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43D CONGRESS, } SENATE. Mis. Doc.
Ist Session. No. 130.

ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

BOARD OF REGENTS

OF TIT

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

SHOWING

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR 1873.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1874.

IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
February 13, 1874.
Ordered, That the annual report of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for
the year 1873 be printed.
Attest: ' GEO. C. GORHAM,
Secretary of the Senate.

LETTER

FROM THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

TRANSMITTING

The annual report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1873.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, February 13, 1874.
Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have thé honor to submit
to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the opera-
tions, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for
the year 1873.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. M. H. CARPENTER,
President of the Senate.
Hon. J. G. BLAINE,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR 1878.

This document contains: 1. The programme of organization of the
Smithsonian Institution. 2. The annual report of the Secretary, giving
an account of the operations and condition of the establishment for the
year 1873, with the statistics of collections, exchanges, meteorology, &ce.
od. The report of the executive committee, exhibiting the financial affairs
of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, the
receipts and expenditures for the year 1873, and the estimates for 1874.
4. The proceedings of the Board of Regents. 5. A general appendix,
consisting principally of reports of lectures, translations from foreign
journals of articles not generally accessible, but of interest to meteor-
ologists, correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others inter-
ested in the promotion of knowledge. |

OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION.

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary,

Director of the Institution.

SPENCER F. BAIRD,

Assistant Secretary.

WILLIAM J. RHEES,

Chief Clerk.

DANIEL LEECH,

Corresponding Clerk.

CLARENCE B. YOUNG,

Book-keeper.

HERMANN DIEBITSCH,

Exchange Clerk,

JANE A. TURNER,

Huchange Clerk.

SOLOMON G. BROWN,

Transportation Clerk.

JOSEPH HERRON,

Janitor.

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

ULYSSES 8. GRANT......- President of the United States, ex-officio Presiding Officer
of the Institution

MORRISON R. WAITE...Chief-Justice of the United States, Chancellor of the Insti-
tution, President of the Board of Regents.

JOMHAE SONI Cso ses obs Secretary (or Director) of the Institution.

REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION.

MORRISON R. WAITE.. -Chief-Justice of the United States, President of the Board.

HENRY WILSON ...-.-.-. Vice-President of the United States.

18[, JELAMODIINseskesecodeue Member of the Senate of the United States.
J. W. STEVENSON ..---- Member of the Senate of the United States.
A. A. SARGENT..---...-.- Member of the Senate of the United States.
flo tS CAD. a eee ate ret Member of the House of Representatives.
Tas RS BRON Sy eee een Member of the House of Representatives.
G. W. HAZELTON...-.--. Member of the House of Representatives.
JOHN MACLEAN .:.-.-.. Citizen of New Jersey.

PETER PARKER 2.22000: Citizen of Washington.

WILLIAM T. SHERMAN ..Citizen of Washington.

PAS Ave GR ARVO ne en ah Citizen of Massachusetts.

Mo, Dead DYSON Eee ee ee Citizen of Connecticut.

HENRY COPPEE......--- Citizen of Pennsylvania.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

PETER PARKER. JOHN MACLEAN. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN.

MEMBERS EX-OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

LES Sex Gu ACN Tuy een ee eye President of the United States.
EEEINEYaWiall SON) ce. Sane: Vice-President of the United States.
IU lB NAVAN G0 Ol Deeley sia Chief-Justice of the United States.
EY SSO L GL0Ns SE ie Secretary of State.

Bele BRISTOW Pee. 2e Secretary of the Treasury.

W..W.. BELKNAP ..-....- Secretary of War.

G. M. ROBESON. .........-Secretary of the Navy.

Je ORES Wil ile a2 Postmaster-General.

€. DELANO) 22S 2252. S5.- Secretary of the Interior.

GEO. H. WILLIAMS...--. Attorney-General.

Men) Snr) G Gini eee Commissioner of Patents.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, PROFESSOR HENRY, FOR THE
YEAR 1878.

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor herewith to present a continuation
of the history of the Smithsonian Institution, comprising an account of
its operations, condition, and expenditures during the year 1873. No
change in this time has been made in the general policy of the estab-
lishment. Congress has continued its appropriations for the support of
the National Museum under the charge of the Institution, and has thus
relieved the Smithson fund from a burden the support of which has
annually absorbed a large portion of the income. Freed from the ex-
pense of the support of the-museum, at the beginning of 1873 we
anticipated doing much more than we had previously done in the way
of advancing science without encroaching on the unexpended balance
in the Treasury at the close of 1872, but in this we were disappointed
by the failure of the First National Bank of Washington, which had
in its possession at the time of its suspension a considerable portion of
the semi-annual income received on the Ist of July, and which was
intended to carry on our operations during the remainder of the year.
Previous to 1867 the interest on the Smithson fund was deposited in
the private banking house of Riggs & Co., but at the session of the
Board February 22, 1867, I was directed, by a resolution suggested by
Chief Justice Chase, to transfer the money to the First National Bank,
an authorized Government depository. This was accordingly done,
and the bank faithfully discharged the duty which devolved upon it
until the 19th of September, 1873, when it failed to bonor our drafts.
The whole sum in the bank at this time was $8,224.87. On this sum
the Institution has since received a dividend of 30 per cent., amounting
to $2,467.46. In order to meet this unexpected difficulty a reduction
was made, as far as possible, in the accruing expenses, by stopping the
printing of various articles, and deferring for a time the prosecution of
various enterprises in which the Institution had previously embarked.

Hor paying the salaries and other urgent claims an application was
made to the Secretary of the Treasury to advance the quarter-vearly
interest which had accrued on the Ist of October. To this application
the Secretary, Mr. Richardson, gave due attention, and expressed his
willingness to grant the favor provided it could be done in accordance
with law. It was, however, decided by the comptroller that the inter-
est could only be paid semi-annually, as prescribed by the act organiz-
ing the Institution.

8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Disappointed in obtaining relief from this source, an appeal was made
to Mr. G. W. Riggs to advance what might be required to pay the neces-
sary expenses of the establishment during the remainder of the year.
This he promptly consented to do at a time when loans of money could
scarcely be obtained unless at the most exorbitant rates; and this, too,
without charge for interest. Such liberality could scarcely have been
expected, especially after the deposits had previously been withdrawn
from Mr. Riggs on the plea of greater security.

To relieve the Board of Regents and the secretary in future from all
anxiety as to the safety of the semi-annual interest, I would advise that
hereafter it be placed in charge of the Treasurer of the United States.
T am informed that he is authorized to receive on deposit, from officers
of the Army and Navy, money which has been appropriated by Congress
to special objects, and as the Smithson income is the proceeds of a sacred
trust committed to the Government of the United States, the same priv-
ilege should be, and I doubt not would be, extended to it.

The Smithson fund since the war has been much diminished in effi-
ciency by the inflation of the currency, and the consequent high price of
labor and materials. It is true that the Government pays the Institu-
tion in gold, but the premium on this is by no means an equivalent for
the diminution of purchasing power of the money received: since
paper has been substituted as a legal tender, gold itself has become
an article of commerce, the price of which depends on the supply and
demand. While the premium on gold is, say, ten per cent., the difier-
ence of prices due to inflation is, in many cases, ahundred per cent. In
addition to the effect of the diminution of the value of the Smithson
fund by the inflation of the Government currency, is that of the gradnat
inflation of the currency of the world by the products of the mines of
California and Australia. It is estimated that this, during the last
twenty-five years, has made a difference in prices throughout Hurope
and this country equivalent to twenty per cent.

Yo keep up, therefore, the efficiency of the Smithson fund in the way
of producing new results in intellectual labor, it was necessary that ad-
ditions should be made to it; and from the following financial exhibit,
and those which have been shown in preceding reports, it 1s evident
that this consideration has received proper attention.

The following is a statement of the condition of the funds at the end
of 1873 or the beginning of 1874:
The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the

United States, in accordance with the act of Congress of

SUACUS US ROK ESAO. cs ir cer tee Be ean ria eastern emt cee! $515, 169 00

The residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, de-

posited in the Treasury of the United States, in accord-

ance with the act of Congress of February 8, 1867..-.... 26, 210 63

Total bequest of Smithson 22.22.02. 0000. 541, 379 63

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. g)

Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States,
as authorized by act of Congress of February 8, 1867,
derived from savings of income and increase in value of
TMVEStMIeN ES! BAGH! WA Wa 8 VOB OS OT aOR ren VLE ere $108, 620 37

Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of
the United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent.,
payable semi-annually in gold.-.....--...--...- 650, 000 00
In addition to the above. there remains of the extra fund
from savings, &c., in Virginia bonds and certificates,
viz: Consolidated bonds, $58,700; deferred certificates,
$29,305.07—now valued at .....-........------ 2-22. 33, 000 00
Cash balance in United States Treasury at the beginning of
the year 1874, as a special deposit for current expenses. 12, 226 68
Amount due from First National Bank, $5, 757.41, (pres-
ent value unknown.)

Total Smithson funds January, 1874......... eo 695, 226 68
PUBLICATIONS.

Since the reports of the Institution are separately distributed to indi-
viduals who have not immediate access to the whole series, it is neces-
sary in each to repeat certain facts which may serve to give an inde-
pendent idea of the general organization of theestablishment. For this
purpose the following statement is repeated in regard to the publications:

The publications of the Institution are of three classes—the Contribu-
tions to Knowledge, the Miscellaneous Collections, and the Annual
Reports. The first consist of memoirs containing positive additions to
science resting on original research, and which are generally the result
of investigations to which the Institution has in some way rendered
assistance. The miscellaneous collections are composed of works in-
tended to facilitate the study of branches of natural history, meteor-
ology, &c., and are designed especially to induce individuals to engage
in studies as specialties. The annual reports, beside an account of the
“Operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution, contain trans-
lations from works not generally accessible to American students, re-
ports of lectures, extracts from correspondence, ete.

The following are the rules which have been adopted for the distribu-
tion of the publications of the Smithsonian Institution :

Ist. To learned societies of the first class which present complete
series of their publications to the Institution.

2d. To libraries of the first class which give in exchange their cata-
logues and other publications, or an equivalent from their duplicate
volumes.

3d. To colleges of the first class which furnish meteorological ob-
servations, catalogues of their libraries and of their students, and all
other publications relative to their organization and history.

10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

4th. To States and Territories, provided they give in return copies of
all documents published under their authority.

5th. To public libraries in this country, not included in any of the
foregoing classes, containing 15,000 volumes, especially if no other
copies are given in the same place, and to smaller libraries where a large
district would be otherwise unsupplied.

6th. To institutions devoted exclusively to the promotion of particular
branches of knowledge are given such Smithsonian publications as
relate to their respective objects.

7th. The reports are presented to the metecrological observers, to con-
tributors of valuable material to the library or collections, and to per-
sons engaged in special scientific research.

The distribution of the publications of the Institution is a matter
which requires much care and_a judicious selection, the great object
being to make known to the world the truths which may result from
the expenditure of the Smithson fund. For this purpose the principal
class of publications, namely, the Contributions, must be so distributed
as to be accessible to the greatest number of readers, and this will evi-
dently be to principal libraries.

The volumes of Contributions are presented to institutions on the ex-
press condition that, while they are carefully preserved, they shall be
accessible at all times to students and others who may desire to consult
them. These works, it must be recollected, are not of a popular char-
acter, but require profound study to fully understand them; they are,
however, of immense importance to the teacher and the popular ex-
pounder of science. They contain materials from which general treat-
ises on special subjects are elaborated.

Full sets of the publications cannot be given to all who apply for
them, since this isimpossible with the limited income of the Institution;
and, indeed, if care be not exercised in the distribution, so large a portion
of the income will be annually expended on the production of copies for
distribution of what has already been published that nothing further
can be done in the way of new publications. It must be recollected
that every addition to the list of distribution not only involves the
giving of the publications which have already been made, but also of
those which are to be made hereafter.

At the commencement of the operations of the Institution the publi-
cations were not stereotyped, and consequently the earlier volumes
have new become scarce, especially the first, of which there are no
copies fer distribution, although it can occasionally be obtained at a
second-hand book-stall in one of the larger cities.

No copyright has ever been secured on any of the publications of
the Institution. They are left free to be used by compilers of books,
without any restrictions except that full credit shall be given to the
name of Smithson for.any extracts which may be made from them.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 11

This condition is especially insisted on, because the credit thus required
is an important evidence to the world of the proper management of the
Smithson fund.

Publications in 1873.—During the past year the eighteenth volume of
the quarto series of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge has
been published. The several parts of this volume have been described
in previous reports. It contains the following papers:

I. Tables and results of the precipitation in rain and snow in the
United States, and at some stations in adjacent parts of North America,
and in Central and South America. Collected by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, and discussed under direction of Joseph Henry, Secretary. By
Charles A. Schott, 4to., pp. 178, eight diagrams, five plates and three
charts.

II. Memoir on the secular variations of the elements of the orbits of
the eight principal planets, Mercury, Venus, the Harth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, with tables of the same. Together with
the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the precession of the equinoxes in both
longitude and right ascension.. By John N. Stockwell, M. A., 4to., pp.
214,

III. Observations on terrestrial magnetism and on the deviations of
the compasses of the United States iron-clad Monadnock during her
cruise from Philadelphia to San Francisco, in 1865 and 1866. By Wm.
Harkness, M. D., 4to., pp. 225, with two diagrams.

IV. Converging series expressing the ratio between the diameter and
the circumference of a circle. By William Ferrel, 4to., pp. 6.

This volume consists of 643 pages, and is illustrated by five plates, three
large double charts, and numerous diagrams. ‘The distribution of this
volume to foreign societies has been nearly completed. As in the case
of the preceding volumes, it will tend to perpetuate the name of Smith-
son conspicuously in the records of the history of science, and will thus
form a more befitting monument to his memory than one of marble or
of bronze.

_ One of the memoirs accepted for future publication in the Contributions
is on the Lucernaria, by Professor Henry J. Clark. This memoir relates to
a class of animals which are more or less octagonal, bell-shaped, or rather
inverted umbrella-like, with tentacles clustered in groups at the eight
angles. They were in former times regarded as a group of the polyps,
that is, related to the sea-anemones, but in more recent times have been
associated with the Acalephs or sea-nettles and jelly-fishes, and either
combined with one of the more comprehensive orders, or regarded as
the representatives of a peculiar one. Such is the group which has
been the subject of Professor Clark’s latest studies, and which is con-
sidered by him as entitled to ordinal rank in the class of Acalephs.

His work is divided into two parts; the first devoted to the “ general
and comparative morphology,” and the second restricted to the “anatomy

YP REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

and physiology of haliclystus auricula.” In the first part are three chapters;
the first on “individuality,” in which are considered the questions re-
lating to “polarity and polycephalism” and “the hydroid and medusoid
cephalisms.” In the second the thesis that ‘the type of form is not ra-
diate” is defended, and the form is described as ‘‘the dorso-ventrally
repetitive type.” The third chapter is devoted to the consideration of
‘‘antero-posterior (cephalo-caudal) repetition,” and under the heads of
“the scyphostoma and ephyra varieties of the same morph” and “the
individuality of Pelagia and Lucernaric.”

In the second part are four chapters, the third to seventh of the en-
tire work. In the first (third of the work) are described the “ general
form and structure,” including habitat, habits, form, and size, the pro-
boscis, the umbella, and the peduncle. In the second is considered the
“‘ oreanography, including the walls,” ‘the muscular system,” “the tenta-
cles, the marginal adhesive bodies, or collecystophora,” “the caudal ad-
herent disc,” ‘the digitiform bodies, or digitali,” ‘the digestive system,”
“the nervous system,” and ‘the reproductive system.”

In a third are embraced the results of studies of the “embryology,”
or various stages of growth of the species, including observations on
‘‘the egg and the spermatozoa ;” on ‘a young haliclystus auricula, nearly
one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter;” on ‘a specimen three thirty-
seconds of an inch across the umbella;” on “a young specimen one-eighth
of an inch across;” on the “special development of a tentacle, a colleto-
cystophore, and a genital sac;” on the ‘‘young one-fifth of an inch
across;” and on the “young six twenty-fifths of an inch across.”

In a fourth chapter the tissues are considered in a “histology of hali-
clystus auricula” and in the several parts of the body—that is, ‘the um-
bellar and peduneular walls;” “histology of the tentacles;” “histology of
the collectocystophores,” (anchors;) “histology of the caudal disc;”
and “histology of the digitali” and “the prehensile cysts,” (nematocysts
and colletocysts.)

This enumeration of the chapters and their sections will furnish to
the naturalist an adequate idea of the mode of treatment of the subject
as well as of the different organs and parts represented in the animals.
Tt will suffice to add that the several parts are treated of in great
detail, and are illustrated in eleven quarto plates from drawings by the
author.

The plates for this memoir are in the process of being engraved, and
the work will be published as soon as the funds of the Institution will
permit. We have to regret, since the work was adopted by the Institu-
tion, that the author has been called from this life in the flower of his
age and the promise of many days of successful devotion to science.

The next memoir accepted for publication, and which will probably form
the whole of the twentieth volume of the Contributions to Knowledge, is
by Joseph Jones, M. D., professor of chemistry and clinical medicine in
the University of Louisiana. It gives the results of a very extended in-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13

vestigation of the military, religious, monumental, and organic remains
of the ancient inhabitants of Tennessee. An appropriation was made
to assist Dr. Jones in an exploration of these ancient remains, and to
this work he has devoted an immense amount of labor. The results are
presented in a volume which, after considerable abridgment, still con- |
sists of over 600 folio manuscript pages, requiring about two hundred

wood-cuts and a number of plates for its illustration. The work was

submitted to Dr. Otis, of the Army Medical Museum, who has given

special attention to the subject of ethnology, and on his approval it has_
been accepted for publication. We think it is a valuable addition to

our knowledge of the ancient races which have inhabited this continent,

and well worthy of a place in the Smithsonian series of Contributions.

The following extract is made from the preface by the author :

“The explorations and researches were commenced in the early part
of 1868, and continued to the close of 1869. In the entire investigation,
and in presenting an outline of the explorations and researches, I have
endeavored to accomplish two results, viz: the accurate description of
the aboriginal remains, and the collection of facts which bear in any
manner upon the obscure history of the ancient inhabitants of this
region. With the limited means at my command, and with numerous
pressing professional duties and cares, I was unable to carry forward
the explorations upon the scale which their importance appeared to
demand, but it is earnestly hoped that these investigations, however
imperfect, will be found an addition to knowledge which may serve as
a point of departure for future explorers in this interesting field. They
will not be without practical result if they should serve to form a basis
for the comparison of the crania and works of art of the races of the
stone-age of Tennessee and Kentucky with those of other parts of our
country and of foreign climes.”

The following is a brief abstract of the contents of the work:

Chapter I1.—Inquiries regarding the name and history of the ancient
race which inhabited in past ages the fertile valleys of Tennessee and
Kentucky, cailed by early explorers the Chaéuanins.

_ Chapter 11.—Ancient cemeteries. The so-called “mummies” discov-
ered in caves. Mode of burial practiced. Stone graves. Inquiry into
burial customs of the Indians.

Chapter 111.—Mounds, fortifications, and earth-works.

Chapter 1V.—Sites of aboriginal towns or encampments surrounded
by earth-works. Description of contents of mounds. Indian traditions.
Relations of early explorers and missionaries to the aborigines.

Chapter V.—Works of art, religious relics, sculptures, paintings, im-
plements, weapons, vases, culinary vessels, idols, shell ornaments.

Chapter VI.—Crania of the mound-builders—comparisons with those
from Mexico, Europe, &c. Discussion of the causes which led to the
rapid depopulation of the American continent after its discovery by
Columbus. General conclusions.

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Another paper intended for the Contributions is on the Haida Indians
of Queen Charlotte’s Islands, by James G. Swan. These islands con-
sist of a group in the Pacific Ocean, lying off the northwest coast of
America, seventy-five miles northwest from Vancouver's Island, and at
a distance from the main-land varying from sixty to a hundred miles.
They are inhabited by a tribe of Indians who in manners and customs
are somewhat different from the neighboring tribes on the main-land
and from those of Vancouver’s Island. In general appearance they
resemble the natives of the northwest coast of Asia. Their distinctive
features are apparent to the most casual observer. They are as a gen-
eral rule of large stature, with better proportions and lighter complexion
than the Selish tribe of Flatheads, inhabiting Washington Territory
and British Columbia. This difference is particularly marked among
the females. Those of the Haida tribe are tall and athletic, while the
Selish women are shorter, with a greater tendency to corpulency. These
people are especially distinguished for their carvings in stone and wood,
and also for their tattooing.

The memoir is illustrated with drawings of specimens of these carvings,
some of which are colored, and also with samples of tattooing, the lat-
ter copied by photography from the bodies of the Indians themselves.
Some of the carvings. represent posts or pillars placed in front of the
houses of the chiefs, and are sometimes from 40 to 50 feet high. They
are not intended as objects of worship, but as representations of the
“‘toten ” or heraldic insignia of the family occupying the house before
which they are erected. As the house generally contains several fami-
lies, the carving may be said to indicate the family names of all the occu-
pants. It is important to state that these carvings have a general like-
ness to those found in Central America.

The paper will be an interesting addition to ethnology, as affording
data for the comparison of the imitative art among the present and ex-
tinct races along the Pacific coast of America. It is by the author of
the work on the Makah Indians, of Cape Flattery, published not long
since by the Smithsonian Institution.

Besides the eighteenth volume of Contributions to Knowledge, the
tenth volume of Miscellaneous Collections has been published. It con-
sists of 913 octavo pages, and contains the following articles :

I. The Mollusks of Western North America; by Philip P. Carpenter,
B. A., Ph. D., embracing the second report made to the British Associa-
tion on this subject, with other papers; reprinted by permission, with a
general index ; pp. 446.

If. Arrangement of the families of Mollusks; prepared for the Smith-
sonian Institution by Theodore Gill, M. D., Ph. D., pp. 65.

IIL. Instructions for observations of thunder-storms, by Prof. Joseph
Henry, p. 1.

IV. Circular relative to heights; by Prof. Joseph Henry, pp. 2.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

V. Directions for constructing lightning-rods; by Prof. Joseph
Henry, pp. 3.

VI. Queries relative to tornadoes; by Prof. Joseph Henry, pp. 4.

VII. Questions relative to the food-fishes of the United States; by
Prof. S. F. Baird, pp. 7.

Vill. Memoranda of inquiry relative to the food-fishes of the United
States; by Prof. S. F. Baird, pp. 5.

IX. List of the institutions, libraries, colleges, and other establish-
ments in the United States in correspondence with the Smithsonian In-
stitution, pp. 259.

X. List of Foreign Correspondents of the Smithsonian Institution,
corrected to January, 1872, (fourth edition,) pp. 96.

XI. Check-List of Publications of the Smithsonian Institution, pp. 22.

The first article in this volume having not previously been described, the
following account of it will here be properly in place. Itis one of theseries
published by the Institution for facilitating the study of certain branches
of she natural history of North America. It may be recollected that
Mr. Philip P. Carpenter, a distinguished conchologist of England, when
visiting the United States in 185960, was engaged by the Institution
to arrange and name the shells collected by the United States exploring
expedition and those collected by other parties on the Pacific coast of
North America. Mr. Carpenter had previously presented to the British
Association a report on the Mollusks of the west coast of North America.
On his return to England he made, to the same society, a supplementary
report on this subject, embracing materials principally derived from the
Smithsonian Institution. In order to facilitate the study of this class
of animals by the American student, the reports in question and other
materials have been reprinted from the stereotype plates of the British
Association, kindly furnished the Institution for this purpose.

The propriety of this publication by the Smithson fund will be evi-
dent when it is Stated that the materials on which it is founded are
chiefly in the collection of the National Museum, under the charge of the
Institution, and the report of the British Association forms a series of
_volumes which cannot be purchased separately, and are therefore inac-
cessible to the working naturalists of this country, to whom the work is.
more especially important.

“The principal object in preparing the works,” says Mr. Carpenter,
‘is to collect and compare the writings of previous naturalists, se
that it might be possible for students to commence where I leave off
without being obliged to waste so large an amount of time as I have been.
compelled to do in analyzing the works of their predecessors.” To render
this work more useful an index has been prepared at the expense of the:
Institution, which, besides its importance to the general student of con-
chology, will be of special advantage to those who desire to study the
specimens in the national museum. This work will be a valuable addi:

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

tion to the literature of zoology, and will fill a void in the descriptive
history of the mollusca of this country. One of its chief merits is that
in it are collected together from many sources notices of the labors of
all previous investigators, and in many cases extracts of all that is im-
portant from their works. How much the publication of such mono-
graphs has tended to the advancement and acceleration of our knowledge
of any group, the past history of zoology amply shows.

Another article in this volume not previously described is that drawn
up by Professor Baird relative to inquiries as to the food-fishes of the
United States. It has been used by him in his capacity of United States
fish commissioner, but will be useful for reference to all who may be in-
terested in this subject. The questions relate to the names, distribution,
abundance, size, migration, relationship, food, reproduction, culture,
protection, disease, capture, and value of fishes.

The circular on lightning-rods was prepared to save time in answering
the frequent inquiries as to the best means of protection from lightning.
On this subject it is proper to remark that the country is overrun with
patented inventions for alleged improvements in lightning conductors.
Most of these are founded on misconceptions of established principles of
electricity, and although they may in most eases, if properly connected
with the earth, serve to conduct a discharge which would otherwise be
attended by serious consequences, harmlessly to the ground, yet they do
not possess the character as to improvements which is claimed for them
by their vendors.

The instructions for observations on thunder-storms originated in the
desire to obtain special information as to the origin, direction of move-
ment, and other facts relative to these interesting meteors, which are
intimately connected with tornadoes. The latter phenomenon occurs,
perhaps, more frequently in the United States than in any other country,
and from the devastatious which attend its progress over the surface of
the earth, it becomes an object worthy of attention of the public gener-
ally as well as the professed meteorologist.

Another publication forming a portion of the Miscellaneous Collections
is the third and completing part of a series of monographs of the Diptera,
or two-winged insects, of North America, by Baron Osten Sacken, late
of the Russian legation, and Dr. H. Loew, of Prussia. The first part was
published in 1862, and included the families of Trypetide, Sciomyzide,
Bphydrinide, and Cecidomyide. The second part appeared in 1866, and
consists principally of a monograph of the Dolichopodida. The fourth part
was issued in 1869, and embraces a monograph of part of the Tipulidae.
The third part, or that in question, includes the families of the Ortalide
and Trypetine. In variety of forms, says the author, the family of Orta-
lide is scarcely surpassed by any other Diptera; at the same time it is
hardly equaled by any in the structural differences occurring among the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. mid

individuals. Hence, it may be considered as one of the most interesting
families of the order. Nevertheless, but little has been done as yet for
the exact definition of its limits nor for its subdivision into smaller
eroups. It was, therefore, impossible to attempt a satisfactory descrip-
tion of the North American species of the Ortalide without first settling
the question of the true limits of the family, of the relationship of it to
other families, and of the character upon which it is established. This
preliminary work the author thinks he has successfully accomplished,
and presents his reasons for this in an introductory chapter, in which is.
reviewed what has previously been done on this point.

The Trypetide given in this part of the general work may be con-
sidered as a supplement to that published on the same family in the first
part of the series. This supplement has been rendered necessary by the
number of species of the family which have been found since the date
above mentioned. At that period only twenty-three North American
species were known. Since then the number has reached sixty-one, be-
sides a number of species of previous authors of which information has.
since been procured. The author has, therefore, adopted the form of a.
supplement to his previous paper.

The following remarks in regard to the series, are by Baron Osten
Sacken :

‘¢ As this will probably be the last volume of the present series of the
publication of which I have the care, a few words with regard to the use:
and aim of these volumes may not be out of place here. ‘The diptera,,
from the minuteness of their size and the extreme delicacy of the charac-.
ters upon which their classification is based, are without any doubt the:
most difficult to study of all the ordersofinsects. Tothe general difficulty
of the subject, the North American diptera add another one in their analo--
gies with the European fauna on the one side and the South American
on the other. At the same time the dipterological literature in the Eng--
lish language is not a rich one. The only eminent Hnglish dipterist, Mr.
Haliday, published so little that his superiority was known to his cor-
respondents much more than to the public in general. Other English
publications which exist are utterly insufficient for any scientific pur-
pose, and more apt to mislead than to teach. Now the volumes of the
Monographs, although they embrace but an inconsiderable fraction of
the whole dipterous fauna of this continent, show at least how the sub-.
ject has to be treated, how descriptions are to be drawn, what charac--
ters have to be noted, what analogies with the European and South:
American fauna occur, and with what care they have to be studied in
order to distinguish analogy from identity. Moreover, three of those:
four volumes are the work of the first dipterologist now living, who,
after Meigen, may be considered as the founder of scientific dipterology.
For all these reasons, I hope that the labor and expense bestowed upon
these publications will, after a time, bring its fruit, although it may not

be immediately.”
28

18 i REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Another article intended for the Miscellaneous Collections is a synop.
sis of American vespide, or wasps, by Professor De Saussure, of Geneva,
translated from the original manuscript by Mr. Edward Norton, of
Farmington, Conn. This work was commenced a number of years
ago, but owing to the absence of Mr. Norton from the country and
other causes of delay, it was suspended and has only been resume
during the last year. It will now be completed as rapidly as the cor
rected proof-sheets can be received from Switzerland. The character
of the work is given in the following extract from the introduction,
which also contains suggestions as to the philosophy of points of natu-
ral history well worth the attention of the general students of this
branch of science :

‘¢T propose in this volume not to give a general history of the wasps
of America, but only to lay the foundations of the fauna of the
vespide, principally of North America. I leave aside whatever con-
cerns the habits of these insects, on which we have but insufficient in-
formation, and shall confine myself to speaking of them with respect
to the genera or species which shall offer me some salient peculiarities.
This work is not to be taken for a mere catalogue of species, of no fur-
ther use than to satisfy curiosity. I think that modern zoology ought
to tend toward another aim. The existence of species, the composition
of fauna, their relations with the parts of the globe which they inhabit,
are not merely accidental facts. In my opinion we must therein detect
the last material and tangible manifestation of physiological forces, the
study of which belongs tothe domain of the highest natural philosophy.
By him who adopts this view of the subject a far-searching study of
species ought to be considered as one of the bases from which the
search after the origin of species may start.

“It would seem that in zoology we ought to take for a starting
point the actual existing forms in which life manifests itself, to ascend
thence up to the primitive stock, just as in geology we start from
the actual existing structure of rocks, and from the external configura-
tion of the soil follow up the concatenation of the ancient events which
have brought about as a last result the present state of the earth’s crust.

‘‘The study of species ought especially to serve as a means of reveal-
ing to us their variations and the affinities between them. These affini-
ties point to a common relationship which is to be explained only by a
direct filiation of the types. The study of forms, combined with that of
their geographical distribution, comes afterward to throw light on the
cause of the filiation which the graduated resemblances of the species
seem to reveal tous. It shows that this filiation obeys laws which have
also their regularity in so far as they are intimately connected with the
physical laws which hold sway in every region of our globe.

“Toward these grand philosophical questions zoology ought in our
time to tend, and species ought to be studied with a view to the solu-
tion of such questions. As in geology the study of the actual existing

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

state of the earth’s crust and the appreciation of the phenomena that
there take place, of the intimate transformation of rocks, of the
mechanical destruction of the layers, of their reconstruction under
new forms, allows us to draw an inference by analogy as to the more
ancient transformations and the agents which have produced them; so
the study of species and of their actual existing transformations seems
likely to enable us to follow up the chain of these transformations to a
point more or less close to their origin. The definition of the first di-
vergences observable in the permanent varieties, which may be consid-
ered as nascent species, in order to ascend afterward to the relation-
ship of species separated by the divergences more and more profound,
such is, we deem, the point of view under which we should never neglect
to study species.

“Zoology only when considered from this point of view is philo-
sophical. It has not its aim in itself; it serves only as a means to sift
questions of a higher order. Now, entomology is precisely the one of
the branches of zoology in which the study of the filiation of species
may become the most fecund in results, either on account of the multi-
tude of ramifications of general types and of the multiplicity of forms
under which each type appears, or on account of the smaliness of the
breaks which separate genera and species, or also on account of the
immense variety of forms and of the facility with which species seem to
become modified in proportion as they spread over the surface of the
globe in following diverging ways. Thanks to all these causes, it is not
difficult to find examples of every kind of filiation; not difficult, either,
to follow over latitudes certain modifications still recent which allow us
to draw an inference by analogy as to other modifications more profound
because they are more ancient, and as to others of a degree still more
advanced. .

‘¢ Unfortunately in our times the greater number of entomologists have
deviated too far from this philosophical path. They have turned ento-
mology into a sort of amusement, which has for its object the discovery
of new species; which loses itself in minutiz, and at the bottom: of
which there exists no thought. Thanks to this tendency, collecting has
ceased to be the means, and has become the object. In becoming an
amusement entomology has gradually lost caste; it has fallen into the
hands of dawdlers, and thus lost a part of its scientific character. This
transformation has led men who aim at reaching an elevated rank in
science to be too much inclined to withdraw from the field of entomology.

‘As may be anticipated from what precedes, my intimate purpose in
producing this work is to study the American fauna with a view to its
origin. But this is a work of time which cannot be completed off-hand.
The first thing to be done is to study carefully the species, to arrange
them according to a good classification, and to describe, while proceed-
ing, their affinities. That is the fundamental preparatory labor. 1
have not the pretension to overstep those limits in this monograph.

20 REPORT OF TUE SECRETARY.

The knowledge of the American fauna is, not yet advanced enough to
_ allow us to draw with certainty an inference as to the affinities of the
species between them so as to prejudge their filiation. However, I
have made more than one remark on this topie, and I will hazard a few
words on the matter when speaking of genera and species. But I re-
serve for another work the statement of comparisons which seem to me ~
to cast some light-on the dispersion of the vespide on the surface of the
globe and on the modifications which have been worked off under
diverse latitudes; in other terms, on the origin of actual existing faune.

“The complex affinities of species, and still more the filiations which
arise from these affinities, become obvious to the eye only when one
has acquired a perfect knowledge of the species and genera of a fauna.
To seize them in all their extent, it is necessary to know, as it were, all
the species of the group by heart in order to be able to take it in at a
glance, or to examine at pleasure each part in the picture that one has
formed in one’s memory. Only when one has attained this point in the
study of the group is it possible from the inspection of a species to feel
its affinities, for they do not always appear in the more easily appreci-
able characteristics. They often discover themselves in certain charac-
teristics of appearance which are, at times, of great importance, but
which are not seized at a glance, or in certain relationships of form,
which a long practice teaches one to distinguish easily, though they can
searcely be defined.

‘The first basis of philosophical zoology is the profound knowledge
of the detail of faune. To give an idea as complete as possible of the
faunze of the VESPID.a of America is the purpose of this volume.

“The plan which I have decided on, in drawing up this work, is the
following:

““T give as far as possible the complete deseription of the species
which belong to the fauna of North America, considering as such all
those which people the new continent to the north of the Isthmus of
Panama, including likewise the Antilles. This work is, therefore, more
especially a monograph of the vespidee of the United States, of Mexico,
and of the Antilles. Besides, I have added, as a complement, the catia-
logue of all the species known till now in the rest of America, and I
have found ita great advantage for the classification, the method becom-
ing thus more complete. Moreover, this plan allows me to enunciate
views on the geography of insects, on the dispersion of the species, and
on the modifications which take place under the influence of diverse
latitudes.

‘“T have confined myself, for the species of South America, to making
a.catalogue of them, not having materials sufficient for a monograph.
For those, however, of which I had the types under my eyes, I have
given Latin diagnoses, in order to present them in a comparative
manner with respect to the surrounding species and also to complete

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

my previous studies of these insects, as well as to resume them and
render their use more easy.

“T think myself bound to add here that as to my method of descrip-
tion, I describe as much as possible the species in a relative manner.
Descriptions made in an absolute sense have always appeared to me less
useful, because they insist on many useless eharacteristics and omit
often the most important. The reader will not, therefore, he surprised
at my not repeating, with respect to genera, the characteristics proper
to every species or to the greatest number. In short, there are still
other characteristics which I pass over, considering them rather useless,
either on account of their constancy (such as the presence of silky hairs
on the tibiz) or on account of their variableness, such as the color of
the lower surface of the abdomen.

“¢ Descriptions are often made tedious by means of these superfluous
indications and thus the essential characteristics are drowned in useless
developments. In this way, precision is impaired instead of being
inereased. Doubtless, here again nothing is absolute. Certain isolated
species may be sufficiently characterized by some salient traits, while
others, surrounded by very closely connected species, require minute
descriptions.

‘Absolute and very detailed descriptions ought, in my opinion, to be
employed when one describes a species isolatedly without knowing the
most closely connected types, (for instance in the publications of geo-
graphical expeditions.) It is the monographer’s duty to eliminate from
these descriptions both the common-place and the useless. But in a
monograph, the species are to be examined in a comparative manner
and relatively to the adjacent types.

“ The first condition of good comparative diagnoses resides in a wise
co-ordination of the species which by way of exclusion may lead to
choosing only between a small number of species. Though I do not
like to find fault, I cannot, however, on this score, help complaining of.
the works in which the species, though described in an absolute manner,
(that is by themselves and not comparatively with others,) are jumbled
up together, without order, without division of genera, often in defiance
ot the most salient characteristics.

‘¢ Such works, got up ina hurry, the plansof which are laid down with
a view to the convenience of the authors and not for that of the readers,
cause the latter to lose much valuable time with no great result. They
do not come up to the precision now required by the progress of science,
and they are, therefore, behind their time. The reader cannot occupy
bis mind with incomplete works, nor can he waste his time in striving
to find out species which are not to be found out; for there is no doing
im possibilities. 4

“Tn most of my descriptions I have been especially attentive to the=
forms and characteristics of the form and marking, attributing to the”
color only a secondary importance, on account of its frequent variable-

DD, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ness. However, there is nothing absolutely fixed in nature; the forms
aud the marking, likewise, vary within certain limits. Therefore, the
descriptions can only be averages deduced from a certain number of
individuals.

‘“ Theoretically, the description ought to represent, as it were, the alge-
braical formula of the species or its ideal type. It is not required that
the description should tally with the individual, but, on the contrary,
that it should represent the average of the characteristics of the en-
semble of individuals. But in practice the description can never be so
perfect, since it is drawn from a certain number of individuals and not
from the ensembleof theindividualsthat represent the species. It is for
the reader to know how to seize the connection that exists between the
description and the even heterogeneous individuals which he may have
beneath his eye. In a word, my method of description aims above all
at generalizing, and requires that the reader should generalize likewise.
It cannot suit much the amateur inclined to lose himself in a multi-
plicity of details, for whom the collection takes the place of nature, and
for whom the determination of an individual is the final purpose of the
study of a species.

‘“‘Hrom the principles just laid down it follows that, in the extreme
subdivisions of genera, | have usually preferred the characteristics
taken from the form to those taken from the color. Undoubtedly it is
less convenientfor the reader, for the natural method is always less easy
to follow than the empirical system ; nevertheless I think that it is pret-
erable to proceed in that wise, for whatever may be done to seek the
natural method a large portion of empiricism is sure to remain,as I shall
endeavor to show, in the study concerning the filiation of the species.
We cannot, therefore, eliminate too carefully from classification, empiri-
cal elements.

‘¢ Tt is necessary to observe on this head that no absolute rule can be
laid down as to the insubordination of characteristics. To be sure,
forms varying less than colors, they offer, in general, characteristics
more important than the latter; but there is, however, now and then a
case in which the colors are more fixed than certain forms, and assume
a real importance; for instance, as being the stamp peculiar to a certain
geographical zone. Thus, the division Hypodynerus, (genus Odynerus,)
which depends greatly on the colors and facies, and which comprises the
most divergent forms. In this case the livery becomes the casket of a
fauna, and is very important. In the succession of species it is gener-
ally observed that the colors vary much even when the forms remain
fixed (or vary less;) but there are other cases in which it is color that
remains stationary while the forms vary.”

In the Smithsonian report for 1858, a paper was published on the
method of collecting and preserving isects, prepared by Baron Osten
Sacken, of the Russian legation, with contributions by other eminent
entomologists, which has rendered valuable serviee in the way of

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3,

awakening an interest in entomology, and in facilitating the collecting
of specimens. It was, however, not stereotyped; and as the methods
of gathering and preserving insects have been much improved since the
date of its preparation, it has been thought advisable to request Dr. A.
S. Packard, jr., a leading authority on entomology, to furnish a new
treatise on the same subject. In compliance with this request he has
prepared a work corresponding with the present state of our knowledge.
This work was published during the past year, and forms an octavo
pamphlet of58 pages, with 55 illustrations.

Two other articles, which will form parts of the eleventh volume of
the Miscellaneous Collections, and will constitute a part of the series
for facilitating the study of certain branches of natural history, are
a continuation of works previously prepared by Dr. John Le Conte,
of Philadelphia, on the North American Coleoptera, and published by
the Institution. One of these consists of a description of new species
of coleoptera, described since the publication of the first work on the
same subject, and the other a supplement of the ‘‘Classification of the
coleoptera of North America.” The object of these works, as far as they
relate to the genera of coleoptera, is to enable those who have a desire
beyond that of merely collecting specimens to acquire sufficient infor-
mation to enable them to consult with profit the various works in which
are contained the descriptions of the species. The parts now printed
comprise one hundred and forty pages, and will be followed by other
supplements, descriptive of such other species as may be obtained from
Smithsonian collaborators and other sources.

In the report for 1856, is given a plan by the late Mr. Charles Babbage,
of London, of a series of tables to be entitled the ‘“‘ Constants of Nature
and Art.” These tables were to contain all the facts which can be ex-
pressed by numbers, in the various sciences and arts, such as the atomic
weight of bodies, specific gravity, elasticity, specific heat, conducting
power, melting point, weight of different gases, liquids, and solids,
strength of different materials, velocity of sound, of cannon-balls, of elec-
tricity, of light, of flight of birds and speed of animals, list of refractive
indices, dispersive indices, polarizing angles, &e.

The value of such a work, as an aid to original investigation, as well
as in the application of science to the useful arts, can scarcely be esti-
mated. ‘To carry out the idea fully, however, would require much labor
and perhaps the united effort of different institutions and individuals,
devoted to special lines of research. Any part of the entire plan, may,
however, be completed in itself, and will have a proportionate value to.
that of the whole. The Institution commenced about fifteen years ago.
to collect materials on several of the points of this general plan, under
the direction of Professors John and Joseph Le Conte, then of the Uni-

24 ' REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

versity of South Carolina, now of the University of California. The
occurrence of the war, however, interrupted the work, which has not
Since been resumed until the present year, when an offer was made by
Professor F. W. Clarke, of Boston, of a series of tables on specific gravi-
ties, botling-points, and melting-points of bodies, compiled from the
best authorities. This offer was accepted, and the work has been printed.
It embraces all the reliable material in the English, French, German, and
Italian languages on the foregoing subjects, with the exception of the
Specific gravity of solutions, for which reference is made to Storer’s
Dictionary of Solubilities, a work which will form part of the same gen-
eral plan and ought to have been published by the Institution, but un-
fortunately at the time it was offered for this purpose our funds were not
in a condition to defray the expense of printing. It has since been pub-
lished as a private enterprise, and is highly prized by the working
chemist.

Professor Clarke is still engaged on the same coma subject, and
proposes to extend his compilation of tables to include those of specific
heat, conductivity of heat, thermal expansibility, and thermo-chemical
equations for solids and liquids. This, beginning we trust will induce
other members of the corps of the Smithsonian collaborators to under-
take other parts of the general plan of the constants of nature and art,
to be published, from time to time, as they may be prepared. The work
being stereotyped, the several parts can be finally combined and arranged
as portions of a whole, whatever may be the order of their publication.

Among the ‘“‘ miscellaneous” publications during the year was the first
lecture of the course founded by Dr. J. M. Toner, of Washington, by
Dr. J. J. Woodward, assistant surgeon, United States Army, ‘“ On the
structure of cancerous tumors, and the mode in which adjacent parts
are invaded.” In the report for 1872 an account was given of this fund
established by Dr. Toner, the interest to be applied for at least two lec-
tures or essays annually, relative to some branch of medical science,
and containing some new truth fully established by experiment or obser-
vation. As these lectures are intended to increase and diffuse knowledge,
they have been accepted for publication in the ‘¢‘Smithsonian Miscella-
neous Collections.”

It was stated in the last report that Congress had adjourned without
ordering extra copies of the report for 1871. At the beginning of the
next session, however, a resolution was adopted directing the printing,
as usual, of 12,500 copies. An equal number of the report for 1872
was also ordered at the same session; 2,500 for the use of the Senate,
5,000 for the House of Representatives, and 5,000 for the Institution.
This volume contains, besides the report of the secretary on the opera-
tions:of the Institution for the year 1872, the report of the executive
committee and journal of proceedings of the Board of Regents, the usuat

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

appendix of scientific papers, communications, translations, &e., of
special interest to the meteorological observers, teachers, and scientific
correspondents of the Institution.

Among these articles is a lecture by Prof. A. P. Peabody, on the
scientific education of mechanics and artisans; aboriginal trade and
North American stone implements, by Chas. Rau; optical mineralogy,
by Brezina; the troglodytes of the Vézére, by Paul de Broca; organic
bases, by Bauer; boundary of geology and history, by Suess; phe-
nomena observed in telegraphic lines, by Donati; nitrogen. and its
compounds, by Kletzinski; biographical notice of Lartet, by Fischer ;
eulogy on’ Ampére, by Arago; lecture on the meteorology of Russia,
by Dr. Woeikof, and a large number of original communications rela-
tive to antiquities in various parts of the United States, &c. In this
volume may also be found a full account of the Bache bequest, the
‘Tyndall trust-fund for the advance of science, the Coreoran art-gallery,
the Toner foundation, and the Hamilton bequest.

EXCHANGES.

The system of international exchanges, which has now beeu in opera-
tion for upward of twenty years, has been prosecuted during the last
year with increased efficiency. It now includes 2,145 foreign institu-
tions to which packages of books or specimens are sent and from which
others are received. In the case of the system of exchanges, as in all
the other operations of the Smithsonian establishment, the tendency is to
an enlargement beyond the means at our command. Although, through
the liberality of the several steamship companies, the packages are
transmitted across the Atlantic free of cost, yet the expense of sending
them to New York and from the sea-board to the centers of distribution
in Kurope, together with the payment of the several agents, has become
so great that a much further extension of the system cannot be made
without aid from other sources. :

The system is, however, of so much importance, not only in rendering
known what is done in the United States in the way of advancing liter-
ature and science to the world abroad, but also in diffusing a knowledge
extensively through this country of the progress of science in the various
parts of the Old World, that any check in its natural increase would
be greatly to be deplored. It has, therefore, been suggested that an
appeal be made to the various parties most interested in the contin-
uanee and enlargement of this system for a small annual contribution
toward its future support and still more efficient management. Indeed,
the benefit which the Institution is conferring, through this system, upon
the parties most interested, appears in many cases to have ceased to be’
properly appreciated. They receive the advantages which flow from it”
as a matter of course, as they do those of the free air, and not asa gratuity ”

onan REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

from the Smithson fund, the importance of which can only be properly
appreciated by a deprivation of it for a short time. We infer this from
the fact of the character of the complaints we frequently receive on ac-
count of accidental delay in packages reaching their destination, al-
though in some instances the delay may have been occasioned by a want
of proper directions on the part of the senders of the packages.

