars, which
constitutes one of the principal aims of the researches of M. d’Arrest. This
astronomer has published, in No. 1366 of the A. N., an interesting notice, dated
20th May, 1862, of his later labors; and from this I shall extract some de-
tails, tending to complete those which precede.

VARIABILITY OF THE BRIGHTNESS OF THE NEBULA.

M. d’Arrest considers as well established one of the results of the great
labor of Argelander, in which has originated his new catalogue of stars, namely,
that, of 50,000 stars already well recognized, there exists but a small number
of which the brightness is periodically variable; and he believes the same
may be affirnfed, though with less certainty, to be very nearly the case with
the nebule.

Sir W. Herschel had subdivided the nebulz into three classes, with reference
to their relative degree of brightness. M. d’Arrest has found a great many
instances in which the nebule, as at first classed by Herschel, must now be as-
signed by one or even two units a new place in the classification. Herschel
himself had, in the course of some years, changed several of his appreciations.
But in view of the great diversity of atmospheric influences in humid climates,
bearing upon observations of this kind, M. d’Arrest thinks, like M. Otto Struve,
that it is impossible to be too circumspect in regard to the conclusions to be de-
duced from variabilities of this nature. He instances, however, a small num-
ber of cases in which some degree of variability has been positively ascer-
tained.

The first of these cases is that resulting from the observations of M. O. Struve
on the nebula of Orion before spoken of. 'The observations of this nebula
recently made, at different times and in favorable nights, by M. d’Arrest, with
his large telescope, have confirmed those of M. Struve, particularly as regards

* See M. N., vol. xvii, p. 48.

804 RECENT RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO THE NEBULA.

_ the bridge over the great strait, which, last winter, was sometimes distinetly
visible at Copenhagen, presenting the appearance assigned it by M. Lassell.

The second case of well-established variability is the almost total disappear-
ance of a small and faint nebule discovered by M. Hind, October 11, 1852, in
the constellation Taurus, recognized by other astronomers, and in the begin-
ning of 1856 still readily perceptible with a telescope of six feet focal length.
Two years later it was no longer to be seen, except with great difficulty, in the
heliometer of the observatory of Kiénigsberg. It was invisible October 3, 1861,
with the great telescope of Copenhagen. M.Chacornae, with the new telescope
of M. Foucault, and M. Lassell, at Malta, with his reflecting telescope of four
feet diameter, sought for it in vain in 1862, though it was still to be seen with
the great achromatic telescope of Poulkova.

A curious cirgumstance, connected with the great diminution of the bright-
ness of this nebula, is that this diminution has coincided with that of a small
star which presented itself almost in contact with the nebula. M. Argelander
estimated the magnitude of this star, in 1852, at 9.4. It was of not more than
the tenth magnitude in 1858, of the eleventh in 1861, and of the thirteenth or
fourteenth in 1862.

Sir John Herschel believed that he had recently detected another instance
of the disappearance of a nebula from not having found inscribed in the first
catalogue of M. d’Arrest a very faint nebula, noticed by Sir W. Herschel, near
two others in the constellation of Berenice’s hair. But M.Chacornac has ascer-
tained, with the new telescope of M. Foucault, that this feeble nebula is still
plainly visible, and M. d’Arrest has also observed it with his great telescope.
The latter astronomer further cites a small number of cases where there may
have been variability of brightness, or even disappearance of nebule; but these
instances are not as well established as that of the nebula of M. Hind.

DOUBLE NEBULA.

Sir John Herschel has remarked in his important memoir on the nebule,
published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1833, p. 502, that the number
of nebula physically connected with one another is probably more considerable,
relatively to the total number of the nebula, than is that of double stars among
the fixed stars.** Admitting a mutual distance of five minutes of a degree to
be the greatest for the double nebule, M. d’Arrest even now enumerates about
fifty comprehended within this limit, and is of opinion that there may be two
or three hundred of them among the whole number of some 3,000 nebule dis-
cernible in our heavens.t So considerable a proportion of double nebule justi-
fies the presumption that there is a real connexion in these groups, and their
aspect confirms this idea, particularly in the case where unusual forms present
themselves at once in two equal exemplifications. Sir W. Herschel seems not
to have had an idea of this physical connexion between the nebule, but Sir
John distinctly speaks of it on more than one occasion. It can scarcely be
doubted that at some future period astronomers will be called on to calculate the
orbits of the double nebule.

M. d’Arrest mentions some particular cases of this sort of nebula, of which
one is triple. There is as yet but one recognized, where, on comparing the
distances and respective positions of the two nebule of the same group observed
in 1785, 1827, and 1862, considerable changes have been noticed, which seem
to indicate a movement of revolution of the one around the other. This double

* A short analysis of this admirable paper of Sir J. Herschel, accompanied with a plate, is ,

given in tho issues of the Bibliotheque Universelle for June and July, 1834.

tM. d’Arrest has quite recently published, in No. 1369 of the A. N., a catalogue, for the
commencement of 1861, of the positions and aspect of fifty double nebulze which he has
already recognized, and of which a dozen are new ones.

ea

RECENT RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO THE NEBULZ. 305

and particularly interesting nebula is situated at 109° 12’ of right ascension,
and 29° 45’ of north declination. M. Lassel has represented it in Fig. 9 of
Plate XI, accompanying his memoir, published in vol. xxiii of the quarto
collection of the Astronomical Society of London. The two components of the
nebula are very distinct, though their mutual distance is at present but 28
seconds; but they are difficult to be seen when the threads of the micrometer
are illuminated. A very small star is found between the two, exactly in the
same place where M. Lasse't observed it ten years ago. M. d’Arrest will take
occasion, when his labors on this subject are completed, to cite some other
analogous cases of change of relative position in double nebule. His pre-
sumption, in the mean time, from what he has been able thus far to discern, is,
that there will not be found in any of these groups of nebulz as short periods
of revolution as those which have been verified in the case of some of the
double stars.

Finally, M. d’Arrest reports a small number of cases where, by comparing a
nebula with some small star near it, and repeating this comparison at the end
of a certain time, he has been able to verify slight differences of distance or of
position, which might indicate a proper movement in one or the other of jhoso
bodies.

I here terminate this short review, in which I have been able to give but a
rapid glance at the present state of observation in respect to one of the most
difficult and least advanced parts of astronomical science.*

Post scriptum.—M. d’ Arrest has just announced, in No. 1378 of the A. N,
that he has recognized in the constellation 'Taurus the existence of a second
nebula of varidble brightness.

*T ought here to correct an error, pointed out tome by Dr. Hirsch, which I committedin
my notice on the observatory of Neufchatel, inserted in the number of the Archives for last
July, volume xiv, p. 224. It is not M. Hirsch, but Professor Kopp, of Neufchatel, who
forms part of the meteorological commission instituted by the Helvetic Society of Natural
Science.

208

FIGURE OF THE EARTH. ©

BY SR. MIGUEL MERINO.

Anuario del Real Observatorio de Madrid; cuarto ano; 1863.

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY C. A. ALEXANDER,

Ty an article inserted in our Annual for 1862, under the same title with the
present, we proposed, as our nearly exclusive object, to present, in an elementary
manner, the result of the investigations heretofore made to determine the form
and yolume of the earth, apart from historical iaotices, numerical details, and,
in a word, whatever might embarrass the course of the reasoning, or distract
the attention of our readers. Thus conceived and compiled, that first article
was for the most part dry, as regards results, and incomplete under various as-
pects. Dry, inasmuch as the mind takes less pleasure in the final solution of
a problem than in the survey of the means and computations employed to over-
come, one after another, the difficulties which beset it; and incomplete, because
without numbers there is in the physical sciences no precise solution, such as
shall leave the mind tranquil and satistied. ‘To supply our intentional omission
is the design of the present pages, in which, assuming the substance of our for-
mer article to be known, we shall consider, successively, and under the new
point of view just indicated, the three following points :

First. In what manner the human understanding, acted upon by the immediate
testimony of the senses, acquired, after a long uncertainty, a clear idea of the
roundness and rotation of the earth.

Second. By what means that first idea, founded on a somewhat superficial ex-
amination, became confirmed, and, at the same time, modified in some of the de-
tails by the actual and direct measurement of our globe.

Third. The present state of the question, briefly summed up in certain nu-
merical tables.

I.

In considering the progress of astronomy we must distinguish two epochs of
quite different character—one very remote, and only known to us by vague and
confused tradition, which has often undergone a strained interpretation; the
other nearer to our own times, whose history has been consigned to unequivocal
and imperishable monuments. In the opinion of certain authors possessed of
erudition and talent, and doubtless sincere in their belief, but led astray possibly
by the excess of their imagination, the ancient people of central Asia, the
Chinese, Indians, Assyrians, and Chaldeans, as well as the Egyptians, enjoyed
g civilization superior to the modern, cultivated the sciences, and possessed,
particularly, a knowledge of celestial phenomena, to which our present astrono-
mers cannot yet pretend. In the possible case that this were so, although the
mind instinetively revolts from believing it; that astronomy flourished at a period
of which history preserves no distinct traces, and that all which we know to-

.
bo
")

FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 307

day respecting the form of the earth and its relations with the other bodies of our
system was known many ages before that in which we live; granting, moreover,
that in view of the constant and great vicissitudes to which the world is sub-
_ ject, where the events of to-day so readily and radically efface the most mo-
mentous memories of yesterday, we are left without any positive grounds for
roundly denying the above assertions, yet what imports it to us whether the
primitive people of Asia were more enlightened than those of modern Europe,
if there remain only incomplete traces of their knowledge—if their science has
_ disappeared or been transmitted only when the modern had secured new foun-
dations, assuredly not less solid than the ancient? If we concede at once that
_ those people had ascertained the roundness of the earth, whether from the ex-
_ perience acquired in their emigrations and their warlike and commercial expe-
_ ditions, or else from a species of intuition; that from the demonstrated fact they
_ ascended to the producing cause, and that, not content with a knowledge of the
_ form, they had sought and succeeded in determining the dimensions of the globe,
_ what advantage have the moderns derived from all this? In what respect have
_ these problematical antecedents served to enlighten us with reference to the
questions with which we are engaged? This is to us the point of interest, and
it is this which we should first of all endeavor to make plain.
_ Inhis heroic poems Homer brings together all the cosmographie and geo-
_ graphic ideas of his age and of the people to whom he belonged—a people fitted,
beyond all then known, for the cultivation of the sciences, distinguished by
their lively and penetrating imagination, and inhabiting a country in all respects
the most favorably situated for observation. And yet Homer, minute and exact
as he is in the description of the scene on which his heroes moved, supposes the
earth to be a plane, and bounded in all directions by the waters of the ocean;
_ places in the middle of it Greece, and particularly the Thessalian Olympus; estab-
_lishes, on the mysterious limits of the horizon, pillows which serve as a support
for the skies; pictures 'Tartarus, the abode of the enemies of the gods, at a great
depth beneath the surface; and beyond the dim confines of earth imagines chaos,
or immensity, a confused mixture of life and vacuity, an abyss where exist,
without order, all the elements of Tartarus, earth, and heaven. Here we have
the point of departure for our existing knowledge respecting the form of the
earth and the constitution of the celestial vault; and is there here anything
which reveals the profound research, whether certain or problematical, of the
pristine races? Have we here, indeed, anything more than the primitive ideas,
which the spectacle of nature wakens in the breast of every one moderately en-
dowed with an inquiring spirit, dressed in the colors of a glowing imagination,
_ but betraying the incapacity to discover the truth through the mists which en-
velope it?
The voyages of the Phenicians, though conducted with less timidity than
_ those of the cotemporary Greeks, yet with a prudence and caution indicative
of no transmitted knowledge, open the door to wider investigation, to juster
_ ideas of the figure of the earth, and lead, by a more certain, at least more ex-
_peditious path, to the discovery of the truth. ‘Till this epoch history presents
to us each people shut up within the narrow limits which nature had marked
_ for it, here separated from the rest by mountain chains, there by tempestuous
seas. The dwellers of T'yre and Sidon are the first to venture habitually on
distant voyages in search of new lands, of foreign productions, of the objects of*
_ luxury and affluence, which were wanting at home. They visit, one by one,
all the islands of the Mediterranean, coast along the north of Africa, founding
_ colonies wherever suitable ; and, without recoiling before the dreaded straits of
- Gades, launch into the ocean and establish the principal seats of their com-
merce on the smiling shores of Betica. And while advancing on the west to
points never before reached, this commercial people unite the fleets of their
King Hiram with those of Solomon to explore the coasts of the Red and of the

508 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

Erythrean or Indian seas; while still later, as some historians maintain, their |
boldness reaches such a point that they navigate the shores of Africa by the .
east, double the Cape of Good, Hope, afterwards long forgotten, and regain their
country at the end of three years by the before-mentioned straits of Gades, or
Gibraltar.*

The Carthaginians, possessing the same enterprising and mercantile genius
with their ancestors of Phenicia, and benefiting by the experience of the latter,
projected still more important, if not more daring, expeditions. Hanno, with a
numerous fleet, traces the western coast of Africa and attains the mouth of the
river Senegal, while Himilco, sailing in the opposite direction, stops not short
of England, where he loads his vessels with the coveted metal stored in that
region. ;

Similar expeditions, made with ever-increasing frequency and boldness, such
as the voyage of Coleus of Samos, which extended to the entrance of the At-
lantic, and so strongly excited the curiosity of the Greeks, and the much later
one of Pytheast of Marseilles, who advanced as far as the Feroe islands, and
even entered the Baltic, although they might be undertaken solely with ‘the
views of adventure or cupidity, could not but be conducive to the progress of
astronomy and its kindred sciences, as well in regard to the preliminaries they
required, as the observations and notices collected in these protracted wander-
ings. However closely attracted to the land by necessity or interest, can we
suppose that these early navigators did not often lift their eyes to contemplate
the celestial vault, induced as well by the requirements of safety as by the
curiosity inherent in man of seeing and learning something new? In this
way the old impressions that the earth was plane and undefined, that the stars,
quenched in the sea, were again kindled at their rising, and others of the same
kind, would necessarily give way, not alone in the conceptions of the thoughtful,
but in the opinion of the vulgar, and be replaced by ideas more creditable to
human sagacity, and conformable to the truth and simplicity of nature. To this
result would conduce, indirectly but still effectually, the travels undertaken by
land, whether towards the north in search of amber, furs and materials of con-
struction, towards the east for ivory and spices, or towards the west for metals.
The wars among nations would also promote this result, as necessarily tending
to a mixture of races, and a comparison of conflicting ideas. Among influences
of this kind we may especially distinguish the expedition of Alexander, at
once enlarging beyond example the limits of the known world, and bringing |
into propitious coincidence a vast material and a most favorable conjuncture of
circumstances for new and fruitful meditation; the conquests of the Romans,
extend into one almost all the nations of the known world, and attracting
to the common centre whatever that world contained which could minister to
an unbounded love of ostentation and luxury; the Gothic irruption, covering
the world with ruins from which the germs of knowledge might spring with a
new and more vigorous life; and the subsequent appearance of the Saracens,

* This voyage of cirenmnavigation, of which Herodotus speaks as having been undertaken
about the beginning of the sixth century before our era, and at the instance and direction of
Necos, King of Egypt, has always met with warm asserters and oppugners. To us the ar-
guments of the latter seem to have the most weight, though amongst the former appears the
Jearned and judicious Cesar Cantu. In so disputable a matter, doubtless, the reader need
not resign himself blindly to the opinion of any one; but, for our present purpose, it is suf-
ficient to know, that if such a voyage was really performed, it led to no results worthy, from
their curiosity or importance, to be transmitted to modern times. As regards other ancient
voyages around Africa, there are still stronger reasons for discrediting them than that at-
tributed to the Phenicians.

+ The reality of the voyage of Pytheas, to the west and north of Europe, is generally ad-
mitted, but the descriptions given by him of the lands and seas he visited are regarded as
exaggerated, as they are certainly in many points obscure, even when we concede their
foundation in fact.

FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 309

endowed with a special culture and heirs of the ancient civilization of the East,
upon the theatre where modern civilization was undergoing its definite develop-
ment. This series of momentous events, we repeat, in proportion as it conveyed
to each people the traditions and impressions of the rest, as it brought into
contact, beneath another climate and sky, under natural conditions essentially
different from those in which they had before lived, the natives of regions most
widely remote from one another, could not but prompt human reason to discard
the trivial ideas which it had cherished and insensibly adopt others more in
harmony with the truth of nature. And this, be it observed, without the inter-
vention of ancient science, lost or at least forgotten amidst the convulsions
which had swept away its cultivators, and solely by an immediate effect of the
events which, at the epoch of regeneration referred to, constantly modified the
state of societies.

The incursions of the northern hordes having at last ceased, the present
nationalities began to take shape; and if the systematic cultivation of the sci-
ences was not yet to be expected, at least a delight in their study began to
dawn. Nor did eventual circumstances, and such as might have appeared ex-
traneous, cease to stimulate the taste for voyages and discoveries. As the
occupation of the south and west of Europe by their warlike predecessors
opposed an insuperable barrier to the progress, in that direction, of the Scandi-
navians or Normans who brought up the rear of the Asiatic migration, these
established themselves permanently on the shores of the Baltic, and from thence,
impelled by their roving and hardy genius, explored the northern islands and
continents, the archipelagoes of Shetland and Feroe, Iceland, and, in the tenth

_ and two succeeding centuries, the inhospitable coasts of Greenland, and those,

somewkat more fertile, of Vineland, the present Labrador. * Meanwhile there
arises in Asia a formidable empire, whose limits expand with astonishing rapidity
from the seas of India to the frontiers of Europe, giving rise to the dread of a
new invasion of destructive races ; yet its service as a counterpoise to the Sara-
cenic power, not less formidable on another side, is appreciated, and pontiffs
and kings-send embassies, sometimes to propitiate the redoubtable successors
of Genghis-Khan, sometimes to solicit help from Tartar and Mogul princes, at
times simply in sign of admiration and respect. At their return from these
distant scenes, observers like Ascelin, Carpini, Rubruquis, Polo, Sotomayor,
and Clavijo, whether sent as ambassadors or led thither by inclination, com-
municate their impréssions and adventures without reserve, and awaken in all

* The following is a recapitulation of the later discoveries referred to in the text. They
may be found more particularly described in the eighteenth book of Malte Brun’s Geography,
and in the notes to the fourteenth book of Cesar Cantu’s Universal History.

About the middle of the ninth century Iceland was discovered, and before the end of the
century a numerous colony of northmen was established in that island. In 986, among
other colonists, one called Eric the Red, having been banished from Iceland, takes refuge in
Greenland. Biérn, son of Eriulph, one of the companions of Eric, desirous of joining his
father, freighted a ship and directed his course towards Greenland, but wandering for some time
in those seas, got a sight of new coasts other than that which he was seeking. In ithe same
ship with Biérn, Leif Ericson, son of Eric the Red, set sail from Greenland in the year 1000,
and visited in succession a sterile, rocky and snow-covered coast, (Helluland;) another
level, hoar with frost and well wooded, (Markland;) and a third, which abounded in vines,
(Vineland.) Thorwald and Thorstein, brothers of Leif, prosecuted, with no successful result,
the exploration of these lands, as did others of the same race. And though commerce and
communication between Iceland, Greenland and the parts last mentioned, continued for a
considerable length of time, they underwent many alternations, and proved of no real im-
portance to geography. Judging from the descriptions given, as well of the lands as of the
celestial phenomena which were observed, Markland seems to correspond to Nova Scotia,
and Vineland to the region about Cape Cod, as far south as latitude 41°. If the documenfs
published by the Society of Northern Antiquaries may be relied on—and it is not our province
to controvert them—Columbus made no true discovery; but how the Icelandic adventurers
came to stop midway, and allowed the intrepid Genoese to snatch from them the domain
of a world, is a phenomenon difficult to explain, and, in our opinion, more discreditable than
otherwise to those in whose honor it is cited. .

310 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

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minds more competent ecnceptions of the form and size of the earth, and of the
diversity of climates, than could otherwise have been attained. ‘Thus, by means
the most indirect, the limits of the world were extended, many obscure spaces
of the earth brought to light, and the minds of men prepared for greater and
more decisive discoveries. 4

We have now arrived at the first half of the fifteenth century. Portugal is
a prosperous kingdom, without near enemies to combat, and possessed of a
vitality which refuses to confine itself within the territorial frontier; it claims
a wider field, and enterprises more worthy of the national spirit. With this
spirit the geographical position of Portugal at one of the extremities of the an-
cient world, in front of that world which now awaits discovery, concurs to make
it the point of departure for the great maritime expeditions of the age. Its
princes, too, second opportunely the impulse, as well by their patronage of
science and its cultivators as by a steady faith and interest in all enterprises
calculated to enhance the name and importance of their country. Under the
protection of Prince Henry, the Portuguese navigators explore and take pos-
session of the archipelagoes of Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde, and double
Cape Bojador, so long the terminus of the African coast, thus penetrating into
the vast Gulf of Guinea. Still later, in 1486, Bartholomew Diaz reaches the
southernmost extremity of Africa, to which he gives the name of the Cape of
Storms, a name soon changed by King John II into the more propitious one
of Good Hope; and, finally, Vasco de Gama, passing, in 1497, beyond this for-
midable promontory, and turning his prow in an opposite direction to that of
the supposed Phenician navigators of a remote age, points out to his adventu-
rous cotemporaries the marit.me route to India and China, immense regions
till then only known through vague and inexact tradition.

It seemed impossible that the ardor of the Portuguese for distant and haz-
ardous exploration could be surpassed by any other country, and that still more
important successes were in reserve for a different people. And yet this seeming
impossibility was realized in a manner the most simple and natural, and with
means the most limited imaginable. ‘The genius and perseverance of an obscure
and ill-understood mariner having met, though after long struggles, with sup-
port and countenance in the faith and enthusiasm of a queen, Columbus was
enabled to launch his three frail caravels, manned by a handful of Spaniards,
upon the broad Atlantic; there, leaving the Portuguese to contend with the
dangers of the African coasts, and disregarding the circuitous and unprofitable
track pursued by the Scandinavian adventurers, he directed the course of his
vessels first south, and then constantly west, until he reached the archipelago
of the Antilles, the gate of a new world resplendent with beauty, which seemed
at that moment to ascend from the bosom of the seas.

Among the multitude of daring navigators who followed Columbus in the
work of western exploration we may distinguish Magallanes, a Portuguese in
the service of Spain, for the importance of the results attending his enterprise.
After the discoveries of Columbus and De Gama, 1t still remained to be ascer-
tained what separated, and at how wide an interval, the two continents to which
they had led the way. There existed, as Balboa had deseried, in 1513, from
the Isthmus of Darien, a vast sea, but of its extent no conception had been
formed, and yet Magallanes, not more enlightened on this point than previous
explorers, proposed to traverse it. He sailed from Spain in September, 1519,
passed the next year through the difficult straits which bear his name, and per-
ished in the Philippine islands, after having overcome the chief ditliculty of his
@ndertaking. His second in command, Eleano, a Biscayan by birth, and not
less resolute than the chief he had lost, still continued his course westwardly,
and finally regained his country in a direction opposite to that by which he had
departed. ‘The sphericity of the earth, already recognized by reflecting minds,
and gradually revealed by the discoveries which have been here briefly re-

FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 311

traced, was now for the first time practically shown; to the rude mariner, as to
the astronomer, the limitation of our globe in all directions, and its isolation in
space, were from this date evident; and to the abstract but little diffused
methods of geometry was now added a new means for forming an idea of the
dimensions of the earth. Eleano, in effect, though encountered by many unex-
pected obstacles, had performed, in little more than three years and three
months, a complete voyage of circumnavigation.

From the memorable epoch referred to, geographical discoveries have sue-
eeeded one another with greater rapidity than ever, the earth has been explored
in all directions, the width of the seas calculated, and the surface of the conti-
nents measured ; but all these labors, however vast their importance, have been
those of detail, and have added no new idea to the results of the bold naviga-
tion performed in the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries, as re-
spects the general form and approximate dimensions of the planet we inhabit.
To these last dates must be referred, if not the first clear conception, the definitive
verification of the nearly.spherical figure of the earth.

Looking back, however, it must be conceded that neither the voyages of
Columbus nor Magallanes were absolutely necessary for the demenstration of
the spherical figure of the earth, since this fact might have been deduced with
sufficient clearness from geographical principles already verified; from the de-
lusion indulged by every nation that its own territory was central, as regarded
the rest of the earth; from the general and changeable aspect of the heavens
upon every change of country; from the apparent sphericity of the sun, and
especially that of the moon, still more conspicuous, through the succession of its
phases, and from the circular outline of the earth’s shadow during the eclipses
of the lunar planet. But all these indications of the limitation and roundness
of the earth, however conclusive for reflecting and studious minds, would have
carried no conviction to the generality of mankind, without the incontestable
support of those other proofs which might be called material or tangible. With
what obstacles did Columbus meet before finding himself intrusted with three
frail vessels—how much incredulity in all countries, even to the extent of being
charged with madness—and for what? Columbus said: “The Portuguese
seek the gold and spices of India by steering towards the east; and I, who
cherish the persuasion that the earth is round, propose to trace a more expe-
ditious route by reaching the same point in an opposite direction.” Had there
been,many who at that time held the doctrine of the earth’s sphericity, no one
would have treated so logical and obvious a thought as extravagant; nor would
Columbus -have been indebted to the noble instinct of a woman for the success-
ful issue of his enterprise if modern society had inherited from the ancient that
vast store of science attributed to the latter, instead of having to rear from the
very foundation the edifice of its own knowledge. *

What has been just said in regard to the form of our globe may, with even
more propriety, be asserted of its movement of rotation. We shall admit,
without discussion, that among the Indians, the Chinese, the Chaldeans, there
might possibly be a few who recognized and maintained the reality of this
movement; that the same might be true of ancient Egypt, and that certain
Greek philosophers, especially of the school of Pythagoras, also taught at a
later period the same truth. To explain the alternation of day and night two
hypotheses were feasible, and there was nothing to forbid men of special talent
adopting the more rational one; but was the merit of Copernicus, therefore, less
in having reproduced the right idea about the middle of the sixteenth century ?
How many years must still elapse, how many angry and deplorable discussions
ensue before the ideas of Copernicus became firmly established even among
men of science and systematic cultivation. On the other hand, did the Greek
philosophers, who admitted the rotation of the earth, build their doctrine on the
difficulty of reconciling in any other manner the phenomena of the heaveus, or

312 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

was it maintained rather in the spirit of the school, by which same spirit they
might have been induced to support the direct contrary {* It is certain that
Hipparchus, Ptolemy, Euclid, and Archimedes, eminent minds and founders
of true astronomy, of geometry, and of mechanics, more versed certainly in
observation and calculation than in the subtleties of metaphysics, denied the
movement of the earth, and for many ages strengthened the opposite belief
with their imposing authority. Hence this belief was the prevailing one when
Copernicus appeared in the world to overthrow it, at the epoch of great geo-
graphical discoveries, as if the Creator had designed that after the form and
distinct features of our planet were unveiled, its relations of analogy with the
rest of the universe should also be disclosed.

Copernicus was not only a consummate methematician, a skilful observer,
capable of deducing great results with rude and inefficient instruments, but he
was likewise, as we are assured by his biographer, Czynski, a man of profound
piety, full of faith in the wisdom of the Creator, and penetrated with the sim-
plicity of his works. With these elements of character the astronomer of
Thorn studied the movements of the celestial bodies, perceived their inextrica
ble complication upon the principles then received, the infinity of occult agen-
cies and of forces distinct in direction and intensity, which must concur in the
operation to carry all the heavenly bodies around the earth without varying
their relative distances, or altering in the minutest particular the harmony of
the creation, and instead of confining himself to saying, with the sage King of
Castile, ‘it is strange that this should be so,” resolutely pronounces, “this
cannot be so.”

* To show that we exaggerate nothing in thus expressing ourselves, we shall here retrace,
with all possible brevity, the different opinions of the Greek philosophers on the form of the
earth and its situation in space, making use for that purpose of the work by G. Lewis, enti-
tled, An Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients.

Thales of Miletus, who flourished between 639 and 546 years before our era, likened the earth
toa bark floating in a limitless ocean.

According to Anaximander, likewise of Miletus, and disciple of Thales, the earth was cylin-
drical, and occupied the centre of the created universe.

Anaximenes, a disciple of the former, assigned to the sun the form of a thin disk, and to
the earth that of a trapezium sustained in the air, and the same opinion was entertained by
Anaxagoras of Clazomene, likewise a philosopher of the Ionic school.

Xenophanes of Colophon, founder of the Eleatie school, supposed the earth to be illimita-
ble and supported in the abyss on immovable foundations, Parmenides and Empedocles,
dissenting from this opinion of Xenophanes, pronounced, perhaps before any one, the doctrine
of the sphericity of the earth and.of its isolation in space. ;

The cosmical opinions of the Pythagoreans, as stated by Philolaus, a disciple of the great
master, were these: in the centre of the universe there exists a mass of fire, the soul of the
world, around which revolve in a circle ten bodies in the following order: first and most dis-
tant, the heavens with the fixed stars; next the five planets; then the sun, the moon, the
earth, and finally the Antichthon, a mysterious conception, which, indulgently interpreted,
would seem to signify the terrestrial hemisphere opposite to that inhabited by ourselves. The
basis of this system, one of the most judicious bequeathed us by antiquity, was purely men-
tal, or the offspring of an invention governed by mystical abstractions and vague axioms re-
specting the virtues of numbers, To support it, instead of having recourse to the observation
of natural phenomena, it was assumed, for instance, as a principle, that fire, being of a more
exalted or worthy nature than earth, must by right occupy the place of greatest dignity, and
that in any series of different bodies that place must correspond either with the centre or the
extremes. Irom this reasoning the reader may form an estimate of the system of Philolaus,
a system, however, which not all the Pythagoreans received without restriction and modifiea-
tion, for while some, as Hicetas, Heraclides and Epiphantus, attributed to the earth a move-
ment of rotation from west to east, others, and among them perhaps Pythagoras himself,
whose original ideas have not been transmitted to us, thought the earth immovable in the
midst of the universe.

Leucippus and Democritus, both of the Atomic sect, maintained, towards the middle of
the fifth century, like the Ionic philosophers, that the earth was a plane disk immovable in
space and supported by the air.

Tt was in the early haif of the fourth century before Christ that astronomy, based on the
observation of the celestial phenomena, began ‘to flourish among the Greeks. At that time

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The great truth announced by Copernicus, the basis of existing astronomy,
encountered at the time more opponents than partisans ; nor was it possible that,
in defect of good instruments and delicate observations, he could corroborate
by incontestible facts the surprising revelations of his intellect; he could but
consign to after ages the confirmation of his theory. In vain did Tycho Brahe,
contrary to what might have been expected from his profound knowledge of
celestial phenomena, impugn in the name of science, and that so late as the
close of the sixteenth century, the astronomical system of Copernicus; in vain,
at the commencement of the seventeenth, was it sought, in the name of more
sacred but ill understood interests, to convert into a stumbling block the public
belief in the movement of the earth: the truth wrought its own way, and from
Galileo onward, for every adversary there were hundreds who sustained it.
At present there is no longer any discussion about it; he who controverts it
is regarded as irrational, and meets in universal indifference the reproof of his

stolid incredulity.

Th

If the knowledge, whether certain or presumptive, of the ancient philoso-
phers and mathematicians respecting the roundness and rotation of the earth,
cannot be considered as the origin or basis of the ideas at present received on
both those points, but merely as a remote antecedent completely forgotten at the
revival of the discussion in modern times, the same thing nearly may be predi-
cated of the researches undertaken to find the value of the radius of the earth’s
circumference. The analogy, it is true, is not entirely exact, for in these latter
researches two things are to be distinguished: the method or principie on which
they are founded, and the results finally obtained. The first as devised, two or
three centuries before our era, by Eratosthenes and Posidonius, both of the school
of Alexandria, is the same with that employed in our own time, as is shown in
our Annual for 1862; the results of the method, whether from the imperfec-

lived Eudoxus of.Gnidus, a disciple of Plato, usually resident at Cizycum at the entrance of
the Euxine, and one of the most distinguished among the learned of his time in the field,
both of theory and practice. To explain the appearances of the heavens, on the hypothesis
of the repose of the earth, Eudoxus conceived the first idea of crystalline spheres with axes
in different directions, and also with different movements. New facts having been discovered,
Calippus, a disciple of Eudoxus, in place of 26, admitted 33 spheres, a number which Aris-
totle found it necessary to raise to 55. These spheres, supposed at pleasure and symbolical
of as many insoluble difficulties in the cosmical system followed by these savants, became
established principles in the minds of the philosophers who had imagined them, as well as
in those of their disciples, and consequently obtained unquestioned currency in the world.

Aristotie, taking up anew and analyzing the ideas of his predecessors, and rejecting almost
all of them, a proof of their fundamental impracticability, admitted, however: Ist. That the
earth is spherical, because such is the apparent form of all the firmamental bodies; such also
the form which a body, as a drop of water for instance, assumes when left to the free gravi-
tation of its particles; and such the form of the earth’s shadow in eclipses of the moon,
2d. That the dimensions of the earth cannot be extended in an indefinite plane, seeing that
with every change of place there is a change also in the aspect and number of the visible
stars; and 3dly, That it cannot be movable in space, since its hypothetical mobility meets
with no reflection in the constant position of other bodies of the universe. The system of
Aristotle, based on the observations and conjectures of Eudoxus and his disciples, was that
adopted by Euclid, Archimedes, Hipparchus and Ptolemy.

A generation a‘ier Euclid, who entitled one of his theorems ‘‘The earth the centre of the
universe,’”’ and while the opinions of Aristotle and his followers were in the highest favor,
there was a formidable protest against them advanced by Aristarchus of Samos, who flourished
in the earlier half of the third century before our era, and who was one of the most distin-
guished luminaries of his age. Aristarchus exploded all the spheres of Eudoxus and Aris-
totle, set the earth again at liberty, assigned to the sun and stars their true position, and laid,

‘in a word, the basis of the Copernican system; but in opposition to Aristarchus appeared

Archimedes, on behalf of science, and Cleanthes, chief of the stoic sect, in defence of the
faith and religious prepossessions of the age, and the happy conception of the sage of Samos
remained sunk in oblivion, or passed into the category of dreams, until, in the process of time,

it revived with new vitality and brighter evidence in the mind of the recluse of Thorn.

‘

314 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

tion of instruments, the want of precision on the part of observers, or from
having reached us in obscure expressions or in units vaguely understood, have
been of no service to modern geometers. Five of these final results are cited.
by Bailly in his History of Ancient Astronomy, and these, doubtless, are not all
that might have been cited; it is sufficient to compare them with one another,
to perceive how little guarantee of exactness either of them affords @ priori, or
witbout subsequent corroboration. According to Aristotle, the opinions received
in his time assigned 400,000 stadia as the circumference of the earth; Ptolemy

adopted 180,000; Eratosthenes and Posidonits respectively 250,000 and.

240,000; Cleomedes 300,000. The learned historian above mentioned explains
these enormous discrepancies, which could not have resulted from the ignorance
or dullness of the observers, in a sufficiently natural manner, by assigning a
different value in each case to the stadium; assuming, as the state of knowl-
edge at his time respecting ancient measures seemed to indicate, four kinds of
stadia, approximately of 100, 136, 170 and 230, metres each, he arrives at the
conclusion that these results, so discordant in appearance, are in the main iden-
tical, and not remote from those obtained by modern investigation. But Bailly
himself, one of the most enthusiastic defenders of ancient science, agrees with
us in thinking that the geodesic labors of the astronomers but little anterior to
his own epoch, as well as those of his cotemporaries, were conducted in complete
independence of the investigations of remote ages and without reference to a
coincidence of numbers. Leaving to himself. therefore, the responsibility of his
ideas, which we shall neither attempt to defend nor contravene, and judging
this to be no occasion for reporting the earnest arguments adduced by highly
respectable authors both for and against his views, let us concede, not to anti-
quity in general, but to a part of its philosophers, a knowledge, however loosely
approximate, of the dimensions of the earth; and with this concession, let us
pass to an exposition of the geodesic labors of times nearer our own and of
more authentic character, though not all marked by an undoubted stamp of
exactness.* t

Towards the year 830 of our era, the Arabian astronomers measured, by
order of the wise Caliph Almamon, an are of the meridian in the plain of Sind-
giar, near the coasts of the Red Sea; but the result of this operation made but
little approach to the truth, or was either confusedly expressed at first or has
been corrupted in the transmission.

In the year 1490, as Martin de Navarette relates in his compendious History
of the Spanish Marine, our learned countryman Antonio de Nebrija, determined
by various measurements and observations the quantity of a terrestrial degree,
and obtained a number more near the truth than those before deduced. Subse-
quently, Glareans, in Switzerland, and Oroncio Fineo, in France, undertook and
accomplished a labor analogous to that of Nebrija; and the same thing, with
even better success, was effected by the French physician Fernel, who founded
his estimate on the number of revolutions made by the wheel of a carriage
in its transit from Paris to Amiens, cities situated under nearly the same me-
ridian.t

In 1617, the Dutch astronomer Schnell revived the method of Eratosthenes,
and applied it, with better means and more accuracy than had yet been observed,

*The reader who may desire to know the slight or deficieut foundations on which rest the
conjectures of the authors who maintain the profound astronomical science of the ancients
may consult the treatise of Sr. Vasquez Queipo, entitled, Essay on the Metric and Monetary
Systems of Ancient Nations, tome 1, pp. 65, 66, and note 10, corresponding thereto.

+ Upon the points here treated of, and other analogous ones not less deserving to be known,
the reader will find critical notices of great value in the discourse relative to the progress of
geodesy, read by Sr. Saavedra Meneses, at the beginning of the present year, on his recep-
tion into the Academy of Sciences.

FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 315

to the measurement of the are of 1° 11’ 30’ comprised between Alkmaar and

_ Bergen-op-Zoom; but the result of his undertaking, calculated and discussed
by Muschembrock, did not see the light until a later period, when others had
been obtained of the same kind with higher pretensions to certainty.

In like manner with Schnell, Norwood determined, in 1635, the difference of
latitude between York and London, equal to 2° 28’, by the difference of the al-
titude of the sun b+tween their respective horizons at the period of the sol-
stices; and afterwards measuring the distance between those cities, he arrived at a
valuation, too great however, of the length of a degree of the meridian; making
it 57,442 toises, or about 111,955 metres.

For its novelty, if nothing else, there should be mentioned in connexion
with the preceding attempts the method proposed by Maurolico, at that epoch
of measurements, to determine the terrestrial radius. Assuming the unquestion-
able fact that the extension or breadth of land which, seen from the sea-shore,
or in the interior of a nearly level cotintry, depends at once on the height at
which the spectator is stationed, and on the curvature or radius of the earth,
Maurolico thought that by measuring the height of a mountain near the sea
and the route traced without change of direction by a bark until it disappears
below the horizon, the value of the radius sought might be deduced, without
reference to.any astronomical observation. This process, put in practice at a
later period, with some variations, and only by way of trial, has led to a result
greater than might have been expected, being complicated with some causes of
error and uncertainty; we do not know that the solution of the problem was
ever attempted in the lifetime of its author.

Another idea, ingenious like all proceeding from the same source, occurred to
Kepler, and Riccioli undertook to realize it, although in practice, from the im-
pertection of instruments among other considerations, it could not but lead to
a result very distant from the true one. The idea consists in measuring upon
any given surface of ground the greatest lineal distance possible, and then cal-
culating the angles of the two respective verticals with the common line of
vision comprised between the extremes of the base. It requires but a slight
notion of geometry to comprehend how delicate was the operation which Ric-
cioli took charge of, and how little reliance could be placed on results deduced
from such a process.

These different estimates—for they merit no other name—towards ascertaining
the magnitude of the earth, were but the prelude to other more exact processes,
and show the necessity that was felt, but 200 years ago, of obtaining a pre-
cise knowledge of the dimensions of our planet, as well as the oblivion into
which the labors of antiquity had fallen or the small importance attached to
them. In proof of this, let us remember that at the end of the fifteenth century and
beginning of the next, Columbus shaped his course towards the unknown shores
of India and’ Magallanes traced his adventurous progress across the Pacific,
upon the delusive supposition that the earth was of much less size than it really
is; and that, in the midst of the seventeenth century, Newton himself, in
whom the highest genius was not at variance with extensive erudition and a
sound judgment, found himself under the necessity of suspending his researches
respecting the reciprocally attractive action of the earth and the moon, in con-
sequence of the want of an approximate valuation for the radius of our globe.
So pressing did the necessity referred to appear, that when the Academy of
Sciences of Paris was instituted, in 1666, one of its first acts was to commit to
Picard, a distinguished member of that learned assembly, the measurement of

a new are of the meridian; a work which this astronomer completed before the
end of 1670, by the method adopted by Eratosthenes and Posidonius, as well
as by Schnell and Norwood, but which was executed with so much accuracy
in the details as to form an epoch in the annals of astronomy and geodesy.

~

516 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

Between Villejuif and Juvisi, Picard measured a base of 5.663 toises, and
by means of five triangles, resting on that line, deduced a distance from Mareil
to Malvoisin equal, in the units just cited, to 32897. This line, much greater
than the first, served him now for a base to connect Malvoisin with Sour-
don, near Amiens, by a chain of triangles in the direction of the meridian.
The are comprised between the two last points was 1° 11’ 57", and the dis-
tance deduced from the triangulation and projected on the meridian was 68.430
toises; whence there resulted for the value of a terrestrial degree the number
57064. Still later, Picard extended the operations to Amiens, and the degree
then stood reduced to 57.057 toises; or, taking a middle term, to 57.060;
a result which, assuming the sphericity of the globe, implied as the length of
the earth’s radius 3,269,300 units of the above name.*

Although in this memorable operation, on which we have dwelt somewhat,
as being the first among those really worthy of confidence, Picard displayed
great talent and activity, the result obtained was closely approximate to the
truth only through a singular combination of errors; since, as appeared in the
sequel, there was a very considerable one in the value of the first base, nor
was that which existed in the quantity of the are insignificant; two circum-
stances which, as they affected the result in opposite directions, were neutral-
ized as regarded the operation itself, but were afterwards the source of much
extraneons confusion and of long and warm discussions: a sad proof that im-
perfection, under some disguise or other, lurks in all the works of man; and
that, without doing injustice to the memory or merits of the learned, we should
never blindly surrender our belief to their authority.

The rotation of the earth being by this time a fact received without contra-
diction in the scientific world, of necessity soon drew with it its natural conse-
quences: thus, the ideas of the less weight of bodies at the equator than in
the neighborhood of the poles from the effect of the centrifugal force opposed
to gravitation, and of the compression of the globe in the direction of the axis
of movement, had begun to take root in all reflecting and unprejudiced minds,
when an observation, in some degree unexpected, gave confirmation to this
view of the question. The academician Richer, having been sent to Guiana,
in 1672, for scientific purposes of different kinds, returned to his country the
following year, and among other results of his expedition presented to the
Academy an observation which, though incidentally made, proved to be the most
important of all: the astronomical pendulum which, at Paris, gave an oscilla-
tion of one second, was found to move more slowly in Guiana, to the extent
of making in a day 88 oscillations fewer than at the former point. This indi-
cated an energy of gravitation at the equator inferior to that in high northern
latitudes, the existence of the centrifugal force due to the rotary movement of

* The toise spoken of is that of France, containing 6.39459 feet, which dates from the time
of Charlemagne, and is said to have originated with the Arabs. For many centuries the
standard of this unit of measure was little known, and from time to time underwent modifi-
cations, the results of ignorance or carelessness more than of fraud, until in 1668 a new one
was prepared and deposited in a secure place, in order to serve as a type for all of its kind ;
it was to this standard that Picard and the geometers who succeeded him referred their geo-
desic operations. A century afterwards the iron rule which was adopted for the standard of
measurement of trigonometrical bases in Peru, also a toise in length, but better constructed
than the toise of Picard’s time and in a better state of preservation than the latter, was, at
the suggestion of Condamine, declared to be the legal unit, at a temperature of 13° Reaumur,
or 16° centigrade, that having been its medium temperature during the operations near
the equator. The subsequent labors of Delambre and Mechain served to fix the length of
the new lineal unit, or, in other words, of the metre, which, at the temperature of 0° is, in
‘ines, 443,296, thus establishing between the metre and the toise the ratio of 1 to 1.94903631.
This last number has been employed as factor in the remainder of this article, while it has
been thought proper to convert the ancient units into the modern, or more usual of the deci-
mal metric system. '

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ee ae 7

fn _-
FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 317

the earth, and the great probability of the ellipticity of the globe. But as the
ideas of attraction and of central and centrifugal forces had not as yet become
familiarized, and as the phenomenon discovered by Richer might proceed from
an unknown cause, the Academy suspended its judgment upon the consequences
deducible from that phenomenon, until new and repeated observations should
confirm or disprove them. The confirmation was not long deferred, for Halley,
repeating four years after in St. Helena the same experiments which Richer
had made, obtained an identical result, and the fact has subsequently been real-
ized in all the regions of the earth as well as upon the high seas.

We may take this occasion to remark that in the study of nature there are
problems whose solution, after resisting for ages all the forces of man, seems at
some determinate epoch to become practicable in a hundred different ways; such
a problem, undoubtediy, was that which now occupies us. In the sixteenth
century Copernicus, Galileo, and whosoever thought as they did respecting the
movement of the earth, were regarded with scorn or aversion; in the middle
of the seventeenth, the roundness and rotation of the globe are admitted without
difficulty ; in 1670 Picard determines by a satisfactory process the value of
the earth’s radius; two years later, the observations of Richer show that the
form of the globe differs sensibly from the spherical; about the same time, Cas-
sini, by means of the telescope, perceives and measures the remarkable oblate-
ness of Jupiter, thus supplying from analogy a weighty reason for admitting
without other proof that of the earth; while Huyghens and Newton, preceding
and directing, as it were, the methods of observation, deduce the same result
by process of reasoning, establish the extreme limits within which its numeri-
cal expression must be comprised, and ascend to the cause from which it pro-
ceeds. Honorable epoch for the human intellect in which such capital discov-
eries rapidly succeed one another! With the songs of triumph, however, soon
mingle the notes of discord, and for some years the problem of the figure of
the earth remains stationary and proves to be beset with unexpected difficul-
ties.

The Academy of Paris, stimulated by the prompt and apparently satisfac-
tory termination of the measurement of the terrestrial degree by Picard, con-
ceived the idea of prolonging the operations instituted by that savant from ong
extremity of France to the other, or, more precisely, from Amiens to Perpig-
nan; a bold enterprise for that epoch, which the intelligent activity of Domin-
ico Cassini realized in the latter part of the century. But when Cassini, the
operations and calculations being concluded, compared with one another the
values of the 7° of the meridian measured, he observed with surprise that their
length continually diminished from south to north, as if the curvature of the
earth increased towards the poles, or its radius diminished ; or, in other terms,
as if the compression of the globe corresponded to the equatorial region, contrary
to all that was then conjectured or deduced from theory ; a consequence which
the same astronomer still arrived at after having prolonged the French meridian
north from Amiens to Dunkirk, at the end of the year 1713. <A conflict thus
became unavoidable and imminent. On the one hand, the authority of Newton
interposed itself; on the other, that, scarcely less weighty, of the French geom-
eters, as weil as the national pride of the latter; and as between the extremes
in discussion there could be no possible compromise, the scientific world was
divided into two parties; all that had been done or deduced to determine the
true figure of the earth was brought before the tribunal of opinion, from the
principle of the universal attraction of matter to the ability of the observers who
had officiated in the measurement of the are of the meridian. After much time
had been lost in barren and heated discussions, the French Academy of Sciences,
at the suggéstion of Maupertuis and Bouguer, two of the most distinguished
savants of their age, adopted the only feasible plan for setting the question

318 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

finally at rest. With this view, two delegations, composed chiefly of members
of the Academy, and provided with the most delicate instruments for observing
then known, were despatched, one towards the equator, the other to a high
northern latitude, for the purpose of measuring one or more degrees of the
meridian, from the comparison of which measurements, if effected with accuracy,
might readily be deduced the direction of the terrestrial compression and its
value, or the amount of divergence from a spherical form.