The centers of reception and distribution of European exchanges still
continue the same as given in previous reports, viz: London, Paris,
Leipsic, Amsterdam, St. Petersburg, Milan, with the addition of one at
Brussels. The agency at London has for many years been in charge of
Mr. William Wesley, whose fidelity and unremitted attention to the trust
entitle him to an appreciative acknowledgment of the Board of Regents,
and the same may be said of Dr. Felix Fitigel, of Leipsic, and Mr. G.
Bossange, of Paris. The center at St. Petersburg is under the charge
of L. Watkins & Co., booksellers, and that at Amsterdam under Mr.
red. Miller, who have efficiently contributed to the success of the
enterprise in these countries. The center in Italy is under the charge
of U. Heepli, as agent for the Royal Institute of Milan.

The expense of transportation is very much increased by sending single
packages separately, and therefore, whenever possible, without undue
delay, economy is consulted by transmitting the exchanges at regular
periods in larger numbers. Arrangements have been made so that
invoices of packages are forwarded from this country at least once a
month, except in the months of August, September, and October.

The following table exhibits the number of establishments in each
country with which the Smithsonian is at present in correspondence :

Sweden 1 NEN ee 25°) Burke yest ess Pi aeese/ eee 11
ENOLWay 7 fen tees eater ew tee Q37 A BriGae soe Sere ee eee 18
CUA Kee Me aN DOA Sia SOME LS re LOO 36
IOUS STA HR ORES se ate ay POT) CATS traligeer Sa Seer ee 26
Ebola? Pie Bae eo iY 65 | New Zealand .-...-2..---2 iL
Germany sees Eee DSt | AP oOkymesiahs eects fees ee 1
Switverland os ool sey 68 | South America.....--..... 33
Belen Von Vee egal ws 197) Wiest’ Indies: oo. Ayes dell
RMrance sees ee i Os BEE DOT NOx COM a craeic rs ete Semen 8
Neary see SO ELE 167 | Central America ........-- 1
POT EU Sal enn aed ets 21 | British Ameri¢a.-.-....-.- 27
SPAM) 2 ey A ee ds ee 12 | Generali eos e2. 6s eae 5
Great Britain and Ireland... 412

Greece! oo. seas 22k f Totals 22273'i. I aaa 2,145

As in previous years, the Institution has received important aid from
various steamer and railroad lines in the way of free freights, without
which the expense of carrying on the system would be far beyond the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

means at command. Acknowledgment is again due for the liberality
of the following companies :. ata

Pacific Mail Steamship Company, | Hamburg American Packet Com-
Panama Railroad Company, pany, Fa
Pacitic Steam Navigation Comp’ny, | French Transatlantic Company,
New York and Mexico Steamship | North Baltic Lloyds Steamship

Company, _ Company,
New York and Brazil Steamship | Inman Steamship Company,
Company, Cunard Steamship Company,

North German Lloyds Steamship | Anchor Steamship Company.
Company, ;

We present the foregoing list with much pleasure, not only as an
acknowledgment of the liberality of the companies mentioned, but also
as a very gratifying illustration of the high appreciation of the opera:
tions of the Institution.

LIBRARY.

The union of the library of the Institution with that of Congress still
continues to be productive of important results. The Smithson fund
is relieved by this arrangement from the maintenance of a separate
library, while at the same time the Institution has not only the free use
of its own books, but also those of the library of Congress. On the
other hand, the collection of books owned by Congress would not be
worthy the name of a national library were it not for the Smithsonian
deposit. The books which it receives from this source are eminently
those which exhibit the progress of the world in civilization, and are
emphatically those essential to the contemporaneous advance of our
country in the higher science of the day. The collection of books
now in the library of Congress is over a quarter of a million, and, with
the present rate of increase, in less than twenty years will be double
that number.

To accommodate this immense collection, Congress has in contempla-
tion the construction of a new building, and has authorized a commis-
sion to select plans and to supervise the location and erection of an
edifice.

tatement of the books, maps, and charts received by exchange in 1873.

Volumes:
Quarto orlarserseerg hs. 4 nea k ek ee Sepeine Ao 200)
Octavororilessese anes ste eee Lees ree Boe 3 633
889
Parts of volumes :
Quarto tor larger? Wise 9s. Ae Ae EIN SO Le SBuOg. 1, 467
Octavowor lessees joie etic etal e cs Cesseiesicbeie 1, 407%

2, S74.

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Pamphlets :

Quarto, or Jarger.............- old avGusteier Sh aleve tars. st oretenae 326
Octavolomless sac 00, 22 tae eee Ce nn 2 sists » 1,154
1, 480
Maps amclieharts i525 ele Fe Na ea ea eae goalie anne acc 454
Potal receipts ye ee eye ee ree eee ere 5, 697

Some of the most important donations received in 1873 are as follows:

From the Emperor of Germany: The fresco paintings of W. von
Kaulbach in the interior stair-case of the Royal Museum at Ber-
lin; 12 parts; imp. folio; oblong ;. 1853-1871. Schasler, (Dr. M.,) Die
Wandgemalde Wilhelm v. Kaulbach im neuen museum zu Berlin; 1
vol., 4to. Schneider, Der Kénigliche Kronen-Orden; 1871, 4to.
Schneider, Das Buch vom Schwarzen Adler-Orden; 1870, 4to. Schnei-
der, Das Buch vom Hisernen Kreuze; 1872, 4to. Schneider, Das Ver-
dienst Kreuz; 1872, 4to. Schneider, Die Kriegsdenkmiinze fiir den
Feldzug; 1870, 1871, 1872, 4to. Haack, Skizzen aus dem Feldzuge ge-
gen Frankreich ; 1870, 1871, 4to. Schneider, Der Rothe Adler-Orden;
1868, 4to. Hans Burghmaiers Turnier-Buch. Diirer-Album, Herausge-
geben von W. v. Kaulbach and A. Kreling ; folio.

From the Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon: 45 vols. and 12 parts;
continuation of memoirs and other publications of the academy.

From the Catholic University of Louvain: “Annales,” 10 volumes,
4to.; “Annuaire,” 3 volumes and 17 theses.

From the government of Bengal: Descriptive ethnology of Bengal,
illustrated by lithograph-portraits copied from photographs. Calcutta,
1872, Ato.

From the War Department, Vienna: 384 charts.

From Prof. Edward Morren, Liege: Bulletin de la Fédération des So-
cietés d’Horticulture, 1860-1871, 13 vols.; Journal d’Agriculture pra-
tique, vols. I-X; Bulletin de Congrés International de Botanique et
@ Horticulture, 1865; La Belgique Horticole, 1871, 1872, Se.

From His Highness, Ismael I, Khedive of Egypt: Album du Musée
du Boulaq, comprenant quarante planches photographiées par MM. Dé-
lié et Béchard avec un texte explicatif rédigé par Auguste Mariette
Bey. le Caire, 1871; folio.

From the National University, Athens, Greece: Catalogue of Ancient
Coins; voi. 1, 4to. (Greek.)

From the University of Halle: 77 pamphlets; inaugural disserta-
tions.

From the University of Greifswald: 70 inaugural dissertations.

From the University of Erlangen: 27 inaugural dissertations.

from Prof. K. Koch, Berlin: 50 inaugural dissertations.

From the Italian government, Rome: 41 volumes, 62 pamphlets, gov-
ernment publications.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

From the government of Belgium: 16 volumes and 3 pamphlets, gov-
ernment publications.

From the Société de Géographie, Paris: Voyage @Exploration in In-
do-Chine, 1866, 1867, 1868; vols. 1, 2; atlas 1, 2, 1873; folio, and “ Bul-
letin” for 1873

From Mr. William Blackmore, London: Portfolio of photographs of
some of the principal objects in the British Museum.

From Mr. Charles Harrison, London: Chaldean account of the deluge,
from terra-cotta tablets found at Nineveh and now in the British Mu-
seum.

Amon g the donations of special interest during the past year is the pho-
tographic album of the museum at Boulaq, Egypt, containing forty folko
plates with an explanatory text by Auguste Mariette Bey, printed at
Cairo in 1871, and presented to the Institution by the Khedive of Egypt,
through the Mei cahen of Gen. Stone. This museum is situated on
the borders of the Nile, near Cairo, and consists of a collection of all the
antiquities that have been discovered of late years in Egypt.

After the immense number of antiquities which have been taken from
that country to enrich all the principal museums of the civilized world,
itis astonishing to observe how much remains, and how much by the
enlightened munificence of the present ruler of Hgypt has been preserved.

Ten of the plates of this album exhibit the statues of the Egyptian
gods, nearly four hundred in number. The next division, consisting of
seven plates, illustrates the funeral monuments. The next division is
that of the civil monuments; these relate to their every-day life, their
manners, customs, and arts. The next illustrates the historical remains.
The last division is that of the Greek and Roman monuments.

Another work of great beauty and interest is that published by Mrs.
Caroline E. G. Peale, the widow of Franklin Peale, of Philadelphia, as a
memorial of her Pivented husband. It consists of a series of beautiful
photograph illustrations of specimens of the stone age of the human race,
collected and arranged by Mr. Peale himself, with a catalogue and intro-
duction, and a reprint of the various communications made by him to
the Ae ican Philosophical Society.

This work is a valuable contribution to the ethnology of the United
States. The photographs are among the best specimens of the art
which have been produced in this country, and exhibit the specimens
with such minuteness and fidelity as to serve to the student in archzol-
ogy almost as a complete substitute for the specimens themselves.
This work is truly a refined and intellectual tribute by an affectionate
wife to the memory of her deceased husband—a tribute far more appro-
priate, and far more interesting to the public, than an unattesting mon-
ument of marble or of bronze. As human culture advances, the material
mementos which only address the eye are replaced by those which are
almost purely of an intellectual character.

@) REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

SE)

METEOROLOGY.

In 1850 the Smithsonian Institution published an extended series of
investigations in regard to the winds of North America, by Professor J.
H. Coffin, of Lafayette College, Kaston, Pennsylvania. In the produc-
tion of this work Professor Coffin was assisted by the Institution in
furnishing materials from its collections, and funds to defray the expense
of the arithmetical calculations from the income of the Smithson bequest,
the labors of the professor himself being gratuitous. Since the publi-
eation of this work, which has been largely made use of by the British
board of trade in constructing its wind charts of the northern oceans,
and by different authors in compiling and elaborating special treatises
on meteorology, the Institution has continued to collect new materials
in regard to the winds of the earth, and instead of elaborating from
these a supplement to the previous treatise on the winds of the northern
hemisphere, it was concluded to adopt the plan proposed by Professor
Coffin of making a discussion of the winds of both hemispheres. The
materials for this discussion are: First, all the observations reported to
the Smithsonian Institution from 1856 to 1870; second, all those made
at the United States military posts; third, all those at sea collected at
the United States Naval Observatory by Capt. Maury; fourth, all those
taken at sea in the Arctic and Antarctic regions; fifth, those at several
hurdred stations in other parts of the globe.

The greatest labor of the work was principally finished by Professor
Coffin, when science and humanity were called to mourn the death of
this most highly esteemed collaborator of the Institution. The continu-
ation, however, of the tables was undertaken by the son of our lamented
friend, Prof. 8S. J. Coffin, who has completed this work with that con-
scientious sentiment of filial reverence which well becomes the appreci-
ative successor of so worthy a father. Very little, however, was finished
by the elder Professor Coffin in the way of expressing, in general proposi-
tions, the results contained in the vast amount of numerical tables which
he had elaborated. To supply this deficiency, fortunately, the Institu-
tion was enabled to avail itself of the assistance of Dr. Woeikof, member
of the Geographical Society of Russia and late secretary of its meteoro-
logical commission, who, visiting this country for the study of its climat-
ology, cheerfully undertook the required work. This gentleman is now
engaged in adding the result of some new materials to the tables and in
preparing the deductions from them for publication. The work, when
finished, will do honor to the industry and scientific reputation of Pro-
fessor Coffin and to the policy of the Smithsonian Institution.

The work of the reduction of temperatures has been prosecuted during
the past year as rapidly as our means will permit. The labor, however,
is very great, and consequently the work must be slow, unless a larger
force be put upon it. The observations are not confined to those which
have been made immediately under the direction of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, but also include all those relative to North America which

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31

have ever been published in this country or in Europe. But as these
are made not only at different hours of the day, but also at different
numbers of hours, to reduce these ail to a fixed number of hours, and to
deduce from them thus reduced the mean temperatures required, in-
volves a far greater amount of labor than if the observations had been
made in accordance with one system. It was to facilitate this reduction
that the preliminary tables mentioned in the last report.were constructed.

Complete tables have been prepared of temperatures for the following:
Iceland, Greenland, British North America, Alabama, Alaska, Arizona,
Arkansas, California, Colorado, Dakota, Delaware, Idaho, Indian Ter-
ritory, Illinois, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New
Mexico, New York, Maine, Oregon, Utah, West Virginia, Washington
Territory, Wyoming.

In addition to this work, tables showing the latitude, longitude, and
mean annual temperature of all the stations in the United States were
prepared for the Census Ojfice.

It has been from the first a part of the policy of this Institution to
devote its energies to no field of research which can be as well culti-
vated by other means; and the United States Government having
established a system of meteorological observations, and having made
liberal appropriation for its support, it has been thought, as was stated
in the last report, for the best interest of the science to transfer the
system of meteorological observatious which has been so long continued
by the Institution to that of the War Department, under the Chief Sig-
nal-Oflicer, General Myer.

The propriety of this transfer will be evident from the fact that the
Institution has not the means of paying for printing blanks, postage, and
the calculation and monthly publication of the results, especially since
the assistance which has heretofore been rendered in this way, by the
Department of Agriculture, is now discontinued; furthermore, General
Myer can combine these observations with those made with standard
instruments now under his charge, and out of the whole form a more
extended and harmonious system than any at present in existence.

This transfer, which has just been made, we trust will meet the appro-
bation of the observers generally, and we hope they will continue their
voluntary co-operation, not with the expectation of being fully repaid
for their unremitted labor, in many cases for a long series of years, but
from the gratification which must result from the consciousness of hav-
ing contributed to increase the sum of human knowledge. We trust
also that the observers will continue to cherish an interest in the welfare
and progress of the Smithsonian Institution, while, on our part, we shall
in all cases, and at all times, be pleased to continue to answer any com-
munication which may be addressed to us by them on scientific subjects.

We shall retain all the records of observations which have been ac-
cumulating at the Institution during the last twenty-five years, and
continue the work of their reduction and discussion up to the end of
the year 1873.

oe REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
TELEGRAPHIC ANNOUNCEMENTS OF ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIES.

During the past year a very important arrangement has been con-
cluded between the Smithsonian Institution and the Atlantic cable com-
panies, by which is guaranteed the free transmission by telegraph be-
tween Hurope and America of accounts of astronomical discoveries, .
which, for the purpose of co-operative observation, require immediate
announcement. :

Among such discoveries are those of planets and comets, or of bodies
which are generally so faint as not to be seen except through the tele-
scope; and which being in motion, their place in the heavens must be
made known to the distant observer before they so far change their posi-
tion as not to be readily found. For this purpose the ordinary mail-
conveyance, requiring at least ten days, is too slow, since in that time the
body will have so far changed its position as not to be found except
with great difficulty; and this change will become the greater if the
body is a very faint one, for in that case it could only be discovered on
a night free from moonlight, which of necessity, in ten or twelve days,
must be followed by nights on which the sky is illuminated by the moon,
and all attempts to discover the object would have to be postponed until
the recurrence of a dark night. Indeed, even then the search often
proves in vain; and it is not, in some cases, until after a set of approxi-
mate elements are calculated and transmitted, that the astronomers on |
the two sides of the Atlantic are able fully to co-operate with each other.

These difficulties were discussed by some of the principal astronomers
of Europe, and an application was made to the Smithsonian Institution,
through Dr. C. H. F. Peters, of Hamilton College, New York, to remove
them, by transmitting intelligence immediately through the Atlantic tele-
graph cable. For this purpose the Institution applied to the New York,
Newfoundland and London Telegraph and to the Western Union Tele-
graph Companies to be allowed free transmission of this kind of intelli-
gence, and it has received, through Cyrus W. Field, esq., and William
Orton, esq., with that liberality which has always attended applications
of a similar character by the Institution, the free use of all the lines of
these companies for the object in question.

Similar privileges have been granted for transmitting the intelligence
between the principal centers of astronomical research in Europe and
the eastern ends of the Atlantic cabies.

Although the discovery of planets and comets will probably be the
principal subject of the cable-telegrams, yet it is not intended to restrict
the transmission of intelligence solely to that class of observation.
Any remarkable solar phenomenon presenting itself suddenly in Hu-
rope, observations of which may be practicable in America several hours
after the sun has set to the European observer ; the sudden outburst of
some variable star, similar to that which appeared in Corona borealis
in 1866; unexpected showers of shooting-stars, &c., would be proper
subjects for transmission by cable.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. So

The announcement of this arrangement has called forth the approba-
tion of the astronomers of the world; and in regard to it we may quote
the following passage from the fifty-fourth annual report of the Royal
Astronomical Society of England :

“The great value of this concession on the part of the Atlantic telegraph
and other companies cannot be too highly prized, and our science must
certainly be the gainer by this disinterested act of liberality. Already
planets discovered in America have been observed in Kurope on the
evening following the receipt of the telegram, or within two or three
days of their discovery.”

To carry out the proposition, the following arrangements have been
adopted:

Center of communication in the United States :

1. The Smithsonian Institution, Joseph Henry, director.
Centers of communication im irropels
1. Greenwich Observatory, Sir George B. Airy, sen HUeIEROROR
2. Paris Observatory, M. Leverrier. director.
3. Berlin Observatory, Prof. W. Foerster, director.
4, Vienna Observatory, Academy of Sciences, Prof. von Littrow,
director.
5. Pulkova Observatory, M. Struvé, director.

Telegrams received at the Smithsonian Institution from observers in
the United States will be forwarded immediately by Atlantic cable to
Greenwich, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Pulkova, and thence by telegraph
to other observatories in Europe.

Directions.—Discoveries made in Europe of new comets, planets, &c.,
will be announced without delay from Greenwich, Paris, Berlin, Vienna,
or Pulkova by Atlantic cable to the Smithsonian Institution, and thence
by telegraph to American observatories and the Associated Press.

The telegraphic dispatch announeing a discovery should be as brief
as possible; and, after conference with astronomers, the following form
has been agreed upon:

After the single word “ planet” (or “‘ comet”) is given,

(1st) its right ascension in time, hours and minutes only; next,
separated by the word

(2d) north or south, is given its

(3d) declination to the nearest minute.

In the case of a planet, in addition to the foregoing follows finally the
magnitude expressed by the nearest ordinal number. In the case of a
comet follows the word bright or faint, and it is well to add the direction
of motion, requiring at the utmost two words combined, of S. W. N. E.;
and also, if rapid, the quantity of its daily motion, the latter to the
nearest whole number in degrees. For example, the following dispateh,
“ Planet twenty-three thirty-five north twenty-one forty-six eleventh,”
would be interpreted: A new planet is discovered in 23" 35™ of right
ascension and +21° 46’ of declination; eleventh magnitude.

Ora Mapatch like the following : “‘ Comet twenty-two forty-three north

Ss)

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

sixty-five thirty-one bright southeast three,” would announce the diseov-
ery of a bright comet in right ascension 22" 43™; declination + 65° 31;
the declination decreasing, right ascension increasing, daily motion about
three degrees.

The preceding examples contain the greatest number of words re-
quired for any one dispatch, if composed according to the rule adopted.
Usually they will not exceed ten. Sometimes, however, the dispatch
thus composed would become equivocal, and it has therefore been estab-
lished as an additional rule that the number expressing the minutes of
right ascension or declination shall always be expressed in words, even
when zero occurs. Therefore, 23" 0™ should be written “ twenty-three
nought,” while ‘‘twenty three” will be understood to mean 20" 3". In
a similar way 0" of right ascension or 0° of declination are to be dis-
tinctly expressed by the word “nought.”

The right ascension and declination in the dispatch will be understood
to give the position (by proper motion approximately reduced) for the
midnight following the date of the dispatch : Washington time for Amer-
ican discoveries, Greenwich time for European.

Since, in conformity with the preceding article, only an approximate
estimate of a later position, and not that of the first observation itseli,
is given, the dispatch is not to be considered asa document for deciding
the question of priority of discovery.

We trust the time is not distant when, with the completion of a tele-
graphic cable between Japan and the United States, this system will be
extended to the eastern part of Asia, and the astronomers who are now
in process of education in the United States, both from China and Japan,
will be able to participate in the facilities thus offered for co-operation in
the advance of astronomy. In connection with the publication of this cir-
cular, the National Academy of Sciences, at its meeting on the 15th of
April, adopted a resolution recommending that amateur astronomers de-
vote aportion of their time to sweeping the sky for the discovery of comets.

The following is.a list of the announcements during 1873:

i=
Discovery. pe From whom. Place. ae Declination. Magnitude.
A
1873. h. ™. One
Planet... Feb. 18 | Peters --.-.- Clinton, N. Y.-..--- TOWAO RNG 13 40 | N. | Eleventh.
Planet ....- May 26 | Peters --..-- Clinton Navan e cet 16 14] S. 21 18 | W. | Eleventh.
Comet ..-.-. July 5 | Tempel..--. AVAlemM a ea eee OY Se 4 34
Planet. ..-: July 14 ‘Watson..... Ann Arbor, Mich - 1716] §&. 21 43 | N. | Eleventh.
Comet ..... July 27 | Borelli.-.-.. Marseilles .-....-. 114] 8. 7 32)5.E
Planet ...-. Aug. 17 | Watson..... Ann Arbor, Mich . 23012) ats. 240) 8 Eleventh.
Comet ..-.. Aug. 21 | Borelli...-.. Marseilles ......- 2 Ne 38 45 | §
Comet ..... ENTRY OPH eB soso es ae NAG Ny Sse osoodaae R29 eG 3655) 8
Comet .-.--. Aug. 24 | Henry .----. JebhelS \Sadeacaboose rgaoiden ase 59 30 | E.
Planet... ... Sept. 27 | Luther ..-.-. Diisseldorff .....-.- OFRie | PEN: 753) S. | Tenth.
Comet .---- Nov. 11 | Coggia-.-.-.- Marseilles ......-. 16 23] N. 27 26 | S.W.
Comet ..... INOvagl oulbamenccaewuene Videptia, 3. tegen: 16 4] N. 22 6 |S.W

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35
NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The appropriation by Congress of $15,000 for the support and exhibi-
tion of the museum was continued last year. This appropriation, how-
ever, was scarcely sufficient to defray the expenses; ‘but as Congress
within the last two years had also granted $12,000 for heating-apparatus,
and $25,000 for the fitting up with cases of additional rooms for the
accommodation of the collections, a larger sum than $15,000 was not
asked for the care of the specimens. During the last year a steam-
heating apparatus has been introduced under the direction of Lewis
H. Leeds, of New York, heating and ventilating engineer. ‘The contract
for the work was awarded to Messrs. Blake & Shotwell, of New York,
who have faithfully carried out the plan adopted.

We regret to say, however, that the boilers, placed as they are in the
middle of the length of the building, are scarcely sufficient in size to heat
the extreme ends, and that during the coldest weather additional
apparatus will be required. In the appendix is given a report of the
engineer, with a plan of the several stories of the building.

The contract for making cases for the mineralogical department was
given to John H. Bird, who has executed the work to the entire satis-
faction of the Institution. The contract for constructing the cases for
the large room of the upper story was awarded to John W. MeKnight.
These cases are of pine, veneered with walnut and bird’s-eye maple,
with large panes of English plate-glass, and are covered at the top
and bottom with zine to render them dust-proof. They are much more
elaborately finished than museum-cases usually are, and this too at amuch
less expense than that of the various cases in other public buildings of this
city. The plans and specifications of these cases, with a model case, were
prepared by Prof. H. A. Ward, of Rochester, N. Y., with some modifica-
tions by Mr. A. Cluss, who has for several years been the architect of the
Smithsonian building. The construction of the cases by Mr. McKnight
was completed to the entire satisfaction of Mr. Cluss, the architect,
not, however, without a complaint on the part of the contractor that
his estimate of the cost of the work was far from being at a remuner-
ative rate. The appropriation was sufficient to complete the cases, but
not to furnish them with shelves. For this, an additional appropriation
will be required. It is proposed to devote the large room, which is 200
feet long and 50 wide by 25 in height, entirely to ethnology, this being
a branch of science attracting perhaps at the present time more attention
than almost any other, and of which the illustrations at present in the
general collection of the National Museum are nearly sufficient to fill the
entire space and are rapidly increasing in number.

The appropriation of $15,000 for the care of the museum has provided
for the employment of an additional assistant to take charge of the
mineralogical collections. The person appointed to this position is Dr.
. M. Endlich, of Reading, Pa., who has lately completed his scientific

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

studies in Germany, at the Mining Academy of Freiberg, having paid
special attention to the blow-pipe analysis of minerals. Hehas rendered
efficient service not only in the arrangement of all the minerals of the
museum, but in making up sets from the large number of duplicates for
distribution to colleges and academies. Previous to the employment of
Dr. Endlich, the duplicate minerals and geological specimens were sent
to the School of Mines of Columbia College, New York, where they were
examined and made up into sets for distribution, the minerals by Profes-
sor Egleston, and the rocks by Professor Newberry. In this line the
Institution has done good service to the cause of education, and has
the capacity of doing much more, provided the small amount of funds
required for the purpose be granted by Government.

The appropriation of Congress has also enabled us to add a perma-
nent taxidermist to the establishment, Joseph Palmer, from England,
who has not only much improved the condition of the mounted speci-
mens previously in the Institution, but, under the direction of Professor
Baird, has added a large number of new specimens, especially a series
of several hundred plaster casts taken from fresh fish and painted to
represent the colored appearance of nature.

. Few persons have any idea of the amount of manual labor necessary
to properly sustain a museum in a condition fit for public exhibition.
Heretofore, with the limited amount of money which could be expended
from the Smithsonian fund, in addition to the $4,000 allowed by Con-
gress, it was impossible to keep the specimens in the best condition
either for critical study or for popular exhibition. The museum, there-
fore, although it has been an object of great interest to the public gen-
erally, has not been what we trust it will be in the future.

The following report of Professor Baird, of the additions to the
museum, and the various operations connected with it during the year
1873, presents satisfactory evidence of prosperity.

Condition, progress, and operation of the National Musewm during the year
1873.—“ The record of the National Museum for 1873is highly satisfactory,
showing valuable additions from many parts of the world, and consid-
erable progress in the way of reducing its contents to order, and making
them serviceable to the cause of science. In no previous year has the
number of distinct donations been so great, while the bulk of the parcels
received has been almost inconveniently large. The total number of
entries is 441, from 241 donors, and embraces 680 packages of different
kinds, the similar figures for 1872 being 315, 203, and 544, respectively.

A list in the appendix will show in detail what has been actually
received, including the names of contributors and the nature of their
donations; the increase being in large part from the collections of
different Government exploring expeditions, which by law of Congress
are transferred to the Smithsonian Institution for safe-keeping, and also

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

from the contributions of special correspondents of the Institution, and
by exchange. Nothing has been added in the way of direct purchases.
While most large museums, such as the British Museum and those of
Paris, Berlin, and Cambridge, Mass., &c., depend principally upon pur-
chases for increasing their collections, the National Museum, without
funds at its disposal for such purpose, has not yet felt the need of them ;
the collections received from the sources mentioned, free of cost other
than that of mere transportation, being quite as great as the means of
preparation and preservation will allow.

In addition to the number of donations, the entries in the record-
books of the museum during the year 1873 will indicate approximately
the extent and nature of the increase; the total number of entries dur-
ing the year amounting to 10,604, or 33 per cent. more than those
of 1872; the largest number, that of birds, amounting to 3,232 spec-
imens; of fishes, 2,756; of ethnological specimens, 1,475; and of min-
erals, 941. This, however, does not represent accurately the num-
ber of separate specimens, as many objects of the same kind and from
the same locality are often included under a single entry. Many addi-
tidns during the year, especially of shells, minerals, and fishes, are yet
unrecorded.

The total number of entries to the end of the year amounts to 187 453,
filling thirty large folio ledgers. As might be expected, the principal
sources of supply have been from American localities, the United States
especially, although some objects of interest have been received from other
parts of the world. The special object has been to bring together as com-
plete an exhibition of the natural history and ethnology of America as the
available means would permit. Should Congress at any future time de-
cide to inerease the scale of operations so as to enable the establishment
to vie with such museums as those of London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, &c.,
the framework of the present organization can be readily expanded so
as to cover a much wider field. At present the available space for
exhibiting specimens is occupied to its utmost extent, and but a portion
of the collections actually within the walls of the Institution can be
exhibited to the public. The remainder, however, are in such a condi-
tion as to be available for the study of specialists whenever they may
find it necessary to examine them.

For the.better understanding of the character of the collections re-
ceived in 1873, a general sketch is given with reference to the regions
whence they were derived, to be followed by an enumeration, in syste-
matic sequence, of those of the.most importance.

Of comparatively slight extent, yet perhaps of greater interest from
their historic associations than any others, are the collections made
during the eventful voyage of the Polaris, under Captain Hall, to
the northern regions. This expedition, fitted out by the Navy Depart-

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ment in pursuance of an act of Congress, left the United States in
the summer of 1871, and succeeded in reaching the latitude of 82°
16’, the most northerly point ever attained by civilized man. Little
was done in the way of collections until after the expedition went
into winter-quarters in October, 1871; and most of the specimens
gathered were secured during that winter and the following spring and
summer. The death of Captain Hall interfered, of course, materially
with the scientific work, but did not interrupt it, and at the time of the
damage to the vessel by the ice, in October, 1872, very extensive col-
lections had been made under the direction of Dr. Bessels, the chief of
the scientific corps. These embraced specimens of the minerals, rocks,
and fossils of Polaris Bay and other localities, large numbers of skins
and skeletons of the musk-ox, (a great desideratum in public museums,)
and other species of mammals, such as lemmings, seals, &c.; some
birds and their eggs; many specimens of marine invertebrates, and a
complete collection of the insects and plants met with by the party.
Most of these collections were lett on board the Polaris when the party
remaining with the vessel went into quarters on shore during the winter
of 1872~73; and when the vessel was found to be unseaworthy, and it
- became necessary to build boats to move southward for the purpose of
trying to meet the English whalers, it was found impossible to bring away’
more than a small number of the objects that had been gathered. Dr.
Bessels, however, in the limited amount of space allotted to him, sue-
ceeded in packing a representative series of the fossils and rocks, and
some specimens of insects, as also a few objects preserved in alcohol, all
of which at present occupy a special case in the mineral-room at the
west end of the Smithsonian building.

The absence of fishes in the collections of the Polaris party is very
remarkable, no specimens of this class of vertebrates having been seen
by the expedition in the northern portion of their journey, with the ex-
ception of a few small fishes in a fresh-water stream, which could not
be caught, but were supposed to be young salmon. Cetaceans, too,
were equally absent, the marine mammals being represented only by
one or two species of seal.

Proceeding southward, the next region from which interesting mate-
rial has been received during the year is that of the Pribylov or fur-seal
islands of Behring Sea. Here the collections begun in 1872, on the
jsland of Saint Paul, by Mr. Henry W. Elliott, assistant United States
Treasury ¢gent, were continued by him on the adjacent island of Saint
George, and embraced a complete representation of the birds, especially
the aquatic species and their eggs, the skeletons and skulls of the seals
and some marine invertebrates. hese are accompanied by very inter-
esting sketches of the animal life of the island, especially of the seals
and walruses, adding uch to our knowledge of the habits of this inter-
esting group of mammals.

(3)

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

The westernmost portion of the chain of the Aleutian Islands was
thoroughly explored during the year by Mr. William H. Dall, while
engaged in making a survey of the islands in behalf of the United
States Coast Survey, his leisure time having been employed in securing
a wonderfully complete series of specimens for the National Museum.
These covered all departments of natural history, such as various
mammals, birds and their eggs, insects and plants, and more es-
pecially marine invertebrates, of which it is believed that many new
species have been obtained. A very prominent feature, however, in Mr.
Dall’s collections, consists in the extensive series of pre-historic objects
obtained by the exploration of certain burial caves in Unalaska, which
throw much light upon the past relationships of the Aleutians. Ineclud-
ing the ethnological collections made by Mr. Dall during previous years,
it is believed that no better illustration of the anthropology of that part
_ of Alaska could be brought together than is now within the walls of the
Institution.

A collection of carvings made by the Haidah Indians, of Queen Char-
lotte’s Island, a tribe remarkable for their skill in this branch of art and
for the variety and grotesqueness of their designs, has been received
from Mr. J. G. Swan, whose contributions alsoembrace numerous ethno-
logical and other specimens from Washington Territory, and is accom-
panied by a memoir, previously noticed in this report.

From Oregon we have a very remarkable collection of pre-historic
remains, many of them of exquisite beauty of workmanship, consisting
of arrow-points and pestles, bone-carvings, &c., presented by Mr. Paul
Rh. Schumacher, of the United States Coast Survey.

Another valued addition from this part of the country consists of a
number of specimens of the showt/l, both in skins and entire in alcohol,
furnished by Mr. S. C. Wingard, the United States district attorney at
Olympia. This mammal, the Aplodontia leporina, is like a muskrat, but
with a very short tail, and although abundant in .a very limited
locality, is still little known to naturalists; while its peculiarities of
form render it of great interest as an object of study. After many years
of special effort directed toward securing a supply of these animals for
the purpose of meeting some urgent calls, the object was finally accom-
plished by the aid of Mr. Wingard.

The coast of California has been well represented by the collections
of Captain C. M. Scammon, of the United States Revenue Marine. This
gentleman, an active and efficient officer of the service, has, in the inter-
est of science, made use of the opportunities furnished by the necessary
cruises along the coast, devoting himself especially to a careful scien-
tific and practical study of the marine mammals, including the whales,
porpoises, seals, sea-otters, &c. With commendable enterprise, he has
commenced the publication, in California, of a large work on this sub-
ject, which, with its well-executed illustrations, promises to be a complete —

AO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

treatise upon the whale-fishery and other similar interests on the Pacific
Ocean, and one that will doubtless be a standard of reference in the
future.

The collections made by Captain Scammon for his studies im this de-
partment have been transmitted by him from time to time to the National
Museum, where they constitute one of its most unique and important fea-
tures. Too much cannot be said in praise of gentlemen like Captain
Scammon, who, in addition to the routine of their ofiicial work, labor
for the advancement of science, and especially where such labor can be
turned to practical account as in the present instance.

The United States steamer Tuscarora, under Commander G. E. Bel-
knap, has been engaged during the summer in making soundings in
the Pacific, from San Francisco toward the Aleutian Islands, with the
object of determining the proper line for a cable between the United
States and Japan; and numerous specimens of sea-bottom, with its
microscopic fauna, were secured, and have been recently transmitted by
Com. Ammen, of the Bureau of. Navigation, in behalf of the Navy De-
partment, with the request that the Smithsonian Institution would have
them properly investigated and reported upon.

_From the main-land of California collections have beep received from
Dr. J. G. Cooper, of San Francisco, Mr. W. A. Cooper, of Santa Cruz,
and Dr. Hays, of Santa Barbara, consisting of specimens of birds,
mammals, &e., of much interest.

By far the most extensive collections received by the National Museum
during the year have been the result of Government expeditions in the
regions west of the Missouri.

The first of these in geographical order, beginning at the north, is that
of the survey of the boundary between fie United States and the uc
territory, prosecuted under the auspices of the State Department,
and under the direction of Mr. Archibald Campbell as commissioner.
The proper determination of this boundary, in which Great Britain
takes part, requires careful astronomical and geodetic work, this being
conducted by Major Twining in behalf of the United States Engi-
neer Department. The region traversed is one very little known,
and the commissioner, therefore, as was the case during his survey of
the western end of this line, took pains to secure the assistance of a
competent specialist to make the necessary examination in regard to
the natural-history resources of the country. - Dr. Elliott Coues, assist-
ant surgeon, United States Army, who has had much experience in simi-
lar duties, and who occupies a high rank as a naturalist, was chosen
as surgeon to the scientific party, and succeeded, with the assistance
given him by the commissioner, in making a very large collection of
specimens in many branches of natural-history,.and one especially rich
in the department of ornithology.

The line surveyed during the year extended for several hundred

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al

miles west of the Lake of the Woods, and will be continued in 1874, it
is hoped, under the same auspices, to the summit of the Rocky Moun-
tains or to the junction with the line which, in 1860, had been extended
from the Pacific Ocean eastward.

The next Government expedition, in geographical position, was one
sent out by the War Department to protect the exploring and construc-
tion parties of the Northern Pacific Railway, and placed under the com-
mand of Gen. David S. Stanley. This consisted ofa very large force of
men, some two thousand in all, as being necessary to protect the rail-
road parties against the threatened attacks of hostile Indians. Recog-
nizing the propriety of utilizing so favorable a service in the interest of
science, when it could be done at so trifling an expense, the Secretary
of War authorized the appointment of a corps of naturalists for the expe-
dition, and Mr. J. A. Allen was placed in charge of this, with several as-
- sistants. The expedition proceeded westward from Fort Rice to the
Upper Missouri, and crossed some distance beyond the Yellowstone.
The results of this expedition are very interesting, and would have
been much more extensive but for the necessity of moving in constant
apprehension of hostile attacks.

The geographical and geological exploration of the Territories, under
Professor Hayden, furnished the next source of museum supply, the
researches of himself and parties having extended over parts of Colorado
and New Mexico. These furnished very large collections of fossil re-
mains, of minerals and rocks, and of objects of natural history generally,

The exploration of the region west of the hundredth meridian, under
the direction of Lieut. George M. Wheeler, of the United States
Engineers, has also furnished a large mass of material, equal in extent
and general character to that of Professor Hayden, the twe parties
together contributing a very large proportion of the general. results of
the year. Thousands of birds and hundreds of mammals, with tons of
fossil and geological specimens, are counted in the aggregate received
from these two expeditions.

Hrom the explorations of Maj. J. W. Powell, in the cafions of the Colo-
rado, most extensive collections have also been received; his survey
being unique in the great extent and completeness of its ethnological
representation. In these and the collections of the previous summer,
the National Museum now owes to Major Powell’s exertions a most inter-
esting and extensive representation of the habits, manners, and customs
of the Ute Indians, including every form of dress and personal adorn-
ment, of weapons of war and of the chase, of household and agricultu-
ral utensils, specimens of their food in different stages of preparation,
and whatever else may throw light upon the habits and characteristics
of one of the most primitive people on the American continent. <A
special feature of this collection is the number and variety of stone
implements used for various purposes, properly mounted, and showing

A? REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the mode by which the knives and arrow-points are attached for every-
day use. ;

New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, are represented largely in the collec-
tions of Lieutenant Wheeler, and of Major Powell; and a collection of
skins and eggs of birds, gathered in Southern Arizona, and presented
by Capt. Charles Bendire, of the United States Cavalry, has also proved
a very important addition to the treasures of the museum. Captain
Bendire, while stationed near Tucson, embraced the opportunity to make
complete collections of eggs of the Arizona birds, and among them are
many previously unknown to naturalists. With commendable liberality,
he has presented a series of these to the National Museum, which, from
their beauty of preparation and rarity, constitute a very acceptable
donation.

Among the collections received from the West must not be omitted:
specimens of the salmon, trout, and other fresh-water fishes of the
Upper Sacramento, gathered by Mr. Livingston Stone, deputy United
States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries. This gentleman has been
engaged for two years on the McCloud River, near Mount Shasta, in
obtaining eggs of the Sacramento salmon for supplying the rivers and
lakes of the United States with this important food-fish, and he com-
bined with his other duties the securing of material for a complete
monograph of the salmonidae of the American continent. He has also
furnished some interesting ethnological specimens.

The collections in the regions between the Mississippi River and the
Atlantic, although from no one point of very great extent, have fur-
nished a considerable aggregate, and are especially rich in objects of
ethnology, to which special attention has been given during the year.
The number of donations in this department is very great, and will be
found recorded in detail in the accompanying list.of contributions, the
principal States represented being Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Maryland,
Rhode Island, Maine, &c.

Among the additions in other departments, we may specially men-
tion the collection of fishes by Mr. James W. Milner, also an assistant
of the United States Fish Commission, who has had special charge of
ascertaining the character of the fish, and reporting upon the fisheries
of the great lakes, and of the upper tributaries of the Mississippi. In
connection with this inquiry, Mr. Milner secured a very complete collec- |
tion of food-fishes of the Jakes and of the Ohio River, which, in accord-
ance with law, have been sent to the National Museum, and, it is hoped,
will form the basis of a work upon the subject.

Having referred to the additions to the collections of the National
Museum from the Pacific coast, we have to record also very important
contributions from the labors of the United States Commission of Fish
and Fisheries.

Of these full series are preserved in the National Museum for investi- ~
gation, and the great number of duplicates gathered for that special

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. “43
as
purpose are in the process of being made up into sets for distribution

to colleges and academies throughout the country. No greater aid can
be given to the cause of scientific education than to furnish such series
as these; and accompanied as they will be by the report of the ccm-
mission, in which these objects are fully and systematically described,
they will be much sought after by institutions such as those referred to.

As in previous years, the facilities of the commission were eagerly
embraced by scientific specialists, who spent a greater or less time with
the expedition. Among these may be mentioned Mr. G. Brown Goode
and Professor Rice, of Wesleyan University, Middletown; Professor
J. Hi. Todd, of Taber College, lowa; Professor Nelson, of Delaware Col-
lege, Ohio; Dr. P. P. Carpenter, of Montreal; Mr. 8. J. Smith and Mr.
Thatcher, of Yale College, and many others on the United States steamer

Biue Light, furnished by the Navy Department.
In addition to the collections made at Peak’s Island, many interesting
objects were secured under the commissioner’s direction, by Dr. A.S.
Packard, on the United States steamer Bache, which the superintendent
of the coast-survey kindly supplied to the commission for a month, for
the purpose of deep-sea exploration at points of the New England coast
too remote for the services of the Blue Light. Mr. Vinal N. Edwards,
an agent of the commission, at Wood’s Hole, Massachusetts, also secured
great numbers of fishes, several of them previously unknown to our
waters.

Other collections of the coast-fishes of great interest were furnished
by Messrs. Middleton, Carman & Co., of New York, including a species
of perch, Promicrops guasu, taken in Saint John’s River in Florida,
weighing 750 pounds. <A series of the Virginia coast-fishes was also
received from:Mr. Sibley, of Norfolk.

Mr. Samuel Powel of Newport, R. I., furnished some very rare species
of fishes from Narragansett Bay. Others from Staten Island have been
presented by Mr. Charles Copley.

In the completion of the account of collections received from the east-
ern coast of North America, we may mention specimens of the salmon
family, as salmon, salmon-trout, and white-fish, from the United States
salmon-hatching establishment, under the charge of Chas. G. Atkins of
Bucksport, Me.; from H. M. Stilwell, fish commissioner of Maine; from
Mr. J. B. Blossom, of Brooklyn; from Mr. Rutter of Frederickton, New
Brunswick ; and of capelin, from Mr. Delaney of Newfoundland. Of even
greater interest than any of these, however, were specimens of a gigantic
cuttle-fish, presented by Archibald Munn, of Harbor Grace, Newfound-
land. For some years past there have been traditions of the occurrence
of giant cuttle-fish, or so called ‘devil-fish,” on our eastern coast, although
the stories communicated in regard to them have been cousidered rather
fabulous. During the year 1873, however, several well-authenticated cases
have occurred, and in one instance an animal of this family attacked a
fishing-boat by throwing two of its arms across it, which, however, the

4A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
e

occupants of the boat promptly severed with an ax, and the portions thus
secured were brought into port. One of these pieces of an arm meas-
ured 18 feet in length, and it was estimated that an equal length
remained attached tothe body. An entire animal was afterward taken
ina net, with arms about 30 feet inlength. Another ofa similar size was
thrown upon the shore, near Harbor Grace in the winter of 187273, the
beak and suckers of which were forwarded to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion.

The collections from Mexico received during the year have continued
to be of much importance, especially such as are covered by the contri-
butions of Professor Sumichrast, who is a resident of the Isthmus of Te-
huantepec, and has been for many years a valued correspondent of the
Smithsonian Institution. From this gentleman we have received large
numbers of birds, mammals, and reptiles, the object of most interest
being the skeleton of the Mexican tapir, an animal until rec euily but
very little known.

From Guatemala an interesting addition consists of a specimen of
the ocellated turkey, presented by Mr. Sarg, being a species of great
rarity, and very much superior in beauty to the wild turkey of North
America.

A very noteworthy addition to the collection of the Institution was re-
ceived from Prof. William M. Gabb, who has been engaged in exploring
certain regions of Costa Rica, in the service of that government and of
the Costa Rica Railway. This contribution contains many specimens
illustrative of the habits and manners of the native tribes of Costa
Rica, with a large collection of the birds, mammals, reptiles, fishes, We.,
the whole forming a very full representation of the zoology and ethnol-
ogy of that country.

Additional contributions, in the way of specimens of the natural his-

_tory of the United States of Colombia, have been received from Gen.
Stephen A. Hurlbut, late United States minister to that country, and
_ from his son, Mr. George H. Hurlbut. To these gentlemen the National
Museum previously owed the contribution of a skeleton of the tapir of —
the Andes, a species till then known only by a skull in the Paris Mu-
seum. The more recent donations consist of birds in great variety, and
other objects.

Several collections have been received from more southern portions
of South America, among them an interesting contribution of Peruvian
antiquities, presented by Mr. W. W. Evans, and a stuffed specimen of
the tapir of the Andes, from President Moreno, of Ecuador.

From the West Indies an important contribution consists in skeletons
and alcoholic specimens of the fish of Cuba, presented by Prof. F. Poey,
of Havana. Professor Poey is an eminent naturalist, whose writings
upon the fishes of the West Indies are standard authority, and he has
kindly undertaken to supply to the National Museum a complete series
of Cuban fishes, properly named, to correspond with his own publica-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

tions. Of these, over one hundred species have already been received,
and others are hereafter expected.

The fishes of Bermuda are represented in a collection made by Mi.
G. Brown Goode, in behalf of the Wesleyan University at Middletown,
by which institution it was presented.

Other notable additions to the collection of fishes consist in speci-
mens of the turbot, the sole, and the brill, of Europe, obtained through
Messrs. Middleton and Carman, of New York, for the purpose of show-
ing the relationship of these well-known food-fishes with our own.
These specimens have been cast in plaster, and will shortly be placed
on exhibition.

Quite a number of single specimens of various kinds have been re-
ceived in exchange from European museums, although nothing specially
noteworthy, with the exception, perhaps, of a colleciion of minerals
from the salt-mines near Cracow, in Austria, presented by the Univer-
sity of Cracow, through Professor Att. Of contributions from other
regions outside of North America, by far the most interesting represen-
tation is that of New Zealand, as furnished by the Canterbury Museum
at Christ Church, in charge of Dr. Julius Haast. This embraces sev-
eral complete skeletons of the giant fossil-birds of New Zealand, spe-
cies, in comparison with which, the ostrich is but as a chick to a hen, a
height of 15 feet, with other dimensions proportionate, being attained
by several of the species. There is also in this collection a very good
series of New Zealand birds and many specimens of ethnology in the
form of implements of stone and bone, and other objects from the shell-
heaps of the ancient Maori inhabitants, who were cotemporaries of the
giant birds, (the moas,) and the remains of whose feasts contain frac-
tured moa bones in great numbers.

Systematic summary.—Having thus given an account of the more
important collections received during the year in their geographical
relationships, a brief recapitulation by systematic arrangement may not
be uninteresting.

The department of ethnology is one which has received the most va-
ried and extended contributions during the year, due largely to the fact
that special effort has been directed by the Smithsonian Institution in
the way of circulars to correspondents, and otherwise, to induce the
making of such collections, while in preparing instructions to the Gov-
ernment expeditions this subject has been dwelt upon particularly.

Reference has already been made to the prehistoric remains collected
by Mr. Dall in Alaska, and by Mr. Schumacher in Oregon, and to those
of more modern times furnished by Mr. Swan from Washington Terri-
tory and Queen Charlotte’s Island, while the objects brought by Major
Powell from the Colorado River, are of unusually great extent and
value. Every State in the Union, however, has been represented to a
greater or less extent in the form of stone-axes, pipes, pottery, &c. The

AG REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

shell-heaps of Casco Bay were explored by parties connected with the
United States Fish Commission, and those of Hastern Maine by Lieu-
tenant Slamm of the Revenue Service. From foreign localities the most
interesting contribution is that of the remains from the shell-heaps of
the ancient moa-hunters of New Zealand, referred to as contributed by
Dr. Haast. The interest of these localities is heightened by the fact
that they embrace remains of the gigantic fossil dinornis, or moa-bird,
proving that this was hunted and eaten by the Maoris.

Of the mammalia, a special prize has been a complete skeleton of the
grizzly bear, killed by Lieutenant Carpenter, of Professor Hayden’s ex-
pedition. Of this animal it is difficult to obtain good skeletons, and
the one received was therefore especially acceptable, as it enabled the
Institution to meet an urgent request on the part of the British archae-
ologists. Among sundry fossil bones of bears found in Great Britain
and elsewhere in Europe, are remains which cannot be satisfactorily re-
ferred to any European animal; and it has been suggested that prob-
ably the American grizzly was at one time an inhabitant of Europe,
and since then exterminated. The loan of this-specimen to a commit-
tee of the British Association, charged with the investigation of the
subject may enable them to determine this point. For its better il-
lustration, however, the Smithsonian Institution added to the grizzly
a specimen of the barren ground bear of the Arctic region, a very rare
animal, and of which the only specimens preserved are in the museum
at Washington. It is possibly the Arctic species, rather than the griz-
zly, which will be found to have the closest relation to the European
fossil, or cave bear, in this respect exhibiting a parallel to the musk-
ox, which once inhabited Central Europe, and after the glacial period
was driven back to the northward by the increasing temperature of the
continent, and finally entirely exterminated from the Old World. It
is now only found living in America and Greenland.

Two very complete skins of the musk-ox, from Arctic America, have
been forwarded to the Institution by Mr. William L. Hardesty, of Fort
Simpson, and their arrival is expected at an early date. The collections
. of the remains of cetaceans, such as the skulls of whales and the skins
and skeletons of porpoises, &c., from the California coast, as contri-
buted by Captain Scammon, have been already mentioned; as also
that of the Aplodontia-leporina, or showt’l, which has been received from
Mr. 8. C. Wingard.

To Professor Sumichrast, of Tehuantepec, the Institution owes the
contribution of a skeleton of the tapir of Mexico.

A complete series of the mammals of Costa Rica and their skulls, fur-
nished by Professor Gabb, is of great value.

Among the rarest of mammals is ineluded the hairy tapir of the
Andes, from South America, the only representative of the species
heretofore being a skull in the Paris Museum.

To the Hon. S. A. Hurlbut, at the time United States minister to

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AT

Bogota, and to his son, George H. Hurlbut, the Institution owes the
first complete skeleton of this animal ever obtained; and during the
year 1873 it received a mounted skin, presented by President Moréno,
of Ecuador. :

The Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge has furnished, in
exchange, casts of several crania of mastodons.

Among the most important contributions in the way of mammals are
the specimens received from Mr. P. T. Barnum, consisting of animals
which have died in his extensive menageries in different parts of the
country, and transmitted to the National Museum from time to time by
his agents, in compliance with his instructions. Among these may be
mentioned a Malayan tapir, a Bactrian camel, a dromedary, an African
panther, the Florida manatee, the Indian rhinoceros, the mandrill and
other species, all of them of extreme interest, furnishing both skeletons,

and skins fit for mounting. 2

Of birds the most important collections are those from the Aleutian
Islands, received from Messrs. Dall & Elliott, and from the region-west
of the Missouri, from the different Government expeditions already
enumerated. Dr. Haast has also supplied many rarities from New
Zealand. A special acquisition is that of the ocellated turkey from
Honduras, presented by Mr. Sarg. This is extremely rare in public
museums, with a market-value, for a good skin, of about $200.

Other notable contributions are the skin of two species of tern or
mackerel gulls, one the Sterna longipinnis, from Portland, Me., by Mr.
Franklin Benner, and the other Sterna leucoptera, from Wisconsin, pre-
sented by Dr. T. M. Brewer, both of them the first specimens of their
respective species hitherto detected in North America.

A collection of eggs of birds from Arizona, by Captain Bendire,
has also been referred to, and is of special value.

Comparatively few reptiles have been received during the year; these
consisting mainly of specimens brought in by the Government expedi-
tions. We may, however, mention several valuable species from the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, sent on by Professor Sumichrast, and from
Costa Rica by Professor Gabb.

The list of fishes is very extensive, composed mainly of those brought
in by the United States Fish Commission. These embrace a very great
variety, including specimens of sharks, rays, and many notable fish se-
cured on the coasts of Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, &e., as well
as of sea salmon, lake salmon, white-fish, smelts, capelin, and other va-
rieties from the waters of California, the Great Lakes, the Eastern
States, and the provinces. Many fishes were brought in also by the
Government expeditions, and some have been received from Costa Rica
through Professor Gabb, and several interesting species from Europe,
through Messrs. Middleton & Carman, of New York.

Of special interest in connection with the study of the fishes of the
United States, is a series from Cuba, contributed by Professor Poey, of

A8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Havana. This gentleman has contributed more than two hundred spe-
cies, and others have been promised.

The fish of Bermuda, collected by Mr. Goode, also tend to complete
the list of the Atlantic species. Dr. John Edward Gray has presented
a large number of species of fish, particularly from the Indian Ocean.

Of the fishes from the interior of of the United States, collections
have been made of most of the prominent kinds by Mr. James W. Mil-
ner, of the United States Fish Commission, while Mr. George Spangler,
of Madison, Indiana, has furnished specimens of the paddle-fish, shovel-
headed sturgeon, and other conspicuous varieties.

Of marine invertebrates, such as star-fishes, shells, crustacea, worms,
&e., immense numbers were gathered by the fish commission on the

eastern coast, and extensive series have BUS been supplied by Mr. Dall
from the erie Islands.

Many plants have been received, including a small but very interesting
collection made by the Polaris party in high northern latitudes. In ac-
cordance with an arrangement entered into between the Smithsonian
Institution and the Agricultural Department some years ago, the plants
and insects received at the National Museum are turned over to the
last-mentioned establishment for proper care, as rapidly as is consistent
with the duty of securing reports upon those collections made by the
Government expeditions.

In a similar manner human crania received are turned over to the
Army Medical Museum, the object in both cases being to avoid dividing
series, by combining all the specimens of the same general class in some
one of the various Government establishments in the city.

The collections in paleontology, mineralogy, and geology, as already
mentioned, are of great magnitude, and alone have filled many hundred
boxes. These represent the most important results of the Government
exploring expeditions.

It will be seen, from what has been already mentioned, that the col-
lections made during the year represent an enormous aggregate of
material, and one requiring the utmost exertions of the limited force
connected with the National Museum, for its propertreatment. Ofcourse
a strict record must be kept of everything received; and when the
packages are opened and the contents assorted, the work of registering
and recording begins. Sometimes this requires the identification of
the species; and even the mere manual labor of numbering and label-
ing every specimen, and marking the corresponding record in the registry-
book, is one of very great magnitude.

After the respective collections have been properly investigated, and
in many cases elaborate reports written concerning them, the selection
of a reserve series for the Museum begins, which are then either placed
upon the shelves or packed away for future treatment. The duplicates,
which constitute a large percentage of the whole, are set aside for ex-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

change with other museums or for distribution to educational institu-
tious.

Special effort is directed on the part of the Smithsonian Institution
toward carrying out this feature of the plan in the most thorough
manner; and while the distribution thus made in 1873 has been very
extensive, that for 1874 will be even greater still.

It is in this particular feature that the National Museum of the United
States differs from almost any other in the world, excepting, perhaps, -
in a single direction only, the Government Geological Museum at Vienna.

In most other museums single specimens only of objects are offered
or accepted, especially of such as are rew to the cabinet, the labor of
digesting the results of great expeditions being accomplished under
other auspices, no plan being adopted to utilize any surplus, in any
other interest than that of the establishment itself. The British Mu-
-seum, for instance, which stands at the head of all institutions of this
kind, never parts with a duplicate, and is oppressed by the weight of its
surplus material, even though in small proportion to the reserve collec-
tion.

It is a question whether any museum in the world is in receipt of so
great an amount of material as the National Museum at Washington;
and were the rule of the British Museum to prevail it would be crushed
by the weight of its own riches. The constant effort, however, on the
part of the Smithsonian Institution to utilize this material in the interest
of science and education, tends to keep down the mass, though it is
only at the expense of the incessant activity and constant labor of the
Museum force that this object is in any measure accomplished.

In most public museums there is a corps of specialists whose business
it is to supervise all the collections received, the British Museum havy-
ing a large force of such officers. The funds available for the National
Museum of the United States do not authgrize the appointment of such
officers, although some of the present assistants are prominent special-
ists in certain branches. In order, therefore, to secure the prompt de-
termination of the material received, and the consequent speedy dis-
posal of the duplicates, the offers of assistance from eminent scientists, so
frequently made, are gladly accepted, and the material placed in their
hands for investigation. During the year this labor has been performed,
always gratuitously, by a number of gentlemen, among whom may be
- mentioned Prof. E. D. Cope as employed in the investigation of the fos-
si mammals; Dr. Coues, Mr. J. A. Allen, and Mr. Ridgway on that of
the birds; Professor Cope, of the reptiles; Dr. Gill, Professor Goode,
and Mr. J. W. Milner, of the fishes; Mr. P. R. Uhler, Mr. William H.
Edwards, Dr. A. 8. Packard, Mr. Cyrus Thomas, and Dr. L. Le Conte,
of the insects; and Mr. William G. Binney and others, of the shells.

Professor Verrill has undertaken the determination of the collection
of marine invertebrates obtained from the waters of the east coast of
the Daited States, with the assistznce of Mr. S. J. Smith, Dr. Packard,

50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Professor Hyatt, and other gentlemen, while Prof. D. Haton has identi-
fied the marine plants. To these gentlemen, the thanks of the Institu-
tion are due for their extremely valuable services in the connection re-
ferred to.

On the transfer of the large number of ethnological objects from the
lower hall and the connecting range to the new room in the second story,
much space will be gained for the re-arrangement of the zoological
collections, and an opportunity will be given for introducing many
species which are now necessarily kept elsewhere, for the want of accom-
modations. It may, however, be proper to state that for the exhibition
of the full series of objects now in possession of the Institution, and not
including any unnecessary duplicates, much ampler accommodations will
be needed than can be had in the building, and if these are to be displayed
as they should be it will be necessary at no distant day to provide
means for extending the space, either by a transfer of the entire collec-
tion to new buildings or by making additions to that of the Smithsonian
Institution.

In illustration of this statement, it may be remarked that, of sixty-
seven thousand specimens of birds entered in the catalogues of
the museum, and of which more than forty thousand are on hand,
(the remainder having been distributed,) less than five thousand are
mounted and on exhibition, these occupying fully two-fifths of the pres-
ent hall; the rest are preserved as skins, in chests, drawers, and boxes,
and of them fifteen thousand, or three times the number at present on
exhibition, require to be displayed for the proper illustration of even
American ornithology.

The urgency for additional room is still greater for the mammals.
Here, out of some five or six thousand specimens, less than so many hun-
dred are exhibited, the remainder alone being almost sufficient to occupy
half of the hall. Of many thaqusands of skeletons of mammals, birds, rep-
tiles, and fishes, a very small percentage is shown to the public, while
exhibition-room to the amount of thousands of square feet is required
for specimens that now occupy drawers in side apartments.

Of the very large colleetion of alcoholic specimens, which constitute
the most important materialin every public museum, scarcely anything
is on exhibition, although the selection of a single series for this purpose
is very desirable.

The new ethnological gallery, already referred to, even now is scarcely
adequate to accommodate a complete series of the ethnological specimens
on hand, without taking into consideration the number that the explora-
tions of the past few years may lead us to expect for the future.

It is, however, very gratifying to be able to state, that if the proper
plan of a national museum for the United States should be to make it
an exponent of the ethnology, and of the animal, vegetable, and mineral
treasures of America, this can be considered as in a great measure
already accomplished, especially for North America, and to a very con-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51

siderable degree for the middle and southern portions of the New
World. All thatis now required by the Institution for the presentation
of such a series is proper accommodations and the means necessary to
prepare and exhibit the same.

With the vast number of duplicates on hand it is always easy to
secure, in the way of exchange with foreign collections, nearly all the
objects desired from other parts of the world, and it will probably never
be necessary to ask for funds, to any extent, to secure such articles by
purchase—an expense which constitutes the principal outlay of most
foreign museums.

Mineralogical Collection.—The following is an account of the mineral-
ogical department, by Dr. F. M. Endlich, who has charge of this branch
of the museum:

The mineralogical department of the United States National Museum
(placed by Congress under the charge of the Smithsonian Institution)
comprises four divisions:

I. Mineralogy. Iif. Ores.
Il. Lithology. IV. Metallurgy.

The collection of minerals occupies twelve cases, and numbers upwards
of 3,000 specimens, belonging to 230 species. These minerals are col-
lected from al] parts of the globe, obtained to a considerable extent from
the United States Government expeditions, and by exchange and dona-
tions. Dana’s system of mineralogy has been chosen to serve as a basis
for the arrangement of the different species and groups, and, in order to
render the collection of use to the visitor or student, a very elaborate
system of labelling has been adopted. Every specimen, unless too large,
is placed in a paste-board tray, which contains, at the same time, a label
giving the name of the mineral, the chemical composition, crystalline
form, if any, locality, and the name of the donor. At the beginning of
each species in the continuous row is placed a printed ‘ species-label,”
giving the name and chemical composition, and distinguished from the
rest by a red border. To the front edge of its tray every specimen has
attached a printed label with black border, showing the name and _lo-
cality. In case the mineral is not contained in a tray this label is placed
in some conspicuous position near it. The printed labels are so distrib-
uted as to be easily read by the visitor, at the same time disposed in
such a manner as not to obstruct the view of the specimen. Large
printed “ division-labels” are placed at the head of each of the six divi-
sions adopted by Professor Dana.

This system of labelling will enable the student to see at once the
name, composition, and locality of any mineral, and will show him its
position in the adopted system of classification. Besides these precau-
tionary measures, to preserve the history of every individual specimen,
a number is written on every specimen, corresponding to one in the
mineral record, in which the labels are entered.

52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Several very rare and valuable specimens of meteoric iron and other
minerals are contained in the collection. In the appendix is given an
alphabetical list of species at present represented in the museum. The
enumeration of the species is based upon the catalogue of minerals pub-
lished by the Smithsonian Institution in 1863.

The lithological collection occupies thirteen cases, and comprises
about 2,300 specimens. Of the various species and variety of rocks
thus far known and described the greater part is represented. An ar-
rangement has been temporarily adopted by which the specimens are
arranged according to their collector, at the same time, however, retain-
ing a certain lithological classification. A large quantity of these speci-
mens has been brought in by the expeditions exploring the Western Ter-
ritories, and thus a very valuable and unique collection has resulted.

A full suite of Saeman’s (Paris) rocks is contained in the collection,
besides a suite from Freiberg, Saxony, and other European specimens.
Eventually the collection is to be arranged according to locality, follow-
ing, within these bounds, some definite lithological system. A system
of labeling analogous to that adapted for the minerals will be intro-
duced. The size of the lithological specimens is that of similar ones in
a large number of European collections—3 inches by 4 inches—giving
the collection a pleasing, uniform appearance, and facilitating the ar-
rangement.

Three cases are occupied by the collection of ores, which comprises
about five hundred specimens. The object of this collection is to present
a characteristic specimen of ore from every worked lode in the West-
ern States and Territories. Every year comparatively large additions
are made. These ores are labeled, giving the name, the value as
ore, (if known,) the name of the mine, its locality, and the name of
the donor. If this collection be completed successfully it will prove to
be a very valuable addition to the mining statistics, and will justly
illustrate the mineral wealth of the United States.

A collection of metallurgical products has been organized, proposing
to show the ores, fluxes, slags, raw and commercial products, illustrating
the various processes in operation in the United States and other coun-
tries. As yet this collection is small, but it may be hoped that as soon
as its existence and object becomes more generally known, the neces-
sary contributions of specimens will not be wanting.

Besides these collections, representing typical specimens, the museum
contains a very complete and handsome series of the geyserites and
other similar deposits from the United States National Park. Series il-
lustrating various localities famous for their yield of minerals, such as
Wieliczka, in Polish Austria, Girgenti, in Sicily, and others, have been
obtained. The mineralogical and geological material collected and res-
cued by the North Polar Expedition, under the late Captain Hall, forms
one of these interesting suites.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53

Altogether there are upward of 6,300 specimens on exhibition; over
800 are on hand, to be incorporated during the present year, and almost
daily new material swells the collection.

In connection with the mineralogical department is the mineral ex-
change. A large number of mineral duplicates, upwards of 10,000, is
on hand, and these, having been classified and arranged in series,
will be distributed to institutions of learning or disposed of in exchange
in order to increase the main collection. A limited number of good
duplicates is kept on hand—deposited in drawers—to serve for foreign
exchange and to afford material for study, should it be required.

Photographs of antiquities in the British Museum.—Among the additions
to the museum is a Series of photographs of the most valuable contents
of the British Museum, systematically made and arranged with the defi-
nite object of showing man’s gradual advance and the development of
civilization from pre-historic to medizeval times. These were made by
S. Thompson, with the consent of the trustees of the museum, for W.
A. Mansell & Co., of London, as proprietors, and have in part been pre-
sented by them to the Institution. Theseries consists of nearly a thousand
plates and is grouped in seven parts:

I. Pre-historiec and ethnographical series.
Il. Egyptian series.
IIl. Assyrian series.
IV. Grecian series.
VY. Etruscan and Roman series.
VI. Antiquities of Britain and foreign medizval art.

VII. Seals of sovereigns, corporations, &c.

They will be placed on exhibition at the Institution in the large hall
as soon as the cases are prepared to receive them. These photographs
are a valuable contribution to the means of diffusing a knowledge of the
largest ethnological collection in the world, and will serve as original
materials for the use of the historian, scholar, and art-student. The
publication of a work of this magnitude has necessarily caused an enor-
mous outlay, and the proprietors are obliged to seek the support of men
of culture, for whom it has been prepared. It gives us pleasure to
recognize the importance to art and science of this new application of
photography, and to recommend it to public institutions and gentlemen
of fortune. It is not necessary to point out how valuable such a work
would be to any library or museum, particularly in a country where but
few can have the opportunity of’ seeing and still fewer that of studying
the originals represented.

CORRESPONDENCE.

An immense amount of labor is every year devoted to correspondence,
which includes subjects relating to almost every branch of human

54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

thought. Among the communications are many which relate to supposed
scientific discoveries and proposed new theories of the physical phenom-
ena of the universe.

There exists, especially in this country, in which there is a greater
amount of popular diffusion of scientific knowledge than in any other,
a class of persons who, without previous scientific training, attempt to
solve the most difficult problems of general physics. Among these are
men of considerable literary culture and much general reading, but
wanting in the special kind of logical and mathematical training neces-
sary for successful scientific investigation, they dissipate a large amount
of mental energy in unproductive speculations. The correspondence
with this class of persons is not only very onerous, but difficult to man-
age, Inasmuch as the rejection of their propositions is generally attrib-
uted to prejudice or a kind of scientific oligarchy. The general
method which has been adopted for dealing with them is to insist
upon their deducing from their hypotheses some new results which
can be immediately verified by experiment and observation, as a test
of the value of their speculations. This demand is made on the ground
that any hypothesis of value must not only explain what is already
known, but must also lead to results which have not previously been
observed.

Another class of correspondents write for information as to scientific
principles on which to found inventions for special purposes. Among
this class we have had within the last few years a large number of gentle
men of intelligence in the Southern States, who seek to retrieve fortunes
lost in the war by inventions which may become remunerative through
the sale of privileges for using them. Unfortunately, in most cases the
problems they essay are of too expensive a character to be brought to
the test of experience without the outlay of a large amount of money,
and frequently of too indefinite a conception to warrant success even
under the most favorable circumstances. The most remunerative inven-
tions are those of very simple character, and of general use, such as a
sewing-machine, rather than a steam-engine.

Another class of correspondents consists of those who ask for the
information as to minerals, plants, and other objects of natural history.
In the answers to these the Institution has done great service in the as-
sistance of students, and in the diffusion, unostentatiously, of a large
amount of knowledge.

In carrying on the correspondence and other parts of the general
operations of the establishment, much assistance has been rendered by
the collaborators of the Institution, among whom, during the past year,
our thanks are due to Prof. S. Newcomb, Prof. W. Harkness, and Prof.
Asaph Hall, of the Naval Observatory; Prof. J. E. Hilgard, C. A. Schott,
and Prof. William Ferrel, of the Coast Survey; Dr. Woodward and Dr.
Otis, of the Army Medical Museum; Prof. J. P. Lesley and W. E.
Dubois, of Philadelphia; Prof. W. D. Whitney and Prof. J. D. Dana,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 55.

of New Haven; J. H. Trumbull, of Hartford ; Prof. F. L. O. Roehrig,
of ithaca, New York; Dr. Henry Wurtz and Prof. Raymond, of New
York; Dr. L. D. Gale, Kdw. Clark, esq., W. Q. Force, Prof. C. Abbe,
of Washington, and others, especially in natural history, mentioned in
connection with the operations of the museum.

WORK DONE IN THE INSTITUTION AND IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER
ESTABLISHMENTS.

The Secretary, in addition to the general direction of the scientific
operations of the Institution, has continued during the past year his
investigations in regard to fog-signals and other aids to navigation, and
has discharged the duties of chairman of the Light-House Board, visitor
to the Government Hospital for the Insane, president of the National
Academy of Sciences, and trustee of the Corcoran Art Gallery.

Professor Baird, the assistant secretary, in addition to the arrange-
ment of the materials received by the museum, making up duplicates
for distribution, and the general direction of the system of exchanges,
has continued the duties with which he was charged by the President of
the United States in accordance with the law of Congress, namely, that
of prosecuting an inquiry into the present condition of the fisheries of the
coast and lakes, and the suggestion of methods for their improvement.
As in 1871 and 1872, he spent the principal part of the summer season
in carrying on his mission. He established himself on Peak’s Island
in Portland Harbor, where, with a large force of volunteer naturalists,
he was engaged from July until October.

The law of Congress under which his work is carried on directs the
departments of the Government to render him all the aid in their power,
and in pursuance of this the Secretary of the Navy placed at his dispo-
sition the United States steam-tug Blue Light, under Commander L.
A. Beardslee, United States Navy, properly fitted for her purposes and
provided with all the apparatus necessary for deep-sea research; and
with the co-operation of Prof. A. E. Verrill, an eminent zoologist of
Yale College, his associate in this work, he succeeded in solving many
of the problems of the inquiry, as well as in securing at the same time
a great amount of material in the way of specimens of marine animals
for the National Museum, embracing a very large uumber of species,
among them numerous forms entirely new or previously unknown on
our coast.

In addition to the examination and classification of the minerals which
have been received at the Institution, and making up sets for distribu-
tion, Dr. Endlich has made a qualitative-examination of a large number
of specimens of minerals which have been submitted for that purpose
to the Institution. For purposes of education the Institution furnishes.
qualitative determinations of mineralogical specimens, but in no case:
will it undertake to furnish percentages of the different components ot

56 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

specimens, or give certificates for commercial purposes of their value.
In regard to work of this class, the following rules have been adopted:

1. All applications for the examination of specimens must be made
by letter, addressed ‘Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.”

2. The specimens examined, or a part of them, will be retained by
the Institution.

3. All specimens are to be delivered to the Institution free of expense.

Mr. Meek, who still retains his connection with the Smithsonian In-
stitution, has continued during the past year his paleontological inves-
tigations relative to the specimens collected by various State and Gen-
eral Government surveys. He spent last summer in Colorado in the in-
vestigation of the geology of the region, returned to Washington in
October, but on account of the weak condition of his lungs he thought
it prudent to spend the present winter in Jlorida, carrying with him a
part of his library and a series of specimens with which to continue his
work.

Dr. Theodore Gill, who has special charge of the Smithsonian deposit
in the Library of Congress, and devotes his extra time in the Institution
to natural history, has been engaged during the past year in the study
of the vertebrates generally, the results of which have been partially
published in a memoir on the number of classes of vertebrates and their
natural relations. . He has also revised the nomenclature of the marine
fishes of our eastern coast from Greenland to Florida, and prepared a
catalogue.of them for the report of the United States Commissioner of
Fish and Fisheries, and has, at the request of the same officer, investi-
gated the genus Micropterus, comprising the black-bass, &c., and defi-
nitely established its species and nomenclature.

The Institution in 1870, fitted up a photographie apartment, under
the charge of Mr. T. W. Smillie, in which photographs are taken of
specimens of archeology and of natural history for illustrating the pub-
lications of the Institution, and for distribution to other museums.
During the past year a large number of food-fishes and prehistoric re-
mains have been photographed.

The specimens of the Institution are open to all investigators for
study, and no work of importance on natural history has been published
within the last twenty vears in this country which has not been in-
debted to this establishment for the use of materials and other facilities
in its production. The same privilege has been granted, under certain
restrictions, to the officers of the Institution, and Professor Baird has
availed himself of this by employing his leisure time for several years
in the production of an extensive work on North American ornithology.
In this enterprise Professor Baird has associated with himself Dr. Thos.
M. Brewer, of Boston, and Mr. Robert Ridgeway, of Illinois. The work
is published by Messrs. Little & Brown, of Boston, who have printed

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 57

three volumes, quarto size, embracing the land-birds. A second part,
that on the water-birds, is in an advanced state of preparation, and the
whole will be published within the year 1874. The work is fully illus-
trated by engravings finely executed in wood-cuts and in colored plates,
and it is believed will meet a want long felt and expressed as to a man-
ual of American ornithology.

CONCL OSION.

From the foregoing statements it will be evident that the Institution
is still in a prosperous condition ; that it is continually increasing in
usefulness and reputation ; that, although the current operations will be
somewhat impeded during 1874 by the failure of the First National
Bank, yet the effect of this loss will be but temporary; and that, with
the appropriation from Congress for the care of the museum, the
legitimate objects of the Institution can be prosecuted with more energy
than heretofore.

Respectfully submitted.

JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary,
WASHINGTON, January, 1874,

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY,

Table showing the number of entries in the record-books of the Smithsonian Museum at the

close of the years 1872 and 1873, respectively.

¥

1873.

Class. 1872.

Skeletomsramd okra si yc) ee ae See NES Pe a Aan ee rae ee COs 12,450 | 13,290
INE cal caveel RS eateatarg Sele nteear oie inael hand AE a eit cba a edie, let cea eine ‘by PILI, 2S
Binds} sous. uaz Poa ree sama sual UE xe ee Gib ake UE Duka eons 62,718 | 65, 950
IRE ee SE aOR aInU mene eee Smarr RE A A es 7, 729 8,222
MEISHG Siecle hE PE aa a er Cec yar ect Perea terre a eer a RRB 9758 | 125514
Hees of birds iecenasth. aie. ees sec We eed. Sees eA) WOR Oa eR a.
Crustaceans: sos aes he eee eee ce oe een ere eal aera ates ap beers heaegegett a nas Day Wer? 2, 194
Mollusks sac ce ctoe fos Sse hs ee Se ALG SOM TaN 24,792 | 24,792
Radilates Abs x8e6 55 ces if Se GREG See eee CR os Be ec aN 3, 107 3, 139
HATA = HCG He spencer men ene aD ne PH AA a SORE EVES Oe Ean 100 100
Fosstlsyinvertebrate Yi 2h Sik 2 SEs Ne Ue as ae 7,715 hohe)
AIVESTIA re SAS Nee ey ers, PS BNE ae I STEVE eel ae ay ie aC NER 7, 167 8, 108
Eohwolocicalyspecimensi ec saeieaerieeee) “cele eee eee eee ere 11,609 | 13, 084

Motalies 2 ciisseemppsts sed cepiohe es seccpe me | eens ces nares ae ON AO aS
INCREAS Sib Os MST ies see ses eee ea ae aap eat aU RI Ue 10,704

Approximate table of distribution of duplicate specimens to the end of 1873.

Distribution tothe} Distribution | Total to end of
end of 1872. during 1873. 1875.

Class. 2 az a

2 : Se ae 8 :

Sy S iy a a a

oD) 2) D oD) oD D
Skeletons and skulls ..---.---- 344 864 45 250 389 1,114
Mammal sv eerie eins aes Sills aan 963 1, 890 75 | 1,100 1, 038 2, 990
BIG S eee eee eee eerie 24,069 | 37, 095 511 790" | 24,580) 37, 885
Reptiles) 2e2 - eR OL ey 1, 841 2, 970 134 250 1,975 3, 220
ishesip areca eee we ae 2,517 5, 398 200 350 Be, le 5, 748
Hees of bind sess. eee eee 6,627 | 16,720 49 50 6,676 | 16,770
Sells ree ee ea. loi 84, 6i7 | 187, 192 20 100 | 84,637 | 187,292
@xrustaceans wee ee uae ewe 1,078 PANO) Ui bSeeycae elaine aes 1,078 2, 650
VACA TES Messe eyes ae 583 TOSI on Seed [pee tee 583 773
Other marine invertebrates... 1, 544 SLOOP ee By eecet 32 1, 844 5, 160
Plants and packages of seeds . 20,370 | 29,705 | 3,000 | 10,000 | 23,3870 | 39,705
Fossils .......- Soe 4,112 TO AAs eee ens RAE eros 4,112 10, 141
Minerals snd rocks........ -- oe 5,313 | 10, 702 140 450 5p 453 a ell a2
Ethnological specimens a NN 1, 676 1,739 210 230 1, 86 1, 969
Insects ... IN ESE ie ep ete 2, 248 4,294 500 | 2, 000 2, 748 6, 294
Diatomaceous earths .......- LE 58 - 662 25 150 3 812
otal Soles. I 5S, 260/31 GB GEO Set Oe GBM OOs | oan0o0

ADDITIONS: TO THE COLLECTIONS. 59

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION (UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM)
IN 1873.

Abbott, Chas. C.—One bottle specimens, fish, (Hybognathus osmerinus,)
from Trenton, N. J.

Addison, Mr.—Skin of plover (Charadrius Azare) from Brazil.

Agassiz, Prof. Lowis.—(See under Cambridge.)

Aiken, C. H.—A collection of birds from Colorado.

Alcorn, Hon. J. £.—One Indian pipe from Coahoma County, Miss.

Alden, George J.—Skins of blue heron (Florida cerulea) and avocet
(Recurvirostra americana) from Manatee, Fla.; one specimen (tcetal) of
opossum (Didelphys virginiana) from New Smyrna, Fla.

Allen, Prof. J. A.—(See under Washington, War Department, U. 8. A.,

Yellowstone Expedition.)

Alth, Dr. Alois.—(See under University of Krakau.)

Ames, James T.—A collection of minerals from the: Chester, Mass.,
emery-mines.

Anderson, H. G.—One box of minerals from Wisconsin.

Anderson, W.—Indian stone implements from Brownsville, Ohio.

Andrews, Prof. H. B—A meteorite from Concord, Ohio.

Armitage, J.—(See under W. F. Wheeler.)

Ashbaugh, Dr. A.—Five Indian skulis, three stone axes, three pipes,
and one stone pestle, from the West.

Atkins, C. G.—Four boxes of fresh fish for casting from Bucksport,
Me.

Austin, H. P.—Indian stone implements from Michigan.

Avery, Dr. W. H.—One skin, pigeon hawk, (Falco columbarius,) from
Greensborough, N. C.

Baird, Prof. Spencer F.—(See under Washington, Interior Department,
United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries.)

Baker, Isaac C.—One Indian stone implement from Scarborough, Me.

Ball, J. W.—One stone pestle from Ball’s Bluff, Va.

Barnum, Phineas T.—Specimens in the flesh of Malayan tapir, (Rhino-
cherus sumatranus;) Bactrian camel, (Camelus bactrianus ;) Drome-
dary, (Camelus dromedarius ;) African panther, (Felis, sp.;) mandril,
(Cynocephalus ;) rhinoceros; manatee, (Manatus americanus ;) and a
Shetland pony ten days old.

Barringer, Paul.—Nest and egg of blue yellow-backed warbler (Parula
Americana) from Mebanesville, N. C.

Batty, J. H—One mounted specimen ruffed grouse (Bonasa wmbellus)
from Bloomfield, N. Y.; two boxes of birds from New York. (See
also under Washington, Interioy Department, United States Geological
Survey.)

Belknap, Commodore G. E., United States Navy—(See under Washing-
ton, Navy Department, Bureau of Navigation.)

i

60 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Bendire, Capt. Chas., United States Cavalry.—One box of birds’ nests
and eggs, from Arizona.

Bessels, Dr. Hmil.—(See under Washington, Navy Department, Polaris
expedition.)

Bissell, Geo. R.—Specimen of hair-worm (Gordius, sp.) from Iroudale,
Mo. .

Blaine, John H.—One box of minerals from Montana.

Blossom, J. B.—One box of salmon from Bathurst, N. 8S.

Blunt, Capt. A. P., Quartermaster’s Department, United States Army.—
Head and horns of mountain sheep, (Ovis montana.)

Boardman, Geo. A.—One box of salmon from Calais, Me.; one bird-
skin.

Boisnuier, Hdward.—One box of white-fish from Sandwich, Ont.

Bonsall, J. Vincent.—One box of minerals from Rising Sun, Md.

Booth, H.—Shells from the west coast of North America.

Boyd, S. H.—Specimens of crade salt from Lincoln, Nebr.

Bradley, Prof. F. H.—(See under Washington, Interior Department,
United States Geological Survey.)

Breed, H. H.—Eggs of duck-hawk (Falco anatum) from Embarrass,
Wis.

Brendel, F.—A collection of plants from Peoria, III.

Benner, Franklin.—Skins of laughing gull (Larus atricilla) and Tern
(Sterna bairdii, n. 8.) from Portland, Me.

Brooks, T. B.—One box of minerals from Marquette, Mich.

Bryan, O. Ni—Human bones from mounds in Iowa; stone implements
from Maryland.

Cambridge, Mass., Museum of Comparative Zoology, (Prof. Louis Agas-
siz.) A series of casts of the crania of Mastodon giganteus from the
Wyman series.

Campbell, Archibald.—(See Washington, northern boundary survey.)
Carpenter, Capt. W. L.,United States Infantry.—(See under Washington,
Interior Department, United States Geological Survey.)

Case, J.—Quartz arrow-heads from Troy, Pa.

Case, R. A.—One box of birds’ eggs from North Lawrence, Kans.

Casey, T. L., jr—Collections of shells from Florida and Cuba.

Caton, Hon. J. D.—Skins of mule-deer, (Cervus macrotis ;) black-tail
deer, (Cervus Columbianus ;) and hybrid deer, from his park in Ottawa,
Il.; specimens of petrified wood from California.

Cheney, Simeon F'.—Skeleton of sea-seal (Hrignathus barbatus) from Grand
Manan, N. B.

Chicago, Academy of Sciences, Dr. J. W. Velie-—Twelve eggs of ‘‘ man-
of-war bird,” (Zachypetes aquila.)

Christ Church, New Zealand, Canterbury Museum, Dr. Julius Haast.—A
collection of bird-skins ; a collectiort of stone implements of the Moa
hunters; a collection of Dinornis bones from Kjoekken-moeddings;
complete skeletons of Dinornis giganteus and Palapteryx elephantopus,

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 61

and the leg-bones of Dinornis gracilis, Dinornis casuarius, and Dinornis
didiformis, all from New Zealand.

Clark, Dr. EH. J—One Indian stone maul.

Olark, John M.—Specimens of Indian pottery from Milledgeville, Ga.

Olarke, Stephen.—One box of minerals from Virginia.

Clements, Mr., United States surveyor-general for Utah.—One package
of ores from Utah.

Ooe, W. W.—Nest and skin of warbling fly-catcher (Vireo gilvus) from
Portland, Conn.

Cole, Seward.—One seal-gut coat from Alaska.

Coleman, Geo. S.—One specimen of clay from Kosse, Tex.

Cooper, Dr. J. G.—One box of bird-skins from California.

Cooper, W. A.—Skinus of king-bird (Ceryle alcyon) and Cassin’s fly-

- eatcher, (Tyrannus vociferans,) and eggs of Gairdner’s woodpecker,
(Picus Gairdneri,) and chestnut-backed tit, (Parus rufescens,) from
Santa Cruz, Cal.

Copley, Charles L.—Two tanks of fishes in alcohol from Tontplinevill
Staten Island, N. Y.

Coues, Dr. Elliott, United States Army.—Bird-skins from Arizona; skins,
skeletons, and skulls of mammals; birds from Fort Randall. (See also
Washington ; Department of State; Northern boundary survey.)

Oowdrey, Dr. S. G., United States Army, (through Army Medical Mu-
seum.)—Cast skin of black-snake (Bascanion constrictor) and rattles of
rattlesnake (Caudisona confluenta) from Fort Larned, Kansas.

Crawford, J. A.—Indian pottery from Davenport, Iowa.

Cushman, Doctor.—Indian stone implements from Wiscasset, Me.

Dall, Wm. H., Coast Survey U. 8. A.—Twenty-seven boxes and kegs of
general zoological and ethnological collections from the Aleutian
Islands.

Day, Mr.—Specimens of sandstone and lignite from Maryland.

Delaney, Hon. John, postmaster-general of Newfoundland.—Bones of
(Phoca, sp.) and great auk, (Alea impennis ;) two bottles specimens
of capelin (Mallotus villosus) from St. John’s, Newfoundland.

Dille, I.—Specimens of tourmaline and lignite from Washington, D.C.

Douglas, Charles.—Two specimens, in the flesh, of evening grosbeak
(Hesperiphona vespertina) from Waukegan, Il.

Hbaugh, David.—One box of minerals from Maryland.

Edmunds, M. C.—Specimens of smelt (Osmerus, sp.) from Lake Cham-
plain. :

Edwards, Vinal N.—(See under Washington ; Interior Department ; United
States Commission of Fish and Fisheries.)

Elliott, Henry W., special agent Treasury Department United States—Five
boxes of bird-skins, nests, and eggs from the Prybiloy Islands, Beh-
ring Sea.

Elliott, Capt. Jas.—One specimen dyinefish (Exocotus, sp.) from Brazil. ,

Endlich, Dr. F. M.—A collection of minerals from Europe. (See also

=

62 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS,

under Washington ; Interior Department ; United States Geological Sur-
vey.) |

Evans, W. W.—One box of pottery and silver articles from Peru.

Feuchtwanger, Dr. Louis.—One box of minerals.

Fitzhugh, D. H—Specimens of grayling (Thymallus tricolor) from Au
Sable River, Michigan.

Foreman, Mrs.—Chipped flints from Hot Springs, Arkansas.

Fortin, P—One skin cod-fish (Gadus morrhua) from Canada, (type of
Gadus ductor, Fortin.)

Frellick, Capt. John.—One specimen sea-horse (Hippocampus, sp.\ from
Saint George’s Banks.

Fuller, A. N.—Two nests and six eggs Bell’s pe catcher (Vireo Belli)
from Lawrence, Kans.

Gabb, Prof. William M.—Seven boxes general collections from the Tala-
manea expedition, Costa Rica.

Garland, William H.—A specimen in the flesh of western red-tailed
hawk (Buteo calurus) from Amherst County, Virginia.

Gatch, S. H.—One paekage of plants from Oregon.

Giles, Norwood.—One box of birds’ nests from Wilmington, N. C.

Gizer, B. F.—One Lepidopterous larva from Stoyestown, Pa.

Glover, Lieut. Russell, United States Revenue-Marine.—Fossil-shells from
vicinity of Baltimore, Md.

Goode, G. Brown.—(See under Middletown ; Museum of Middletown Uni-
versity ; also under Washington ; Interior Department ; United States
Commission of Fish and Fisheries.)

Gorman, Cook.—One box of minerals from Talladega County, Alabama.

Gray, Dr. John Edward, British Museum.—A colleetion of fishes.

Green, H. A.—One specimen of arragonite from Atco, N. J.

Green, Seth.—One box of fish from Rochester, N. Y.

Haast, Dr. Julius.—(See under Christ Church, Canterbury Museum.)

Hale, Dr. J. D.—One Indian arrow-head from Fentress County, Ten-
nessee.

Hamlin, Dr. A. C.—One specimen of meteorite from Searsmount, Me.

Hammond, Dr. John F., United States Army.—Two alleged asses’ skulls
from Texas.

Hanna, George B.—One box of minerals from North Carolina.

Hardenburgh, L. h., United States surveyor-general for California.—
Ten packages of minerals from California.

Harford, G. H.—One box of ethnological specimens from California.

Harrington, C.—One egg of blue-tailed kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis)
from Florida; one egg of Allen’s towhee, (Pipilo Allen.)

Harris, N. H.—One pox of minerals from Claiborne County, Missis-
SIppi.

Hays, W. W.—One skin of rail (Rallus Virginianus) from San Luis
Obispo, Cal.

Heaton, J. C.—One specimen of beetle from Victoria, Tex.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 63

Henshaw, H. W.—(See under Washington; War Department ; United
States Army surveys west of the one hundredth parallel.)

' Holden, Prof. William.—(See under Marietta ; Marietta College.)

Hollenbush, H. W.--One large stalactite from Crystal Cave, Berks
County, Pennsylvania.

Hoopes, William A.—Specimens of native silver from Isle Royale,
Mich.

Homer, Dr. Frederick, United States Navy.—A. branch of a tree injured
by hail.

Hough, Dr. F. B.—One box of ethnological specimens.

Howard, A. M.—Specimens of Indian pottery from New Mexico.

Hurlbut, G. H.—One skeleton of pinchaca or danta, (Tapirus pinchaque,)
one banana in alcohol from Costa Rica; two boxes of bird-skins from
Bogota.

Jewett, Col. H.—One box of ethnological specimens from Florida.

Johnston, CU. H.—One specimen of horned toad (Phrynosoma, sp.) from
Saint George, Utah.

Kelly, F. X.—One nest of tarantula spider.

Kelly, Robert.—One specimen of pyrite.

Krakau University, Dr. Alois Alth.—A series of minerals from the
Wieliezka salt-mines.

Lanman, Chas.—A collection of minerals from Virginia.

Leaming, Dr. F.—One cast of Indian stone implement from Jefferson
County, Indiana.

Lee, Mary J.—A collection of minerals from Bremond, Tex.

Leonard, H. L.—One box of land-locked salmen, (Salmo sebago,) fresh
specimens, from Lubec Pond, Maine.

Lente, W. K.—A collection of bird-skins from the West Indies.

Lockhart, W. T.—One specimen of cinnabar from Oakville, Cal.

Love, W. C.—Specimens of fossil-shells from Marlborough, Md.

Ludington, C.—Specimens of oyster (Ostrea Virginianus) from the Po-
tomae River.

Luptor, 8S. &.—A collection of minerals from West Virginia.

Lyon, Hon. Caleb.—One package of eggs.

McFarlane, R., Hudson Bay Company.—Skin of fetal eight-legged beaver
(Castor Canadensis) from Fort Simpson, Hudson Bay Territory.

Mckinley, Wiliiam.—Ancient Indian funeral-urn from Miliedgeville,
Ga.

McRae, John, Hudson Bay Company.—One skin of black marmot (Are-
tomys monax, melanistic) from Athabasca.

Mains, M. P.—One box of fossils from Bull River, 8. C.

Marietta, O., Marietta College, Prof. William Holden.—A collection of
reptiles and fishes from Hastern Ohio, (deposited.)

Marshall, U. S.—(See under W. F. Wheeler.)

Marvin, A. R.—(See under Washington, Interior Department, United
States Geological Survey.)

64 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Maynard, C. J.—Sternum of martin (Progne subis) from Massachusetts.

Meigs, Gen. M. C.—Spoons made of buffalo-horn from the Yellowstone,
one package of Indian implements from Arizona, skin and head of
mule-deer, (Cervus macrotis,) one Indian stone-chisel, a collection of cre-
taceous fossils from Heart River, Mo., a specimen of terebratula, sp.,
from Ingleton, Ala., two packages of seeds of the “sujaro,” or giant
cactus, from Arizona.

Merriam, O. Hart.—A collection of birds from Florida, six skins of pine-
creeping warblers, (Dendreca pinus,) from Florida. (See also under
Washington, Interior Department, United States Geological Survey.)

Middleton, Carman & Co.—(See under Washington, United States Com-
mission of Fish and Fisheries.)

Middletown, Conn., Museum of Middletown University, G. Brown Goode.—
A collection of fishes from the Bermuda Islands, a collection of min-
erals from Connecticut. (See also under Washington, United States
Comission of Fish and Fisheries.)

Moore, C. k.—A living specimen of salamander (Amblystoma vigrinum)
from Johnstown, Va.

Moore, Col. James M., United States Army.—Skin of puma (Felis con-
color) from Wyong Territory.

Moore, W. H.—A collection of fossils from Topeka, Kans.

Moses, F. K.—One Indian stone implement, from Bucksport, Me.

Mann, Archibald.—The jaws of giant cuttle-fish (Octopus) from New-
foundland.

Minn, Dr. O. H., United States Army.—Specimens of infusorial earth,
Fort Woodworth, D. T.

Moreno, President, (through Hon. Rumsey Wing.)—Skeleton and mounted
skin of pinchaea (Tapirus roulint) from Ecuador.

Newman, Joseph, (through Department of Agriculture.)—Arrow-heads,
from Woodlawn, Md.

Nichols, Dr. C. H., Government Asylum for the Insane—A fresh speci-
men of Huropean tame swan.

Ogden, Mr.—One bottle of insects from New Orleans.

Ogle, David G.—Minerals and ethnological specimens from Maryland.

Oudesluys, C. L.—Specimens of asbestos from Virginia and Maryland.

Owsley, Dr. J. B.—Specimen of fossil-wood from Butler County, Ohio.

Packard, Dr. A. S—(See under United States Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.)