Maupertuis himself, assisted by Clairaut, Le Monnier, Camus, Outhier, and
the Swedish astronomer Celsius, undertook the second of the operations re-
ferred to, proceeding to Lapland in 1736, as far as the 76° of latitude; and
although it might have seemed that the rigors of the climate would preser$ ob-
stacles little less than insuperable, he had the good fortune to terminate his un-
dertaking in scarcely more than twomonths. ‘The triangulation extended from
the mountain of Kittis at the north to the church of Tornea at the south; the
base, of 7.407 toises, was measured upon the frozen river bearing the latter name,
under conditions of exactness scarcely to be attained in any other climate; the
quantity of the are measured was 57’ 29”, and the resulting value of the de-
gree of the meridian equal to 57.438 toises, or 378 more than the degree of
Picard, as would be naturally the case on the supposition of the earth’s being
flattened towards the poles.

The other commission destined for the equator, and composed of Godin, La
Condamine and Bouguer, had sailed a year earlier, or in 1735, and by order of
the Spanish government was joined at Quito by D. Jorge Juan and D. Anto-
nio de Ulloa, both worthy, from their zeal and intelligence, to co-operate with
the French delegation. To recite the hardships to which these distinguished
men were subjected during the eight years occupied in their prescribed task,
the disappointments which they encountered, the deficiencies to be remedied,
the precautions to be taken, and the sagacity and skill of which they made proof,
would be beside our present purpose. Suffice it to say, that their measurement
of the are in Peru, notwithstanding the recent progress of practical astronomy,
is still considered as a masterly operation in its kind.

The degree of Peru, of 56.753 toises, compared with that which Picard had
measured in the north of France, pointed substantially to the same result with that
already obtained by the collation of this last with the degree of Lapland; that
is to say, to the polar compression of the terrestrial globe. ‘To what, then, was
it attributable that from the examination of the different degrees of the French
meridian there resulted a diametrically opposite consequence to the above ?
From the fact before hinted at, that the first base measured by Picard labored
under a considerable error, compensated, indeed, as regarded the final result by
other errors of quite a distinct kind which were committed in the course of the
operations, and which by a rare concurrence of circumstances operated in an
opposite direction to the preceding. Without distrusting its exactness, Cassini
also took that first line for the base of a triangulation much more extensive and
important than that of Picard, and hence arose those incidental anomalies
which involved the learned in so much confusion, until the illustrious La Caille
divined from what source that incomprehensible difficulty emanated. ‘The base
in question having been rectified by successive admeasurements in 1740-1754,
and the calculations corrected, the capital discrepancy, which till that date
had interfered with the various geodesic results, disappeared.

In stating that the contradiction disappeared, we would only be understoo
to say that, after the epoch just referred to, there was a unanimous concur-
rence in the fact of the defective sphericity of the earth and the flattening of
its poles; as regards the definite value of this, and the geometric figure to
which our globe most nearly approaches, neither did such unanimity then, nor,

FIGURE Of THE EARTH. 319

to our regret, does it still prevail; perhaps, indeed, the conditions of the prob-
lem forbid that it should ever do so.

From the values of the degree measured in Lapland and of the mean degree
of France, there was deduced, as the expression of the terrestrial oblateness the
fraction 749; Which means that, representing the equatorial radius by a length
of 132 units of any kind, the polar radius would be 131 of the same. A com-
parison of the degree of Peru with the French gave for the value of this ine-

quality the number 5}, ; that of the extreme degrees of Peru and Lapland
zig; while, according to Newton, theory assigned to this quantity the value
so: Thus it was that, in a point so delicate and interesting, it still seemed
dithcult to know upon what to rely, notwithstanding the diligence and solicitude
applied to the solution of the question in all its bearings.

It might have seemed that here were contradictions enough; but in propor-
tion as other values of a degree of the meridian were determined, as by Bosco-
vich between Rome and Rimini in 1754, by Becearia in Piedmont in 1762, by
Liesganig in Hungary and Austria in 1768, by Mason and Dixon in America,
about the same period, and by La Caille near the Cape of Good Hope, new ir-
regularities or anomalies were constantly encountered, incomprehensible upon
any one principle, or inexplicable by the adoption of any regular and unique
type, however complicated, as the figure of the earth. The confusion grew to
such an extent that every one felt impelled to investigate its origin; and while
some ascribed it to the physical conditions of the globe, admitting no assimilation
of its form to any geometrical type, others imputed it to a defect of the instru-
ments, others to the occasional oscitancy of the observers, and others again to
errors of calculation. ‘There was a little of all these. The calculations were
revised and considerable errors detected, in the degree of Lapland among
others; the observations were discussed, and were found not to be worthy of
unrestricted confidence; the condition of the instruments. was examined and
was not found to be unimpeachable; in fine, since Bouguer first suspected it
in his expedition to Peru until now, there have been encountered, in the local
attractions of mountains and in the difference of thickness and of material in the
crust of the earth, numerous causes of perturbation in the direction of the ver-
tical—that is to say, of the first line of reference; which causes must necessa-
rily exert an injurious influence on the final results of the observations. 'T'o
whatever attributable, the fact remains, that till near the end of the last cen-
tury the uncertainty respecting the value of the terrestrial flattening was com-
plete. When we shall have finished the recital of geodesic operations conducted
subsequently to those already mentioned, we shall see whether or not the same
doubt exists at this advanced stage of the present century.

The idea of establishing a system of weights and measures whose fundamen-
tal unit, instead of being arbitrary, should present a simple relation to some im-
portant element of the same kind derived from the physical world, induced the
republican government of France to order in 1792 a new measurement of the
terrestrial globe. The operations instituted by Picard and continued by the
Cassinis, Maraldi and La Caille, on account of the imperfection of the instru-
ments employed and the errors and doubts involved, were deemed insufficient
for the purpose; and Delambre and Mechain assumed the colossal task of re-
newing them from the beginning and completing them according to various cri-
terions. Delambre exhibited his science and talent in the measurement of the
French meridian from Dunkirk to Perpignan, and Mechain in the prolongation
of this ‘line through Catalonia to the coasts of Valencia. The labors of these
two celebrated geometers having been concluded in 1799, the value of the
earth’s polar compression was, with the concurrence of an assemblage of
savants of different countries, computed at z4,, and upon this computation the
length of the metre, the base of the new system of weights and measures, was

Ny}
a
|

320 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

taken as the ten millionth part of one quarter of the meridian just measured.*
In 1803 Mechain passed anew into Spain with the intention of prolonging the
are of the meridian to the Balearic islands; but being placed in detention in
the fortress of Montjuich, in consequence of the ill understanding then subsist-
ing between his own government and ours, he took the occasion to rectify his
former calculations and observations, and from the mortification which he ex-
perienced at observing certain discrepancies, fell into a state of dejection, and
after having been previously set at liberty, died at Castellon de la Plana in the
year 1805. During the two following years, Biot and Arago, assisted by the
Spaniards Chaix and Rodriguez, not less worthy of participating in this work
than Don Jorge Juan and Ulloa in that of Peru, carried the operation to the
issue contemplated by the too scrupulous Mechain.

The British triangulation was initiated in 1784 under the directionof General
Roy, with the twofold object of perfecting the geographical chart of the United
Kingdom, and at the same time prolonging towards the north the measurement
of a terrestrial meridian. After being suspended in 1788, these labors were
resumed in 1793 under the supervision of W. Mudge, who extended the geodesic
system to the extreme confines of Scotland, and deduced, as the value of the
earth’s compression, the fraction 54,, being identical with that obtained in
France; yet the Spaniard Rodriguez soon after demonstrated that in the course
of the British operations frequent and, to a certain extent, inexplicable anoma-
lies were distinguishable.

After the preceding measurements the following are the principal ones in the
order of their dates:

That of the are of Lapland in 1801, undertaken with a view of verifying
and extending the work of Maupertius.

That effected in India, in 1802, 1803, by Colonel Lambton, from which there
resulted at first a flattening of 54;, which Rodriguez, in repeating the calcula-
tions, reduced to z45. The same Lambton inaugurated another vast operation
which, continued by Captain Everest, embraced an‘actual are of more than 21°,
from Cape Comorin to Kaliana, north of Delhi.

That of Piedmont, 1821 to 1823, conducted by the Italian astronomers
Carlini and Plana.

That of the meridian of Dorpat, begun in 1817 and 1821 by Tenner and W.
Struve, and which up to this time prolonged north and south from the frozen
coast of Norway to the mouths of the Danube, comprises an‘ are of more
than 25°.

Those of Hanover and Denmark, accomplished by Gauss and Schumacher, ©
at the same date with the Piedmontese triangulation.

The Prussian, corresponding to the meridian of K6éningsberg, which, under
the superintendence of Bessel and Biiyer, exhibits a model in labors of this
nature, and which it will be difficult for any future ones to excel.

Besides these important triangulations, still another deserves notice, which
was effected by Maclear in the extreme south of Africa, with the object of

—_ sae

* The calculations required to fix the length of the metre were executed by Swinden on the
part of Holland, Tralles of Switzerland. Laplace and Legendre of France, and Ciscar of
‘Spain. Delambre showed, not long afterwards, that. as well in the selection and analysis
of the elements of the calculation as in the calculation itself, not all the cireumspection desir-
able had been observed; a judgment which analogous works, effected in the course of the
present century, have fully confirmed. The difference between the legal and the theoretic
metre—a difference which will never be perfectly known—is, however, very small, and abates
but little or not at all the merit of the decimal metric system, which possesses, in other
respects, the most unquestionable advantages over other systems now in use.. Still it is
well to know that between the metre and the quarter of the meridian there does not exist the
simple relation which was at first supposed, that unit having been reduced to a conventional
type, as is also the case with all others of its kind.

‘ On this subject may be consulted the Tratado de Meteorologia Antiqua y Moderna, por M.
aigey.

FIGURE OF THE EARTH. Se1

deciding whether the curvature of the two terrestrial hemispheres should be
regarded as identical or distinct. At the end of the last century, as has been
before intimated, La Caille had transported himself from France to the Cape of

_ Good Hope, in the design of co-operating in the solution of various astronomical

et, age

problems which in that remote country seemed to call for an intelligent ob-
server, and having there executed the measurement of a small are of the meridian,
he obtained for the irregularity of the globe a much smaller value than any of
the analogous ones deduced in Europe and America. How was this anomalous
result to be explained? In one of two manners: either by attributing it to a
real defect of symmetry in the form of the earth, or to an error, not easily to
be avoided, in the operations of La Caille; but as the first was contradictory
of the received theory and opposed to many facts well ascertained by other
observers, and as the second was scarcely admissible in view of the recognized
talent, industry and conscientiousness of the French savant, no one knew which
alternative to adopt. Everest, on his return from India, inspected the locality
where La Caille had operated, and at sight of the mountains which surround
it concluded that the distinguished astronomer might easily have deceived him-
self, or neglected certain precautions without which no geodesic labor can really
afford a sufficient guarantee of certainty. Maclear, with due regard to the
indications of Everest, undertook in 1837 an operation analogous to that pre-
viously executed by La Caille, though on a larger scale and with better material
resources ; and the result now confirmed the previsions of the theory, or the
identity of form of both terrestrial hemispheres.

Nor has it been only in a direction from north to south that astronomers and
geometers have essayed to estimate the dimensions of the earth. When a com-
parison of the first results obtained in the proceedings directed to that object
had revealed, not only the defective sphericity of our globe, but the irregulari-
ties or accidents which interrupt its presumed ellipticity, whether from one pole
to the opposite, or even in passing from one meridian to another not far distant,
the attempt was also made to measure one or more ares of parallel. That by
this means, as by the former, and still better by a combination of both, a know-
ledge of the form and volume of the earth might be obtained, is readily con-
ceived ; and when it is considered that this new operation is even more delicate
and troublesome than the other, the reader will scarcely wonder that till a quite
recent epoch the number of arcs of parallel measured bore no proportion to the
ares of meridian. ‘The Franco-Spanish commission, charged with measuring an
are of the latter sort in Peru, proposed also to determiue the value oi a degree
of parallel, which in those regions would have been a degree of the equator,

_but a difference of views as to the execution, added to the diiiculties of the

enterprise, led to a relinquishment of the project before it had begun to be
carried into effect. At the same epoch, 1734 to 1740, the Cassinis, Maraldi
and La Caille measured in France two ares of parallel, one in the latitude of

. Paris, the other across Provence; and still later Lambton undertook in India a

work of the same kind; but these first essays led to no definite result, and
served only to show at once the utility of the undertaking and the difficulties
which its adequate accomplishment would present. The measurement of a
great are of parallel, stretching from the neighborhood of Bordeaux to Padua,
or from the ocean to the Adriatic, over an extent of 13° and at a latitude of
45° 43’, was commenced in 1811 under the direction of Colonel Brosseau, and
continued in 1820 across upper Italy by Carlini, Piana and other astronomers

and geometers of Italy, France and Switzerland. Besides this operation, which
_ forms an epoch in the annals of geodesy, there must also be mentioned the

*
m ¢
Ne i
i

¢
-

measurement of another are upon the parallel of Paris, from Brest to Strasburg,

executed between 1818 and 1823, by the French functionaries Bonne and

Henry; another completed from Greenwich to Valentia in the west of Ireland,

by Professor Airy; and a third commenced in 1857 by W. Struve, in 52° of
21s

322 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

latitude, designed to connect with the last, and thus embrace an are of about
70° total length, from one extremity of Europe to the other.

It would be impossible, without overstepping the limits which discretion pre-
scribes, to carry further this enumeration of geodesic labors already accom-
plished, or in course of execution, or projected for early realization. ‘The earth
would be seen to be covered with an immense net-work of triangles, whose
meshes interlace more and more every day, so as to leave to truth thus earnestly
sought less and less chance of finally evading detection. In this work of so
many ages, where, more perhaps than in any other, man has displayed the
talent and irresistible energy with which he is endowed, Spain is to-day taking
an active and honorable part. The summits of our mountains, although con-
stantly visited by distinguished military functionaries, resound not now with
the echoes nor are seen clothed with the smoke of battle. They serve not as
watch-towers of war, but as stations for geodesic signals, true symbols of peace
and of culture,

But, as is opportunely asked, in order to dispel the doubt, by one of the most
estimable intellects of our country,* To what end do so many measurements
of the globe conduce? What practical result is expected from such laborious
and persevering attempts? Of results to be appreciated by the material and
tangible interests involved, perhaps none; but does science propose for its ex-
clusive object the satisfaction of man’s primary necessities ? Hunger and thirst
appeased, is there, indeed, nothing beyond? Wretched would be the science
which would shut itself up within such narrow limits, which should restrict the
soul to the care of its frail tenement, and seek in the secrets of nature no trace
of its Creator, which should refuse to lift itself from the abject to the elevated,
from the slough of earth to the etherial regions of infinity. And taking for
granted that there is nothing fortuitous in the universe, and that the earth, instead
of being spherical, is elliptical, or of a more complicated form, does not science
fulfil its appropriate task when it investigates the true figure of this little globe
of ours, not for the simple pleasure of knowing it, but with the further purpose
of discussing the reason of that form, its origin, the changes experienced, the
perturbations by which it may have been affected, the influence it exerts or the
funetion it fulfils in the admirable co-ordination of the created whole? If all
this is not worth the trouble of investigation, to what other mystery of the physi-
cal world should man, in preference, consecrate his studies 4

ee

Having mentioned the principal geodesic operations which have, at different
times, been effected in different countries, to determine the form of the earth,
it remains only to indicate the manner in which the partial results deduced from
those operations have been combined, in order to obtain the final result, which
is, at present, regarded as most approximate to the existing reality. Three
distinct modes have been successively adopted for arriving at the proposed end.

As the result of inexact observations, and an incomplete theory, it was first
assumed that the earth’s figure was perfectly spherical. The labors of Pivard,
and of the French geometers, who immediately followed him, conclusively
demonstrate the fallacy of this supposition; since, in contradiction of such an
hypothesis, very different terrestrial radii were found to result from the several
degrees of meridian measured, and within limits too wide to admit of the infer-
ence that these differences were, collectively, attributable to errors of observa-
tion, or mistakes in calculation.

The laws even then recognized, of the universal attraction of matter, the
aspect of certain planets, such as Jupiter, which exhibit a flattening towards

.

*Sr. Vasquez Queipo: Disquisition on the Discourse of Senor Saavedra Meneses, before
cited.

FIGURE OF THE EARTH, 323

their poles, or the extremities of the axis of rotation, and an induction founded
on well-proved facts, showing that the terraqueous globe existed, at some very
_ remote period, in a state of perfect fluidity, furnished sufficient grounds for con-
cluding that the earth, instead of being spherical, would naturally present an
elliptical figure, or one slightly depressed in the direction of the polar axis.
This being conceived, it remained simply to deduce from geodesical operations
the value of the depression, or, what amounts to the same thing, the relation of
the two axes of the generating ellipsoid, as well as the definite dimensions of
those axes, for all which it had, in strictness, sufficed to measure two small
arcs of meridian in widely separated latitudes—one, for instance, near the equa-
tor, the other in some inhabitable region nearest to either pole; nor, on the
above supposition, would it have been of consequence whether those ares cor-
responded to the same or to different meridians, while any intermediate are,
which might be measured, would serve for the verification of the former, as well
as of the law of ellipticity, assumed as a point of departure. When the results
of the scientific expeditions to Peru and Lapland were known, and were com-
pared in the proposed view with those obtained in France, and for the first time
the values of the oblateness of the earth and of the equatorial and polar axes
were deduced, it was observed, not without surprise, that between the final de-
ductions drawn, with the aid of so much experience, and with the theoretical
ideas generated by those laborious investigations, there did not exist all the
conformity which had been hoped for. The discordance, however, was at once
attributed, not so much to the defect of the theory, as to the errors, to a certain
extent inevitable, which had been committed in the course of the operations, or
to local irregularities in the surface of the earth; but, as time advanced, and
instruments were improved, while the obstacles already overcome served as
useful indications to succeeding observers, the conviction was acquired, either
that the form of the earth was not so simple and regular as was at first sup-
posed, or, more probably, that the heterogeneity of its mass, and the inequality
of the thickness of its crust, acting as disturbing causes, embarrassed the labors
of geodesy, and opposed their indefinite advancement. Certain it is, at any rate,
that at the close of the last century, as has been already intimated, great inde-
cision prevailed as to the real value of the earth’s ellipticity, and that, but for
the resort to an ingenious mode of eluding the difficulty, the same doubt would
have prevailed on this point to the present day. A single citation will prove
the truth of what has been just said. The Russian general, Schubert, a dis-
tinguished mathematician and astronomer, collated, in a memoir published at
St. Petersburg in 1859,* the elements of the eight principal ares of meridian
yet known, being the Russian are, measured by Hansteen, Sclander, Struve,
and Tenner; the Prussian, the English, and the French ares ; the are measured
in Pennsylvania by Mason and Dixon; that in Peru, by the Franco-Spanish
commission; that in India, by Lambton and Everest; and that measured at
the Cape of Good Hope by Maclear. By combining these eight ares, two by#
two, in all possible manners, the Russian savant deduced, for the elements
of the terrestrial ellipsoid, twenty-eight different results, between limits much
wider, doubtless, than the reader would imagine. Limiting ourselves, for
example, to the polar compression, the twenty-eight valuations just cited
group themselves in this manner: Three are higher than the fraction sho; four
are higher than 5},, and lower than the preceding fraction; nine are comprised
between the last and ;4;; seven between that and ;45; three between 35g and
=i; and two, finally, being those corresponding to the combinations of the
Russian with the Prussian arc, and of the are of the Cape with that of Pennsyl-
vania, are lower than the fraction ;345. Supposing even that there were good
and sufficient reasons for subtracting from the extreme values, it will still be
BINA ah 18 80).05) opSe mre vt so age a ek est yr oe te eee
* Essai d'une Determination de la Veritable Figure de la Terre.

324 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

seen from this slight analysis of Schubert’s work that there is a wide field for
the exercise of doubt.

If it be conceded that the spherical figure of the earth is not admissible, and
the elliptical appears as little accordant with the most probable results of obser-
vation, what other geometrical type will represent, better than these two, or
more approximately than the second, the general form of our globe? None, in
fact; for neither the more complicated figure, which Bouguer imagined, nor the
idea of separating the axis of symmetry from the polar axis, suggested by Klii-
gel, conceptions, both of them, which the theory of the attraction and primeval
fluidity of the earth excludes, are found to be exempt from the grave incon-
veniences which oppose themselves to the adoption of the second supposition.
Of this truth Schubert himself supplies us with a good proof. In his memoir
above cited, after analyzing the divergences, with reference to the form of the
earth, according to the elements from which that form is deduced, and investi-
gating the causes from which so great a discordance might proceed, he concludes
by maintaining that the earth resembles, not so much an ellipsoid of revolution,
as an ellipsoid of three axes, or, what is the same thing, that the meridians are
to be regarded as unequal ellipses, and the equator and parallels as also el
lipses, and not as circles, as had, till that date, been believed. But the same
astronomer, who seems so well persuaded of this consequence from his first in-
vestigations in April. 1859, affirms, in January, 1861,* that, setting aside the
are of India, he does not find, in the rest of the geodesic operations, any grounds
for doubting that the terrestrial globe is an ellipsoid of revolution, compressed
in the direction of the poles. What does this change of opinion, this vacillation,
in a man of Schubert’s merit prove, if not that this last figure represents that
of the earth, as far as a geometrical abstraction can represent the forms. full of
life and harmonious adaptability, of natural objects ?

But, admitting the elliptical form, it still remains to determine its constitutive
elements, and its dimensions; and, with this view, what is the combination of
ares of meridian which should be preferred to the rest, whether for the precision
with which those ares have been measured, the merit of the geometers to whom
the operations were intrusted, or the favorable circumstances of time and terri-
tory in which they were executed? No single combination whatever: First.
Because all that astronomers of merited reputation and conscientiousness profess
to have done should be considered to be well done, or, at least, to be comparable
with what other astronomers, endowed with the same qualities, are capable of
realizing, under the penalty of introducing into the science a principle of endless
confusion.. Secondly. Because the differences which occur in the elements of
the terrestrial ellipsoid, taken by separate combinations of ares of meridian, indi-
cate, not so much a defect in the operations, or a fault in the observers, as a real
irregularity in the form of the earth, or the existence of disturbing causes, such
as the local attraction of mountains, and even those, scarcely avoidable in prac-
tice, which proceed from the unequal density and thickness of a plane surface.
And thirdly. Because if, in all strictness, the form which we seek does not co-
incide with the preconceived figure, the interests of truth will always vindicate
their claim to recognition, if not by an apparent simplicity, at any rate by other
more fertile qualities than pertain to any theory, however simple and seductive.
In order, then, to deduce the geometrical figure of the earth the proper course
would seem to be to take into view all the partial measurements which have
been made, or such, at least, as are distinguished by some notable circumstance,
as the place to which they correspond, the extent they embrace,or the accuracy
which has marked their execution, rejecting, of course, all which manifest care-
lessness on the part of the observers, or defect in the instruments which they
have been obliged to employ ; and, assuming that the ellipsoid of revolution is,

* Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 1803.

FIGURE: OF THE EARTH. 325

in theory, and to a certain point also by experiment, the hypothetical figure
most conformable to reality, the final problem, one of pure mathematical analysis,
and not certainly exempt from difficulties, will consist in finding, by a collation
of the values of the several arcs of meridian and parallel already measured,
or hereafter to be measured, the curvature and dimensions of the ellipsoid of
the above species, which, without exactly satisfying one or two geodesical
operations, represents the results of all with the closest possible approximation.
In this difficult labor the Germans, Walbeck and Schmidt, by combining, re-
spectively, six and seven degrees of meridian, Bessel ten, Airy fourteen of
meridian and four of parallel, and, finally, the Englishman, Colonel H. James,
eight ares of the former kind, which afforded the greatest assurance of exact-
ness, arrived independently at results closely coinciding with one another, each
of which might serve, in the absence of the rest, for a definite solution of the
problem with which we are occupied. In the first of the two following tables,
taken, though not entire, nor in the form here presented, from the Annual
(Jahrbuch) of the Observatory of Berlin, for 1852, are shown the principal
values given by the above mathematicians, together with the elements of the
ellipsoid, which served for the establishment ‘of the decimal metric system, in
the calculation of which, as was before said, only the results obtained in Peru,
France, and Lapland were taken into account, and that, too, before these were
competently known. In the second table are presented other values, relative
likewise to the form and volume of the earth, deduced from the fundamental
elements of the globe, calculated by Bessel, and not less worthy of attention
than those contained in the former table. The initials employed in both tables
signify as follows:

In the first, R and 7, the equatorial and polar radii; D, their difference; ©,
the polar compression of the globe, or the difference of the radii referred to the
greater; e”, the square of the eccentricity of any meridian ellipse, or, say, the
difference of the squares of the two principal radii, referred to the square of the
equatorial radius; Q and q, the values of the equatorial and meridian quadrants;
and D and d, the values of a single degree of the equator and of a mean degree
of meridian, computed in metres like all the preceding which do not- express
abstract relations.

In the second table the sign g marks the latitude or distance from the equator
of the place or point to which the numbers on the right refer; M expresses the
value of an are of meridian of a single degree, comprised between the first and
the corresponding latitudes of the margin; P, that of a degree of parallel; R,
the terrestrial radius or distance of the surface from the centre of the earth
variable with the latitude; and A, the area in square kilometres, comprised be-
tween two meridians separated by a degree of the equator and two parallels,
between which intervenes a degree of meridian for different latitudes.

Elements of the terrestrial ellipsoid.

TABLE 1.
Walbeck, | Schmidt, | Bessel, Airy, James,

(1799.) (1819. ) (1829. ) (1841.) (1849. ) (1858. ) “
Reine Geese ceeicc lk 6375739 | 6376895 376959 | 6377397 | 6377480 6378283
7 eS ee 6356650 | 6355832 | 6855522 | 6356079 | 6356175 6356686
Ne oc eho aw. Se 4 19089 | 21063 21437 21318 21305 21597
Rees cece ee SS 1334. 00 1302. 78 1297. 48 1999, 15 1299, 33 1294, 26
Bee seh Asta eres ihe halo a's 0. 005979 | 0.006595 | 0. 006712 | 0. 066674 | 0. 006671 0. 006785
NO Sete act Sache le = bore 10014988 | 10016803 | 10016904 | 10017592 | 10017722 16018983
eer ot acacia a aa 10000000 | 10000268 | 10000074 | 10000856 | 10000996 | 1 0001966
eee ee sek nee es 111277.6 | 111297.8 | 111298.9 | 111306.6 | 111308.0 | 111322. 0
Wee ie ey Ss 111111.1 J 111114.1 | 111111.9 | 111120.6 } 111122.2 | 111133.0

326 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

TABLE 2.
ITN ois Rn de ee
¢. M. P. R. A.
ae a) MPa mt pee ef Se
Bt POEL oe I hte SY Bed ss 111307 | 6377397 6
aah a EMM ech eo ge 110564 290 7391 | 12306
De ene RMN Co) RC ee es 565 239 7372 302
Bs. Roy atin 2 serene 0A tS CRS 566 155 7340 295
etek MD i I Cee 568 037 7296 284
Bib eR eo geeks) Lets ee 71| 110886 7239 269
Ge eee ING se en Neca oa ae 574 701} | 7168 251
poe a memrr erie). Wh ae 578 422 7085 229
et meNr oun) gach ocr) Tiree ae ee 583 230 6990 204
NE te ey! Se aR a cto. Medel 588 | 109945 6882 175
RAEN aL INTRO tk a te 594 627 6761 142
Reece meee) Se Ls 22 Weed as ee 600 275 6628 106
ey em) iC tae oc: Sack a en 608 | 108890 6483 066
Pee OL ERs LOS oe ee 616 472 6327 022
Pei eS sac A a 624 021 6160 | 11975
Reha eek. 1 oa as 633 | 107538 598) 924
Bene EF et al teh Oy ae ag 643 022 5790 | ~ 870
Popa twee Ne eat tb AO ae Pere 653. | 106474 5588 812
Deep Laie GARGS kta ee 664 | 105893 5376 751
Deere Od et Sie ee eee eee ohee 675 280 5154 686
ssn s Lb TPM SST ed deta A 687 | 104635 4922 618
Blig SATE Os a Pee: Te eR 700 | 103958 4680 546
ee a Pies LoS US are, Meee Topo e 713 250 4428 471
Be Roe Renee tit ee Se OL ee 726 | 102510. 4166 392
pees SONATE HE! OF orem, OT FeO 740 1739 3895 310
PpIOM a! FBR A Toc 2 LUMO N ghee Sts Ys 754 | 100938 3616 224
Bee Ss hE cat te 769 106 3228 135
Bree se ET ee ae 784 | 99246 3033 043
pe penn eee Ss Oye 800 8350 2730 | 10947
io ee an hp de Slag 816 7427 2419 248
Hep ia Me SORE OTD Arie th ae 833 6475 2102 746
ie: Raat etree ee Sat A 110849 | 95493 | 6871778 | 10640
et ene So Farmers tas TO TE Ls ghee 867 4482 1447 531
cs Sit MARE: Woke 5 tee as a4 3442 111 419
OO Re sos AN epee a tr Bers 902 9373 0770 304
Rees tee eee ge Se 920 1277 0424 186.
Bee Mita Cu atre SOR ect ett ese 938 0153 0073 064
Beef vee Be UN Gi Cee Nase 956 | 89001 | 6369718 | 9939
Bee User. st Sa ceie Stee, 975 7222 9360 811
eG OE i ey eee 994 6616 8998 681
Metso ee ios. oo oe 111013 5384 8633 548
MER Dlg HN CUS Ie Ace Leite ee iy 032 4125 8266 411
Wee A ic sea aie ae 051 2841 7397 Q71
Ae est ao 28 atic dey ieee 071 1531 7526 129
ret ei e's and atneas 090 0196 7154 | 8983
Bier euroae ny Mie eat ie tT Oy ten 110 | 78837 6783 835
BB iict cada Ciel Sead Ls ieee. uckjn bose 129 7454 6412 684
Eo iota ete Lite eae 149 6047 6040 531
ee eee ener tA cet eee 168 4616 5669 375
EAR ARI Sa se Ae niet kB TR i A 188 3163 5299 216

PU a ae cle a cteral ate ataletate tate peheleieial dials wis lainisiate mate 207 1687 4931 054

FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 1? oat

TABLE 2—Continued.

g. | M. Ey R. A.

Renee ee aS tan ota hh a tie hw SG ee 226 0189 4565 7890
Beery. See are EE SULEU e e 245 68670 4202 724
Bremer ees 65 SL ances od doa scnc enced 264 7130 3842 555
EER roe a aya, Soe SSeS Seb oak emi 283 5569 3486 384
Pe Peter ios oti tats 2\=) are Syahid Ae rar aii osc. o stcjetsteraee 301 3987 |. 3134 210
Osea eisco ee ote kes Seek eas 320 | 2386 2786 034
MEPS acy Nitw See ise tle cece a. Se ete 338 0766 2442 6856
Bi I Sear (ola bh ohttmas, nai ca Sesh, ccacceecieate 356 59127 2103 676
el RE eR crak = aon sacs casi cc nciusacce 373 7470 1769 A93
60 Beers aeons he sc atta case mae Soe 39] 5794 1442 308
Po Ree re paite at tah io nici t arate Wie wa: Bio sicatadin bre 408 54101 1122 121
OR niente SS sions ow nisin bcos wet heecals 424 2392 0809 5933
iE cho Sosa ie nn win se ban Sh onous ome 440 0667 0503 743
Ramer eeepeeey rete wae cs SLL SL OEM Dive be 456 48926 0204 550
Ce ee eee access ces ce cnete eee gee oe 472 7170 | 6359913 306
ep at ee SoS dino oh sedis eeysa nis nieeces 111487 45399 | 6359631 5160
fe eta icn as icin ons ocescticandeden ss 501 3614 9358 4963
OS ee ees Seles cows ac eeces choo leeu se 515 1816 9094 762
eee rmer ster: eet eee ser sols occa 529 0005 8838 563
WE Pee heirs te Uae ccc sek sw mead Veleding 542 38182 8592 361
MMB eee = ssn oe, sino acces cases cces 555 6347 8355 157
Me ee ae selene eco ek tier kk scl cals 567 4500 8129 3952
Rf te te es io LS o Ms Riis Secs eis 57 2643 7914 746
Ae ee te aa hin Sareea iosnjey on teieic aot Lowe matte 589 0775 7711 539
MIMI Ae cles ninin icin Sie, ates asieie ibiwleis sooo den mecs 599 28898 7518 330
WOM ede sete pea cetesy ee ccteaetele tis wales 609 7012 7337 120

DBE See cays leis clo cieieeicia bis Rielsiees Goel ceeed 619 5118 7167 2909
erent ashes Si SIL SS tetas ais Se adesle's 627 3216 7009 697
NE oo tte ethan arcietbralwtaics we aideevacare 635 307 6863 485
Eee a sosecicaetotie nociwmseneemcce 642 * 19391 6728 272
pee tse = aon seiae Sie coca eciels c/s sad salcns< 649 17469 6606 057
ae ies eet lack 6 anion a iwlaisisjausinod'e tise Se 655 15542 6496 1842
eS (ois oft nisin a niacie sisi tines osicecee 661 18610 6399 1628
eae eo ate nce ine cieaios ieee close soecee 666 | 11673 old 1412
erate eee Sass Sek OORM ocd ieee 70 9733 6244 1195
Oy RNa a NSS oa wo shine wie dis cate oo(e Sciceeecieid 673 | 7790 6185 979
Fa EN eA Sin im Sajatatm cfalclaiic cine salpjeiaa walad 676 5845 6138 762
Donan sci clee seas mcs ereien sos seas cce 678 | 3898 6106 544:
Se Ee tate cicid oe einiceekncenncceelnees 679 | 1950 6087 327
Py epree rere iene tek ol el centlic te obec 680 | A 6079 109
Morlmreme res sets 22 Se ke bt 509, 950,715 square kilometres.
ilninnioMmrpenrers: Ss erh-.tcor ee SOS. Ssciek ete 1, 082, 841, 311,330 cubic kilometres.

From the examination of the first of the above tables it results that, if we:
adhere to the geodesic operations alone, the number 335 expresses by how much:
the terrestrial globe differs from the spherical form, and the numbers 6,377 and
6,358 (kilometers) give the dimensions of the greater and less or equatorial and
polar radii, an approximation which might, in all probability, be qualified with
a higher degree of exactness by adopting either the fundamental elements given
by Bessel, the astronomer of the most enviable reputation of the current century,
or those deduced somewhat later, and, of course, from more copious data by the
distinguished director of the Observatory of Greenwich, Professor Airy. The

328 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

exactness, or, at least, close approximation of the number 54,5, is found, more-
over, to be confirmed by another class of considerations extraneous, in a certain
degree, to geodesy, and very indirectly related to those which served the two
celebrated astronomers last mentioned as a basis and guide in their valuable
labors of combination and analysis.

It was remarked at the close of the second part of the present article that
nothing in nature is fortuitous; and it might well have been added that not only
is nothing fortuitous, but there is nothing without a reason for its being as it is,
nothing susceptible of being essentially modified without communicating an
impression to other organic parts of the complicated mechanism of the universe.
The movement by which the moon is carried around the earth does not depend
exclusively on the intervening distance or the respective masses of the two
bodies, but on the distribution of their masses in concentric groups or on the
figure of both globes. If the earth were spherical, the movement of its satel-
lite would not be that which is always observed; nor if the discrepancy from
that simple form had been represented by a fraction differing from 5}5 would
this fact have failed to disclose itself in a degree more or less sensible in some
of the accidents which characterize the lunar movement: theory, based upon
the laws of universal attraction, laws announced by-Newton and so sagaciously
developed by Laplace, indicated the orbit which the moon was destined to de-
scribe on the hypothesis of the polar depression of our globe being less by x45
than the equatorial radius, and observation promptly confirmed all the conelu-
sions to which the theory had pointed. Jew astronomical discoveries reflect
more honor on the human intellect than the valuation of the earth’s ellipticity
based upon the principles which have been just cursorily mentioned.

But it is not necessary to withdraw our eyes from the globe we inhabit to
discover other means, besides those which are strictly geodesical, not.only of
demonstrating the ellipticity of its form, but of verifying the limits within
which the eccentricity of that new figure is comprised. Our readers will doubt-
less readily infer that the process alluded to consists in the use of the pendu-
lum, whose oscillations are more or less rapid in different parts of the earth,
by reason of its form being sensibly and essentially different from the spheri-
cal. When Laplace announced the relation existing between the movement of
the moon and the oblateness of the earth, Clairault, in a special treatise on the
subject, had already stated the law of interdependence by which the eontinu-
ous depression of the globe from the equator to the poles is associated with
the variations of gravitation or of the weight of bodies, and consequently with
the oscillatory movement of a pendulum on the surface of that globe. By both
geometers the task of verifying the truth of their theories was bequeathed to
after experiment, and in both cases the previsions of mathematical analysis and
the results of observations long and carefully repeated have been found to be
perfectly atcordant.

In the long period which elapsed from the date when the French academician
Richer first noticed the retardation of the pendulum in the equatorial zone,
to that when the Spanish admiral, Malespina, undertook his justly celebrated
voyage of scientific exploration in 1789, the experiments made with the pendu-
lum were numerous and interesting, in so far as they were directed to the
demonstration of the ellipticity of the earth and the accidental irregularities
which distinguish it; but those undertaken with a view to determine the value
of that ellipticity have been neither so many nor were they so early as the
former. In 1826 Bessel showed the inaccuracy or want of care in the process
till then followed for deducing from the oscillations or length of a compound
pendulum, moving in air and at a variable temperature, the corresponding ele-
ments of a simple pendulum, oscillating in a vacuum and in a thermal state of
absolute invariability ; and, even much later, Humboldt thought that experi-
ments with the pendulum, comparable in delicacy and precision with the

Sr

FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 329

multitude of other, the most common, astronomical or geodesical operations,
would scarcely amount in number to sixty. So scanty a result should, in our
opinion, be attributed to two quite distinct causes. In the comparative experi-
ments made with the pendulum, there is sought, in the first place, a difference of
length or of numbers so small that the least inadvertence in the operation, or a
disturbing cause unworthy elsewhere of consideration, will materially influence
the result and impair its exactness. And moreover, even when the observations
are conducted throughout with all the requisite accuracy—a thing, we repeat,
of great difficulty—still the theoretic principle of their combination for deducing
the terrestrial ellipticity supposes that the density of our globe, though variable
according to an arbitrary law from the surface to the centre, continues identically
the same in each layer concentric with the superficial one ; an hypothesis which
departs in some degree from the reality of nature, and which on that account
cannot lead to results of absolute certainty. After these considerations, it will
not be a matter of surprise that the values of the terrestrial ellipticity, deduced from
experiments made in the present era by Borda first, and afterwards by Biot,
chiefly at different points of the French meridian, by Kater in England, by the
navigators Freycinet, Duperry, Sabine, Foster and others, under very different
and distant latitudes, should sensibly vary from one another, and likewise to
some extent the final number, deduced from the examination of all of them, when
compared with that which results from the sum of the principal geodesic labors.
But to what at most does the difference amount? From the experiments made
with the pendulum, there results as the value of the earth’s polar compression
the number 545, somewhat greater than the fraction 51, and less than 54,; the
difference of these two extreme fractions is equal to 5,5; so that the ditterence
of the results obtained by help of the pendulum and by the ordinary processes
of geodesy will be found to be represented by a number still less than the last.
Admitting, then, that the value of the equatorial radius is in metres 6,377,397,
there would remain in the length of the polar radius an uncertainty of 2.362;
and this, it must not be forgotten, on the supposition, really more unfavorable
than is warranted, that the doubt respecting the polar compression of the earth
would present to us as equally uncertain the two fractions 53, and51,. But
the relation of the number 2.362 to the value of the equatorial or the polar
radius is lower than that of 1 to 1000: thus in the appreciation of a quantity
composed of a thousand equal parts, it would be at last doubted whether we
had counted one part more or less than was proper! Instead of being surprised
at the existence of such an uncertainty as this, it might well cause astonishment,
as Pref. Airy has remarked in reference to this subject, that man should have
arrived at a knowledge so precise in a matter so diflficult and obscure; while
there is still room for confidence that further advances are in his power, and
adequate encouragement to persist in the pursuit of the truth,

That this confidence and encouragement exist is shown by a simple reference
to the projects of new geodesical operations and experiments, suggested by
some of the most celebrated of cotemporary astronomers. In 1857, for example,
Biot proposed to the Academy of Sciences of Paris that a new determination
should be undertaken, by methods and with instruments more delicate than
were before known, of the whole extent of the are of Peru as well as of the
various arcs of parallel measured in Europe; that experiments with the pendu-
lum should be multiplied in those localities where considerable anomalies have
been noted in the direction of the vertical, or where their existence is suspected,
with a view to ascertain their cause or causes; ina word, that no means should
be spared of discovering all the accidents of form and density which distinguish
the terraqueous globe from the theoretical ellipsoid defined by Bessel and the
mathematicians who, with a degree of precision difficult to surpass, have either
preceded or followed him in this enterprise. The ideas of Biot, de'iberately
considered and digested eventually into the colossal project of measuring a new

330 FIGURE OF THE EARTH.

are of meridian extending from Palermo to the parallel of Cristiania and Upsal,
across seas and continents prodigiously diversified, and intermediate to the Rus-
sian are in the east and that stretching from Formentera to the Shetland isles
in the west of Europe, have been zealously. seconded by the Prussian general
Baeyer, the companion of Bessel in the geodesic operations of Koenigsberg, and
distinguished alike for his knowledge and experience. In the memoir relative to
this matter, which he published in Berlin in 1861, Baeyer does not ask the pro-
tection of goverments, nor invoke the learned of all countries to unite their
efforts, for the purpose of ascertaining whether the polar compression of the
earth is a hundred-thousandth part greater or less than it is believed to be; he
holds, on the contrary, that the geometrical problem is resolved ; but the physi-
cal and geological problem, closely associated with the real figure of the globe,
he regards as scarcely yet defined. The idea of Baeyer, which Biot, as we
have seen, also cherished, and which equally exercises the thoughts of other
savants, would doubtless be realized, if the local influences which embarrass
and complicate the geodesical operations, instead of being avoided as heretofore,
were purposely sought for and measured; if, wherever practicable, the net-work
of triangles were extended around and over the surtace of seas and of volcanic
regions, and across the valleys and mountain-chains of more abnormal compo- ’
sition; if the instruments for measuring distances and angles were rendered
comparable in some sort to the balance of the chemist and the goniometer of the
mineralogist ; in brief, if, after having defined the external figure of the earth,
geodesy should penetrate, as it were with the eyes of induction, into the interior
of the globe, in order to reveal to us the origin of that figure, the transforma-
tions it has experienced, and the stability, whether little or great, which it pos-
sesses for resisting the destructive assaults of time. Considered under this new
aspect, the question presents an extraordinary interest, opens to view an indefi-
nite and almost unexplored horizon, and affords one proof more of the close
interconnexion which exists among all the natural sciences. Let the project
of Baeyer or some analogous one be transferred to the field of practice, and the
nineteenth century will have won yet another title to the consideration of the
ages to come.

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES

PERFORMED

WITH A VIEW TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the works of Francis Arago, late secretary
of the French Academy of Sciences, &c.

I.—THE INVENTION OF BALLOONS.

Man, by reason of his weight, and the weakness of his muscular power,
seemed doomed to creep on the surface of the earth, and to have been disquali-
fied for studying the physical properties of the higher regions of our atmosphere,
except through the toilsome ascent to mountain summits. But what difficulties
are there over which genius, united with perseverance, will not eventually tri-
umph? From the most remote times the idea of soaring into the air, far above
all terrestrial objects, by means of machines which the imagination endowed
with properties unfortunately of impossible attainment, has never ceased to oe-
cupy the human mind. Who has not heard of the attempts of Dedalus and
Icarus, of the projects of Roger Bacon, and of Fathers Lara and Galen? But,
until 1783, it had been granted to no one to realize the dream of so many ages. .
Joseph Michel Montgolfier, who was born in 1740, at Annonay, in the depart-
ment of the Ardéche, and who died, a member of the Academy of Sciences, in
1810, had calculated that through the rarefaction, by means of heat, of the air
contained in a paper balloon of a certain extent, an ascensional force might be
given it sufficent for elevating men, animals, and any desired instruments. So
much confidence had he in his theory that he did not hesitate to undertake, June
5, 1783, a public and formal exhibition before the deputies of the provincial
estates of Vivarais, assembled at Annonay. Montgolfier has himself described, in
the following terms, this first experiment, which forms an epoch in the history of
the most important discoveries: “The aerostatic machine was constructed of
canvas, lined with paper, and covered by a network of twine attached to the
canyas. It was nearly of a spherical form, and of a circumference of 110 feet,
(35™.73;) a frame of wood, 16 feet square, steadied it on its base. * Tts capacity
was about 22,000 cubic feet. It, therefore, displaced, supposing the mean weight
of the air equal to z}, of the weight of water, a mass of air equivalent to 1,980
pounds, (969 kilograms.) 7 .

“The weight of the gas (heated air) was nearly half that of the air, for it equal-
led 990 pounds, and the machine, with the frame, weighed 500 pounds. For the
rupture of equilibrium there remained, therefore, 490 pounds, as was found con-
formable to the experiment. The different pieces of the balloon were fastened
together simply by means of button-holes and buttons. Two men suafliced to
lift and fill it with gas, but it required eight to retain it. When released, at a
given signal, it mounted with an accelerated velocity, though less rapid towards
the end of the ascension, to the height of 1,000 toises, (upwards of 6,000 feet.)
A wind,.scarcely perceptible at the surfice of the earth, bore it to the distance
of 1,200 toises from the place of departure. It remained ten minutes in the air.
The loss of gas by the button-holes, needle punctures, and other imperfections,
prevented any longer suspension. The wind was, at the time, southerly

332 ; AERONAUTIC VOYAGES.

with rain. The balloon descended so lightly that it broke neither the branches
nor frames of the vineyard on which it finally rested.”