Paine, W. W.—Sword, &ec., from the wreck of the British vessel Rose,
in the Savannah River, Ga.

Palmer, Hdward.—(See under United States Commission of Fish and
iisheries.)

Pattison, H. A.—One box of fossils from Flint River, Ala.

Patton, A.—Ethnological specimens from Indiana.

Paxton, Capt. J. W., (through J. W. Milner.)—Ethnological specimens
from Alpena, Mich.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 65

Peale, Dr. A. O.—(See under Washington, Interior Department, United
States Geological Survey.)
Peck, P. P.—¥ossil shark’s teeth from Richmond, Va.
Peelor, David.—Specimens of stickle-back (Gasterosteus, sp.) from Johns-
town, Pa.
Perrine, T. M.—Photographs and casts of Indian implements.
Pickett, John T.—Cast of fossil (Cucullea gigantea) from the Hocene of
Montgomery County, Ala.
Pike, Capt. Nicholas, United States coasul.—A collection of shells from
Mauritius.
Plummer, EH. J.—Specimens of silver ores from California.
Poey, Prof. Felipe, University of Havana.—One keg of alcoholic tishes
and one box of skeletons of fishes from Cuba.
Powell, Samuel.One specimen of file-fish (Monacauthus setifer) and
other fishes, and eggs of Raia, from Narragansett Bay.
Powell, Maj. J. W.—(See under Washington, Interior Department, Smith-
sonian Institution.)
Putnam, J. D.—One box of insects from Iowa.
Quarles, B. M. pe Peciics of calcite from Healing Springs, Bath
County, Va.
Ray, G. H.—A collection of minerals from Arkansas.
Reeder, H. J.—Specimens of fish (Percopsis guttatus) from vicinity of
Easton, Pa.
Reese, J. W.—Specimens of bark from Visalia, Cal.
Khees, W. J.—Specimens of lignite from Fourteenth-street road, Wash-
ington.
fthoads, Dr. #.—Two specimens of fish (Dorosonia cepedianwn) from
Shawneetown, Ill.
Rhoads, Thomas.—One box of ethnological specimens from Ohio; one
skin of Savannah sparrow (Passerculus savanna) from Florida.
Ridgway, Robert.—A collection of birds and a specimen of mole (Sealops
argentatus) from Mount Carmel, Ill.; specimens of Dermestes, sp.
Rinker, James T.—One insect.
Robertson, M. B.—One box of ores from Lynchburgh, Va.
Robertson, &. S.—One box of Indian bones from mounds in Fort Wayne,
Ind.
Rockwell, H. H.—Specimens of vermiculite from Millbury, Mass.
Rothrock, Dr. J. T.—(See under Washington, War Department, United
States Army surveys west of the one hundredth parallel.)
Royal College of Surgeons, London, England.—A mounted skeleton of
jackal (Canis aureus.)
Rusk, Hon. T. M.—One box of minerals from Virginia.
Rutter, H.—One box of fish from Fredericton, N. B.
Saint Paul, Minn., Academy of Natural Science.—Eggs of marbled god-
wit (Limosa fedoa) from Saint Paul.
D8

66 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Salisbury Musewn, Salisbury, England. W. Blackmore.—Four boomerangs
from Australia.

Sanborn, J. K.—Minerals from Vermont.

Sarg, #.—One skin of Honduras turkey (Meleagris ocellata) from Hon-
duras.
Scammon, Capt. C. M., United States Revenue Marine.—Seven boxes of

cetacean skeletons from the Pacific.

Schlottmann, Dr. A.—One package of insects from Fayette County,
Texas.

Schlienann, Dr. Henry.—A plaster-cast of Pheebus Apollo.

Schuermann, Carl W.—Larva of hickory-moth (Ceratocampa imperialkis)
from Fairtax, Va.

Schumacher, Paul.—Ethnological collections from the Kjoekken Moed-
dings in Oregon. ;

Seyboth, Robert, United States Signal Service, (through United States
Signal Office.)—One specimen of Bohemian wax-wing (Ampelis gar-
rulws) in the flesh from Pike’s Peak.

Shepard, Prof. C. U.u—One box of minerals.

Skillings, Robert F.—Indian stone implements from Peak’s Island, Me.

Slamm, Lieut. J. A., United States Revenue Marine.—Collection from
shell-heaps, Rogue’s Island.

Smith, [saac D.—Specimens of Tarantula and nest from Arizona.

Sinith, S. W.—Specimens of sandstone frgm Brookville, Pa.

Smith, W. H.—Specimens of mica from Alabama.

‘Snow, A L.—Indian bones from caves in Hastern Tennessee and West
Virginia. .

Soriano, M. S.—A series of bismuth ores from San Luis Potosi.

Southwell, J. H.—A collection of arrow-heads from Port Byron, IIL.

Spangler, George.—Three boxes of minerals, fossils, and Indian stone
implements from Madison, Ind. Four specimens of shovel-nose stur-
geon (Polyodon foliwm) from the Ohio River.

Spencer, Charles W.—One box of birds’ eggs.

Stanley, Col. D. S., United States Army.—A living specimen of kangaroo-
rat (Dipodomys ordii) from the mouth of Powder River. (See also
under Washington, War Department, Yellowstone expedition.)

Stevenson, James.—One skin of Neosorex from Mount Elbert, Colo.

Stille, Caroline B.—A. specimen, in the flesh, of cliff-swallow (Hirundo
lunifrons) from Washington, D. C.

Stone, Livingston.—(See under United States Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.)

Stuart, James.——One bottle of alcoholic orthoptera from Winnipeg,
British America.

Sunichrast, Prof. F.—One skeleton of Baird’s tapir, (Hlasmognathus
Bairdit,) one box of reptiles, and two boxes of skins and skeletons of
mammals from Tehuantepec.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 67

Swan, James G.—One box of ethnological specimens from Port Town-
send, Wash. Terr.

Taylor, Charles M.—One box of minerals from West Virginia; one per-
torated stone disk.

Thayer, Abbot H.—One skin of Traill’s fly-catcher (Himpidonax trailt?)
from Brooklyn, N. Y.

Thompson, A. H.—(See under Washington, Interior Departnent, Survey
of the Colorado.) sj.

Toner, Dr. J. M.—Specimen of intestinal worm.

Townsend, J. L.—One skin of green finch (Pipilo chlorura) from Salt
Lake City.

Trefethen, W. S., G@ Oo.—(See under United States Conmission of Bish
and Fisheries.)

Turner, Dr. S. S.—One specimen, in the flesh, of American magpie
(Pica hudsonica) from Dakota.

Turner, Samuel.—A deformed head of fox squirrel (Scirus ludovici-
anus) from Mount Carmel, Ill.

Velie, Dr. J. W.—(See under Chicago Academy of Sciences.)

Verrill, Prof. A. H.—(See under Washington, literior Department, United
States Commission of Fish and Fisheries.)

Vetromile, Rev. Hugene.—A collection of Indian stone implements from
Maine and New Brunswick, (deposited.)

Ward, Prof. H. A.—One skeleton of moose, (Alce Americanus.)

Washington, D. C.:

Department of State, U. 8. A., United States survey of the honhee
boundary, (Hon. Archibald Carpal! commissioner. )—Zoological,
botanical, and ethnological collections, made by Dr. Hiliot Coues,
naturalist of the expedition.

Treasury Department, U. S. A.—(See under the name of H. W. Hlliott.)

United States Revenue Marine.—(See elsewhere, under the names
of Capt. C. M. Scammon, Lieut. Russell Glover, and Lieut. J.
A. Slamm.)

War Department, U.S. A.:

United States Army.—(See under the names of Gen. M. C. Meigs,
Col. D. S. Stanley, Col. James M. Moore, Capt. A. P. Blunt,
Capt. Charles Bendire, Capt. W. L. Carpenter.)

Surgeon-General’s Office: United States Army Medical Museum;
(Dr. G. A. Otis in charge of division.)—Two Indian jars and
one arrow-head from Florida; one Indian spear-head from
Madison Barracks, N. Y. (See also under the names of
Drs. J. F. Hammond, James F. Weeds, Elliott Coues, C. E.
Munn, S. G. Cowdrey, and H. C. Yarrow, medical ofiicers,
United States Army.)

Surveys west of the one hundredth meridian, (Lieut. G. M. Wheeler
in charge.)—General zoological and botanical collections,

68 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

made by Dr. H. C. Yarrow, Mr. H. W. Henshaw, and Dr. J.
T. Rothrock.)

Engineer and Quartermaster’s Department : Yellowstone Hxpedi-
tion, (Col. D. S. Stanley in charge.)—Eighteen boxes general
zoological, botanical, and geological collections, made by
Prof. J. AL Allen.

Signal Service, U. S. A.—(See under the name of Sergeant Robert
Seyboth.)

Navy Department, U. 8. A.: Bureau of Navigation, (Commodore Dan-
iel Ammen.)—Specimens of deep-sea dredgings and of water from
off the coast of California, United States steamer Tuscarora,
Commander G. Belknap.

Polaris Expedition, (Captain C. F. Hall.)\—Zoological and geo-
logical collections from Greenland, made by Dr. Emil Bessels.

Interior Department, U. 8. A.—Specimens of minerals from Cali-
fornia.

General Land-Office—Iiron pipe from Cherokee County, North
Carolina. (See also under the names of Surveyors-General
Clements, L. k. Hardenburgh, and John Wasson.)

United States Geological Survey of the Territories, (Prof. F. Vv.
Hayden in charge.)—Twenty boxes general zoological and
geological collections from Wyoming, Utal, and Montana,
made by Dr. A. C. Peale, Prof. F. H. Bradley, and C. H. Mer-
riam ; thirty boxes from Colorado, by Dr. A. C. Peale, Dr. F
M. Endlich, A. KR. Marvin, J. H. Batty, and Capt. W. L. Car
penter.

United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, (Prof. S. F.
Baird commissioner.)—Sixty boxes general zoological col-
lections from Casco Bay, Me., and vicinity, by Prof. A. H.
Verrill, G. Brown Goode, and Hdward Palmer; nineteen
boxes of fish, &c., from the great lakes and the Ohio River,
collected by J. W. Milner ; five boxes of fish from the Sacra-
mento River, collected by Livingston Stone ; dredgings from
the coast of New England, United States steamer Bache, by
Proj. A. 8. Packard ; nine boxes of fishes from Wood’s Hole,
Mass., collected by Vinal N. Edwards; three boxes of fish
from Norfolk, Va., collected by W. H. Sibley; specimens of
groper (Promicrops guasa) from Florida, and of turbot, (Ahom-
bus maximus,) brill, (Rhombus levis,) and sole, (Solea vul-
garis,) from England, from Middleton, Carman & Co. ; model
of fishing-boat (dory) from Portland, Me.

Smithsonian Institution. Survey of the Colorado, (Maj. J. W.
Powell in charge.)—Seventeen boxes of ethnological and
geological collections from Southern Utah, made by Maj. J
W. Powell and A. H. Thompson.

Department of Agriculture, (Hon. Frederick Watts, Commis

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. og

sioner.)—A collection of African implements; a fresh speci-
men of lizard from South America; one specimen of arrago-
nite from Suisun, Cal.; a collection of arrow-heads trom
Charleston, S. C. (See elsewhere under other entries.)
Wasson, John, United States surveyor-general for Arizonad.—Six pack-
ages of ores from Arizona.
Wevb, John S.—One box of shells, minerals, and fossils from Virginia ;
fangs of banded rattlesnake (Caudisona horrida) from Kent’s Mill, Va.
Webber, Mrs. F. P., (through Agricultural Department.) One jar of
alcoholic reptiles from Marietta, Ga.
Weber, H.—Specimens of minerals.
Webster, T. Si—Two white eggs of blue-bird (seat sialis) from Troy,
N.Y.
Weeds, Dr. James F., United States Army.—A collection of lepidoptera
from Fort Randall, Dakota.
Wellborne, W. #.—A collection of minerals from Forest City, Ark.
Wheeler, Liewt. G. M., United States Army.—(See under Washington,
War Department, U. S. A.)
Wheeler, W. F., United States marshal, and J. Armitage.—One skin of
mountain sheep, (Ovis montana.)
White, ¥. 7.—Minerals from Weldon, N. C.
White, D. Morgan.—Specimens of bitumen from West Virginia.
Wing, Hon. Rumsey.—Specimens from Ecuador.
Wingard, S. C.—Seven specimens of *“showtl” (Aplodontia leporina)
from Olympia, Wash. Ter.’
Wood, &. J.—Specimens of copper ore from La Grange, Ga.
Woodman, H. T.—One barrel of oolite from Key West, Fla.
Worth, H. M.—Three bullets from Braddock’s battle-ground, ene,
County, Pa.
Yarrow, Dr. H. C., United States Army.—Three boxes of fish, and a col-
lection of shells, fossil and recent, from Fort Macon, N. C.; Egyptian
_ Signet-ring ; a necklace of sea-shells from Fillmore, Utah. (See also
under Washington, War Department, Surveys west of the one hundredth
parallel.)
White, Mrs.—Specimens birds’ eggs from Mebanesville, N. C.
Whitehand, Kk. A.—One skin of boa, from South America.
Whitman, G. P.—One box of fish from Rockport, Mass.
Witter, D. R.—One box ethnological specimens from Mansfield, Pa,
Williams, H.C.—Indian arrow-heads from Fairfax County, Va.
Winans, James.—One specimen insect in alcohol from Xenia, Ohio.

LIST OF MINERALS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1873.

A lbite.
Allanite.
Allophanite.
Alum and var.
Amalgam.
Amber.
Amphibole and
var.
Analcite,
Anatase.
Andalusite.
Aneglesite.
Anhydrite.
Anorthite.
Anthophyllite.
Antimony.
Apatite.
Apophyllite.
Aragonite.
Argentite.
Areguerite.
Arsenic.
Arsenopyrite.
Atacamite.
Aurichailcite.
Azurite.
Barite.
Baritocalcite.
Beryl.
Biotite.
Bismuth.
Bitumen.
Boracite.
Borax.
Bromyrite.
Brookite.

By Dr. F. M. ENDnEICH.

Brueite.
Cacoxene.
Calamine.
Calcite.
Cancrinite.
Carpholite.
Cassiterite.
Celestite.
Cerite.
Cerusite.
Cervantite.
Chabazite.
Chalcanthite.
Chaleocite.
Chaleodite.
Chalcopyrite.
Chlorastrolite.
Chlorite.
Chloritoid.
Chondrodite.
Chromite.
Chrysoberyl.
Chrysocolla.
Chrysolite.
Cinnabarite.
Clinochlorite.
Clintonite.
Cobaltite.
Columbite.
Copiapite.
Copper.
Copperasite.
Coquimbite.
Corundum.
Cryolite

Cryptomorphite.

Cuprite.

’Danburite.

Datholite.
Deweylite.
Diamond.
Diallogite.
Diasporite.
Dolomite.
Domeykite.
Embolite.
Enstatite.
Hpidote.
Epsomite.
Krubescite.
Krythrite.
Euchroite.
Kuphyllite.
BKuxenite.
Fergusonite.
Fluorite.
Forsterite,
Franklinite.
Gadolinite.
Galenite.

Garnet and var.

Gehlenite.
Geyserite.
Gibbsite.
Glauberite.
Gold.
Gothite.
Graphite.
Greenockite.
Gypsum.
Halite.
Harmotome.

Hauerite.
Hausmannite.
Hauijnite.
Helvinite.
Hematite and
Var.
Hessite.
Heulandite.
Hydromagnesite.
Hydrotaleite.
Hypersthene.
Idoerase.
Ilmenite.
lodyrite.
Tolite.
Tron, (meteoric.)
Iserite.
Jamesonite.
a.erareyrite.
Fermesite.
kKerolite.
Kyanite.
Labradorite.
Lanarkite.
Lapis lazuli.
Laumontite.
Lazulite.
Leonhardite.
Lepidolite.
Leucite.
Liebethenite.
Limonite.
Linneite.
Liroconite.
Magnesite.
Magnetite.

LIST OF MINERALS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Malachite.
Manganite.
Margarite.
Meerschaum.
Meionite.
Melaconite.
Millerite.
Mimetene.

Mineral coal and

VON.
Molybdenite.

var.
Natrolite.
Nephelite.
Nitre.
Oligoclase.
Olivenite.
Opal and var.
Orpiment.
Orthoelase.
Ozocerite.
Pectolite.

Museovite and

Peridot and war. Sassolite.

Pharmacoside- Scapolite.
rite. Scheeletine.
Phlogopite. Scheelite.
Pickeringite. Schreibersite.
Picrophylite. Scorodite.
Pitehblende. Serpentine.
Polybasite. Sillimanite.
Prehnite. Silver.
Psilomelane. Smaltite.
Pyrargyrite. Smithsonite.
Pyrite. Spinel and var.
Pyrolusite. Spodumene.
Pyromorphite. Stannite.
Pyroxene and var.Staurolite.
Pyrrhotite. Stephanite.
Quartz and var. Stercorite.
Quicksilver. Stibnite.
Realgarite. Stilbite.
Retinite. Strontianite.
Rhodonite. Struvite.
Rutile. Sulphur.

Sal ammoniac. Sylvite.

Tachydrite.
Tale.
Tennantite.
Tetrahedrite.
Thomsonite.
Titanite.
Topaz.
Tourmaline.
Trona.
Turquois.
Vivianite.
Wad.
Wavellite.
Whitneyite.
Willemite.
Witherite.
Wolframite.
Wollastonite.
Wultenite.
Zincite.
Zircon.
Zoisite.

| LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Table showing the statistics of the exchanges in 1873.

3 “4 gf g
& RS S 543 a
Ho = 2 wo as
i) SH SH ©)
Agent and count Fa ans soa encoun pace ssact es
gent and country. B g FS 20 H 442 Re 5
QH 2 os} 2 os qe
SL otis eg | 4B.) ee
5 =) 5 Bo om
A A ao} E
ROYAL SWEDISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCEs, Stockholin:
Sweden access cee cee te Oe ee eee eae eee Rene 30 45 3 29 710

ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF Norway, Christiania:
EOE W, BY ioc saseieie Notes tate eie ete st aa RUNS LG NR A at ae et

* ROYAL DANISH SOCIETY OF SCIENCES, Copenhagen :
Henmarlgandylcelan dyes eee eae eee eee eee eee

L. WATKINS & Co., Saint Petersburg:
PRUUS STEYR CNUs Ia At A Ao 2 Ae eR Ta

FREDERICK MULLER, Amsterdam:
TEI ENNG Le cobouocua beau uobabe Undo deDEdobE SoocooREEiaoes
IBeloiumss assesses sess Cea ee Me eee Geieieniens

Dr. FELIX FLUGEL, Leipsic:
GOT Ia ay es spapne teeters Systee oro cuban ieee ora ay ate Fai el Esra
SwaAezerlan d'-.< fee sees Mee eeemel eta ee loan eee somos

GUSTAVE BOSsSANGE, Paris :
dE EOL ELS le ee A eh ON as Ie en he a lal.
PANG TOr Sie wees ike Yes Da el etal ti Werte am Na

REALE ISTITUTO LOMBARDI DI SCIENZE E LETTERE, Milan :
Ga yc a re ae eel in ee Reet ae ER ps LC Cae ah ars

RoyaL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Lisbon:
JeWeNNe SL Sas SouGno oe dace ccaesoosesanaoboadnbasasaneacde

Roya ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF MADRID:
PS] Oe TONES Bess Gee iee aA Unie seine PES Sr crs oe mins oem ie

WILLIAM WESLEY, London :
GreateBritain ian duireland ecu eee eee ens eee anlee

Buenos Ayres ....-..-.- Hin 7d aye joes lapels eich seitcicis ek eee eee
a Be Wev Uae a SI ase A realy ry meiner es dea att MAD RS
Cp] 63) fess en ses ce al ee mo pale mca AL See Dy | PO NI eB
Government exchanges to German Empire, Prussia, Bavaria,
Wirtemberg, Baden, Austria, Switzerland, Greece, Norway,
Denmark, Holland, Belgium, France, Italy, England, Russia,
IEEE LE tyonboy Olle seneparicecceadasne Gaceedsousueascoulocs

Grand total 22sae ae seees cae se eee ctois oe Scorer ee a nee

28 110 6 45 | 1,430
35 50/ 9 15 480
100| 260] 8 60 | 1,990
60 180 |= 8 60 | 1,920
120| 2290/5 35| 1,216
180°} °° 400° | ae ee
590| 900] 47] 3501] 11,200
ao) iol) 2 30 960
660] 10201. 51| 340+]. 12,160
250| 270| 16{/ 120] 3,840
3 6) 2 7 210
160| 180] 8 60 | 1,920
20 Supfimenoells > 15 430
12 5Oeleaat 28 740
350 | 470) 34| > 255) eco
3 Shea i 210

4 iy | soe 1B 400

3 On eee 7 210

6 is 3 18 540

Q mall GF 6 120

4 Pon 7 210
re eae ae 38 230] 7,300
i856 | 2)735 |) 196 | ea ave | 4a O36

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

13

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe in 1872 and 1873 for distri-
bution in America.

Address. 1872.

ALBANY, N. Y.

Albany Institute: ..-...-.--.....--.- 20
Dudley Observatory.---. .----- ------ | 36
Medical Society of the State of New
WOK. cocsosccse eeeeeause Seesou seee 1
New York State Agricultural Society} 25
New York State Cabinet of Natural
TEUIRMIOIAT <soncmsseen ugdsogoneaesiacn 14
New York State Library ...---.----- 35
New York State University.....--.- 4
Superintendent of Insurance.--.--.--|------
‘Hon. Francis C. Barlow ..-.--.------- 1
iIProfdames) Halle 25-2. 2- o-s-ie - 20
TM IR. OMG et eee onaconneesooRgD5 1
Prof.iG. W. Hough..........-..--=-- -|------
ChBIO1Callaghan- . 7. 25--<-2-.2----- 1
ALFRED CENTRE, N. Y.
Observatory...-..- coepececouetanonbe 2
ALLEGHENY, PA.
Allegheny Observatory...--.-..--..- 4
AMHERST, MASS.
Agricultural College .........--.---- 1
Aamnerst College .\/- |) 22-22 cnc- =~ 1
Geological Survey of Massachuseits. 1
izinoy Jel dls Olen nessa nn seseals see saes| | coseeo
PROD ekes PIMETSON m= clcics sees ees if
iRromO soa shepard secemecses oes. |-siae
Profeh eine kerman! tease alps 1
ANNAPOLIS, MD.
Saint John’s College...-......--..--.|------
SUES IGN yeaa deeme aeeceH ee aseseese|| ssoous
United States Naval Academy ...---. 2
_ ANN ARBOR, MICH.
Geological Survey of Michigan...--.|-.--.-
WSELVALORYE wesc ae tael eno cicicmisiore 5
University of Michigan............-- 1
DocvouPRoninee reset seereeerse eee 2
PTOL ICH NWiAUSOD! =\--+ cineca essen = 2
Prot Aca Wane he lesa smmisenicisclsotoene 6
APPLETON, WIS.
Lawrence University...-...-----.--- Ae eae
ARMSTRONG, IND. T.
Ar mastrone PA cagemiy +3). nies cinlelni|-\e\se ==
ASHLAND, KY.
Agricultural and Mechanical College. tal
ATHENS, ILL.
Protege eal lee ras tae eee com [Semele
ATHENS, OHIO.
OhiogWUmiversityenccesscciecwece eee 1
AUGUSTA, ME.
Commissioner of Fisheries .....----- 2
SUELS IBID ihAys scab doabosessee ceadeallssooen
Jel, VEN KED KES GeogonnoocdessooKue 1

AUSTIN, TEX.

Institution for the Deaf and Dumb
Sais JOT enAy ceo oood uepboEss soomeal Genego

1873.

Wor

rw)

|| State Library

|| Territorial Agricultural Society

‘| Massachusetts Historical Socicty- ---

Address,

1873.

BALDWIN CITY, KANS.

Baker University
BALTIMORE, MD.

American Journal of Dental Science.
College of Pharmacy........-.-.-----
Mayor of Baltimore.....-...---.--.-
Maryland Academy of Science...--.
Maryland Historical Society...-..--. 4
Marylan dim stitutesss.. seas) 1
Mercantile Library.-....------------

Peabody Institutesscs se -- 5-1 <a---- 2
State Avricultural Society 1
University of Maryland........-.-..
DBA eCy WO PeR Zs oSo se bsssacdcaess
Lawrence B. Thomas..-..----------- 1
PRs Uhler. es) ces sees. yee ee 1

BARNET, VT.

Vermont Historical and Antiquarian
Sucienyereee-soaece scna= Fas eet Be

BATON ROUGE, LA.

Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.-|----z-

State University

| Proterlerrclen sco ols gaa 1

BELLEVILLE, CANADA.
W.d:Palmer-..-- EE TO 1
BLOOMINGTON, ILL.

Illinois Natural History Society. --.. 1
BLOOMINGTON, IND.

Indiana University.........---....--

BOISE CITY, IDAHO.

BONHAM, TEX.

State Geological Survey

BOSTON, MASS.

American Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences=-2--- a al Pai te catia oh ee tye ane
American Christian Examiner: ..-.-.-
American Social Science Association.
American Statistical Association ---.
American Unitarian Association .--
Association for Improving the Condi-
TionsotethewLocre +o scee ens oes
Board of Education
Board of State Charities
Boston Athenzum
Boston Society of Natural History...
Bowditelhedeibrarye ee ice ee aise arena 2
Bureau of Statistics of Labor
Christian Register Association ..-.-. 2
CitygHospitallececteer ees seer 1
Commissioner of Insurance. --..-.---- Weer
Day School for the Deaf and Dumb..-|.-----
Good Health Journal ‘
Gynecological Society

Massachusetts Asylum for the Blina
Massachusetts College of Pharmacy

00 OOS et et

=

Bea Oe er oeEowURe

(4

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Lurope, §¢.—Continued.

Address. 1872.
Boston, Mass.—Continued.
Tee Cau Institute of Technol-
ogy Bodo stectoooosoosme cu oUpodouous|soo000e
Mayor of the city of Boston ......--..|..---
WIGAN GAN CHEN) coocas tosacceeccosaslodsoos
Mercantile litbnanyaeacas -eeseincrs fee) |ecertal-
New England Historic Genealogical
Society so neede sad oreacoseasendecces 3
North American Review -.----------- 4
Perkins’s Institution for the Blind -- 2
Public Library of the City .-...---.- 14
State Board of Agriculture....--..-.. 11
Sanne Joan ay sccascbucosooosoduadaG] 7
Dye, DUI IBEW Eeaccdbocuespasauuoe. 1
IBlyeAGl IBWWORES oa556e50ds0500 deeoas||5o5000
Drs Dawid Wi Cheeverr ee. . senses eset
PNivaniO@lankemeecncee cer eee aoe eee
Ola ish OllhnakG) Se esserooeoodnodees seasons 3
[Ores Seromnel MOOG Soe obobGoookadudeesallocooon
Mrs HOW eye see etstanncice eiselemerniaeiee il
PSG pHOWwem assce eee eeCneer 1
Profil Sterky, ELUM bas seeaaeiaeee sree esc
JN nS wis) J8WyEhIE SoS Soc pap Ddo gues sesaue 1
CM MNORGOMe =a sem eemeesiee see ans a
IDE MoO WOWiacas abo uasosedouoduedes sessed
Dey Alyse (Oredhwenysbaoscosos cedocose 1
Protessom Pickering) - 5. see ae a= 1
TAU InE dp MOC KewiellS a seereyeeletel= rele eee 5
JETRO WN IBS INOS) GooonoonesasseusE> 1
Uo SHINTO SopSKbos poodbe secaaeaden 2
S186, Stomelélein, .cocoecocosepanencaaues 5
IDYB, Elo 18, SHHOWeIes csncodcancaud boo boae J
TES Wis WWiakOD Sefer ee neieen tse 1
GUnos; ISL, WY OlDsosccsooboasouneesedec 1
dobertiCaWanGhnropeeeneeeteeierecne 1
Wo Os Wiyaovdllvealexe Beco eee cheno ss sllecosac
BRATTLEBOROUGH, VT.
State Lunatic Asylum............--- 1
BROOKLINE, MASS.
Wh eod lym ant se iervetarereetaiererterere 3
BROOKLYN, N. Y.
King’s County Medical Society PIOSAE HSE
Long Island Historical Society ....-- 2
Mercantile Libr ary Association ..22.]....--
Statistical Society of Brouklye SAS 827
Thonras Bain dees erterpeperettereisietsis er tesa
BRUNSWICK, ME.
Bowdoin College .---...-.....-)..25- 3
MistGnical\SocieLy ance ieee ene sae 4
Prof,)P: Al Chadbourne ei ejpi- i -7- 1
BUFFALO, N. Y.
Buffalo Historical Society ..-..--.--. Q
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences: -|..----
Medical and Surgical Journal ....---. 1
Society of N: atural Histor Viseinvsieisenee 1
BURLINGTON, IOWA.
Iowa Historical and Genealogical
TMStitmbois oo sae sos eee sere 1
BURLINGTON, N. J.
MWA GUBinney ceose os. oe oe eee 5
PACH DES UEOM ee eristal-jeietelsisicyalaleieleieioiete 1
BURLINGTON, VI.
Orleans County Society of Natural
SCIEN COS see eee eS eye seh Plea
University of Vermont......-..-.-.. 3

1873.

Bp Hwee

nw

—
HORE ER OUdW

WwW Oe

Roe

| University of Virginia

Address.

CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

Cloverden Observatory ...-----.-----
Dana Librar
leben! COU. cosecoanaosadabeace
Harvard College Observatory
Herbarium of Harvard College
Museum of Comparative Zoology. --.
Philosophical Soeciety...--....--.- pate
Alexander Agassiz
Prof. L. Agassiz
Dr. T. A. Allen
io Cr ANMUINOMNY 5 ooo nono co sedcosnaease
E. Bicknell
CharlessBiryantheseesmeneeceeste see
IER Nig IMO REles comanscaseasaaccruTe
Prof. Asa Gray
Dr. H. Hagen
Dr. T. Lyman
Dr. G. A. Maack
Prorjwles Marcoubensseisessee seers
Dr. Albert Ordway
IEVROINEINOE JB}. IEA) ooaanbdascodeance
Prof. John B. Perry
1G, 181) Cle) Roba co oGdobasodseesaes
Prof. R. Pumpelly
Dr. Steindachner
Sereno Watson
BRO dig JOS Wylmhnaeyrs aesesedasos osu
Prof. J. Winlock
Prof. Jeffries Wyman

CARLISLE, PA.

Dickinson College. .....-....--.--.--

' Society of Literature.-.---....-..---

CARSON CITY, NEV.
Statewluibramryss sees octets serene
CAVE SPRING, GA.
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb...
CEDAR SPRING, 5. C.
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb --
CENTRAL CITY, COLO.

Miners and Mechanics’ Institute. - -.
CHAPEL HILL, N. C.
University of North Carolina...-...-.-
CHAPPELL HILL, TEX.

Soulé University ..-..--..--.0222220:
CHARLESTON, S. C.
Charleston Library Society.----.-....
Eliott Society of Natural History --
South Carolina Historical Society...
Wife IDESMUESWIRS cas bonbboosasssodcses

CHARLESTON, N. H.
Samuel Webber

CHARLESTON, W. VA.
Stabewuibranyeeeareccecseee mecca

CHARLOTTE, N. C.
Teoh I Dey DUNE aaa a6 bosnadasaadencen

CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA.

Prof. J. W. Mallett

1872. | 1873.

wecoce

=

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES,

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, §¢c.—Continued.

Cc)

Address.

CHEYENNE, WYO.

Territorial Library

CHICAGO, ILL.

Chicago Academy of Science.--...--.
Chicago Astronomical Society
Chicago Boardiot Dradel soe e aan
Chicago College of Pharmacy
Chicago Historical Society
Chicago Medical Times
Dearborn Observator V
Mayor of the city of Chicago
J2MOli@ ILM ANA ~esoeos ceoneus aoauoasee
State Natural History Society. -.-..---
Young Men’s Association Library -

TBC, IBY IB eCOVe) eae am ete ee an
Prof. T. H. Safford
Dr. William Stimpsen
_ J.Q. A. Warren

CINCINNATI, OHIO.

Academy of Medicine
Astronomical Observatory
Astronomical Society
College of Pharmacy
Dental Register
Historical and Philosophical Society -
Mechanics’ Institute. --...--.-22.2-.
Mercantile Library Association..-..-.
IPMIDING IMEI Teodaosocodessesosse oak
Western Academy of Natural Sci-

CLIFTON, CANADA.
United States Consulate............-.
CLINTON, N. Y.

iElamnlitoniCollegenteccecess sass se-
Litchficld Observatory of Hamilton
Coles Ds EGY GSE UNS erawitis BOSS

COALBURGH, W. VA.
W. H. Edwards

COLUMBIA, MO.

Agricultural College
Geological Survey ‘of Missouri
Univer sibyotaaissounieeee ese ese
DriGy Ci Swallow. {2-e3e. Loe sss.

COLUMBIA, PA.
Profs staldemaneeseoeeeesemece a
COLUMBIA, §. C.
University of South Carolina......-.

South Carolina College
State Library

COLUMBUS, OHIO,

iBurcaukot Statistics eee see
Geological Survey of Ohio.........-.
Tustitnution tor the Deat and Dumb..

Ohio State Board of Agriculture.....
Slarbep len rar yas ee einen
roils. Wesqueremx: 99) oooh e see oe
Gov. E. F. Noyes
W.S. Sulliv aa

CONCORD, N. H.

New Hampshire Historical Socicty..

1873.

op)
rt 0

a

a
RPOoOrROCAWWwwW

rw)

A. ddress.

1872.

1873.

Concorp, N. H.—Continued.

New Esnpsiire State Lunatic ae
Taare eee ;
State Library. ane el ee a Ai ea

a

COUNCIL BLUFFS, IOWA.
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb...
CROW WING, MINN.

Rev Hrancis(Pierziys-sess eee ee ee
DANVILLE, KY.
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb..-
DANVILLE, PA.

Northern Hospital for the Tusane: is
DECORAH, IOWA.

Norwegian Lutheran College..-.--.-.
Prof. L. Larsen

DELAWARE OHIO.
Wesleyan University...-..--.2-22.2:
DELAVAN, WIS.

Institution for the Deaf and Dumb...

DENVER, COLO.

Territorial Mibrary -s<i <2 ese e\lan 5
Gov. W. Gilpin

DES MOINES, IOWA.

Governor of the State of Iowa
State Library

DETROIT, MICH.

Historical Society of Michigan
Michigan State Agricultural Society.
Public Library
Review of Medicine and Pharmacy ..
Orlando B. Wheeler

DORCHESTER, MASS.

Dr. Edward Jarvis

DOVER, DEL,

State Library

DU LUTH, WIS.

Scandinavian Library

EASTON, PA.

Iafayette College... - o-. ocioe enna:
Northwestern University
Prot. J. H. Coffin
Prof. T. C. Porter

ELMIRA, N. Y.

Elmira Academy of Sciences

EVANSTON, ILL.
‘DreienryepanmMi steremeserseececeee
Prof. Oliver Marcy

by

ao

dist

Hoe

76

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, §-c.—Continued.

Address.

1872

1873.

FARIBAULT, MINN.
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb..
FARMINGTON, CONN.
dwardeNorton\ease-eeeesteeeeeee ree
FLINT, MICH.

Institutien for the Deaf and Dumb. -

FORT EDWARD, N. Y.
Reva GaOlnisteadwesasspeeeeeecee
FORT ERIE, CANADA.
United States Consulate...........-.
FORT RANDALL, DAK.
IDG ISMN Oy§ COMES cao dododooossdeo dace
FOUNTAINDALE, ILL.
MASHBSD Dstt Gee ee eaer nee
TRANKFORT, KY.
Geological Survey of Kentucky....-.

Public Library
State Library

FREDERICK CITY, MD.
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. -
FREDERICTON, NEW BRUNSWICK.
Legislative Library
University of New Brunswick

Prof. L. W. Bailey
Hons iW bry den Sacks. secre eee

FULTON, MO.

Institution for the Deaf and Dumb..
GALESBURGH, ILL.
Lombard University ----.-------.---
GALESVILLE, WIS.
Galesville University........-...-.--
GAMBIER, OHIO.
I<enyoniColleseenescn--seeeaeeee er
GENEVA, N. Y.

APRON Jab JOy SMO Condcondaaseoceaenee

GEORGETOWN, D. C.

Georgetown College
DreArthur Ss chottess=ceeeceeeeeeeeee

GEORGETOWN, PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.

United States Consulate.............
: GLOUCESTER, N. J

Colgan shinyateee a eesneciene cee ser

GREENCASTLE, IND.

Indiana Asbury University........-.

vw

— CO

to

|| Madison University

Rev. S. T. Rand

| State Library

Address.

HALIFAX, NOVA SCOTIA.

Nova Scotian Institute of Natural
Sciences

Lieut. Gen. Sir Hastings Doy eae
T. Matthew Jones

HAMILTON, CANADA.

| United States Consulate............-

HAMILTON, N. Y.
HAMPDEN-SYDNEY, VA.
Hampden-Sydney College ...-.--....

HANOVER, N. H.

HANTSPORT, NOVA SCOTIA.
HARRISBURGH, PA.
Medical Society of the State of Penn-

Spl wala see ae ae Mie en eto
State Agricultural Society..--..-.-.-

State Lunatic Hospital
HARTFORD, CONN.

Connecticut Hospital for Insane
Historical Society of Connecticut. -..
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb ..
State Agricultural Society........--.
State Library
Rriniby Covese pies sooo eee
Young Men’s Institute

HELENA, MONT.
Historical Society of Montana. -.-...-

HILLSBOROUGH, N. C.
Rew. MEAN Cuntisseenesceeeneecccece

HOLLY GROVE, ARK.
Literary Distitute

HOT SPRINGS, ARK.
Dr. Edw. Foreman

HOULTON, ME.
Forest Club

HUDSON, OHIO. .
Western Reserve College.........--.

HYAuTSVILLE, MD.
State Agricultural College

INDIANAPOLIS, IND.

Geological Survey of Indiana........
Indiana Historical Society...---..-..
Institute for Educating the Blind ...
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb ..
McIntyre Institution for Deaf Mutes

1872.

he 0D 1D ad

1873.

Ree eR

sssece

ra
LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES. 4
j Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, §¢.—Continued.
Address. 1872. | 1873. Address. 1872. | i873.
INDIANAPOLIS, InD.—Continued. LANSING, MICH.
SiatieIO NDAs b CopSscoucooedsdeKEsoocd|ecoose Ages tatoplnbranvareeeececest kerries ossae Q
Of Jel, 1ayevebleay s sees as Seba sd ee eats oe Die Aes
John W-Bytkit - ..-..2-...-j00- e080 HOA. LAWRENCE, KANS.
1B, 18, (COX cob beduacousoDsesaueRehoes 18 a
df. MIB en NAR) | So6 be soaooe saSeeeeoe 1 1 || Kansas Historical Society......---.-].--.-. 3
(Gr WL JUGMEMIG)s oss oeeoeseLeoeesasuee Day), hoes Universityaot Kansas me oaeeene serene 3
INMANSVILLE, WIS. LEBANON, TENN.
Wisconsin Scandinavian Society..-- |.----- 1 || Cumberland University.- -...-..... 1 1
¢ Prof. James Safford .......--...--.-- 2 1
IOWA CITY, IOWA.
LEAVENWORTH, KANS.
Geological Survey of Iowa..-...-.--- Q 1
Institution for Deaf and Dumb .-..-. Pi es9es) 1Collerelot Pharmacy s-)ese-ioe al eiaee 1
Iowa State University. ..----.--..--. 26 24 || Kansas Academy of Sciences. ....--.! 2... 4
State Historical Society -...--....-.-]------ 3 || Mercantile | ibrary Association .....|.-.-.. 3
PRO Cr, ebiAAKH Ne oosoocomooHEaeRoDae 21 14
Proti@ AR IWihitOs acnac- sees oe ee 6 & LEWISBURGH, PA.
ITHACA, N. Y. lUmivensityeseseseceresetreercecereree 1 2
Cornell College... 0.2. nce cee ected [elo 5 LEWISTON, ME.
2 oye IN. Ja: IDWS) cenceeoESEoseeOn eee VAleerSass
Anéroscoggin Natural History Soci-
JACKSON, MISS. Ciitvicnc anes orcsnedoe SoerOnCecOnoEHed bsserE 3
Institute for Deaf and Dumb .......].----. 1 LEXINGTON, KY.
State Historical Society .......----- |.----. 3
lates LAT YA Meer e cic -sarrtersejererereiee vie eae ey. 1 || Eastern Lunatic Asylum.-.......2-. abel seseeay a
Kentucky University and State
JACKSONVILLE, FLA. Acriculturall Society *222:-2 2-222.) ss... 3
» Transylvania University......-...-. 1 1
Young Men’s Christian Association .|..-.-. 3
. LEXINGTON, VA.
JACKSONVILLE, ILL.
WG 18, NEWAydotooopdodsadesubusdose- 3 2
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. - 1 1
State Hospital for the Insane......-. Qhilssaeece LIBERTY, VA.
JAMAICA PLAINS, MASS. WEL Cuntiss* treme tcecetien cence Le Soci.
Bussey Institution ........--.-.-.--. 15 19 LINCOLN, NEBR.
JANESVILLE, WIS. Statewmibnabyeteerrese cere eseaetee oleae 3
Wisconsin Institution for the Edu- t LITTLE ROCK, ARK.
cation of the Blind........./222 2] .2 22 2
Governor of the State of Arkansas-.-|...--. 1
JEFFERSON CITY, MO. Institution for the Deat and Dumb..|.-.... 1
, StatenGeologistas esessnae mele erci| oeeralee 1
Governor of the State of Missouri ...}....-. Tll| Suan IlmAiay Goocsosodudesonscobesaallacoqe 19
Historical Society of Missouri ....-.. 1 40|| ‘State University, \...20- acs. sclne- =| cc<- 2
Stabevbilbrary, aeensee eee ecisoc seisete| ae ote 1
LOCKPORT, N. Y.
JERSEY CITY, N. J.
(OWL 29) UOwGus suscccsadosncousonsedne 3 1
SPAlOSSen asa tecieisiccaciemiciocisc eee cee | eee 1
LONDON, CANADA.
KANSAS CITY, MO.
OL IS} INCE). 356 soobaoooneasosdeCGOsoauE) | bacse> 1
Young Men’s Christian Association |...-.- 3
LONG VIEW, OHIO.
KEYTESVILLE, MO.
Long View Asylum......--.--------- iseoaba
WharlesmVentchtmce ce cee eneaces sees be aes
LOUISVILLE, KY.
KINGSTON, CANADA.
College of Pharmacy ..--------------|..---- 1
Botanical Society of Canada........- 1 4 || Kentucky Historical Society ....-.-..|...--- 3
KaneisiCollege tio Lee ea aE 1 || Louisville and Richmord Medical
Queens! College seeks eee tees eeelluae cee 1 TOuTN Al el sae ee OS a 1 3
Public Library of Kentucky. ......-.|---.-- 4
KNOXVILLE, TENN. University of Louisville............. Q 3
East Tennessee University-......-..|.....- 2 LYNCHBURGH, VA.
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb ..}.....- 6
Prof i.e Bradley, ust Seseiay 1 2 \| Medical Society of Virginia........2- TN seGooe

=I

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, §-c.—Continued.

Address.

LYNN, MASS.

Society of Natural History
MADISON, WIS.

Agricultural Department
State Historical Society of Wiscon-

sin
Geological Survey of Wisconsin. ....
Office cf Emigration....-.-.-...---.-
State Library
University of Wisconsin
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Amtsvandewebterseescereeee ee eeeee
Wisconsin State Agricultural Soci-

MANCHESTER, N. H.
Cityaliibrony eee eee eee eect oee
MANITOBA, BRITISH AMERICA.
Library of Saint John’s College ...-.
MARQUETTE, MICH.

Bishop Ignatius Maak...-..-...-. ee
MIDDLETOWN, CONN.

Wesleyan University.............--
MILLEDGEVILLE, GA.

State Library
University

MILWAUKEE, WIS.

Natural History Society......-...--.
W. Engelmann

Dr. L A. Lapham

MOBILE, ALA.

Charles Mohr

MONTGOMERY, ALA.
Statoduibranyeesseceneecceiscceeeee:
MONTPELIER, VT.

Historical Society of Vermont. .....-
State Library

MONTREAL, CANADA.

Agricultural Society of Lower Canada
Geological Survey of Canada
MeGill College
Montreal Observatory
Natural History Society
United States Consulate-General
Captain|S. C. Bagg.-- 02.232 .. soe ane
Prof. E. Billings

H. Chaveau
BP. P. Carpenter
IPROL ID We Da wSOD = j+5 scceeeetcisanc
Lord Dufferin
T. Sterry Hunt
Sir W. E. Logan
MOSophUMiclKhaycesaesecosseee neater
David A. P. Watt

MOUNT FOREST, (ONTARIO,) CANADA.

Wyaubbienmn WWavlblgacgoadesscaaceuc asance

1872.

woe

1873.

Bon

Address.

NASHUA, N. H.

Dr. B. K. Emerson

NASHVILLE, TENN.

Geological Survey of Tennessee. --..
Staterknbramy pees ere seen
Tennessee Historical Society..-..-..-
University

NEENAH, WIS.

‘Scandinavian Library Association...

NEWAPK, N. J.
Historical Society of New Jersey....
NEW ALBANY, IND.

Society of Natural History

NEW BEDFORD, MASS.
pete hon SOT eee eee eae
NEW BRUNSWICK, N. J.

Geological Survey of New Jersey....

Rutgers College so --s-- ese see

Prolidn Ca SMO Cke meee pease
NEW COELN, WIS.

Ise hyo dbs ANG JesH INIT, OS ono a aecdsaasoges
NEW HAVEN, CONN.

American Journal of Science and
ARG 2 tei aoe eee ee ee eae coeee
American Oriental Society

"Connecticut Academy of Arts and
SCIENCES tees Awe eee
Mercantileiibranysss-=-a-255 eases
Wolei@olle cetera ssa scee sree ree
Prot. WARE Blake ens o0 seo ee eee
Jee do Cr ISHN saeco qandesndasanac
Prof. J. D. Dana

Prof. EK. Loomis
IPTOn CaS siy manera setae eee eee
Prof. 0. C. Marsh

Prot. Sidney Smith
Prof. A. E. Verrill
Prof. W. D. Whitney
Dr. T. D. Woolsey
Doctor Voungersas-eeeeee ea eee eee:

NEWPORT, VT.

Orleans County Society of Natural
CIONCESSassteee nr eaee reer ee eee ees

NEW ORLEANS, LA.

Mayor of the city of New Orleans -..
Mechanies’ Society Library..-..---.
New Orleans Academy of Natural
SCien C6See se ee
University of Louisiana---.--...----
Dr. J. G. Richardson. ~~... 2-252 -2-

NEW YORK, N. Y.

American Bible Society
American Bureau of Mines.-....-----
American Christian Commission....
Amencani @hemistime- esses ceceeeeer
American Druggists’ Circular.....-.

1872.

1873.

Wwe aD

oP

rw)

oes
Swwow mn

=

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, §e.—Continued.

Address. 1872. | 1873. Address.
New York, N. Y.—Continued. New York, N. Y.—Continued.
American Geogtaphical and Statisti- Dye, Ay 10h Iu IBah SB SGaneedseenboSous
Gall SWCIGIY <ededeosadooesescogessas 4 450 ||PerofsaCharlessRaweyes a-ha taleee
American Institute.......-.-.-.---.- 25 SUL yl Dyes Det, Wi IRA MONG! Soo ooodSHHaSeoSeE
American Institute of Architects -.- 2 Pl} Dye, de IRON oo GaoeoonSSoonSsenons
American Journal of Mining ..-.-.. Qeleaerstr: RE MRO blnwie lleva ce mistrsceiaae
American Microscopical Society. - -- - 1 I SamuelpBakugclesisssssaeeeesaeeee
American Museum of Natural His- JOIN E IRMA Aryl Co scaoaaceusessoasee
HIN = doSans eecacoaseupeeoedacsdddtc 19 USE Woubins Sehiiitersaerecs-nialeehe sce e
American Society of Civil Engineervs.|.--.-- a | 1B INE Syelnernare) tens sbesceaasoceacessac
Anthropological Institute of New L. W. Schmidt. :-25.-- BSNS 28 fone Peis
WOK LJ .42s5eeSceunsquscsonece 23 aia Charles!Stephaniissssa5 5 s.r es) sice =
AND OREMUNCES) LON Ay ease ssooessaee lpocess Ibo NOs (ers te ebiee LAS ea Sccqooesoodsaueade
AMSDIE JUDY 5 = Sc oseeoceenoeeooeeueE 7 Ue | Die, di@lain Aor oseacssosassassudeas
Christian Inquirer Office.........-.. Di oaudaais Western & Co., Journal of Mining -.
ColleseiotPharmacy = eee n- secs <2 2 == = = 1, || Gen. Prosper Wetmore ---:.:255-----
Columba Colles ee essee re seme nee 2 Tiff) Dye; TBA Ou Anatase oe Gdcoosscasoaucene-
Engineering and Mining Journal. ... Ut |oooacoe Charles F. Wingate ........---.--..-
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.. 1 1
_Institution for Improved Instruction NILES, CAL.
of the Deaf and Dumb.:--.--.--...)---.-- 1
Journal of Psychological Medicine Mr OrenzO/ Gea bes laters asters cisiaeiais re elel=1t
and Anthropology-.-.-...---.------- 3 2
Hmipera@hristiameee ss -snclcacie cise 6 NORTHAMPTON, MASS.
Lyceum of Natural History. ..-..--- 107 104
Mayor of the city of New York....-. 1 2 || Clarke Institution for Deaf Mutes. --
Wieoligall Gevalia’, osoconeopoudeccoenes Tiecodaes State Lunatic Hospital .......--.....
WieGhicall DOWMO Gasgaessecocdasaases 1 3
Mercantile Library Association -.--. 3 9 NORWICH, CONN.
Metropolitan Board of Health.....-. 3 3
National Board of Underwriters. ---. ecceacs Hon. David A. Wells ....-..-.--..--
New York Academy of Medicine -... 6 5 j
New York City Lunatic Asylum... Qi aes aee OAKLAND, CAL.
New York Historical Society.-. ..-.. 5 6 i
New York Hungarian Society. ...--.].--.-- 1 || Institution for the Deaf and Dumb..
New York Medico-Gistorical Society] -.--.- 3
New York Prison Association. ....-- i El eae OLATHE, KANS.
Numismatic and Archeological So-
CIC bye nen Menace aee ee ce cmosiee Imleasewice Institution for the Deaf and Dumb..
Office of the Sanitarian. ....--..-2-+-)----.- 1
Sreln@ell orF INTHE Yoseee suaosconoeneses 5 ri OLYMPIA, WASH.
SeienbiieyAanenicam = js25-- ses o a Al esc
Society tor the Protection of Animals}.-..-.-- I a Rerritorial libratyees scecise ssi eee
State Commissioner of Public Chari-
WES. 65 SEs Ha SARS ee ee ale epeuas a leg heals aes ca OMAHA, NEBR.
United States Sanitary Commission. 2 11
University of New York..-.--..--.-. 5 8 || Institute for the Deaf and Dumb ....
William Angermann ...-...-.--.---. 1 |.......|| Nebraska Historical Society -.--....--
ProfphpActe Vw Barnande eae eeeeceoc. 1 3
DryHordycer Barkers sccssssseec cee 1s ees reso ORONO, ME.
Ada SE BICRINOKsy snoedaacoucopesour Gees Atel estes
pliromasiPlan dees cise ieee saree Qi eerste Maine State College of Agriculture. .
DD rekin CyBoltonee ec caeesssncccsecre: (all ies eee
RevNapbane Brow sone sse eee eee Dh | Peg sts OTTAWA, CANADA.
irofsaCnke Chandler=-2- sce. sees -ec 3 ut
DAnIeMMrapereeetecre ce sees ee ee fee 1 || United States Consulate......-...---
ye, let, IDPH Nee sp eceso pose Saseasese= 3 (7) dibrary.of Parliaments: 2.222. 2/1...
1etHonis be JB OeaaAconaaeaeoaobaaee 1 Phil AMO Ne Tnss 4 NEdiGl 55 66 dooce neaHeaDosees
AMMUOM JBMNG= | saeneaoAoaoSUDoaScoase ape see
Captydiohmebricssons.- 222-452-5405 2 1 OTTAWA, ILL.
DAVideDudleyeHieldeee ee emee ceases altace 1
Greorgentolsomiysenee see eeeena see eece 3 2 || Ottawa Academy of Natural Sciences
SH Uo Clas ee creee Gusts te ce eenee ale eee eg
ennyaGainnelleesee eee eee eee 2 4 OWEN SOUND, CANADA.
Weer Ate bliaim 6g 70 8 i iiale eA en elt 1
Dry Hlisha)Marris. = 5..---2-- Soa Seee Th Sees || MrsxJiessieW Roy *20--222--2-2- see:
William B. Hodgson....-....---.---- 1 2
rote OlianlesvAta OVeecsseaeacee ee 1 1 OXFORD, MISS.
Dr ames ee Kimballee sateen coe acc lesan oe 2
UGS Chie Roe OOe mse ete nest eee oe oes 1 || University of Mississippi.-.--.-..--..
ID) PME ORO AD Ds. -(- 2) emcee sea tl eaccee 1.|| Eugene W. Hilgard .-.2-:..222.5.5..
George N: Lawrence .-.--......----- Si aa aes
INbasy (Ch Ate Tb Onl boosoapecoudades aa laseese 1 OXFORD, OHIO.
ID es ae SHINES Bey? Boob asnmocnoees a 9
Dre PNObbee ees ae Scie e nese 3 1 eMiaminWiniversity;sasaseeeiisceccsceas
BRotWAGYReCk 2. oun sen ee ase aD ere eee
PRemmpleyPrimciern nee c eee 1 Q PENN YAN, N. ¥.
/\ HERS GL IEC hel eaeleayrr ses eran tess Qulsgaeek
Baron! Osteusacken=- 2-055. 225)-o5ene slsllaerenraie Dr SEM Wiriehtessscmentscmscesonse

1872.

Lait <2)

79

1873,

ROR

Oe rw)

w

80

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, §c.—Continued.

Address. 1872.| 1873. Address. 1872. | 1873.
PEORIA, ILL. PITTSBURGH, PA.
Mercantile Library Association....-.|.----- 5 || Pittsburgh Day School for the Deaf
ID ye, Ja, Jems se ssoossaosoouoconces 1 1 and Dum bspeeeeeee eee ee nien eee ene pesos 1
PHILADELPHIA, PA. POMARIA, S. C.
Academy of Natural Sciences ....... 203 193 || William Summer.................... alallscuarstie
American Entomological Scciety - - 17 8
American Journal of Conchology .-. 4 3 PORTLAND, ME.
American Pharmaceutical Agsocia-
(KF lid Unoeneueoese use seeomoreloscors 31 27 || Portland Society of Natural History.| 43 65
American Philosophical Society. ---- 131 132
Central/Hich School?) - 2.2). ~~~ 2 len 3 PORT HOPE, CANADA.
Central High-School Observatory....|---.-- 1
@ollescvotpeharmacyese eee ea eee 1 || Rev. Ci JS: Bethume: 222522225. 2.8. pal bac
Collese OfeRhysicianseeesse eee eee leeceee 1
Mental Cosmosieeee seen eee eee eee 3 1 PORT SARNIA, CANADA.
Wental Waboratoryeeen-cciseeieeicseae BMIBE Aas
Mental Mimess sess kacs eae eee 3 |.--- 1 || United States Consulate.......--.-..|.-..-- 1
Mranisdinelarstitubemecesseeeeeees eee 30 30
GinardyCollese esse ecneere eee sere 4 1 PORT TOWNSEND, WASH.
Historical Society of Pennsylvania. 6 11
Library Company RS Seen eee eee 3 Sil dienes (Ea Sie Nocoosadacsadodcocasous iba eee
Mayor of the city of Philadelphia --|...--. #1
Medico-Chirurgical Review....-..-.- 3 2 POUGHKEEPSIE, N. Y.
Medical and Surgical Reporter .....- 2 jecasens
Medicallitim essere eee ecaeeeeee 6 LOG WassarmColleseme-e- sec ce cceneccce 3 Q
Mercantile bilbramye cemeteries 1 || Miss Maria Mitchell............-...-. lel easces
Numismatic Society.....-......----- 8 Isocbode
Pennsylvania Institution for the PRESCOTT, ARIZONA.
BLM ee Sasa hee eames Sse tees Sem eee Deaeeseas
Pennsylvania Institution for the MoereltonialymibraLnyeeees tae cece |eeeeee 3
DentwandeD mimibeeess sees kee 2 3
Philadelphia Society for Promoting PRESCOTT, CANADA.
JA GGUS) + so sos0.coceaaeuassoaons|lboococ 1
Polytechnic College. .... apegre cesses 1 1 || United States Consulate........-.---|.----. r]
IPMplichSchoolsty ses -ceeeenee ene see aleeeeee 2
Society for the Protection of Animals|. .-.--- 1 PRINCETON, N. J.
Univer sity of Pennsylvania ..-..... Q 1
Wagner Free Institute of Science . 16 15 || Agricultural Society ........-....--. IR esas
Rev, Dr. E: R. Beadle. .2).7..0.22-02 3 4 || College of New Jer-ey.-.-...-...----- 5 17
Towel IBlNCEXWSacosdoosbausoosneuces Wilesocace (Vebrotas: Allexan der 2c: -) ite a aey eames 1
IWetBrotherheadmesnt asec srecere fl lascooe EAT) BLOWS msieieteiereieletiae eteetet eras Meas
LOVE, Sh Nie IEW Ro Sec dobSsoouSs once 1 iW Terrors AUS (CnbbyONGeSoou bagoaKodosHoeues|) aooes 6
18h Ob OBireh7 a obho once 2 IP] serene, (OL lakers) 6 abo Sb Asacecooauonose 3 1
Pliny E. Chase ...-..-. hillaecoas.c
George W. Childs TY eo0d6s0 PROVIDENCE, R. I.
Teo, Ai Ae OMT -obecanoascdsecccr 1 3
IPA, Js, 1D), Coys sasnaccauduoadosasce. 5 3 || Atheneum). soo teosccess seen bese eee scene 1
SH eR ORESSOMM aera sie ecene ceieicte 1 1 || Brown. University. .-.-.2.22--).222-- 6 4
IUSRRON INE Sade SoabesuSsacsorosesocslssaoce 2 || Rhode Island Historical Scciety -.-.. Q 7
181 OERVHO os cos cuMooomGeostE cauTeGoe Ik Weooodes Statevdhibrany 226.2 -2eetee ee eee eee 3
IBADVe Mo ML EMM Sb5 soGdacesooo OS 3 2.) John Bartlettscsss-asseeee eeeeee Oi leedaes
IDTEMEGINU hs Seco ne noSEopootscTeooesser tiecaas Q5 MSs Olney iacic- Adee sais seis icine De ees
MELO See ae ee ist setic ne raisia eisieya siele ia ciate leis TT Dios JORIS NO Ra qasacoeddosonoccoudasssous 5 11
DriilisaacwWeas jee. ae. seca ceseeet 12 16
Dr. John L. Le Conte ............... 7 10 QUAKERTOWN, PA.
Dr Joseph Weide eececisyseemacseccee 13 16
db Mbesloye eae ceceensteeesseaee 1 PAP rinse MOY. OL rctateslesetaterlsjaiaieisialeie || eset 1
Onl Oa ahha Beeaes Demet ecemrna ap Stocco seers 1
Bi Siliymant — oes eee ees 2 Se ous 2 QUEBEC, CANADA.
Dri. Aitken Melos ie sees santero 4 1
‘Professor Matches sseseeee eee ce cen neceee 1s || aval (Omiversit ystems ett alse 1
HranihinvRealennessmeecctiencmaceecicte Thi Geb sas% Literary and Historical Society.-....}.----- 26
Henn yeehillipseeeeceeseeeeeeeeeeeeee Talkaee eee United States Consulate ......-......).-.--- 1
Drs Gwkichardsoneceeeeps eeeenose 1 3
Benyaminismithe sasscceeeeeeeeeee Pu ERGSOse RALEIGH, N. C.
George W. Tryon, jr.-...-...-- Sod 2 6
INTs SE ao Nee an nt eerste Statewwibranversseeeseee eee Se eee ee essere 4
Prof We Wiaeners ss sac ca0neeeeeeeee 8) Hoodoo: Institution for the Deaf and Dumb .. 1 1
Dr. Horatio C. Wood, jr. ......-.-..-. 4 PY ee Wio On INGOs SSA soesasoodcoooucEs||aooees 1
PICTOU, NOVA SCOTIA. RICHMOND, VA.
United States Consulate.............|.....- 1
Medical Society of Virginia.........|.-.--- 3
PINE LAKE, WIS. Stateguibraby Se seeesee ceeeeseescee 3 €
Virginia Historical Society.....-.--. 1 4
Wisconsin Scandinavian Society .--.).-- 1 || Thomas H. Wiynne! ese seeses ee ee i Waaocao

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

81

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, §¢.—Continued.

Address.

1873.

ROCHESTER, N. Y.

University
Prof. Henry A. Ward

ROMNEY, W. VA.
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb-.
RUTLAND, VT.

Vermont Pharmaceutical Association
SACRAMENTO, GAL.
Geological Survey of California .......
State A ericultural Seciety

State Library
,

SAINT ANTHONY, MINN. ¢

University
Dr. A. Robertson

SAINT AUGUSTINE, FLA.

Historical Society of Florida

SAINT JOHN, CANADA.

United States Consulate
SAINT JOHN, NEW BRUNSWICK.

Mechanics’ Institute
Natural History Society..-..---.---.
United States Consulate. ...0.....--.
G. IF. Matthews.

Gilbert Murdock
Prof. Alleyne Nicholson

SAINT JOHN’S, NEWFOUNDLAND.
United States Consulste....-.-.-..--
SAINT LOUIS, MO.

College of Pharmacy
Institution tor the Deaf and Dumb-.
Mercantile Library
Missouri Dental Journal
Public School Library.....---.......--
Saint Leuis Academy of Sciences. . -.
University of Saint Louis
Dr. Louis Bauer
Ernst Von Engelbrodt.....-....-....
Dr. G. Engelmann
N. Holmes
Dr. M. L. Linton
Dr. H. A. Prout
Prof. R. Pumpelly
OMVErRleye CeCe week Se REE RAE Re
Maurice Schuster

SAINT PAUL, MINN.

Academy of Natural Science.........
Chamber of Commerce
Institution for Deaf and Dumb
Minnesota. Historical Society.-....-.
Stiane IGib pays eee ee Ee
J. R. Kloos

SALEM, MASS.

American Association for Advance-

ment of Science
American Naturalist. 0. 222cs522 55
Essex Institute, Salem
Peabody Academy of Science

6S

oO
Bee ROR ee pee

_
BR ORO

WO, (Gad iet MiG) ye sccnudcooc GE eRotes

Address.

1872. | 1873.

SALEM, Mass.—Continued.
IDbIsh IW Kay ee\s) Goo boo Cob EoooBuceEosnSsosae

SALEM, OREG.

Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. -
Stateduibrabyreseeseecpeces sae eeecese

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH.

Territorial Library

SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.

California Academy of Natural Sci-

ences
Institution for Deaf and Dumb
Mayor of the city of San Francisco -
Mercantile Library Association
Pharmaceutical Society..-----.-------.

| Society for the Protection of Animals

Henry: A Bolanders-ss--c5-2-s5 15
IDEs ds Cra CoMnersadsss obebsesdaeaesee
Doctor Johnson
Its Ib Oe tUSENO Me posoesocomonoGnasaac
Frederick Whymper
F. Benton :
EE Gp Bloomersecas--este eseseieoeiee

SANTA FH, N. MEX.

Historical Society of New Mexico
Territorial Library

SAVANNAH, GA.
Historical Society of Georgia......-.
SCHENECTADY, N. Y.

Jonathan} Browil.-1-i22 cae eee ee
Union College

SEAVILLE, N. J.

SING SING, N. Y.

SOUTH BETHLEHEM, PA.

Lehigh University

SPRINGFIELD, ILL.

Illinois State Agricultural Society. --
State Library
Prof. A. H. Worthen

STAUNTON, VA.
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb..
STOCKTON, CAL.

State Lunatic Hospital ---........--.
SYRACUSE, N. Y.

Prof. rAs vam Chelle eee seeereeleeeiae

TALLADEGA, ALA.

Institution for the Deaf and Dumb

ae

OO

82

LITERARY AND

SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES,

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, §-c.—Continued.

Address.

1872.

1873. Address.

1872. | 1873.

TARRYTOWN, N. Y.
General J. C. Frémont...'...-.-.-.---
TAUNTON, MASS.

State Lunatic Hospital

TOPEKA, KANS.

Kansas Natural History Society... --
SUES) JD Pb AVo po coosuEsodoeeouoRanoKe

TORONTO, CANADA.

Canadian Institute
Chemists’ Association
Literary and Philosophical Society --
Observatory
Pharmaceutical Society.......-.-.-..

University of Canada.......-.--..... E

Dr. A. Milton Ross
Rey. Daniel Wilson

TRENTON, N. J.

Statepluibranys asc e-. eee see emeete
State Lunatic Asylum...............

URBANA, OHIO.
Urbana University. .-.25222--22:.-.-
UTICA, N.Y.

American Journal of Tnsanity......-
State Lunatic Asylum...............

VANDALIA, ILL.
. Historical and Archeological Society.
VICTORIA, VANCOUVER’S ISLAND.

United States Consulate

WASHINGTON, D. C.

-American Annals of the Deaf and
Dumb

, Board of Indian Commissioners. ....
Bureau of Navigation...............
“Bureau of Statistics........2......-.
- Census Bureau
Clinico-Pathological Society
‘Columbian Institution for the Deaf
ands Dumibssese ieee eee ee

) Department of Agriculture..........
Department of Education
Engineer Department
: General Land-Office
Governor of the District
Howard University...-.-:...-.....--
- Hydrographic Office
Library of Congress
sLicht-House Board 22232522 2 en
Medical Society of the District of
Columbiase es eee see ee
National Academy of Science
National Deaf Mute College........-
Nautical Almanac Office..-..-.....--
Navy, Department. --....+-.2.......-
OrdnanceyBureau 2 oosee een
Pharmaceutical Association
President of the United States....-.
JEWS SEO) oc sos ososeeubeonadsaout
Secretary of the Navy ...........2...
SION AO Commerce eee eee eee
State Department

4 || Surgeon-General’s Office. .------

Treasury Department

United States Geological Surve

Patent Office

Dr. Cleveland Abbe
A. W. Angerer
Prof. A. Ashley

a
m OO

WERE RODE A

Vincent Colver
Prof. J. H. C. Coffin

W. H. Dall
Maurice Delfosse
Israel Dille
Capt. Du Pont

Prof. J. R. Eastman
E. B. Elliott

1 || Don Antonio Flores
Don Manuel Freyre

Baron Charles Lederer

Com. Stephen B. Luce

1) ProfiGyAqiMatilers--sschasscees
Elon Heh ain @reeeen epee eee

Capt. Foxhall A. Parker
Hon. k. C. Parsons

Don Antonio Perez
Count Luigi Porti

ROT 6 Ord

Prof. T. Gill
Prof. A. Hall

a
= c=
WW Or

Dr. F. V. Hayden
Prof. J. Henry
Prof. J. E. Hilgard

—

»
COREE RRO GUN R BOO

T. Peesche
Joseph Saxton

Hon. H. von Schlatzel

=

W. H. Seaman

WASHINGTON, D. C.—Continued.

United States Coast Survey. --.-

United States Naval Observatory. --.

War Department........--..-.---.--

BlacqueyBeyeeeeen- see eee ee one
DCs Bille veka oem ceee es eects

Dr. Hdward Curtis...........-.

EER Dodcokee (ot eeu

Seftor L. A. de Padua Fleury. .--

Don Manuel R. Garcia........--

1 || Hon. H. R. Hurlbut ..,.-..-.--.-

Chevalier de Lansay obese

DriCh€ PaLrryeesqisceeeeeeecees

Prof. B. Peirce. eS e en

Count L. F. de Pourtales.-.--..-.-
Com. W. Reynolds......-.------
Robert Ridgway...-.-.-.--.-.--

Prof. W. Harkness. ....---------

ProfJbs Ssloldeneess-c 4-22-22 =
Jn CiGuitennedyeeeeeeseeee tee
Miss Emma Marwedel..-.-.-..--

George C. Schaeffer.......---.--

Charles A. Schott...---.---:-.--

Hon. John Sherman............-

ww

NMWONWARPARPURDRE WOR Rwy

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES. Q2

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution from Europe, §:c.—Continued.

Address. 1872. | 1873. Address. 1872. | 1873.
WASHINGTON, D. C.—Continued. WILLIAMSBURGH, VA.
OlafStenerson.-----2.2----2-.-<.-s<- 1D eSa05a0 Eastern Lunatic Asylum .-...-....../..-.-- 1
James Stephenson......--.--.--.---- Poe ieae ;
Osmiond!Stone eee esc saa. eee sees aaliee ase 1 WILMINGTON, DEL.
Hon. Charles Sumner ...---.-.-------|------ 1
Prof. Cyrus Thomas .....--.--.------ CU Renoobe Agricultural Society -....-...--.---.]------ 2
Sir Edward Thornton............---- sg es 8a a
J0ye; dy WE MieyVeres 53 Sdcaooeecoossoodass esate WINDSOR, CANADA.
LeMay? ONG) =o koooscodoouoodUeuBeEsee 23 Issodace
Hon. W. H. Upsoxz........-..---.---- I bkeaooe United States Consulate ............|------ : 1
ae. Gens G. K. Avarren ce attretejeteeoe ele feris Fe 1
on. H. Westenberg...-------------.| | 1 |-----.- WINDSOR, NOVA SCOTIA.
MON OnaWioodwandens crn ce elles Te 5
Clarence Bp Own yaaa aa —- S = Library of King’s College ...........|------ 1
WATERVILLE, ME. H. G. Hind ...------.- 22-2 22+2-22-2-/2e02+- 2
Waterville College .....-........---- PSA tenia WORCESTER, MASS. “4
WATERVILLE, OHIO. American Antiquarian Society -..... 10 15
State Lunatic Hospital -.-........... LS |ReR Ne
Otterbein University ...............-|-..--- 1
: WYANDOTTE, KANS.
WESTCHESTER, PA.
Tr, Ti, ONT en ee ee les dies Wyandotte Library Association .....|-...-- 3
WESTFORD, CONN. YONKERS, N. Y.
TONG We ALLY emesis ciclersrere'sieiscinisie sais |[sisieiste c 1) PE Schieftelonmenssaasteasenae eealseee ce 1
RECAPITULATION.
Packages received, &c. 1872.) 1873,
Motaladdressesiofainstitutions: os s- Se ccc see see se ccc sce cieeslaiciecececcarcjeiasctsemacutiee eee 300 463
Rotaltad dressestotindividuals seas ccicc ce cet aA cieie nee eee see nec nines tae seeeeeeenee 287 226
587 689
Total number of parcels to institutions ©. 02... oc. coc w cee w ence cc ctecceccccccsescececccs 3, 694 | 3, 876
Total number of parcels to individuals..............-.c20cce-e---eeeee aA Ea ve nae 941 906

CLASSIFIED RECORD OF MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS
PRESERVED IN THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. |

=

Name of station.

Period.

Name of observer.

NORTH AMERICA.
BRITISH AMERICA.

JN ontmlort JRO SoSedb boss sSoaess
Fort Anderson ;
Fort George
Hog IMENT! Se Cooks eose cob6 de
Fort NOE COL Ee east IS a ir
Fort Norman .
INOW IEEE), Gacaoo osc
Fort Rae, Great Slav e , Lake...
Fort Simpson, Great Slave
EH eae ee eee ORs HALOS ie
Kenoqumissée) 2525. Sac sseee
Little Whale River.......--.
Moose Factory. - 4
Moose Factory to Lake Su-
perior
Red River Settlement. .....-
Rigolet, Labrador....-.-:---
Vv ictoria, Vancouver’s Tela,
Winnipeg

CANADA.
New Brunswick.
Sic OM Ges Soa seu new He
Nova Scotia.

NTailitare cio ey Mesa Oe

we eo ee eee ee pee eee we ee

GME Sore Good woos aonaaS
Michipicoton senna ea nentyan
Mount Forest ..... Dae.
Niagara io... .sse ean.
Toronto

IOP aR ae SoG5 Gece
1859-1860... ----
SOUS C Ae eer

1848-1861.-..-.--.-.
1861-1863 ...-.-25--

1857-1861...-......
1859-1860..--..----
1863-1864......----
1869-1873...-...---.

1859-1873

ESOC concn coe
1863-1865 ......-..-.

1843-1855 ...--. 2...
1857-1862...-..-..-
ISO7—1873 25 22 eae
TOBA eee ee
Ikebe ICE ooo oo5 cous
1855-1858... 2.2...

TEARS) cosso coos
1860-1866...--....-
WSUS ecscoocses
IS6ISLS632ea sos ae
1856-1868 ...-......

James Lockhart.
R. Macfarlane.

R. Kennicott.

H. Connolly.
Andrew Flett.
Lawrence Clark, jr.

Mrs. Lawrence Clark, jr.

B. R. Ross.
Thomas Richards.
Walter Dickson.
J. Mackenzie.

Colin Rankin.
Donald Gunn.

H. Connelly.

Dr. David Walker.
James Stewart.

Gilbert Murdock.

Royal Engineers.
Col. W. J. Myers.
Board of Trade.

R. J. Nelson.

Henry Poole.
King’s College.

D. F. Higgins.
Acadia College.
C.F. Hart.

Prof. A. P.S. Stuart.

W. Martin Jones.
Dr. W. Craigie.
J. Williamson.
Colin Rankin.
W. Wylie.

H. Phillips.

Magnetic Observatory.

Capt. J. H. Lefreoy.

Dr. A. Hall.

Observaticas published in Natu

raliste Canadien.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

85

Name of station.

Sto WlenebiS Gessecoscouseasee
SHEIM DENIER SS Boob Sccoco coooSe

OLA TTORGsee cee see ieise cero
NEWFOUNDLAND.
lBlene bore (GRRE) 5 Gooeoe oode eooD

Stavohmiguemeses oc access ea oe

UNITED STATES.
Alabama.

PNG livilllemiaaeac os so accises cee
AOU 655 casa See eee
IBOTbON beets es oe cs EUR kp
IBIDHE SHORING oeoseKoad o sec.
IBONGGEy GiaBae Baeaaeoe Ea
IBOMVSCCOULS Has see cee see nee
Calvabaveeee se oe eee Ee

LEX. GSS eS t Gee Seine eerie eae

IBLE) Saee See eae Ee eras

Havana, six miles east of ....
tumbsvallieeesces oaisate see aoe
ILA ASTOD, Sooo dacccouosaose
McMaths, Post-Office --..-...
IMI OMI Se este siete en ae eee eke eS
IMO oil Caer atic oS eee ae Ue
IMODIG see cena se ce ae

Monroeville 5-25 ste sses 222
IMontgomery).2 2. se eee

Moultomere esses So Oe eee

Opelika 2s. 22 5 ees ee,
Orville ic 2 7 ci eee kee

raiierbluitien aes eee

SDLING SHE ss ene es
PROV see ores Mae es ye

Period.

1852-1862......-.--
TSMC oo oo Goce
1868-1873... --=.---
18611862 eee eae

NSWAK187 2252 so 5 see
Wee coKecH cae
1857-1864 soo ns soe
NSTI ANS73 355 ote
AO Sees Oe wien
NSGSHLSCO Tess sn cree

USSG“ 18600100 27 el

TUS Tse ane Ate)

1853,1859-1861,1866-
1873.

sete seal oe

egies ey eet ec

1859-1860 255 55-

Name of observer.

Dr. Charles Smallwood.

J.C. Baker,
A. H. Gilmour.
C.J. Macgregor.

Henry A. Clift.
Archibald Munn.

John Delany, jr., E. M. J. Delany.

John Delany.

.-| H. B. M. military post.

Rev. R. C. Caswell.

Thomas M. Barker.
Prof. John Darby.

Dr. Charles F. Percival.

W. W. Wilson.

Col. Horace Harding.
W. J. Vankirk.

Dr. Matthew Troy.
Dr. H. L. Alison.

W. B. Sommerville.

Dr. Samuel K. Jennings.

Dr. T. C. Osborne.
A. Winchell.

W. J. Vankirk.
Robert B. Waller.
N. T. Lupton.
Prof. H. Tutwiler.

Dr. 8. K. Jennings.
Dr. E. L. Antony.
Rev. 8. U. Smith.
R. T. Meriwether.
D. H. Sumner.

Dr. S. B. North.
Rev. J. J. Nicholson.
Lewis B. Taylor.

8. J. Cumming.
Rev. J. A. Shepherd.
W. LL. Foster.
Andrew J. Harris.
Thomas J. Peters.
Prof. J. Shackelford.
Ashley D. Hunt.

J. H. Shields.

Dr. 8. K. Jennings.

T. A. Huston and J. A. Coleman

William Henderson.
R. M. Reynolds.

Dr. 8. K. Jennings.
C. Cadle, jr.

Dr. C. F. Fahs and Miss Deans.

Dr. H. 8. Hudson.
A. Cornette.

D. P. Hurley.
Prof. M. Tuomey.
George Benagh.
J. L, Moultrie.

BG

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

i; Sanaa
Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
t
Uniontown .----.-.--- seh ihe 1859-1860........-.. Rev. R. A. Cobbs.
Wetokaville .--.-..----.---- 1849, 1851-1854... - Benjamin F. Holly.
Alaska.
MOLtIVOUKON =e sceteseece eee SO eee eeemcrer R. Kennicott.
INDIE NRO Meee GAS ebaoos sae S66—1SO7eealeaee W. H. Dall.
Saint Paul’s Island......---- LSTO=NS7 lees Charles Bryant.
Sitka 5, GR ht 1867-1868 .....----- Dr. Alexander H. Hoff.
1868-1870......---. Charles Bryant.
Saint Michael’s -..---------- ISO5-1SOOssoeeseree H. M. Bannister.
1865-1866...-...--- _J. W. Bean.
Unalakleet <- 2.5 oc. aces 1866-1867 .....----- F. Westdahl.
Arizona.
Hort Whipple. 2222 see... NEGD)s SSascagsooanlée Dr. E. Coues.
Arkansas.
Arkadelphia..---...---.---- 1859)- 002... --. 22-4) Dennis Barlow.
WW sooseos cssbeo se Female College.
Bentonvillessecesso se oes ee eos SS Olea ere Paul Graham.
IBrOWwNSValle sc osceeee wesc 1859-1860..--.-.... B. F. Coulter.
BUCKHORN tee eo4 seer ee ere ISBY) s Soneuc coeeades Armistead Younger.
Clarkswalllec os .se eet es en MS Mel PO seco wocaas E. Greene.
Doadksville 222555 ses. s-- | 1860-2. ---- --2.--), Miss, S. McBeth.
Fayetteville .....22. 5..----.) 1870- Tego St Charles L. McClung.
Horest City. 22225 10se eee WS72-1873). -- 22: =e William F. Wellborn.
HoroySmithsesceeeeoeeeee 1866-18672 2-3 Rey. Francis Springer.
Gainesville 2. 22 h2 eee cee NSB OU ek arene aaa James T. Davies.
Green Grove: -. 22222225. 4224 TEOOe Sek ee Seas Dr. Robert Burris.
Helena. 222 2.ccen eee ea| LEGS IS (ae eee eee O. F. Russell.
Jacksonport 222-82 beeen sce 1859-1860. .---. =... Dr. G. A. Martin.
Dag Alle Ieee ees eA Coke TSAO Rie pee nne cere Philip L. Anthony.
Mico ess5 bs 228 See ee HSGQE Ee een Rev. H. F. Buckner.
Mineral Springs. .-..--.....- 1870-1873... .--.-- Harmon Bishop.
Sea sose ------| Prof. D.C. Cowling.
PSO see a eee es J.G. P. McLenden.
Mountain Home .-.--...----. PSO ee ee eee J.S. Howard.
Mount Wdayjjo2.2 teehee Iker Pas 55aaasous Granville Whittington.
Pernyvallle cei. aes ee IS59-1S6N eee eee W.#H. Blackwell.
SSO ee eee eee eee eel Ene lard,
Pocahontases-.s-- +2 ses eee ey Ss acasacoae Joseph P. Martin.
Spring will eee eee MEG Os Aico a ees P. F. Finley.
Sera LSGQRe een wees J. Reynolds.
Se iach suk P. F. Finley and J. Reynolds,
Waldron oeectee see cmeesean iee8 ele) o eS eso asoe George W. Featherstone,
Washinetoneeass cee toners dhol Oy Seer as anes ca Dr. Alexander P. Moore. ;
1849-1861..---..... Dr. N. D. Smith.
DRS ee eis scrcrea Charles White.
leis acce sec eeree J. EK. Borden.
Mellville: 2225222 eae TBS59=1S60 22 222 ei J. W. Weast.
1S59=1SGOR ee ee | W. B. Flippin.
California
AMDUTI 226. So cose 1E59=18602-- 22. See Robert Gordon.
@ahta.o 2. oo BRR O Sl aie 1869-1872... 2 Doctor Thornton.
Ohicovs see SOS ee 1869-1872). 2.2. coe Dr. W. Fitch Cheney.
Clayton .2 06 os. OURO BAO Neate on nee eat Charles L. McClung.
Wolumbias - 2. =. eee ees 1857-1860.......... Dr. Silas Earle. .
Crescent City. so... seus 1859-1860....-...-- Robert B. Randall.
Downieville ..2 2 oss TSGOLS ae eee homellies Dr. T. R. Kibbe.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

87

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—C ontinued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
Montes. sasse tease BUPalsBsecas= a5ce George H. Peck.
HROMS OME tay ais yes Uys sc DSO) oe sees easels Rev. 8. V. Blakeslee.
lion, Witimteiecooessos dees ones USO oN ree leyeyatstnnal Meise istaleate Matos eerie AN se au
TOM CUILE ye oer see Tene esis LOO yaks eo ae James Slaven.
1SOO 2s see sete J. Slaven and Mrs. E. 8S. Dunkum.
1SO1=1S65" oases Mrs, E. 8. Dunkum,
MovdiianeViallleyse ec smres == tees Si OS ale eee Miss M. E. Pulsifer.
Reale Vis ooomoe see Mrs. M. E. P. Ames.
Way) Gravee gas ee = \eae ejasjninic USI SE ese RST nO Joseph Domenici.
Mare Island ......,.....-+-.-- ISGSHIS7 3 sae United States naval hospital.
Marsh’s Ranche-...-......--- NBO7ANSCS = ay eis. Francis M. Rogers.
Mianbumezprmia. eS Giga e te THEG{0) eres eas ona a Edwin Howe.
Many swale says ier 52-962 esi 1857-1859, 1861-1863,| W. C. Belcher.
Meadow Valley -.----- .----- 1860-1862.....----. James H. Whitlock.
VEGA ee ee See Dr. Colbert A. Canfield.
IOS allel telco coo. cae M.D. Smith.
Mendocino City-.----.------ Dey Pd 5 ies oer ea eee eae Doctor Thornton.
Mokelumne Hill.-...--..---- IebO ilies sees Bose Wesley K. Boucher.
WIOMCHOWGocaseonGon daes Gene 1859-1860, 1864-1872} Dr. Colbert A. Canfield.
Miumphiy Ss \-scesy=ssseisclesietssie ISGS—NSO9 See eee Ephraim Cutting.
National City. ..---.-------- Ibe tcviessesouooe J. M. Asher.
ATAMISCLCUbye me aes ee NSO ES oe W.A. Wright.
Presidio of San Francisco....| 1869...........-.-. Dr. W. W. Hays.
1863-1864...--..--. D. F. Parkinson.
Pes2-1SGl es ae eee Post surgeon.
Sacramento...-.-.-----.---- TBA eee ess AG Ce Dr. F. W. Hatch.
1855_ - eae Drs. F. W. Hatch and T. M. Logan.
IBAO UT BGS). 08! aay Dr. T. M. Logan.
USO ye a Sika y Charles Craft.
Salimag) Cltyicecesse-eeeeces ISIS 73a seen eer Dr, E. K. Abbott.
SHIM IDI 25 Sodaakidtea sauces ISVS Oe eae Dr. G. W. Barnes.
Sanvlirancisconeescen ss ee nee 1856-1863, 1865-1868) Dr. W. O. Ayres.
test! S550 8 Dr. H. Gibbons.
Santa Barbara.....--.-----. BOA Cie Lee eee Dr. W. W. Hays.
Semin Oley. soo5 6 chao aboode IS SMG eae coon Prof. O. 8S. Frombes.
IRS ES sy shee oe eet Lewis A.Gould. °
Samba @nuzijses.o oases INS/BMs oa eocdce doocas|| Aol len dlare.
Santa Rosa ......-----.----- US e is ale Some 5 Prof. W. B. Hardy.
Spanish Ranche.....-...---- 1862-1863" 225 ee: M.D. Smith.
1864-1866 .......--- Mrs. M. D. Smith.
SWOCIRIOIN. cacasgassecee cased Ike SSIS Oe 5 5 o6o Seen Dr. Robert K. Ried.
IBSKe CRM eigenen sets: Walter M. Trivett.
LOM ROM see saeco eee TUS KAIS eae aay A ee Doctor Thornton.
Union Ranche 5...-.5-a. <.-- dCi ps Rs Ai W. LL. Dunkum.
Wacawallle sass Sees oem ass LSO9=1S870 eee ace Prof. J. C. Simmons.
AVaiSal ae ee a? TEGO SIS (ee eee J. W. Blake.
Watsonville seepeeeene arses WOM soccau case Dr. A. J. Compton.
Colorado.
CWanyontC@ityre- es seeos aoe SEO A Oi ss yee a Thomas Macon.
Clentneal Ciivccse duces Sse) dao alist eee eee eas W. D. McLain.
Coloradol@ibyases- esse sees NS rAlel ears peel A.M. Merriam.
Colorado Springs - --...----. SIP aociaa soak K.S. Nettleton.
ISPS Bacroomeson K.S. Nettleton and E. Cropley.
WenvenCity soe eee oe SSO M See Means D.C. Collier.
LSTA saace cease W.N. Byers and S. Y. Sopris.
HontaCollimsyene seer ee NS NSW oiasa ees _R. Q. Tenney.
Hountainye 2-2 eke hae 1866-1867 .......-.. Arthur M. Merriam.
Sal = VOWS eee _Clayton J. Croft.
(Cralien Ouimny Gus soh Gaclboomuse SS yar Ne eee E. L. Berthoud.
NSW 187(Sis22 = ea George W. Davies.
Mas Amimas 22.5: cee ec sees Ie Baacoue ose seal ia aie! de lbp rere
Montgomery 5/3 238s ca0c32 a2. IS65— 1860" ose 4- James Luttrell,

88

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
Mounitain @ity2- -.-22222---. 1e60=1S62NS seen Dr. William T. Ellis.
Bebo eee i ee eee RSIS aera a ig et 2 K.S. Nettleton.

Connecticut.

isiROORMNENCLAS So6gcassaooaoSse 1868-1870... ......-- Sanford W. Roe.

Canton ae eee ae eee eee 1S6I=1863 Geese Jarvis Case.

Colebroolkees eee eeeeee 1860-1873.......--. Miss C. Rockwell.

Colts ssoysseccoese ae IS5O=1873 s55see eee W.G. Yeomans.

East Windsor Hill .....----.. S52 Aa eee pA @hadibounrnes

Georsetow i e-s5s. seosee cre: SSO T NSO Teese see Aaron B. Hull.

GEOGG Me ee 2 cae SO 1866-1868 .........- Rev. E. Dewhurst.

JaleienORl G64 boeadaqodca Hass 1849185 eee ees Charles H. Hoadley.

Middletowmtccseeoasie cece 1854-1858, 1659-1868) Prof. J. Johnston.
ite SI. oa Case Prof. A. W. Smith.
ISGS IS (3 eran eee Prof. J. Johnston and H. D.A.Ward.

INOWeElaVienerc= sae se ce imac SS OMe Ee ee eee H. G. Dubois, jr.
1862-1864.......... D.C. Leavenworth.
Ice Gi SoG bees Prof. EK. Cutler.

New london 2-2-2 ease eee 1849-1851, 1852-1855) Rev. Tryon Edwards.

North Colebrook...-....---. Ice ss So eaa eoas M. H. Cobb.

North Greenwich ......----- HCVADMSas5so5 Ab oso6 Rey. W. P. Alcott.

INOEWAICHEM Somos cece eee ee NB55—LB58ree es eee N. Scholfield.

Plymouth yc cesses eee 1862-1864... 2-2. Dwight W. Learned.

IR OMELEG Gee eee ee ee te eee S531 SOO eee eee Rev. Daniel Hunt.

Salisbugyeeeee on seeseeees oes 1849-1851, 1853-1854] Dr. Ovid Plumb.

San LOOk. <4 -eioesmesee | ae ISRO sess osoaas James Rankin.

USBI aes aie Aug. Barnes.

Southinetomiaence seneeeneee iterADElteViais 25655 6aoc Luman Andrews.

Wrailllimstordii eee ciseee ISSO—1862E See eee Benjamin FE’. Harrison.

Wiaterbuny esis. 4 eee 1867-1869... - 2-2. - Rev. R. G. Williams.

WiestiCornwall 2325222 Tot be ene ee T.S. Gold.

Windsor sce ccu 2 eee Ds fag) a eeels R. H. Phelps.

Dakota.

BoniHommewacencseee ee eee HS Oe RCN iis ee eam re H. C. Greene.

Cheyenmense sen eeeser eee TST 2 ven Bee Rae A. R. Baylis.

AES OS eso Sates Seek US Y Pa eteetes ee ena Henry Ambrose.

NOW. WhMNOMs sa Sh5o onseasae | Uebyleie Soo Sod5h. F. G. Riter.

Greenwoodl so see 1859-1 SO aa see Freeman Norvell.

Ponka Agency... --.--.---- Sma vee Sates eee Bae Rev. J. Owen Dorsey.

Mamksbomiieicc terse see ae OUTS) aes emai iH 20d)? M. Kk. Armstrong.

VRS OP os Se eres ai ae G. D. Hill, G. W. Lawson; H. G.
Williams.
BGS as re See Raye H. G. Williams.
Delaware.

Delaware City...-..-------- HSOC—1SGUez eee aeees L. Vankekle.

DOVER eee ee BOA EAA ses J. P. Walker.

; CROSS Bs55 cusecc J. H. Bateman.

Georgetown 5) eee eee NSO Sus Bes a Lee Dr. D. W. Mauld.

Lewes.....-.- HRs ec San SAG Nik ge Soi at Mi laa John Burton.

IVI Ror di) (es Sea see el ae Ices SoS eee ss. R. A. Martin.

S69 SSO R eae eae Mrs. A. C. Whittier.
NSZOSNGT es eee as Mrs. W. R. Phillips.
Itsy syiGise oust kGe R. H. Gilman.

Newari se so tos eee SAD sores Ree a eae Prof. W. A. Norton.
SH Qe seas ee Prof. KE. D Porter.
fey eames Prof. W. A. Crawford.
SG ee ss Ae aa Prof. W. A. Crawford, R. A. Martin.
SSO Seeks Soe Prof. W. A. Crawford, R. A. Martin,

T. J. Craven.
WSS seySecrsatsia eee Thomas J.Craven, Mrs. E. D. Porter.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

NOWHBE scsaeedcueucoquecess
\ GUT oN Boece coo aecose
District of Columbia.

Georgetown <2 --2-).-52-42---
Wars muiniotiongeetarsi=2lniels/ eae ote

Florida.

Wedarikiey se. seis) satya
Chattahoochie Arsenal .:....
Chestnut Halle sso. 22252222
IDEN TICMER SE Soo) Seas meee aera

HOGG George 225.74 2ee es ee
Gainesvalll@ion 2 255 6h ses
Gorndonepecce ssc see eee

Green Cove Spring.....- fajeku
Isl O@IenIb)< ceclae eens aeebde

Key West, (Salt Pond) ..---..
(Mag. obs.) .----.

linen JE ES ease eames
ILAIRG: Omi cososonosaueus coos

Manaheeion 22s Se cjoss cee ose
MiayipOLtintsee ee dae se wee Tau
INUCANO DY sobs candace suc cous
ING WOTU ee ace eae fhe
New Smyrna ...---..--.----

Ocalayee=-=- Sere Nar FI aN
Orange Grove. ...-.--- Besos
Oneye® Jamls co56 sbesGeasoos
IRONS ACOA as eoea aes cee Sees

Pilatkaeen sos cece ase Sais
JE ORME osohes cGaqudecuas

Sor otiel dias esse see ete
Saint Augustine ..........-.

Mallalhasse@e. sos slen cesses

Period.

1860-1863...-...-..

Name of observer.

Mrs. E. D. Porter.
Robert Crawford.
Urban D. Hedges.

Rev. C. B. McKee.

89

1852-1860, 1864-1867} United States Naval Observatory.

Isls elaGeeau asa
1854-1874......-.--

ebilaleme sa sceonecs
1869-1870.....---..
betas Wate mere Src eoe

18531-860, 1866-1872
1854-1864....- wee
1860-1861 .:2.222---

NOG icses sa eke es A

NCTE ees Some n nA
1871-1873... 0222 -

J. Wiessner.
Smithsonian Institution.

Edward R. Ives.

Aug. Steele. ,
Benjamin F. Whitney.
Charles F. Powell.
W.#H. Hunt.

K. T. Sturtevant.
Aug. Steele.

M. Martin.

John Newton.

S. N. Chamberlin.
Henry M. Corey.
John F. Rollins.
James Bb. Bailey.

Dr. P. C. Garvin.

H. B. Scott.

G. A. Boardman.

F. L. Bachelder.

Dr. A.S. Baldwin.
W.C. Dennis.

George J. Allen.

G. F. Ferguson and J. G. Oltmans.

John Newton.

Edward R. Ives.

Galen M. Fisher.

Rev. W. W. Keep.