The gas employed in this experiment was nothing but air dilated by heat,
but its nature was not stated in the report of the ascension published in the
journals. Without waiting for further indications, the artist Robert and the
physicist Charles, by means of a national subscription, which was readily ad-
vanced, constructed, of lutestring coated with gum elastic, a balloon four meters
(13.12 feet) in diameter, which they filled with hydrogen gas, procured by
the action of diluted sulphuric acid on iron filings. This balloon ascended from
the Champ de Mars, August 27, 1783, at five o’clock in the afternoon, in
presence of an immense crowd, and heralded by salvos of cannon. It remained
but three-quarters of an hour in the air, and fell at Gonesse, near Econen, five
leagues distant from Paris. Thus was demonstrated the possibility of making
balloons of varnished material, nearly impermeable by hydrogen, the lightest
of known gases, and possessing great advantages overethe heated air. Yet this
means of obtaining very considerable ascensional force with balloons of limited
dimensions was not immediately adopted, and sundry experiments were suc-
cessively made with very large aerostats inflated with air heated by a fire of
straw mixed with a little wool. It was with such a balloon, having an oval
form, a height of 23 meters, a diameter of 15, and a capacity of 2,056 cubic
meters, that Pilatre de Reziers and d’Arlandes made the first aerial voyage
which man had ventured to undertake in balloons wholly detached and uncon-
fined. Ascending from the Chateau de la Muette, November 21, 1783, they
traversed a distance of two leagues at an elevation of about 1,000 meters, having,
in their transit, hovered over Paris for 20 or 25 minutes. The 1st of December
following, Charles and Robert ascended from the Tuilleries in a spherical balloon,
made of lutestring coated with gum elastic, and having a diameter of only 8.50

.meters, which was inflated with hydrogen. After a passage of about nine
leagues the balloon touched the earth at Nesles, where Robert left the ‘car, while
Charles reascended and reached an elevation of abcut 2,000 meters, alighting
finally two leagues further-on, after having experienced a cold of —5°, or +
23 Fah., when the thermometer indicated on the ground +7°, 442 Fah. From
this day dates the demonstration of the practical possibility of balloon voyages—
voyages always adventurous, but which have become, at a later period, a pastime
with persons of leisure. I shall not speak here of the attempts which have been
made to derive advantage from, aerostats in military expeditions, nor of the nu-
merous contrivances to direct their course through the air, nor of the unfortunate
experiment of uniting the action of fire with the employment of hydrogen, for
which Pilatre de Roziers atoned with his life, nor of the substitution of illumi-
nating gas for hydrogen, a substitution which renders these enterprises less
costly, but Which diminishes the ascensional force of apparatus of a determinate
dimension. I must restrict myself to aeronautic voyages, performed with a view
to the advancement of science.

We must refer to the old Academy of Sciences if we would find*an account
of the first voyages by which science was benefited through the employment
of balloons, in which hydrogen gas was used as an agent. The expeditions of
MM. Biot and Gay Lussac, made in 1804, were preceded by the ascensions of
Robertson, Lhoest, and Sacharoff, which yielded some interesting results; but
not until after nearly half a century were the remarkable voyages of MM. Barral
and Bixio undertaken, followed shortly afterwards by those of Mr. John Welsh.

IIl.—RESEARCHES TO BE MADE IN AEROSTATIC ASCENSIONS.

Those who propose to undertake aerial voyages form, in general, no idea of
the number of questions to be resolved, nor of the difficulties to be surmounted
in order to furnish science with certain elements of discussion. The instru-
ments requisite for investigating, as well the temperature as the hydrometric

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES. 333

state of the air, the phenomena of the magnetic needle, the proportions of po-
larized light contained in the light of the atmosphere, the diaphaneity, the
color more or less blue of the different strata of air, &¢., do not exist at all, or
else require important modifications before being applied to the research of the
laws by which the phenomena vary with the height, which is itself not deter-
mined with entire precision by barometrical observations. For half a century
many learned bodies—the French Academy of Sciences, that of St. Petersburgh,
the British Association for the advancement of science, the Academy of Dijon,
&¢e.—have directed inquiry to the means of supplying the defeet of which I
speak, and of furnishing acronauts with adequate instruments of investigation.
But the problem has been by no means considered under all its aspects, and is
very far from having received a complete solution; at all events, the suggestions
which have been derived from the voyages of Biot and Gay Lussac, and especially
from those of Barral and Bixio, should be taken into serious consideration by
those whose zeal shall hereafter prompt them to encounter the perils of such en-
terprises, in the view, particularly, of reaching the most highly rarefied aerial
regions, and traversing the atmosphere under its most variable conditions. The
principal questions on which the attention of such explorers should be fixed
are the following:

1. The law of the decrease of atmospheric temperature with the elevation.

2. Influence of the solar radiation in the different regions of the atmosphere,
deduced from observations made upon thermometers whose bulbs are coated
with very different absorbing substances.

3. Determination of the hygrometric state of the air in the several atmos-
pherie strata, and comparison of the indications of the psychrometer with the
dew-point at very low temperatures.

4, Analysis of the air from different heights.

5. Determination of the quantity of carbonic acid contained in the higher
regions of the atmosphere.

6. Examination of the polarization of light by clouds.

7. Observation of different optical phenomena produced by the clouds.

8. Observation of the diaphaneity, and of the intensity of the blue color of
different strata of air. ;

9. Observation of the declination and inclination of the magnetic needle, and
of the intensity of magnetism.

10. Study of the electric state of different atmospheric strata.

11. Experiments on the transmission and reflection of sound in different
strata of air in a serene state of the sky, and in a sky containing clouds.

12. Physiological observations on the effects produced by the rarefaetion of
the air, very low temperatures, extreme dryness, &c.

The instruments at the disposal of the voyagers should be the sathe as those
which, by my own advice, and that of my illustrious colleague, M. Regnault, were
carried by MM. Barral and Bixio in their expeditions, and which they would
have continued to use had they been able to make other ascensions, to wit:

1. Two siphon barometers, graduated on glass, of which the aeronaut need
observe only the upper meniscus, the position of the lower meniscus being given
by a table constructed after direct observations made in the laboratory. Each of
these barometers should be provided with a thermometer divided in centigrade
degrees, so as to present a scale extending from +35° to —39°. It is now
known that the acronaut may encounter strata of air having a temperature
lower than that of the congeation of mercury; hence the ordinary barometer
will not answer, and an instrument should therefore be furnished, founded
on the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on an elastic spring, and tested at
very low temperatures under feeble pressures obtained by the pneumatic machine.

9. A vertical thermometer, of arbitrary graduation, the cylindrical reservoir
of which is placed in the axis of several concentric envelopes of bright tin, open

334 AERONAUTIC VOYAGES.

at their bases to admit the circulation of air. This arrangement has been devised
in order to obtain, at least approximately, the temperature which a thermometer
would indicate in the shade.

3. Three thermometers, having arbitrary scales, attached to a metallic plate 5
centimeters apart. The reservoir of the first of these thermometers should have
a vitreous surface; the surface of the second should be coated with lamp-
black; and the reservoir of the third should be covered with a cylinder of
polished silver, which must also envelop a portion of the stem. The reservoirs
should be narrow cylinders, much elongated. Immediately below the reservoirs
the metallic plate should support another plate brightly coated with silver. The
plate bearing these thermometers should be arranged horizontally on one of the
sides of the car, with a view to its remaining constantly exposed to the solar
radiation.

4. A psychrometer formed by two thermeters of an arbitrary scale.

5. One of Regnault’s condensing hygrometers.

6. ‘Tubes of caustic potash, and also of pumice, wet with sulphuric acid, for
the determination of the carbonic acid of the air. The air should be drawn in
by means of a pump of the capacity of one litre (1.760 pint) accurately gauged.

7. Two balloons of one litre capacity, furnished with stop-cocks of steel, for
collecting the air of the higher regions. ‘These balloons, enclosed in tin boxes,
should be scrupulously exhausted of air before the ascent.

8. A minimum thermometer of M. Walferdin, which should be enclosed in a
tin cylinder, pierced with holes. It is best that this instrument should be placed
under seal, as was done by MM. Barral and Bixio, since the control of the per-
sonal observations by means of a mute instrument imparts considerable value
when they come to be verified, and affords a triumphant reply to objections
which, through a natural tendency of the human mind, always oppose themselves
‘to results which cannot be immediately verified by new experiments made under
the same conditions. In the event, moreover, of the ascension of the balloon to
heights where the temperature falls below—40°, the point of congelation for
mercury, it will be necessary to have thermometers of alcohol or sulphuret of
carbon, graduated below that point of the thermometric scale, so that the obser-
vations may not be interrupted by a circumstance which has ceased to be con-
sidered as of impossible occurrence.

9. It is from the considerations just stated, that I would recommend also the
use of the apparatus devised by M. Regnault, and intended to indicate the
minimum of barometric pressure, and consequently the maximum of elevation to
which the balloon has attained. ‘This apparatus should be enclosed in a tin case
pierced with numerous small openings. ‘The lid of this case should be secured
with a seal like the minimum thermometer.

10. Polariscopie telescopes, such as I have described, Astronomie populaire,
li, p. 101.

11. Instruments for showing the declination, inclination, and intensity of
magnetism, suspended in such a manner as not to be affected by the movements
of rotation of the balloon in its ascent, as has been observed by MM. Biot, Gay
Lussac, Barral, and Bixio.

12. Electrometers so constructed as to be capable of indicating at once the
kind and the intensity of the electricity of different atmospheric strata.

It is scarcely probable that in an ascension, observers will be able to embrace
at one time so many subjects of study, or use successively and opportunely so
many instruments. ‘The aeronaut should, on each occasion, limit himself to a
small number of important inquiries. It is only in a series of aeronautic expe-
ditions that a collection of records can be made corresponding to the great number
a which the constitution of the terrestrial atmosphere presents for
solution.

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES. 335

It is impossible to frame a programme which will embrace all the points
worthy of examination; we are constrained to admit that the unforeseen will
always play a principal part in aeronautic expeditions. We know little at
present of the constitution of clouds, of the phenomena of refrigeration produced
by their evaporation, of the mixture of strata of air differently saturated with
humidity and derived from very different sources, of the action of electricity
which traverses great aerial spaces, &e. In every case it is desirable that, during
the progress of aerial voyages, there should be made, at least from hour to hour,
in the principal terrestrial observatories, observations analogous to those which
the aeronauts propose to undertake. This was advised in 1841 by a committee
of the British Association, in a report relative to the advantages which science
might derive from aerostatic ascensions, a report signed by Brewster, Herschel,
Lubbock, Robinson, Sabine, Whewell, and Miller, and the advice was observed
by MM. Barral and Bixio, who were thus enabled to connect the phenomena
noticed in the higher regions of the air with those which occurred at the same
time on the surface of Europe.

Barometric observations in connexion with those of temperature yield, by
means of a formula which we owe to the genius of Laplace, the measure of the
elevation to which balloons ascend above the level of the sea. This formula has
been reduced into the usual tables which are found in the Annuaire du bureau
des longitudes. The considerations on which the illustrious geometer founded
his analysis led him to employ in his admirable formula a coefficient whose
determination Ramond had arrived at, by comparing a great number of the
measurements of the height of mountains taken with the barometer with their
trigonometric measurements. Now, as Ramond operated chiefly under the par-
allel of 45°, and upon mountains whose elevation scarcely reached 3,000 meters,
there is nothing to prove that the undetermined coefiicient of Laplace’s formula
is susceptible of being applied to the measurement of much more considerable
heights, and made in other.latitudes. It would not be superfluous to measure
directly, by observations made from several astronomical stations situated at
known distances, the heights to which acronauts attain, and to compare the
results obtained with the barometric determinations. Mo doubt these operations
will present numerous difficulties, and may be not unfrequently tried without
success, because the balloons may disappear in the clouds or be carried in
directions which will not permit the terrestrial telescopes to follow them with
any advantage. But the problem to which I here call attention merits by its
importance the sacrifices which may be encountered in giving it a satisfactory
solution. }

IiI.—AERONAUTIC VOYAGES OF LHOEST, ROBERTSON, AND SACHAROFF.

The first aeronautic voyage to which science was indebted for some useful
indications was that performed at Hamburg, July 18, 1803, by the physicist,
Robertson, accompanied by his countryman, Lhoest. They remained suspended
in the air five hours and a half, and descended at Hanover, twenty-five leagues
distant from the place of departure.

At the moment of the ascension the barometer on the earth stood at 28 inches,
and the thermometer at+16° Reaumur; at the greatest height to which they
attained the barometer showed 12.4 inches, and the thermometer —5°.5 Reaumur.
These observations, reduced to metric and centigrade measurements, give 758
millimeters for the barometric height, and+20° for the temperature at starting ;
336 millimeters and—6°.9 at the highest point reached... Hence, according to
the formula of Laplace, we deduce 6,831 meters as the maximum height to
which the balloon ascended.

The two aeronauts thought that at that height they observed the oscillations
of the magnetic needle to be much less rapid than at the surface of the earth,
and that consequently the magnetic intensity diminishes rapidly as the elevation

336 . AERONAUTIC VOYAGES.

in the atmosphere increases. They also reported that they had experienced
much physical suffering, and observed physiological phenomena, such as the
swelling of the lips and veins, the bleeding of the eyes, &c., which have not
been uniformly verified in subsequent expeditions,

However this might be, the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburgh deter-
mined on are petition of the experiment to be made by Robertson himself, assisted
by Sacharoff, one of its own members, distinguished both as a physicist and
chemist. ‘This second expedition face place tent 30, 1804. The aeronauts
ascended from St. Petersburgh at 7 hours 45 minutes p. m., and descended at
10 hours 45 minutes, near Sivoritz, at a distance of about 20 leagues. At the
moment of departure the barometer stood at 30 inches, and the thermometer at
19° Reaumur; at the greatest elevation the two instruments indicated respect-
ively 22 inches and 4°.56 Reaumur. We conclude from these observations that
the barometric pressure and the temperature were, at the point of departure, ang ,
millimeters, and+23°.7; at the greatest elevation, 595.5 millimeters and+ 5°
and from this it results that the highest point reached was 2,703 meters. xe
Robertson and Sacharoff were not Fable to make regular magnetic observations,
but they felt authorized to affirm that the needle of declination had ceased to
be horizontal, and that its north pole was elevated about 10 degrees, its south
pole having an inclination of the same amount towards the earth.

IV.—VOYAGES OF BIOT AND GAY LUSSAC.

Saussure, a‘ter a series of observations made on the Col du Geant at a height
of 3,435 meters, conceived it to be ascertained that at that height the magnetic
intensity undergoes a sensible diminution, which he estimated at about one-fifth.
This result appeared to be verified by the aeronautic voyages of Robertson,
Lhoest, and Sacharoff, just spoken of. But the proofs of the fact were not
given in a sufiiciently decisive manner to secure it a definitive reception into
science, and the question appeared important enough to the principal members
of the Institute, Laplace, Berthollet, Chaptal, to justify a special experiment.
This was intrusted to MM. Biot.and Gay Lussac, who ascended from the garden
of the Conservatoire des arts ct metiers, August 24, 1804, provided with all the
necessary instruments. The small dimensions of the balioon did not allow the
two aeronauts to reach the height of more than 4,000 meters, and at that eleva-
tion the temperature, which had been+ 17°.5 on the earth, had only sunk to
+10°.5. Leaving at 10 o’clock in the forenoon, they descended, about half
after one, 18 leagues from Paris, in the department of Loiret. 'Taking advantage
of the moments when the movement of rotation of the balloon in one direc-
tion stopped, being about to be resumed in the opposite direction, the learned
physicists were able to determine the duration of five oscillations of the magnetic
needle in different aerial strata, and they obtained the following results :

Heights. Duration of 5 oscillations.
Onmetiers. 21 hae AS Se ee ae eee eee ee 35.25 seconds.
Bt ome 8 Ee ect Ss Riche cae ene ne Cane ea 35 ie
2,897 ARATE tSTey sb: cle tete ye ene, crietel A ater eee 35 ss
SIeMOO HUEY = | on. eats SS pets eee shee eee eee 30 Ss
EE Meteey Weiss aielae so de Soe eRe eae ae 34 Hy
3,665 MA eters el ciehc «Sti ReR nee eee ee age 39.0 cc
3,742 Belt fare olenerS. chee asia is Reyes Pa nee 35 <6
Sue Comission ci sis. ws. clatne ee 36 cs
3,977 Rat viele ieiete ie Meets fe loa wis sc aiase) Noha iCenere aso ‘

Thus the observations agree in giving 35 seconds for the duration of five
oscillations, or at least the observed differences are too small to allow of any
conclusion being drawn from them.

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES. Oa:

Under these circumstances it was evident that a new ascension ought to be
undertaken. This time Gay Lussac ascended alone. He rose from the garden
of the Conservatory, September 16, 1804, at 9 hours 40 minutes in the morning.
He alighted at 3 hours 45 minutes, between Rouen and Dieppe, 40 leagues from
Paris, near the village of Saint Gourgon.

The distinguished savant had furnished his acrostat with long cords, designed
to moderate its movement of rotation, and he could consequently count more
easily the oscillations of the magnetic needle; he obtained the following results:

Heights. Duration of 10 oscillations.
MRIMOLOES es OSs) Ss te aise s oo ae lata ee, Dol Oy aeeOnea
Seer rs Sei ste ANS SL oe ws ree, Se erage 41.5 .
EME his Lie LL ae! tt Lee aE eh Ee 42.0 _
SeereEe OM CIN ts te eS RD TT ee ae 42.5 -
4,294 eee Sats mcsharctdve ich ole Ms! Meech Leimert eae 41.8 .
EP Rts atta). e Se Dts ak, Ae ee 43.0
NS Britt) 2 Sais cs ese, VOR a ele tee rane ae
Ey eS os eee ey Oe Pe re aes aA
ND oi, ose unas Gea Son Ce cee Ee 42.2 a
MEDEA YS cheba 22 ee se Se ee 42.5 ee
SPRUE Nr 80 on ik De a ec ng eee 42.0 i
Fas 2 os oe aha. d So ia ek se 41.0 ae
DEAD nc 20s cts 22 Sys rts ee ein eens 41.7 “

From these observations, which do not present sufficiently appreciable dif-
ferences, Gay Lussac drew the conclusion that the magnetic force does not
_ undergo sensible variations up to the greatest heights which we can attain. In
regard to this he thus expresses himself: “The consequence which we have
drawn from our experiments may seem a little too precipitate to those who
remember that we have not been able to make observations on the inclination
of the magnetic needle. But when it is remarked that the force which causes
a horizontal needle to oscillate is necessarily dependent on the intensity and
direction of the magnetic force itself, and that it is represented by the cosine
of. the angle of inclination of this last force, the conclusion which we have
arrived at cannot fail to be drawn, that, since the horizontal force has not
varied, the total force cannot have varied, unless one chooses to suppose
that the magnetic force may vary precisely in an opposite direction, and with
the same relation to the cosine of its inclination, which is not at all probable.
We have, moreover, in support of our conclusion, the experiment of the incli-
nation which was made at the height of 3,902 meters, and which proves that
‘at that elevation the inclination did not vary in a perceptible degree.” ‘This
conclusion was logical at an epoch when it was not generally known that at a
given place and under given circumstances the duration of the oscillations of a
magnetic needle is influenced by its temperature. Now, the depression of the
thermometer of Gay Lussac had been sufliciently considerable to produce
noticeable changes in the magnetic needle. We sce that, in the imperfect state
of the instruments and the science in 1804, it was impossible to arrive at an
exact solution of the problem which the Institute had in view. Even at
present this problem is still unsolved.

The principal result of the aeronautic voyage of Gay Lussac relates to the
constant composition of the atmospheric air to a height of 7,000 metres. The
illustrious physicist had the good fortune to bring the first air from those high
regions, and to give an analysis of it, whose accuracy has been uniformly veri-
_ fied by new experiments conducted with the improved processes which science
_ has discovered during half a century.

Another fact, no less important, is the wide difference which Gay Lussac
found between the temperatures below and at the great height to which he

22 8

~

338 AERONAUTIC VOYAGES.

ascended. At the moment of his departure the barometer registered 765.25
millimeters, and the thermometer +27°.75; at the greatest elevation these
instruments gave 328.8 millimeters for the pressure, and —9°.5 for the tem-
perature. It results that Gay Lussac rose to the height of 7,016 meters above
the mean level of the sea, and that he found himself exposed to temperatures
differing by 37°.

I shall not speak of the hygrometrical observations, because it only results
from them, as from the greater part of those which have been made to this day,
that the dryness of the air becomes very considerable in high regions of the
atmosphere. Hair hygrometers are instruments whose indica ions are so little
comparable with one another that it, is impossible to deduce precise conclu-
sions from them.

Gay Lussac has reduced to their just value the recitals of physical sufferings
which are supposed to be felt in very elevated strata of air; he expresses him-
self on this subject with perspicuity and simplicity: ‘Arrived at the highest
point of my ascension, 7,016 meters above the mean level of the sea, my respi-
ration was sensibly embarrassed; but I was still very far from experiencing a
degree of inconvenience which could induce me to descend. My pulse and
respiration were much accelerated; and, breathing thus rapidly in an air of
extreme dryness, I could not be surprised at having the throat so dry that it
was painful for me to swallow bread.”

It is thus seen that the ascensions of Biot and Gay Lussac are the first
which have been made with marked success as regards the solution of scientific
questions.

V.—VOYAGES OF BARRAL AND BIXIO.

MM. Barral and Bixio made two aeronautic voyages, by the last of which,
especially, science was enriched with unforeseen results of great importance.

In reporting to the Academy of Sciences an account of the first excursion of
these intrepid physicists, 1 expressed myself in nearly the following terms:
‘‘MM. Barral and Bixio had conceived the idea of ascending to a great height
in order to study, with the improved scientific instruments of the present day,
a multitude of atmospheric phenomena still imperfectly known. It was pro-
posed to determine the law of the decrease of temperature with the height; the
law of the diminution of humidity; to-ascertain whether the chemical composi-
tion of the atmosphere is the same throughout; the portion of carbonic acid at
different elevations; to eompare the calorific effects of the solar rays in the
highest regions of the atmosphere with these same effects observed on the sur-
face of the earth; to determine whether there arrives at a given point the same
number of calorific rays from all points of space; whether the l'ght reflected
and transmitted by clouds is or is not polarized, &e.

The instruments necessary for so interesting an expedition had been pre-
pared with great care and precision by M. Regnault. Never has the love of
science been manifested with more disinterestedness. M. Walferdin furnished
several of his ingenious thermometers. The explorers were, besides, provided
with barometers very accurately graduated, for determining the height at which
the different observations were made. ‘

The aeronauts had intrusted the preparation of the balloon to M. Dupuis
Delcourt, who had distinguished himself by twenty-eight aerial voyages. All
the arrangements were made in the garden of the Observatory of Paris. The
ascension took place Saturday, June 29, 1850, at 10 hours 27 minutes in the
morning, the balloon having been filled with pure hydrogen gas };rocured by
the action of chlorhydric acid on iron.

According to all previous calculation, the explorers might now have expected
to rise to the height of 10,000 or 12,000 meters, supposing the upper strata of
the atmosphere to correspond with received theoretical ideas. ;

—e rT

AERONAUTIC VOYOGES. 339

At the moment of departure, however, it might easily be seen that in several
respects the aerostatic apparatus was imperfect. The balloon, in consequence
of the prevalence of high winds, had been torn at many points, and mended
with too great haste; the rain fell in torrents. What was to be done? It had
been most prudent, perhaps, not to ascend, but the aeronauts rejected the idea.
They placed themselves in the car, and boldly launched into the air, without
even taking the precaution, so violent was the wind, of determining with a
balance the ascensional force of the aerostat. Their ascent was extremely
rapid; the spectators compared it to that of an arrow; they very soon disap-
peared in the clouds, and it was above the curtain which thus shrouded them
from the view of man that the stirring scenes took place which remain to be
described.

The dilated balloon pressed with great force on the meshes of the netting,
which was much too small. It expanded from above downwards; descended
on the aeronauts, whose car was suspended by cords which were too short, and
covered them in some sort like a hood. At this time the adventurers found
themselves in a situation of the greatest difficulty ; one of them, in his efforts to
disengage the cord of the valve, caused an opening in the inferior prolongation
of the balloon; the hydrogen gas, which escaped nearly on a level with their
heads, almost suffocated them, and caused excessive vomitings and momentary
syncope, a

Consulting the barometer, they found that they were descending rapidly,
and, in seeking to ascertain the cause of this unexpected movement, they dis-
covered that the balloon was torn in the region of its equator to the extent of
nearly 2 meters. They now perceived, but with a composure which merits
admiration, that all they could hope was to escape with life. It is no little
to say that the velocity of their descent was much greater than that of their
ascent. They discharged all their remaining ballast, threw overboard even the
coverings which had been provided against the cold, including their furred
boots, but parted with none of the instruments of research.

They fell, at 11 hours 14 minutes, in a vineyard, the ground of which was for-
tunately soft, in the commune of Dampmart, near Lagny. The laborers and
vine-dressers ran to their help, and found the two aeronauts clinging by the
feet and hands to the stems of the vines, in order to counteract as far as possi-
ble the horizontal movement of the car. The most earnest assistance was
rendered them.

From a voyage performed under such conditions it is evident that science
could derive but a very small amount of information in comparison with what
might have been expected; yet it is our duty to say that our two physicists
established, by decisive experiments, that the light of clouds is not polarized ;
that the bed of clouds which they traversed was at least 3,000 meters in thick-
ness, and that, notwithstanding the existence of this curtain between the earth
and sky, the decrease of temperature was very nearly the same with that
verified by Gay Lussac in his celebrated voyage performed in a perfectly
cloudless sky. From the barometrical observations compared with those made
at the Observatory of Paris, it is deducible that, in the region where the
balloon was torn, the height attained was 5,900 meters, and from a similar
computation that the upper surface of the cloud passed through was at the
height of 4,200 meters.

The following numbers complete the details which I laid before the Academy:
At the moment of departure the barometer of the Observatory, reduced to zero,
marked 753 millimeters, and the exterior thermometer 30°.3; the direction of
the wind was west-southwest, and the sky was completely covered. At 10 hours
29 minutes the voyagers penetrated into a cloud having the appearance of a
dense mist, which deprived them of the sight of the earth. At 10 hours 47
minutes the barometer of the car, reduced to zero, marked 458.3 millimeters, and

340 AERONAUTIC VOYAGES,

the thermometer -+-7°; at the same instant the barometer of the Observatory
indicated a pressure of 753.17 millimeters, and the thermometer-+ 19°.4. These
numbers give, by calculation, the height of 4,242 metres above the mean level
of the sea, and correspond with the moment at which the balloon emerged from
the upper part of the clouds. The bed of clouds now below the observers pre-
sented the appearance of mamillary swellings, silver white in color, the light

from which, examined with the polariscopic telescope, yielded no trace of polari-

zation. Except a few clouds, which here and there rose high above the balloon,
the sky was of a pale and dull blue. At 10 hours 59 minutes the barometer of
the car indicated 373.4 millimeters, and the thermometer had sunk below zero.
M. Barral was unable to make out the exact thermometric degree on account of
a layer of hoar-frost deposited on the instrument, which he could not remove.
The barometer was at this time in a state of oscillation, the mean height of its
changes being represented by the number just mentioned. The balloon, which,
notwithstanding the precise directions given, had been so constructed as not
to leave sufficient room for the development incident to the natural dilatation
of the hydrogen,* had now sunk down upon the excursionists; the valve pro-
vided for the escape of the gas was closed; a rent had taken place in the upper
part of the balloon, and MM. Barral and Bixio fell to the earth after having
traversed 5,800 meters in from four to five minutes.

They immediately commenced preparations for a new ascent, which took
place a month after that of which an account has been given. ‘They rose, as
before, from the garden of the Observatory ; and I was a witness of this, as I
had been of their former ascension. I had taken part in all the deliberations
which regarded the scientific purposes of the voyage. If the first one had been
rendered, by unfavorable circumstances, almost entirely barren of results, beyond
giving proof of the intrepidity of the two distinguished explorers, and initiating
them in the dangers of an ascent through an atmosphere agitated by winds and
turbid with thick clouds, it would be sufficient to read the journal of the second
voyage to comprehend how fertile it was both in novelty and interest. The
Academy of Sciences having judged it desirable that such a statement should
be prepared as would enable those least familiar with these matters to appre-
ciate the importance of the contribution made by MM. Barral and Bixio to
meteorology, I yielded to the wishes of that learned body, and shall here
reproduce, in nearly identical terms, the account of the voyage which I then
submitted :

«The two scientific explorers having properly resolved to renew their enter-
prise under more favorable circumstances, and being no longer under a neces-
sity of evincing their courage or punctuality, could afford to await patiently
the day arid the moment. M. Regnault took charge, with M. Barral, of the
preparations, which is equivalent to saying that the utmost ingenuity and
exactness presided over the construction and disposal of the instruments. No
one, however, but an eye-witness, can appreciate the indefatigable zeal and
devotedness which my distinguished colleague exerted day and night in this
behalf.

«Everything was ready on Friday, July 26, 1850, but the weather was
adverse. Saturday morning, the atmosphere having cleared up, the filling of
the balloon was begun. ‘he operation was tedious, and by the time it was

finished, towards one or two o’clock, the sky was overclouded, and a deluge

of rain was falling. ‘The rain finally ceased, but the sky remained entirely
overcast; it would have been only natural, under these circumstances, to

* The difficulty of managing the balloon before its ascent was the reason why the length
of the cords attaching the car was reduced. The wind was so violent that 120 soldiers could
scarcely keep the balloon from being carried away.

‘s ‘
a
yw
a
*
'

a
i
ii

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES. 341

renounce the proposed ascension. I made, in the presence of the two aeronauts,
the observation that it might .be very useful to know the decrease of the atmos-
pheric temperature with the height when a continuous screen of clouds shuts
from us the view of the sky.* Now it sometimes happens that the sky
becomes clear of a sudden; in this case there must remain in the atmosphere
traces more or less marked of the abnormal decrease of temperature of which
the presence of the cloud had been the cause. The observations made in
aerostatic ascensions, performed during clear weather, are not completely
applicable to this special case. Besides, there are numerous occasions when
we observe through openings in the clouds. When MM. Barral and Bixio
arrived at the conclusion, from these considerations and others which it would
be superfluous to mention, that their voyage might prove useful, they placed
themselves in the car and launched into the air.

‘All the details of this ascension are scrupulously given in the journal
written at the time by the aeronauts, and the calculations were compared by
M. Regnault with the indications of the sealed instruments carried in the expe-
dition. I shall only advert here to the fact that at their gréatest elevation our
explorers experienced no uneasiness or embarrassment in their respiration ; and
that M. Bixio, who had suffered in his first voyage from acute pain in the ears,

guarded against that annoyance by simply counterfeiting from time to time

the act of deglutition, by which the air within and without the organ was
maintained in a state of equal pressure. It may be added, that they encoun-
tered a mass of cloud of more than 5,000 meters in thickness, that they did not
succeed in rising entirely above it, but at the height of about 7,000 meters
(22,960 feet) were forced to commence an involuntary descent, the effect of a
rent in the lower part of the balloon. They might, perhaps, by throwing out
the last of their ballast, have prolonged their stay at the height which they
had reached, but circumstances no longer permitting them to gather useful indi-
cations for science, they thought best not to struggle against the downward
tendency of the apparatus. =»

“Let us speak now of the observations which they had an opportunity of
making. When they had attained their highest station in the immense bed of
cloud, an opening took place in the vaporous mass which surrounded them,
through which the blue sky was apparent. ‘The polariscope, directed towards
this region, showed an intense polarization; on the contrary, there was none at
all, when the instrument was pointed aside beyond the opening. This should
not be regarded as a repetition of the experiment made in the first voyage, for
then they observed the light reflected by the clouds, while now it was in the
transmitted light that they verified the absence of all polarization. :

«An interesting optical phenomenon was exhibited during this ascension.
Before attaining the highest limit, the bed of cloud which enveloped the bal-
loon, having diminished in thickness or become less dense, the sun appeared
weak and quite white; at the same time there appeared, below the horizontal
plane of the car, at an angular distance from that plane equal to the angle
formed by the sun’s height, a second sun similar to one which might have been
reflected from a sheet of water situated at that elevation. It is natural to sup-
pose, with our aeronauts, that the second sun was formed by the reflection of
the luminous rays on the horizontal faces of crystals of ice floating in. that
vaporous atmosphere.

«We now come to the most striking and wholly unexpected result furnished
by the thermometrical observations. Gay Lussac, in his ascension in clear or
rather slightly vaporous weather, had found a temperature of 9°.5 below zero

*The refractions at moderate heights depend on the law according to which this decrease
is effected.

342 AERONAUTIC VOYAGES.

at the height’ of 7,016 meters. This was the minimum he observed. MM.
Barral and Bixio encountered this same temperature in the cloud at the height
of about 6,000 meters; but from this point, through an extent of some 600
meters, the temperature varied in a manner the most extraordinary, and beyond
all anticipation. Lest the number which results from the observations should
strike the reader with a feeling of incredulity, it is proper to say that proof
of its exactness will be promptly submitted. At the height of 7,049 meters,
at some distance from the upper limit of the cloud, MM. Barral and Bixio
saw the centigrade thermometer descend to 39 degrees below zero. It is 30
degrees lower than the number observed by Gay Lussac at about the same
height, but when the weather was clear.

“T hasten to prove that this surprising result is affected by no error of observa-
tion. The barometer for determining the height was of course furnished with
a thermometer intended to give the temperature of the mercury. This ther-
mometer had been graduated to 37 degrees below zero. It was thought that
these 37 degrees ought to suffice for the greatest heights to which it was sup-
posed explorers could ascend. But the mercury had descended below this 37th
degree, though it had not shrunk entirely within the reservoir. By an estimate
which could hardly be inexact when made by such a physicist as M. Regnault, -
tlie mercury had descended 2 degrees below 37. ‘The thermometer of the ba-
rometer marked, therefore, 39 degrees.

«“M. Walferdin has invented very ingenious self-registering thermometers,
which give the maxima and minima of temperature to which they have been
exposed. The one for maxima is frequently used; it is desirable that the
second, which is less known, should be generally adopted by physicists. It
is capable of being of great service to mefeorolgy. ‘The inventor had sent
one of his thermometers ¢@ minima with arbitrary divisions to our aeronauts,
and this was enclosed in a case with numerous holes to permit the circula-
tion of air. At the request of the two aeronauts, a seal was applied, and this
seal, which arrived untouched, was eas, the College of France in the
presence of MM. Regnault and Walferdin. Careful examination proved that
the minimum thermometer had sunk to —39°.7. After these precise obser-
vations it is scarcely necessary to say that the proof of an extraordinary depres-
sion of temperature is to be found in the impossibility which the aeronauts
experienced of reading the indications of several thermometers, the fluid of
which had sunk as low as the stopper of cork which supported them. Every
attempt to remove this obstruction was frustrated by the stiffening of the fingers
with cold. This nearly instantaneous depression of the temperature in the
cloudy mass is a discovery which interests meteorology in the highest degree.
What is the special constitution of a cloud which qualifies it, whether by radia-
tion into space or from whatever other cause, to exhibit so prodigious a refrige-
ration? Itis a question which at this moment we can do no more than pro-
poune. Can this abnormal constitution play a part in the formation of hail?

s it, perchance, the cause of the considerable changes of temperature which
are suddenly experienced at a given place? ‘The solution of these questions
is'reserved for the future, which does not, however, at all diminish the import-
ance of the observation.

“Tn the journal of the voyage the temperatures observed were rendered by
thermometers having an arbitrary graduation; the aeronauts did not know what
the numbers signified which they read and registered; the real temperatures
were afterwards determined by M. Regnault, and the heights calculated by M.
Mathieu. We may thus rely with perfect confidence on the results. From
these we deduce that the height attained was 7,049 meters, taking into account
the diminution of weight at those great elevations and the influence of the hour
of the day on the barometric measurement of heights; this is 33 meters higher

.

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES. 343

than Gay Lussac had ascended. It is proper to observe that the formulas used
in calculating heights proceed upon the hypothesis of a nearly wniform decrease
of temperature, and that, in this instance, a change of elevation which may be
estimated at 600 meters, was attended by a variation of temperature of about
30 degrees, while, in an unclouded atmosphere, the variation would have been
but from 4 to 5 degrees.

«'The important.discovery made in this aeronautic voyage shows what science
may expect from like expeditions when they shall be confided, as at that time,
to intrepid, careful, exact, and candid observers.’’

The following is an extract from the journal kept by the two accomplished
physicists during the voyage:

“The graduated instruments which we carried with us had been constructed
by M. Fastré, under the direction of M. Regnault. The tables of graduation
had been prepared in the laboratory of the College of France, and were known
only to the last mentioned-savant.

“The balloon is the same which served for our first ascension; it is formed
of two hemispheres of a radius of 4.8 millimeter, separated by a cylinder 3.8
millimeter in height, having for its base a great circle of the sphere. The total
volume of the balloon is 729 cubic meters. A lower orifice, intended to give
issue to the gas during its dilatation, is terminated by a cylindrical appendage of
silk, 7 meters long, which is left open to permit the free escape of the gas dur-
ing the period of ascent. ‘The car is suspended at about 4 meters below the
orifice of the appendage, so that the balloon may float at the distance of 11
meters from the car, and in no respect interfere with the observations. ‘The
instruments are fixed around a large cast-iron ring which is attached to the
usual wooden circle for securing the cords of the car, and is of such a form
that the instruments may be within convenient distance of the observers.

«Tt was our intention to set out at about 10 o’clock a. m., and measures had
been taken for commencing the inflation of the balloon, an operation with which
MM. Veron and Fontaine were charged, at 6 o’clock. Unfortunately, circum-
stances beyond our control, and arising from the necessity of thoroughly wash-
ing the gas in order to guard against its action upon the tissue of the balloon,
occasioned delay, and it was 1 o’clock before the arrangements were completed.
The sky, which had been quite clear till noon, became covered with clouds,
and soon a deluge of rain was falling upon Paris. This continued until 3 o’clock.
The day was then too far advanced, and the condition of the atmosphere too
unfavorable, for us to hope that we could carry out the programme we had pro-
posed. But the aerostat was ready, great expense had been incurred, and it
was possible that observations in this troubled state of the atmosphere might
lead to useful results. We decided, therefore, to ascend. Our departure took
place at 4 o’clock. Some difficulty was occasioned by the narrowness of the
space which the garden of the observatory afforded for the evolution of ascent.
The balloon, as has been seen, was at a considerable distance from the car, and,
swept forward by the wind, got the start of the frail skiff in which we were
embarked, so that it was only through a series of oscillations, sufficiently
divergent on either side from a vertical line, that we attained a state of tranquil
suspension from the aerostat. We came in contact with trees and a pole, by
which one of the barometers and the thermometer with a blackened surface
were broken, and these were left behind. We shall here transcribe the notes
taken during our ascension. | Sn

«48 3. Departure—The balloon ascends at first slowly, taking a direction
towards the east. ‘The movement of ascension becomes more rapid after the
discharge of some kilograms of ballast. The sky is completely covered with
clouds, and we presently find ourselves in a light mist.

344 AERONAUTIC VOYAGES.

Hours. Barometer. | Thermometer. | Height.
|
Millimeters. | Meters.
aos ghee ee ee. oe nae 694. 70* -+16° 757
seate nlia I pprek epp e ye 8 PALS A SR ER TSA Ln. t OTA O64 CSE a eS ee 999
AAO 30 Sheri Bee ote pele me a een lie eae ee 655. 57 +13. 0 1, 244
BCI) it ep sb hy ee eee 636. 68 a ue 1, 483

«Above us there extends an uninterrupted bed of elouds; below we perceive
here and there detached clouds which appear to float over Paris. The wind is
fresh.

Hours. Barometer. | Thermometer. | Height.
Be aes eh is ale ae whee ite Se wie cml eee 597.73 +9°.0 2,013
MBE nas peek a oe So ene eek ooo ten eee BSS70! Wel soabeeeen eae 2, 567
APU. ee seacee Le: secon ase ee tere eee re 482. 20 —0 .5 3,751

«The cloud which we enter presents the appearance of an ordinary dense
fog. The earth is no longer discernible.

Barometer. Thermometer. Height.
» 405.41 —7°.0 ; 5,121 meters.

“A few solar rays become perceptible through the clouds.

«The barometer oscillates from 366.99 millimeters to 386.42 millimeters; the
thermometer marks —9°.0; calculation gives from 5,911 to 5,492 as the height

_reached at this point of time.

“The balloon is entirely inflated: The appendage, compressed till now by
the external atmosphere, is at present distended, and the gas escapes by its
lower orifice under the form of a whitish trail; we perceive its odor very dis-
tinctly. We discover in the balloon, at the distance of about 1.5 millimeter from
the insertion of the appendage, a rent, which affords issue to a greater amount of
gas, without diminishing, however, in any important degree, the ascensional
force of the aerostat. i

«An opening in the cloud enables us vaguely to perceive the position of the
sun.

“'The balloon resumes its ascendant movement after a new discharge of
ballast.

«4h 25",—Oscillations of the barometer between 347.75 millimeters and
367.04 millimeters indicate a new station of the balloon; the thermometer varies

* All the barometric heights taken have been reduced to the temperature of 0° by calcula-
tion. By means of the barometric and thermometric observations, made at the observatory
and in the ear, the heights of nineteen stations above the observatory and akove the sea were
calculated, increasing them by 65 meters. But the three heights, 6,512, 7,049, and 6,765
meters, where the temperature had sunk to — 35°, — 36°, and — 39°, were obtained by cal-
culating, not from the observatory, but from the intermediate station of 5,902 meters, where
the temperature was — 9°.8, and the pressure 367.04 millimeters. ‘There results 7,004 for the
highest station. But itis still necessary to add a correction of 12 meters, due to the height (5,902
meters) of the inferior station of comparison, and 33 meters on account of the influence of the
hour of the day, as was justly remarked by M. Bravais, which makes in all 7,049 meters.

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES. 345

from —10°.5 to —9°.8; the height we have reached varies from 6,330 to 6,902
meters.

“The fog, much less dense, permits our seeing a white and feeble image of
the sun. x

“A renewed discharge of ballast occasions a new ascension of the balloon,
which attains a new stationary position, indicated by renewed oscillations of the
barometer. We are covered with small particles of ice, in the shape of ex-
tremely fine needles, whieh accumulate in the folds of our clothing. While the
barometric oscillation is descending, and the movement of the balloon is conse-
quently ascensional, these particles fall upon our open, note-book in such quan-
tity as to produce a sort of crepitation. Nothing similar is observed while the
barometer is rising and the balloon, of course, descending.

“The horizontal glass thermometer indicates —4°.69; the silver-plated ther-
mometer —8°.95.

“We distinctly see the disc of the sun through the frozen mist; but at the
same time, in the same vertical plane, we perceive a second image of the sun,
almost as intense as the former. The two images appear symmetrically dis-
posed above and below the horizontal plane of the car, each making with this
plane an angle of about thirty degrees. This phenomenon is apparent for more
than ten minutes.

“The temperature lowers rapidly. We prepare to make a complete series
of observations on the thermometers of radiation and those of the psychrometer,
but the mercurial columns are hidden by the stoppers, Inasmuch as no such
rapid fall in the temperature had been anticipated. ‘Che thermometer with con-
centric envelopes of tin gives —23°.79.

“We open a cage in which two pigeons are confined, but they refuse to
escape. We cast them off into space, when, spreading their wings and wheel-
ing in large circles, they sink downwards and are soon lost to sight in the mist
which surrounds us. We cannot perceive the anchor which is suspended below,
at the end of a cord 50 meters long.

«4h 32 ___We discharge ballast and rise still higher. The clouds separate
above, and we sce im the sky a space of bright azure blue, similar to that seen
on earth in clear weather. 'The polariscope indicates no polarization, in any
direction, on the clouds immediately around or remote from us. The blue of
the sky, on the contrary, is strongly polarized.

“The oscillations of the barometer indicating that we have ceased to ascend,
we throw out ballast, and obtain a new ascensional movement.

Hours. Barometer. | Thermometer. | Height.
*
Millimeters. Meters.
PSI gn a Sl pmo anise niet robots mee 338. 05 —35° 6, 512

“‘Qur fingers are stiffened with cold, but we experience no pain in the ears,
nor is respiration at all embarrassed. 'The sky is covered anew with clouds,
but the sun, though veiled, is still seen, as well as its image. We think it would
be interesting to find if the cold will still increase on ascending yet higher. We
throw out ballast, which determines a further ascension.

« 4h 50™__The barometer marks 315.02 millimeters. The extremity of the
column of the thermometer of the barometer is lower by about two degrees than
the last division marked on the instrument. This division is ap lad the tem-
perature, therefore, was about —39°; the height, consequently, which we had
attained is 7,039 meters.

«The barometer oscillates from 315.02 millimeters to 326.20; hence the bal-
loon oscillates from 7,039 to 6,798 meters. There are only four kilograms of

346 | _ AERONAUTIC VOYAGES.

ballast remaining, which we judge it prudent to keep for the descent. Besides,
it is useless to try to mount higher with instruments which have become mute; the
mereury is congealed. We could, at most, only strive to maintain ourselves for
some time at the same height, but, although the appendage is raised to prevent
the escape of gas by its orifice, the balloon begins to descend. We proceed to
secure portions of the air, and, though the tube of one of the receptacles is
broken in attempting to turn the stop-cock, the other is filled without accident.

But the cold paralyzes all our efforts; observationsshave become impossible ;

our fingers are disqualified for every operation. We resign ourselves to a
descent. ' \

Hours. Barometer. | Temperature. | Height.
| Millimeters, Meters.
a ae ene cl st nce ea binte a soko yeppehae | 436. 40 —9° 4, 502
«“ We still encounter the little needles of ice:
|
Hours. | Barometer. | Temperature. | Height.
| !
Millimeters. | , Meters.
SONS ORR ERI cre heer bhse! See Slee siaterap Lo rao tereeca Stawetatete 483. 16 —7 3, 688
STE eee tag 8 ten Okt ee 540. 39 = 2,796
BN i rotts oa Mein oie ecnigs eee mae Sahina= a 559. 70 —l 2, 452
Brae cage net ears Uae oe Setters pe ee 582.90 * 0 2,185

“'The thermometer with a glass surface marks +2°.50; that with a silvered
surface +1°.91.

«54 16™—The barometer oscillates from 598.5 millimeters to 618.0 millime-

ters, because we throw over our ballast, and this arrests our descent; the tem-
perature is 1°.8; the height varies from 1,973 to 1,707 meters.
* «'The oscillations are prolonged by the discharge of the last portions of our
ballast. We are now only occupied with moderating the descent by sacrificing
all that we have at our disposal, except the instruments, and we place the
thermometers in their cases.

« 52 30™.—We touch the earth at the hamlet of Peux, a commune of Saint
Denis les Rebris, arrondissement of Coulommiers, (Seine et Marne,) at some
paces from the residence of M. Brulfert, mayor of the commune, 70 kilometers
distant from Paris. »

“We had the good fortune to break no instrument in our descent. The
village afforded but a single vehicle to carry us to the Strasbourg railroad, 18
kilometers distant, and the transfer was rendered troublesome by a violent storm
of wind and rain; the horse fell, breaking two of the instruments, which we
greatly desired to carry safe to Paris, namely, the balloon for air, and the instru-
ment indicating the minimum of barometric pressure. Fortunately the minimum
thermometer of M. Walferdin, with his seal, was conyeyed intact to the College
of France. Here the seal was removed by MM. Regnault and Walferdin, and
the minimum of temperature determined, by direct experiment, was found to be
—39°.67, consequently very little different from the lowest temperature observed
by ourselves on the thermometer of the barometer.”’