B. A. Coachman.

W. F. Keeler.

Dr. James B. Bean.

Rev. Charles Beecher.
George J. Alden.

Edm. K. Lowd.

Edward Barker.

W.J. Clarke.

John Newton.

United States navy-yard.
J. Pearson.

J. Pearson and Jos. Fry.
Jos. Fry.

Jos. Fry and J. W. Hester.

Lieut. J. W. Hester.
Gen. George D. Robinson.
W. Mz. L. Fiske.

Dr. J. M. Hawks.
Edward Barker.

Dr. John E. Peck.

Dr. P. B. Mauran.
George W. Atwood.
Benjamin F. Whitner.
W.S. Bogert.

Lardner Gibbon.
Truman S. Betts.
W.F. White.

90

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued. »

Name of station.

Uchee Anna
Warring tonyeeeees cesses
Welborn --..

Veer eee = wees ee ee

Comingtonee 2. oe un eee 2
Culloden
Cuthbert
Dalton
Marien ee es se erate
Factory Mills..-.........-..
Gainesville cos. . 22 oe ees

ll Shoroue lies ae eaee
MWakiayebtess aoe nee sae
Macon

Se i i i

OTT ee etc ese aes eee ab bese
Powellton

Quitman ee eee ees
SHH WAY o es con Soelakonse

Sandersville
Savannah

Sparta eee eee eee eae
Summerville

Thomson... ee

Whitemarsh Island
Zebulon

Idaho.

Cantonment Jordan......_--
Fort Benton
HOR Ealleekis ewes eee see
Fort Laramie... oes oe ae

Period.

Name of observer.

S57 1859 sae es
1859-1860..---....-
1865-1873.......---
ISGBsesoeco &
1854-1857 ..---. ----
eg uSOy ae See eae

USWISIE7 Sees sess
USOSE ise senna

esem :eercece

1851-1852 .-.-..-2--
ABST Woes ses Sea sha

ILO SSG nas She Gece
SGI SNS TOR aaeeeeee
1871-1873.-.--...-.

1849-1858. ...-.-.--.
1857-1859 ....--.-..-

John Newton.
Thayer Abert.
George R. Thralls.
R. W. Adams.

Prof. John D. Easter.
J.G. Westmoreland.
Fred. Deckner and son.
G. W. Walker.

William Haines.
William Schley.

Dr. W. H. Doughty.

H. L. Hillyer.

Rev. W. Blewitt.

A. Colvard.

.| James M. Shannon.

Jarvis Van Buren.
Col. J. R. Stanford.
Benjamin F. Camp.
John Darby.

Charles C. Seavey.

J. R. McAfee.

Charles Grant.

F. T. Simpson.

Dr. M. F. Stephenson.
W.T. Grant.

Eli S. Glover.

A. R. MeCutchen.
Miss L. J. Whitney.
John A. Rockwell.

J. F. Adams.

Miss 8. M. Proctor.
Prof. William D. Williams.
J. M. Cotting.

Prof. C. W. Lane.
Prof. J. E. Willet.
Prof. Shelton P. Sanford.
Dr. George F. Cooper.
James M. Reed.

P. C. Pendleton.

John L. Cutter.
Ebenezer Barker.

H. L. Hillyer.
Horatio N. Hollifield.
Dr. John F. Posey.

R. T. Gibson.

Dr. E. M. Pendleton.
S. E. Habersham.

Dr. James Anderson.
Rey. W. Blewitt.

Dr. W. T. Grant.

Dr. F. M. Smith.

R. T. Gibson.

Mrs. J. T. Arnold.

W. W. Johnson.
M. C. Rosseau.

J. H. Fintrock.
Col. W. O. Collins.
Dr. A. F. Ziegler.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

91

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Period.

Illinois.

Albion

eeeces eee s Vee se coer

PAE WONS|satrec laine Se isiais=.2.0) 2/35
Augusta

Batavia

Bellville

eeecceec ere secece ceecee

Belvidere
Bloomington -..---. ..-.---.
Brighton
(Chvenyorm (Citi® 5685 pasceoce cscs
‘Carthage

eer eee cece ece Coucee
eee ec es coe eet coe eee

e@ces eess cee se bee eee

Centraliayte ate ee eae
Champaign
Channahan

@harleston <o2ccse wabeee oe a
(ClNCAERD osu ds cadsicooses Gas

DMD OIG as ho ee eos che
DW @ WOME Fo cies cele apts
Edgar County ...-....------
doime tom = 225. «seb ses.
Effin gham AAR S ey ene beer fy ews

Harmibrid ge) <-> ates) seer
Fremont Center... .....--.

1866-1873 ..-.-..-.-
1851-1858... 2-2.
NBAQATS TS 2s cjcclscee
1857-1861 ..-...----
1865-1868 ..--..----
1868-1873... ...--.

1853-1854..-.-.--..
1857-166) ---- 22...
Hees eee) esis SSNS

1859-1861... - 2.5...

PSO sh ssecielolee see oer
(S56 s1867) ae
Ite UsViBieasdo0 coce
i Ke\6\0)=51 Ko) 0) See
1860-1861, 1863. ....
1862

1859-1863, 1867 .. .-
1861-1862

Name of observer.

Warren Olds. 2

Edgar P. Thompson.

S. Y. McMasters.

Norton Johnson.

Dr. E. H. Bowman.

Joel Hall.

Dr.S.B. Mead. __

Andrew J. Babcock.

Dr. Abiram Spaulding.

Dr. A. Spaulding and Mrs, E. D.
Spaulding.

Prof. William Coffin.

Dr. Thompson Mead.

E. Capen.

Frank Crandon.

N. T. Baker.

Dr. John J. Patrick.

Dr. J. J. Patrick and N. T. Baker.

G. B. Moss.

Jesse Allison.

William V. Eldridge.

Mrs. William 8. Thomas.

Samuel J. Wallace.

Mrs. E. M.A. Bell andS. J. Wallace,

H. A. Schauber.

A.P.S. Stuart.

Rey. D. H. Sherman.

Dr. Joseph Fitch.

Charles Gramesley.

Henry Falcott.

G. D. Hiscox.

Samuel Brookes.

M.C. Armstrong and J. H. Roe.

Gustave A. Boettner.

A.M. Byrne, J. H. Roe, and others,

John O. Donoghoe.

Arthur M. Byrne.

Isaac A. Poole.

John G. Langguth, jr.

C. H. Moore.

Timothy Dudley,

John D. Parker.

J. Thomas Little.

Ralph E. Meeker.

William C. Spencer.

Dr. E. H. Bowman.
Dr. Wesley Thompson.
John B. Newcomb.

1862-1863, 1865-1873) Orestes A. Blanchard.

1864-1871. 22-22 2c:

eeecce cece eoee

cece eee see eee oe

W.H. Adams.

H. G. Meacham.
Charles E. Smith.
A. D. Langworthy.
W. H. Morrison.

H. W. Scovill.

Jos. H. Gill and others.
Frederick J. Huse.
Prof, Oliver Marcy.
Elmer Baldwin.
Isaac H. Smith.

92

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

——

Name of station.

Galena -.-.-- PGCE SOC
Galesburgh
Geneseo
Golconda
Granville

Havana
Hazel Dell
Hennepin

Highland
EM Sboroughyey ee see cee tel
Hoylton

wee ee ee ee ey coees wece

Jacksonville

Lacon.

Moammi-) 22.
Louisville
Magnolia.

Marengo

eceees oe cee ees ae cece

IMatboonesince seca meee etee
MOnTOeR Aaa tera ween

Mount Sterling ....-........
Naperville} yee eve epee ere eres

se eens eee eee cee eee coe cee

lymoubhy ye seen te nes
Quineyee ease ee ees

Ridge Farm, Vermillion Co..
Rile

Rochelle, (Alta) - .....
Rockford. .

Sandwich

Period.

e2ee cote oe
eee eee wees

Lee eee NA
1870-1873
1863-1865

wc ee eee eee ween

1856- 1858, 1868. ....
1859-1863, 1865-1866
ISGSSIS 69a eeee
USIP Bacce Sogou
1871-1873
1869-1871

1859

1857-1865 .-..2--.--
NSSS STS es cee eee
1861-1862

eee e ote een ec eee

eee ees ec ee ee cece
Wescerce ene

1866-1871....2.....
1849...

1872-1873...
1873- - Se a
1872- 1873.
1873...

1859-1870, 1872- 1873

Name of observer.

Emil Hauser.

Prof. William Livingston.
W.F. Allan.

Rev. William VY. Eldridge.
L. G. Edgerly.

J. L. Jenkins.

Joseph Cochrane.

Henry Griffing.

Smiley Sheppard.

Ethan Osborn.

A. F. Bandelier, jr.

John 8. Titcomb.

J. Ellsworth.

O. J. Marsh.

Prof. William Coffin.
Timothy Dudley.

Mrs. Margaret Hamilton.
A.H. Thompson.

Prof. N. EK. Cobleigh.
Timothy Dudley.

D. H. Chase.

Henry K. Smith.

John Grant.

John Grant, Miss Ellen Grant.
John and C. W. Grant.
John and Maggie Grant.
Peter Murray.

O. P. Rogers.

O.P.and J.8. Rogers.

F. Rogers.

J. W. James.

A. W. Puffer.

W. E. Henry.

Silas Meacham.

Rey. Alexander Duncan.
Lewis Ellsworth.

Milton S. Ellsworth.
Rev. William VY. Eldridge.
C. H. Bryant.

Rev. H. H. Brickenstein.
H.N. Patterson.

Dr. J. H. Pashley.

Dr. J. O. Harris.

Dr. George O. Smith.
Samuel L. Shotwell.
Mrs. Emily H. Merwin.
Dr. Thomas Finley.

C. Leving.

J. H. Riblet.

Dr. Frederick Brendel.
M. A. Breed.

Dr. J. B. N. Klinger.

Rey. G. B. Giddings.
Frank J. Hearne.

B.C. Williams.

EK. Babcock.

Dr. E. Brendel.

Daniel Carey.

William Holt.

_...| James H. Blodgett.

F. A. Ticknor.
Thomas D. Robertson.
W. A. Burdick.

Dr. Nahum E. Ballou.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

South Pass

Springfield
Sweetwater
Tiskilwa

Wiapellaee tise ss c)aasa clot es
Warren's bun ghee pees se
Warsaw
Waterloo

Waverley
Waynesville
WiestiSallemss-. 22-52) aol see
West Urbana
Wheaton
Willow Creek
Willow Hill
Winnebago Depot.......---.
Woodstock
Wyanet

eee eee tee eee eee

Aurora
ACC re see ee ieee Bee

emcee te tee ete wees

Period.

Name of observer.

Carthagecns. 5. e e
Columbia

wees cece eee ee ee oe ee
eee ee fee es coe ene

Greencastle..........--2-1..

Harveysburgh
mca an olisls sane ee see

Jalapa

Ike Melos’ caooccee
1862-1866-.....---.
pe eo Peace

1862, 1867, 1868)...
1869" 16708 ests
ISH aleiBincea cacao
NS7O-1N872 5222 ce

IlchY-teB ye Aeeeed Goce
1858-1861..--.....-
1859-1863). 22-2 2...
oe

1865 ISVBesHseo chee
1864-1865.........-.

1854-1863...-..--..
1856-1861 Sete aoe

1869-1870 SEAS oes
1864-1865..----.--:
1864-1865.---..---.
1866-1867......--..

1866-18685. 22
Ike ales es sese esas

1868-1869.....:..-.

Frank Baker.

S. C. Spaulding.

H. C. Freeman.

G. W. Brinkerhoff.
Frank V. Alkire.
Verry Aldrich.

Prof. P. P. Brown.
Dr. John James.
Anna James.

Mrs. Anna C. Trible.
T. Louis Groff.
Timothy Dudley.
Benjamin Whitaker.

.| H. Kunster.

Francis Sinn.

W.H. Houne, sr.

Dr. C. Jozefe.

Dr. William Joslyn.
Timothy Dudley.
Joshua E. Cantril.
Henry A. Fitze.

Dr. John Swain.

Prof. George H. Collier.
E. E. Bacon.

Henry Griffing.

J. W. Tolman.

George R. Bassett.
E.S. Phelps.

E.S. Phelps and Miss L. E. Phelps.
V.P. Gay.

Mrs. Dr. B. C. Williams.

Dr. George Sutton.

Miriam Griest.

W.S.Clark. .

W. H. Hobbs.

Miss M. A. Hobbs. :

Prof. C. M. Dodd, T. H. Mallow, and
others.

William Dawson.

Hamilton Smith, jr.

Palmer Smith.

Aaron Evans.

Charles M. Hobbs.

Dr. F. McCoy and Miss Lizzie Me-
Coy.

John F, Crisp.

Sebastian Henrich.

Prof. A. C. Huestis.

Miss G. Webb.

R. I. Robertson.

Prof. Jos. Tingley.

William H. Larrabee.

Mrs. Dr. B. C. Williams.

Royal Mayhew.

W. W. Butterfield.

W. W. Butterfield and Mrs. Butter-
field.

W.J. Elstun.

G. V. Wooley, E. Hadley, and R. D.
Craighead, (city hospital.)

Albert C. Irwin.

94 MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
Kendallville: 322. seein: IkeBy Se pe bb on coou eens W. B. Coventry: -
VEGAN eget eee. J. Knauer.
Kentlandiss. eaeyete cette Wetec coon beak Daniel Spitler.
Kanightstownl 5222 ceeee-/- cle te/Sieoe cee cose D. Deem.
Mmaconiaie osc cee eee 1869-1873 ...-.. 2226 Adam Crosier.
Wan Wayetbecese = = saacrerne. MSG Seco sobteo Stee A. H. Bixby.
Wb4= 222555555525. H. Peters.
1865s 222 ssa sseeeas- Isaac E. Windle.
1869-1870....-..--: J. W. Newton.
La Porte -. sch abet NEN eee | ABAD cag 2 ras Bele R. M. Newkirk.
1869-1871-.22..-..- Fred. G.-Andtre.
Wes 2c Gec eo. Os UNNOae Ses EE ABGW ss vao.35 se bintes Dr. W. W. Spratt.
MiVvoniaa. .. cess Leelee eae Nef les hey Dyan Mee J.R. Howard.
Wogansponbs.s= soaceeeeener 1857-1858 ..---..-.-- Charles B. Laselle.
1859-1861.......-.- Isaac Bartlett.
WS63use< seancckeas Thomas B. Helm.
Madison o\s5... 0 Seba aes B54 Soar ke assteshe! C. Barnes.
1864 scse555 558 55% ‘.|.Rev. Samuel Collins.
1865 se2sescsees S532 Oliver Mulvey.
Meroml cae eee eters 186G=18 73545545 5452 Thomas Holmes.
Michigan City.....:--.- s.4.| 1857-1858. 225..22-- C. 8S. Woodard.
1859-1860 ..-...-2..: W. Woodbridge, B. D. Angell, H.
Blake.
Moltonvys s2c.ee eee eet 1853S=1855- 552222 Dr. V. Kersey.
WER RYE ee a Ose Aes GSeS on|, Leow Ss cosccoasee caus George C. Munfield.
Mount Carmel ...--:-... 2... 1869-1873... 53s. .: J. A. Applegate and daughter.
Muncie. a2 See ie ee 1863-1864... 222 2.... K. J. Rice.
1866-1870... 2.222. -.| G. W. H. Kemper.
New Albany: S22so2ss4seacsee 1855-1858). 325522 C. Barnes.
1 eta y9 JW eee eee eae op ca Dr. Alex. Martin.
1863-1865, 1869... .. Dr. E. S. Crozier.
New Castleso. eee ee: AOE yee espe eee Prof. Jos. Tingley.
1863-1865... 222: Thos. B. Redding.
New Garden? 22232 eee S54 eee Dr. H. Roberts.
New Harmony.----.-2-.---- 1852-1873 ...22. 22-2 John Ohappelsmith.
1849-1851, 1867. .... Dr. D. D. Owen.
ING WiPODb: S22. 5. sacs. Steel oeiele Pebt sas ees Daniel H. Roberts.
North Wiberty’ 222.2820: ey PAR eas Bt een ees E. L. Halleck.
IP At OK sistas ire toe cere eee VE59 esse oro A. P. Turner.
Pennville oss 2so Shee, W864 soso John Griest.
IVENSSClAeH Gian hae esi ieteet: 1864-1865, 1867-1871] Dr. J. H. Loughridge.
Richmond ss. ess aS AAG AVS ey ee Dr. John T. Plummer.
1851-1855, 1859-1861] W. W. Austin.
IS50—1859 eee ieee Joseph Mocre.
1859-1863. 2.22. 222. John Haines.
1862-1632 cece ee Edward B. Rambo.
1865-1868...-.. 2... John Valentine.
RISING SUN: emitsereicice oa TSM SUSTS iste eee Thomas E. Alden.
Rockville sec asso see 1859-1866...... 2... H. H. Anderson.
W859. ee tiae J. M. Tenbrock.
Shelbyville 0-352) Seales 1859-1862.......--- J.T. Bullock.
South Bend eee ae ee CSS] Gs a ee eh Prof. Gardner Jones.
1858-1859... ---- Prof. Thomas Vagnier.
SSO eee eete cee Miss G. Webb.
1860-1863... .--... James H. Dayton.
1863-1865......---- Reuben Burroughs.
South Hanover:...........2. S49 ce EER Prof. S. H. Thomson.
Spicelandiaso22. oe eee 1863-1873....-. 2... Wm. Dawson.
Sweetser’ 125 52 225 20 2S STi cs ee Albert C. Irwin.
Valparaiso. ssc i ane SOO cee cas ee ee Rey. Robert Beer.
VGVaj- 2c. s eee ee BOT 1864-1870...02....- Charles G. Boerner.
Walnut Hills 22s peo OAD oper soe ee | W. W. Austin.
Warsaw oo acct cent otk 1870-1871......----- Geo. R. Thralls.

J. W. Curtis.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

95

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Indian Territory.

Armstrong Academy
IDGRIKEWMNIGS o6 booese caee beae
Mahlequah2 eps sse cess 222

Ames

ROMEO. oo4ecc oes berEee beoe
Bellevue
Boonsborough
Borderpelainseosesee see eee

Bowen’s Prairie..-......---.
Burlington

Ceres

= eee Cee ewe ee ee eee

es see eee eee eee Cece we

Cresco .--
CoOumen! [hint sseeest ees coos

Davenport). 5.4 chee eecs-

Des Moines. ...-......------
ID DRG WS esate noecsuesaese

Fayette
Hontanelilen a. 22-20 eee

ae ccee cee eee eons coe e

Period.

Ike MSrAl 55 pecose

1867-1868). -5222 2:
HO58 kc cicee eee

1851-1855, 1857-1858,
Iichie— evils eke caas

Lea Dalene Daas
1859-1860... ...-.

Name of observer.

Prof. A. G. Moffatt.
P. P. Brown.
T. B. Van Horne.

Dr. F. McCoy.

F. McCoy and Miss E. McCoy.

Philip Dorweiler.

James H. Warren.

Ernest Adams.

B. Carpenter.

A. M. Russell.

Isaac M. Gidley.

John C. Forey.

E. Babcock.

G. C. and W. K. Goss.

Wm. K. Goss.

Samuel Woodworth.

John M. Corse.

Louisa P. Love.

Mrs. James Love.

John M. Hagensick.

Dr. 8. H. Kridelbaugh.

Kridelbaugh and Peterson.

Nathan H. Parker.

P. J. Farnsworth.

Gregory Marshall.

Benjamin Talbot.

William O. Atkinson.

Nathan H. Parker.

A. J. Finley.

H. 8. Finley.

H.S. Finley and W. P. Dunwoody.

J. Chamberlain, W. P. Dunwoody,
H. H. Belfield.

Dr. Ignatius Langer.

H.H. Belfield and W. P. Dunwoody.

J. Chamberlain and W. P. Dun-
woody.

J. Chamberlain.

George B. Pratt.

G. B. Pratt and Sydney Smith.

D. 8S. Sheldon.

Rev. J. A. Nash.

Dr. Asa Horr.*

Rev. Joshua Phelps.
Dr. W. W. Woolsey.
F. A. Ross.

Dexter Beal.

J. M. Shaffer.

Miss Sue McBeth.

.| John M. McKenzie.

A. F, Bryant.

A. F. and Mrs. Julia A. Bryant.
Daniel Sheldon.

Daniel McCready.

Dexter Beal and W. W. Beal.
Dexter Beal.

C.N. Jorgenson.

96

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.

Fort Madison....-.-..------ 1868-1872 ..---. .... Daniel McCready.

a 1872-1873. 225 54.56. Miss Lucy McCready.

Gierins Giiy ookeccosanuosacce WAGES Bscoo06 6sss Edwin and Mrs. Rosina Miller.

Groveretille oes cs ee 1859-1860....-...-- Dexter Beal.
1861...............| Dexter Beal and W. W. Beal.
18625e2 3 ee eel MirssC@elianBbeals

Gubtenburgy scene. soeeeeaoee 64-1 36024 ie eae Philip Dorweiler.
1866-1873 22.2 12S James P, Dickinson.

larris) Grover: ease see ee 1866-1873.......... Jacob F. Stern.

HET S WOT Meee va arya ie LL USSD os 65566 H. B. Williams.

Flop kamtoneees aes NEN 8o4 os cooase T. H. McBride.

Iindependencere cere taesreee USD 55566 on 6c D.S. Deering.
1862-1866......-.-. A. C. Wheaton.
1866-1873 ...... 22222 Mrs. D. B. Wheaton.
1867-1873. - -| Dr. George Warne.

Towa (City.-. 35 os. aehen ees 1356 Fee enn =| Elormann ha Hlairallls
1857-1858 -. ----| W. Reynolds.
1861-1873..........| Prof. Theodore §. Parvin.

MO waa Sie eee a er SG3—1S7 2h eae Nathan Townsend.

Keokuike cs eerie Bi seit lis Basasccogcos oada|) Die dig Jay lal,

TSC Oe ee eo ee eleroreiue Me chalors

Kossuth ieee soo sei une ae 1862..-............| William P. Leonard.

UST B ee eis aes ors eto eye 1860-1861.......... Tsaiah Reed.

NST eS aie A. P. Gilbert.

WAZ RG lis Sierras acre Oia ei Ua el WO) o cassces .| J. J. Bruce.

IDWONEane sone baaseo Baca ets ISU casces coos Dr. A. T. Hudson.
1862-1865... 2222: P. J. Farnsworth.
SOG eee eee eee Drs dpvliessman:

Manchester: 3.222525 -eene ee 1865-1866..........] Allen Mead.

Maquoketa). <2 (treo tyes 1857-2. =... 222) Edward PF. ohare

MarblelRocke 32s oesateare 1867-1973... .....-..| H. Wadey.

Mineral Ridge ..........--.. 1869-1870.......22. J.F. Sullivan.

Monticello see asa yeaeie 1864-1866 .-.2..-- --| Chauncey Mead.
1866-1870.......-.. M. M. Moulton.

ISON oon6 soo ces Rufus P. Smith,
1372... z .| J. EK. Janes.

Mount Pleasant. .-.-... .-- aot 1868 1864 oe ye KE. L. Briggs.
1871... ............) A. A. Mansfield.

Mount viernonse es ees aee 1857 wee ee eee |) Prot. Bo WaSimithe:
186021873. -........| Prof. Alonzo Collins. :

MQOOEHTING Gao5 sdecoo Goon bode 1849-1852, 1855-1859, T.S. Parvin.
1853-1854..........| P.G. Parvin.
1860-1864..........| S. Foster.

SOO pare ea T.S. Parvin and Rey. John Ufford.,
1861-1862... ..- 8. Rev. John Ufford.
1863-1873.........-| Josiah P. Walton.

Newton. eece sac 5 oes 1869-1870........- A. Failor.

Onowa so ease sede 1864...............| Richard Stebbins.

Osage reas eae oft SDE 1866-1867... ........| Rev. Alva Bush.

Cla, cea eee 1854-1856 ...-..-... KK. H. A. Scheeper.

Pieasantielaineseeee eas 1855-1865... .. 22-3. Townsend McConnell.

Pleasant Spring .--..-...--- 1858 pees eve bat Odell:

Plum Spring sees eeseereree [eboreve cee eae B. F. Odell and Mary G. Odell.
IS speeee esse Sass] Teeny. 18, 10. Ovdlell,

Rowltney sta. 6 fs veer ISSS 1854 yas aes Dr. B. F. Odell.

Quasqueton 2 icyxe sae eee 1S53=18565 oleae Dr. E. C. Bidwell.

Red Oak Junction... 2.2... 1872. Sdddo Godel Jd Als laleheatey,

ROMO ees a ys Le: VS 1868-1870... ches any Oscar L. Strong.

Rossville ss 8222 ace eles Icy oles) aa Beane ase Carlisle D. Beaman.

SEV0, Oni pgeCoe mene sae en ay) 1870-1872_.........| Daniel B. Nelson.

Siousy City: ae bea ere

Saint, Mary’s=- - 2662/23 Jo2.2
Vernon Springs: 3254-336.

1857=1858.. 22.522 --
1861-1863... .....--.
1853... ae
epi oteoakoe wean

Dr. J. J. Saville.
A. J. Millard.

..| D. E. Read.

Gregory Marshall.

MONTHLY

METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS. 9

co |

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
WAND OMY lacs ajc n= Seen Sees 1869.....,..-......| James Wood.
Wea GUO 666580 ceeicns Bo IO Seep k oe sd Se C.R. Boyle.
Wiaterloost fea eOst iss fe 1859-1864 ..........| T. H. Doyle.
1864-1870 .......--. T. Steed.
Weakcomletea 02 poe. fe. Las HACI=1 8702 I. M. Hancock.
Weltsi@e Citic ceo ssccissaden|| Husk erases ee ees c. Clayton J. Croft.
West Branch -...22022 220. POV —NS7Q Sse ee A.M. Russell.
Whitesborough -...-...--- WADE Basan bocce David K. Witter.
\Wwasu Witton Jse4 oa co4saotodol dice aileyeeeeus nace Frank McClintock.
Kansas.
ANTICS 3665 Cac ORE eS ee tas ses ols saanoo rede John M. Cotton.
PNT CIISOMMe ee eee 1865-1873......---. Dr. H. B. Horn and Miss Clotilde
Horn.
PAO Mba y: aa See AR See 3 1866......-......-..| Allen Crocker.
Baaxiaie Syoesoas s6 5 esekso se LSGR— EVO Rs, Ingraham & Hyland.
Baxter Springs ...-.--...- 1871-1873.-........| William Hyland.
HeWlevilles. 2.8. pase a 132 pean es OPA AN Gardner:

: eFC /Sie ee oecos J. W. Raynolds.
Buttalo Creek222 =22. en. 8 NSU STS eee R. I. Eagle.
leunbinwrnne -ooe Asoo bodeee CBRL ooo aoeace Lucian Fish.

171-1873. R. M. Hoskinson.
Burbino tombs sess eee 1869-1870. .2..2...- Allen Crocker.
SGD iim cs ata Aah barca J.D. Parker.
(CANE soscenosaso oueedoos 1858 | ree W. H. Gilman.
Celestvillle- 22... eS s2Vee P59 -1S60R ees Rev. J. H. Drummond.
Centreville ...-..-.....--. 1873-. - Dr. J. M. G. Beard.
Councili@ity S25 ss2- 5-528 1857—1858.2.-. 108 Edmund Fish.
@Woumeil Grove) 2.2 es se: NGS SSB ooo Addaoe Dr. A. Woodworth.
Crawfordville......-...-.- Meteo aitey/a oss caaose Perey Daniels.
WoUgTaS) case. 2 2 BN 1EZO-NS(32t= eee Dr. W. M. Lamb.
ISHN KOGA, soso oboe esorsoseeS USGS teak 200S C.F. Oakfield.
[ore Jah ee SA eeeome Hae 1859-1860. 2.2228 Rev. David Clarkson.
1862-1864.......... Dr. Fred. P. Drew.
1865. . ----..----| Post Surgeon.
18662 .-<2 22k 2 J. M. Shaffer and E. P. Camp.
Gardner. s2-5 22. oes Rae 18602 Lesa eee a F. Merriam.
1861-1862.......... James Scott.
EVOMGOM Se 3. a ERO OS ES 1867-1873... 22 2-252. Dr. James Watters.
utichinsoms..--.22- 25.222 S72 eee ee ees ACS TL unmnts
Iimdependence. 222. 325-222 Tey Nor sien ee Dr. W. E. Henry.
Junction City ...--.--..-- B62" tense ns ene ees Dr. E, W. Seymour.
NGAWEOMCE Gs; LG aa is ay 1857-15922 25 22S e228 G. W. Brown.
1860-1861........-- W.J.R. Blackman.
1862-1864.......... A.N. Fuller.
1863-1864......-.-- W.L. G. Soule.
1867...........---.| George W. Hollingworth..
1268-1873.......--.| Prof. F. H. Snow.
Leavenworth ...... Hse pueele --| 1857-1859, 1868. ---- H.D. McCarty.
1858-1860........-. EK. L. Berthoud.
1861-1862 ...:.....- M. Shaw.
1866-1572.....----. Dr. J. Stayman.
ROGB ws hes eee Mad T. B. Stowell.
Lecompton....-...--..4-- 1859-1860.....----. Dr. William T. Ellis.
; 1860-1861........-. William A. McCormick.
SOG Se sas es Se se: David G. Bacon.
MU CTOVjsoe'e oes sss SU 1867, 1869-1873. .... J. G. Shoemaker.
Metta Jos pH RELRR CE le 1@57=1862- 2. 22225: Isaac T. Goodnow.
Rev. N. O. Preston.

78

I. T. Goodnow and H. L. Denison.

Henry L. Denison.

Agricultural College, B. F. Mudge,
and others.

98

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS,

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution— Continued.

Name of station.

Moe apuene scents Se

Olatha
JPAOIN Sea teen Basanti cu oes
Plum Grove
Ridigewayieemacs beeciseceae

awe eee ee ee ee oe ee

TROBE A et tha estan ne Se

Mopekare sos cate eee
Williamsburgh
Williamstown

WAINCOWD S66 665000 s0n0 6600

Kentucky.

1ByyerelN INOS say one dadaus Soas
Ben WMS cccses cocodo seeds
Bowling Green...-.--...----

Chilesburgh
Clinton
CrabiOrchardees eee
Danville

Drennon Springs..----.----.
Georgetown

a i

Harrodsburgh
JUGINGRIOM 555 oo sossSh cache

eee eee oe ee ee we eee

Maysville
MilWersbo ume hy se see terse
Millersburchiteeesreeee aren

Newport
Nicholasville
Nolin
Paducah
IRarisene ie Dieses epagone sage
Pleasant Valley. Ee i ao
Prospect Hill. sae tiatty
Russellville-
Springdale, near Louisyille..
Taylorsville sSae eg ceeee aeesen
Wanchesterses-. sr ape ares

Lowisiana.

Benton

Isha s seco cs se

Period. Name of observer.
Ieee nod osa coc Dr. S. O. Himoe.
ICH). bSoSe ..--.| J.O. Wattles and Celestia Wattles.
e599 S186 lee B. EF. Goss.
1868-1870.......... Mrs. E. M. Groesbeck.
NPRM 545 sooo] W. Neiswender.
1864-1872 -.2...-.-- W. Beckwith.
S69 1SBE ese eee L. D. Walrad.
BOS SS us Sele waaay el O. H. Brown.
PBOSles fe oS eel Glee O. H. Brown.
ETO sain tie Bap WAT John M. Cotton.
QE SS ee es W. H. Cotton.
BSB) es Mee sh cis ween FE. W. Giles.
Isl oMsiBesss socooo D. Fogle.
USPOSNeGBscss ceacce John M. Cotton.
1859-1860 SERIE eS John H. Miller.
1869-1872 .......--. Howard Shriver.
1853-1856, 1860-1862) D. John Swain.

1858. - --.------| John H. Luxemann.
1859. - -c..----.| J. H. Lunemann and Thos. H. Niles
1860-1861 - Siu .--| Thomas H. Niles.
MXN. Ss So 5555555550) Iie, OC ID), Casa,
NSIC Boogo6go5os Edward W. Horr.
1849-1852......---. J. E. Younglove.

ISH ee Sete ee aver F.C. Herrick.

1865-1873......---.| Dr. Samuel D. Martin.

1LS68=1869R ss eae Rev. T. H. Cleland.

ISSUE. os6 cesco6 John I. Tarrant.

1853-1862, 1865-1873] O. Beatty.

PEGA wis eta steal R. H. Caldwell.

TCHR US Pree aaa ees ere Ls Prof. S. Y. McMasters.

TCG ee A ee oe Rev. J. BE. Letton.

eRe ste eaas ope sot Mrs. Mary A. Walker and J.
Barbage.

NEGO SISGI eens Joshua C. Barbage.

TSH /PAG er iG it ona et Rev. J. E. Letton.

1 ea esti oy J.D. Shane.

1859, 1867- 1869. oe Rev. S. R, Williams.

1865-1866 SN Reet W.S. Doak.

NS5C8=1359RA es aeee eee Rev. S. R. Williams.

1860-1863 .......--.- i. N. Woodruff.

WD Seas 665 dooadal ID Sp 1D), Mlanalhy.

1870-. Sees ces Dray Blackburn:

1852-1854. See ett KE. L. Berthoud.

HESS ss REC eS a Rev. J. Miller.

LSS4 Bess Sse Rev. J. Miller, Rev. G. 8. Savace

Wels}s—eloMeeoe aead se Dr. George 8. Savage.

HSOls secs as eee Le Prof. M. G. Williams.

1861-1863........-. Dr. Jos. MeD. Matthews.

icone Sees oS J. Grinnell.

TCA US 3S SauSse Andrew Mattison

Hel SO 5 Opes eee L. G. Ray. -

1853. Aeanbe oul) ANG Lely BSlONy

1849- 1851... .| O. Beatty.

1860. - .| E. M. Murch.

1849- 1855, 185 7 1872 Mrs L. Young.

1866 - .| H.C. Mathis.

187221873-...0m8 James M. Ogden.

J. H. Carter.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

99

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Snithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Cheneyville
@leanvialke} cakes tersacecece he
Delhi
AN VieDn eee eerie ae eee
Grand Coteau
Independence

see ese eee ew ee ee

wees ee eee ee ee ee

Pomtipeleasaminaseescese ee:
Ponchatoula
Shreveport
Saint Francisville .-....-..--
INES cook So neisd

* Vidalia Plantation.

Maine.

IEAM G558 Gane Be OSE O Bae Sae

Ibeliastiemacicnn a2
Bethel

Brewer Village
Brunswick
IBWUChSPORb=).. cise caiaatk 2 <eb

Castine

Dexter
Mashwbyxetem ooceresbeice oo.
East Wilton

Exeter
Foxcroft
Freedom .... Seis
JNAELUDE dene eos smears eee
Gardiner

Hartland

EVOmItOM: Besos sacs ee eee

Period.

EVOBIEV Se aLabeel.
US O9ANS 72 eee

Tiley SHE SA aes He 3

LEO NSO2 Baa. ees
1849-1853 - -
HRT SS a ans a at
1854-1855......----
NS G4 ess cea
Weve Mone soseks-
MONS) s 355 cotacc
SAO AS 52 eee ee
ikea ssSae she
1872.

Name of observer.

R. 8. Jackson.
George N. Leoni.
Rey. T. H. Cleland.
Dr. A. W. Jackson.
B. F. Anthonios.
Col. C. B. Swasey,
Mrs. M. J. Mankard.
Prof. W. P. Riddell.
George N. Leoni.
Dr. E. H. Barton.
Lewis B. Taylor.
Dr. 8S. P. Moore.
Harrison Thompson.
Robert W. Foster.
E. L. Ranlett.

Isaae Stathem
Ernest Turner.

H. C. Collins.

Dr. J. L. Moore.

B. R. Gifford.

Dr. A. R. Kilpatrick.
Dr. Edward Merrill.
Rey. A. K. Teele.

tephen Gilman.
C. L. Nichols.
G. Emerson Brackett.
Rey. A. G. Gaines.
J. G. Garland.
F, A. Small.
Rev. S. H. Merrill.
H. H. Osgood.
HE. D. Mayo.
Prof. Parker Cleaveland.
Rufus Buck.
Willabe Haskell.
James Coison.
J.J. Bell.
Dr. J. L. Stevens.
G. W. Guptill.
Silas West.
B. F. Wilbar
Stephen Gilman.
Henry Reynolds & Lauriston Rey-
nolds.
Dr. Henry Reynolds.
Dr. J. B. Wilson.
M. Pitman.
i. A. Buller.
G. B. Barrows.
Hon. R. H. Gardiner.
Rev. F. Gardiner.
Rev. F. & R. H. Gardiner. -
R. H. Gardiner.
E. E. Brown, 8. W. Hall,
Strickland, and othors,
Milton Welch.
Charles H. Fernald.
Bevjamin H. Towle.
i. Pitman.
W.G. Lord.
J.S. Crehore,

SLES

100

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Name of station.

Lisbon
Milibrid eee eee eee ener
Monson

New Castle
New Sharon

i ir es

North Prospect
Norway

Oldtown
Orland
Orono

Perry
Portland.

Rumford Point
Sebec
South Thomaston.
Standish
Steuben
Surry
Thomaston
Topsham
Vassalborough .
Warren! 22220. Cu ear eaten a
Webster.

ere ece =~ cece eee

Whitehead .
Williamsburgh
Wyndham

Maryland.

Agricultural College, Prince
‘Geor 2e’S County .
Annapolis

Baltimore

Bladensbureh
Catonsville gs... ssassneeee

Cumberland’. 22 a.ueeeest le
Ellicott’s City
Ellicott’s Mills
Emmittsburgh

Period. Name of observer.
Ieee oe G5 Asa P. Moore.
el Py serra ee tA ot M.S. Pinkham.
NG5O—1S5 9a eee B. F. Wilbur.
eM ee ssoos cscs J.R. Clittord.
SUSE 5s So55 A. J. Clifford.
NEVIUS oo nos case B. C. Wentworth,
INCE Rae eee = C. L. Nichols.
1860-1862 .......... Oye; dia 1, JERR
1859-1860.........- A. H. Wyman.
1860-1861.......... M.Gould. ,
WO s Coeaosaecassoe Wineaill Gh, dation,
SOO SUS Gil aene ees G.Wie Vercillllt ayn:
BAGG Bye ey ane Rev. S. H. Merrill.
1872-1873..........| Freeman H. Chase,
1870-1873...... ...| M.C. Fernald.
1868-1873 ..........| Howard D. Smith.
TES VANG) Rune anaes Ea S. Eveletb.
1862...............| Rev. E. Dewhurst.
1853-1865........../ William D. Dana.
1855—1S60R eee Henry Willis.
E5986 ene John W. Adams.
Ney PMG s ase oboe W. H. Ohler.
1866-1869 .......... Waldo Pettingill.
ISO ASKA Ee ae Ree ce eg Edwin Pitman.
B58 —1B54e eee ‘Joshua Bartlett.
1865-1873 .... 2-2... John P. Moulton.
1849-1873\......0222. J.D. Parker,
WeVOmNSBocss ccsacs Oscar H. Tripp.
1849-18520 22.2... George & Chr. Prince.
LE59=1861_... 222... Warren Johnson
1859-1863..........| James Van Blascom,
E59 —1S60 Eee Calvin Bickford.
1865-1867 ....2. 2... Almon Robinson.
NOSED oo 556 oae5 B. F. Wilbur.
Tic ES ich5y) oe Joshua Bartlett.
MEGS UCBs oo oo. Edwin Pitman.
A915 6e 222 oe eeen Samuel A. Eveleth.
1861-1862.......... Dr. Montgomery Johns.
Testa UE ech an Ae eee sei Prof. W. I’. Hopkins.
155 1850s esas Dr. A. Zumbrock,
IS5O—187 2 ssa5 eee W. R. Goodman.
eNOS ceoco use. Naval Hospital.
lie, WSR sooo Gos. Dr. Lewis F. Steiner.
NSS (1859 Wane eens Prof. Alfred M. Maver.
1854-1864 -..2..22.. Benjamin O. Loundes.
1865-1867... . 2. S222 George S. Grape.
Wels Coa cooues James A. Pearce, jr.
HBOS Sa Ger es Saeed Prof. A. W. Clark.
1B59=18605 3. 522; Rev. A. Sutton.
1861-1864.......... Prof. J. Russell Dutton.
HBAQ Tes bE Ree T. C. Atkinson.
eyieaMeryBeee Gkase E. T. Shriver.
Is eyBe eb ooucke H. M. Shepherd.
SOA reso ersy a yaa Philip Tabb.
1866-1869 ...... 2... Eli Smith.
1867-1873 ......22-. Prof. C. H. Jourdan,
NEVO S73 os aes G. G. Curtiss.
I HeSkay Wk) RRR rabope a ese ei ok Dr. Lewis F. ‘Steiner.

1852-1854, 1856, 1863,
1869- 1872

Henry E. Hanshew.
; (

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

LOL

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

®
Frederick
Green Spring Furnace. .-.. -.
Hagerstown
Leitersburgh

ILGOMENGOM AN So6 couemoeoeSses
Linwood
No mmiGyAWIEy eee la-i= te se1- i.
New Market

Nottingham
Oakland -
PO We COS aode see ease nes
IMEISHELUSOWAG Ss. ae Soe tseraer ae
Ridge
Sandy Hill
Seine) Cheeehes Cua aeerescee seas
Syikesvillese.-) Seen tele

~ Skubits Ihmiexoess G5S85 Sone nsesee
WinioneBrideer ss. -ceseeee =:
Walkersville
\woodllanwil oo c6aseasn
Woodstock College

Massachusetts.

INiminenstise “2 Aten eh see
Baldwinsville
IBaGNSta lems esac
Boston

eee ee tee eee ee eo eee ee ee

Cee Wal tO om aeetsacieieal sail

Brookline
Byitielde: 22 jnaats cpeiseerasis acs
Cambridge

IDwEslyNiy SGeee aoe
Fall River.. f
Wiiela UF Sees esou cuca soe
Moria sos 2a Lacie see

Framingham .
Georgetown

eee es eee eee Bee ot coor

Kingston -
Lawrence

Period.

1865-1866) 4. 2 eae
MSP PMB casscodso
GSZ-Ne5 4 ee Gee
1852. MUS eae" 8
12858 Bie 62... Brera, sade. v

1873...

18 49 Wee Pagaege mass

1853-1854
S55 oS Geese ree
IE Isle so soease

1849-1873 .....-----.
el 1865 eee ees

1S65 86622227455"
USGS=NS69 Bass see eee
IS69-18G1 ee seer
SWS 722 ess

Name of observer.

Miss H. M. Baer.
E.G. Kinsell.

Rev. J. P. Carter.
Lewis J. Bell.

Jacob E. Bell.

Dr. Alexander McWilliams.
Charles F. Hanshew.
E. A. Vannort.

H. H. Hopkins.
Prof. J. P. Nelson.
Prof. J. F. Maguire.

.| A. P. Dalrymple.

L. R. Cofran.

Henry W. Thorp.

Rev. R. Heber Murphy.
T. G. Stage.

Isaac Bond.

FE. J. Devilbiss.

Prof. Wm. Baer.

Prof. W. Baer and Miss H. M. Baer

Miss H. M. Baer.

Rev. James Stephenson.
Jas. T. Ellicott.
Warrington Gillingham,
Josiah Jones.

James O. McCormick.
A. X. Valente.

Prof. E. S. Snell.
Rev. E. Denhurst.
B. R. Gifford.

E. L. Smith.

EK. L. Adams.

F. H. Appleton.
Marshal Conant.

L. A. Darling.

C. W. Felt and others.
Normal School.
Rey. John B. Perry.
Martin N. Root. |
W.C. Bond.

Harvard College Observatory.

Augustus Fendler.
Rey. Jobn B. Perry.
Mrs. J. B. Perry.

Mrs. 8. H. Perry.

D. H. Ellis.

Naval Hospital.

Dr. George M. Morse.
A. W. Mack.

James Ritchie.
Charles C. Terry.
George Raymond.

L. F. Whitcomb.
Jacob Davis.
Gustavus A. Hyde.
Henry M. Nelson.

S. Augustus Nelson.
Rev. William G. Scandlin.
Rey. E. Denburst.
Guilford 8. Newcomb.
John Fallon.

102

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period.
ME OWie ieee aces sec ecole ania 1B49= 185i see eee ee
Ieunenbure hie. 2 5 = es er 1866-1873..-...--..
TUAW sadaou ob =a SS pogsed'sese 14921352 eee
Mendon cce ets ac ete eens SAG Ua aire lane siya
; ONE B sagas esse
TN ED eee ys al eg SS I NGG Be os ba5 555,
INGINHNC Es sso cscuoueoese fess sO oosose ae55
Nowy leabiort) G4acaccocuesseas SAO SS yi
NGDBSNSTBe6s6os sane
1866-1867, 1871-1872
NSPIEMNSIB 56855 Gabe
IN@MIDUUAY coaknGkesoose boGode 1865-1873... .. venaye oes
Newburyport .-----...--2---- SSSA 4S S45 soos
INCAS Sa) fear ee aie unten,
North Adams,(Hoosac tunnel)) 1871-1873....-..---
North Attleborough. -.-...--.-- ISH EMSHS oo o5 cocebe
North Billerica..-..-.2-.-. -- NSTC AMSIB ss b560 6hs6
laintield sees eee I SES Ae eA eB Sagi Be Ae
IPIMNGEUOM Sooees ddeccun6usec SSIS Soohos S456
Inpyadkoloin Cot ees o5So5 sosSuse SOUS G2 Bese eeeeee
IRCA OMOh SSS Soeobo bess Gade 1849-1863, 1865-1872
IBOCRVOR Soassocubosdecdogee Te Roy: Sei aoa se
Roxbury elec cee Sees SAG eo ine A Nee

Salem ea ave eee crater ate NEB Sees
SemohwiOll -Sodo0 ba56e boouae S63 COD ree eee
Somerset oo Steere eeceatcre so WSIS Gesadccae
South GrotonGsece-aeeecre ce ASIC) ies ae res re mee
Southwick esses UMMM) oobbca Seoe
Sprinodhieldeeeesae eee aeeeee 1853-1856... 22222. .
RS 5s Oey Mee MEU ale I
Stockbridie) eee n25 sacra SAO Tayo hee
PPM GOI) se ccs eae eee oes NCES Caceso sac
Mopsiield joV.o. sess 8 Hees 1860-1862...... 2...
1863-1864..........
1864-1866......_.--
IKK Booe 5 coasss
Wesbmidioeneiscce-cyaemere eee S54 Meee ee ae Nee
WiestmD emis es ewer I GY se calla GUD A
Wiestivelid’s Sec ee eres Sages Mev 56 ososes
WiestiNewbone .52 see eee UiSorSilsyessosoeses
Weymouth seers ees 1856-1857, 1859. _...
Wilhamstown «.2.-5-55.<-.- SSIES Soha aneeee
USS ANE Atte ay Cae
iste GaSe sSebds
S515 Oke sae eee
1860-1868... 222. 222.
sy at EGON sad ccc 5e
Wiens slo oascodsso osoods shy SIGH D oso 665 Sone
IWiOLCESteR =e cease See eee S49 S185) eae eeee
1853-1856, 1865. ....
USES ea ee AS ae
Lewes ko Skee ss6
1359 S104 Waa ee
1866-1868... ....-.
1868-1869.........-
ISOS BLS Sess 6sbe

Michigan.

YANCGUTTSE Wa epee AS Dy Oe ewer Ae YH STAC) Wa AN Ae ics Pay
TRS (eae A eee ana BS

Name of observer.
janie leone

Charles J. Gilliss.
Geo. A. Cunningham.
Jacob Bachelder.
Henry Rice.

Dr. John G. Metcalf.
Rev. A. K. Teele.
Hon. Wm. Mitchell.
Thomas Bailey.
Samuel Redman.
Kdward T. Tucker.
George 8. Hart.
John H. Caldwell.
Dr. H. C. Perkins.
A.S. and M. C. Jones.
Benj. D. Frost.
Henry Rice.

Rev. Elias Nason.
Francis Shaw.

Hon. John Brooks.
Orrin A. Reynolds.
William Bacon.

R. D. Mussey.
Benjamin Kent.

.| E. 8S. Cassino.

Dr. N. Barrows.
lisha Slade.

Alfred Collin.

Amasa Holcomb.

Lucius C. Allin.

Francis A. Brewer.

Abraham S. Peet.

Albert Schlegel.

Nathan W. Brown.

John H. Caldwell.

Arthur M. Merriam.

Sidney A. Merriam.

Dr. James Robbins.

Eugene Tappan.

Rev. Dr. E. Davis.

John H. Bixby.

Dr. N. O. Tirrell.

C.M. Freeman.

Prof. P. A. Chadbourne.

D.J. Holmes, Jas. Orton, Lavalette
Wilson, and others.

J. McGee, C. J. Lyons, M. L. Ber-
ger, and others.

Astronomical Observatory.

Prof. Albert Hopkins.

B. R. Gifford.

S. F. Haven.

Dr. E. A. Smith, T. H. Rice, and
others.

Dr. Geo. Chandler.

John 8. Sargent and others.

Dr. H. C. Prentiss.

Dr. Joseph Draper.

Dr. Alfred EK. Walker.

D. T. Morrill, M. Bemis, and Daniel
Lovejoy.

Miss S. M. Holmes.
Jacob Breedon.

MONTHLY

METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

103

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsoniau Institution—Continued.

Grand Traverse
Holland

Homest

Houghton

Howell

CAGE aye ects terete ee

eet ewe - eee eee wee

DANKE COD ERES ae SES ere.

Lansing

Litchfield

Lower Saginaw-.----.2-----

Macon

MI Onn tie eeee e Sa aa

Monroe

1857-1860, 1870-1873
1860-1861
ce

see ee te ee ee eee
erent ee eee

1800- 1863, 1865-1870
1564-1867, 1869, 1870

e405 5 ak es
1864-1867

ISO3=167 See ae
1865-1873... 2. 2...

18: 5

eee ee woe

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
PAID OMAN els ors aio ccis cre menses SGD NS (Sree epee J. W. Paxton.
SPATIMUAGDOL <2 esc asses seis iae PESO ES Aa eee Dr. H. R. Schetterly.
EH DS ase ee ee L. Woodruff'and 8S. Winchell.
Neves ooksc sas Mrs. N. H. Winchell.
Battle Creck..--.. .------+-- 1849-1860... 22-2 2-2. Dr. W. M. Campbell.
PO TAET Se Sah SNe L. E. Wells.
IBENZOMA eae see ate ees TONS casccscece Wm. Wilson.
IBS oaads SSCSEe ESE aes US4B=1854 222222 ee. Dr. Thos. Whelpley.
Brooksdymeeeen. | eee ce cess PCo2=le54s 224 eee: Dr. M. K. Taylor.
JBXeMETe (ORES Sea eee ee eae 184918525 2s eee ee Charles Betts.
Wena Mim eye aes oe aay oe Isle Meee esse 8. H. Whittlesey.
Chintiorat s Se a ee cretkicae pape: NSO 21S OSs see eae Wm. Van Orden, jr.
(CIMMCI, Goo ooS wee sae umeeen Ich SIKhy Se ous See Elmore Wainwright.
Coldiwater-.3 22.5655. 52522. 1868-1871 .......--. N. C. Southworth.
WOOpereeees ss some Notes cree 1854-1858, 1860-1862) Mrs. Octavia C. Waller.
Copper Hallistarssesec- ae SHOU Gacses Sane Chas. S. Whittlesey.
Cornunmaies. 22s ss eee eee WISH Sis Sa tants Ne Heber Crane.
IDAHO S Ca coco CASES SEeSEaIne M4 Gs Ny elt ee Wim.S. Raymond.
1849-1856........-.- Rev. Geo. Duffield.
SSS TSO OER Ee nary: Dr. Zena Pitcher and L. S. Horton.
IISGOSLEO3 ese seecce United States Engineers.
NSGISVEGQE Ee pene Dr. Zena Pitcher.
WSS acssccosec I. W. Higgins.
BAGG ININWGP oob555 cbecs0 cece LE5Gs2 2 ee See Mrs. M. A. Goff.
East Saginaw...---.-------- ULI AES ee i eS ee Dr. S. F. Mitchell.
TET Sis see eae itchy Sites ijsoo5 oscooe Dr. D. Clark.
Morestivllliemye seme eee ee 1858. - ee Lieut. C. N. ‘Turnbull.
Worein CheNnO sss5o5 seoceG sos5 1858-1859... Tena Sasol Lieut. C. N. Turnbull.
Granehiichkaese aa or eta cs SOA sme te eee oka Dr. Edwin Ellis.
Gramaghlavenyce. 0c.) = 1859=1863%----- ---- Heber Squier.
Grand Rapids.........------ NSAOe ues sew ees Franklin Everett.
ICs esses case Dr. J. Hollister.
fey SMe ooosu6 cae Alfred O. Currier.

L. H. Streng.

Edwin A. Streng.

J. B. Parker.

E. S. Holmes.

H. R. Schetterly.

L. H. Streng.

George E. Steele.

J. B. Minick.

Dr. H. B. Schetterly.

Harmon M. Smith.

Milton Chase.

Frank Little.

J. H. Foster and Edward Perrault.

Cleveland Abbe.

J.C. Holmes.

Prof. R. C. Kedzie.

R. Bullard.

James G. Birney.

David Howell.

Dr. F’. M. Reasner.

Peter White.

Dr. G. H. Blaker, jr.

Dr. G. H. Blaker, jr., and F. M. Ba-
con.

Rev. L. M.S. Smith.

Thomas Whelpley.

Capt. A. D. Perkins.

Miss H. I. Whelpley.

G. W. Bowlsby.

Miss H. I. and Florence Whelpley.

Miss F. E. Whelpley.

104

MONTHLY

METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Period.

Monroe Piers
Muskegon
New Bufialo
Northport
Old Mission
Olivet

wee ees eee eee ee ee

Ontonagon

Ottawa Poimts 2 22)-ejsea 1
Otsego) 22s) see ee
Oshtemo and elsewhere
Pennsylvania Mine
Pleasenton

Romeo

Saugatuck
Saint James

South Haven
Sugar Island
‘ikasmis) Citives soceas asec csugse
Thunder Bay
diraverse City. syqsey-e ecto oe
Ypsilanti. eee tee ee

Minnesota.

Afton

ISCANTEe IBEYs coca aauedoooLeT

Bonniwell’s Mills
Bowles’s Creek
Buchamany sos sf oe e eee
Burlington -
Cass Lake

EXCELSIOR. ee tee uien) Sepe es.
Fond du Lac. --.-.. Ey
HorestiC@itiyens seer re eee:

Hortikipley. sc seew se | eee
Grand Portame age: a5 snes
Hastings -.
Hazelwood sie ere eae
Hennepin County. -----.-22.
Holding’s Ford

wee eee eee ewe

MCAS CAs See ee NUE
BackgquilkParlesees sas see

Lake Winnebagoshish. ..-...
aphame ease ke Re

1865-1873
1850-1661... ean
18590-1862... wane
1861, 1868-1870... ..
1864-1873
1868-1869
1868, 1870
NGA aie
NERVE ACEO) Aspe
1860, 1873
ICTS aan A is

we wm ww ones

1855-1857
1854-1856

TY IC) sa beoe oser
1872-1873
1859

eww ese eee

1865-1867, 1869-1870
1871-1872
1858-1859
1859-12860
1860

1872-1873
1865-1866
1857-1858
1858-1860
1852... A
We Dossens Gabocoore
1859-1861
1368
LTS a sae eS
1849-1851
1859-1861
1862-1866

WHBUIGHS 2 oc5
1864-1865
1869-1873

seer ee -- -e

1860-1861, 1863... --
NB52 S53 2e eae

Name of observer.

John Lane.

H. A. Pattison.

J. B. Crosby.

Rey. Geo. N. Smith.
C. P. Avery.

Prof. A. F. Kemp.
Prof. O. Hosford.

H. Selby.

Dr. Edwin Ellis.
John Oliver.
Matthew Coffin.

Dr. Milton Chase.
Henry H. Mapes.
Richard H. Griffith. .
Joseph D. Millard.
James A, Weeks.
James Allen, jr.
George A. Stockwell.
Dr. Charles C. Smith.
Isaac Stone.

Seth L. and G. P. Andrews.
Dr. 8. L. Andrews.

L. H. Strong.

James J. Strong.

O. C. Lathrop.
United States Engineers.
United States Engineers.
I. I. Malden.

8S. E. Wait.

Miss G. Webb.

C.S8. Woodward.

Dr. B. F. Babcock.

A. L. Roe.

Thomas Clark.

Henry Wieland.

Thomas Clark and C. Wieland.

C. Wieland.

Solomon Pendergrast.

Andrew Stouffer.

Stephen Walsh.

A. A, Hibbard.

Alouzo Barnard.

Rev. B. F. Odell.

T. F. Thickstun.

Thomas A. Kellett.

O. O. and M. E. Jaquith.

Rev. Joseph W. Holt.

A.C. Smith.

Henry L. Smith.

Rev. S. W. Maundy.

Richard Bardon.

T. F. Thickstun.

S. R. Riggs.

J.B. Clough.

Thomas M. Young and Mary H.
Young.

O. H. Kelley.

Rev. 8. L. Riggs.

S. R. and A. L. Riges.

Rev. Benjamin F. Odell.

K. M. Wright.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

105

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period.
IL@yOlNeWN 5eS65 eeoboacobon Eee IsiS ooSSooode Geac
Wheeehplbake eae 58s sees eee RRO

SB 7ete es in a
vibeltiel de a saec eles cee ei 1S7TO1872 eee eee
Mier oleliiay saa pcjesa ee ee. N69=1LS7 ORS
MIG RAWOY Sec BoSA Oo OEHOe MS OAL piel oo a ele alt
Manmeapolistasces ssss-cee oe SGA SNS Sia eee
ING we Wilmer a= = ee ttet Stee) S64 1873) eee
Qpike ILAIKG So heoe SeeeerO ce eers EOS levi@assooece Ge

IP AUS) 65465 co ueuncpeeeee
PENN se Sebe Ses eoEeanoos
IPTINCELOM «<0 o2 ee eee
Red Lake
Red Wing

Rochester
Spmchy ILAIKOs caso ecosousnsace
Sauk Center
Sibley seciociva ae Mose eee

Smithfield
Stillwater
Saint Anthony.-------------
Saint Anthony’s Falls
Saint Cloud

Saint Joseph
Saint Paul

Tamarack
Traverse des Sioux..-.--
Wabashaw
VViAveTIOLGs «22st ee ses
Whitewater

eee eee Pee eee ee oe ee

Mississippi.

Clinton
Columbus

ere cee cee eee eee oe -

Como
Early Grove
IM bELPTISC as sees eee
Fayette

Gainesville
Garlandsville-
Grandville
Grenada a2 eBay

~ eee eee ee ee eee ee
wlelslelwishe m= ea ale

Hernando
Holiy Springs
Jackson :

eee eee wee ew cee eee eee

McLead’s- ALLS

1859-1862. -..------

TUSSI) Soe cae
Peto Tee Bm eto acon
WHASSUS/Bccag cessec

1854. ines
1861- 1862, 1869. AVENE As
1853-1855
ISGVRSIS Tannese.
1866-1867 ......_---
ISOS SECA eee
lee 1851

CVA scccu ones
SOIC eee eee
WEG 0 oc -codecee

ie Tey PRG Bee Hess

ER UG Boosccc cose
1866-1867

1859-1860, 1866-1870
1870 .. eo ees
Ta70- 1873. Seba CANO he
SEOs MTOR oo ese
US GO Mey ass séseos
1S49-—1852 Soo" aoe
1854... Epes
HOO 1867.

Name of observer.

J. F. MeMullen and D. F. Short

well.
Samuel Locke.
H. MeMahon.
H. L. Wadsworth.
W. W. Murphy.
W. Kilgore.
W. Cheney.
Charles Roos.
Dr. D. Pyle.
Rev. 8. R. Riggs.
Charles Cavileer.
O. E. Garrison.
S. M. Byers.
Rev. E. W. Carver.
Rev. Jabez Brooks.
Prof. A. M. Stephens.
Prof. J. W. Beaman.
Alfred Milmine«
Samuel Spates.
Smith Bloomfield.
C. W. Woodbury.
C. W. and C. E. Woodbury.
B. C- Livings.
A. Van Voorhies.

Prof. and Mrs. N. H. Winchell.

C. F. Anderson.

O. E. Garrison.

Rev. D. B. Spencer.
Rey. A. B. Paterson.
John W. Heimstreet.
Mary A. Grave.

Rev. R. Hopkins.
Spencer L. Hillier.
J.S. Nichols.

J. K. P. Winters.

Dr. 8. H. Jennings.

T. J. R. Keenan.
Thomas B. Moore.

R. S. Jackson.

James S. Lull.

John F. Tarrant.

E. W. Beckwith.

W. M. Abernethy.
Rey. E. S. Robinson.
Rev. T. H. Cleland.
Rev. G. C. Armstrong.
Charles A. Folsom.
Rev. E. S. Robinson.
James H. Vincent.
Wiiliam Henry Waddell.
Prof. Albert Moore.

R. 8S. Ringgold.

J.S. Payne.

William M. Johnston.
Thomas B. Coleman.
Thomas Oakley.

.| A. R. Green.

J. Edward Smith.
Dr. T. W. Florer.
David Moore.

106

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period.
Momticelloe2ess2a. seeeerene 1860-1861 ..--......
ININWOINE, Seas oleuesosue becuce 1849-1851..........

[S50 ae aa
1858-1861, 1864-1866
866=)870 eases
Oxford’ Sincce es 2s eee 1e54=18562 22 ee eee
PASS CluBi HENS coca sccoubovsl WAN) ccss6 soce seo 5
Raulldime ec es see e eater ea coo SO eae ee raere
eluiladeliphiaysaseceee eee lod OSS 7 lasses
IPOH (EMOIKO) Goosen soesbo coos) diewMpollichy/ 3 tok
Peale) WIVNs cob cosa soc osos|| MeO oIG oe oo
Wicksburghe 225.25 e oe 1BAQA1 852 se anes
WiaSSOM)osica srs Ber Sue 52 i seaalnlSi2isee ey eemaupam
SiGe a Aaa ae
Wrestwille ..2. sab eceestee ees 1859-1860 .... 22...
Yazoo: City. 24 eee es: LECOS1EGI Res ee eeee
Missouri.
Allenton: geeks eee 1B65=187d ae eee
AGO neice ie dees sere a TRS TSMR LS oe
AGHENS «A -G aye. ree ees Lee 1864-1866........-.
Ach ania baeepe ste avs 2 Se aire e/a ae Ne 7/eaiee SU Noa gas or
AORN Hs cooasa dena nbeo cose! ucbMs pascad soo4 base
Bethany 25...) seeasseesch- 1859-1860... ..22-.
BOLIVAR ASS 3 See se ee E59 Sollee
1868-1570 ......2-2--
Boonewilles.sossseceeeceee ne 1859-18 OIe es eee
C@amtome eek a sae a sei eters S61) S692 se peeeee
ISG BR eee sca) mame
Cape Girardeau. ...--..---2- ISI AMEO 5555 ches
Carrolltomieces.s eee eee IIH to So onan BAAN UIE Sati oi
PS Oe ee peo
MSG Oeil ee ae UR
Casswillle:jcse5 52.5. eR Sees 1859=186 ae eee
Caviel Sprille sss eeeeee ees ISG 555 cacoce
Corming 22 s-Sieseeceehe eee WeGWaUSiBoscsos cose
JDray Jedles eas ooeebe cobs. 1854-1855.-.....--.
Mund ees soe cee ee S59 SNS Ole
WAShOM! 25 seen ye SS 1864-1866 .....----.
ISAC IPMS S556 G4 poodecloboe TIS Yog Ne eee Rare ny Th
Jadhinlibdeal Cosemeacceses case 1866-18672 eee
J BOUTS hy eae ere re rr OL 1E59=1866s2 2 eee
JH IDGRWAEO so 545 hoooee SoGoee WEI uae ee aren
TONSA ENON SO mies ty ener a RCH} S Papa NCE ae
Harminietom seas ase en ICO a Ge aa eae rst tic
Horteierresns 2 eee ae GAS) Sa eee epee
Galllartimy eee ese ae MSEC soca sacoo.
Greeniiel eee eee ed ai S59 NSO 2 see
Greenville Yssea see S59 S1860 5 eee
Jalen YN AS5 6 Seas seo Hood TSS S an ie aE Nee ata
S55 SaGOee eee
Harrisonville. sss seeeeeeee 1591870 se ee
lematitey: 2a ae mean SOS Si Silla saerene
Jelena eawe ete sy LES O=1EOO Maes ease
IFlermita cele ac enews NSC(oNS69 Se eaane
Jebyeln aR NDS ee is ie Srey sates a
Flore rsivalllle pees) emerge 1859-1861 eae
Jettersony Cityeec 54 e seeeee Net sooo coacks
U<amsasi Citys eae eee SOME Baccss soscbe
Wey teswilleyes ee sete NS GOMES. Soo yee
TESA Siete eee eeaenmerere! 5)
Miah Ne es
KSirksvilll epyyseee eo erie eae NSS Ole oe ets pte de

Name of observer.

J.R. Cribbs.

George L. C. Davis.
J. Edward Smith.
R. McCary.

W. McCary.

Prof. L. Harper.
Rev. J. 8. Sheppard.
Rev. E. 8. Robinson.
L. A. Bowden.

Prof. J. Boyd Elliott.
Rey. E. 8. Robinson.
A. L. Hatch.

James 8. Fithie.
Joseph Peake.

J. R. Cribbs.

Col. C. B. Swasey.

Aug. Fendler.

J.B. Rideout.
John T. Caldwell.
Kentner and Muscott.
Conrad Mallinckrodt.
D. J. Heaston.
W.J. Vankirk.
James A. Race.
Norris Sutherland.
‘George P. Ray.
Dr. J. M. Parker.
Rey. James Knoud.
John Campbell.
S.J. Huffaker.

D. J. Kirby.

M. L. Wyrick.

T. W. Coltrane.
Horace Martin.

O. H. P. Lear.

8.8. Bailey.

P. B. Sibley.

Adam Miller.
John E. Vertrees.
J.C. Agnew.

R. P. Edgington.
W.B. Kizer.
Nathan P. Force.
Frederick Behmer.
Arthur H. Weston.
Dr. S. B. Bowles.
O. D. Dalton.

O. H. P. Lear.

Dr. Edward Duffield.
Jobn Christian.
John M. Smith.
Philip Weber.
Miss Belle Moore.
W.S. Chapin.

W. H. Horner.
Nicholas De Wyl.
8. W. Salisbury.
Charles Veatch.
John P. Jones.

H. H. Mann.

Dr. Robert Byers.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

107

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Kirksville
Maiborville.= CNR bask vt oO"
- Lancaster
Lexington

IDOI 6 Soe Ao aoccee AAG yoo

INGRTRAOE, Seo se anes aA eee
sone psause deuce case

Springfield Par ee nnd:
Saimbmosephiqnasoe esse ae

Saint Louis

ecesoeaeeeeen See cece

Stockton
Stoutland
Sycamore Springs... .--..--.
MoronmbOencen sone Bye pee StH A EN
Trenton

(WTO Meee ose Sie oor eS AEE

Waynesville... 280u Sf 22.
Westport
Wet) Glazeno2 55. .c2U hs sae
Wallards2s., 25222 G ate eis

Montana.

Benton Citiyi-sss45 see eee eee
Camp Cooke..-.-- 0222222...
Cantonment Wright
Weer Wodge City s-ss ee
iEVelenay City. .2- 45.202
Missoula

Virginia City

Nebraska.

Beat Ono cea ke aL.
Bellevue

Period.

LSTAS1S 7 dee seeeeees
Ike Mey Boces oooose
1873 -
18671872 ese
1S59=1862 3555 ses
Ike) oe Seb eSe

1853-1857, 1859-1867
TE5GniCi 7 eeu

WBS Brey es es ss
oe PAGAL ee ee

1&60- 1862, IS G4eeee
1861 Uy nea lb ate RA ee
ISGSNS6See eee ee
1868-1869 .... 25...
HSVO=1S7Q ee
A UeV pose Re Ae AeA
USUI ssoanosuss
1859 -18blas eee
fia aes a eee
LS pee ese
1S59=1860E-
PSS QE Rie ee ee MOSEL
WS59s cee eae eS
IS6GE2e 220. 2. euak
HEGZs aw sis ose AROS
1868-1869. .......-.
VE7 Ose skews sd ese
eae GA eine es, MURS

859216632 2.802)
eed suet en Seem
S51 aea sn 5 Ses Nae
USP Basnscsoese
VEV0=1872): 525 soe a2:
VBG68s es 25 Sea awe ba:
[BOO Nees Shes ss eGaee
HBGVs2 se esshsUNOs

18b1-1862::55:-- -

IOUS 450 onbGad
1866-1868 ....------
1870

Name of observer.

J. H. Myers.

William Muir.

John M. Weatherford.
Joseph A. Wilson.
George W. Wilson, jr.
B. P, Hanan.

Wyatt Harris.

P. J. Bond.

Rev. R. B. Foster.
William Kaucher. *
W. FF. Maxey.
Charles Vogel.
Spencer L. Goodwin.
R. W. Finley.

Dr. C. Q. Chaudler.
Homer Ruggles.

J. A. Stephens.
Edward B. Neely.
Rey. Henry Bullard.
Dr. George Engelmann.
Dr. A. Wislizenus.

Drs. G. Engelmann and A. Wislize-

nus.
Augustus Fendier.

J. H. Lunemann.
Rev. P. W. Koning.
Rev. F. H. Stuntebeck.
Rey. I. Straetmans.
A. Averbeck.
Bertram D. Kribbin.
C. J. B. Leib.
William Wells.

E. D. Denny.

A. T. Hubbard.

B.D. Dodson.
Thomas J. Conkling.
William M. Lumpkin.
Dr. W. Moore.

Miss Belle Moore.
Rev. J. E. Pollock.
S. Kk. Hall.

Marion F. Hamaker.
Mary A. Tidswell.

B. G. Lingon.

Rev. N. Searritt.

A. Y. Carlton.

R. H. McCord.

Dr. H. M. Lehman.
S. V. Clevenger.
Dr. H. M. Lehman.
T. Koleski.
Granville Stuart.

Alexander Camp Wheaten,

J.P. Reinhard.
J. M. Minesinger.
Edward N. Goddard.

W. i. Ware.
D. E. Reed.

108

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Snrithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

FENG resale rea heal")

WakovayOitye-n = syste eee
Decatur

De Soto ee a ee

Fort Pierre
Fort Union
Glendale

JOMIN eo Saeiees ees oy Hosea

Norfolk

CURTIS ON Ow SY A

Peru

Rock Bluffs.
SambteeAocency- ce). 2 j54 55h 8
South Pass Wagon-road ex-

OCHO esses ees NOR Ie

Nevada.
Suen ey Citina Ssaccse A mini wali!

New Hampshire.

@laremontge ss see ee.

/

Concord a ae ee anfee

Dahiya Sa
Dunbarton
Exeter

KHarmine tomy ace ada Nae em
Francestown Sp RR

Gorham

Period.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Name of observer.

1867-1873). 222). eee
SUS sai ANC aa

187 1-1873 REE en

1360-1861 eee eee nee
1854

1860-1861 HaSCROR Sela
SoG) Sos Gaccoc
WeT/AUSI). 55a6 bose
1873

PESOS Nee ae OLR

1849, 1851-1852. -.--
ISGSSIST Sposa eee
1849, 1851-1852. ....
LSOLNSC Sean
I SO0SN S61 5. as eae

Rev. William Hamilton.

Henry M. Burt.
Miss E. E. Caldwell.

Rev. Willam Hamilton.

P. F. Peterson.
Charles B. Smith.
H. H. Brown.

Dr. G. C. Case.
Maj. Thomas S. Twiss.
Charles Seltz.
Anna M. J. Bowen.
John §S. Bowen.
William Dunn.
John Evans.
Henry Gibson.

M. C. Rousseau.

E. T. Denig.

Dr. A. L. Child.

Dr. A. C. Child, Miss J. E. Child.

L. J. Hill.

Bela White.

G. A. Goodrich.
Edgar E. Mason.
P. Zahner.

J. M. Pettenger.
Lewis H. Smith.

.| Lewis Sessions.

R. O. Thompson.
William N. Byers.
John G. Rain.
James P. Allan,

C. B. Wells.

J. M. McKenzie.
A. J. Clark.
Edward Kellogg.
H. C. Pardee.
George S. Truman,

C. H. Miller.

R. C. Johnson.

Rev. William Hurlin,
F. N. Freeman.
Arthur Chase.
Stephen O. Mead.
Linus Stevens.

Dr. William Prescott.
H. E. Sawyer.

EK. P. Colby.

John T. Wheeler.
James C. Knox.

Rey. L. W. Leonard.
Alfred Colby.

Rev. L. W. Leonard.
Rev. Elias Nason.
Louis Bell.

Dr. Martin N. Root.
A. H. Bixby.

KE. S. Mason.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

109

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Great Falls.
Hanover -
elevate SWOalses scene see eee
Laconia and Lake Village- --

Littleton
Londonderry
London Ridge
Momchestemssssni cee cca sacs
Mount Washington .......-.

North Barnstead

North Littleton
IPOMIITMOWIINS So55 coon eeretoE

eee c cee eee eee

Sammtulhomas. ...-.-.-scee-+
Sills owinyssoGepecd co aaemace:
Salmon Falls
Shelbourne

Stratford
South Antrim. ....22 222.2222
Tamworth

= 2200 ceca tec see eee
et eee es tee mes tee ewe

- eet ese cn eee ==

Atco

eee eee cee es ewe ew oem ewe

Cc amden

Haddonfield

Haddonfield
wersey City... 291230 Nis

ese ecc coe ece wae -

Lambertville

Long Branch

Morristown.....- AARON teh

Name of observer.

Prof. Ira Young and A.S8. Young.
C. and

Period.
Iebys ake) Sas So oube Henry E. Sawyer.
1853-1854.......--.
1849... ---.----| Thomas b. Laighton.
(O57 18612, ae J. W. French, agent L. W.

W.M. Co.

SOS SIS Gdn ewer seers Robert C. Whiting.
849-185 7e ee eee eee Robert C. Mack.

Tones

[B70 1573 et
1853-1854, 1856. .-..
1856-1873.
Hel ee not tery

1867,
ia

1869-1873. ....

1849-1858, 1862-1863
1849-1854

1859-1860
1864-1866...-......
1866-1869
1867-1868
ISAM seas aoee
S59 =NSO2R eS soe eee

pose ene eee

sce cee een,

1865 tbe Grebe eens

1859.

ee eeee cone

Dr. Isaac S. French.
Hon. S. N. Bell.
Joseph H. Hall.

J. H. Huntington.
Rk. F. Hanscom.
Charles H. Pitman.
Rufus Smith.

Dr. C. Chase.

John Hatch.

Daniel Bonelli.

KE. D. Couch.
George B. Sawyer.
Fletcher Odell.
John Collin.
Branch Brown.
Rev. William Hurlin.
Alfred Brewster.
Peter L. Hoyt.
Nathaniel-Purmort.
L. D. Kadder.

H. C. Perry.

H. A. Green.

Thomas B. Merrick.

R. L. Cooke.

Prof. Adolph Frost.

Dr. E. R. Schmidt.

Prof. A. Frost and Dr. E.R. Schmidt.

John C. Deacon.

Isaac C. Martindale.

William Parry.

James 8. Lippincott.

Howard Shriver.

J.S. Fritts.

B. F. Simpson and 8. R. Willis.

O. R. Willis.

Benjamin Sheppard.

Clarkson Sheppard.

C. Sheppard and Miss R. C. Shep-
pard.

Miss R. C. Sheppard.

John Clement, jr. -

Samuel Wood.

John Boadle.

J.L. Lippincott.

Thomas T. Howard, jr.

Thos. T. Howard, jr., and wife.

Jacob 8. Gary.

Geo. H. Larison.

Howard A. Stokes.

Arch’d Alexander.

Dr. S. C. Thornton.

Miss LE. E. Thornton.

Thos. J. Beans.

Jos. W. Lippincott.

110 - MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
Moun teAinyeeaesneeeeee eee WXOGQ AUS. 5560 6225 John Fleming.
Mount ollyeesssenee eee 1861-1868... ..2 2. Dr, Morgan J. Rhees.
ING wie oo 52 carci teres A ee ICES oaSaoo aao- W. A. Whitehead.
New Brunswick...--...-.--- 1254, 1865-1868 - .... Prof. Geo. H. Cook.
Iolo eee Sah a ee 6 Eli T. Mack.
WBS jake esl ace eee Edwin Allen.
1SCO sso ee eee Edwin Allen and G. W. Thompson.
1SOISNSCo eee G. W. Thompson.
LS69S1S 70 Rees Isaac E. Hasbrauck.
Newfield: 22.2...) MoAeie wean 1367-1870 sees E. D. Couch.
New Germantown...---..--. WATS USe s56 so5ecc Arthur B. Noll. 7
Newton _.-.--. diajayateanelelaeteate ee MSM 6-455 5445 Dr. Thos. Ryerson.
Onmninns paoccbooedsss toss suse 1872-1873. .-....--.| Dr. W. Hamilton Stockwell.
Passaic Valleys seta eeaee BOS 1865 eee Wm. Brooks.
IPabersOly doce. ysoc ese SGC SIS eas nee Wm. Brooks.
IRROSTESS ei seee eee eee eee WelGa tele). boos ese Thos. J. Beans.
Readington ose eee 1866-1867, 1869-1873} John Fleming.
WSUS cere eyarsesto tran ere Robins Fleming.
Riceville (22225). fee ee 1860-1861 <2 5-225. Prof. L. Harper.
JRO) CrP) Gobo 5 Go4Hes bbasos WES HUSIBsososs cece Jerusha R. Palmer.
SMG 565.6058 cosoouaboeud ss SSG cyte seyret aN C. M. Dodd.
1859..........-.-..| George Watson.
Seawille jee co cc oce She 1865-1867..---...-. Barker Cole.
EOS ceo yar ccieiee eee E.C. Cole.
Sergeantsville ....220 2.0... 1857-1858 ..--...2.- John T. Sergeant.
South Orange: s22..2...-2--.) 1870-1873 ....2. 254. Dr. W. J. Chandler.
Mrentomie aera ees ee ee 1865-1873 ......---. Ephraim R. Cook.
Vineland)... brew oka ae SOT OIS Seem sneeee Dr. John Ingram.
Woodstown ........-..-.--- PSCO Ra aeitelsars teehee George Watson.

New Mexico.

Pope’s expedition .....-----. 1855-1857 2252-2222. James M. Reade.
New York.
AdamsiCenter) 23. 1859-1861..-..:.- ‘..| Dr. C. D. Potter.
HAN] LYE ok eee aly ya CRM KISH Ls 1265-1866 ...-.222-. Dr. H. M. Paine.
Al bron eco. 2 ea ee Bese J SANS Ae see sen L. F. Munger.
PANIDS ne alee os eee OR 1849-1851... 222228. James H. Ball.
A eliC ay fey e oie ec ON Fe Lene 1854-1858...2-..---- E. M. Alba.
ICANN see sousese C. P. Arnold.
Ardenta cece. ie oo. eate 1868-1873..--...... Thomas B. Arden.
AUD UE eee RT ey Ee ISCOSISCORS ses ee cee John B. Dill.
Bald winsvilleia. 22). es, 1849-1867..-...--.- John Bowman.
Bammeavplllley se) eevee eee WSO ne eee ents eee G.S. France.
Beaver Brook ssi es ies {oni is, NSSSSNSHA ae sees C.8. Woodward.
Bellport) oe seoeeia! Rat HeS7SS62 Mee eee H. W. Titus.
Beverly 222) ee a, Bo eSB) so 555 GaSe Thos. B. Arden.
Blackwet.’s Islandii.222). 912: Ise SHY ee aeen soe Dr. W. W. Sanger.
Breslauz SP skh OU (Oi, NEGBA Bacsosccses Frank Miller.
Brookhavenssssa48es soe 1868-1873... 22222: KE. A. Smith and daughters,
Brooklyn 52s Sse op i Gren rae IS VOAMCBosso85 sa56 Isaac P. Mailler.
Ite Pe MeViGekbace S550 R. W. Johnson.
Buffaloes. ooc1e oe Oana 1849-1852...... 2... A. Hosmer.
1853-1854, 1860. ...- Elias O. Salisbury.
SGA Nose ceorcncyavereteens ots Dr. 8. B. Hunt.
TSSAVORT EGR EINGE ia W. D. Allen.
1858-1862, 1866-1873} William Ives.
USO Melee esos anes United States Engineers,
Caldwell 428. 90 BAI ays IS AUS Sees ere _..| Alex. M. Strong,
Cantons sean. VE eT IGBSleweleee ase nob E. W. Johnson.
eile Bcaoeud S554 Leslie A. Lee.

NS iSite treren ner ecers J.C. Lee.

MONTHLY

METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

11]

Monthly meteorological eports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

(Gran libO Me = occa RSS Ae

@harlottes 2s. chee ee sO!
(Clas hit; Se aoe cooese estat ie

Constantia ...-.. SRL E Beet
Cooperstown =.-.------.----
Mamswillens2.c a. ck ok ese:
Wepauvallle sso 2s. eA eeey.
ast Pranklam! 2. sss see les
bast lentlebtas se. «sestbee.

IBICOWIG Sooo none A Senses
IVT LAV oicieus tl Se ee
Parenmnlinexclen® secosococes occas
Fishkill Landing pee aatprle JN,
Mlatbushwe = sos erences

Hordhamieeeetscyacieces aciontech =

Rone Anes ee sa a emeio serie

Fort Niagara ......---.-----
Ti reclomiby s6oee0 ceeaans dened
Hinvend ship sa.) -lelsee
(GarEisomisy ss. see eee see aac
GOI iisedos se sane ees Homer

Germantown! csccce-sses eee

Glascorsee es Beslan eRe

Glen's Mallises sas Sees ee
Great Valley: s920-c2 i OW
GrOtoOnicc cis eis oo Se
AV alata GRE egress a eee
ICCUOR Sos 225 22 stele

ilempstead = 2.22. a2. eae
Elermiltace a= s225 28s eA
Homers. 32527 -e5 eae

EMM Son) 4995 O08 aane pes Bae
Hungerford College Institute
Institution for Deaf & Dumb

tone ek obs a ALB
MACKS OM leie ys eel ee

Period.

USSR ere nee ele
1856-1864... --. 2222
1865, 1867-1873... -.
1850-1863 282 baie)

TEGO SIS eee ee
NSB osacu case
SOD aioe ete
1S Eysl OR LO ae ont We
eHOSIRG 2am eee
TSE) Ie pea le
1857-1859... .-2---
equ. Ee AP en ccs

ISS9=NS63 25a aee ee
1854-1864....-..-..
ISGG=1867 22 eae.
1860-1861, 1863-1868
1855-1857, 1864-1868

1854. x aieicigunbore eee

1872 PL tee ele see Fo
1859-12860..........
TCS AE Seo eas es
TSTMS Seeks ose

1849-1854, 1856-1860,

1865-1872 RSLS Be
NS GO Kear ee eas i
1872- 1873 ec eae
1849-1868... . 22522.
1859-1860... 022...

Name of observer.

W. P. Godfrey.

Prof. Aaron White.
Prof. Wim. Soule.
Andrew Mulligan.
Cornelius Chase.

C. Thornton Chase.
Prof. O. Root.

Dr. H. M. Paine.
J.P. Chapman.
Matthew Mackie.

L. L. Fairchild.
Sereno Clark.

G. Pomeroy Keese.
Rev. John J. Brown.
Henry Haas.

Dr. J. W. Smith.
A.S. Wadsworth.
Stephen Landon.
Anna S. Landon.

W. A. Brownell.

G. F. Sawyer.
Laurens A. Langdon.
A. B. Covert.

John C. Merritt.

W. 4H. Denning.
Rey. Thos. H. Strong.
Rev. R. D. Vankleck.
Rev. W. W. Howard.
Rey. E. I’. Mack.
John Aubier.
Claudius Pernet.
Dr. H. M. Paine.

Rev. John Aubier and Prof, A. T

Monroe.
P. A. MeMore.
Prof. Solomon Sias.
J. De Witt Miller.
L. Leffman.
Prof. D. J. Pratt.
George W. Fries.
Thos. B. Arden.
Rev. W. D. Wilson. -
Job Elleston.
Wm. Tompkins.

Rev. Sanford W. Roe.

D. B. Hendricks.
Dr. P. O. Williains.
Cyrus H. Russell.
Warren P. Adams.
Kathalo Kelsey.

Rey. Samuel Johnson.

Col. E. C. Frost.
Dayid Trowbridge.
Chas. E. Adriance.
J. W. Jolnson.

A. A. Hibbard.
Edwin C. Reed.
Walter D. Yale.

G. P. Hachenberg,

A.B. Watkins and R.S. Boswortn.

Prof. Oran W. Morris.
J. D. Ingersoll.
F. D. Carman.

112

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Jamestown

Jericho laws seeeeerieerese
Kensico
Lake

ite den

Little Genesee... -...-..---
Lockport

Wocust Grove: 2235-82 seu:
GO die. Bea aes ba WE Uh
Lowville

Ludlowville
Lyons .. -
IMadinid SsaoSoecc on CEE ee

fetes citar ain
Milo . La Sees eee) Api

Mohawk
Morristown
Moriches
Morleyeeeeee Nigh 5 tenes
Newarle Valleys so ysscee
Newburgh
New York

eer ee ee ee ee cee e ee ee

North Argyle.-...-.-223:0-:
North Hammond........----
North Salem

North) Volneya- 4-245 ee. eeee
Nichols22 2225 5. Ssee es

INVEIOR céoaqesac
Ogdensbureh .
Oneida - Seer
Oswego

Otto ....
Owais
Palermo

Palisades)s.veseciss sense

Period.

554 1CGG teen:
1861
1866-1873

ees e te eee cow coe

Tee en ay Set

1863.
1856- 1857 ..
1855-1857
1869-1872... ....-..-
IS Oa
1868-1872
PE61—1868. 22.22.
1859. - 2a SN
1864— 1867 _. Sa see
ee Ses ARE Rare

1868- 1872.
1864-1871
1849,

WOM o55 cose Se
1860-1872
1863-1866
1865-1867
1869-1870
1865-1870
1868-1873
1867-1868
1864, 1870-1873
1866-1873...
1849-1853
ISBN o a ceas sede
1868-1873... ....

149-1852, 1854-1863
1864-1873

Name of observer.

Rev. Sanford W. Roe.
S. H. Albro.

Samuel G. Love.
Albert G. Carll.

C.J. Mellvaine.
Peter Ried.

L. F. Munger.

Ce: Merriam.

John Felt.

Prof. S. A. Lattimore.
Daniel Edwards.

E. Giddings.

B. Wheaton Clark.
James B. Trevor.
C.C. Merriam.

John Lefferts,

Irah R. Adams.

J. Caroll House.

A. Judson Barrett.
Rey. William Irish.
C. P. Murphy.

Dr. E. W. Sylvester.
E. A. Dayton.

Lewis Swift.

J. Metealf Smith.
John R. French.
Gilbert D. Baker.
D.S..Bussing and J. W. Bussing.
J. W. Bussing.

James Lewis.
William Day.

E. A. Smith and Miss N. Smith.
Ezra Parmelee.

Rev. Samuel Johnson.
vames H. Gardiner.
U.S. Naval Station.

J. S. Gibbons.

S.De Witt Bloodgood. .
Caleb Swann and Dr. J. P. Loines,
Frederick I. Slade.
Charles C. Wakely.
Naval Hospital.

E. B. Cook.

Rey. John M. Aubier.
Mrs. M. M. Marsh.
Prof. Charles A. Joy.
Prof. Oran W. Morris.
Haden Patrick Smith.
George M. Hunt.
Charles A. Wooster.
John F. Jenkins.
Mrs. M. J. Lobdell.
J.M. Partrick.

R. Howell.

C. de la Verny.

W. E. Guest.

Dr. Stillman Spooner.
C. Strong.

dig IB Hart.

Capt. W.S. Malcolm.
Prot. Weston Flint.
J. W. Chickering.
Erastus B. Bartlett.
W.S. Gilman, jr.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

113

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

eallimngreie eeer
12 tayal kesh Leslee agree eee
enmyVan 2.) o 2 aus Sik
Perry City
Philipstown
TPS) GFW ere reece ee ees
Plainville
Blatbsbureh! S222. se sees
Pompey

Rompey, Hille ses eee
ROUSM AMM een = on Sey ILS, 2
Houshkeepstesa = jis eee

Rochester

o

Saratoga
SAUTE Soy soba SSdqeueueed

Schenectady

Seneca Malls tee LOH as

Sennett

Sing Sing
a

Skaneateles . 2-220 22 2222

Sloansville

mspring ville... <2 /2 tees
Stapleton.......
Suffern...
Syalcuse) sah. occ 45cm
Theresa

Utica

wee tee eee eee eee ae eee

88

Period.

1854-1857-1859. .--.
VEGAN ee eee ee
cee eg odacce
1859-1860...-....-.
1856-1857 .....222-.
1859-1857 222225222.

1851-1852......-.--
JS59=1863 2222 See.
1849-1858 .-.....---
Teo) Boe aere
1863-1866 .-..-.--:-
1E59SNSOO RSS e ss

1849-1852. 22 2 222
NSCOHN8G7 5. eee

1849-1852, 1854-1856
Ife Okc Ce Ae casks

Beta epee meres rosy

WSOB euro uses
ICS Koya wae ae saan
1861-1868 ...-.- wots
1864-1866......-.-.
ISOS SNSZ2 Cease
1$49-1872......-2 Pe

1860-1861 ..-....-..
1856.1857, 1868-.....
1860-1868.......-.-

Name of observer.

Stephen Hyde.

Charles A. Lee.

Dr. H. P. Sartwell.

David Trowbridge.

Thomas B. Arden.

Godfrey Zimmerman.

J. H. Norton.

Joseph W. Taylor.

8. Marshall Ingalls.

John F. Kendall.

Hon. J. Welch.

Prof. C. B. Waring.

Miss Swallow.

Prof. Wetherell.

Prof. C. Dewey.

Prof. M. M. Matthews.

H. Wells Mathews.

Dr. G. P. Hachenberg.

W.M. L. Fisk.

S. P. Probasco.

Rev. Samuel Johnson.

U.S. Naval Station.

Mandrin Linus.

H. Metcalf.

EK. N. Byram.

Walter H. Riker.

R. G. Williams.

James W. Grush, James M. Alex-
ander, and L.S. Packard.

Robert M. Fuller and Haren Y.
Swart.

Alexis A. Julien and H. A. Schau-

ber.
Elisha Foote.
Jobn P. Fairchild.
Charles A. Avery.
Philo Cowing.

.| Henry B. Fellows.

Rev. James R. Haswell.
C.F. Maurice.

W. M. Beauchamp.

G. W. Potter.

J. Kverett Breed.

Dr. F. B. Hough.

L. A. Beardsley.

G. M. Ingalsbe.

Capt. Storrs Barrows.
A. W. Morehouse.
Irving Magee.

Levi S. Packard.

J. W. Earle.

Moses Lane.

Spencer L. Hillier.
James H. Warren.
Henry L. Dinsmore.
S. O. Gregory.
Francis M. Rogers.
Miss Elizabeth Morris.
John W. Heimstreet.
Prof. E. A. H. Allen.
Prof. Dascom Greene.
William L. Haskin.
Dr. L. Tourtellot.

E. B. Bartlett.

114

\

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Wampsville
Warrensburgh. ...-..2222-.*
Warsaw. .-
Waterburgh
Waterford’ 34222. csebe ie

eee eee ewe ce ewer

Waterville
Wellsville
West Concord ...
West Day
West Farms
West Morrisania
White Plains ....-... mi
Walsons ele eh See ae ae

ee eo ee id

North Carolina.

ANOGMMMA 655.6660 Gsbo0e suse
Amandales sss ase ee
INS OE AUC ees a rae ee

Attaway Hill:......%-
Bakersville. .-...-

Period..

1853-1863.......---
CVA Ber see

165521857...
1849-1851... Oa
1857, 1858, 1860... ..
Tea He ke
1858-1859, 1871-1873
18562185710 9 E

1869187300002
1858-1864...... 22.

TOTO E on ascletsicloneloeetcee
STONE eee eect
1857-1858 ...--.-.--
WS67=1873 -.- es =e
IS68=1873 cee ee
1849-1862, 1867-1873

PBS AU HOME ie pee ee INE CIN RO ed a eee
Chapel Huilleee a es. S49 S186 eee eee
NE69=1S70e eee
Charlottes ee ete wees eval lean seeses Be
Davidson College ..-:....---| 1858-1859...... 2...
Hdentont.. sas. SoS eee 1iCiAl [eka wirey cetoe yas
soe ese es on
tei fete mies eer as area
Fayetteville --- saat 86 ee KEY «URE ease ee Br
NOVI K1B 72 yas anees
Horest Hull saadseen see aa: Mey Meiance uaoooe
ipranklin: 3222-5 eon eos Wei USBacscoo sccu
Gaston 22. -saectr ase ocars 1859-1861 ....-.-...
Goldsborongh ..-.-. .-2+..-- 1860-1861, 1872... .-
Green: Blains ooo selec TE5O EN OS Rae eas
Greensborouch¢cerst: 22222 ISTI—1873.. = sss
Guilford Mine 2/52 .2e57aN7.. 1867-1869... ..----
JACKsONe Leee pepe EE Se eeal| lista leby: le es a
Kenansville) :2222 sehen en 1868-1870....-..-..
Lake Scuppernong -..--...-. 1849-1852... 222.
1 Gost BARU ie ly rune Sher fo
Lenoir 2.22,. 9h eeek LSHI=187 3 ses S ee
fuincolnton! {24252 ee ye ees Wetays a ee a a
Marlborough <2 teaceae Sse. heh aye aes etd sia ai
MountiAiny: 3222) eee man Ite PAE Sees Grains cnt
Murfreesborough...--..- geo LOHOS LO <a ences
Murphy 22.2 2S sae acer IST Q=NST3 25 see ete
New Garden 222225 2eeeee NEVQaNS7 3 es
Oxford 22.) Resse eee oe 1866-1867 ........--
HS6V—1873h2= sates
Raleigh! -- 2)... stceeaa aan BDO aa a ones
TIRSLGY Daa eae ra 8 es
1866-1869..........
OOOH oo yet Serge
Rutherfordton ...........--- THCY ee reir trs 3 le
StatesvilleyeiccecW?. 2) soe ile6G—187305. senses
Parborough.---. 3.72940 VOT fases hgh a RSS
IHN Bees Gobaee

Name of observer.