In rendering my report to the Academy of Sciences, I remarked that the fact
of the presence of a cloud composed of small particles of ice having a temper-
ature of about —40° in mid-summer, at a height of from 6,000 to 7,000 meters
above the surface of Europe, is the greatest discovery which meteorology has

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES. 347

for a long time recorded. This discovery explains how these icy particles may
become the nucleus of hailstones of considerable volume, for we readily com-
prehend how they may condense around them and solidify the aqueous vapors
contained in the atmospheric strata in which they float; it likewise demonstrates
the truth of the hypothesis of Mariotte, who attributed the existence of halos,
parhelia, and paraselenes, to crystals of ice suspended in the air. In fine, the
presence of a widely-extended cloud of great coldness very well accounts for the
sudden changes of temperature which so often and unexpectedly affect our
climates. MM. Barral and Bixio, in discussing the meteorological observations
made in Europe at the time, including the day preceding and the day following
their memorable ascension, were enabled to establish the occurrence of sudden
and general accessions of cold, which bore undoubtedly a direct relation to the
arrival of the intensely frigorific masses of vapor which were then propagating
themselves from the northeast to the southwest.

VI—VOYAGES OF JOHN WELSH.

In July, 1852, the committee of directors of the observatory of Kew, near
London, resolved on the execution of a series of aeronautic ascensions with a
view to the investigation of the meteorological and physical phenomena which
develop themselves in the most elevated regions of the terrestrial atmosphere.
This resolution was approved by the council of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science. Instruments were immediately prepared, consisting
of a barometer of Gay Lussac, dry and wet thermometers, an aspirator, a con-
densing hygrometer of Regnault, a hygrometer of Daniell, a polariscope and
glass tubes to collect the air. The balloon made use of was that of M. Green,
who constantly accompanied M. John Welsh, to whom the observations were
intrusted ; illuminating gas was employed for inflation. our ascensions took
place, August 17 and 26, October 21, November 10, 1852. In the first two
voyages M. Nicklin also accompanied M. Welsh. The place of departure was
the garden of Vauxhall. ,

In the first ascension, August 17, the expeditionists set forth at 49 minutes
after three in the evening, and again touched the earth at 20 minutes after five,
23 leagues north of London. ‘hey reached the height of 5,947 meters. The
lowest pressure they obtained was 364.5 millimeters, and the minimum tem-
perature —13°.2. On the earth the barometer indicated 755.1 millimeters, and
the thermometer +21°.8. A cloud covered the horizon, its inferior limit was
reached at about 762 meters, and its superior limit at 3,963 meters. ‘The bal-
loon then penetrated into pure air, but at a great distance above there spread a
dense cloudy mass. Snow, consisting of star-shaped flakes, fell from time to
time on the balloon. .

The second ascension, August 26, commenced at 4 hours 43 minutes in the
evening, and terminated at 7 hours 35 minutes; the descent took place 10
leagues W.NW. of London. The balloon rose to a height of 6,096 meters, and
the lowest temperature observed was —10°.3. On the earth the pressure was
760.9 millimeters, and the temperature +19.1. A few clouds were suspended
in the atmosphere at a height of about 900 meters; above, the sky was clear
and of a bright blue.

The third ascension took place October 21, at 2 hours 45 minutes; the voy-
agers descended at 4 hours 20 minutes, about 12 leagues to the east of London.
They ascended only to a height of 3,853 meters; the least pressure observed
was 475.5 millimeters, the lowest temperature —3°.8. On the earth the ba-
rometer marked 759.2 millimeters, the thermometer +14°.2. Between 254 and
853 meters, the balloon encountered detached and irregular clouds ; at about
915 meters it entered a continuous bed of cloud, whose upper surface terminated
at 1,093 meters. On its emergence from the cloud the balloon projected on its
nearly level expanse a shadow surrounded with fringes. The light, directly

348 AERONAUTIC VOYAGES.

reflected by the cloud, examined with the polariscope, Sout: no trace of
polarization.

The greatest height at which M. Welsh arrived was attained in his fourth
voyage, ” perfor med the 10th of November. ‘The ascent took place at 2 hours
21 minutes, and the descent, near Folkstone, 23 leagues E.SE. of London, at
3 hours 45 minutes. The height reached was 6,989 meters; minimum tem-
perature observed —23°.6; minimum pressure 310.9 millimeters. On the earth
the barometer indicated 761.1 millimeters, and the thermometer +99°.6. A
first cloud was encountered at 254 meters, whose upper surface reached a height
of 600 meters. There occurred next a space of 620 meters, free from all sensible
vapor; but, at a height of 1,220 meters, a new cloud was met with, which ter-
minated at 4,494 meters. Beyond this there were only a few cirri at a very
great height.

We see that the English acronauts only once approached, though without
attaining, the height of 7,000 meters, reached by Gay Lussac, and by Barral
and Bixio. The very low temperature of —23°.6, observed by Welsh in his
last ascension, would certainly have appeared extraordinary if our countrymen,
in their expedition of July 27, 1850, had not encountered a cloud having a
much lower temperature. The air collected by Mr. Welsh was analyzed by
M. Miller, who found its composition the same with that of normal air. The
hygrometrical observations which Mr. Welsh made with care, and in great num-
ber, by help of the psychrometer and hygrometer of M. Regnault, did not indi-
cate any considerable dryness. On the contrary, even in the highest regions,
the relative atmospheric humidity approached saturation.

VII.—THE GREATEST HEIGHTS REACHED, AND THE TEMPERATURES OBSERVED,
IN. THE UPPER REGIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

It is worthy of remark that, to the present time, man has not ascended into the
atmosphere as high as the aerial stratum which surrounds the loftiest mountain
summits of the Old and New World. Kintschindinga and Aconcagua, the former
8,592, the latter 7,291 meters high. In the ehoent of neal barely 6,000
meters may be assigned as the height to which human effort has attained. In
June, 1802, my illustrious friend, Alexander Humboldt, accompanied by M.
Bonpland, ascended Chimborazo to the altitude of 5,878 meters. In December,
1831, another of my friends, M. Boussingault, accompanied by Colonel Hall,
climbed the same mountain to the height of 6,004 meters above the level of the
sea. If we add to these two celebrated excursions the aeronautic voyages of
Lhoest and Robertson, July 18, 1803; of Gay Lussac, September 16, 1804;
of MM. Barral and Bixio, July 27, 1850; of M. Welsh, August 26 and No-
vember 10, 1852, we have the sum of all the enterprises in which man has
succeeded in maintaining his position for a few instants in the strata of air
situated from 6,000 to 7,000 meters above the mean level of the seas. The
following table recapitulates the thermometric and barometric observations
made under these rare circumstances :

Greatest Lowest barometric Lowest
Names. Dates. heights pressures observed. | temperatures

attained. (Reduced to 0°.) observed.

Meters, Millimeters. Degrees.
Humboldt and Bonpland...---. June 24, 1802 5, 878 376.7 —,1.6
Lhoest and Robertson -.-..- ---- July 18,1803 6, 831 336. 0 — 6.9
Gay Tissacit Eset otes eee Sept. 16, 1804 7, 016 328.8 L205
Boussingault and Colonel Hall.-| Dec. 16, 1831 6, 004 371.1 + 7.8
Barral and Bixio-s-2 = s--eeis- -— July 27, 1850. 7, 049 315.0 —39.7
Welle Do oo es cake eee "--| Aug. 26, 1852 6,096 |. 371.1 —10,3
WMEISD wae oo Se keen Somer ine Noy. 10, 1852 6, 989 310.9 —23. 6

Koy sae

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES. 349

These figures certainly demonstrate that, in high atmospheric regions, the ther-
mometric variations are not less considerable than on the surface of the earth, and
that, in any case, if there be a stratum of constant temperature in the terrestrial
atmosphere, the fact of its existence is only admissible as regards an elevation
probably much greater than any yet reached. Is it practicable to transcend
this limitary height of 7,000 meters, by which all ascensions hitherto undertaken
have been bounded? There is but one consideration which can make us hesi-
tate to answer afiirmatively. We know not if man’s physical constitution could
adapt itself to a pressure much lighter than that of 311 millimeters, about two-
fifths of the mean pressure observed on the sea-shore.

AN ACCOUNT OF BALLOON ASCENSIONS.

BY MR. JAMES GLAISHER.

s [From the London Atheneum, October, 1864. ]

THE committee on balloon experiments was appointed last year for the fol-
lowing purposes: To examine the electrical condition of the air at different
heights; to verify the law of the decrease of temperature; and to compare the
constants in different states of the atmosphere. With respect‘to the first of
these objects no progress had been made, with the exception of preparing an in-
strument and apparatus for the investigation. At the request of the committee Mr.
Fleming Jenkin undertook the construction of the best instrument for the purpose,
and one was finished towards the end of 1863, but it was construeted to be used
with fire. It has since had to be adapted for water, a constant flow of whichis neces-
sary in electrical experiments in balloons. This apparatus Mr. Glaisher was re-
quested by the committee not to use, as they felt that these instruments, if exert-
ing no influence while the balloon was rising, might, when it was falling, throw
considerable doubt on the experiments relating to humidity. With respect to the
second of these objects, the verifying the law of the decrease of temperature in
different states of the atmosphere, the committee considered would be best at-
tained by taking as many observations as possible at times in the year, and at
times in the day, at which no experiments had been made, for the purpose of
determining whether the laws which hold good at noon apply equally well at
all other times of the day. The committee have always pressed the importance
of magnetic observations in the higher regions of the air—the Astronomer Royal
suggesting the use of a horizontal magnet, and taking the times of its vibration
at different elevations, a method which is seldom practicable, owing to the al-
most constant revolution of the balloon. To obviate this, Dr. Lloyd suggested
the use of a dipping-needle, placed horizontally when on the ground, by means
of a magnet above it, so that, when in the balloon, the deviation from horizon-
tality might be noticed, and which deviation would be independent of rotary
motion of the balloon. The latter method has not yet been tried, Dr. Lloyd
wishing some experiments to be made before the instrument was constructed.
At Neweastle a very general wish being expressed that very high ascents
should not again be attempted, none above five miles had since been made... Mr.
Glaisher then gave an account of the ascents made by him during the past year.
The first was from Newcastle, on the 31st of August. The balloon left the earth
at 6h. 11m. p. m., with a north wind, ‘and descended .at five minutes past 7, at
Pittington, near Durham. The decrease of temperature within the first 200

350 AERONAUTIC VOYAGES.

feet of the earth in this ascent was very remarkable, no such rapid decrease
having been found in any other ascents. On the ground the temperature was
64°, and by the time 200 feet had been attained, a decrease of 8 degrees had
taken place, the temperature being 56°. From this height to 1,200 feet there
was but little change, and above this the temperature decreased from 2° to 34° in
each succeeding 1,000 feet up to 7,000 feet, when the balloon entered a relatively
warmer current of air. The second ascent, on the 29th of September, 1863, was
from Wolverhampton. The gas on this occasion had been prepared in July
expressly for a high ascent intended to have taken place before the Newcastle
meeting, but circumstances prevented this being made, and the gas was oblig-
ingly stored in the gasometer by the directors of the gas-works. The balloon
left at 7h. 43m. a. m., wind SW. At 8,200 feet there were two layers of clouds
below the balloon and very dense clouds above. When at 11,000 tect the clouds
were still a mile higher; there was a sea of blue-tinged cloud below, and peeps
of the earth was seen through the breaks. At 13,000 feet high clouds were
still above; but after this they began to dissipate, and at 9h. 38m., at 14,000
feet, the sun shone brightly. Ten minutes afterwards the travellers discovered
the Wash at a distance of only ten miles, and were compelled to descend. A
southwest gale was blowing, and so strong was the wind that on the grapnels
taking the ground near Sleaford, at 10h. 30m., the balloon was rent from top to
bottom. In this ascent warm currents were met with at 8,000 and 13,500 teet.
In the descent a warm current was passed through, extending from 14,000 to
9,000 feet. ‘Temperature at the ground on leaving 48°; at time of descent 53°.
On passing out of the mist at 3,000 feet the humidity declined to 58° at 8,000
feet. Here there were dense clouds above and below. At 9,000 feet the hu-
midity was 71°, and then the air became suddenly dry. 'The third ascent was
made from the Crystal Palace, at 4h. 29m. p.m., on the 9th of October. Insev-
enteen minutes it was 7,300 feet high, and directly over Loudon Bridge, and all
the vast number of buildings, comprising the whole of London, could be clearly
seen. ‘There were neither warm nor cold currents met with on this day. The
secretary of state for war having granted permission to the committee to avail them-
selves of the facilities afforded in the Royal Arsenal, at Woolwich, the ascent of the
12th of January was made from thence. It was intended to have been made on the
21st of December previous, and from time to time the balloon had been partially in-
flated. It left at 2h. 7m. p. m.,and in 14 minutes had crossed the Tilbury rail-
way, and was over Hainault forest. At 3h. 31m. the height of 12,000 feet was
attained, when the balloon began to descend, and touched the ‘ground at 4h. 10m.
at Lakenheath. On the earth the wind was SE. At 1,300 feet a strong SW.
current was entered, in which the balloon continued up to 4,000 feet, when the
wind changed to S. At 8,000 feet the wind changed to S.SW., and afterwards
to S.SE. At 11,000 feet fine granular snow was met with, and the balloon
passed through snow on descending till within 8,000 feet of the earth. Clouds
were entered at 7,000 feet, which merged at about 6,000 feet into mist. This
ascent is the only one ever made in January for scientifie purposes. The fifth
ascent was designed to have been made as near the 21st of March as possible,
but through adverse weather was deferred to the 6th of April. The balloon
left Woolwich at 4h. 7m. p. m., with a SE. wind, ascending evenly at the rate
of 1,000 feet in about three minutes, till 11,000 feet was attained at 4h. 37m.
It descended into Wilderness Park, near Sevenoaks, in Kent. Its course was
most remarkable, having passed over the Thames into Essex. The balloon, un-
known to the aeronauts, must have repassed the river and moved in a directly
opposite direction, and so continued till it approached.the earth, when it again
moved in the same direction as at first. The ascent is remarkable for the small
decrease in temperature with increase of elevation. The air, at the period of
starting, was 454°, and did not decline at all till after reaching 300 feet, after
which it decreased gradually to 33° at 4,300. A warm current was then en-

AERONAUTIC VOYAGES. 351

tered, and the temperature increased till 7,500 feet was attained, when 40°
were attained, being the same as had been experienced at 1,500 feet. It
then decreased to 34° at 8,800 feet, and then increased slowly to 37° at
11,000 feet, a temperature which had been experienced at the heights of 8,500,
.6,500, and 3,000 feet in ascending. After the great injury to the balloon on the
29th of September, in addition to the repairs it had previously undergone, Mr.
Coxwell did not consider it, after the additional rough usage in the last two
voyages, safe for extreme high ascents, and determined to build a new one,
which he did, capable of containing 10,000 cubic feet more gas than the old one,
so that, if need be, two observers could ascend together to the height of five
miles. A new balloon, however, needs trying in low ascents until it proves
gas-tight before it can be used for great elevations; and, on June 13, it was
therefore started on a small ascent from the Crystal Palace, at 7 o’clock—the
sky cloudless, and the air perfectly clear, except in the direction of London. An
elevation of 1,000 feet was reached in 14 minute, 3,000 feet at 7h. 8m., when
the balloon descended to 2,300 feet, and then reascended to 3,400, when, after
aslight dip, it again ascended to 3,550 feet, the highest point by 7h. 28m., and
then, after some oscillations, began its downward course at 7h. 50m. from 2,800
feet, reaching the ground at East Horndon, five miles from Brentwood, at 8h.
14m.—the remarkable feature in this voyage being that, below 1,800 feet ele-
vation, there was scarcely any change of temperature until the earth was reached.
This fact of no change in the temperature of the air at the time of sunset was
very remarkable, for it indicated that, if such be a law, the law of decrease of
temperature with increase of elevation may be reversed at night for some dis-
tance from the earth. June 20, the balloon left Derby at 17 minutes past 6
p- m., and descended near Newark. June 27, the balloon ascended from the
Crystal Palace at 6h. 334m.—the sky cloudy, wind west. The descent was
made on Romney Marsh, 5 miles from the shore. ‘These several trial trips of
the new balloon were made, and it was gradually becoming gas-tight, when its
lamentable destruction at Leicester took place. The mayor of that town has
recently presided over a meeting for the purpose of collecting subscriptions to
assist Mr. Coxwell to rebuild a new balloon; and we concur in Mr. Glaisher’s
wish that the town of Leicester and the Foresters’ Society will soon remove the
stigma resting upon them. Mr. Coxwell, since then, has had recourse to the
old balloon, which he had repaired as best he could, and the next and last as-
cent of which Mr. Glaisher had to speak was made with it, on August 29, from
the Crystal Palace, at 4h. 6m. The difference between the temperatures of
the air and those of the dew-point in this ascent was rather remarkable. The
most important point in the past year’s experiments are that, though the
law of decrease of temperature under ordinary circumstances in the summer
months is pretty well determined, we cannot say such a law holds good through-
out the year; nor can we say that the laws which are in force during the day
will be in force’at night. In carrying out these experiments Mr. Glaisher said
he had freely given up all his leisure, and that Mr. Coxwell had done the same
in a most unselfish manner. Indeed, had it not been for the generous spirit in
which Mr. Coxwell had entered into these experiments, they never could have
been made, except at a multiple of the cost that had been incurred.

352 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

AN ACCOUNT

OF

THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS

OF

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA,
AS GIVEN BY

JACOB BAEGERT, A GERMAN JESUIT MISSIONARY, WHO LIVED THERE SEVENTEEN
YEARS DURING THE SECOND HALF OF THE LAST CENTURY.

TRANSLATED AND ARRANGED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY CHARLES RAU, OF NEW YORE CITY.

INTRODUCTION.

WHEN, in 1767, by a decree of Charles ITI, all members of the order of the ~
Jesuits were banished from Spain and the transatlantic provinces subject to that
realm, those Jesuits who superintended the missions established by the Spaniards
since 1697 in Lower California were compelled to leave their Indian converts, and
to transfer their spiritual authority to a number of friars of the Franciscan order.
One of the banished Jesuits, a German, who had spent seventeen years in the
Californian peninsula, published, after his return to his native country, a book
which contains a description of that remote part of the American continent, and
gives also quite a detailed account of its aboriginal inhabitants, with whom the
author had become thoroughly acquainted during the many years devoted to
their conversion to Christianity. This book, which is now vefy scarce in
Germany, and, of course, still more so in this country, bears the title: Account
of the American Peninsula of California ; with a twofold Appendix of False
Reports. Written by a Priest of the Society of Jesus, who lived there many
years past. Published with the Permission of my Superiors. Mannheim, 1773.*

Modesty, or perhaps other motives, induced the author to remain anonymous,
but with little success; for his name, which was Jacob Baegert, is sometimes
met with in old catalogues, in connexion with the title of his book. That his
home was on the Upper Rhine he states himself in the text, but further par-
ticulars relative to his private affairs, before or after his missionary labors in
California, have not come to my knowledge. He does not even mention over
which of the fifteen missions existing at his time on the peninsula he presided,
but merely says that he had lived in California under the twenty-fifth degree,
and twelve leagues distant from the Pacific coast, opposite the little bay of St.
Magdalen. On the map accompanying his work there are two missionary sta-
tions marked under that latitude—the mission of St. Aloysius and that of the

* Nachrichten von der Amerikanischen Halbinsel Californien: mit einem zweyfachen
Anvhang Falscher Nachrichten. Geschrieben von einem Priester der Gesellschaft Jesu,
welcher lang darinn diese letztere Jahr gelebet hat. Mit Erlaubnuss der Oberen. Mann-
heim, 1778. :

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 353

Seven Dolors, (Septem Dolorum,) of which the first named evidently was his
place of residence.

The work in question constitutes a small octavo volume of 358 pages, and is
divided into three paris. The first division (of which I will give a short
synopsis in this introduction) treats of the topography, physical geography,
geology, and natural history of the peninsula; the second part gives an account
of the exhabitants, and the third embraces a short but interesting history of the
missions in Lower California. In the appendices to the work the author refutes
certain exaggerated reports that had been published concerning the Californian
peninsula, and he is particularly very severe upon Venegas’ “Noticia de la
California,” (Madrid, 1757, 3 vols.,) a work which is also translated into the
English, French, and German languages. He accuses the Spanish author of
having given by far too favorable, and, in many instances, utterly false
accounts of the country, its productions and inhabitants, which is rather a
noticeable circumstance, since Venegas is considergd as an authority in matters
relating to the ethnology of California.

While reading the work of the German missionary, I was struck with the
amount of ethnological information contained in it, especially in the second
part, which is exclusively devoted to the aboriginal inhabitants, as stated
before ; and upon conversing on the subject with some friends, members of the
American Ethnological Society, they advised me to translate for publication if
not the whole book, at least that part of it which relates to the native popula-
tion, of which we know, comparatively, perhaps less than of any other portion
of the indigenous race of North America. As there is a growiug taste for the
study of ethnology manifested in this country, and, consequently, a tendency
prevailing to collect all materials illustrating the former condition of ile Ameri-
can aborigines in different parts of the continent, I complied with the request
of my friends, and devoted my hours of leisure to the preparation of this little
work, supposing that the account of a man who lived among those Californians
a century ago, when their original state had been but little changed by inter-
course with Europeans, might be an acceptable addition to our stock of
ethnological knowledge.

I have to state, however, that the following pages are not a translation in
the strict sense of the word, but a reproduction of the work only as far as it
refers to ethnological matters. 'The reasons which induced me thus to deviate
from the usual course of a translator are obvious; for even that portion of the
text which treats of the native race contains many things that are not in the
least connected with ethnology, the good’ father being somewhat garrulous and
rather fond of moralizing and enlarging upon religious matters, as might be
expected from one of his calling; and, although he places the natives of the
peninsula exceedingly low in the scale of human development, he takes, never-
theless, occasion to draw comparisons between their barbaric simplicity and the
over-refined habits of the Europeans, much in the manner of Tacitus, who seizes
upon every opportunity to rebuke the luxury and extravagance of his country-
men, while he describes the rude sylvan life of the ancient inhabitants of Ger-
many. My object being simply to rescue from oblivion a number of facts
relating to a portion of the American race, I have omitted all superfluous com-
mentaries indulged in by the author, and, in order to bring kindred subjects
under common heads, I have now and then used some freedom in the arrange-
ment of the matter, which is nut always properly linked in the original.
Although the second part of the book has chiefly furnished the material for
this reproduction, I have transferred to the English text, and inserted in the
proper places, all those passages in the other divisions, and even in the two
appendices that have a bearing upon ethnology, giving thus unity and com-
pleteness to the subject,*which induced me to prepare these pages. For the
rest I have preserved, so far as feasible, the language of the author. Not

23 8

*

304 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF
much can be said, however, in favor of the style exhibited in the original, and
even the spelling of the words defies all rules of orthography, which were
adopted a century ago in the German language; nor is our father unaware of
his deficiencies, but honestly states in his preface that “if his style was none
of the smoothest, and his orthography incorrect in some places, the reader
might consider that during the seventeen years of his sojourn in California,
comprising the period from 1751 to 1768, he hardly ever had conversed in
German, and, consequently, almost forgotten the use of his mother language.”

Of the peninsula Father Baegert gives a rather woeful account. He describes
that region as an arid, mountainous country, covered with rocks and sand,
deficient in water, and almost without shade-trees, but abounding in thom
plants and shrubs of various kinds. The sterility of the soil is caused by the
scantiness of water. ‘No one,” says the author, “need be afraid to drown
himself in water; but the danger of dying from thirst is much greater.’’ There
falls some rain, accompanied by short thunder-storms, during the months of
July, August, September, and October, filling the channels worn in the hard
ground. Some of these soon become dry after the showers; others, however,
hold water during the whole year, and on these and the stagnant water col-
lected in pools and ponds men and beasts have to rely for drink. Of running
waters, deserving the name of brooks, there are but six in the country, and of
these six only four reach the sea, while the others lose themselves not very far
from their sources among rocks and sand. There is nothing to be seen in
Lower California that may be called a wood; only a few straggling oaks,
pines, and some other kinds of trees unknown in Europe, are met with, and
these are confined to certain localities. Shade and material for the carpenter
are, therefore, very scarce. ‘The only tree of any consequence is the so-called
mesquite; but besides that it alvays grows quite isolated, and never in groups,
the trunk is very low, and the wood so hard that it almost defies the applica-
tion of iron tools. The author mentions, further, a kind of low Brazil wood, a
tree called paloblanco, the bark of which serves for tanning; the palohierro or
iron-wood, which is still harder than the mesquite; wild fig trees that bear no
fruit; wild willows and barren palms, “all of which would be ashamed to
appear beside a European oak or nut-tree.’”’ One little tree yields an odoriferous
gum that was used in the Californian churches as frankincense. But in com-
pensation for the absence of large trees, there is a prodigious abundance of
prickly plants, some of a gigantic height, but of little practical use, their soft,
spongy stems soon rotting after being cut. Among the indigenous edible pro-
ductions of the vegetable kingdom ait chiefly mentioned the tunas or Indian
figs, the aloé, and the pitahayas, of which the latter deserve a special notice
as forming an important article of food of the Indians. There are two kinds
of this fruit—the sweet and the sour pitahaya. ‘The former is round, as large
as a hen’s egg, and has a green, thick, prickly shell that covers a red or white
flesh, in which the black seeds are scattered like grains of powder. It is
described as being sweet, but not of a very agreeable taste without the addition
of lemon juice and sugar. There is no scarcity of shrubs bearing this fruit,
and from some it can be gathered by hundreds. They become mature in the
middle of June, and continue for more than eight weeks. ‘The sour pitahaya,
which grows on low, creeping bushes, bristling with long spines, is much
larger than the other kind, of excellent taste, but by far less abundant; for,
although the shrubs are very plentiful, there is hardly one among a hundred
that bears fruit. Of the aloé or mescale, as the Spaniards and Mexicans call
it, the fibres are used by the aborigines, in lieu of hemp, for making threads
and strings, and its fruit is eaten by them.

A very curious portion of the book is that which treats of the animals found
in California. ‘The author is evidently not much of a‘haturalist, and, in classi-
fying animals, he manifests occasionally a sovereign independence that would

PET ae Pe
al

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 355

shock the feelings of a Blumenbach or Agassiz; yet his remarks, resulting from
actual observation, are for the most part correct, and evince undeniably his
love of truth. In the list of wild quadrupeds are enumerated the deer, hare,
rabbit, fox, coyote, wild cat, skunk, (Sorillo,) leopard, (American panther,)
onza, and wild ram. In reference to the last-named animal the author remarks:
“Where the chain of mountains that runs lengthwise through the whole penin-
sula reaches a considerable height, there are found animals resembling our
rams in all respects, except the horns, which are thicker, longer, and much
more curved. When pursued, these animals will drop themselves from the
highest precipices upon their horns without receiving any injury. Their num-
ber, however, cannot be great, for I never saw a living specimen, nor the fur
of one in the possession of an Indian; but many skins of leopards and onzas.”

This animal is doubtless identical with the Rocky Mountain sheep, ( Ovzs
montana.)

The feathered tribe does not seem to be very plentiful in California, since,
according to Father Baegert, a person may travel one or two days without see-
ing other birds but occasionally a filthy vulture, raven, or “bat.”’ Among the few
which he observed are the red-bird, (cardima/) blue-bird, humming-bird, and
an ‘‘ash-colored bird with a tail resembling that of a peacock and a beautiful
tuft on its head ;”’ also wild ducks and a species of swallow, the latter appear-
ing only now and then in small numbers, and therefore considered as extraneous.

There are some small fish found in the waters of California; but they do not
amount to much, and during lent the father obtained his supply from the
Pacific, distant 12 leagues trom his habitation. On the other days of abstinence
his meal usually consisted of a “little goat-milk and dry beans, and if a few
eggs were added, he cared for nothing else, but considered himself well enter-
tained.”’

Under the comprehensive, but not very scientific head of “ vermin,” the author
enumerates snakes, scorpions, centipedes, huge spiders, toads, wasps, bats, ants,
and grasshoppers. ‘hese vermin seem to have been a great annoyance to the
good missionary, especially the snakes, of which there are about twenty differ-
ent kinds in California, the rattlesnake being, of course, the most conspicuous
among them. ‘This dangerous reptile, which seems to be very numerous in that
region, is minutely and correctly described, and, as might be expected, there
are also some “snake stories” related. One day when the author was about
to shave and took his razors from the upper board of his book-shelf, he discov-
ered there, to his horror, a rattlesnake of large size. He received likewise in
his new dwelling-house, which was a stone building, frequent visits from scor-
pions, large centipedes, tarantulas, ants and toads, all precautions being unavail-
ing against the intrusion of these uninvited guests. ‘he grasshoppers are rep-
resented as a real public calamity. Migrating from the southern part of the
peninsula towards the north, they deluge the country, obscuring the sun by
their numbers, and causing a noise that resembles a strong wind. Never devi-
ating from their line of march, they will climb houses and churches encountered
during their progress, laying waste all fields and gardens over which their per-
nicious train passes.

Of the climate in California the author speaks well, and considers it as both
healthy and agreeable. Being only one degree and a half distant from. the
Tropic of Cancer, he lived, of course, in a hot region, and he remarks with ref-
erence to the high temperature that some thought the name “ California” was
a contraction from the Latin words calida fornaz, (hot oven,) without vouching,
however, for the correctness of the derivation, though he is certain that the ap-
pellation is not of Indian origin. ‘The greatest heat begins in the month of
July and lasts till the middle of October; but there is every day in the year
quite a refreshing wind blowing, which begins at noon, if not sooner, and con-
tinues tillnight. The principal winds are north west and south west ; the north

356 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

wind blows only now and then during the winter months, but the east wind
hardly ever, the latter circumstance being somewhat surprising to the author,
who observed that the clouds are almost invariably moving from the east. He
never found the cold severer than during the latter part of September or April
on the banks of the Rhine, where, after his return, the persevering coldness of
winter and clouded atmosphere during that period made him long for the mild
temperature and always blue and serene sky of the country he hadleft. Fogs
in the morning are frequent in California, and oecur not only during fall and
winter, but also sometimes in the hot season. Dew is said to be not more fre-
quent nor heavier than in middle Europe.

_ Though the author represents California as a dry, sterile country, where but
little rain falls, he admits that in those isolated parts where the proximity of
water imparts humidity, the soil exhibits an astonishing fertility. “There,” he
says, “one may plant what he chooses, and it will thrive; there the earth yields
fruit a hundred-fold, as in the best countries of Europe. jsroducing wheat and
maize, rice, pumpkins, water and other melons of twenty pounds’ weight, cot-
ton, lemons, oranges, plantains, pomegranates, excellent sweet grapes, olives
and figs, of which the latter can be gathered twice ina summer. The same
field yields a double or threefold harvest of maize, that grows to prodigious
height, and bears sometimes twelve ears on one stalk. I have seen vines in
California that produced in the second year a medium sized basket full of
grapes; in the third or fourth year some are as thick as an arm, and shoot forth,
in one season, eight and more branches of six feet length. It is only to be re-
gretted that such humid places are of very rare occurrence, and that water for
irrigating a certain piece of land sometimes cannot be found within a distance
of sixty leagues.”

Tn the last chapter of the first part the author gives an account of the pearl
fisheries and silver mines carried on in Lower California while he was there.
Both kinds of enterprise are represented as insignificant and by no means very
profitable. “very summer,” he says, “eight, ten or twelve poor Spaniards
from Sonora, Cinaloa or other parts opposite the peninsula, cross the Gulf in
little boats, and encamp on the California shore for the purpose of obtaining
pearls. They carry with them a supply of Indian corn and some hundred
weight of dricd beef, and are accompanied by a number of Mexican Indians,
who serve as pearl fishers, for the Californians themselves have hitherto shown
no inclination to risk their lives for a few yards of cloth. The pearl fishers
are let down into the sea by ropes, being provided with a bag for receiving the
pearl oysters which they rake from the rocks and the bottom, and when they
can no longer hold their breath, they are pulled up again with their treasure.
The oysters, without being opened, are counted, and every fifth one is put aside
foy the king. Most of them are empty; some contain black, others white pearls,
the latter being usually small and ill-shaped. If a Spaniard, after six or
eight weeks of hard labor, and after deducting all expenses, has gained a hun-
dred American pesos (that is 500 French livres, or a little more than 200 Rhen-
ish florins—a very small sum in America!) he thinks he has made a little for-
tune which he cannot realize every season. God knows whether the fifth part
of the pearls fished in the Californian sea yields, on an average, to the Catho-
lic king 150 or 200 pesos in a year, even if no frauds are committed in the
transaction. J heard of only two individuals, with whom I was also personally
acquainted, who had accumulated some wealth, after spending twenty and more
years in that line of business. The others remained poor wretches, with all
their pearl fishing.” . :

‘There were but two silver mines of any note in operation at the time of
Baegert’s sojourn in California, and those had been opened only a few years
previous to his arrival. They were situated in the districts of St. Anna and
St. Antonio, near the southern end of the peninsula, and only three leagues

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 357

distant from each other. Digging for silver in California is not represented as
a lucrative business, the owner of one of the mines being so poor that he had
to beg for his travelling money when he was about to return to Spain. The
proprietor of the other mine was in better circumstances, but he owed his wealth
more to other speculations than to his subterranean pursuits. The mining
population in the two districts amounted to 400 souls, women and children in-
eluded, and the workmen were either Spaniards born in America, or Indians
from the other side of the Californian gulf. The external condition of these
people is represented as wretched in the highest degree. The soil produced
almost nothing, and not having the necessary money to procuye provisions from
the Mexican side, they were sometimes compelled to gather their food in the
fields, like the native Californians. The author speaks of a locality between
the twenty-eighth and twenty-ninth degree, called Rosario, where some sup-
posed gold to exist, but even admitting the fact, he thinks it would be almost
impossible to work mines in that region, where neither food for men and beasts,
nor water and wood, can be procured. Near the mission of St. Ignatius (28th
degree) sulphur is found, and on the islands of El Carmen and St. Joseph in
the Californian gulf, and in different places on both coasts salt of very good
quality is abundant.

Having thus given an abstract of the first part of the book, I cannot con-
clude these introductory remarks without saying a few words in favor of the
Jesuits. Whatever we may think, as Protestants, of the tendencies of that
order, we cannot but admit that those of its members who came as missionaries
to America deserve great credit for their zeal in propagating a knowledge of
the countries and nations they visited in the New World. ‘To the student of
American ethnology particularly, the numerous writings of the Jesuit fathers
are of inestimable value, forming, as it were, the very foundations upon which
almost all subsequent researches in that interesting field of inquiry are based.

«The missionaries and discoverers whom the order of the Jesuits sent forth
were for the most part not only possessed of the courage of martyrs, and of
statesmanlike qualities, but likewise of great knowledge and learning. They
were enthusiastic travellers, naturalists, and geographers; they were the best
mathematicians and astronomers of their time. They have been the first to
give us faithful and circumstantial accounts of the new countries and nations
they visited. There are few districts in the interior of America concerning
which the Jesuits have not supplied us with the oldest and best works, and we
can scarcely attempt the study of any American language without meeting with
a grammar composed by a Jesuit. In addition to their chapels and colleges in
the wilderness, the Jesuits likewise erected observatories; and there are few
rivers, lakes, and mountains in the interior, which they have not been the first
to draw upon our maps.”

With this well-deservod eulogy, which is quoted from Mr. J. G. Kohl’s re-
cent work on the discovery of America, I leave to Father Baegert himself the
task of relating his experiences among the natives of Lower California.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF THE
CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA.

CHAPTER I.—THE STATURE, COMPLEXION, AND NUMBER OF THE CALIFORNIANS 34
ALSO, WHENCE AND HOW THEY MAY HAVE COME TO CALIFORNIA.

In physical appearance the Californians resemble perfectly the Mexicans and
other aboriginal inhabitants of America. Their skin is of a dark chestnut or
clove color, passing, however, sometimes into different shades, some individuals
being of a more swarthy complexion, while others are tan or copper colored.

‘

358 . THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

But in new-born children the color is much paler, so that they hardly ean be
distinguished from white children when presented for baptism; yet it appears
soon after birth, and assumes its dark tinge in a short time. The hair is black
as pitch and straight, and seldom turns gray, except sometimes in cases of
extreme old age. ‘They are all beardless, and their eye-brows are but scantily
provided with hair. he heads of children at their birth, instead of being cov-
ered with scales, exhibit hair, sometimes half a finger long. The teeth, though
never cleaned, are of the whiteness of ivory. The angles of the eyes towards
the nose are not pointed, but arched like a bow. They are well-formed and
well-proportioned,people, very supple, and can lift up from the ground stones,
bones, and similar things with the big and second toes. All walk, with a few
exceptions, even to the most advanced age, perfectly straight. ‘Their children
stand and walk, before they are a year old, briskly on their fect. Some are tall
and of a commanding appearance, others small of stature, as elsewhere, but no
corpulent individuals are seen among them, which may be accounted for by their
manner of living, for, being compeiled to run much around, they have no chance
oi vrowing stout.

in a country as poor and sterile as California the number of inhabitants can-
not be great, and nearly all would certainly die of hunger in a few days if it
were as densely populated as most parts of Europe. ‘There are, consequently,
very few Californians, and, in proportion to the extent of the country, almost
as few, as if there were none at all; yet, nevertheless, they decrease annually.
A person may travel in different parts four and more days without seeing a
single human being, and I do not believe that the number of Californians from
the promontory of St. Lucas to the Rio Colorado ever amounted, before the
arrival of the Spaniards, to more than forty or fifty thousand souls.* It is
certain that 1n 1767, in fifteen, that is, in all the missions, from the 22d to the
31st degree, only twelve thousand have been counted. But an insignificant
population and its annual diminution are not peculiar to California alone; both
are common to all America. During my journey overland along the east side
of the Californian gulf, from Guadalaxara to the river Hiaqui, in the Mexican
territory, a distance of four hundred leagues,t I saw only thirteen small Indian
villages, and on most days I did not meet a living soul. Father Charlevoix,
before setting out on a journey through Canada or New France, writes in his
first letter, addressed to the Duchess of Lesdiguiéres, that he would have to
travel sometimes a hundred and more leagues without seeing any human beings
besides his companions. {

With the exception of Mexico and some other countries, North America was,
even at the time of the discovery, almost a wilderness when compared with
Germany and France; and this is still more the case at the present time.
Whoever has read the history of New France by the above-named author, or
has travelled six or seven hundred leagues through Mexico, and, besides, ob-
tained reliable information concerning the population of other provinces, can
easily form an estimate of the number of native inhabitants in North America;
and if the southern half of the New World does not contain a hundred times
more inhabitants than the northern part, which, relying on the authority of men
who have lived there many years and have travelled much in that country, I
am far from believing, those European geographers who speak in their books of
300 millions of Americans are certainly mistaken. Who knows whether they

* Washington, Irving states they had numbered from 25,000 to 30,000 souls when the first
missions were established; on what authority Ido not know.—Advcntures of Captain Bon-
nevule, (ed. of 1851,) p. 332.

t Stunden.—I translate this word by ‘‘league,”’ though the French lieve is a little longer
than the German stunde.

{ Histoire de la Nouvelle France, par le P. de Charlevoix. Paris, 1744; vol. v. p. 66

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 359

would find in all more than fifteen or twenty millions? The many hundred
languages which are spoken in South America alone are a sure evidence of a
Seanty population, although the contrary might be inferred at first sight; for, if
there were more people, there would be more community among them, the tribes
would live closer together, and, as a result, there would be fewer languages.
The Ikas in my district speak a language different from that of the other people
in my mission; but I am pretty sure that the whole nation of these Ikas never
amounted to five hundred persons.

It is easy to comprehend why America is so thinly populated, the manner of
living of the inhabitants and their continual wars among themselves being the
eauses of this deficiency ; but how it comes that, since the discovery of the fourth
part of the world, its population is constantly melting down, even in those prov-
inces where the inhabitauts are not subjected to the Europeans, but retain their
full, unrestrained liberty, as, for instance, according to Father Charlevoix, in
Louisiana, (that is, in the countries situated on both sides of the Mississippi) is
a question, the solution of which I leave to others, contenting myself with what
is written in the Psalms, namely, that the increase or diminution of the human
race in different countries is a mystery which man cannot penetrate.

However small the number of Californians is, they are, nevertheless, divided
into a great many nations, tribes, and tongues.* If a mission contains only one
thousand souls, it may easily embrace as many little nations among its parish-
ioners as Switzerland counts cantons and allies. My mission consisted of
Paurus, Atshémes, Mitshirikutamais, Mitshirikuteurus, Mitshirikutaruanajéres,
Teackwas, Teenguabebes, Utshis, Ikas, Anjukwares, Utshipujes; all being
different tribes, but hardly amounting in all to five hundred souls.

It might be asked, in this place, why there existed fifteen missions on the
peninsula, since it appears that 12,000, and even more, Indians could be con-
veniently superintended and taken care of by three or four priests. The answer
is, that this might be feasible in Germany as well as in a hundred places out of
Europe, but is utterly impracticable in California; for, if 3 or 4,000 Califor-
nians were to live together in a small district, the scanty means of subsistence
afforded by that sterile country would soon prove insuflicient to maintain them,
Besides, all of these petty nations or tribes have their own countries, of which
they are as much, and sometimes even more, enamored than other people of theirs,
so that they would not consent to be transplanted fifty or more leagues from
the place they consider as their home. And, further, the different tribes wha
live at some distance from each other are always in a mutual state of enmity,
which would prevent them from living peaceably together, and offer a serious
obstacle to their being enclosed in the same fold. In time of general contagious
diseases, lastly, which are of no unfrequent occurrence, a single priest could nor
perform his duties to their full extent in visiting all his widely scattered patients,
and administering to their spiritual and temporal wants. My parish countec
far less than a thousand members, yet their encampments were often more thax
thirty leagues distant from each other. Of the languages and dialects in this
country there are also not a few, and a missionary is glad if he has mastered
one of them.

It remains now to state my opinion concerning the place where the Califor-
nians cime from, and in what manner they effected their migration to the country
they now occupy. They may have come from ditferent localities, and either
voluntarily or by some accident, or compelled by necessity; but that people

*The author probably fell into the very common error of confounding dialects with lan-
guages. Dr. Waitz, relying on Buschmann’s linguistic researches, mentions only three prin-
cipal languages spoken by the natives of Lower California, viz., the Pericu, Monqui, and
Cochimi languages.— Anthropologie der Naturvdlker von Dr. Theodor Waitz. Leipzig, 1864;
vol iv, p. 248.

360 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

should have migrated to California of their own free will, and without compul-
sion, I am unable to believe. America is very large, and could easily support
fifty times its number of inhabitants on much better soil than that of California.
How, then, is it credible that men should have pitched, from free choice, their
tents amidst the inhospitable dreariness of these barren rocks? It is not impos-
sible that the first inhabitants may have found by accident their way across the
sea from the other side of the Californian gulf, where the provinces of Cinaloa
and Sonora are situated; but, to my knowledge, navigation never has been
practiced by. the Indians of that coast, nor is it in use among them at the
present time. ‘There is, furthermore, within many leagues towards the interior
of the country no kind of wood to be had suitable for the construction of even
the smallest vessel. Irom the Pimeria, the northernmost country opposite the
peninsula, a transition might have been easier either by land, after crossing the
Rio Colorado, or by water, the sea being in this place very narrow and full of

o

islands. In default of boats they could employ their balsas or little rafts made
of reeds, which are also used by my Californians who live near the sea, either
for catching fish or turtle, or crossing over to a certain island distant two leagues
from the shore. I am, however, of opinion that, if these Pimerians ever had
gone to California induced by curiosity, or had been driven to that coast by a
storm, the dreary aspect of the country soon would have caused them to return
without delay to their own country. It was doubtless necessity that gave the
impulse to the peopling of the peninsula. Nearly all neighboring tribes of
America, over whom the Europeans have no sway, are almost without cessation
at war with each other, as long as one party is capable of resistance ; but when
the weaker is too much exhausted to carry on the feud, the vanquished usually
leaves the country and settles in some other part at a sufficient distance from
its foes. I am, therefore, inclined to believe that the first inhabitants, while
pursued by their enemies, entered the peninsula by land from the north side,
and having found there a safe retreat they remained and spread themselves out.
If they had any traditions, some light might be thrown on this subject; but no
Californian is acquainted with the events that occurred in the country prior to
his birth, nor does he even know who his parents were if he should happen to
have lost them during his infancy.

To all appearance the Californians, at least those toward the south, believed,
before the arrival of the Spaniards in their country, that California constituted
the whole world, and they themselves its sole inhabitants; for they went to
nobody, and nobody came to see them, each little people remaining within the
limits of its small district. Some of those under my care believed to be de-
rived from a bird ; some traced their origin from a rock that was lying not far from
my house; while others ascribed their descent to still different, but always
equally foolish and absurd sources. |

CHAPTER II.—THEIR HABITATIONS, APPAREL, IMPLEMENTS, AND UTENSILS.

With the exception of the churches and dwellings of the missionaries, which
every one, as well as he could, and as time and circumstances permitted, built
of stone and lime, of stone and mud, of huge unburnt bricks, or other materials,
and besides some barracks which the Indians attached to the missions, fhe few
soldiers, boatmen, cowherds, and miners have now erected in the fourteen sta-
tions, nothing is to be seen in California that bears a resemblance to a city, a
village, a human dwelling, a hut, or even a dog-house. The Californians them-
selves spend their whole life, day and night, in the open air, the sky above them
forming their reof, and the hard soil the couch on which they sleep. During
winter, only, when the wind blows sharp, they construct around them, but only
opposite the direction of the wind, a half moon of brush-wood, a few spans high,

er

'

Saw

EEE SS TE Oe I

+

PP SE ar EIN re

Foe

—

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 361

as a protection against the inclemency of the weather,* showing thus that, not-
withstanding their simplicity, they understand pretty well “how to turn the
mantle towards the wind.’’+ It cannot be otherwise with them; for, if they
had houses, they would be compelled to carry their dwellings always with
them, like snails or turtles, the necessity of collecting food urging them to wan-
der constantly about. Thus they cannot start every morning from the same
place and return thither in the evening, since, notwithstanding the small num-
ber of each little people, a small tract of land could not provide them with
provisions during a whole year. ‘l'o-day the water will fail them; to-morrow
they have to go to some locality for gathering a certain kind of seed that serves
them as food, and so they fulfil to the letter what is written of all of us, namely,
that we shall have no fixed abode in this world. I am certainly not much mis-
taken in saying that many of them change their night-quarters more than a
hundred times in a year, and hardly sleep three times successively in the same
place and the same part of the country, always excepting those who are con-
nected with the missions. Wherever the night surprises them they will lie
down to sleep, not minding in the least the uncleanliness of the ground, or ap-
prehending any inconvenience from reptiles and other vermin, of which there
is an abundance in this country. They do not live under the shade of trees, as
some authors have said, because there are hardly any trees in California that
afford shade, nor do they dwell in earth-holes of their own making, as others
have said, but. sometimes, and only when it rains, they resort to the clefts and
cavities of rocks, if they ean find such sheltering places, which do not oceur
as frequently as their wants require.

Whenever they undertake to construct shelters for protecting their sick from
heat or cold, the entrance is usually so low that a person has to creep on hands
and feet in order to get in, and the whole structure is of such small dimensions
as to render it impossible to stand erect within, or to find room to sit down on
the ground for the purpose of confessing or comforting the patient. Of no better
condition are the huts of those Indians who live near the missions, the same
being often so small and miserable that man and wife hardly ean sit or lie down
in them. Even the old and infirm are utterly indifferent as to their being under
shelter or not, and it happened often that 1 found old sick persons lying in the
open air, for whose accommodation I had caused huts to be built on the pre-
ceding day. So much for habit. hilt.

As the blue sky forms the only habitation of the Californian Indians, so they
wear no other covering than the brown skin with which nature has clothed them,
This applies to the male sex in the full sense of the word, and even women have
been found in the northern parts of California in a perfect state of nudity, while
among most nations the females always covered themselves to a small extent.
They did, and still continue to do, as follows: ‘They understand how to pre-
pare from the fibres of the aloé plant a white thread, which serves them for
making cords.t On these they string hundreds of small sections of water-reed,
like beads of a rosary; and a good number of these strings, attached by their
ends to a girdle, and placed very close and thick together, form two aprons,
one of which hangs down below the abdomen, while the other covers the hind
part. These aprons are about a span wide, and of different length. Among

.

* Captain Bonneville gives a cheerless account of a village of the Root Diggers, which he
saw in crossing the plain below Powder river. ‘‘ They livé,” says he, without any further
rotection from the inclemency of the season than a sort of break-weather, about three feet
igh, composed of sage, (or wormwood, ) and erected around them in the shape of a half
’ 5 oD z v_ . na or
moon.”’— Washington Irving : Adventures of Captain Bonneville, p. 259.
t German proverb. : : : > os sales
$ It may sat be out of place to mention here that in Mexico the dried fibres of the aloé or
maguey plant (4gave Americana) are a universal substitute for hemp in the manufacture of
- « - 5
cordage and packiag-cloth.

362 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

some nations they reach down to the knees; among others to the calves, and
even to the feet. Both sides of the thighs, as well as the rest of the body, re-
main perfectly naked. In order to save labor, some women wear, instead of the
back-aprons, a piece of untanned deer-skin, or any woollen or linen rag which
they can now-a-days obtain. Of the same untanned skin they make, if they
ean get it, their shoes or sandals, simply flat pieces, which they attach to the
feet by coarse strings of the above-mentioned aloé, passing between the big and
small toes and around the ankles.

Both sexes, the grown as well as the children, wear the head always uncoy-
ered, however inclement the weather may be, even those in a certain mission
who understand how to manufacture pretty good hats from palm-leaves, which,
on account of their lightness, were frequently worn by the missionaries while
on their travels. ‘The men allow the hair to grow down to the shoulders. Wo-
men, on the contrary, wear it muchshorter. Formerly they pierced the ears of
new-born children of the male sex with a pointed stick, and by putting bones and
pieces of wood into the aperture they enlarged it to such a degree that, in some
grown persons, the flaps hung down nearly to the shoulders. At present, how-
ever, they have abandoned this unnatural usage. It has been asserted that
they also pierce the nose. I can only say that I saw no one disfigured in that
particular manner, but many middle-aged persons with their ears perforated as
described above. Under certain circumstances, and on their gala days, they
paint different parts of the body with red and yellow color, which they obtain
by burning certain minerals. .

The baptized Indians, of course, observed more decency in regard to dress.
The missionaries gave each male individual, once or twice in a year, a piece of
blue cloth, six spans long and two spans wide, for covering the lower part of
the body, and, if their means allowed it, a short woollen coat of blue color. The
women and girls were provided with thick white veils, made of wool, that cov-
ered the head and the whole body down to the feet. In some missions the
women received also petticoats and jackets of blue flannel or woven cotton
shirts, and the men trowsers of coarse cloth and long coats. But the women
throw aside their veils, and the men their coats, as soon as they leave church,
because those coverings make them feel uneasy, especially in summer, and im-
pede the free use of their limbs, which their mode of living constantly requires.
I will mention here that all these goods had to be brought from the city of
Mexico, since nothing of the kind can be manufactured in California for want
of the necessary materials. ‘The number of sheep that can be kept there is
small, and, moreover, they lose half their wool by passing through the thorny
shrubs, of which there is an astonishing abundance in this ill-favored country.

It is not to be expected that a people in as low astate of development as the
Californians should make use of many implements and utensils. ‘heir whole
furniture, if that expression can be applled at all, consists of a bow and arrows,
a flint instead of a knife, a bone or pointed piece of wood for digging roots, a
turtle-shell serving as basket and cradle, a large gut or bladder for fetching
water and transporting it during their excursions, and a bag made like a fishing
net from the fibres of the aloé, or the skin of a wild cat, in which they preserve
and carry their provisions, sandals, and perhaps other insignificant things which
they may happen to possess.

The bows of the Californians are more than six feet long, slightly curved,
and made from the roots of wild willows. hey are of the thickness of the
five fingers in the middle, round, and become gradually thinner and pointed
towards the ends. The bow-strings are made of the intestines of beasts. ‘The
shafts of their arrows consist of common reeds, which they straighten by the
fire. ‘They are above six spans long, and have, at the lower end, a notch to
catch the string, and three or four feathers, about a finger long, not much pro-
Jecting, and Jet into slits made for that purpose. At the upper end of the shaft

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 363

a pointed piece of heavy wood, a span and a half long, is inserted, bearing
usually at its extremity a flint of a triangular shape, almost resembling a serpent’s
tongue, and indented like the edge of a saw.* . The Californians carry their
bows and arrows always with them, and as they commence at an early age to
use these weapons many of them become very skilful archers.

In lieu of knives and scissors they use sharp flints for cutting almost every-
thing—cane, wood, aloé, and even their hair—and for disembowelling and skin-
ning animals. With the same flints they bleed or scarify themselves, and
make incisions for extracting thorns and splinters which they have accidentally
run into their limbs.

The whole art of the men consists in the manufacture of bows and arrows,
while the mechanical skill of the females is merely confined to the making of
the above-mentioned aprons. Of a division of labor not a trace is to be found
among them; even the cooking is done by all without distinction of sex or age,
every one providing for himself, and the children commence to practice that
necessary art as soon as they are able to stira fire. The time of these people
is chiefly taken up by the search for food and its preparation; and if their physical
wants are supplied they abandon themselves entirely to lounging, chattering, and
sleep. This applies particularly to the roaming portion of the Californian In-
dians, for those who dwell near the missions now established in the country are
sometimes put to such labor as the occasion may require.

CHAPTER II.—OF THEIR FOOD AND THE MANNER OF PREPARING IT.

Notwithstanding the barrenness of the country, a Californian hardly ever dies
of hunger, except, perhaps, now and then an individual that falls sick in the wil-
derness and at a great distance from the mission, for those who are in good health
trouble themselves very little about sugh patients, even if these should happen
to be their husbands, wives, or other relations; and a little child that has lost
its mother or both parents is also occasionally in danger of starving to death,
because in some instances no one will take charge of it, the father being some~
times inhuman enough to abandon his offspring to its fate.

The food of the Californians, as will be seen, is certainly of a mean quality,
yet it keeps them in a healthy condition, and they become strong and grow old
in spite of their poor diet. ‘lhe only period of the year during which the Cali-
fornians can satisfy their appetite without restraint is the season of the pitaha-
yas, which ripen in the middle of June and abound for more than eight weeks.
The gathering of this fruit may be considered as the barvest of the native in-
habitants. ‘Uhey can eat as much of it as they please, and with some this food
agrees so well that they become corpulent during that period; and for this rea-
son I was sometimes unable to recognize at first sight individuals, otherwise
perfectly familiar to me, who visited me after having fed for three or four weeks
on these pitahayas. ‘They do not, however, preserve them, and when the sea-
son is over they are put again on short rations. Among the roots eaten by
the Californians may be mentioned the yuka, which constitutes an important
article of food in many parts of America, as, for instance, in the island of Cuba,
but is not very abundant in California. In some provinces it is made into a
kind of bread or cake, while the Californians, who would find this process too
tedious, simply roast the yukas in a fire like potatoes. Another root eaten by
the natives is that of the aloé plant, of which there are many kinds in this
country. Those species of this vegetable, however, which afford nourishment
—for not all of them are edible—do not grow as plentifully as the Californi-
ans might wish, and very seldom in the neighborhood of water; the prepara-

*In the collection of Dr. E. H. Davis, of New York, there are a number of arrows ob-
tained from the Indians of the island of Tiburon, in the Californian gulf. They answer, in
every respect, the description given in the text.

364 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

tions, moreover, which are necessary to render this plant eatable, require much
time and labor, as will be mentioned hereafter. I saw the natives also frequently
eat the roots of the common reed, just as they were taken out of the water.
Certain seeds, some of them not larger than those of the mustard, and different
sorts in pods that grow on shrubs and little trees, and of which there are, ac-
cording to I’ather Piccolo, more than sixteen kinds, are likewise diligently
sought; yet they furnish only a small quantity of grain, and all that a person
ean collect with much toil during a whole year may scarcely amount to twelve
bushels.*

It can be said that the Californians eat, without exception, all animals they
can obtain. Besides the different kinds of larger indigenous quadrupeds and
birds already mentioned,t they live now-a-days on dogs and cats; horses, asses
and mules; ¢/em, on owls, mice and rats; lizards and snakes; bats, grasshop-
pers and crickets; a kind of green caterpillar without hair, about a finger long,
and an abominable white worm of the length and thickness of the thumb, which
they find occasionally in old rotten wood, and consider as a particular delicacy.
The chase of game, such as deer and rabbits, furnishes only a small portion of
a Californian’s provisions. Supposing that for a hundred families three hun-
dred deer are killed in the course of a year, which is a very favorable estimate,
they would supply each family only with three meals in three hundred and
sixty-five days, and thus relieve but in a very small degree the hunger and the
poverty of these people. The hunting for snakes, lizards, mice and field-rats,
which they practice with great diligence, is by far more profitable and supplies
them with a much greater quantity of articles for consumption. Snakes, espe-
cially, are a favorite sort of small game, and thousands of them find annually
their way into the stomachs of the Californians.

In catching fish, particularly in the Pacific, which is much richer in that re-
spect than the gulf of California, the natives use neither netst nor hooks, but
a kind of lance,—that is, a long, slender, pointed piece of hard wood, which they
handle very dexterously in spearing and killing their prey. Sea-turtles are
caught in the same manner.

I have now mentioned the different articles forming the ordinary food of the
Californians ; but, besides these, they reject nothing that their teeth can chew
or their stomachs are capable of digesting, however tasteless or unclean and
disgusting it may be. hus they will eat the leaves of the Indian fig-tree, the
tender shoots of certain shrubs, tanned or untanned leather; old straps of raw
h'de with which a fence was tied together for years ; ¢¢em, the bones of poultry,
slieep, goats and calves; putrid meat or fish swarming with worms, damaged
wheat or Indian corn, and many other things of that sort which may serve to
appease the hunger they are almost constantly suffering. Anything that is
thrown to the hogs will be also accepted by a Californian, and he takes it
without feeling offended, or thinking for 4 moment that he is treated below his
dignity. or this reason no one took the trouble to clean the wheat or maize,
which was cooked for them ina large kettle, of the black worms and little bugs,
even if the numbers of these vermin had been equal to that of the grains. By
a daily distribution of about 150 bushels of bran, (which they are in the habit
of eating without any preparation,) I could have induced all my parishioners

* One malter, in German, which is about equivalent to twelve bushels.

tIn the introduction. ;

$ Venegas mentions fishing-nets made of the pita plant, (Noticia de Ja California, vol. i, p.
52.) According to Baegert, (Appendix i, p. 322,) no such plant exists in California, and the
word ‘‘pita’’ only signifies the thread twisted from the aloé. « In refuting Venegas, Father
Baegert hardly ever refers to the original Spanish work, nor mentions the name of its author,
but attacks the French translation, which was published in Paris in the year 1767. He
probably acted so from motives of delicacy, Venegas himself being a priest and brother
Jesuit. The effect of this proceeding, as can be imagined, is comical in a high degree.

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 365

to remain permanently in the mission, excepting during the time when the pita-
hayas are gathered.

I saw one day a blind man, seventy years of age, who was busily engaged in
pounding between two stones an old shoe made of raw deer-skin, and when-
ever he had detached a piece, he transferred it promptly to his mouth and swal-
lowed it; and yet this man had a daughter and grown grand-children! As
soon as any of the cattle are killed and the hide is spread out on the ground
to dry, half a dozen boys or men will instantly rush upon it and commence to
work with knives, flints and their teeth, tearing and seratching off pieces, which
they eat immediately, till the hide is full of holes or scattered in all directions.
In the mission of St. Ignatius and in others further towards the north, there
are persons who will attach a piece of meat to a string and swallow it and pull
it out again a dozen times in succession, for the sake of protracting the enjoy-
ment of its taste. i

I must here ask permission of the kind reader to mention something of an
exceedingly disgusting and almost inhuman nature, the like of which probably
never has been recorded of any people in the world, but which demonstrates
better than anything else the whole extent of the poverty, uncleanness and
voracity of these wretched beings. In describing the pitahayas,* I have al-
ready stated that they contain a great many small seeds resembling grains of
powder. For some reason unknown to me these seeds are not consumed in the
stomach, but pass off in an undigested state, and in order to save them the
natives collect, during the season of the pitahayas, that which is discharged
from the human body, separate the seeds from it, and roast, grind and eat them,
making merry over their loathsome meals, which the Spaniards therefore eall
the second harvest of the Califoinians.t When I first heard that such a filthy
habit existed among them, I was disinclined to believe the report, but to my
utter regret I became afterwards repeatedly a witness to the proeceding, which
they are unwilling to abandon like many oiher bad practices. Yet I must say
in their favor that they have always abstained from human flesh, contrary to
the horrible usage of so many other American nations who can obtain their
daily food much easier than these poor Californians.

They have no other drink but the water, and Heaven be praised that they
are unacquainted with such strong beverages as are distilled in many Ameri-
ean provinces from Indian corn, the aloé and other plants, and which the
Americans in those parts merely drink for the purpose of intoxicating them-
selves. When a Californian encounters, during his wanderings, a pond or pool,
and feels a desire to quench his thirst, he lies flat on the ground and applies
his mouth directly to the water. Sometimes the horns of cattle are used as
drinking vessels. '

Having thus far given an account of the different articles used as aliment by
the aborigines of the peninsula, I wi now proceed to deseribe in what manner
they prepare their victuals. They do not cook, boil, or roast like people
in civilized countries, because they are neither acquainted with these methods,
nor possessed of vessels and utensils to employ for such purposes; and, besides,
their patience would be taxed beyond endurance, if they had to wait till a
piece of meat is well cooked or thoroughly roasted. ‘heir whole process
simply consists in Burning, singeing, or roasting in an open fire all such victuals
as are not eaten in a raw state? Without any formalities the piece of meat,
the fish, bird, snake, ficld-mouse, bat, or whatever it may be, is thrown into
the flames, or on the glowing embers, and left there to smoke and to sweat for
about a quarter of an hour; after which the article is withdrawn, in most cases

* Introduction. , ae :
+'This statement is corroborated in all particulars by Clavigero, in his Storia della Cali-

fornia, (Venice, 1789,) vol. i, p. 117. ;

366 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

only burned or charred on the outside, but still raw and bloody within. As
soon as it has become sufficiently cool, they shake it a little in order to remove
the adhering dust or sand, and eat it with great relish. Yet I must add here,
that they do not previously take the trouble to skin the mice or disembowel
the rats, nor deem it necessary to clean the half-emptied entrails and maws of
larger animals, which they have to cut in pieces before they can roast them.
Seeds, kernels, grasshoppers, green caterpillars, the white worms already men-
tioned, and similar things that would be lost, on account of their smallness, in
the embers and flames of an open fire, are parched on hot coals, which they
constantly throw up and shake in a turtle-shell, or a kind of frying-pan woven
out of a certain plant. What they have parched or roasted in this manner is
ground to powder between two stones, and eaten in a dry state. Bones are
treated in like manner.

They eat everything unsalted, though they might obtain plenty of salt; but
since they cannot dine every day on roast meat and constantly change their
quarters, they would find it too cumbersome to carry always a supply of salt
with them.

The preparation of the aloé, also called mescale or maguey by the Spaniards,
requires more time and labor. The roots, after being properly separated from
the plants, are roasted for some hours in a strong fire, and then buried, twelve
or twenty together, in the ground, and well covered with hot stones, hot ashes,
and earth. In this state they have to remain for twelve or fourteen hours, and
when dug out again they are of a fine yellow color, and perfectly tender,
making a very palatable dish, which has served me frequently as food when I
had nothing else to eat, or as dessert after dinner in lieu of fruit. But they
act at first as a purgative on persons who are not accustomed to them, and
leave the throat somewhat rough for a few hours afterwards.

To light a fire the Californians make no use of steel and flint, but obtain it

by the friction of two pieces of wood. One of them is cylindrical, and pointed
on one end, which fits into a round cavity in the other, and by turning the
cylindrical piece with great rapidity between their hands, like a twirling stick,
they succeed in igniting the lower piece, if they continue the process for a
sufficient length of time.

The Californians: have no fixed time for any sort of business, and eat, con-
sequently, whenever they have anything, or feel inclined to do so, which is
nearly always the case. I never asked one of them whether he was hungry,
who failed to answer in the affirmative, even if his appearance indicated the
contrary. A meal inthe middle of the day is the least in use among them,
because they all set out early in the morning for their foraging expeditions,
and return only in the evening to the place from which they started, if they
do not choose some other locality for their night quarters. The day being
thus spent in running about and seatching for food, they have no time left for
preparing a dinner at noon. ‘They start always empty-handed; for, if per-
chance something remains from their evening repasts, they certainly eat it
during the night in waking moments, or on the following morning before
leaving. ‘The Californians can endure hunger easier and much longer than
other people; whereas they will eat enormously if a chance is given. I often
tried to buy a piece of venison from them when the skin had but lately been
stripped off the deer, but regularly received the answer that nothing was left ;
and I knew well enough that the hunter who killed the animal needed no
assistance to finish it. ‘Twenty-four pounds of meat in twenty-four hours is
not deemed an extraordinary ration for a single person, and to see anything
eatable before him is a temptation for a Californian which he cannot resist ;
and not to make away with it before night would be a victory he is very
seldom capable of gaining over himself. ;

SS

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA. 367

One of them requested from his missionary a number of goats, in order to
live, as he said, like a decent man; that is, to keep house, to pasture the goats,
and to support himself and his family with their milk and the flesh of the kids.
But, alas! in a few days the twelve goats with which the missionary had pre-
sented him were all consumed. .

A priest who had lived more than thirty years in California, and whose
veracity was beyond any doubt, assured me repeatedly that he had ‘known a
Californian who one day ate seventeen watermelons at one sitting; and another
native who, after having received from a soldier six pounds of unclarified sugar
as pay for a certain debt, sat down and munched one piece after another till
the six pounds had disappeared. He paid, however, dearly for his gluttony,
for he died in consequence of it; while the melon-eater was only saved by
taking a certain physic which counteracted the bad effects of his greediness.
I was called mys+lf one evening in great haste to three or four persons, who
pretended to be dying, and wanted to confess. These people belonged to a
band of about sixty souls, (women and children included,) to whom I had given,
early in the morning, three bullocks in compensation for some labor. When
I arrived at the place where they lay encamped, I learned that their malady
consisted merely in belly-ache and vomiting; and, recognizing at once the
eause of their disorder, | reprimanded them severely for their voracity, and
went home again.

CHAPTER IV.—OF THEIR MARRIAGES AND THE EDUCATION OF THEIR CHILDREN.

As soon as the young Californian finds a partner, the marriage follows im-
mediately afterwards ; and the girls go sometimes so far as to demand impetu-
ously a husband from the missionary, even before they are twelve years old,
which is their legitimate age for marrying. In all the missions, however, only
one excepted, the number of men was considerably greater than that of the
females.

Matrimonial engagements are concluded without much forethought or seruple,
and little attention is paid to the morals or qualities of the parties; and, to con-
fess the truth, there is hardly any difference among them in these respects ;
and, as far as good sense, virtue, and riches are concerned, they are always
sure to marry their equals, following thus the old maxim: Sz vis nubere, nube
part. it happens very often that near relations want to join in wedlock, and
their engagements have, therefore, to be frustrated, such cases excepted in
which the empedimentum affinitatis can be removed by a dispensation from the
proper authorities.

They do not seem to marry exactly for the same reasons that induce civ-
ilized people to enter into that state ; they simply want to have a partner, and
the husband, besides, a servant whom he can command, although his autherity in
that respect is rather limited, for the women are somewhat independent, and
not much inclined to obey their lords. Although they are now duly married
according to the rites of the Catholic church, nothing is done on their part to
solemnize the act; none of the parents or other relations and friends are
present, and no wedding feast is served up, unless the missionary, instead of
receiving his marriage fees, or jura stolae, presents them with a piece of meat,
or a quantity of Indian corn. Whenever I joined a couple in matrimony, it
took considerable time before the bridegroom succeeded in putting the wedding
ring on the right finger of his future wife. As soon as the ceremony is over,
the new married couple start off in different directions in search of food, just as
if they were not more to each other to-day than they were yesterday; and in
the same manner they act in future, providing separately for their support,
sometimes without living together for weeks, and without knowing anything
of their partner’s abiding place.

368 THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF

Before they were baptized each man took as many wives as he liked, and if
there were several sister's in a family he married them all together. The son-
in-law was not allowed, for some time, to look into the face of his mother-in-
law or his wife’s next female relations, but had to step aside, or to hide himself,
when these women were present. Yet they did not pay much attention to con-
sanguinity, and only a few years since one of them counted his own daughter
(as “he believ ed) among the number of his wives. They met without any
formalities, and their vocabulary did not even contain the words “to marry,”
which is expressed at the present day in the Waicuri language by the para-
phrase tikére undiri—that is, ‘to bring the arms or hands together.” ‘They
had, and still use, a substitute for the word “husband,” but the etymological
meaning of that expression implies an intercourse with women in gencral.

They lived, in fact, before the establishment of the missions in their country,
in utter licentiousness, and adultery was daily committed by every one without
shame and without any fear, the feeling of jealousy being unknown to them.
Neighboring tribes visited each other very often only for the purpose of spending
some days in open debauchery, and during such times a general prostitution
prevailed. Would to God that the admonitions and instructions of those who
converted these people to Christianity and established lawful marriages among
them, had also induced them to desist entirely from these evil practices ! Yet
they deserve pity rather than contempt, for their manner of living together en-
genders vice, and their sense of morality is not strong enough to “prevent them
from yielding to the temptations to which they are constantly exposed.

In the first chapter of this book I have already spoken of the scanty popu-
lation of this country. It is certain that many of their women are barren, and
that a great number of them bear not more than onechild. Only a few out of
one or two hundred bring forth eight or ten times, and if such is really the case,
it happens very seldom that one or two of the children arrive at a mature age.
I baptized, in succession, seven children of a young woman, yet I had to bury
them all before one of them had reached its third year, and when I was about
to leave the country I recommended to the woman to dig a grave for the eighth
child, with which she was pregnant at the time. The unmarried people of both
sexes and the children generally make a smaller group than the married and
widowed.

The Californian women lie in without difficulty, and without needing any
assistance. If the child is born at some distance from the mission they carry
it thither themselves on the same day, in order to have it baptized, not minding
a walk of two or more leagues. Yet, that many infants die among them is not
surprising; on the contrary, it would be a wonder if a great number remained
alive. Tor, when the poor child first sees the light of day, there is no other
cradle provided for it but the hard soil, or the still harder shell of a turtle, in
which the mother places it, without much covering, and drags it about wherever
she goes. And in order to be unencumbered, and enabled to use her limbs with
greater freedom while running in the fields, she will leave it sometimes in charge
of some old woman, and thus “deprive the poor creature for ten or more hours of
its natural nourishment. As soon as the child is a few months old the mother
places it, perfectly naked, astraddle on her shoulders, its legs hanging down on
both sides in front, and it has consequently to learn how to ride Defore it can
stand on its feet. In this guise the mother roves about all day, exposing her
helpless charge to the hot rays of the sun and the chilly winds that sweep over
the inhospitable country. ‘The food of the child, till it cuts its teeth, consists
only in the milk of the mother, and if that is wanting or insuflicient, there is
rarcly another woman to be found that would be willing, or, perhaps, in the
proper condition, to take pity on the poor starving being. I cannot say that
the Californian women are too fond of their children, and some of them may
even consider the loss of one as a relief from a burden, especially if they have

THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA 369

already some small children. I did not see many Californian mothers who
caressed their children much while they lived, or tore their hair when they
died, although a kind of dry weeping is not wanting on such occasions. 'The
father is still more insensible, and does not even look at his (or at least his
wife’s) child as long as it is small and helpless.

Nothing causes the Californians less trouble and care than the education of
their children, which is merely confined to a short period, and ceases as soon
as the latter are capable of making a living for themselves—that is, to catch
mice and to kill snakes. If the young Californians have once acquired sufli-
cient skill and strength to follow these pursuits, it is all the same to them
whether they have parents or not. Nothing is done by these in the way of
admonition or instruction, nor do they set an example worthy to be imitated
by their offspring. The children do what they please, without fearing repri-
mand or punishment, however disorderly and wicked their conduct may be.
It would be well if the parents did not grow angry when their children are
now and then slightly chastised for gross misdemeanor by order of the mis-
sionary; but, instead of bearing with patience such wholesome correction of
their little sons and daughters, they take great offence and become enraged,
especially the mothers, who will scream like furies, tear out the hair, beat their
naked breasts with a stone, and lacerate their heads with a piece of wood or
bone till the blood flows, as I have frequently witnessed on such occasions.*

‘The consequence is, that the children follow their own inclinations without
any restraint, and imitate all the bad habits and practices of their equals, or
still older persons, without the slightest apprehension of being blamed by their
fathers and mothers, even if these should happen to detect them in the act of
committing the most disgraceful deeds. The young Californians who live in
the missions commence roaming about as soon as mass is over, and those that
spend their time in the fields go wherever, and with whomsoever, they please, not
seeing for many days the faces of their parents, who, in their turn, do not mani-
fest the slightest concern about their children, nor make any inquiries after
them. These are disadvantages which the missionary has no power of amending,
and such being the case, it is easy to imagine how little he can do by instruction,
exhortation, and punishment, towards improving the moral condition of these
young natives.

Heaven may enlighten the Californians, and preserve Europe, and especially
Germany. from such a system of education, which coincides, in part, with the
plan proposed by that ungodly visionary, J. J. Rousseau, in his “ Emile,’’ and
which is also recommended by some other modern philosophers of the same
tribe. If their designs are carried out, education, so far as faith, religion, and
the fear of God are concerned, is not to be commenced before the eighteenth or
twentieth year, which, if viewed in the proper light, simply means to adopt the
Californian method, and to bring up youth without any education at all.

(TO BE CONTINUED IN THE NEXT REPORT.)

* This statement does not seem to agree well with the alleged indifference of the Californian
women towards their children, and the formalities which the Californians were obliged to
observe, when meeting with the mothers and other female relations of their wives, renders a
total absence of jealousy among them rather doubtful. Dr. Waitz has also pointed out tho
latter discrepancy while citing a number of facts contained in our author's work, (Anthro-
pologie der Naturveelker, vol. iv, p. 250.) My object being simply to give an. English ver-
sion of Baegert’s account, I abstain from all comments on such real or seeming incongruities.

24s

ETHNOLOGY.

FROM THE LONDON ATHZNEUM.

HaAirax, Nova Scotia, June 21. 1863.

During the last winter’s session of the Nova Scotian Institute of Natural
Science, the Rev. John Ambrose, rector of the parish of St. Margaret’s bay, a
district lying on the Atlantic seaboard of this colony, brought to the notice of
the Institute the existence of extensive beds of refuse shells and bones, mixed
with fragments of rude pottery, and perfect and imperfect flint arrow and spear
heads. Gifted with an inquiring mind, the gentleman in question naturally
considered that their occurrence was not a matter of chance; and, following up
the subject, he ascertained that similar beds had been known to exist on the
shores of Denmark and the adjacent isles, and that they had received the name
of kjakken-madding, or kitchen-middings, from being heaps of refuse shells,
bones, &c., thrown aside by the primitive race of men who, in days of remote
antiquity, visited annually, or dwelt continuously, in such positions. On perus-
ing an article published in the report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1860,
which gave an interesting account of the kitchen middings of Europe, as sur-
veyed by the Danish archeologists, a perfect resemblance to those of the Nova
Scotian coast was at once perceived, in so far at least as the few specimens then
obtained from these heaps proved.

To endeavor to make a thorough search, and prove the nature of these de-
posits, the Council of the Institute of Natural Science decided upon having a
tield meeting on the spot where the kitchen middings lay; and, accordingly, on
the 11th of June last, a large party proceeded by land from Halifax, the capital
of the province, to St. Margaret’s bay, which is distant, in a S.SW. direction,
about twenty-two miles. This bay is exceedingly spacious, runs inland some
eight or ten miles, and is in breadth, perhaps, five or six miles. A few islands
stand at the entrance as weil as at its head, and long, low, promontories, clothed
with spruce, birch, and maple, stretch into the water at the NE. corner, forming
snug coves and sheltered strands. It is on the shore of one of these minor
bays, having a sandy beach, where canoes could be hauled up easily and safely,
that the principal Ajwkken-madding, found by Mr. Ambrose, lay, on a rising
knoll some twenty feet above the bay at high-water mark. It forms part of a
grass field belonging to a farm-house hard by, and according to the statement
of the farmer, and the appearance it presents, has been submitted to little, if
any, disturbance at the hand of man. The deposit appears to have extended
about fifty yards or more in length by a well-defined breadth of eight yards.
Its surface is irregularly depressed and dotted over, on its western extremity,
with granitic boulders of no great size. The soil which covers the mass is
similar to that of the field in which it occurs, though, perhaps, a little darker in
color. It grows common meadow grass and the ordinary field plants, and its
depth does not exceed two or three inches when the shell deposit appears, pre-
senting a layer of compact shells, perfect and imperfect, in which lie bones of
animals and birds, flint and quartz arrow and spear heads, large and small teeth,
and broken pieces of very roughly made pottery, bearing evident traces of
attempt at ornament. ‘This pottery was very dark in color, and contained in
its substance grains of granitic sand, and mica in quantity. From the pieces of
rim obtained, judging from their curvature, the earthen vessels could scarcely
have exceeded the dimensions of a quart bowl. These bowls or cups must
have been in common use, as the fragments occur in some plenty. No traces

ETHNOLOGY. 371

of implements denoting any connexion with the iater iron age occurred, and the
only objects on which the art of man had been practiced beyond the pottery and
flint weapon-heads were bones sharpened into awls, one of which was obtained
in a very perfect state.

In the midst, but more abundantly at the bottom, of the refuse deposits
occurred rounded stones, from the size of a man’s clenched hand and upwards,
bearing evident traces of having undergone the action of fire. These stones are
precisely similar to those found on the beach beneath.

At the bottom of the refuse heap, which oecurred at a distance of eighteen
inches from the surface, a layer of black soil came two inches thick; then a
layer of white brown sand of the same thickness; then came a reddish colored
earth, getting lighter as the spade went down, until the original foundation of
hardened drift proclaimed no further investigation necessary in that direction.
Taking a general view of the surface, the observer naturally supposed that the
rounded granitic boulders which lie scattered on the heap had afforded seats for
the primitive people, who rudely cooked their food at this encampment on the
edge of the wild forest ; nor was the supposition incorrect, for on digging around
these boulders greater masses of shells, and more evident traces of fire were
apparent than in other parts of the heap. The charcoal, in some instances, had
lost. but little of its former consistency, while in others it powdered into dust on
being handled. This probably arose from the nature of the wood, some kinds
affording a hard charcoal, and others soft.

The Fauna of this Nova Scotian Ajewkken-medding, so far as it could be
ascertained, was as follows: Of mammals, the moose, (Cervus alces,) the bear,
( Ursus americanus,) the beaver, (Castor canadensis,) and the porcupine, ( Hys-
trix dorsata,) were noticed; the beaver and porcupine by their teeth, which, from
their brightness and compactness, might just have been taken from the jaw. A
beaver’s tooth had the root part rubbed, and smoothed to a head, giving, with
its chisel-like point, the appearance of an instrument for cutting. Some of
these teeth were jagged on their edges as if by artificial means. The bones
of the animals had been broken, and, with the exception of a few very small
ones, none were obtained whole. Of birds, there were the bones of different
species, some very large, and evidently belonging to a bird much larger than the
great northern diver, (Colymbus glacialis,) which is one of the largest wild
birds in the colony at the present day. ‘The bird bones were also more or less
broken, and one in particular had been opened by means of a cutting instrument
down the side. Of fishes, the vertebrae of two or three species, the largest
measuring about an inch in diameter, while two or three specimens of the oper-
cular spines of the Norway haddock, (Sebastes norwegians,) were procured
among the debris in a perfect state, which led to the supposition that they were
used for some purpose, such as pricking holes. Of mollusks, the most common
were the quahog, ( Venus mercenaria,) clam, (Mya arenaria, s] scallop, ( Pecten
islandicus,) Crepidula fornicata and Mytilus edulis. Of the two former species
nearly the whole mass of shell consisted. ‘The mussel shells had become so
friable that the slightest touch was sufficient to break them.

Time did not permit, however, a closer examination to be made on this first
visit to the mounds; but some members of the Institute, aware of the interest
attaching to the subject, have decided upon camping out during the ensuing
summer in the vicinity of other deposits known to exist in various places, and
hope, by thoroughly excavating the several mounds, to bring to light specimens
which will doubtless help to prove the age in which they were constructed, and
the similarity which existed between the manner and customs of the race who
formed them, and the constructors of those placed in like positions on the shores

tthern Europe.
of Denmark and Northe P J. M. JONES,

President of the Institute of Natural Sciences.

ABSTRACT OF THE FIFTH REPORT OF DR. KELLER

ON

LACUSTRIAN SETTLEMENTS.
FROM THE BULLETIN OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF GENEVA.

In January, 1854, certain works, undertaken on the shores of the Lake
of Zurich, at Obermeilen, brought to view, with the mud and ooze from the
bottom of the water, an assemblage of ancient remains, together with piles.
Dr. Keller, president of the Archzological Society of Zurich, published in the
spring of 1854 a first report respecting this discovery. It was a brief but lucid
description, accompanied with numerous figures, and the conclusion was even
then arrived at that there had existed in ancient times, at the point in question,
habitations built upon pile-work. Discoveries of the same kind were rapidly
multiplied in Switzerland, few savants possessing, in an equal degree with Dr.
Keller, the art of guiding and encouraging others in the labors of research. His
correspondence forms a connected course of instruction, strikingly recommended
by the unaffected liberality which pervades it, and which naturally evokes a
reciprocal spirit of frank communication in regard to all new facts and observa-
tions. ‘To this concurrence of efforts, directed to different points, which, taken
separately, would have been of little avail, we owe the rapid development of
Swiss archeology; and it is this also which has enabled Dr. Keller to publish
a second report on lacustrian habitations in 1858, a third in 1860, a fourth in
1861, and now the fifth, with which we are at this moment occupied. These
several reports are all distinguished by an affluence of well-ascertained facts,
and of accurate figures, as well as by the absence of those idle discussions
and fantastic reflections which are still but too rife in matters of archeology.
Nor is it a circumstance unworthy of notice that even our neighbors of Italy
and Germany have contributed to swell this fifth report by valuable communi-
cations presented under their own names; for Dr. Keller is of that class of
savants who conscientiously render to each whatever is his due, and willingly
withdraw themselves from notice in order to give greater prominence to the
merits of another.

Unfortunately Dr. Keller only publishes in German, whence his reports,
though now and then containing an article written in French, such as the ex-
cellent paper of M. L. Rochat on the lacustrian habitations of the neighbor-
hood of Yverdon, are too little known in certain countries. There should be a
French publication recapitulating the labors of the savant of Zurich, but a
natural repugnance is felt to undertaking such a work while progress and dis-
covery are still in full career. We shall, therefore, confine ourselves to a
simple review of the fifth report, which is before us.

This report commences with a notice of ten pages on the Terramara de
UV Emilha, by M. P. Strobe, professor of natural history in the University of
Parma, and M. L. Pigorini, a young archeologist of the city of that name.
The German translation is from the pen of M. Strobel, who speaks and writes
German perfectly well. Three plates, comprising eighty-nine figures, accom-

Nd ghagie rhe EEO < oe SPST ek

LACUSTRIAN SETTLEMENTS. ote.

pany this notice, which resembles those given by Dr. Keller in its avoidance
of all useless phraseology.

In the duchy of Parma there occur, in the level tracts bordering upon rivers,
deposits of a peculiar nature, which have been for some time employed, under
the name of terramara, in the culture of lands. They are accumulations of a
marshy nature, intersperséd with beds of river ooze, of charcoal and cinders,
through the whole of which are thickly strewn the crushed bones of animals,
pieces of wood, fragments of pottery, and divers objects in bone, in stone, and
in bronze. It is apparent that man once inhabited these places, liable as they
were to occasional submersion. At one point there was found, in good preser-
vation, a floor built upon piles, which had been planted in a marshy soil be-
neath shallow water, which, by the accumulation of solid material, had since
become dry land.

The bronze articles occuring in the terramara are hatchets, reaping-hooks,
lance-heads, poniard-blades, hair-pins, a small bronze comb, chisels, and awls,
the whole being of the kind met with in Switzerland and the north, and re-
garded as characteristic of the age of bronze. The pottery is coarse, composed
of clay mingled with sand, rudely shaped by hand, without the use of the wheel,
as is still practiced in villages of the Appenine in preparing utensils intended
to resist the action of fire. ‘The vases present a peculiarity, not as yet else.
where observed, in being often furnished with small handles, drawn out into
variously shaped horns and knobs, and sometimes ornamented with stripes.
Spindle whirls, plain or striped, are of frequent occurrence. Among the objects
ot bone may be mentioned two combs, embellished with carvings in the manner
of the bronze age, and among those of wood the remnant of a wicker basket.
The remains of animal bones have been carefully studied by Professor Strobel,
who, after having compared them with those of the lacustrian settlements of
Switzerland, described by Professor Rutimeyer, of Bale, has had the satisfaction
of seeing even the most questionable of his decisions confirmed by the last-
named savant. The species thus far recognized by M. Strobel are: remains
of the bear, the wild boar, the roe-buck, and the stag; and, of domestic animals,
the dog, the horse, the ox, the hog, the goat, and the sheep, all of them races
occurring in the lakes of Switzerland. ‘To this list should be added some re-
mains of birds, and, among others, of the domestic fowl, with those of terrestrial
and fluviatile mollusks, still found alive in the country. The vegetable king-
dom has contributed various kinds of wood, wheat, (triticum turgidum,) beans,
hazel-nuts, pears, apples, service-berries, acorns, and the capsules which enclose
the seeds of flax. It would appear from the collective circumstances that the ter-
ramara represents what may be called the kitchen-middens (Ajekken-medding )
of the age of bronze, formed in co-operation with the alluvium of rivers.

Lacustrian settlement at Peschiera, on Lake Garda, in Italy—M. de Silber,
Austrian officer of engineers at Verona, reports that, in dredging at the entrance
of the port of Peschiera, remains of pile-work were found, entirely buried in the
mud at the bottom of the water, while the mud itself contained numerous ob-
jects in bronze, of which Dr. Keller gives three plates of figures. These con-
sist of poniard-blades, hair-pins of various shapes, hooks, or small fish spears,
a knife, and some small remnants of clothing, all bearing much resemblance to
those taken from the lakes of Switzerland. Among these objects from Peschiera
are some of copper, which leads Dr. Keller to ‘dissent from the generally re-
ceived idea that the age of bronze, properly so called, had its origin in Asia,
since Europe would then have had no age of copper, forming the necessary
stage between the age of stone and that of bronze. Dr. Keller presents, in sup-
port of his opinion, a plate comprising the figures of twenty-eight objects of red
copper, chietly hatchets and coins, found in Hungary and Transylvania, and
he adduces the testimony of a friend of his, who resided long in Hungary, and

374 LACUSTRIAN SETTLEMENTS.

who affirms that these objects of copper are frequent in the countries of the
lower Danube.

Lacustrian settlements of the Untersee, that is, of the portion of the Lake of
Constance to the east of the city of Constance.—Y or several years an extensive
pile-work of the age of stone, situated near the village of Wangen, at one league
and a half from Stein, had been used, with a view to the trade in antiquities,
by one Leehle, under the direction of Dr. Keller, who has spoken of this locality
in previous reports. Recently M. K. Dehoff, employed in the customs of the
grand duchy of Baden, has explored the whole Baden part of the Untersee,
and his account, occupying nine pages, is given with the skill of a master, and
the precision of a mathematician. Many of the observations already made at
Wangen are here reproduced, but several interesting results of a general nature
flow from them. In the first place, there is the absence, in all this region, of
pile-works belonging to the age of bronze, all those explored up to this time
having furnished, besides pottery, bone, buck-horn, &c., only stone, without
any trace of metal, which does not import, however, that none will ever be
found. Another curious remark is, that silex of foreign production occurs, un-
shaped and in abundance, at certain localities, denoting a place of fabrication,
while elsewhere it is wholly wanting, as if the division of labor had existed,
not only among individuals of the same settlement, but among the lacustrian
villages, to some of which the preparation of instruments of silex, for the com-
mon supply, had been specially assigned. It is also a striking circumstance
that in these settlements without metals are not unfrequently found hatchets
of serpentine of excellent form, so ingeniously and even ornamentally wrought
that we might be inclined to refer them to a later age, characterized by greater
advances in art, and by the employment of bronze. On the other hand, such
handles of buck-horn for the stone wedge as are found at Meilen, at Moossedorf,
and elsewhere, are almost entirely wanting in the Untersee. Here the usual
form of handle for the stone wedge was the branch, bent and notched with a
ligature to retain the wedge in the notch. ‘Two plates, with twenty-seven fig-
ures, accompany the memoir of M. Dehoft, comprising, among others, the plan,
with sections, of the pile-work near Allensbach, the place of each pile being
indicated, which gives, for the first time, a complete and correct idea of the
subject. In concluding, M. Dehoff furnishes also some information respecting
the prolongation, towards the northwest, of the Lake of Constance, called
Ueberlingersee, which presents, in respect to lacustrian settlements, the same
features with the Untersee.

The fascine-work of Nieder- Wyl, near Frauenfeld, canton of Thurgau.—Dr.
Keller, while he gives the French term fascinage, calls it in German pack-
werkbau, corresponding somewhat to that which is known in Ireland under
the name of crannoge. A small lake, or, more properly, a natural pond, filled
with peat, was subjected to exploration. At one point the workmen reached,
at a depth of from two to three feet, under the surface of the peat-moss, a col-
lection of wood and solid matter, forming a sort of isle of about 20,000 square
feet, around which there was a depth of eight or ten feet of the peat before at-
taining the ancient bed of the lake. ‘This isle was ascertained to be an artificial
construction, which had served as a foundation for habitations. 'T’o the selected
point in the lake it seems that logs and boughs were brought, bound together
in rafts, and loaded with sand’to make them sink, piles being driven around to
mark the limits of the construction, and the operation repeated till it rose above
the surface of the water. A floor of logs, in close juxtaposition, was then laid
upon sills regularly arranged, and this floor was covered with a layer of com-
pacted clay, upon which the dwellings were erected. ‘These dwellings were
rectangular, being, on an average, twenty feet long and twelve wide. ‘The
walls, parts of which were still in place, were formed of logs split inte rough
boards, confined between stakes or posts planted vertically at suitable inter-

LACUSTRIAN SETTLEMENTS. 375

vals. In the corner of one of these dwellings there was found a hearth formed
of unwrought flag-stones, still covered with coals and cinders. The floors,
having sometimes sunk, at one point or other, to the extent of several inches,
even a foot or more, the level had been restored by filling up the cavity. It
would seem, in some instances, that the entire floor had sunk beneath the level
of the water, and new ones been constructed above, since the remains of articles
of domestic use or production occur between the two courses. The dwellings,
which seem to have been covered with thatch, were distant fiom one another
only two or three feet, and it is in these interstitial spaces, where the floors
were more or less interrupted, that the remains of human industry have been
chiefly discovered. 'This settlement bears no marks of having been destroyed
by fire ; it appears to have been voluntarily abandoned. At all events, its re-
mains are the most complete and best preserved which have been yet dis-
covered in Switzerland.

The constructions discovered by Colonel Suter, of Zofinguen, in the peat-
moss of Wauwyl, much resemble those just described, only at Wauwyl they
are more primitive and less skilfully combined, although those of Niederwyl be-
long to the age of stone, as well as those of Wauwyl. The researches at
Niederwyl have disclosed hatchets of stone, wheat and tissues of flax, both
charred, fragments of pottery, and bones of animals, which had served for food.
We owe this interesting discovery to the zeal of M. Pupikofer, who has super-
intended the excavations made by M. Messikommer.

Lacustrian settlement near Zug, described by Professor Mihlberg, of Zug.—
In the suburbs of Zug, onthe road leading to Cham, workmen were digging
the foundations of a house, when, at a depth of five feet, a dark-colored bed of
decomposed organic matter was encountered, in which were found hatchets of
stone, fragments of silex, hulls of hazel and beach nuts, apple-seeds and animal
bones, together with the tops of stakes planted vertically, on somé of which
still rested cross-pieees of wood. Here, there were evidently the remains of a
lacustrian settlement of the age of stone, embosomed in the solid earth which
had gradually encroached upon the lake. ‘The bones have been examined by
Professor Rutimeyer, of Bale, and he has distinguished the cow, of that race
which he names after the peat, the peat hog, the peat dog, the roe and the deer.

Settlement of Ebersberg, canton of Zurich—n a sequestered spot, at the
back of a hill called the Ebersberg, near the Rhine, ancient remains have been
found, which M. Escher de Berg has described in vol. vii, 4th part, of the Me-
moirs of the Archeological Society of Zurich. M. Escher resumed his re-
searches in 1862, and has drawn up an account of his explorations, which were
continued for 64 days. This site has a peculiar interest, for it presents the re-
mains of a settlement on terra firma, and an assemblage of objects entirely
corresponding with those which characterize the lacustrian habitations of the
age of bronze, for instance, in the lake of Bienne. Under 5 or 6 feet of detri-
tus, an ancient surface of well-rammed clay was brought to light, and on this
surface were discovered near one another the remains of two rectangular ovens,
5 to 6 feet long by 3 broad, formed of siliceous pebbles and clay mixed with
much sand. Beyond these there was a, pavement of pebble stones, and it was
on these substructions that the bed containing antique articles immediately
rested, while the thick mass of superincumbent humus was entirely destitute
of them. In the bed spoken of, the very first excavations had yielded a cres-
cent of stone skilfully cut. In the recent excavations a second crescent has
been disclosed, but composed of baked clay, precisely like those taken by Col-
onel Schwab from the lake of Bienne, and which were probably used in the
religious rites of the time. These later researches have also yielded: fragments
of flint, wedges or hatchets of serpentine, stones for crushing grain; and, of
bronze, two knives, some dozens of hair-pins like those of the lakes, several
small chisels, an arrow-point, a number of rings and of plates of metal orna-

376 LACUSTRIAN SETTLEMENTS.

mented with lines. Other objects obtained are: a bead of glass or of blue and
white enamel, such as we now have from the lakes of Bienne and Neufchatel ;
buck-horns carved; fossil teeth of the shark taken from the molasse of the
country ; spindle-whirls of baked clay; pottery, like that of the bronze-sites
in the lakes; cones of baked clay, with a hole at top, designed doubtless as
weights to stretch the threads in the process of weaving; and pieces of the
clay facings of the walls of wicker-work, bearing the impression of the branches
or osiers destroyed by fire. Bones of animals were by no means wanting, and
they have been ascertained by Professor Rutimeyer to pertain to a cow of large
speeies, to the hog, the goat, the deer and the roe-buck.

Lacustrian settlement of Robenhausen, at Lake Pliffikon, canton of Zurich —
Of this notice has been taken in previous publications of Dr. Keller. M. Mes-
sikommer continues to make explorations, leading to interesting observations
and to the discovery of objects, often of great curiosity, which, after having
submitted them to the inspection of Dr. Keller, he offers for sale. This local-
ity is situated in a moss, at the east end of the lake, which there had but little
depth, and where the growth of the peat has by degrees advanced the limits of
the dry land. To arrive at the bed containing piles and antique objects, it is
necessary to remove some six feet of peat; this requires long continued exhaus-
tion, but the objects are in a remarkable state of preservation. The report on
recent researches is drawn up by M. Messikommer, who even indites some
pleasing verses on the occasion. He has remarked that the objects are found
more or less grouped, according to their nature. Thus, at certain points, char-
red cereals occur in abundance ; elsewhere flax prepared for spinning; further
on there may be flax woven or platted, and at still another place numbers of
those perforated cones of baked clay which pertained to textorial operations.
At one point M. Messikommer discovered that under the floor of the ancient
dwelling there was a formation of peat from 2 to 2$ feet deep, beneath which
was found another floor, still more ancient. We must infer that the place was
long inhabited and during the age of stone, for not the least trace of metal has
been met with,

The new acquisitions at Robenhausen, to which Dr. Keller has appropriated
two plates, are: a canoe formed of the hollowed trunk of a tree, 12 feet long
by 14 wide, with a depth of 5 inches (the Swiss foot has 10 inches and is
equivalent to 0.3 of a meter;) some well fashioned bows of yew wood; an
arrow point of silex, still attached to its wooden staff by means of flax thread
and mineral bitumen; a hatchet or wedge of stone fixed transversely in a
wooden handle, somewhat club-shaped ; another hatchet of stone fixed in a piece
of buck’s horn, which again was fastened transversely to the handle of wood.
This last arrangement was also met with at Concise, but the stupendous im-
postures practiced at that locality throw suspicion on whatever comes from it,
especially when it is known that the counterfeiters went so far as to cast their
own fabrications into the lake, that they might be afterwards drawn up by the
dredge before the eyes of the amateurs. At Robenhausen, divers articles of
wood also have been collected, such as knives, basins, implements which served
perhaps for beating butter, and large spoons like those for skimming milk.
Among articles of flax, recently obtained, may be mentioned a portion of a girdle

-or ribbon quite skilfully woven, so as to present a small figure in squares of
very neat appearance; also remnants of fishing-nets, with meshes measuring
0.05 of a meter on the side; and, lastly, a bit of cloth to which a pocket is at-
tached by sewing.

Settlement in the lake of Bourget, in Savoy—Baron Despine having drawn
attention to a pile-work in the lake of Bourget, the Savoyard Society of history
and archeology caused reseaches to be made, under the direction of MM. Des-
pine and Delaborde. M. Rabut Laurent has given an account of them, in the
Bulletin of the above Society, from 1861 to 1862, second number, p. 44, and

i ae a a

—— a

LACUSTRIAN SETTLEMENTS. 377

this report is here republished by Dr. Keller. At the point in question there
have been found articles of pottery, calcined bones, a stone hammer, a small
bronze ring, ears of wheat, acorns, hazelnuts, cherry-stones, grains of millet,
and, what has not been yet met with in Switzerland, husks of chestnuts. Professor
Desor also has made explorations in the lake of Bourget; and M. Louis Revon,
the zealous and able director of the museum of Annecy, has commenced them
in the pile-works of the lake of Annecy. ‘

Lake of Neuchatel, new discoveries of Colonel Schwab, 4 plates, comprising
71 figures —The indefatigable colonel has caused dredgings to be executed at
several points and has considerably enriched his admirable collection at Bienne.
Certain objects reappear in indefinite numbers, such as hair-pins of bronze, but
from time to time new and curious articles repay the zeal of the antiquary.
We may distinguish of this class, a wheel of cast bronze, 0.49 of a meter in
diameter; it has four radii, which, equally with the perimeter, are hollow. The
nave, also hollow, is prolonged on both sides, making its entire length 050 of
ameter. Near this wheel, thirteen small objects of the creseent-moon shape
were found, each with a handle perforated at the end, as if to suspend the ob-
ject, which is of bronze cast in a single piece. These, as well as the wheel,
were perhaps employed in some religious ceremony. Similar small crescents
appear also in the exquisite collection of Madame I ebvre, of Chiseul, at Macon,
a French lady, whose 83 years place in stronger relief the artistic discrimination,
as well as the rare and high-bred courtesy of the venerable owner. Among
the new acquisitions of Colonel Schwab we should further specify a sling of
platted flax, exactly like one brought from the Sandwich Islands, and to be seen
in the museum of Berne; also several beads of amber, and others, oblong in
form, of blue glass or enamel, around which'is encrusted a spiral of white enamel.
These glass beads have been met with at four stations, whose characteristics
clearly assign them to the age of bronze. In Mecklenberg, also, beads of blue
glass, but of simple formation, have been twice found in tombs of that age.
It is to the age of bronze, then, that we must refer the appearance of glass, but
only in the shape of such beads; and even these are extremely rare at that
epoch, at least in countries north of the Alps.

Of all Colonel Schwab’s discoveries, the most curious is the product of a
station of the age of bronze near Coataillod, being a dish in terra cotta, fash-
ioned by the unassisted hand, having a diameter of 0.39 of a meter and a height
of 0.4 of a meter, and inlaid on the inner surface with small plates of tin.
These plates, which are themselves embellished with carved lines, are so ar-
ranged as to form a geometrical design surprisingly rich and ingenious, com-
prising among others a circuit of figures, which recall those, in the Greek man-
ner, seen on Etruscan vases. ‘The surface of the vessel had been blackened
and rendered lustrous by being rubbed with graphite. It has not been ascer-
tained by what means the tin was made to adhere to the surface of the material.

The above notices are followed by some account of the stations of pile-work
in the lakes of Sempach, Baldegg and Mauen, and by a brief memoir of pro-
fessor Deicke on the researches made by M. Ullersberger of Uberlinger in the
lake of Constance. The publication of Dr. Keller concludes with 7 pages of
remarks on the book entitled Laeustrian Habitations of Ancient and Modern
Times, by F. Troyon. After having long kept silence, Dr. Keller at length
raises his voice to rectify the errors and refute the absurdities of the book in
question; a book which tends to induce obscurity, where it would be so de-
sirable to proceed by sober investigations, set forth in simple and precise terms.
Dr. Keller incidentally notices that his own reports have been entirely absorbed
in the work of M. Troyon. The distinguished savant of Zurich could say no
more, for he is not one to complain of having been unfairly laid under contri-
bution. In the remarks spoken of, he shows that the collective phenomena of
lacustrian settlements seem to evince a gradual and peaceful development of

378 LACUSTRIAN SETTLEMENTS.

civilization in Switzerland, from the age of stone to the Roman epoch, without
an indication of violent social convulsions or industrial revolutions, suddenly
superinduced by external and intrusive influences. It is doubtless picturesque
to burn periodically, as M. 'Troyon does, all the lacustrian cities and to massa-
cre their population. But it is more rational to recognize, as Laplace did at
the close of his long and brilliant career, that what we know is little, while
what we do not kaow is immense !
A. MORLOT.

P. S.—The seventeenth plate of Dr. Keller is not alluded to in the text of
the report; it contains plans of the lakes of Neuchatel, Bienne, Morat and
Sempach, with an indication, according to the researches of Colonel Schwab,
of all the lacustrian stations discovered, distinguishing them as respectively
dating from the age of stone, of bronze, of iron, or finally from the Roman
epoch, for there are a few where Roman objects have been found. Professor
Vogt has published a work on man, Vorlesungun neber den Menschen, in which
he severly criticises certain parts of M. 'Troyon’s “ Lacustrian Habitations,”’
upon which Dr. Keller had not animadverted; and the central organ of German
archeology, published at Nurnberg, Anzeiger fur kunde der deutschen vorzeit,
equally takes ground against M. Troyon’s book. (See Beilage, No. 10, Octo-
ber, 1863, page 373.)

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS

OF THE

NORTH AMERICAN STONE PERIOD.
BY CHAS. RAU, OF NEW YORK.

My collection of Indian stone implements contains a number of specimens
remarkable alike for large size and superior workmanship, which, to all appear-
ance, have been used for agricultural purposes by the aborigines of this country;
and, as no description of similar relics has appeared as yet in any modern work
on North American ethnology or antiquities, a notice thereof might be acceptable

5
to all who take an interest in the former condition of the aboriginal inhabitants

of North America.

The implements in question are of two distinct forms, represented in the wood-
cuts, figures 1 and 2, and may be classified, from their shape and probable
application, as shovels and hoes. The material from which they are chipped,
and which I never succeeded in discovering in situ, is invariably a very hard
flint of a bluish, gray, or brownish color, and a slightly conchoidal fracture, and
quite unlike that variety of flint of which the arrow and spear heads occurring
in the west are usually made.

. Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Fig. 1 represents one of the shovels in my possession. Like all other speci-
mens of this kind, it is an oval plate, flat on one side and slightly convex on the
other, the outline forming a sharp edge. It measures above a foot in length, a
little more than five inches in its greatest breadth, and is about three-quarters
of an inch thick along the longitudinal diameter. The workmanship exhibits
an admirable degree of skill. Besides the specimen just described, which was
discovered in a field near Belleville, St. Clair county, Illinois, I possess two
others of similar shape and workmanship. The one of these last named I found
myself within sight of the celebrated Cahokia temple-mound in Illinois, in the
construction of which it may have assisted centuries ago; the other was dug up
in 1861 in St. Louis, while earthworks were built by order of General F'rémont
for the protection of the city against an apprehended attack of the southern
secessionists. When attached to solid handles, these stone plates certainly con-
stituted very efficient digging implements.

Fig. 2 illustrates the shape of a hoe. This specimen, which was obtained
from a burial-mound near Llinoistown, opposite St. Louis, is seven and a half
inches long, nearly six inches wide, and about half an inch thick in the middle;
the round part is worked into a sharp edge. Another specimen of my collec-

380 ANTIQUITIES.

tion, of equal workmanship but inferior in size, was found, after a heavy rain, in
a garden in the city of Belleville. The fastening to a handle was facilitated by
the two notches in the upper part, and, in order to constitute a hoe, the handle
was doubtless attached in such a manner as to form a right or even an acute
angle with the stone plate.

If the shape of the described implements did not indicate their original use,
the peculiar traces of wear which they exhibit would furnish almost conclusive
evidence of the manner in which they have been employed; for that part with
which the digging was done, appears, notwithstanding the hardness of the mate-
rial, perfectly smooth, as if glazed, and slightly striated in the direction in which
the implement penetrated the ground. This peculiar feature is’ common to all
specimens of my collection, and also to the few which I have seen in the pos-
session of others. They seem to be rather scarce, and merely confined to the
States bordering on the Mississippi river. Dr. E. H. Davis, of New York, has
none of them in his excellent and comprehensive collection of Indian relies, and,
consequently, does not describe or represent them in his work on the “ Ancient
Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,’’ forming the first volume of the Smith-
sonian publications ; nor am I aware that Mr. Schoolcraft has mentioned them
in his large work on the North American races.

A passage in the “ History of Louisiana,’’ by Du Pratz, refers, doubtless, to
the implements described by me as hoes. In speaking of the agricultural pur-
suits of the Indians of Louisiana, that author observes, they had invented a hoe,
(pioche,) with the aid of which they prepared the soil for the culture of maize.
“ These hoes,”’ he says, ‘are shaped like a capital L; they cut with the edge
of the lower part, which is entirely flat.”* It is true, he does not mention of
what material this ‘lower part’’ consisted, but we may safely infer that it was
stone, the substance from which the aborigines of North América manufactured
nearly all their implements of peace and war. They had no iron, and the
scanty supplies of native copper, derived from the region of Lake Superior, were
almost exclusively used for ornamental purposes.

The fact itself that simple agricultural utensils of Indian origin are occasion-
ally met with is by no means surprising, for we know from the accounts of the
early writers that many of the North American tribes raised maize and a few
other nutritious plants before the arrival of the Europeans on this continent.
Maize was, however, their principal produce, and that on which they mainly
depended. In describing the ill-fated Mississippi expedition of De Soto, Gar-
cilaso de la Vega speaks repeatedly of the extensive maize fields of those Indian
tribes through whose territories that band of hardy adventurers passed. During
an invasion of the country of the Senecas, made as early as 1687 under the
Marquis de Nonville, all their Indian corn was burned or otherwise spoiled, and
the quantity thus destroyed is said to have amounted to 400,000 minots, or
1,200,000 bushels.t It is even asserted by Adair, that the colonists obtained
from the Indians “ different sorts of beans and peas with which they were before
entirely unacquainted.” ¢

From these and other facts, which need not be cited in this place, we learn
that the North American Indians generally, though warriors’ by disposition and
hunters by necessity, had, nevertheless, already made some steps towards an
agricultural state. But the events that happened after the arrival of the whites,
instead of adding to their improvement, served only to lower their condition, and
reduced them, finally, to the position of strangers in their own land.

* Ces pioches sont faites comme une L capitale; elles tranchent par les cotés du bout bas
qui est tout plat.—Histoire de la Louisiane, par M. Le Page du Pratz, (Paris, 1758,) vol. ii,

beliiGs

t Documentary History of New York, vol. i, p. 238. This estimate may be somewhat
exagererated.

t The History of the American Indians, by James Adair, (London, 1775,) p. 408.

ANTIQUITIES. 381

ANCIENT FORT AND BURIAL-GROUND.

/ Perry City, New York, January 25, 1864.

The remains of an ancient fort and burial-ground exist about one-half mile
northwest of Waterburg, a small village in the town of Ulysses, Tompkins
county, New York. When the country about here was unsettled, some sixty
years ago, the remains of this monument of a former period was plainly to be
seen. he fort (by which name it is called and generally known about here)
was situated on a rise of ground some twenty-five or thirty feet above the level
of a stream of water—Tanghanic creek—large enough, when the country was
new, to run a saw-mill four or five months of the year, the creek forming the
southeastern boundary of the lot.

The “fort lot’? contained eight or ten acres, perhaps, and around its eastern
and northern sides an embankment was thrown up several fect in height. At
this time it is not more than one foot, or near that; but, before it was ploughed,
it was considerably higher than at present. At the northwest extremity of
this embankment a ditch was dug at right angles to it. Around the outside
of the embankment posts were set, which, perhaps, served the same or a similar
purpose to that which our fence-posts do now. ‘These posts were set into the
ground to a depth of three feet, and judging from this we should be led to eon-
clude that they extended above ground eight or ten feet. On the west side
there were three rows of posts, but no embankment that could be discovered.
But it is very pfobable that the ditch, of which I have before spoken, extends the
whole length of the west side, though it can now be:traced but a little way.
At the northeast and southeast corners there were gate-posts set, where the
gates were situated, which afforded egress and ingress to thecamp. The south-
east gate was calculated to afford a direct passage to the stream of water before
mentioned, while the other one led directly to a burial-ground. On the southern
and southeastern sides there is a bank fifteen or twenty feet in height, and
pretty steep. Posts were here set part way down the bank so that a bridge
might be formed over the bank for some purpose besides preventing any one
from entering from that side. Mr. Jonathan Owen, (an aged farmer who resides
near the fort,) from whom I have most of my information, thinks that the inhab-
itants of the enclosure had access to the creek by an underground passage. Let
this be as it may, it is very evident, from the appearances around, that they
guarded against enemies on all sides, thus showing that some other party or
nation was hostile to them.

About sixty years ago everything that I have described was distinctly visible.
Parched Indian corn was seen in considerable quantities in various places.
The corn, in fact, was burnt black, and everything else showed that the whole
structure had been destroyed by fire. If it had rotted down or decomposed in
the ordinary way, it is not probable that the wooden part of the fabrie would
have remained many years. ‘The part of the posts that entered the ground had
been burnt to charcoal. It is probable that large quantities of Indian corn
which were put up for future use were destroyed by fire. Mr. Owen stated that,
“after digging through about two inches of loose dirt,” he came to a bed of
about the same thickness of bones, oyster, and clam shells, and a considerable
quantity of earthenware. The bones were principally deer’s bones. Below
this was a bed of ashes of nearly the same thickness. ‘The remains of their
earthenware showed that they had made some progress in the arts.

When the embankment around the northern and eastern sides was ploughed
it was found to be composed of a loose mucky earth, very much resembling
earth formed mostly from rotten wood. ‘This led Mr. Owen to the conclusion
that the embankment was formed of logs covered with earth. Its being covered
with earth to some depth would prevent the logs from taking fire when the
structure was destroyed in that way.

382 ANTIQUITIES.

A part of the embankment extends into the woods on the north side, and on
it are growing several trees, one of them a pine tree 34 feet in diameter. This
tree has undoubtedly grown where it is since the embankment was made. The
tree must be several centuries old. This, and in fact everything around it,
testifies to the comparatively great antiquity of the fort.

A few rods to the west of the enclosure, on a knoll, there were two burial-
grounds, where the dead bodies of the inhabitants were deposited. Sixty years
ago, according to my father, ‘a hundred graves could be counted in a row.”
These burial-grounds were quite extensive, embracing not less than two or three
acres. In a northeast direction, about fifteen rods from the fort, was another
burial-ground. ‘The northeast gate, as before mentioned, led directly to this
one. ‘his burial-ground contained at least half an acre. In all of them the
bodies were as thickly deposited as they conveniently could be. The last
burial-ground mentioned is still visible, it being in the woods ; but the other two
have been ploughed, so that they cannot be distinguished at present. In the
one that is now distinguishable, I have assisted in digging out several graves.
In some, bones were found; while in others, nothing of the kind were seen.
Wherever there is a grave the earth is sunk a little. In the first one that
was opened we found the thigh-bones, hip-bones, arm-bones, and various other
smaller ones. A jaw-bone and several teeth were found, but no hair. We
used nothing but our hands to throw out the earth with; otherwise, it is prob-
able, we should have found more things. ‘The earth was very loose, and it was,
consequently, easily thrown out. The depth of the grave was about 34 feet.
One grave, in which several bones were found, was under a root of the stump
of a large pine tree. This tree was, perhaps, from three to six hundred years
old, and it is probable that it has grown there since the grave was made.

All things indicate that these people were buried in a sitting posture. The
graves are very short, not being more than four feet in length. Also the jaw,
hip, and thigh bones were all found together, just a3 they naturally would be if
the body was buried in a sitting posture.

Various little trinkets have been found on the “ fort-lot’’ at different times.
A great many arrow-points have been found there, made of the hardest flint
stone. Stone hatchets, or axes, have also been found. Several years since, a
neighbor, Mr. David Farrington, found a pipe there, probably used for smoking
tobacco; the stem was not very long, but of a sufficient size to admit a wooden
stem of any length; the pipe-bowl had the face of a frog formed on it.

Within three miles of here there are three other similar forts to the one which
we have here deseribed.

DAVID TROWBRIDGE.

REMAINS OF AN ANCIENT TOWN IN MINNESOTA.

Itasca, ANoKA County, MINNESOTA,
November 25, 1863.

Dear Sir: Presuming that your Institution is the proper one with which
to file a report of new discoveries, I take the privilege and pleasure to inform
you that indications are favorable to encourage the belief, that upwards of one
hundred years ago there existed at the mouth of Crow river, where it empties
into the Mississippi, 24 miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, a town compris-
ing at least seven hundred inhabitants. I have commenced collecting the ar-
ticles that have been found, with the intention of forwarding the same to you if
you desire me to do so.

We presume that the village was destroyed by fire of an enemy, for these
reasons: we find the outlines of the buildings forming ridges of earth, under
which are ashes, indicating fire; we also find human bones near the surface,
which leads to the belief that they were not buried.

ANTIQUITIES. 383

.

As to proof of the age of these ruins, trees have been eut down having one
hundred rings, which were growing inside of the piles of ashes.

That they were at least civilized, is shown by our finding the locality of a
blacksmith’s forge, where the cinders, bits of iron, &c., were plenty. Each
house was furnished with a fireplace of stone, the foundations of which are
easily found.

Among the articles I now have, though somewhat decayed, are knives, forks,
a fish-hook, piece of china bowl, piece of looking-glass, very long and well made
wrought nails, part of an iron hinge, part of a clay pipe, strips of copper, one
knife of extra fine quality of steel—has the name of “ Pelon” on the blade.
If among your antiquities you have any cutlery bearing the same mark, it may
perhaps assist us to ascertain the direction these ancient settlers came from.

If you deem this information of any value, and will give me any directions
regarding further explorations and the manner in which you wish the articles
sent you, I will, as soon as the frost in spring will permit, turn over the ashes
in several more places, in hopes to find some record to add interest to the dis-
covery.

Can you gather any information by examining a jaw-bone of a human skele-
ton? Ihave one I can send, found near the forge.

I remain yours, most respectfully, in haste,

O. H. KELLEY.

P. S§.—I am the oldest white settler, with one exception, in this neighborhood,
having been here since January 1850, and have seen the forest cleared fromthe
ground where these ruins are found, and the present little town of Dayton
built up. Senator Ramsey will vouch for my being an old settler here.

ANCIENT RELICS IN MISSOURI.

WASHINGTON, March 14, 1864.

My Dear Sir: I promised you some time ago a description of some ancient
relics of pottery from the mounds of Missouri, but that promise has remained
unfulfilled up to this time.

Accompanying this note are photographs of three vessels:

1. Front view ) of probably a priest, or some official personage, if we re-

2. Profile view gard the head-dress as a badge of office.

: ee i of a captive, bound, perhaps, for immolation.

5. A plain vessel without any ornamentation.

These vessels are about twelve inches in height and are composed of clay
slightly burnt, and are without any glazing. ‘he interior is hollow, and the
orifice in two instances is at the side, and in the other at the top. The thick-
ness of the crust is about one-fourth of an inch. I regard them as water-
coolers; the texture being such as to retain water for a considerable time, and
also to allow evaporation from the exterior surface.

I think you will agree with me that the ancient sculptor exhibited consider-
able skill in moulding. The proportions of the features are not very grossly
exaggerated, and he possessed sufficient skill to delineate the traits character-
istic of his race. Those traits belong not to the North American Indians, but,
I think, to the Peruvians. The fillet on the head I am disposed to think was
made of cloth. I hand you specimens of ancient weaving, which I have here-
tofore described. (Vide Trans. Am. Asso., Albany meeting,) [1855 ?|

These specimens were taken from mounds in Mississippi county, Missouri,
by the late Sylvester Sexton, of Chicago, and are now in the possession of his

384 ANTIQUITIES.

widow. From Mr. Stevens, who assisted in the exploration, I drew the follow-
ing particulars :

‘There are several mounds scattered throughout this country, but the largest
group, and that from which these relics were taken, is on section 6, township
24, range 17, extending over about ten acres of ground. The mounds vary from
10 to 30 feet in height, and many of them, on exploration, have yielded relies.

The most convenient point of approach is from Columbus, Kentucky, being
about eight miles distant, and about seven miles from the battle-ground of Bel-
mont.

Yours, very truly,

J. W. FOSTER.

MOUND IN TENNESSEE.

SALEM, Marion County, OrEGON,
December 12, 1863.

Sir: We write on a subject of some though not of great moment. That
subject is this: On a mound, in Hast Tennessee, on Lick creek, near its june-
tion with the Nolechuckey, in Greene county, six miles north of Warrensburg.
It is some twenty-five or more feet high, covers an area of half an acre or more,
is cone-like or round, is quite steep, and flat on its apex. It is a made mound,
is of loam, and in the bottom next the ereek. There is an excavation near,
showing, evidently, that the earth removed is that of which is formed the mound.
This mound is full, so far as examined, of human bones and carbonized wood.
The bones lay irregularly, and seem to have been thrown in promiscuously. We
think this a cemetery, or burial of slain in battle. The skeletons are larger than
our race ; are yellow and firm and strong when disinterred, but soon crumble on
exposure. The apex is flat and sunken in the centre. Our informant, Mr.
Isaac W. Bewley, brother to the martyr, Anthony Bewley, dug down some
three feet, on top, and came to a burnt, smooth surface, under which, in sinking,
he found large pieces of charcoal and considerable ashes. Mr. Bewley’s father
settled, or rather bought the place, some fifty years ago. How long it had been
settled before we are not informed. ‘The cause of our informant digging down
on its top was from mere curiosity. This mound has no name that we know of.
We have given you its location, hoping you may make known this, we think,
important matter. The opening of this mound might lead to more than mere
conjecture concerning a once enlightened race. The earth seems to have been
dug and elevated for a tomb. This shows some advance in the race who did it.
An excavation might reveal important facts. We think the mound should be
examined, What has an examination of the Jacustrian cities led to? To im-
portant results to the archeologist. And might not some good result from an
exhumation of the remains in this mound? We think so, and therefore urge it.

We have written this for the cause of science—the light that may flow from
an examination of this Lick creek mound, near the junction of Lick creek with
the Nolechuckey.

And now another matter: We have here some relics of Indians, as stone
mortars and pestles, arrow points, stone axes, stone scrapers, or knives, &c.
Would these be of any use to the Smithsonian Institution? If so, please write
me at your earliest opportunity.

There are mounds in this country, too, and if you desire it we will write you
about them.

Weare, &c.,
A. F. DANILSEN.

JosePH Henry,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Washington city, D. C.

pets oe

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN,

TRANSLATED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FROM THE GERMAN
PERIODICAL, “AUS DER NATUR,” &c.

Tue idolatry of classical antiquity finds its chief antagonism in the natural
sciences. It would be easy to show how many illusions, nestling in the heads
of the admirers of the olden time, have been dispelled by modern chemistry
alone; and, although our present purpose is to deal with two objects of sub-
ordinate importance, yet these alsc serve to show how very broad is the line of
separation between our own times and the remoie ages, to whose languages and
ideas so much of the time and training of our youth are commonly devoted.

The colors of azure and purple were among the most highly priced as well
as the most highly prized productions of antiquity. The former was sold for
its weight in gold, and the latter was especially reserved for the noble and the
powerful; its use was in some ages even forbidden to all beneath those of the
highest rank on pain of death. Science and art have wrought here a striking
change; being no longer limited to the direct gifts of nature, we are able, from
the most apparently unpromising raw material, to furnish for the use of the
whole community what could then be but scantily produced for the ruling few
The contrast is certainly suggestive.

As early as three hundred and fifteen years before the Christian era, Theoph-
rastus drew a distinction between natural and artificial azure, the latter of
which, he tells us, was manufactured in Egypt. It seems most probable, how-
ever, that the terms natural and artificial indicate in this case only the greater
or the less degree of care with which the color was prepared from the beautiful
stone which we call Lapts lazuli, to which the ancients gave the name of sap-
phire. While in some cases the stone was merely reduced to a fine powder, in
others, probably, the coloring matter was more carefully separated, as is done

- in our own day.

The Lapis lazuli, or sapphire, is found in the least accessible parts of Little
Bucharest, Thibet, China, and Siberia, in layers or strata of granite or limestone.
Of old, as at the present day, it was polished and wrought as a gem, and it is
almost the only member of the large family of gems that has an intrinsic value.
This distinction it owes to the fact that, in addition to its great beauty, it yields
for the use of the painter one of his most beauta‘ul colors, which, moreover, is
unaffected by air or heat; that color is ultramarine.

As lately as the commencement of the present century, ultramarine, or azure
blue, was not simply a fine powder of the gem, but the result of a long and
troublesome process. ‘The stone was first broken into small pieces, and even
this first step in the process was no easy one, the stone being exceedingly hard.
The pieces, of the size of a hazelnut, were cleaned by means of lukewarm water,
then made red-hot, and afterwards slacked in a mixture of water and acetic
acid. The cohesion of the particles is so great that this process must be repeated
from six to ten times before the mineral can be transformed into a fine powder.
It is afterwards rendered still finer by trituration with the muller stone of the
painter, having been first mixed with water, honey, and dragon’s blood, then
treated with the ley of the ashes of the grapevine, and finally dried. The pow-
der is next compounded into a mass with turpentine, rosin, wax, and linseed oil,

25s

386 PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

melted together, and kneaded under water. By this process the fine powder is
washed out, and in time sinks as a sediment in the liquid. ‘The mineral yields
not more than one-fourth of its weight of coloring material.

Up to a very recent time Italy continued to be the chief, as it had been the
original, manufactory of ultramarine, and thence the finest shades were derived.
The tediousness, the difficulty, and, consequently, the costliness in both time
and money of the old process of producing ultramarine from the Lapis lazuli,
naturally excited great desire among scientific chemists to find some cheaper
and readier artificial means of producing that color, doubly precious to the
painter for its beauty and its permanency; but so invariable from different
causes were the failures of all attempts in that direction that the solution of the
problem was well nigh despaired of, when hope was as suddenly as accidentally
revived. In 1818 it happened that in France a sandstone furnace for the melting
of soda was taken down, and a beautiful colored substance, never seen there be-
fore, was discovered. It was remarked, that formerly the furnace for the melting
of soda had always been constructed, not of sandstone, but of brick. The mass
of matter thus discovered was examined by Vauquelin, who observed in its
appearance and composition points of great resemblance with ultramarine; but
still no clue offered itself to guide him through the perplexities of the investi-
gation. Similar observations were made in other soda manufactories, as, for
instance, by Hermann, in Schéubeck, who had thrown away above a hundred
weight of the colored mass found in a similar furnace when the latter was pulled
down; and by Kuhlmann, at Lille. We shall not venture to decide whether or
not the “ blue material,’’ mentioned by Géethe in his “ Italian Travels,” (1781,)
as being taken from limekilns in Sicily, and used for the adornment of altars
and other objects, was homogeneous with this product of the soda furnace, and
whether both were, in fact, an artificially and accidentally produced ultramarine.

The question still remained unanswered, how was this substance in the case
of each furnace produced? In what did it originate? At length, in 1828, the
solution of this important question was found and published by Professor C.
Gmelin, of Tuebingen. During eighteen years he had been occupied with
researches on the “ Lapis lazuli’? and its kindred minerals, the products of the
volcanic eruptions of Vesuvius. Reflecting on the recent circumstance, he was
led to believe that, notwithstanding there had been so many unsuccessful
attempts, the production of an artificial ultramarine was not an impossibility.
Further study of the natural coloring substance disclosed to him the sulphurous
portion of the components, and holding that clue he at length succeeded in
producing a most brilliant ultramarine.

At about the same time, another German chemist, the well-known “ Doebe-
reiner,” had a glimpse of the true nature of the coloring principle of ultramarine.
He was the first positively to assert that it was to be attributed to sulphur alone.
He obtained, however, a mere glimpse of this beautiful discovery, other occupa-
tions preventing him from following it up. A very few more experiments, and
he would have been completely in possession of it. Gmelin was scarcely more
successful, though the absence of this additional jewel in his scientific crown
was owing to a different cause. It is not in the nature of a true savant to
place his talent at usury, or, in plainer terms, ‘‘to make money by it ;” though
now and then doubtless, in these days of extravagant projects, it is not impos-
sible to find a savant at the head of some speculating manufactory, to the
success of which his reputation gives a substantial guarantee. Men of science
of this kind are certainly much sought after by industrial speculators, yet the
exceptions do not greatly affect my assertion as to the general disinterestedness
in this respect of the German savant.* He, for the most part, when, in the

* This characteristic is by no means confined to German savants, but is shared by most
men of science in all countries.

Os MES. erm

Se eh

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 387
| .

course of his researches and experiments, a discovery has been made which may
be rendered available for utilitarian purposes, forbears to make a secret of it,
publishes it without reserve, and leaves the pecuniary harvest, large or small, to
be reaped by others. Is this because the enthusiastic savant has so little worldly
wisdom, or so exclusive a desire of reputation? Gmelin’s own words may, per-
haps, help the reader in forming a reply to this question. He says: “I have
thus mentioned all the circumstances which must be kept in view in the man-
ufacture of artificial ultramarine, and I have also added some hints for the use
of those who may make it their object to manufacture this color on a larger
scale. J have now only to desire that others in like manner may unreservedly
publish their experience on the subject, so that the production of this article
may, as early as possible, attain to the highest degree of perfection. We can-
not, it is true, when an important technical discovery has been made, which
promises large profits, fairly blame any one for keeping it a secret until he has
achieved that great and justifiable aim of all mankind, security against want;
but beyond this, no one has a right to maintain secrecy that he may secure
gain. And it is very much to be regretted that by the withholding of so many
discoveries (often buried with those who make and conceal them) science has
been hindered in its progress, and an obstacle thrown in the way of the noblest
object of man, that, namely, of increasing knowledge and diffusing civilization.”
Such, literally, was the practice of Gmelin. While at Paris, in 1827, and pre-
vious to the publication of his discovery, he unreservedly communicated his
ideas on the artificial production of ultramarine to several chemists, especially
to Gay Lussac. And, behold! on the 4th of February, 1828, Gay Lussac made
a report to the French Academy that Guimet, at Toulouse, had succeeded in
manufacturing ultramarine of all kinds. Did the discovery originate in the open
and disinterested communication of Gmelin, or did it not? Who shall decide ?
Guimet, it is but just to say, warmly defended himself against such a suspicion ;
he affirms that he was prompted to his experiments by the examinations of
Lapis lazuli, made by Desormes and Clement, and claims that he had produced
artificial ultramarine before Gmelin’s visit to Paris.

Whether the method of Guimet is essentially different from that of Gmelin
cannot be determined, for, while the latter published his discoveries with every
particular, Guimet, on the contrary, has kept his method a secret to the present
day. In so far as profit is concerned, Guimet, it must be confessed, has main-
tained the advantage over Gmelin, and France over Germany ; for Guimet forth-
with made his discovery lucrative to himself and others. As early even as the
same year, 1828, he had erected a manufactory at Paris for the production of

_ artificial ultramarine, which he sold at two dollars and sixty-six and a half cents

per pound, while the natural article was a little more than double that price.
Guimet succeeded in having his product adopted for the painting of the beau-
tiful ceilings of the museum of Charles X, and thenceforth his fortune was made.
In 1834 the price had risen to from four to five and one-third dollars per pound,
but in 1844 had again fallen, and ranged from two and one-sixth to two and one-
third per pound, though the best quality for oil painting was still sold at six
dollars and forty cents. The cheapness of the ordinary article enhanced the
demand, and the product of Guimet’s factory speedily rose from twenty thou-
sand to one hundred and twenty thousand pounds, of which twenty thousand
pounds were exported to foreign countries. Not only did Guimet amass im-
mense wealth; he was the recipient also of many public honors. From the
French “Society for the Encouragement of Industry” he received a premium
of 5,000 francs, and medals fronr various French industrial exhibitions ; and
this as early as 1834, when the real importance of this eminent discovery could
have been scarcely appreciated. In 1851, at the London exhibition, Guimet
received the large gold medal.

388 PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

In Germany the manufacture of ultramarine proceeded at a far slower and
less profitable rate, though the directions published by Gmelin would have
amply sufficed for manufacturing on a.much larger scale. He already knew
that the proportions of silicious earth, natron, and potter’s clay might vary to a
certain extent without at all affecting the result; and he had also found that
the production of artificial nace requires two distinct operations, viz:

1. The production of the so-called green ultramarine; and,

2. The transmutation of the green into the blue article by roasting the former,
while allowing the access of air.

This latter necessity he was taught by the accidental bursting of a crucible.
His observation of this accident enabled him to master the whole process, and
conduct it to any desirable issue. ‘lo the manufacture on an extensive scale,
however, the condition insisted upon by Gmelin of perfect or chemical purity in
the silicious earth and the potie.’s clay employed, continued to present an
embarrassing obstacle on account of the delay and difficulty in bringing the
material to that state.

It is true that he had himself raised the question whether the production of
the two expensive materials, both of them being components of potter’s clay,
might not be dispensed with, and he experimented upon various specimens of
tolerably pure clay containing the maximum of 4% per cent. of iron. But he
considered the results of the experiments unsatisfactory, on account of the
presence of even such a proportion of iron. From a porcelain clay containing
very little iron he obtained, indeed, a very beautiful ultramarine, which he con-
sidered quite fit for oil painting, especially for landscapes. But even this pro-
duct could by no means be compared to the natural and most beautiful kind.
The artificial article always retained a scarcely perceptible tinge of green and
gray; while the positive red, on which depends the peculiar brilliancy of the
natural ultramarine, was wanting. This difference was especially noticeable
when both pigments were rubbed in oil. ‘The circumstance that Gmelin aspired
to the highest excellence, and would not content himself with mere mediocrity,
was an obstacle to the introduction of this article into German industry, and
restricted its use when it was introduced. Still, the first German manufactory
on the principle of Gmelin’s process commenced working in 1834, under the
management of Leverkus, of Wermelskirchen, and very soon occasioned a
great change alike in the price and the popularity of the article.

In 1832, the celebrated French chemist, Dumas, in his “‘ Manual of Chemis-
try,’”’ had expressed the opinion that chemical purity of materials might very
well be dispensed with in the manufacture of artificial ultramarine, and that
common clay might be used, provided it did not contain too much iron. Pro-
fessor Engelhardt, of the Polytechnic School, Nuremberg, while translating the
works of Dumas into German, was especially impressed by that statement,
and was induced thereby to make new experiments, but his labors were termi-

nated by death before he had obtained any positive and satisfactory results.
His assistant and successor, Leykauf, continued the deceased professor’s experi-
ments, and was fortunate enough to sueceed, where all previously had failed.
By means of potter’s clay, Glauber’s salt, and coal, he manufactured the most
beautiful ultramarine, in the renowned manufactuory of Ley Rauf, Heyne & Co.,
at Nuremberg; and in a very few years the firm counted its wealth by millions.
Nowhere else has this branch of industry acquired such an extension; being

conspicuous even among the diversified activities of Nuremberg, and justify ing,
therefore, a brief description in this article.

In the vicinity of the Nuremberg railroad depot, the attention of the ob-
servant traveller is pretty sure to be attracted by a stately and spacious mass
of buildings of white and red sandstone. The long rows of structures, with
their streets and yards, cover a space of some eighteen acres. Surrounded as the

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 389

whole is by a rampart, one might at first fancy himself to be looking upon a
fortress. But the smoke from numerous tall chimneys would speedily correct
this error and betray the abode of ingenious and successful industry. It is to
be regretted that visitors are rigidly excluded from the interior of this industrial
hive; a useless exclusion, as the manufacture of ultramarine can no longer by
any possibility be considered a secret. The visit of the King of Bavaria, in
1855, to this equally interesting and important factory, so far lifted the veil
that we possess something like a reliable deseription, instead of the strange sur-
mises which were previously in circulation with respect to it. On a first glance
at the exterior we perceive that the vast erection has been built piecemeal, ad-
ditions having been made from time to time to meet the necessities of the inereas-
ing business. It required the long period of seventeen years to render the
whole what it now is+~a structure heterogeneous, indeed, in appearance, but
really possessing the highest conceivable adaptation to the purposes for which
it was designed.

Three rows of the buildings are devoted solely to the preparation of the raw
material, the motive power consisting of two steam engines conjointly possessing
a thirty-eight horse-power. So various and well contrived are the stampers,
erushing and sifting machines, &c., which are set in motion by these various
works, that a small amount only of human labor is required to furnish abundant
raw material to employ elsewhere a vast number of hands.

Groups of buildings surrounding those just mentioned contain water-works,
and consist of five divisions of vaulted galleries, supported by iron pillars.
Near these are the drying stoves. Close by these three principal divisions are
the buildings for storing, packing, and weighing, and the clerks’ offices and re-
pairing shops. Here is a scene of continual activity, the human labor being
greatly aided by a high-pressure steam engine of twenty-horse power. ‘The
communication between these various and extensive buildings is facilitated by
a railroad six thousand feet, or considerably above an English mile, in length,
crossing from east to west, and from north to south, and similar tram roads of
timber connect the buildings in the upper stories. The iron railroad leads to
the depot of the public railroad; thus placing the factory in easy and speedy
communication with the principal high roads of Germany. The weight annu-
ally carried on this little railroad amounts to nearly 2,000 tons; about one-tenth
of which consists of the manufactured article.

About 200 laborers are constantly employed in this establishment, and it is
greatly to the credit of the proprietors, Zeltoner & Heyne, that they have es-
tablished a savings bank, a sick fund, and a fund for the support of widows and
orphans.

We have spoken of the remarkable fall in the price of ultramarine. Compe-
tition and improved machinery and modes of operating have effected so much
in that respect, that the whole price of the best article at the present time does
not exceed that paid for the mere grinding, only eighteen yearsago. ‘This con-
tinual fall of price necessarily compels a corresponding expansion of the manu-
facture and sale to compensate for the deficit in profit. On this account scarcely
a year passes without the addition of new buildings to this vast establishment.
Considerably more than 5,000 tons are manufactured here yearly, at the average
cost of from 25 to 37 cents per pound. The cheapness and exceeding beauty
of the color cause it to be profitably and largely exported to France, in spite
of the absurdly heavy import duty levied upon it there.

What we have said of this single manufactory, vast as it is, gives but a very
inadequate idea of the extent and importance of the ultramarine manufacture
in Germany. At the Industrial Exhibition at Munich no fewer than seven ex-
tensive manufacturers received medals, and two were honorably mentioned.

At the Parisian exhibition the French manufacturers did not dispute the ex-
cellence of the German ultramarine, or the exquisite heauty of its colors. But

.

390 PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

they complained that it was of so many different shades that the various, trades
and professions which use the article were unnecessarily embarassed in the
choice among so many gradations of color; for while the German manufacturers
exhibited twenty different tints, the French furnished but eight. ‘To this Ger-
mans replied, that in supplying so many different shades of the color they but
complied with the public wish. Yet, nothing can be plainer than that in every-
thing relative to color and cognate matters of taste, it is not the publie which
prescribes, but the artist, who elicits the artificial want. It was Phidias who
created the Athenian taste for the surpassing beauty of the Phidian sculpture.

Up to 1849, France had only two manufactories of ultramarine. In that year
a third was added, in Alsace, (Zuber & Co., at Rixheim,) which deserves men-
tion with that of Guimet, who still sustains his long-established reputation.
To such an extent is the manufacture of paper-hangings carried on at Rixheim,
that the manufacture of colors might appear a merely accessory and subordi-
nate branch. But such is not the fact; for, besides supplying the home demand,
that factory exports to a very large amount. As long ago as 1849, the estab-
lishment employed 500 laborers, at an expense of $43,333. And the motive
power consisted of 44 machines, exerting, in the aggregate, a sixty.two horse
power.

As mentioned above, Gmelin’s mode of using only the very purest raw
material has been abandoned. But, though the ultramarine ‘manufactured on
his method was undoubtedly more costly, it is no less certain that it was also
far superior in color to all other sorts of ultramarine. Economical manufacture
is now sought in a variety of ways. A white German clay found in many parts
of the country, and known to the trade under the name of “lanzin,” is the
most commonly made use of. White porcelain earth is preferable on account
of its greater purity. A small portion of magnesia and lime is of no conse-
quence; but if iron be present in greater proportion than one per cent., the utmost
care is requisite to produce an even tolerable color. All foreign matters of a
tangible kind are carefully removed by repeated washings; the clay is then
dried, made red-hot, and reduced to a fine powder in a mill or stamper. These
preparatory processes, simple as they appear to be, are in reality of great im-
portance, and the mechanical contrivances for rendering them perfectly. effective
are among the most ingenious, as well as the most costly, of all the machinery
employed in the manufacture. To the ground or crushed mass there are now
added sulphuric natron, soda, sulphur, and coal or charcoal; the whole having
been previously reduced to the finest possible powder. If coal instead of char-
coal be used, such must be selected as after combustion leaves the smallest
quantity of ashes. Sometimes rosin is used instead of coal, and, being decom-
posed by the heat, answers all the purpose of the mineral. Heated together,
these various materials become fused into one mass. Upon the process thus far
described, and, especially upon the exactly proper proportion of each of the
materials, the result greatly depends.

With regard to one point in the procedure there is a wide difference between
the French and the German manufacture. In the latter, Glauber salt or a mix-
ture of that salt and natron is always used; in the former, only soda. The
German mode is the more economical, because the sulphuric acetical natron is
by the agency of the coal converted into sulphuric natrium, and thus the sul-
phur can be wholly or partially dispensed with if soda be added at the same
time. It is true that a somewhat greater quantity of coal will be required,
but there can be no comparison between its price and that of sulphur. As to
the result, it does not seem that the one or the other method is very greatly
preferable.

There is great difference in the proportions of the several components of this
mixtnre; but the following may serve as a general rule:

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. ee!

GERMAN METHODS.

: Parts
Pav ite potter's clay, free from water, <..+....-<--.-0-decuy eu Semet 100
Pplawper.aali, tree fram waters J: 224; .c2.cl vec clk ete 85 to 100
BR el 28 ws Let OEE ay clan Goneten seiee te. UOT A ee ed, eee Ly
ii atte, potter's clay, free from water. scl,+ 6 3245 Ade oul 100
imine salt, free from water: 26 Ce eto kl Si ee 41
Peeeeercentrom, Water... 2.) cei keealee Uke nek 7 Pee L
RE IBN ict id ot afc inn ooo, oh ney aS IE RCE vet ee ae 13
BA ete I a ic ala cc8 oMe & e oN Ee RS Ae ake he Ce 17
FRENCH METHOD.
My aitepotier’s clay; free from, water... ...-)-.: 2 )cse)rie- soe bate 100
BIRT, FROM, WALCI'a\ a, oo <a! the w eis eee ere oe eo eg Cen 100
MR ola: ich 8) yah san is Dwlnfae asc Mete oe oe leeedte eae La 60
RRR BONS BR cn OE Sci a Ns ee A Sad I BS ck A aL

The next operation to be performed is that of what is called the over-glow-
ing of this mixture. It is placed in melting pots of potter’s clay, formed to
withstand intense heat, and slowly dried till burnt. Absolute exclusion of air
being indispensable, it is especially requisite that the melting pots be so tempered
that they will neither burst nor become softened in the intense heat requisite
to burn the mass within them. They may vary from 4 to 12 inches in height,
with the like diameter. When filled up they are packed one on the other in a
furnace resembling in form a flattened brickkiln. They occupy the whole
centre of the surface, while the space on each side of them is used for the burn-
ing of similar pots. The furnace being properly filled, the mouth is walled up,
and the firing commences. ‘The burning continues during from seven to eight
hours up to three days, according to the size, construction, and contents of the
furnace. Fuel must be added till the mass is thoroughly incorporated and
‘begins to melt. Upon this operation everything depends. If it be not prop-
erly conducted, the best and most accurately proportioned raw material will
not yield a profitable result. The temperature must be of a certain height,
which is to be ascertained beforehand by trials in a small testing oven. It
approaches a bright red or incipient white heat, and must be kept at the same
point during a specified time; and it must be made to heat the whole mass as
thoroughly as possible. When the furnace is cooled, the glowed mass is taken
out and cooled with water. and then repeatedly washed and drained to remov>
any salt still remaining. The now dried and spongy mass is next removed to
the mill and broken and pulverized to the utmost possible degree of fineness ;
the powder is repeatedly washed with water, and after being thoroughly dried,
again ground and nicely sifted. It has now reached the first stage of ultra-
marine, or what is called green ultramarine, and is ready either for sale or for
transmutation into the blue colored or proper ultramarine. Hitherto, however,
the green ultramarine has been in no very great request, as compared with: the
blue. It varies through several shades, from apple green to blue green; and in
beauty it is far excelled by the copper color and even by the cobalt. Its chief,
if not its only recommendations are its cheapness and its innoxiousness ; and
those qualities, important as they undoubtedly are, seem insuflicient to counter-
balance its want of brilliancy.

The next important operation is the transmutation of the green into the blus
color. Here there is but one cause for anxiety. ‘T'o obtain a perfectly beautiful
blue, we must previously have a perfectly beautiful green. The latter is roasted
with sulphur, air being freely admitted during the process. It sometimes hap-
pens that the change of color takes place without any interference. ‘The sul-
phurie natrium contained ia the mass causes spontaneous ignition on the adinis-

392 PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

sion of air, and when it ceases to glow we have still sulphuric acid present, and
the green color is thus self-changed into a beautiful blue. | :

As to this process also of transmuting the green color into blue the French
and Germans have their peculiar methods. ‘The Germans use small iron eyl-
inders for roasting; the French small hearth ovens, into which, however, the
flame cannot enter. Hitherto cylinders of potter’s clay have not been adopted,
though we doubt not that they would serve just as well, and be even more
durable. ‘The cylinder being filled with from twenty-five to thirty pounds of
green ultramarine, a vane (Fliigelwelle) is set in motion so that the conteuts of
the cylinder may not be burnt without being first thoroughly roasted within.
A pound of sulphur is now passed through an upper opening into the cylinder,
and while the wind-vane continues in motion the sulphur is gradually consumed.
The addition of sulphur may be continued as long as the color improves in
purity and brilliancy, but care must be taken not to continue it too long. After
the color has been thus roasted it must once more be washed, dried, ground,
and sifted.

The French method of roasting possesses this advantage, that, by allowing
a freer accession of air, the green mass is the more speedily transmuted into
blue. But, on cither the French or German method, a large quantity of sul-
phuric acid escapes, which renders the factory a nuisance to its neighbors,
while, were that quantity of sulphuric acid preserved, it would suffice for the
production of all the Glauber salt used in the manufacture.

The quality of the green color is the rule and test of that of the blue; but
something of its intensity also depends upon the manner in which it is ground—
the finer it is powdered the brighter and clearer it becomes. But not all kinds
are of equal beauty; lighter tones of color are frequently obtained without there
having been any appreciable difference in the mixture of the raw materials.
From these lighter and darker shades a’ medium kind is obtained by mixing
them together, and adding other white or light materials. Where this admix-
ture is resorted to, equal tones of color are out of the question; the shades vary
from the softest sky blue to a glowing, almost ruddy, dark blue—the former
generally forming a more compact powder, the latter a more loose and smooth
one.

The principle upon which the blue color of the ultramarine is dependent is
as undecided now as it was in the time of Gmelin. It is much to be regretted
that his analysis of the Lapis lazuli, which so much conduced towards the manu-
facture of artificial blue ultramarine, has not been repeated and followed up.
The foundation which he laid in scientific experiment has been built upon only
in the way of the merest empiricism; and the success which has thus, ina
merely monetary point of view, been obtained by the manufactures, has led
not a few of them to imagine—how vainly we need not say—that henceforth
they are quite independent of science. They forget that practical men, how-
ever ably they may profit by what science has taught them, do literally nothing
towards clearing up what science itself has yet to learn. It was the science of
Gmelin which alone laid the foundation for the manufacture of ultramarine as
it at present exists; but who shall pretend to limit the improvements that
might be made in that manufacture could another Gmelin arise to discover
the principle on which the coloring of the ultramarine depends? Attempts
have, indeed, often been made to lift the veil from this mystery, but hitherto
they have been so made that it was impossible for them to succeed. Analysis
has followed analysis, regardless of the fact that the ultramarine trade is
not a preparation of determinate composition from which uniform results can
be obtained. However accurately the operator may have treated the clay
with water and sulphur, does not the color imbibe some portion of silicious
matter? Nay, has not each specimen of clay different elements and different
proportions of elements in its own composition? How are we to tell, even

-

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 393

from the most skilful and laborious analysis, which is the essential product
and which the accidental? Which the portion which conduces to the pro-
duction of the color, and which the portion that, to a greater or less extent,
limits its quantity and diminishes its brilliancy? The time spent in analyses,
thus inevitably indecisive, may be considered as completely thrown away. In
truth, those analyses have rather raised questions than settled them. The in-
fluence of iron, for instance, upon the production and the color, which long ago
was considered a settled fact, is now relegated into the realm of doubt. There
seems good reason to believe that sulphur has a chief, if not the sole, part in
coloring the green and blue ultramarine; but hov—through what combinations ?
The material itself opposes difficulties to our clear view of the subject; and the
dithculties are increased by the coincidence of two chemical processes, and by
the facile decomposition of the material the moment it is attacked by reagents.
Finally, we are but too imperfectly acquainted with the affinities of sulphur
and the recently discovered sulphuric acids for the alkalies. This power-
lessness of analysis to pronounce definite judgment has necessarily given
rise to various opinions, founded not upon facts, but upon fancies, and, as
usual in such cases, the opinion founded upon fancy has been more per-
emptorily asserted than the knowledge founded upon fact. Of the green ultra-
marine, we have seen it positively asserted, though without even an attempt at
proof, that it is a simple combination of sulphur natrium, while another disputant
is not less positive that it is a mixture of blue ultramarine with some yellow
substance, the elimination of which turns the green to blue. Others assert that
the acid has transformed the sulphur natrium of the green ultramarine into a
sulphuric metal, combined with other and unascertained matter; that oxydi-
zation has taken place, and the sulphur has united with the undecomposed
sulphuric natrium. According to others the oxygen acts upon the sulphur and
forms a sub-sulphuric acid, or some other of the recently discovered sulphuric
acids. In short there has been much disputation, but no approach to a conclu-
_ sion which can be relied upon. To arrive at such a conclusion we must, as
our starting point, first study the affinities of aluminum and sulphuric natrium.

All that we are thus far warranted in saying is simply this, that ultramarine
contains silicious earth, potter’s clay, natron, and sulphur. But, what else?
That is the real question at issue. ‘lhe silicious earth is, if not superfluous, at
least inoperative, as regards the production of the blue color; but, though not
itself the cause of the blne color, it at least supplies the fire-proof quality. Too
much of it, undoubtedly, is injurious to the color. If the silicious acid be not
fixed by natron, the blue color is either very much faded, or wholly destroyed,
and the ultramarine is rendered unfit for the purposes of the porcelain painter.
The artificial ultramarine has still another great advantage over the natural.
While the latter could only be used for oil paintings, the former can be used in
every art in which the blue color is indispensable, and consequently it has, to
a very considerable extent, supplanted cobalt, litmus, and Prussian blue.
Even when the ultramarine commanded a far higher price than smalt, (the lat-
ter selling, in France, at 47 to 50 cents per pound, while the former could not
be purchased for less than from $1 62 to $1 73,) it was found that ultramarine
was the cheaper article, for the simple reason that one pound of ultramarine
would do the work of ten pounds of cobalt blue.

Ultramarine is a reliable color for oil painting or for painting on glass, for
tapestry, and for paper-hangings in patterns, and for the coloring of soaps,
candles, &¢c., &c., and it is not easy to over-estimate its importance in printing
on wool, cotton, linen, or silk. ‘To the French manufacturer, Blondin, belongs
the credit of having been the first to use ultramarine in cotton printing. For
_ six years he kept his application a secret; but, in 1844, Dolfus, a cotton manu-
facturer from Alsace, visited the French exhibition and made himself master of
the process. Since tlfen, as is said in the report of the French exhibition of

'

394 PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

1849, ‘Guimet’s method has travelled round the world, supplanting all the blue
colors which had been previously employed by the cotton-printer.” It must
be confessed, however, that this statement is not quite exact, for the manufac-
turers still experienced some difficulty in using ultramarine. At first the color
was, forthe most part, not sufiiciently fine, and consequently it affected both
the spreading- knife and the rollers. That difficulty was obviated by the use
of albumen, (the whites of eges,) which thus became a by no means unimport-
ant article of trade. It is used to condense, and to aid in spreading, the color,
but requires some slight admixture of oil to prevent the decomposition which
the albumen, pure and simple, was found to produce.

Ultramarine is used not only to produce a blue, but also a white. Every _
housewife well knows that blue of some kind must be used to counteract that
yellowish tinge which linen and cotton goods acquire when washed. ‘This use
of the blue color is familiarly called wsing the blue-bag, but using the whitening
bag would, in truth, be the more appropriate phrase. As a general thing the
blue-bag is used far too freely. The effect should not be, as it generally is,
to leave a blue tinge, but only to neutralize that yellow tinge with which we
unavoidably associate the idea of imperfect cleansing. Ultramarine is also of
important service in restoring linen and cotton yarns and fabrics to good color—
from two to three pounds of the color suflicing to restore fifty pieces of linen.
From ten to fifteen ounces are suflicient for the perfect bleaching of twenty
pounds of yarn, and so effective is it in small quantities, and therefore so cheap,
that even whitewashers use it to give increased brightness and cleanness to
their white.

It was formerly considered, on toxicological grounds, that the use of ultra-
marine in whitening sugar was objectionable. We need here only so far ad-
vert to the discussions of the public journals upon that point as to say that
two pounds and a half of ultramarine sufiice to bleach fifty tons of sugar, being
just 25 grain to the pound, a proportion in which even that deadly corrosive,
arsenic, would be entireby innocuous. Whether the sulphuric-hydrogen gas,
which is liberated by the contact of the ultramarine in the sugar with the acid
in wine, be offensive, is a question which we leave to the olfactories of the
chemist to decide. How far ultramarine is, or may be, adulterated, chemists,
we believe, have not, as yet, determined. Manufacturers maintain that it is
not merely right, but even necessary, to mix potter’s clay and gypsum with
ultramarine, in order to get a lighter color; and to u8 it seems that, on that
point at least, the manufacturer is a better judge than the chemist. The pur-
chaser well knows that such admixture is made, and for what purpose, so that,
whether right or wrong, there is, at all events, no deception; but if he wishes
no such admixture in the ultramarine which he purchases, a simple and facile test
of the quality is at hand. Adulteration is present if the color be not entirely
discharged by strong acids, or if it change color when boiled in a ley of potash.
The adulteration in this latter case has been made by organic matters, for the
purpose of producing the fiery brilliancy of the natural ultramarine. If, to be
thus tested, the ley assume a greenish tinge, the ultramarine contains a super-
fluous amount of sulphur natrium; and if the ultramarine adheres in hard clots
or lumps the salts have not been sufficiently washed from it. When mere ap-
gonence is alone relied on as a criterion, the judgment, however practiced, is

iable to be mistaken, for there is no other color which affords so much scope
for visual deception.

There are two qualities to be regarded in the genuine ultramarine—the color-
ing and the covering quality—which maintain no direct ratio one to the other.

The coloring quality may be tested by mixing one part of ultramarine with
ten parts of any white color—white lead, for instance, or clay, or gypsum—and
then closely observing the tone of the mixture. These trials should never
be omitted by purchasers, for in two ultramarines, whicl# to the sight appear

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. aon

exactly alike, there may be a difference, in both brillianey and durability, of
from one to two hundred per cent. Another important question is this: How
much mordant does the particular ultramarine require? Nor is this important
only in those great factories where the mordants are a considerable item of ex-
pense, for the artist also should be aware that every addition of mordant di-
minishes the clearness of the color. The less mordant the finer color, and vice
versa.

It admits of no doubt that from remote antiquity the art of coloring of the
raiment with which man invested himself had acquired a certain degree of
proficiency. Pliny, though he gives no particulars of the processes, yet assures
as that the ancivuts were well acquainted with the use of mordants, by which
fixity is given to colors which otherwise would gradually change by successive
gradations, or disappear altogether from the dyed fabric. Of those mordants
he mentions human urine, ammonia, and certain salts, including rock-salt and
soda, as serving to give at once brilliancy and fixity of color to spun and woven
stuffs. And in another passage he intimates a still more advanced knowledge
of the art of dyeing as practiced by the ancients. “In Egypt,” he says,
“cloths are dyed in a quite peculiar manner. The cloth is first thoroughly
cleansed and then successively dipped into one or more solutions, and finally
into the fluid color for which the previously used solution has so great an afiin-
ity that the cloth is dyed as permanently as instantaneously. What is most
remarkable about this process is the fact, that though the dye-vat contains dye
of only one color, the web of cloth is dyed of one, two, or several colors, ac-
cording to the kind of solutions used for the preliminary washings or dippings.
And further, not only is the cloth so permanently dyed that the color cannot
be washed out, but the cloth itself is rendered stronger and more durable.”’

This language of Pliny shows, that our knowledge of the uses and effects of
various mordants to heighten and fix color, and rather to improve than to injure ~
the fabric of the stuff to be dyed, thoughedoubtless much indebted to modern
chemistry, is, substantially, as old as chemistry itself. In the case of ancient
Egypt, such a knowledge need scarcely excite our surprise, that antique and
mysterious land having been the source of the chemical science of at least
all the people of antiquity. As nature herself suggested colored ornamenta-
tion, and the fugitive qualities of the earlier dyestuffs foreed chemistry into
the discovery of mordants, so the lack of a cultivated taste made the glaring
scarlet and tawdry yellow the favorites of the earlier ages ; just as, in our day,
the same lack or imperfection of taste is apt to recommend those vivid hues
to the favor of the childish and the unrefined. Next to the Egyptians the
people of ancient India evinced most skill in the art of coloring. Job speaks
with great admiration of the brilliant colors of Indian cloths. There is at this
day in the museum of the Industrial Society at Paris a large and valuable
collection of Indian colored stuffs, together with the utensils by which they
were prepared. These stuffs should be called painted rather than dyed; the
absorbent and mordant fluids were first applied with a brush, and the desired
colors then laid on; those portions which were to remain white were at the
outset covered with wax, and the outlines of the pattern traced on the remainder.
There is also at Paris a shawl, ten feet long and five feet wide, the handiwork
of Indian princesses, and so elaborately as well as beautifully executed that it
must have employed the skill and industry of more than one generation of the
royal and dusky workwomen. But everything else in ancient dyeing was sur-
passed by the proverbially pre-eminent

'

TYRIAN PURPLE.

Inventions have their place in Mythology, and not improperly ; for if chance
plays no inconsiderable part in the inventions and discoveries of the present days,
80, also, it did in the days of old. All have heard, or read, the story of the dog

396 PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

which occasioned the discovery of the beautiful Tyrian purple. As Hercules (so
runs the fable) walked one day on the sea-shore with the fair object of his love,
her pet dog, playing around them, seized an open sea-snail, and dyed his mouth
of so beautiful a color that the lady uttered a wish to have a dress of that self-
same hue. Hercules, of course, succeeded in granting her desire. It is as-
sumed that this discovery dates from the year 1500 B. C.

For nearly all that we know of purple dyeing we are indebted to Aristotle,
Pliny, and Vitruvius. Pliny mentions two shell-fish that yield the “ purple,”
the “buccinum,” so called, on account of its resemblance to a trumpet, and
the “purpura,” he coloring substance was said to be contained in a trans-
parent and branching vein at the back of the ereature’s neck, and while the
animal was alive, the fluid had a mucous or creamy consistence. If the fish
were small, they were pounded; but if large, containing so much as an ounce
of the highly valued fluid, the vein was detached, its contents mixed with five
or six times its weight of water, and to the mixture thus formed soda was added,
in the proportion of twenty ounces to every hundred pounds. The whole was
then put into lead or tin vessels and kept in a moderately warm place for five
or six days, the scum being from time to time carefully removed. As soon as
the fluid assumed the precise tone of color that was desired, the wool was dyed.
The process was very simple. The wool, being thoroughly cleansed from grease
and all other impurities, was plunged into the dye for some five or six hours,
or even longer if the object was to double dye the material, (dibaphes,) in which
case it was highly esteemed and proportionably high in price. Wool thus dyed
commanded in whe reign of the Emperor Augustus the enormous price of two
hundred dollars per pound, nearly its weight in gold!

We learn from Vitruvius that various countries had their peculiar shades of
purple. At the north, the shade approached to violet, while at the south it
became the vivid red which we now term a bright scarlet. Pliny also dis-
tinguishes two different shades of purple—the tyrium or purpura, a dark crim-
son like that of coagulated blood; and the amethystinum, the light violet blue
of the amethyst. Both authors agree in stating that an excellent purple was
obtained from some plants ; our own madder, it would seem, being among them.
Madder (Rubia tinctorum) was undoubtedly known and cultivated in several
ancient countries—Italy and Judea, for instance. Woad, too, (Isatis tinctosria,)
was well known to the ancients, and served to give to the purple that fine violet
tint which was so much prized.

The purple-yielding shell-fish were found on all the coasts of the Old World;
and in Greece, Italy, Dalmatia, Istria, and Egypt, there were large dyeing
houses. Of course they used up an immense number of these minute animals ;
but the supply was equal to the demand. For instance, Mount Testaceo, near
Tarentum, consisted almost entirely of the shells of the Murex brandaris, which
we believe to be th shells from which the Roman dyers extracted their color-
iug matter. Accorcing to Tacitus, the Germans had a purple dye which was
especially in request for linen. But above all the purple dyes of the ancients,
that of Tyre and Sidon was admired, and it was a very important item in the
commerce of the merchant princes of Tyre. No color has ever been so long
valued and so profusely lauded as the purple. In the days of Moses it was the
distinctive color of the great and the wealthy; Homer makes Auneas offer a su-
perb purple robe to Bellerophen; Dives, in the New Testament, is “ clothed in
purple and fine linen ;”’ and it was in a robe of purple that the stern Roman
Imperator triumphantly returned to the seven-hilled city, after vanquishing and
subjugating some far barbarian foe. Pliny speaks of “the Tyrian purple” as
being a color so representative of dignity and majesty that Roman lictors made
way for it with their fasces and their followers. Not only was it the distinctive
mark for both young and old of high rank or great wealth, but was still fur-
ther honored by being the indispensable color of the robes of those who reve-

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 397

rently sacrificed to the gods, to obtain their favor or to avert their wrath.
Pliny is so much in love with the purple that he deems it no mere idle vanity,
but a laudable and natural yearning in men eagerly to desire it.

To the great majority of Romans purple was forbidden for a long time by its
enormous cost as compared with the moderate fortunes of most of the plebeians ;
but when wealth flowed into Rome and corrupted the Romans, purple was fast
becoming the only wear, and the Cesars, from Julius downwards, prohibited
its use by private citizens under pain of death. The Byzantine emperors made
it penal even to write with purple ink; the use of which they monopolized for
their own imperial signatures; and the very art of dyeing in purple was con-
fined as a privilege and a monoply to favored individuals. As a natural con-
sequence, the art decayed, and at length was entirely lost towards the end
of the twelfth century, though so recently as the preceding century the Greeks,
Saracens, and Jews, had been renowned for their skill as dyers. During the
twelfth century the purple was less various in its shades, and very much less
in request. But though the fickle tyrant Fashion, for a time, discarded purple
in favor of scarlet, procured from the Thermes, the traditionary reverence for
the imperial purple was not extinct, for even to this day, throughout the Old
World, “ purple’’ is synonymous with imperial power and place.

Strangely enough, while purple-dyeing was a disused, if not a forgotten, art
in many of the countries to which it had once procured so much profit, it still con-
tinued to be considerably practiced in Britain. With that island the ancient
Pheenicians are known to have had considerable commerce, the Britons, as we
learn from Herodotus, supplying the Phenicians with tin, and it is probable
that it was from the Pheenicians that the Britons learned the art of purple-
dyeing. The practice of the art existed in England till the close of the four-
teenth century ; and so late even as 1684 an Irishman is said to have made a
large fortune by the peculiar skill with which he gave the purple dye to fine
linen and other articles of female apparel. He, like the ancients, obtained his
dye from a shell-fish.

The Chinese are said to have had a dye resembling the purple; and in the
New World, according to Don Antonio d’Ulloe, the people of the provinces of
Guayaquil and Guatemala were, from the earliest times, possessed of a beautiful
red color, which they obtained from certain sea-snails of a size not greater than
ahazelnut. These, on account of their scarcity, were highly prized, and were
used only for dyeing choice and costly matters, such as beads, fringes, braidings,
&c. It was the popular belief that both the weight of the animal and the color
of its juices varied with the hours of the day.

The purple dye had at length become so entirely forgotten that what the
ancient writers had said of it was regarded as a fable, invented by the Pheni-
cians to conceal their knowledge of the cochineal insect. A shell-fish yielding
such a fluid was no longer known. It was not until the seventeenth century
that the first attempt was made to red’scover and to ultilize the long-forgotten

‘secret of antiquity. Then, indeed, men were enabled once more to view the

prodigy with their own eyes, for in the West Indies, in Peru, on the coasts of
Italy, France, and England, there were found muscles whose vital juices, from
being at first colorless, soon took, successively, the shades of yellow, green, blue,
and finally a splendid purple. William Cole, of Bristol, in England, was
the first who, in the seventeenth century, experimented for the revival of
the lost art of dyeing in purple, and he used only the common muscle which is
so abundant on the shores of England, and after long trial at length discovered
the long-sought-for shell-fish in the Purpura Lapillus. “Tf, ’’says he, “we
carefully break the shell we find, near the head of this shell-fish, a white vein
lying in a furrow, and within that vein is a white, creamy, and somewhat gluti-
nous fluid, which is the much-desired dyestuff.” His description precisely
coincides with that of Aristotle and of Pliny.

398 PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

In 1709 Jussien made similar researches on the French coast—researches
which, in the following year, were continued by Reaumur, who delighted to make
theory and speculation the obedient handmaidens of every day utility. Some-
what later the soft-shelled molluses of the Mediterranean shores were carefully
examined by Italian naturalists, and so well has their pains-taking example
been followed up that we are now acquainted with a goodly number of molluses
that yield the purple dyestuff. For the most part they belong to the families
of the Murex and the Buccinum, of Linnzeus; and it is thought that the Murex
trunculus, of Linnzeus, (one of the most abounding of the Mediterranean sea-
snails,) and the Purpura and Purpura putula, of Lamarck, are identical with
Pliny’s Buccinum. 'The Purpura Lapillus is quite common on the European
shores, and is believed to have been the most important among the purple sea-
snails of antiquity. Lesson thinks that the Janthina fragilis is the true bue-
cinum of antiquity. It is a native of the Mediterranean. In stormy weather
it is thrown upon the coast of the French department of Ande in such vast
numbers as actually to cover the strand. Lesson attributes to Narbonne (the

Yarbo Martins of the ancients) great skill and celebrity in the art of purple
dyeing in the times of ancient Rome. Other writers say that though the Gar-
lish purple was very splendid, it yet was very evanescent. The janthina un-
doubtedly affords a bright and beautiful purple, and when taken out of the water
yields the fluid to the average amount of about an ounce. But the fluid is fur-
nished by a gland entirely different from that spoken of by the old writers, a
fact which it is difficult to reconcile with the ancient statement. Moreover, the
modern purple is very evanescent, while the ancient was valued no less for its
durability than for its beauty. ‘Thus, in Plutarch’s Life of Alexander the
Great, we read that the Greeks found in the treasury of Darius purple stuffs to
the value of five thousand talents, and that, though some of them were nearly two
centuries old, the color had not at allfaded. Lesson says that the coloring fluid
yielded by the janthina passes through the same changes of light and shade
as the vegetable colors do. With alkalies, it becomes blue; with acids, red.

Some writers include Aplysia depulans and Scalaria clathrus among the
purple sea-snails, but this is doubtful. It is true that the aplysia sometimes
voluntarily, always when alarmed, does emit.a beautiful purple fluid, and, in the
latter case, in such quantities as to color the water for several yards around.
Probably the purple fluid, in the case of the shell-fish, is analogous to the
ink of the cuttlefish, the concealing and protecting provision of the otherwise
defenceless creature. The fluid is colored at the moment of its ejection, but
the tint is of slight duration. The fluid of the Scalaria clathrus is still more
evanescent—time and exposure to light discharging it entirely. Of the Plan-
orbis corneus Wallis says: “If you put salt, ginger, or pepper into its mouth
it yields a purple fluid, but the color is so evanescent that we know of no
mordant that can fix it.”’

At present we are acquainted with a great number of purple-yielding shell-
fish, but we cannot identify any of them with the purple sea-snails of the an-
cients, the descriptions left us by the old writers bemg too general and vague.

In our own time Bancroft has industriously experimented with the dyemg
fluid of purple sea-snails, and he asserts that they yield a fluid which surpasses
everything else in animal nature, alike for the brilliancy and the permanency
of its purple, and for the facility and simplicity of its use. Within the fish, or
when separated from it, the fluid has a creamy appearance, or, as Reaumur
phrases it, resembles a well-developed pus. ‘The textures to which it is ap-
plied become first of a light, then of a darker green, next blue, and acquire
finally a rich deep purple tint, inclining to crimson. According to Bancroft, the
gradual prismatic changes of the colors are as beautiful as they are remarkable.
Even the most powerful chemical agencies, whether mineral acids or the most
corrosive alkali, can only subject this purple to one change—wash the fabric in

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 399

strong soapsuds and the purple becomes a magnificent and permanent crimson.
Dyed with this singular fluid the fabric passes through all the prismatic changes
of color of which we have spoken, in a very few minutes; and if exposed to heat
as well as light, the changes are so rapidly effected that the eye can scareely
appreciate the passing of one hue into another; but if, on the contrary, light
be completely excluded, the first pale, yellowish green will remain unchanged
for years. Bancroft proved this with some linen thus dyed, and kept for nine
years in the dark.

As to the causes of the changes of color they are not clearly understood.
Berthollet thinks that the coloring matter absorbs oxygen. Bancroft attributes
the effect to light. He justifies his opinion by reference to the coloring of prints,
flowers, &c., which coloring is known to take place, not from warmth, but from
light. It is by the mere exclusion of light that we bleach, for instance, endive
and celery.

As far as we are at present informed, the chemical nature of this coloring
matter is as little known as the modus operandi of its successive changes after
being applied to a textile material. Highly as Bancroft and others have praised
the purple, it has had its day of popular favor. For dyeing fine muslins, and
as a marking fluid, purple is still occasionally used. Even as long ago as the
thirteenth century, scarlet, from Kermes, instead of purple, was the adopted
color of the Hungarian magnates. Our numerous dyestuffs, and our facile and
economical dyeing processes, render us independent of the ancient purple.

With the revival of science and art from the decadence into which they had
sunk, during what are not unjustly called the dark ages, dyeing, like other arts,
started into new, vigorous life. ‘Till the fifteenth century, and still later, Italy
bore away the palm in the art of dyeing, for which Florence and Venice were
especially renowned. The discovery of America gave a great impulse to the
same art, dyestuffs being furnished which were entirely unknown to the Flora
and the Fauna of the Old World. From the Italians the mastery in the art
passed to the Flemings ; and when the religious persecutions by Spain drove
the Flemings into exile, these latter carried their art into France and England.
It was a native of the Netherlands, Cornelius Drebbel, by whom, in 1650, the
discovery was made that cochineal was capable of yielding a dye far surpassing
in beauty the purple of the ancients. Drebbel was at work in his laboratory,
when an accident having thrown some agua rega over the tin fastenings of the
window panes, and thence into a bottle full of an aqueous infusion of cochineal,
the latter on the instant assumed that magnificent scarlet tint which is now
so well known. Dyebbel was too acute and too reflecting an observer to neglect
such an indication, and from that time cochineal has played an important part
in the art of dyeing. Ae)

Modern chemistry, however, has done more for this art in single years than
had previously been accomplished in centuries. Pure and effective mordants
and mineral colors have wonderfully changed both the laborious and the eco-
nomical processes of the art. Colored garments were formerly the external sign
of rank or opulence. At the present day, thanks to the labors of men of science,
the man who wears the homeliest and cheapest garb, as to quality of fabric, may
yet wear it of the most tasteful color. Chemistry. however, is still making and
will long continue to make still further improvements in this art, as in others.
One of the latest acquisitions thus made by the secluded men of the laboratory
is that of the much-valued coloring material known as

MUREXINE, (MUREXIDROTH.)

This color is extracted from the uretrie acid contained in urine. — we
The ancient adepts, or alchemists, carefully analysed that. fluid, in which in-
deed they sought their arcanum, and in the course of their experimexting they

400 PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

produced volatile alkali, and phosphoretic ammonie natron. The last named
salt was probably known to the ancients, and used by them in soldering metals.

The uric acid which now is so importantly utilized in urine, or rather in uric
calculi, was found by Scheele, in the year 1776, which are, for the most part,
composed of that acid, itself a component part of the urine of all carnivorous
animals, and perhaps of all animals having a renal secretion ;* being in the ex-
crement of birds, snakes, and even in that of caterpillars, snails, &c.

Scheele remarked, that a solution of uric acid in acid of saltpetre left, when
evaporated, a red sediment, and would stain the skin a fine red color. In 1818,
Prout, by the action of ammoniz on a solution of uretric matter in acid of salt-
petre, discovered a material which he called “purple acetic ammonium,” on
account of its splendid color. He thus describes the process of producing it:
Pure acetic acid and acid of saltpetre are mixed with an equal volume of water
and gently warmed till solution takes place and strong fermentation is produced.
The superfluous acid of saltpetre is then diluted with ammonium and the
whole reduced by evaporation. During the operation the color gradually
changes from purple to red, and through numerous shades of dark red. Green-
ish granular crystals are precipitated, which consist of purpuric acid and am-
monizum. This reaction is remarkable, and so positive that chemists have
long availed themselves of it to detect the presence of uretric acid in any organic
substance, for this characteristic coloring only takes place in the way mentioned
and where uretric acid is present.

Liebig and Woehler, in 1837, also produced this brilliant colored matter
while experimenting on the changes of uretric acid under the influence of oxyd-
ating matter. It appeared in the form of small crystals, or short four-sided
prisms, which when held up to the sunlight appear of a rich garnet-red color,
changing, under a reflected light, to a greenish metallic splendor not unlike that
of the wing of a rose-chaffer. Those chemists believing Prout to be mistaken
as to the chemical composition of this beautiful colored material gave it the
name of “murexid,’”’ from murez, the purple snail. It is not formed directly
from the uretric acid, which is first converted into aloxan and aloxantine by
means of acetic saltpetre. These are two colorless combinations of little.dura-
bility, but, acted upon by ammonium, they exhibit the purple-red coloring.

Prout produced several compositions from purpurie acid and other bases, such
as lime, quicksilver, and oxyde of zinc, and all such compositions were remark-
ably beautiful in color. He also claimed that some of those compositions can
be utilized not only in painting, but also in the dyeing of wool and other tex-
tiles, but his statement could not immediately be acted upon. In the first
place, his description was so vague and general that experiments often failed
when based upon it. Then the temperature, not less than the concentration
of the fluid, is of great importance in producing the result, which often is very
different even when the accurate prescription of Liebig and Woehler is followed.
Moreover, in Prout’s time the raw material was insufficient for the production
of a large and constant supply of this dyestuff. It is true that, as we have
stated, the uretric acid is furnished by many species of animals, but it is fur-
nished only in very small quantities. Man, for instance, secretes only about
one-third of a drachm of it in twenty-four hours. The excrement of birds is dis-
tinguished for its great proportion of uretric acid; it is 4, part of the weight of
dried pigeon’s dung. But that could not be produced in large quantities any
more than the excrement of snakes, which consists chiefly of uretric-acidical
salts.

* Millions of dollars are annually paid for guano by the farmers on both sides of the Atlantic,
yet they, for the most part, suffer the urine of their live stock to sink uselessly into the ground
or to pollute and empoison the air, forgetting, if they ever knew, that guano is only more
valuable than the manure of the farm-yard or the stable because birds have no urinary pas-
sage, and therefore their faecal excrement contains all the uretric salts.— Translator.

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 401

If even the chemists were insufficiently supplied with the raw material, still
less could it be procured for the purposes of industry. In Prout’s time, the
cost of a pound of uretric acid was from thirty-two dollars to forty-two dollars
and forty cents; it can now be bought for from two dollars to two dollars and
fourteen cents, though it is not in a chemically pure state. This great reduc-
tion, which enables the manufacturer and artisan to be plentifully supplied with
murexid, is owing to the introduction of

GUANO.

This substance is imported from Peru into various parts of North America
and Europe, at the rate of between one and two hundred thousand tons per
annum. Guano is found in vast quantities in Peru and on many of the cliffs
and islands in that part of America between the 13th and 21st degrees of south
latitude. It is the excrement of sea-birds, and contains as much as four per cent.
of uretric acid. In those regions the sandy soil could be. but unprofitably eul-
tivated without the aid of guano. It is known that as early as the twelfth
century manuring with guano was practiced there. Under the Incas, guano
was considered so valuable that killing the young birds on the guano islands
was punishable by death.

Each of those islands had its superintendent, and each island was assigned
to a particular province. From 6,000 to 7,000 tons were annually used in Peru
alone; and when Alexander von Humboldt was exploring America, there were
as many as fifty small coasting vessels employed exclusively in the transport
of guano. Humboldt took some samples to Europe, where they were analyzed by
Klaproth, Foureray, and Vauquelin. The celebrated traveller and writer also
published what he had learned as to the importance of guano to agriculture,
but for some time his words remained unheeded. In Germany, Liebig’s call
upon the cultivators of the soil failed to stir them into activity, and it is even
now insufficiently used, even by England, whose severely worked land more
than almost any in Europe requires such a return of the elements of which
years of grain-growing have deprived it. i ;

Liebig and Woehler were the first chemists to experiment on guano. In the
course of their inquiries on the subject of uretric acid they had often been em-
barrassed by want of material; ‘they therefore requested William Kind, an
apothecary of Bremen, to procure them some, and in due season received a hun-
dred pounds weight from Valparaiso. So much have agriculturists been enlight-
ened since that time, that, in several European countries, guano is an article of
considerable yearly importation, and the raw material of uretric acid is never
wanting. And such is the potency of modern chemistry that guano, so highly
offensive to the nostrils in its raw state, is made to yield some of the most deli-
cate of the perfumes which are used by the fair and the fashionable. A greater
contrast than that presented in this case by the raw material and the article it
is compelled to yield can scarcely be imagined.

The first attempts to render the murexid available for dyeing purposes were
made by Sace, in Alsace, that high school of the art of dyeing ; and he suc-
ceeded in giving to wool an amaranth color far more beautiful than that obtained
from cochineal. This induced Schunberger to try a new course of experiments,
in which, if he did not entirely succeed, he at least ascertained that. white tex-
tures could be thus dyed both handsomely and durably. Sace maintained on
this occasion that the coloring matter of the cochineal, the kermes, &e., has
some connexion with murexid. He claimed to have discovered that birds, and
especially those of brilliant plumage, the parrots, for instance, while they are
moulting, secrete scarcely a distinguishable trace of uretric acid, but courts a ep
siderable quantity as soon as they recover their full plumage. at, t es
becomes of the urctric acid when it is no longer excreted from the body?

268

402 PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

May it not be metamorphosed into some other substance which, like the alloxan,
is capable of dyeing the feathers? ‘These questions are only suggested, and
we are not as yet able to supply the answers; but this hypothesis, if adopted
with regard to birds, must also be extended to reptiles, insects, &e.

The murexid is now a favorite dyeing material, strongly competiifg even with
cochineal. Germany, as usual, was the last to adopt it. Ina new and little
known process mistakes are quite natural. When this new dyestuff first made
its appearance as an article of trade, under the names of purple carmine, purple
murexide, or paste murexide, it was in the form of a dirty-brown pulp. Though
it sold as high as $4 80 to $6 the pound, it was a very inferior quality,
and in many cases contained not more than from four to five per cent. of the
murexid. Of course, this inferiority arose from imperfect preparation.

To extract uretric acid from guano, the latter must be moistened with diluted
acid of salt, and warmed. The calcareous salts and everything soluble in water
or acids is removed, while the uretric acid, with a not inconsiderable quantity of
sand and other adulterations, remains. ‘The well-washed residue is then put,
in small quantities, into acid of saltpetre of 1.45 specific gravity, and the vessel
must be kept cold. Only when the fermentation subsides should more uretric
acid be added. .By this procedure alloxan and alloxantine are obtained. But it
must not be forgotten, that, as it is impossible to hit upon the exactly correct
quantity of the acid of saltpetre, we should always have a surplus of the acid
at hand. It must be remembered, too, that very noxious fumes escape during
the evaporation of the solution. The above-mentioned chemical products of
uric acid suffer a further decomposition, and form combinations destitute of
murexid. 'T’o avoid this, it is necessary that to the solution of uric acid and
acid of saltpetre there should, during the evaporation, be an addition of ammo-
neum. Murexid may be formed without that addition, but always at the ex-
pense of the alloxan and alloxantine ; for if the ammoneum be absent during the
evaporation, the alloxan and alloxantine are required to supply its place in the
chemical production of murexid during the evaporation; and, moreover, the
decomposition just spoken of continues, and we run the risk of having the
murexid destroyed as fast as formed.

The murexid must not be suffered to crystallize; the solution is to be evapo-
rated only to the consistency of a pulp. In the whole process there should be
the utmost care observed that only the purest and best murexid be produced.
The high price of the pure article would be more than compensated by its
greater efficacy in dyeing. All textile fabrics, silk, wool, cotton, and flax,
may be dyed with murexid, which is also used in cotton printing. ‘Truly splen-
did colors are obtained by using the oxmuriate of mereury as the adhesive
medium. We are obliged, however, to confess with regret that the murexid red
cannot compare with the ancient purple as to durability. Samples on which we
experimented with the usual re-agents lost their colors, however beautiful. We
do not speak of such re-agents as the corroding alkalies and potent mineral acids
which would affect, and in our experiments did affeet, black no less than murexid
red. But this latter faded under the application of even weak vegetable acids,
such as vinegar, lemon-juice, &e., and even perspiration left visible traces upon
the delicate tincture. Here, no doubt, are considerable defects; but it is to be
remembered that the whole art of dyeing with murexid is as yet in its infancy.
Even the ancient purple was not indestructible, and in the present day the
public demand is not for indestructibility, but for cheapness. If the color please
the eye and the price per yard be low, little is thought about the durability of
the article. Time and the progress of chemical science will doubtless remedy
the defects spoken of, since there can be no question but that this color is sus-
ceptible of great improvement. If the murexid be precipitated from its solu-
tions by metallic salts, as, for instance, oxymuriate of mercury, or salts of lead
or zine, very beautiful lac colors are obtained, which can be used for the paint-

PURPLE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 403

ing or printing of paper-hangings; and quite a new field is opened to the dyer
and printer of textile fabrics by the affinity of this coloring material for various
metallic salts. Not only several beautiful shades of red can be produced with
it, but also yellow, blue and violet.

And thus it is that our sober and utilitarian day steals one by once its glories
from hoar antiquity. What the mightiest and haughtiest magnates of the olden
day claimed as their exclusive privilege has now become common property to
the humblest as well as to the highest. A striking proof, this common pro-
perty in beautiful colors, of the superiority of the present age in its utilitarian
tendencies to that antiquity which we so highly, and, in a purely asthetie point
of view, so justly, glorify. The animals which supplied the ancients with their
costly purple are perfectly known to us and easily obtainable, but we cast them
aside, because we can more readily obtain our objects by other means. Whether
the murexid be the very “ purple” of the ancients is a question fairly open to
discussion ; but that it is sois by no means improbable. We know that uric
acid is a constituent of the common snail, and, it is not unreasonable to suppose,
of the purple snail also, though the fact be not experimentally proved. Putre-
fied urine, added to the fluid of snails, furnishes ammonia; so that the ingre-
dients for the formation of murexid are certainly present.

Should the murexid red be still supposed inferior to that resplendent purple
which the old writers so eloquently extol, let it not be forgotten that the skill
of the dyer was of old limited almost to that one really splendid color, and
that our modern wealth of gorgeous colors and delicate tints was then not
dreamed of. Could we place our murexid, however, side by side with the true
Roman purple, the former probably would not lose by the comparison. ‘The
glories of antiquity, like the prestige of our modern great men, might lose not
a little of their illusion were we placed in closer contact with them.

METHOD OF PRESERVING LEPIDOPTERA.

PREPARED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION BY TITIAN R. PEALE.

Tue difficulties in the preservation of zodlogical collections generally arise
from two causes, namely, moisture and destructive insects.

To guard against the effects of moisture requires so little ingenuity that I
shall merely allude incidentally to the necessity of drying the specimens well
at first, and then keeping them in dry places.

The greatest of all difficulties to guard against, particularly in this country,
is the voracity of the destruct*ve insects belonging to the entomological families
of Dermestide and Tineide. 'These are the worst enemies of the zodlogical
curator, as well as the fur-trader and careful housewife.

Tinea tapetzella, the clothes moth, which troubles the housewife and the
clothier, does not disturb the entomologist; consequently the whole of this
family may here be passed by in silence.

Dermestes lardarius (the bacon beetle) and Anthrenus museorum (museum
beetle) and their congeners are the great depredators. In the time of the
Pharaohs of Egypt they destroyed the mummies which were intended to last
through all time, and now in our day they destroy the specimens with which
we hope to enlighten posterity. As they have been known for centuries, nu-
merous poisons and various devices have been resorted to in order to destroy
them, but they remain as numerous as ever, being naturalized and abundantly
propagated wherever man has made his resting-place on the earth.

Jn early life I was a devoted student of nature, an industrious collector of
specimens, and a somewhat expert taxidermist. It is, however, needless to
record the fact that I lost my specimens, like others, almost as fast as they
were collected, and, as a last resource, I was compelled to undertake a careful
study of the habits of the enemies with which I had to contend, in order to learn
the means of subduing them. I early found that substances containing albu-
men or gelatine stand but little chance of escaping the ravages of the Dermes-
tide, and must be destroyed, sooner or later, by their attacks, whether moist or
dry, unless chemically changed in character, or kept by some mechanical ar-
rangement beyond the reach of the insect. I say chemically altered, because,
as in the case of gelatine soaked in corrosive sublimate, the coagulation of
the material, which is a chemical change, so alters the matter as to render
it no longer a proper food for the insect. The means of protecting, therefore,
must be adapted to the kind of specimens to be preserved. Our present object
is principally to describe a successful experiment in preserving Lepidoptera, and
to this subject we shall chiefly confine our remarks.

The vapor of camphor, and the essential oils generally, are sickening or fatal
to the perfect insects of the family Dermestide, but have little or no effect upon
their eggs or larvae; consequently, although these perfumes in close cases are
useful to keep out the parent insects, they will not destroy the progeny after a
lodgement has once been attained. The several species of this family, unlike
most other insects, have no fixed period or season for depositing their eggs, and
consequently require to be vigilantly guarded against at all times. They are
about one year in attaining their full growth, in which time they cast their skins
four or five times. Their feet, though armed with claws, are unfit to climb on
a hard smooth substance like that of clean polished glass. They spin no silk,
and therefore cannot, like many caterpillars, construct a fibrous ladder to climb

METHOD OF PRESERVING LEPIDOPTERA. 405

up the same surface. Upon these simple facts I based plans for the preserva-
tion of Lepidoptera as long ago as 1828, and since then no specimen which I
have wished to preserve has been touched by Dermestes.

For collecting insects I have generally found the case described by LeVal-
liant, during his travels in South Africa, the most convenient. This principally
consists of a box filled with perpendicular slides covered with cork, to which
the specimens are pinned, and a horizontal drawer at the bottom to receive any
specimens which may be disengaged from the slides during transportation, and
thus preventing it from damaging those which remain on the slide. The spaces
between the slides being all open below, a single bag of camphor placed in the
drawer will diffuse its vapor through all the compartments, and thus prevent the
attack of ants, roaches, and other large insects which prey, especially in tropical
countries, on the fresh specimens. By placing the specimens on the perpen-
dicular slides, tile-fashion, I have found that double the number could be ac-
commodated, while additional security was gained by this arrangement from
the danger of the loosening of the pins by the jolting of the box.

In the preparation for the cabinet I begin by pinning the specimens to be
preserved in the order in which they are finally to be preserved on the bottom
of a shallow box, lined with a thin layer of cork, or, better, of balsa-wood, which
is easier penetrated by the point of the pin. This box must be of precisely the
same length and breadth as those which are to form the permanent cases of the
cabinet. When the specimens have been ar-
ranged in the order to suit the taste, and so that
one may not overlap the other, the box, with its
contents, is transferred to an oven, which I also
invented in 1828 for this special object; but
which has since been used, generally by chem-
ists and others, for a variety of purposes. It is
surrounded and heated by boiling water, the
temperature of which is sufficient to kill the
eggs and the larvae of the Dermestes, but is not
sufficient to injure the specimens of butterflies,
moths, &e. ‘Uhe specimens are kept in this oven
several hours, or during the night. (See Fg. 1.)

After the specimens have been sufliciently
baked I lay a clean pane of plate glass imme-
diately over the specimens, which, resting on
the perpendicular sides of the box, does not touch them. On the upper side
of this glass plate, face down, and directly over the pin securing each specimen,
I attach, with fish-glue, (isinglass,) a circular piece of paper, about a quarter
of an inch in diameter, containing a printed number. ‘The size of the glass
plates which I use, and find most convenient, is eight and a half by ten and a
half inches. It is commonly imported, and used for cheap mirrors. It must
be cleaned with dilute nitric acid, or the surface will be liable to become foggy
in damp changes of weather.

Next small cylinders of cork of the same diameter as the papers contain-
ing the numbers, and just large enough to support the specimens, are cemented
to the glass plate directly on the top of each of the paper numbers. The cement
used for this purpose is composed of about equal parts of resin, beeswax, and
chrome green, melted, for convenience, over a nursery lamp placed on the table
beside me. ‘The pieces of cork are dipped into the composition, and while the
portion of the latter which adheres is still liquid, they are attached to the glass
in their proper positions.

a The er Sting is to attach the plate glass to a wooden frame, thus form-
ing a shallow box, of which the glass plate will be the bottom, having the
numbers and cork supports on the inner side. ‘This frame is made of strips of

WAS
Hy

Hi

Fig. 1.

406 METHOD OF PRESERVING LEPIDOPTERA.

white pine, ready planed by the carpenter, to the dimensions of one inch and
an eighth in width, and three sixteenths of an inch in thickness.
These slips are cut to the proper length, and fastened in the form
of a rectangle by common pins at the corners, as shown in Fig. 2.
Previous, however, to forming the slips of wood into frames, they
are coated on all sides with tinfoil, which is attached by means of
the cement above described, omitting the coloring matter. I find
it convenient to keep on hand while preparing these cases a supply
of tinfoil, coated on one side ready, when required, to be cut into
slips of the proper size. The coating of cement is put on by means of a brush
dipped into the melted material.

Another plan, and I believe the best one, is to have the cement enclosed in amus-
lin bag, which may be tied to the endof a short stick; the tinfoil is to be spread out
on a hot iron plate, say the top of a stove, when the
bag containing the cement is rubbed over its surface, and
the heat being sufficient to melt the wax and resin, the
foil may be evenly coated, and on removal from the hot
metal plate, as it cools quickly, may then be rolled up
and kept in readiness to be cut in suitable pieces for use.

Fig. 3 exhibits a box thus formed, of which a, 4, e,
d are the wooden sides covered with tinfoil, and e the
glass plate, on the inside of which are placed the paper
numbers covered by the cork supports. ‘lhe next step
in the process is to transfer the butterflies in the pre-
liminary box to their several supports on the glass plate, and to securely pin
them to the cork so as not to fall off in the ordinary handling of the cabinet.
After this the box is to be permanently closed with a glass cover of the same
dimensions as the one which forms the bottom, and the whole fastened air-tight
by means of the tinfoil. By this arrangement the specimens are hermetically
sealed between two parallel panes of plate glass, which allow the under as
well as the upper surfaces of the insect to be seen, while the whole is preserved
from atmospheric changes and the ravages of insects.

The cases containing the specimens are now furnished, so far as the means of
preserving the contents are concerned, but this case itself requires to be guarded

from injury and kept free of dust. For
this purpose it is placed in an outer case,
which I prefer to make in the form of a
book with covers, which, on opening, ex-
hibit the glass plates and the contents of
the case. On the inner surfaces of these
covers I write, or print, the names of the
specimens therein contained.

All the cases which form the whole
cabinet are arranged in an ordinary book-
case with glass doors, and when properly
ornamented on the back resemble a series
of large octavo volumes. ‘The cases
should always be kept like books inacase,
in an upright position, and never allowed
to lie on their sides, except when in use. The reason for this will be obvious:
the perfect Dermestes might find a small hole in the tinfoil wherein to enter, or,
deposit its eggs; but should the glass be upright, neither the old nor the young
depredators would be able to climb up to the specimens, which they possibly
might reach if the case should lie on its side.

‘Thirty-five years’ experience with cases made as above described has proved
the correctness of the theory of their construction.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

HReyTSSPOS

BRRSHSTowWoe A
S o>

Fig. 4,

AN ACCOUNT

OF

A REMARKABLE ACCUMULATION OF BATS.

BY M. FIGANIERRE fi MORAO, MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY FROM PORTUGAL TO THE
UNITED STATES.

In the winter of 1859, having purchased the property known as Seneca Point,
in the margin of the Northeast river, near Charleston, in Cecil county, Mary-
land, we took possession of it in May of the next year. The dwelling is a brick
structure, covered with slate, in the form of an L, two storied, with garret, cel-
lars, and a stone laundry and milk-house attached. Having been uninhabited
for several years, it exhibited the appearance, with the exception of one or two
rooms, of desolation and neglect, with damp, black walls, all quite unexpected,
as it had been but very slightly examined, and was represented in good habitable
condition, merely requiring some few repairs and a little painting.

The boxes, bundles, and other packages of furniture which had preceded us,
laid scattered around and within the dwelling; these, with the exception of some
mattresses and bedding for immediate use, were hastily arranged for unpacking
and placing in order at leisure. The weather, which was beautiful, balmy and
warm, invited us towards evening to out-door enjoyment and rest, after a fatigu-
ing day of travel and active labor; but chairs, settees, and benches were scarcely
occupied by us on the piazza and lawn, when, to our amazement and the horror
of the female portion of our party, small black bats made their appearance in
immense numbers, flickering around the premises, rushing in and out of doors and
through opened windows, almost obscuring the early twilight, and causing a
general stampede of the ladies, who fled, covering their heads with their hands,
fearing that the dreaded little vampires might make a lodgement in their hair.

This remarkable exhibition much increased our disappointment in regard to
the habitable condition of our acquisition, and was entirely unexpected, inas-
much as the unwelcome neighbors were in their dormant state and ensconced
out of sight when the property was examined previous to purchase. With
their appearance, and in such immense numbers, the prospect of immediate in-
door arrangement and comfort vanished; the paramount the urgent necessity
was to get rid of such a nuisance as quickly as possible, and the question was
by what means could this be accomplished. Our scientific friends and acquaint-
ances both in New York and Philadelphia were consulted, various volumes of
natural history were examined, in order to ascertain the peculiar habits of the
vermin, but we derived no effectual consolation from these sources. One of
our friends, indeed, sent us from New York an infallible exterminator in the
form of a recipe obtained at no inconsiderable cost : strips of fat pork saturated
with a subtle poison were to be hung up in places where the annoying ‘‘crea-
tures did most congregate” —of this they would surely eat and thus “shuffle
off their mortal coil.’ How many revolving bat seasons it might have required
by this process to kill off the multitude, the urgency of the case would not al-
low us to calculate, and the experiment was therefore abandoned.

Evening after evening did we patiently though not complacently watch this
periodical exodus of dusky wings into light from their lurking-places one after

408 A REMARKABLE ACCUMULATION OF BATS.

another, and in some instances in couples and even trebles, according as the size
of the holes or apertures from which they emerged in the slate roofing would
permit. ‘Their excursions invariably commenced with the ery of the “whip-
poorwill”’ both at coming evening and at early dawn, and it was observed that
they always first directed their flight towards the river, undoubtedly to damp
their mouse-like snouts, but not their spirits, for it was likewise observed that
they returned to play hide-and-seek and indulge in all other imaginable gam-
bols; when, after gratifying their love of sport and satisfying their voracious ap-
petites (as the absence of mosquitoes and gnats testified) they would re-enter
their habitation, again to emerge at the first signal of their feathered trumpeter.
I thus ascertained one very important fact, namely, that the bat, or the species
which annoyed us, ate and drank twice in twenty-four hours. Such appeared
their habit—such, therefore, was their indispensable need. Upon ascertaining
this fact, after having tried suffocation by the fumes of brimstone with onl
partial success, I concluded to adopt amore efficient plan of warfare, and for this
purpose commenced by causing all the holes, fissures in the wood-work, and aper-
tures in the slating to be hermetically sealed with cement. This put a stop to
their egress, but to avoid their dying by starvation and deprivation of water, which
would much increase the annoyance by adding their dead to their living stench,
I ordered apertures of about two feet square to be opened ia the lathed and plas-
tered partition on each side of the garret windows and also in the ceiling of
every garret room ; lastly, when the bat’s reveille was sounded by the bugle
of the whippoorwill, all the hands of our establishment, men and boys, each
armed with a wooden implement, (shaped like a cricket-bat,) marched to the
third floor “on murderous deeds with thoughts intent ;’’ a lighted lantern was
placed in the middle of one of the rooms, divested of all furniture, to allure the
hidden foe from their strongholds. After closing the window to prevent all
escape into the open air, the assailants distributed themselves at regular dis-
tances to avoid clubbing each other, awaited the appearance of the bats, enticed
into the room by the artificial light and impelled by their own natural craving.
The slaughter commenced and progressed with sanguinary vigor for several
hours, or until brought to a close by the weariness of dealing the blows that
made the enemy bite the dust, and overpowered by the heat and closeness of
the apartment. ‘This plan succeeded perfectly. After a few evenings of simi-
lar exercise, in which the batteurs became quite expert in the use of their weapon
every wielding of the wooden bat bringing down an expiring namesake, the
war terminated by the extermination of every individual of the enemy in the
main building. However, there still was the cock-loft of the laundry, which
gave evidence of a large population. In this case I had recourse to a plan
which had been recommended, but was not carried out in regard to the dwelling-
house. I employed a slater to remove a portion of the slating which required
repairing. ‘This process discovered some fifteen hundred or two thousand bats,
ot which the larger number were killed, and the surviving sought the barn, trees,
and other places of concealment in the neighborhood.

In the main building nine thousand six hundred and forty bats, from actual
counting, were destroyed. This was ascertained in the following manner: after
the battling of each evening the dead were swept into one corner of the room,
and in the morning, before removing them to the manure heap, they were care-
fully counted and recorded; many had been killed before and some few after
the reckoning was made, and were not included in it, nor were those killed under
the adjoining laundry roof. ‘The massacre commenced by killing fewer the first
evenings, the number increasing and then ditinishing towards the end, but it was
generally from fifty or a hundred, up to six hundred and fifty, the highest
mortality of one evening’s work, dwindling down to eight, five, three, and two.

This species of bat is generally small, black, and very lively ; some smaller
than the ordinary size were found, probably young ones, and one or two larger,

i
f

Ne ES ee

A REMARKABLE ACCUMULATION OF BATS. 409

supposed to be grandfathers, of a reddish hue, which was thought to be from
age. ‘These vermin are generally more or less covered with a small-sized bug
not very dissimilar to the common chinch, but of a different species. As pre-
viously stated, the bat has a very disagreeable odor, which also pertains to its
ejection.

Tbe manure as well as the bodies of the slain was used to fertilize the flower-
ing and vegetable garden, and thus, in some degree, they served to compensate
us for the annoyance to which we had been subjected. 'The manure, however,
required to be applied with caution, since, if used in too large a quantity, it ap-
peared to burn the organism of the plants.

‘lo remove the very disagreeable odor which remained in the upper part of
the house, various kinds of disinfectants were employed with some advantage ;
but the most effectual method resorted to was that of opening holes of about
four inches square, two at each gable end, to permit a current of air to pass
through. These holes were covered with iron gauze to prevent the re-entrance
of any of the remainder of the army of the enemy which might hover around
the premises. At the end of five years the odor has now nearly disappeared,
being barely perceptible during a continuance of very damp weather.

[The fact mentioned above of the numerous parasites infesting bats is perhaps
the most revolting feature in these creatures. ‘The enormous population of
Acari found upon their bodies is due to the great generation of animal heat in
their close haunts, a condition conducive to a rapid increase of all kinds of ver-
min. In this country the common bed-bug (Cimezx lectularis) is frequently
found upon their fur. The entrance of a bat, with its precious burden, into the
open window of a farm-house is the solution of that frequently propounded
question of the despairing housewife, “ Where can the bugs come from ?’|

TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

ENGLISH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

AVOIRDUPOIS.
|
Grains. Drachms. | Ounces. Lbs. Qrs. | Cwt. | Tons.
Grainensee csc es oe RAS ESE 0G UE SEAR OD | Se TPR ES
Drachmys: asses 27. 34 Wow Heaters pall heer Pe pale t,o eet A eee
Ounceesva setae: 437.5 16. Tes heed arteeys Sede e eens eee =
IP OF ears eee 7000. 256. 16. De Wee ae oes eee eee cee eae
Quarter== --5- =. sm 196000. 7168. 448. 28. i. Soon ers tere
Gwe: eee 784000. 28672. 1792. 112} 4 1 | Segae
Tonwsee Sse es 15680000. 573440. 35840. 2240. 80 20 1
TROY WEIGHT.
|
Grains. | Dwis. Onno, Lb.

Grains ahs cet gale te SR eee ao) Sakon ee ty ae ee | Ab purest itn So
BeSTET YE Nb oem ape ers ers Serer ae ete ee ee 24 Hel ecee pei em erect

UTC Gre 8 versie cia epene ieee cis oe Caan ta inia creamer 480 20 eee
Pound).§ so. ete cas eence sa enies Soe Re oe ee eeee 5760 240 12 1
1 cubic inch of distilled water, in air, at 62° F..........-2--s — 252.456 gr.
1 cubic inch of distilled water, im vacuo, at62° F..........-2- == 202.722 er.

Cubic inches.

TRAN GH ce ane eciarer cre ee nde cae ee ee —— yee roe
AS TNTEN feseea eetta eteectirel a cores ee ree cit aera SS) By HOO)
iio. GUBCEE Sec ete ccc ee eee cere =P Poa.
PPtiue sca iy ee ere eee ee 2 eee Aare eee = OleO2A.
INGOIIC CENTMOGITC. seeks ete atk. eee —— i OFOGO24:
Pecavic inci er foe Ce oe eee cee em ee ene = 16.387 cubic centimetres.

1.00000 parts of gas at 32 F., 29.922 bar., (also at 32°,) become, at 60° F.,
bar. 30 inches, (also at 60°) 1.05720 parts.

FRANCE.

METRICAL SYSTEM NOW IN USE.
LENGTH.

English value.
Millimetre, (1,000th of a metre).....- 0.03937 inches.
Centimetre, (100th of a metre)....... 0.39371 inches.
Decimetre, (10th of a metre)....-... 3.93708 inches.
Metre,* (unit of length)! </.....2.5¢ 39.3708 inches, or 3.2809 feet.
Decametre, (10 metres): ...i/2-.---- . 32.809 feet, or 10.9363 yards.
Hectometre, (100 metres).-..-..-.-.. 328.09 feet, or 109.3633 yards.
Kilometre, (1,000 metres).....-.-... 1093.63 yards or 0.62138 miles.
Myriametre, (10,000 metres)....----. 10936.33 yards, or 6.21382 miles.

* The metre is a ten-millionth part of the quadrant of the meridian of the earth, or, in other
words, the ten-millonth part of the distance from the equator to the pole.

TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 411

SURFACE.

* English value.
Centiare, (100th of an are, or a square ;

BE oe ao aie ic ae 1.1960 square yards.
Are, (square decametre and unit of sur-

PRED Poi cine cce eeeee ae tapekesee 119.6033 square yds., or 0.0247 acres.
mre. (1O-ares) .: 2 oce. esse eee 1196.033 square yds., or 0.2474 acres.
Heécare, (100 ares). -......)....5----- 11960.33 square yds, or 2.4736 acres.

CAPACITY,
Millilitre, (1,000th of a litre, or cubic een-

RRS per eia c.c nsx eUe ie Le oe, 0.06103 cubic inches.
Centilitre, (100th of a litre)......... 0.61027 cubic inches.
Decilitre, (10th of a litre)........... 6.10270 cubic inches.
Litre, (cubic decimetre and unit of ca-

eet Y ah So RRR SO Re 5 610.2705 cubic inches, or 2.2010 galls.
Decalitre, (10 Fie 8 i a tees cate 61.0275 eubic inches, or 1.7608 pts.
Eeeeipliire, (00 litres). os... <2... 3.53166 cubic fect, or 22.0097 galls.
Kilolitre, (1,000 litres, or cubic metre.). _ 35.31658 cubic feet, or 220.0967 galls.
Myrialitre, (10,000 litres)............ 353.1658 cubic feet, or 200.9667 galls.

SOLID.
Decistere, (10th of a stere).......... 3.5317 cubic feet.
brete.:( Cabic metre). -//....2.ecnjs os 35.3166 cubic feet.
Mecaptere, (10 steres)<2 o-.cee sani. s'2 353.1658 cubic feet.
WEIGHT,
Milligramme, (1,000th of a gramme). - 0.0154 grains.
Centigramme, (100th of a gramme).... 0.1544 grains.
Décigramme, (10th of a gramme)...... 1.5440 grains
Gramme, (unit of weight)......... -- 15.44 grains.
Decagramme, (10 grammes)......---. 154.4 grains.
Hectogramme, (100 grammes)........ 1544 grains, 3.2167 oz. troy, or 3.5291
oz. avoirdupois.
Kilogramme, (1,000 grammes).--.---- 324 oz. troy, or 2.2057 lbs. avoirdupois.
Myriagramme, (10,000 grammes). .--. 3213 02. troy, or 22.057 lbs. avoirdupois.

Value of millimetres in English inches.

Millimetres. | English inches.|| Millimetres. | English raat | Millimetres. | English inches.
a 0. 03937079 || 45 -......- 1.7716 | 12S =. 4.941
a 0. 07874158 || 50 -....... £965 + a0 oe oe 5118
pees... Oy VISTII37 Wl 55 bese: 2.1651 ieoweese 5.315
AR rere a 's<\- 0) 157483516) PGi a oes 2 Seni) | Ag). ee 5.512
PE ako 0. 19685395 || 65 -......- D-BOGi lt Ids Jt. 5 708
| ae 0. 23622474 || 70 ........ 97756) 1 150. Jacke 5, 906
eee 0. 27559553 || 75 -...--.- PS ia ss 6. 103
Gee eeas.... 0. 31496632 || 80 ........ 3.149 (| 160.2... . oc 6. 299
Oe. 035433708 UBB ice ace) 2346. ll 165022. e 6.496
10 eee 0. 39370790 || 90 ......-. Bets. 470) one 6. 693
lore snes oe 0.5905 O5is Bea asae 3. 740 124 eee 6. 890
DU eeeaete =< 0, 7874 100 esee 3. 937 180 see 7; 087
POs aes - 0. 9842 ai OS See eee 4, 134 Ler eee 7.284
api see 1.1811 L162 SU A330 PO) Corea 7,430
Seber succ:| AL S779 Tig ee 4.528 || 195 .-..-... 7677
APs fa. 1.5748 rec Saree 4.744 || 200 ..-.-.-- 7 874

412

TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Table for the conversion of degrees of Centigrade thermometers into those of

Cent.

69
68

66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50

Fah.

—148,
—146.
—144.
—142.
—140.
—139.
—137,
—135.
—133.
—I51.
—130.
—l125,
—126.
—124,
—122,
—Il21.
—119,
—1l17.
—15.
—1138.
—112.
—110,
—108.
—106,
—104,
—103.
—Il01.
— 99.
97.
95.
94.
92.
90,
88.
86.
85.
83.
81.
79.
de
76.
74,

72.

70,
68.
67.
65.
63.
61.
59,
58, 0

Co

PWC ODRKYCeOD

_—
S

(plelestotor tl lel se esi

= oo

DOR WOCMWOAKLNWCWOALWOCWMOAKLWCMHALWCMOALWCMOALWOCM

Cent.

—49
—48
—A7
—46
—45
—A4
aes
—42

—4]

—3l

RmOKR WME OIONMSE

Fahrenheit’s scale.

Fah. | Cent.

—56. 2 Q
—54,4 3
—52.6 4
—50. 8 5
—49, 0 6
= A752 7
—45, 4 8
—43.6 9
AV. 8 10
—40. 0 1
—38, 2 12
—36. 4 13
—34.6 14
—32.8 15
S30 16
—29,2 17
— OV oa 18
—25.6 19
—93. 8 20
—22. 0 Q1
—920,2 22
eh 4 3
—16.6 24
—14,8 25
NOM 26
—11.2 | 27
== OPA 28
a 29
ao 30
== 4.0) 31
= OND 32
== (0,4! 33
cee 34
3.2 | 35
5.0 36
6.8) 37
8.6 38
10.4 | 39
12,9 | 40
14.0 41
15.8 42
17.6 43
19.4 44
91,2 45
23.0 46
24.8 | 47
26. 6 | 48
28.4 | 49
30. 2 | 50
32.0 51
33.8 | 52

CONTENTS.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Letter of the Chancellor and Secretary to Congress...---. ---. +--+ ---e-0sseeee cece
Letter of the Secretary submitting Report for 1863.....-..-.----- 22-22 seeeee eee
Officers and Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.......---.-...---------------
Members ez officio and honorary members of the Institution-......---.--..--------
Peto eanNG Of OLeanizalOn + 22-2 seers ose Cee ene anae= eee eee ace ene ees
aeegem of the Secretary, Prof. Henry, for 1863: .2.- s-.- ---=2 2-22-42 aoseg-n- wont
Report of the Assistant Secretary, Prof. Baird, for 1863...:--..----...-------=----
manmeties Of international exchanges -...--------S22-caces= seme eos econ ee anor ooep
MinmEONS TOsune MUSCUM IN 1803s soars oc feme oie ai Se rae sees ae eteeie Se ave
List of Smithsonian publications in 1863, and works in press.-----.------- -- grawast
Wisiqot meteorolorical stations and observerss-----ee- vee sceeee se - 2-1 soe ele a eee

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE...-.-- eee EN SSS so cece se eee eee
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS ..-.--.----------------

PABRACTS PROM CORRESPONDENCE 222222 ta oste oe ee oh cae ates see

GENERAL APPENDIX.

LECTURES ON THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE, by Prof. W. D. WHITNEY.
MEMorr OF C. F. BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRE, by M. ELIE DE BEAUMONT.----.--.-
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ROYAL Society oF LONDON, prepared by C. A.
JADE XAND ER © te, <.255o~o- Sons nse see aise nas ae eee eeeaee Saaess son -eaeaece ate
MoperN THEORY OF CHEMICAL TyPEs, by Dr. CHARLES M. WETHERILL.-----
RESEARCHES ON THE PHENOMENA WHICH ACCOMPANY THE PROPAGATION OF
ELECTRICITY IN HIGHLY RAREFIED ELASTIC FLUIDS, by Prof. A. DE LA RIVE
REPORT ON THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HiIs-
TORY OF GENEVA, from July, 1862, to June, 1863, by Prof. MARCET........--.
EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL RESEARCHES ON THE FIGURES CF EQUILI-
BRIUM OF A LIQUID MASS WITHDRAWN FROM THE ACTION OF GRAVITY, &C.,
Bwerot. J. PEATHAU,) (80 we0d-CUis) ~~ one Weetsk a ae ane ee ea pe ene ae
HISTORY OF DISCOVERY RELATIVE TO MAGNETISM ...-.-.------.2-. s00--=----
RECENT RESEARCHES RELATIVE TO THE NEBULA, by Prof. GAUTIER-.....------
BIGGRE OF THE MARTH, sby)Sr.. MIGUEL MERINOG.- -2-. oo -a.c0- 225 -5-- 22ers
AERONAUTIC VOYAGES PERFORMED WITH A VIEW TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF
SCIENCE, ACCOUNT OF, by, (PRANGIS ARAGO. <2 o soccer ae alae = sae alo == am ae
ACCOUNT OF BALLOON ASCENSIONS, by JAMES GLAISHER ....-.--.---.--------
ACCOUNT OF THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF THE CALIFORNIAN PENINSULA,
by BAEGERT, translated by Prof. C. Rav .-..-.-.---.------.------- --<-c-0--=
ETHNOLOGY.—AccounrT OF KJ@KKEN-M@pDpING IN Nova Scotia, by J. M.
SION Sete SN ea re eee eee emi) tat ace tora a ees ieee aet
ABSTRACT OF THE FIFTH REPORT OF DR. KELLER ON LACUS-
TRIAN SELEDEMEN TS Dy Ae MORTOM ooo. -===>— === ===
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN STONE
PERIOD, by CHARLES Rav, (2 wood-cuts)....-.---.----------

95
U7

137
153

169
193
207
286
299
306

331
349

414 CONTENTS.

ETHNOLOGY.—AccounT or ANCIENT FoRT AND BuRIAL GROUND IN TOMP-
KINS CounTY, NEW YORK, by DAVID TROWBRIDGE ......-..

ACCOUNT OF ANCIENT TOWN IN MINNESOTA, by O. H. KELLEY-

AccouNT OF ANCIENT RELICS FOUND IN MIssourI, by J. W.

IOSBER se. 8 25 fend Sele alee wie stein ino ee prema) Mote eats eros ree yone 2

ACCOUNT OF A MounD IN EAST TENNESSEE, by A. F. Dan-

TLSEN sece sedis Cac cecSaned: acter enka ceee + seen eee eeoeees

PURPLE AND AZURE DYEING, ANCIENT AND MODERN, translated from Aus der
Wai a. oe ones Secs ee mateaes Saosin aoe eineie sem te teaias elma Siisaiee mw atalemi aie etait =

METHOD OF PRESERVING LEPIDOPTERA, by Trrtan R. PEALE, (4 wood-cuts). .-
ACCOUNT OF A REMARKABLE ACCUMULATION OF BaTs, by M. FIGANIERRE E

Morao, Portuguese minister to the United States..-.....--...... SSE eee :
TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND) BIEASURES IU. 2... <a coveicats oedelcaecisosu caus cece em

PAGE.

381
382

383
384

385
404

407
410

INDEX,

PAGE.
Aporeinal inhabitants of California. “Account of- .--. .s.---.---0- coos ess acoseanc 352
PELONAUICVOVAress “ACCOUNL Ol ssce se sne oes ase ania eee er ae sae ae a ee 331, 342
Agassiz, Prof. L. Remarks on operations of the Institution .................-..-- 7
Agricultural Department. Aid from, for meteorology.....-.-.-------:------------ 32
Agricultural implements of the North American stone period, by C. Rau-.-...--.---- 79
Ainsa meteorite. Account of ..-.-2...- Sey SOL TREES ee 55, 6
Alexander, C. A. History of the Royal Society of London........-......-------- 137

‘RYansiAclOns, DY... soe sm eae 117, 169, 193, 207, 286, 299, 306, 331, 372
lenewOor b-, .Monograph ofthe: batsicso.sssaaem acces cesar eee seco aeecemese 25,27
fAunuity, to-mother of nephew of Smithson.--<. 22. ssa. nse eiieiten 23 see ase 14
APA HALIeSt iD) Irechions tor COllectin Perea - ese ne seine clam = pseineiaaii cielo ee ae eee 25
Antiquities of the North American stone period ...-.<---- .--<<'s s2-+ 220+ eee e=--a5 79
Pree IRIN 498, CB LOLNIA Ais cio a) 2 oo iwi ale wine Se in ie ae gee Palace ae en area ie 302
IN/Ohe) SECU ES AASB oeasD Bore Rogan ses Sees eS oro se csonebas 370
chy) Of CAPM atnn in oma tenia = se eee ata aa te ee ee eer 373
balay Sok Aer to 8 Se oe Re oe oe ems eee 373
alkcel ote @ QUStaNCO ss oe renee ace aie eetn are Ne re a eee ee 74
Birgu Gri tel eee eee ae ae et aera le ee ere ne ge eter 37
ites As eae ee ane aa ae ae eee faecal seat a eae ere 375
BED Ses Be ee 37.
RTT 76
SERVO ee ee 376
ANY eon Fa a ed aoe oe 377
SDV os fe tee al ee may tae etter are ee 79
Poupkins” county; New York: -2 2. occsesseu sous e neces seaaeee 381
Crowiiver’"Minnesotal 222. cooac tec clas seetices sents ee cent cece 382
SIV Ss 0000 ae 383
Bate RNCSSEO mer meee am area aetna aero erate ete mete ete ete 384
Arago’s account of aeronautic voyages.--. - Pe eS eee a a ee rete eee 331
icons. ip Pleven. vents, PeriOd Ofte: arm amt asm lea mines as ania as ohare ae alae ain emer eto 18
Bem and purple dyeing .-2-.5-=.-canneesacese ses ost aoe ems ahora ose eaeer 385
Bache, Prof. A. D. Magnetic observations at Girard College-.-..-.--.------------ 16, 18
Baegert, Jacob. Account of aborigines of Californian peninsula. ..........-..----- 302
peird, serof., Sa F., onithe: bixds of; North America oc se secre a eee eae aaa ae 36
Re POEL plo et SO ey are area at aa esa a eee ee! 44
Bats. Account of remarkable accumulation of...--..---.---- ----+---+------+--+-- 407
Monograph of, by: Dr. .H. Allen. << -202-semee ins 4s = 252 oe. S22 27
aliconiagcensions, by Glaisher=s--- == ea e= = ea me ete toeiata a os lalla 349
Ballcons..-Account,of voyages inoue eceee = oe. cemene feae eae e so sees dara aon ans 331
Beaumont, Elie de. Memoir of Beautemps-Beaupré -.-.--.----------------------- 117
Beautemps-Beaupré. Memoir of.....----.----------- ---- +--+ +22 2+ ee ee eee eee eee 117
Bequests and donations. Policy respecting -.----.-----------------------+---+---- naa
Binney, W. G. Bibliography of conchology...-.-----------------+-+---+++++-+--- 22, 23
Bradford, L. H. Photographs of medulla oblongata -.-.-.-----.------------------ 20

British Museum. Cuts of shells from. ...22. 2-2-2050 -cccce cannes cone cone none enecce 22

416 INDEX.

PAGE,

@alifornia. Account of aborigines Of. 2. ooo caace «omeeen cones skin ates cei 352
Garpenter, P..P.. Works 0p chelisass s? seat lemons sates et ance ee ene ea ieee 22
Catalogue of transactions in the librarys --c, 22 - spe n ime =e oom eee cates ceee ee 40
Chelonia. Account of researches on, by Mitchell and Morehouse....-...--- saree 15
@hemical' types: Theory, Of. 2-2) csc are cv cis slselae ee iai=— ae ate tae ite 153
Giisook jargon: cu sae ees eems = shah eek een den kee ee We. es oteeiae Roe Ee eewe 24, 26
Collections of natural history, . Oboch Ol. =. on prom aceeeninin ee eens ene a= 35
PS POCA OLIGES Oxy maya ia arate aie aie ray tte tee tac 36

Rules for disposition and, U56.0l6:. sce. son gee Wee pee eee 37

Collezes furnishing meteorological records... - --- mee senec= -nenine seecesearceres 70
Concholopy. Smithsonian WOLks OM. <>< -~- ons comes cently oe ne aoe eee 21
Cone-1n-cone, ton) Henry; Pople, INOVa SCOMa) sc cce.e eo sere soa eee eee eines 87
Contributions to knowledge. Account of vol. xil-----2.-2-s2e cose - score eee 15
PERC CAS EATON OL, SNL RY ote apa a aia 16

(Costa Rica. | bxnlorations:in |. - acen vascein cee Son ena eam ae meson eee 54
Coues, Dr: BE. Monograph of Waridse; or gulls - eee oe ne poe pen eee ne ae 16
riba. Hagploraisans AM) 2). == c/n <= mini m= = we ee peel eae ane ee ee ee 55
Daa, Louis Kr. Letter from, with ethnological specimens ..-.-.--.--.------------ 89
Danilsen, A. F. Antiquities in Tennessee and Oregon...--.-..--...------.-------- 384
Dean, Dr. John. Researches on medulla oblongata..-.....---...---...----.--.-- 16, 19
De la Rive. On propagation of electricity in rarefied elastic fluids -...--...--...--- 169
Department of Agriculture. Meteorological operations of.....-..-..----.--------- 32
IDV shine, (Onishi y sess soto oss esas Sooshs Sash su seas seeess Goss 5ee 24
Dixections) for preserving) Lepidoptera = 2 on. sea te eee elie elaine el ee 404
Distribution of specimens and collections. ----. ees lee ete 38, 57
MPO EONS Eve Te UN AS GS er ee nl 58
Draper, Dr. H. Astronomical photography... <.-- ~~ --2- == -i--= = sercningnaeen ninemsn 16
Dyeing. Azure and purple, ancient and modern....--- .----- ------ panne een- ---= 385
Earth. Investigations relative to form and size...--.---------- 2-221 csceunne------ 306
igmad one iC Olleetions Ons opm yea aan ae area ta lee eee 55
Hiducation: Project of, history of, by F. A. Packard... a2 2. ocece aaa i soee~ = 82
BeRton,) We CWeCalis iw Ong TNT CLAS = sete tae lata relate aa ee ete ae orale 24, 25
Electricity. Dela Rive on propagation of, in rarefied elastic fluids. .....---....----. 169
Entomology. Directions for preserving Lepidoptera. -...--...-.----.--.----.---- 404
SMIthsoniaN works ON - o-28e oon = eee ee saan aera eee tee 23

BEBNOlOPICAl INSHUCHONS|..5-2- oes 2 === = see ae eee eee eee aie 25
specimensifrom) Norway. 252220 te aoein Se ee eae eee ee 83

Bunmolopy. Articles ON 22i\22cnc=soccs sclriineeias een ases aes eee eee 370
Smithsonian) lahorsinees see. + t-)teetele alee eee ee eee 29

Hechances. Account of; amdistatishics = pie. .sisinn oo se ele aes Saieiee eeeee 39, 44, 46
plOrabions.. \ <A CCOUNE (Ofs <jos.< or aroin/ole Se eee oe soe Sein se ait eee ees acis ate 39, 52
Tiganierre, M. de. Account of remarkable accumulation of bats...--. - Bees ate 27, 407
Eure OL herearth, sby /MerinO oc. ooo o atate arapeerete el atari aterm eee a 306
Himancesiot the in stitmtion ecco Nevatcicin a pote Selene oem eke at ee IE oa oie 13,74
Hischer, Dr.3,G. Wetter.on Amphibia. ~~ seacoast aan eee eee ae ate 90
Fossils from Imperial Geological Institute of Austria........--....---------------- 89
Idaho, Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansassc peri. cea seen acieereeer ee 20

Haster, J. W-, Amtiquities:im' Missouri... ose.) cere sno eee sees 2ee 383
Gautier. (Researches relative:to the nebulso).. - taaseiien cmictatiaiee ce cacisiaeeeebeae — Se 299
Gibbs, George, Chinook jargon....92- = =<. - = -qrereaman= beak mesien nae pees 24, 26
Comparative vocabulary <2 scncceameesbade aarp ceewmeneede SEE yrl- ee 24, 26

Bithnolopical insinyenions = oes atone apes ja eral tet aie ele ee aie = 24, 25

Glaisher,, James: Ballooniascensions bys... 0.206... ccee cee. smcee mse scee wees oo ~- 349

INDEX. 417
PAGE.
Remus. Es, 2h “Ore Pieuni’s opservations coe ek Geet). Oh a a oh a 80
Graham, Colonel J. D. Meteorological system under direction of .......----.------ 33
Great Britain. Number of institutions in, receiving exchanges from Smithsonian. -- 14
Peeps She einai alas ames ge eT I te Ge ee =) | 408
Seanels... Explorations in - 2 See Selo. oe ae ee 54
aidieger,: W.. Letter from, with fosene:. 0020 So OL 89
Letter relative to the Martius medal-.---...-...-...-..-2. 220... ae 91
Seeguerk., Vi. Collections: by 2 51.22se 5s Wea eae ae ee ed 21
Paleontology of the Upper Missouri. 22. 352. 22 Jos2 eon eae 16, 20
Henry, Prof Jos. On figures of equilibrium of liquid mass withdrawn from gravity. 207
HepOrbrOb f3- o/s sea sswse 2 UO ee eel ee a ee 13
Hustory of discovery relative to magnetism’. 2:22 -4-2.-206 4.2500 eee tsa ene 286
P the: Royal’ Society <ssccey2-252. c2sccstee eo eee he eee 13
Hog-flesh. Diseases and death caused by eating. .-.-.. Bes ase ee ae ee 203
Hopkins, E. M. Letter relative to Robert Kennicott....-....--- me Goren eee 91
Hudson's Bay Company. . Scientific labors of. :-.--... 222.202 We 0..5. 22k. ee bs
Hungarian National. Museum. Letter from .....:.-..-2222--.222225 22204... 8.2; 88
tadinnwernaamers and vocabularies ::. <2. 2222005. ..2- 5+ sc slecce etree ans wena 30
PAASCISce +OMMUISONIAN WOKS ON o. secs 25 5oeo seen capeidaeses scaeee see ade send eee 23
Irwin, Dr. B. J. D. On great Tucson meteorite. Nene tee eae EN 85
BernniGdrs PE cDOTAMONS Wasson tole ots a atae OeOe Soe at oe a ee ase Sens 54
Harding sr. .Onjreneral museums. 5-52 --sisanesoce essen eee ees Gat ar eet 39
Jones, J. M. Account of Kjekken-medding in Nova Scotia.-.....---s--------: 2. S70
Journalot. proceedings of. the Board of Regents... .. 2525522520222 -eceee. oon see ta
Keller, Dr. Fifth report on Lacustrian settlements. ....--..---.-.-.--2) --.-+----- 372
Wolter an id, , Antiquities im (Minnesota).3: Sik Ae eee eS 382°
Kennicott, Robert. Collections and explorations -.......-.-.-..---- Fee Sees See 36, 52
Letter from E. M.:- Hopkins relative to -..52-.\.02.: 2.222 2l2us.0- 32: 91
Paesmoery.. Researches: Iss.) Joo se accede = aca eee eee ee eee ee eee 34
Lacustrian settlements. Fifth reporiof Dr. Keller Onv.. eees-< <6 sss55) eee 372
Ward-oll-e.Eexperiments on; by, Prot, HCN y~- = sesame = See arise eee 34
MRE CHTOS TO DUO, LOD OS eee tee aie alates recta a ale ata oraietet erat tee )atcle arate tee 41
Profs Wen ew Ibn e yes; Ol nA UIStiCsie jseeteeeta ne we eee ae 95
ee eave Oe OTE UNS OT ss Eves LOM AT Yee cia malate eater tae) eters te atelier eee eae 14
Merimopmern. | Method of preserving =. -'- 252220 -5¢ 2 nese seccien eta emma aes 404
BUD iy eA ht Le Des en re BR eee eo eer 40
Teenie Pix perinients-on, ‘hy Prot Henry - tit 2e2s22 42-22 SL ee 34, 35
Eanpuisie science. “Whitney's lecttires On..-.----2 221202525 sees sac analecae 95
Letters. Secretary to Congress---.----.--- SSS SASH eOm ener ar rene sont sc Sect 4
Chancellor and Secretary to’ Conpress---. -=-2 2. 7-22 < 2-2 eee ooo 3
B. A. Gould on a new discussion of observations of Piazazi.......-..-- 80
Pe AC th ackardtom) ea uc atl OMe sete setae =e ieee ie eee ee 82
Carte del Palasio’s Agricultural Association, on exchanges--....----- 84
Chamber of Commerce of Bordeaux, on exchanges.--------.-------- 84
Or: Inwinjon) <“preat Mmeteonte eae aero ae ees ele tte eats aelnins 85
Santiago Ainsa, on meteorite. .-------------.------2--- -5-- 220-2 e-e 86, 87 —
Henry Poole, on ‘‘cone-in-cone”.--------- ---------- +--+ --2- 22-22 87
Hungarian National Museum, thanks..-.-...-------.-------------- 88
Ethnological Museum of University of Christiana, Norway. -.-.-..----- 88
Imperial Geological Institute of Austria, presenting fossils...-.-..-.-- 89
British Museum, granting wood-cuts--..---.------------------------ 90
Dr. J. G. Fischer, on Amphibia...--..-.---------------+-----+----- 90

E. M. Hopkins, Hudson’s Bay Company, on Kennicott’s explorations. 91
W. Haidinger, gold medal for Martius -...--.------------ paoniameadeid OL

418 INDEX.

PAGE.

Pree, se | Ops Diptera ~~ io ore aa eae e rate nl eed a elt ee ae ne te ee eth 24
Magnetic observations by Prof. Bache ...--..-----.----. PA Oe awison te ace 16
Magnetism. “History of ‘discovery relative’ to. <2 27.20 Sse. eteee ene nce s cous 286
Mfarcet:. Report of. progress. in) physics, 6:0. ~ oe ono Sacer erate 193
Martius. .<Gold.medal dor 52h) erarse canoe ae dpe conan sec ec rene ree eee eee 91
Meade, General G. G. Meteorological system under..---....--.--------4--...---- Se
Medulla oblongata. Researches on, by Dr..J. Dean’, -2:- .2..--2-2- 20-2 5------- 19
Meek, F. B. Check list of cretaceous and jurassic fossils....--.--5.-------------- 22°03

Explorations in New Jersey and Virginia...-.....-2. .s2--.--..-.-- 39

Paleontology of the Upper Missouris:222 8522 S24 23232 kee 16, 20
Moenibersez oficro ol the Institution.<<2- see pes eee to ee eee ee 6
Memoir of C. F. Beautemps-Beaupré, by Elie de Beaumont if ites Bae seen eed 117
Merino, M., On the foure’of thetearth! soe osc. 2a see pote ee eer eee 806
Meteorite: * Ainsa or Tucson {5.2 aM < ce ee ee ad Si ae oe Ve Ce 55, 85
Meteorological bulletin of Paris Observatory. ........-2---- 2-20-0202 eeeeee en eees 34

material Tec@Rved ink GbS, 5ot-55,. snes soe ee eek cae aee eee ee seeee es 71

observations. Results of, 1854—’59, 2d vol. of. .-.........--. 2... ---- 33

stations atid: ObSelVersg. 2s maces ee,- <a, oe ee eee nie is Ee cee ee 64
Metoorelory. “Smithsonian labors im. - 2 eee ee eee eee 31

Telegraph applied to pu poses Ole eee bases ose ee eee ane eee 38

United Statesilake system. 22." - 92-7 s So eee = ee eee ete eae 33

Naval Hospital systems. ./0 0). lo oe eee eieabene seek ape ceiateg 33
Mexico. Explorations in '/o-s scce ee eet ee eee oe poe ee See ae ees 54
Minerals; “Check lst of 205. gees 5 oo. cea oe ede ne eld Sheeran nee es 25
Mitchell ri baht... Waren see seers secs eee ee ee a eee See ere eee ae 26
Mitchell) Dr. Siowi., Researches) oni@heloniace: sso Wate koe eels cect e ec eases Oerie oe ae 15
Morehouse, Dr..George R. ‘Researches on Chelonia-----:.-2--.-----s----.-2-5---2 15
Mono vA. Antiquities of Europes. cs sesceas oe aalew nels Seeitceenel see saree 372
Muller, F'. - New agent of exchanges for Holland :---25-.-... .222-2.-s200se2-c--5 40
MMe ATG Sie Spee ee SS Ns aS cna te wo ate mm eee oe lat or 399
Mmseum and collections: (Account; ofta2 515 - = sees mae ne oe eee Cee eee ete ota 39, 52
Museum: ist of sdonations;in 18632 se. -sj.e45-s5-ne ecko es nace See eee ae 58
Netoral history. iseportion propross\ ines sete ge aoe eee tae te rte oe eaten ae 193

Spevialicollections! Of 5 < elyar erences eves eee oe ee eae eo a ee sere 36
Nebulze.. : Gautier’s researches relative tol-1..--222...- 255. sho. et oe oso ee ee 299
Norton, Ei, On, Hymenoptera: =. 25 sb os. sone Jason cadee aster eee ee EeeeEen 24
Nova ecotia,, Atntiquiies 162.2008 - lal oe oe ee ee ne ees 370
Mincers;o1the Snuthsonian) Institution). 25 2 ja s2e ote See oe seme esee cn ae eeenietes 5
BBD UN reef LN © TH 5 (ODN wee tate ene esc he = tee 34
Opienpacken, Baron. : ‘On "Diptera. s.ceossss. led ee eee ae ecee oe eee ea == 23, 24
Packard, u.-A.. Project of history of education s25-5-- esecss -/ ace eee Bess 82
Paleontology of Upper Missouri, by Meek and Hayden...-.....-....---.---.---- 20
(Panizzi,, Oo. ~Hlectrotypes of shellsieranted:. <2 sco Jeeoc eee cet ee eee eee 90
Patent Office: . Aid: ‘from, for: meteorology- 2-2. 26s. /S2eV ee eos 3k Se ewean = sone 31
Peale, T. R. . Method of preserving Lepidoptera... ---. 2..2../52-..sgeceec--- ---- 404
Puilolosy.h. Instrchons MElatlvyS: tO- |< ae ase cece cleats me ate aiain eee etete aia = a= 25
PUysics. ROPOLh OL PIO PTeEs, IN: 22. els so jee ee een eee see o eee ee eee oma 193
Pazzi OPservallons Oras ane oa sos .c Facies oe tej terion ree eee eee nnn RRS os cia 80
Plateau, J. Researches on figures of equilibrium of a liquid Tass: ssqnce eee == inne 207
Fools, Henry; >On" chnean-cone" 1.2.2 2220 SE ee: ae 87
Pork... -Weatharom eatinore meee eae saree teat rea ae octane ee ee ate ee eee enter tere 203
Preservation of Lepidoptera.) Method of =: Soo. se lea sae ete teeta aa 404

Prime, Temple. On" Corpicwladie.cwce sn csne = cence ts oe ae eee eee ee ncne ne 22, 23

INDEX. 419

PAGE.
meen. Report on, tor 1665. .is-s202 22h. ccnp eae sna oe gen ee seen dee wuncukents 44
Programme of organization of the Institution...-..-.-...-./.--.-----.---------6- 7
Publications of the Institution. General account of...--.-...---.----.--+--------- 14

TGS te ie Oe al ales ete a ae a ate 62
Pape dyemp. Ancient and modetaies-- =. 22-2 2c2-. concen scans eoues ooo 385
Rau, Charles. Agricultural implements of the North American stone period.......- 379
Translation of Baegert’s account of aborigines of California...-...... 302
Seevenis. Journal of proceedings Of. Wo... an fee eceicekinen adscos Weoeaeeaat ae 77
Bevents oF thadnstitution, \ Wish of, 1225552. semnceeene asso see = aoe ene cee 5
Heporof the Hxecutive:Committee for 1863.22 -2- 4-4-2 see neat 74
mepams or the Institution. Account Of 52... 2/5 ocenhewe activa ta eessedae meee 15, 27
Roles for distributing 12225245 tee sie etek eee 28

Report on proceedings of Society of Physics and Natural History of Geneva, for
Hebe Gas Dy; MalCets- ss - occ o sel = coors ena aetna aloo aera eee 193
Royal Society of London. History of ..---.-.----- ee et ee 137
Rush, Richard. Part of bequest left in England by-..-----.- ele a 14
Shea, J. G. Aid rendered philological publications of. ....-..---.----------, ie alee 29

PSGelise Smithsonian WOLkS | OW: o-oo = ee seis ae esas a etatelete mele eine rte 21
Bmith; Buckingham. Pima grammar ... <<< .20.- cccqcemnnn en ccre wa-napesda aden 31
MaIuHAOMe s WalliOf = 2.23 2s nc clon one ee e Pa a a ese area ae a
Stereotyping Smithsonian publications ...... -... -<<2=- ons «neers -<w eee omen ennnnn 29
Stimpson, W. Catalogue of shells of east coast..-....-..------------------------ 22, 23
Tables of weights and measures.-----.-----------------+------- ete ie eee 410
Taylor, Alexander 8. Original MSS. from..-.--..-----------------+------+-------- 29
“Telegraph applied to meteorology. -.-----------------++-+ -----+ --+++22--+ ---+---- 33, 34
Transportation. Account of..----....--------- --- 2-2-2222 cone ne eee eee ee oak 44

facilities granted the-Institution -..-------------------------------- 40
Mtriehiniasis: Account Ofs- sos). s2c~< sec so 2 ca = = mei ele ee 203
Trinidad. Explorations in -.-...-------------------+---+ +--+ 22-2 2222 eee eee eee 54
Trowbridge, D. Antiquities in Tompkins county, New York -..---.-------------- 381
Tucson meteorite -.----.------ ---- --- 22+ 20 o-oo oe enn onan ease ee ee eene ease 85
Turner, Prof. W. W. Jargon ..--.-- ---------- ---- --- 20+ 2222-2 ce eens ce eees -2-5 26
Turtles. Researches on, by Mitchell and Morehouse- ..---.-.--------------------- 16
Tryon, G. W. Catalogue of Melanidx-.-------.--------------------+----+--+--- 22, 23
Uhler, P. R. On Homoptera and Hemiptera------.------------------ ab are ee 24
Vocabulary of English, French, Spanish, and Latin..---.----------------+-------- 26
Warren, G. K. Expedition by .--------------- ---------- ---- 22-2 terres cert see 21
Weights and measures. Tables of..---.----------------------22seeere cern etree 410
Wetherill, Dr. Charles M. Theory of chemical types-..----.-------+-----+--++----- 153
Whitney, Prof. W. D. Aid rendered in philology..------------------- teeeeeeeee 29

Lectures on principles of linguistic science--.-.---.---------------- 42,95
Wyman, Prof. J. Physiological researches by.---------------+-+++--+---++----- 16

Xantus, John, Explorations in Mexico..-.--..-----++--+-++++----+ necseeeenes 36, 39, 53

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