J. EK. Winslow.

S. O. Carpenter.

Dr. Stillman Spooner.
Randolph MeNutt.
J.P. Morse.

David Towbridge.
John C. House.

.| Dr. P. O. Williams.

James M. Tower.
H. M. Sheerer.
Lewis Woodward.
Jude M. Young.
J.S. Gorton.

I. Zaepftel.

O. R. Willis.

E.S. Holmes.

S. J. Pemberton.
W.H. Murdoch.

W. W. McDowell.

EK. J. Aston.

Dr. J. ¥. E. Hardy.
FE. J. Kron.

J. H. Greene.

James Rumley.
Prof. James Phillips.
David S. Patrick.
George B. Hanna.
Prof. W..C. Kerr.

A. A. Benton.
Richard N. Hines.
Margaret A. Hines.
John M. Sherwood.
G. W. Lawrence.
Mrs. D. D. Davis.
Albert Siler.

Dr. George F. Moore.
Prof. EK. W. Adams.
Samuel W. Westbrook.
S.S. Howard.
Alexander Wray.

-| Rev. Frederick Fitzgerald.

Prof. N. B. Webster.
Rev. J. A. Sheppard.
D. Morrell.

Dr. L. Beall.

Dr. J. Bryant Smith.
Robert H. Drysdale.
Robert S. Gilmour.
Rey. A. McDowell.
William Beal.

A. KE. Kitchen.

John H. Mills.

Dr. William R. Hicks.
T. Carter and W. H. Hamilton.
W. H. Hamilton.
Rey. Fisk P. Brewer.
Miss M. H. Taylor.

J. W. Calloway.
Thomas A. Allison.
Thomas Norfleet.
Robert H. Austin.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

115

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Thornbury

Trinity College

Warrenton

ec e eee oe wees tee eee

Weldon. Yee ease oe
Walminotomyesc. s4ssecsce ee
AWA SOMesic ae vin oe cee of

Ohio.

dams? Malls. 252225 teas:
AMES VAN. 5). = esse Let AC
IAMGTEWS sec 2552 none.
BNGINC TIS eyeps ia ehotaisate ome oe ee
Austimbureheeee-tyce- so <i

Avon. ...--. : Be hae e a
Belle Center...... 2... 2c. 5---

Bellefontaine

ee cree com ees cee eee coe

IBetheligass 22. sate. Say

IBreckwill@ a leases me ersee
Cardington
Carsoneesao.- sce siete shia
Carthagena
@eniralians = 2) jase. Soe
Chester Halts lo Sea kek See
Cheviot

Cleveland

College Hill

Colling woqd cscs 9. elt

Coshocton
Columbus
Croton

Period.

1872-1873...
IWS Sooa5

1862-1863 .....-..--
SGA aso ameeeees
WEG ee itcecsemicvee
1864-1866........--
1858-1860 -. -
Ite y/eailehy)= Sasa be Bo

LS50 1860S cen
1870-1873 ..5.. .----.

1859-1861 SOS R BS ESES

1864-1866.......-..

INS eee eee Cs a

1855 VSS Gear see
849

Se ee

LSO5—18 72. SESS
1871- Tees Bees or

SOLS TS) ao - seteisac
1866- ISGSE se scaes

1856-1857 .... 5 222-.
1858
S61 NSO 2 ale sees §

SSI 1852/2 sess sae

Name of observer.

-| Rev. F. Fitzgerald.

Daniel Morelle.

Rev. B. Craven.

E. D. Pearsall.

Dr. W. M. Johnson.
Henry A. Foote.

T. A. Clarke.

John A. Harrell.
Rev. Daniel Morelle.
K. W. Adams.

C. A. Stillwell.

E. W. Brawley.

Dr. W. Spratt.

Prof. W. W. Mather.

J.G. Dole and C.8. 8. Griffing.
David S. Alvord.

J.G. Dole.

E. D. Winchester.

-| Rev. L. F. Ward.

Rev. R. Shields and J. C. Smith.
Rey. Robert Shields.
Joseph Shaw.

W. Barringer.

Prof. G. M. Barber.

I. McK. Pettenger.
J.S. Patterson.

George W. Crane.

Dr. W. R. Peck.

Jobn Clarke.

Rev. S. L. Hillier.
Hubert A. Schauber.
Mrs. M. M. Marsh.

Dr. R. Miiller.

Hubert A. Schauber.
John D. Wright.
Ebenezer Hannaford.
John Lea.

¥F. W. Hurtt.

George W. Harper.

A. A. Warder.

R.C. and J. H. Phillips.
Eli T. Lappan.

R. C. Phillips.

J. H. Shields.
Gustavus A. Hayde.
Edward Wade.
Edward Colburn.
U.S. Engineers.

G. A. Byde and Mrs. Hyde.
Dr. T. A. Smurr.

G.S. Ormsby.

Prof. R. S. Bosworth.
Prof. J. H. Wilson.

J. W. Hammitt.

L. B. Tuckerman.
Henry Bennett.

Sarah E. Bennett.
Thomas H. Johnson.
Theodore G. Wormley.
Mark Sperry.

Rey. E. Thompsonand Mark Sperry

116 MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
Croton nieiveenere SO SOIL Oo sean seas Rey. Elias Thompson.
Cuyahoga Paligs 1) 2ivietin 1 SO4=NS65ee as seeeee D. M. Rankin.
Wallasburchyeees smc ce iserr UCR SNelieiSsses ooasec ¥F.G. Hill.

IDPWAROMN Godcoo 4oneen cedée sa 1856.....-.-------.| Cooper Female Seminary.
1650222222222 22-2 ler eames Cy Pischer:
SSSR ARCAS Se temas Lewis Groneweg.
TELS Sea oe eee Charles Reeve.
East Cleveland ..----..-.--. HSIN 625 ees eee Mrs. M. A. Pillsbury.
Dastihaimnhelds. 2.22 ssese oe ISS SIO S55 oesSse S. B. McMillan.
East Rockport...-----..---- MeeVee ee Seed ecessal) IDS Vo lio Ihanrdlenaal
TAC ON ecient eer 1863-1865 ..... »---.| Lhomas J. Larsh.
i doerboneerseeciseerice nae ISG USO ab6 caddec 8. B. Knight.
TE GTIM SWIG, Ss So oKoeocus of sees 1857-1858 .--..---.- Smith Sanford.
MATING Teal ease tcepaeeeisepee ue Sy RAC OIORS al Dr. 8. C. Irwin.
iramlalimeccc seve some eae kes SSS G5hcco Dr. W. L. Schenck.
Ereedon ees sees ae S59 =18C0 Rese cee see a M. Davidson.
SU SXGST Leh a core a hh H. M. Davidson and Wilson David-
son.
V63o es eee Walson Davidson:
Grallllip Olsen tesa eer ereemeee 1854-1856. --. 22... G. W. Livesay.
1857-1858, 1864-1873) A. P. Rogers. :
Gambier, Kenyon College.-..| 1871............--.| C. D. Leggett and C. A. Stillwell.
SCG =TS Tlie eres F. kK. Dunn and others.
Garrettsvillleis soso se cece 1861-1863 .......-.. Warren Pierce.
Germantown sesso sseeresec 1852-1856" 22-222. L. Groneweg.
eT Ma seus suede J.S. Binkerd.
Guillm ore ee Ae EA eae ie eee UW scso cassis Samuel M. Moore.
Granvalley soe ae Seo ats IGS) oe Gsis wae sessed Teer 1B, Orneucie,
ISO lichen so saoase Dr. S. N. Sanford. -
Croveponticeree a esece see ae ey eiBanca cacaae August Bareis.
TATA Tee nels ee ceerees SOO SISO lee aes W.G. Fuller.
Hl shorough) eee eese ec ee 1851-1860, 1863-1873] Rev. J. McD. Mathews.

eayiMoweuaeee ..-...| ©. C. Janes.
IRs caches casesal) De. Os Oe Sams,

Piiramisee eae. eae Bees Soe Se SSD ERs See eee S. L. Hillier and S. M, Luther.
BOO ME See see ee Spencer L. Hillier.
1856-1860......---.. S. M. Luther.

Hocking port sees esesemaeseslel coo SOUreeere re aee Dr. John Rhoades.

IFTOMOG 2 aj. sete ee aoe epee ieee Pinos oaseee | thomas Ee Wathrow.

HANG SOM Bassas ieee om syne iar 1858-1959. ....| Prof. C. A. Young and KE. W. Childs.
1860- TSO eee Prof. ©. A. Young and A. C. Bar-

rows.
18625 oes eee. larom ©. Ae ounce Ha iWrerscuantimee
C. Elliott, W. ‘Pettengill, and. H.
R. Watterson.
1863............-..| Prof. C. A. Young and J. C. Elliott.

ifeVlolicvieis 45055505 Charles J. Smith.
iher/PailteyBassis Soosss H. L. Keenan and F. W. Taylor.
TE ADH Ro phen A UID) AIAN su ne ei tem ela reat See eee eB cimumdayWe Nests
AID C11) eye erga rage 1859. . .....| S. T. Boyd.
TACKSOM an en i eaaeee aR 1849- 1854. Ee ih ee George L. Crookham.
TSE SES eee eta hee Dy Crookham and M. Gilmore.
fot a yy esien era amen S. B. Wood.
ACTES OTN a ena) Me eso a ICS Soke BSS M. Gilmore.
Jacksonbureh ..2.-. 22.2... Ilse St Bisode ossoes Dr. J. B. Owsley.
VemMensom: iis Vaso Me ks eam epanae Ieee wee ees James D. Herrick.
TREKS OS) iy eA AU SR aS acc at 1849-1852... 2 Lee. Dr. E. C. Bidwell.
licieraleby bone tee sos 5 E. Spooner.
We mG Oa see es cee cere rear 1862-1863, 1866-1873] Dr. C. H. Smith.
Hs) Jisienael) POM eee ees oo ISBO-iheyOeeae Gea ese George C. Huntingdon,
: Spee Se ote aiclsgee D. K. Huntington.
[Keimios Gorn remy eaven ys ret (Sbs SSG dense eee Prof. John Haywood.
Mataivie theese aloe jaca sea TST alo se esa Samuel Knoble.

WanCaster saeke ss sess bac eer PSO7 See ue cee ete Lewis M. Dayton.

—

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

117

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Lancaster

Lebanon
Little Hocking.....-....--..
Little Mountain
Madison

Min stielid tees ac csc Sr crepsuorare
MB WIGHIRD S Ae eSo Oe Rese ne see

eevee e eee eee ose eee

MERION ees ee Salen sive soe
MiarntimspRernyee esis) sie eis
Medina ese a eiscciec a5 ee eaters
Mudclebunyessseccece. sae
Milnersville

Monroe County-.-.----.------
Mount Auburn see. sce

Mount Gilead. 2220-222. 22.
Mount Pleasant..........--.
Mount Tabor
oumtim@mi@m 2256 Se
Mount Vernon...-...----.-.
Mount yal Gtonye sce cece cee
Newark

wep eee oe eee wwe eee ewe

eeee - cee ece cee cece
eres tec ee es coe ces eo ee

Norton

Quaker Ridge:..-2..2252--.-
Republic
Richmond
Ripley

SH OCGN NST C77 tes ead as i
Savannah

pesaces#®ece e205 peace

Period.

Name of observer.

1862-1863.-.-...-..
TEO(—18 730 eon
Iie yale esBAeaoe ae
159-1863. = = as.
1851-1852. ----.....

07-1858... .-----
1858-1863..-.-...---

1868-1873.....--.-.
1871.

ees 185 SSRANS ES
ESV SNSGOO Eee. cena.

SOQ VU SOS ee elie nee
1869-1873
1SGS=1869 se eee
1867-1873

acces www er

festhiass ne
Rav hisoier ee
ISAT foes oee cess
1867-1870...... Ae
1859-1860... 2.1.2,

NEGO ASBesesaessas
Ie Revise a5uu Beas
1854-1863......----

H. W. Jaeger.

W.E. Davis.

J. W. Towson.

Joseph C. Hatfield.

James Fraser.

K. J. Ferriss.

Rev. L. S. Atkins.

Mrs. Ardelia C. King.

F. A. Benton.

D. P. Adams.

Prof. J. W. Andrews.

H. A. True.

T. Chase.

Charles R. Shreve.

C. R. and Martha B. Shreve.

Rey. L. F. Ward.

William P. Clarke.

Michael Beecher.

Rev. D. Thompson.

Knoch D. Johnson.

Senior Class Mount Auburn Female
Institute.

James McCune.

David H. Tweedy.

William Lapham.

Newton Anthony.

¥. A. Benton.

W.C. Hampton.

Lewis M. Dayton.

Israel Dille.

Prof. S. G. Irvine.

J. F. Benner.

A. EK. Jerome.

Dr. George R. Morton.

R. B. Warder.

O. Burras.

Prof. J. R. W. Sloane.

W. D. Watkins.

G. A. Hyde.

Rev. Alfred Newton.

Professors Fairchild and Dascomb,

Prof. J. N. Allen.

Prof. J. H. Fairchild.

Frederick Allen.

L. Herrick.

O.N. Stoddard.

R. W. McFarland.

J.P. King.

F. Hollenbeck.

F. and D. K. Hollenbeck.

James H. Poe.

Dr. D. B. Cotton.

-| Lud. Engelbrecht.

T. J. Ringman.
Stephen 8S. Dorsey.
Jacob N. Desellern.
J. Ammen.

Dr. G. Bamback.
Mrs. M. M. Marsh.
J. W. Gamble.
William Ballantine.
Rev. J. E. Pollock.
Thomas Niell.

Dr. John Ingram.

118

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Savannah

SEnVlNROO Cad ocasdéaboee osbooS

Seville
Slhanomivallille sess pee sere
Sidney
Smithfield
Smithville

Steubenville

Springfield

Abidin easiicieis ciate aloe laren eI

EBV OW ieeicisais Soe ra eens
Twinsburgh

Unionville

Urbana
Neste Bedtondiaie eases
INVielc lite densa sree
WolittetiOny po bose aessue seer
NVIESTCEVAL Open ie enone see

Western Star
West Elkton
Wese Uimom so5.55 4esce se52
AIUGYOVSH 25 GSE AUS a ao rg

Williamsport
Windham

ee

Yellow Springs
Zanestield
Zanesville

ASTOTIA le cyst ose cisalee fe

Corvallisy es ee nese he
Ola Soe eal Rea isey Sout
Hort Smydermss-s-eeesesr oe:
Horbkhompsoneee ti syee-
Hood Rivers. 2s sas-ssnsoe ee
Oregon City
Portland

Salem

Pennsylvania.

ANOVA ES GASSES SREB Ase
Allegheny City

Period.

IS NMeeesessas cess
ey PMei@ecedes sese
1862-1863... 222.
NSGA SN S00Re see eeee
SGI SNSO Qe eee
1859-1860....------

$959 | oon Soke 1Odss

1856-1857

SOV IST 22s een.

AUSSI) CoS Sh5 so5e

1865-1868... 2-2. 2...
NEZOANG (3 See ee
18638-1865. -.--.----.
1864-1865
1866-1868

tee wes oe ee

ici) alkes yy aaeeoa se
ileyAl ke yisieaeeeo caee
1858-1859 .-- =. So

eee meee ew Cee owe oe

1864-1873 ...-.....-
Keys yViGo565none ce

Name of observer.

Dr. W.S. Shaw.
Peter Bowman.

Rey. L. 8S. Atkins.
James B. Fraser.
Rev. L. F. Ward.
William F. Bowen.
Joseph Shaw.

D. H., Tweedy.

John H. Myers.
William Hoover.
Roswell Marsh.

J.B. Doyle.

Samuel C. Frey.

Dr. G. P. Hachenberg.
C. Hornung.

Sarab HE. Bennett.

KE. B. Raffensperger.
Dr. J. B. Trembley -
Charles L. McClung.
N. A. Chapman.

Miss A. Cunningham.
Mrs. Ardelia C. King.
Prof. M. G. Williams.
H. D. McCarty.

B.F. Abell.

Rey. L. F. Ward.
Prof. John Haywood.
Prof. H. A. Thompson.
A. 8. Stuver.

Jesse Stubbs.

Rey. Wm. Lumsden.
Eugene Pardee.
Martin Winger.
John R. Wilkinson.
Samuel W. Treat.

A. Jacque.

W. A. Anthony.

John F. Lukins.

L. M. Dayton.

Adam Peters.

Dr. J. G. F. Holston.

S. M. W. Hindman.
Louis Wilson.

R. B. Ironside.

S. M. W. Hindman.
A.D. Barnard.
Thomas Pearce.
James A. Snyder.
W.H. Wagner.
Chas. C. Coe:
Thomas M. Whitcomb.
Geo. A. Atkinson.
Henry A. Oxer.
Geo. H. Stebbins.
J. W. Gilliland.
James 8. Reed.
Thos. H. Crawford.
| P. L. Willis.

Rodman Sisson,
| B. Feicht.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

119

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Altoona

Andersvalllesos cess cesss- ee
Ashland.. GES sitter e Weaoe ey ora Ee

CANCEL a eiele etelolelel elele lel =(ai= esta ai

Bellefonte
Rendersvilllepsse sss eee

Bl ainswalllle eee ee sae ee are
Blooming Grove ..---.-.----
Brooksvillilesene css oeesseeeeis.
Brownsville
IB WDCLEY Egos) yaniaciy semen se

Canonshursh sy scene

Carlisle

Carpenter 2 Sciatic sisi- =<
Ceres
Chambersburgh
Chromedale

@larksburgh)22. 22085). - 3-5.
Connellsville

ID WINS Ase eaoo semen se caesar

phratah ssf 5222s sce sees
alsin atone ee cece cetera
Franklin

IPREQOEG Gaco cess

IEG TIMIN OF. oc talerscs se sen pegs
Hountaindales assets sce
. Germantown ....-

Period.

H852-1858. 3-2. 2 oe
1859-1861 ..-.-...--
1858-1859... --. 2...
1859

i865 1873 Saws eruere
Mhelsy Viera eign oe
1852-1854, 1857-1858
TEGO VSCOM ee ieee

1855-1661, 1863-1873
1860

SGT HUST Se eee
1872-1873.....-----

NSOZ VEGA eel
1859-1861, 1865-1873

Name of observer.

W. R. Boyers.

Thomas H. Savery.

R. Weiser.

Rev. W. E. Honeyman.

A. W. Curtis.

William E. Baker.

Rev. R. T. Taylor.

Samuel Brown.

Rev. H. Heckerman.

J. I. Burrell.

Franklin W. Cook.

T. E. Cook and Sons.

John Eggert.

L. R. Huebener.

Nathan C. Tooker.

Prof. A. M. Mayer.

W. RB. Boyers.

John Grathwohl.

D.S. Deering.

Dr. J. Allen Hubbs.

John Cornly.

John W. Saurman.

Isaac C. Martindale.

Prof. J. R. Williams.

F. L. Stewart.

Rev. Wm. Smith.

Charles Davis.

Lyceum Jefferson College,

Prof. S. F. Baird.

Prof. W. C. Wilson.

W. H. Cook.

E. L. MeNett.

R. P. Stevens.

Wun. Heyser, jr.

Joseph Edwards.

Joseph Edwards and John H.
Smedley.

Barnet McElroy.

John Taylor.

John Jackson.

Theodore Day.

A. R. McCoy.

Prof. J. H. Coffin.

E. L. Dodder.

Selden J. Coffin.

Selden J. Coffin and G. 8. Hough-
ton.

Geo. 8S. Houghton.

James E. Tracy.

Edward Kohler.

Benjamin Grant.

W. H. Spera.

Ebenezer Hance.

Rey. M. A. Tolman.

Joseph Bell.

Dr. A. Alter.

Andrew Roulston.

A. D. Wier.

John H. Baird.

Samuel Brugger.

S. C. Walker.

S. Ebert.

Thos. Meehan and J. Meehan.

Thomas Meehan.

120

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution— Continued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
Germantown 2s eee st sree al SOO 18 7 ss see Ernest Turner.
Getbysburgh..0 2-2 teste 1849-1860....-:.--: Prof. M. Jacobs.

NGL es tS ees Rev. M. Jacobs and D. Hyster.
1B62—1865).2 hae. fees Rev. M. Jacobs and H. E. Jacobs.
Grampian Hills ...-......--- 1864-1873..---. 225: Elisha Fenton.
Greencastle. ...55. 22252... NEVO oe eee eae Samuel N. Rhode.
Greensburghe = sae secs) seee MEE Si@agcascecce J. M. L. Stump.
iS Mee Geseneeancas G. B. Slattery.
HST be cae Leary W. D. Weaver.
Greenvillepeessene sence NGVAISISS.cooKe Feces D. P. Packard.
HMarrisbureh) 222 snore has: it pbGeou soube sade Dr. J. Heisely.
1857-18642 2.5 Feenee W.O. Hickok.
1S60=1861 2 ese Kk. A. Martin.
1869-1870.... 22222: Dr. W. H. Egle.
USES Ope eee S. A. Black.
azletonesk 22 Ae eos sae Ee TSO SUS Bssce bocce John Haworth.
LAVELTORG 224 SES es PERG ees TESS ONS sco ocuccS Dr. Paul Swift.
Hollidaysburgh....-..-.-.-- Ie ooe coco caeces|| Vy Jan ILOwARe,
Honesdale wees 22 haa ae Het Meee rere ey cated M. H. Cobb.
oxshamtyas sso Ore ee 1864-1873....-.-..- Miss Anna Spencer.
emMbiNed Onis -eel= ase sees USB) se sceg Gosce cEae Dr. Win. Brewster.
Hekesburoe sea sateen eleyealkel el seo easooe Wm. E. Baker.
Indiana soho. ROR Ee CVO SCE Ba oe akae David Peelor.
POSS Naa ee ee E W.D. Hildebrand and David Peelor.
JOHNSTOWN 2252. = ee 1868-1871, 1873. - David Peelor.
Keimesleyse oa. os eke gae he SPs Frees Ie ean Francis Schreiner.
Hancaster 22. -) oISeQeas oh sets WBAQ sae Sages os es, 2 F. A. Muhlenburg, jr.
Nevis ee eae John Wise.
Matrobeya nee. ses Re Ons ake 4 1860-1862 -22 22. 22. Prof. Rudolph Miller.
abel oy bepae Reset estan busses W. R. Boyers.
Mewisbureh 25 ve hess 1855-1860, 1865-1873 | Prof. C. 8. James.
MVM, 2 LV Seles oS RRR 1B49=1852) 2-225 ee Messrs. Edwards and Miller.
TESS ose tdee ee See Joseph Edwards.
LSS BES Cee eE ese John H. Smedley.
Paindenvs. o.oo: 1858-18592 22 aes. James Barrett.
Manchester s)25) 2 2as Sheet 1849-18522. 255 2222 Corydon Marks.
Meadville, 2222. eon ae SAG Sail jee es Prof. L. D. Williams.
1854-18582. 2222 Bue T. H. Thickstun.
IMGdia Wess seeee . a ee 18605 ese ee eee Dr. Isaac N. Kerlin.
Moorhead! 22 2220 2 eval: S63 22 2 Uae Seen Val aVValiKers
Morrisvailleys. stone eas a5 1849- 1864 Be PL EAs Ebenezer Hance.
MBH. eee eee ee Mahlon Moore.
Moss Grove ...--is2-2-.) 222: 1853-1857 224228 S52 Francis Schreiner.
Mount) Rock. 222202 245% USING. bes Gabe Jacob Lefever.
Mount JOyeo eee oe meee 1857-1858. .5 seas Mary E. Hoffer.
1860-1873... .2452. Dr. Jacob R. Hoffer.
Mummy svalles ae san) ssn sctteene UCI) sao esa oes Thomas H. Stewart.
1867-1868 ...--..--- F. L. Stewart.
Nazareth te2- eee HSS esos ee KE. T. Kluge.
Hee dope seca ses E. T. Kluge and E. Kummer.
How anaes nee ee H. A. Brickenstein.
1859-1860 seeeeh cess J. C. Harvey.
USGS ees Se aie O. T. Huebner.
TSGQ Pe ee are a eee O. T. Huebner and L. E. Ricksecker
1863-1866...--. .<:- L. E. Ricksecker.
New? Castles 22 3. c28 eee HS66=18732 seo. eee KH. M. McConnell.
INOLEIStOWN: = See 2 eco eee les 1863.2 sssancer Rev. J. G. Ralston.
Northeast) 2222 oo ee ee HOO cces see eee John F. Milliken.
North Wihitelall 2225! 222537 1856-1868. -.- eee e Edward Kohler.
OM City) | 22 ye ener al Mine 1863-1864....-.---- James A. Weeks.
Oxford) 2200 ee OEE MEG De. eo ee Dr. Henry Duffield.
PATACISC Ree ee ee a 1854-1 856u eee Jacob Frantz.
Parkerville Sse seen San oos3 1859-1863, 1865. ....} Fenelon Darlington.
Philadelphia): ---- #42225 i284 ISAO ace sil eB United States navy-yard.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

P2k

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

iniladelphidieese sacs secs eee

Pheenixville
Pittsburgh

Plymouth Meeting
Pocopson
Pottsville

vecera ceoae
eee ee es oe tees one ewe

Pottsville
Randolph
Re adinomme ce cco see a

IRTNCHONS SoSuscmsscoawopouee

Shamokin ses cu es eee

Silver Spring
Somerset

eee cece =~ se eee eee -

Seviensvilleseeeosws soos ae
SambeMany/Svseeceten see cies
SUGENP CHONG) Sano Reeeotae sone

Summit Hill.....222.--
Summitville.
Susquehanna Depot..---..--
Tarentum .

mere
emene

Tioga
Mowand aves cses nese ee

Troy Hill.-
Uniontown
Valley Forge
Warrior’s eRe
Maynesborough = s-e-see os
Wellsbor ough.
Westchester .2222- 2.205222.

Period.-

Name of observer.

1849-1852). ..22. 205:
aos a ese eee ee

1872-1873 sleep nels
USCS=18 72 ose ise ce
1853-1858, 1866-1873
1854-1855-.....2-2.

= eee eee wees ee ee

1851-1852, 1854-1856
1857-1863, 1866-1873

1856-1863... Beat.
1863- LSOQ a ain shciacrs

1857-1861
1866-1867 .....---..

S49 -NS oN y= se
1852-1854. .....----

tease LS
TRS STUSSy oe ee ee
1863-1873./0.. 0088!

1858-1859...--..---
1864-1865.......-.-
1868-1873....-...-.

Lieut, Joseph Reed.

Dr. Paul Swift.

J. ¥. Coorlies.

Prof. J. A. Kirkpatrick.
United States Naval Hospital.
Dr. J. C. Martindale.

P. Friel.

Homer Eachers.
Pennsylvania Hospital.

J.M. Ellis.

Tsaac Z. Caffman.

Edward Fenderich.

Dr. H. Smyser.

W. W. Wilson.

William Martin.

John Hastings and William Martin.

William Martin and Dr. Alexander
M. Speer.

Dr. Alexander M. Speer.

Prof. Rudolph Miiller,

Charles Albree.

George Albree.

Marcus H. Corson.

Fenelon Darlington.

John Hughes.

Dr. A. Heger.

Rev. B. R. Smyser.

D. Washburn.

Orrin T. Hobbs.

John Heyl Raser.

Dr. J. B. Peale and Charles Hahn.

N.S. Haines.

James D. Stacker.

---| Dr. A. P. Meybert.

John I. Travelli.

J. I. Travelli and G. H. Tracy.
George H. Tracy.

P. Friel.

H. G. Bruckart.

Rev. David J. Eyler.
D. F. Chorpenning.
George Moury.

J. Russell Dutton.
William A. Stokes.
Lorin Blodget.

W. O. Blodget.

M. Abbott.

Thomas Seabrook.

‘H. H. Atwater.

John H. Baird.

S. Cummings.

Kk. T. Bentley.

8. J. Coffin, W.H. Dean, and I. H.
Kingsbury.

Victor Scriba.

Freman Lewis.

C. P. Jones.

J. R. Lowrie.

Rev. D. J. Eyler.

Henry W. Thorp.

Samuel Alsop.

Prof. A. G. Clark and T. H. Aldrich

Dr. George Martin.

W. A. Jefferis.

122

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

West St. Exp. Farm. ...-.-
Whitehall Station.....----.-
Williamsport ---.

Worthington
York Sulphur Springs. .-----.
Youngsville

weer ena ee eee eee =

Rhode Island.

Newport

North Scituate.... .-csl2224.
Portsmouth
Providence

South Carolina.

ec ee es ee ee ee eee eee eee

Anderson -
Barrattsville ....-. A
IBeAUORC ee eno eee eee
Black Oaks... seperate Bee
iBlutiton=s 25 42ers ce g
Camden® ... -.2:et adele

Charleston

Columbia. 2 2tecleccekk eaeeet

Edisto Island
Fort Hill
Georgetown
Gowdeysville
Grahamville....-.--.-
Hacienda Saluda....2.-..--.
Filton tHlead 2222 5 eee ee =

Mount Pleasant. -..--.----.--
Orangeburgh

IOMATIAe a. oss ses eee

VIACCAMIAW Oe cece een eeee
Wilkinsville

Tennessee.

Austin

Period.

Aker eee meaacaases

1859-1860, 1568-1869

-| 1864, 1869-1871. .-.-

1873.

1854-1856 .....-----
1857-1861, 1867-1872
ISAM Becas code se
NSGS Seka eae
SOL SSS SauSee
WSR AMG 4 6oo6 Shee
158-1861. 2 eye
d etree Biel eM ey ehycee
ee as sooooe
NSO9=1873.55.5 =. Sao.
1849-1851, 1854-1857
1855- 1857 eee EN
TROLS Ae eters Hens ied,
1858=186 aes

SSO aca eee iene eee
Tie ie eee aae cise |
1859. .
ests \9 Jest a Se )
1S55=1 8575s eee ces

1859-1801 ese aee
1868-1873. ...-.222:
WOT eS eee ele
1671- Le73 5. ie. BABE

1860-1861.......-..
1868-1873.......--.

Name of observer.

A. J. Hamilton.
Edward Kohler.
H. C. Moyer.
Josiah Emery.
Samuel Scott.

Dr. J. H. Marsden.
Dr. A. C. Blodget.

EK. G. Arnold.
Samuel Powel.

W. H. Crandall.

W. A. Barber.
Henry C. Sheldon.
George Manchester.
Prof. A. Caswell.
H. C. Sheldon.

H. W. Ravenel.
Rev. J. H. Cornish.
Dr. W. H. Geddings.
EK. S. Earle.

Dr. John P. Barratt.
Dr. M.M. Marsh and Mrs. Marsh.
Thomas P. Ravenel.
S. Saint J. Guerard.
T. Carpenter.

Colin Macrae.

Dr. J. A. Young.

.'| Prof. L. R. Gibbes.

Dr. Jos. Johnson.

..| Dr. J. L. Dawson.

Dr. Jos. Johnson, J. L. Dawson, and
G. 8S. Pelzer.

Col. W. Wallace.

F. H. Harleston.

Prof. J. B. White.

Capt. C. C. Tew.

Dr. KE. H. Barton.

Superintendent Arsenal Academy.

E. N. Fuller.

R. A. Springs, jr.

Rey. Alexander Glennie.

Charles Petty.

FE. D. Pearsall.

Lardner Gibbon.

.| Maj. J. W. Abert, Capt. C. R. Suter.

Maj. C. R. Suter.

Dr. E. N. Fuller.
Thomas A. Elliott.
Joseph T. Zealy.

J. W. Folk.

D. Benjamin Busby.

H. W. Ravenel.

Thomas P. Ravenel.
Rev. Alexander Glennie.
Charles Petty.

Dr. 8. K. Jennings.
P. B. Calhoun.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

123.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institwtion—Continued.

Name of station. Period.
Bethel Springs.....2.22.222-} 1872-1873...........
WS(Q=1e7Si ever vas
Castalian Springs....-..-.-.| 1872-1873._....---.
@hattamooga see sc ese oe PUCOL. ee eee ee
@larksvallGeeeses see eee NS ITS Sc ee ars ene
Clearmontineeceo eee eee ESTO 1873222 eee eee
Clevielandesssos ete BIS. lec ween eee
Dixon Springs)|------..---.--| 1852 Boos
ID OWES GAs BES OE Ae ae oY AO ee Fe Ca aE
TIA OW NOM 65 Soo boon od seo! Meese} es scons sooe
Fayetteville .......-..2/22-.| 1849-1861... .. 242.
TPieayal rl bin, 5 Sees Seema ne eel SRC Gy/(iee se eee eens ua
Hrendship) 22/2. 2. see S54 Nebo eee Se
Greenevilllesse yoo. 2S Esso. 1866-1873 ......---.
PACKSOM Ne. 22 SESE Mae eee yee iy
Kinoxsvallley sae cee Soe se OS —185 2) recrsereeee are
ICES se eesose
MSS ARS aie ey aie ashe!
S55 185 ORs
WSGOR aa 3 se IRS!
UBC69 B72 ose aS!
WalGraneers cates see ee eee | COO 1860 /as e535 so.
VEO SUST3)s sana
Wehawonusse ss es SOBs eb 4 no sane
MSD AG Aa aay sean
Lookout Mountain. ......-.-.| 1866-1867........-.
HEG7—LBT2 35 asc sess-
MeMinuville........--- GARY STG hss ey ss seo

Romonars {Siete puoorso gs

eoneces tee eee wees

University Place, Franklin
County

Winchester. ...-....-..----.
Texas.

Aransas
Austin

Bastrop
Bellona

Blutt

esecce cae eee eae oes ep eoe

1849-1853...-..----
1851-1852... .--2-.
1857-1858. ---.-----

i i

1872-1873 .....----.

1859-1861. 222 2es2
1856-18572... = 2225
1859-1860..-...----

1858-1864.....-----
1858-1861, 1867-1873
iSO eA baba ceooee
1869-1870......----
UEWOseees
1870-1873.....----.

Name of observer.

Dr. 8. K. Jennings.

A. W. Stovall.

Dr. Thomas J. Kennedy.

Dr. G. H. Blaker.

Prof. W. M. Stewart.

T. P. Wright. -

H. Foster.

Thomas L. Sawyer.

B. F. Tavel.

Charles H. Lewis.

Dr. W. W. McNulty.

Dr. Jos. M. Parker.

Dr. Robert T. Carter.

8S. S. and W. 8S. Doak.

Ki. W. Amsden.

O. W. Morris. -

Prof. George Cooke.

Prof. George Cooke and L. Gris-
wold.

T. L. Griswold.

Stephen C. Dodge.

Prof. J. Kk. Payne.

J. R. Blake.

W. E. Franklin.

Prof. A. P. Stewart.

Prof. B. C. Jilson.

Eward F. Williams.

Rev. C. F..P. Bancroft.

Miss Blanche Lewis.

United States navy-yard.

R. Harris.

Dr. W. J. Tuck.

Dr. Daniel F. Wright.

Drs. W. Tuck and R. W. Mitchell.

Dr. R. W. Mitchell.

Edward Goldsmith.

Prof. James Hamilton.

William Rothrock.

James Higgins.

Fred. H. French.

Charles A. Stillwell.

J. W. Dodge & Son.

Rev. C. Waterbury.

P.C. Bluhm.

Professor Hamilton.

William T. Grigsby.

Charles R. Barney.
James B. Bean.
8. W. Houghton.

Frederick Kaler.

Dr. Samuel K. Jennings.

J. W. Glenn.

Dr. 8. K. Jennings and J. Van Nos-
trand.

Swante Palm.

J. Van Nostrand.

J.D. Cunningham.

Burke Combs.

..| W. H. Goode.

Joseph Fietsam

124

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
1 BYOYey BYE RAYS SueNesea eI IM aR GIR ONE USP USB sans Goscse William Melchert.
TEXOPBU SUE N CaN ees MU hd RT Se A S59 SOO Ree eee Prof. Solomon Sias.
IBOSLOMMA Mie eee eae es TL 1860-1861 ...:..-.-- G. Frees.
Boundary Survey-.22.)-. 22: LOGO |e iv ayen ictever suena John H. Clark.
Burkewilles=25- ago eee ee E5918 Gilby serene Dr. N. P. West.
Cedar Grove Piantation..-.- B67 =18O9 Sea eee Hennell Stevens.
Chappellebill: =. 225-203: 1866-1867 222.2222. W. H. Gantt.
@larkevilley secs eas MeV ACV cae ooswes Rev. John Anderson.
Clear Wake\.. 2. 32992 30 Gen TOV noses eae ooo George N. Leoni.
G@hintone 24505 2252 REVS ee S69 =T872E ee eee Dr. A. C. White.
Columbus) 2224/25 sO Paes Seba: 1859. . Dr. W. G. De Graffenried.
Cross-Roads 2... 2008 2 ye. 1859- 1860... Cereal eeu ea F.S. Wade.
Dallas sesso hs SOARS weet TB59 Shao. BORE ROE John M. Crockett.
Deloraine Hy as ls Ee TGV ESUCV/ Bs ose es keee Samuel Davis.
Galveston) 222-2). 25 nOete DBO Ui ose seca esses Dr. C. H. Wilkinson, H. A. Me-
Comly, and others.
SG OSSRa ed aputalGeeiene s Dr. A. H. Beazley.
Geolocical Surveyeoe+ 2 28h Olea9 = Soe sees sles George G. Shumard.
Gilimers cos ie Reo iae ei itaes 1859-1861, 1867-1873) J.M. Glasco.
Goliad se Va uuoe ey eerie Ait 157218560200. eee John C. Brightman.
CrOMZale sera ee ais eves Rue NNT eat S59 VSG ese eee Melvin H. Allis.
Greenville: wus Men a Das S59= 1860 Ree Dr. R. De Jernett.
UTelem ayes cries SOUS ay ed 1856-1857 22.2.2 22. John C. Brightman.
Jabra bya eee aoa dar eae done oe Ie SSB eee cas kee T. M. Scott.
Houstone 222) ee aah 1862-1865 .... 22022: Dr. A. M. Potter.
SOT—OISTQET Nae Miss E. Baxter.
SV ZaNS (Bes aces: Miss Jane Connell.
la hopmsnallley Gee e ee Reel loys E SAGES hile ees H. Yoakum. {
1852. . «.-..-.-|'3. MH. Browne.
fe5c 18602... tek T. Gibbs.
Kaufman 2.2 =). 45 Os eae IB59=18665.- 5.22522 James T. Rayal.
1866. - ...----.| James Brown.
Jefferson acs se ose Waa ass 1859. .--.| W.T. Epperson.
Te arissae ee ee ieee ea i 1858-1860. SSG Nope F. L. Yoakum.
Mavaca sh. oo. NE eed TUSSI eos eee L. D. Heaton.
ockhartiy eae ee eee 1869-1870, 1872 .| L. Woodruff.
ong: Point ssa" = sues INCL Meee elke has. .| M. Rutherford.
Mine) Creelke. 2) 2-20 hs Seat 1869-1870 ......---- F.S. Wade.
New Braunfels... ....-.-2--- OS fara ay apete Ble tedieaes A. Forke and Otto Friedrich.
1858-1860.....---.. Otto Friedrich.
New, Wim i232 SOieeeie ch ere We aMSiBocos cabeec C. Runge.
INOGY WHC ease adisesoes dssoue 1849-1854 .....-.--- T. C. Ervendberg.
HSH cao asoecs J. L. Forke.
Oakland 2522s SoBe asi NSTO-VSTQ Eee Slee F. Simpson.
Palestinee ios. ine eee. 1869=187 Oe esse N.S. Brooks.
Pian az Oe NO AT ee POGOe 2425 ells ss a Sohn Coit:
Pope’s Expedition .....-.... 1855-1857...) OVGI: James M. Reade.
Port Wavacavsys es Seek NS Oa oes aria cece EOD James Gardiner.
HRepOse eee eee ae ee BEET Oy WSN Oe seeks Allen Martin.
houndtop 2.05 yee Oras. 1859-1861.... 2-22. Bruno Shuman.
San Antonio sos teehee baa: OK Gs bis Dr. Fred. Pettersen.
Sandy My. 5 eee enone iL NSVHOTNBW3is2 so ook F.S. Wade.
San Patricio: 23s aen oe 1859-1860.......-.. J. O. Gaffney.
Sisterdale 22552) esse ake 1859-1860 .-.=.5.2-- Ernest Kapp.
Springtield! 2.222): 2 esas USES DRE Tela T. A. Turner.
Marrang 2220/22...) eRe 1859-1860......---. Dr. B.8. D’Spain and J. M. Ewing.
examine 2/0200) als Reni TESTIS Ve ean brat William Colman.
Gurner’s Point Vestn A aa IUCKDI Le SNS James T. Rayal.
Winionyrll essa rie P57 —186l soe. Bese Dr. William H. Gantt.
Wiacorsurie sob. ly Ore VIS 1867-1869... ...hoo!- Dr. Edward Merrill.
Washington eines 1 on 1856-1860.--..-.2.. B. H. Rucker.
Webberville -...taddini@ 1, 1859-1861 ......2--- Prof. C. W. Yellowby.
Wheelock sui ais aa ning Ie Tel eee so meor F. Kellogg.
Woodborough ..........--.. 1859-1860.....2225- Dr. James E. Moke.

MONTHLY

METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

125

Monthly meteorological reporés preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
Utah.
Camp) Douglas: 22-2... eee ASOD lk ks eee eae A.C. Ford.
Ileal Been ers Ase ae Charles Vieweg.
Coalwillepeeneseae see te ese ReO9-13872 22. eee Thomas Bullock.
*Great Salt Lake City -.2-2.-| 1857- H. E. Phelps.
1859- 1861, 1863-1871] H. E. Phelps and W. W. Phelps.
1672-18730... oe. E. L. T. Harrison.
LBV2—V873 4-2 kes Thomas Bullock.
larnisbunohes= ssa cee oe <2 1867-1873. 2. . O52 James Lewis.
Mebervill@jassastiait) 2c 2. HSG2—1804 5525 fae ee Harrison Pearce.
ROCK WiliO mee sae aoe Oe eee 1266- - ..-<-.| Andrew L. Siber.
Saint George == sie sse22)28- 1862- 1864, 1869. ....| Harrison Pearce.
1865-1866... 2222. H. Pearce and G. A. Burgon.
NEW. 2258252 2S CA vohnson.
Saimt)Mary/s cracigtseselee S65 see s4 eee een) homas: bullock.
Waneland a2 3. i wotseeg as. 1864...............| Andrew L. Siber.
Wianship: 22. -Bysss cds se 1866- 1869 sdesdesees Thomas Bullock.
\WASIM NEON Beocoosoescaes se TBGOL SSF Paes Less. Harrison Pearce.
Vermont
Barnet acess. - ce sebees eh ae 1866-1867, 1869. _--. | Dr. B. F. Eaton.
IDeA Gl ee aseasaees ae oce S56—1E57 5252 Soe L. W. Bliss.
IBrandony= sec oe. asso: 1852-1864 ..-.-. 22... D. Buckland.
1864-1867, 1869- .--- Harmon Buckland.
Brattleborough -....-...----. PSAQ= 1851 55 Sees: Charles C. Frost.
Brookdieldie sees ee ereelse TBO AG Set se Bee: T. T. Pollard.
Burlime tones... sxe eee 1849-1854..-....... Prof. Zadock Thompson.
1857-1864... -4a55- McK. Petty.
(CIB ABs ties ae pret Ron 1861-1864 ._. 2.5222. James K. Toby.
@astletone sees. eeeet see 1852-1854 ..-2...... D. Underwood.
1SE9=NB7 3a Rev. R. G. Williams.
@harlottecets.ca2) sete ae 1868-1873 ---. 2525-. M. E. Wing.
(Chimiislomay 6 Saeccuadsecbosae TebS—INB5 Aes Sees Charles A. J. Marsh.
1855-1807. s545_ 5 sS22 James A. Paddock.
1868-1873 ...-.....- Rev. Edward P. Wild.
Hast comelim ysis ae ats eee NBG Ss sok Eee EL Charles L. Paine.
Kast Montpelier ..--2...22-.- NB5DU 2 Seas sas. buds Wheeler:
ILimNeMID WN eee SS bees aeee 185016735 — anes: Hiram A. Cutting.
1872-1873 2 sae. Edward A. Cassino.
Middlebury. 22 sed Sess: Ife} NO fos eee ae eene Prof. W. H. Parker.
1265—1870-525.). S352: Harmon A. Sheldon.
Montpelier 22.25] saepeeae 1849-18512 Ss. D. P. Thompson.
SCS Ho ee BOR: M. M. Marsh.
Mount Anthony-.-.-.2.).... ESIC pe ey ee es a George W. Robinson.
INCMUORIE pose soeasasssee ses 1869-1870... 2232. KE. M. Currier.
North Craftsbury -.-.....--. 1867-1868 ..--..---- Rev. Edward P. Wild.
NOT WwiChie esses oo cere Ech. £ 1855—1859. 5 ase. A. Jackman.
871-1673 1 Pas! Samuel B. Phelps.
antoney- 42. ~ 4 stesotes ae)1555| LS69—18 72) eee D.C. and Mrs. Barto.
Randolph) jose sesso ese 1849-185 ieee ese R. M. Manley.
1866-1873..-....-.- Charles 8. Paine.
Uperb eye se Rare eta 1S57—1SC3's 25. -BaS5- Joseph Parker.
TRUER DCE S es oeerse sie cree 1862-1864.......... S. O. Mead.
Nase7s Malls bac ieee ABS S Mee eae: J.C. Baker.
Shelburne 22 5. eeeeeyes es 1S55—185 7s ee George Bliss.
South! Troy 922 lee ese eas LSTOAIS72 eu e ee: James C. Kennedy.
Springfield tea) Ja. eeenited 1860-1863 ...-.:2.:-| Rev. J. W. Chickering.
Saint Johnsbury .----..----. 1853-1855... 2.2655. J.K. Colby and J, P. Fairbanks.
1857-180L 7S 83s. Franklin Fairbanks.
Surattordse] Sowa ake ey Be erect aeaae NAS H.F. J. Scribner.
West Pairlee.- 22:5. i2eele PEDO Ne BO ON age L. W. Bliss.
Waltington ..95ich: 22 jeer 1866-1867 255.2552. Rev. John B, Perry.

126 MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station. Period. Name of observer.
Woodstock ...--.2555---.22- LSS7 1858s eases Charles Marsh.
ISO ERRas Se Renee Seem Lester A. Miller.
1 S68—1873/ Seance H. Doton and L. A. Miller.
Virginia.
PAIN aera iter= 2 oe ett S58—1859 Rees eee Rev. C. B. McKee.
Alexandria). <2 35. eoee 1849, 1853-1858. .... Benjamin Hallowell.
Aehlandess. esos ee eee tee 1854, 1856-1857... -- Samuel Couch.
TSO Qwecn sn ts Prof. R. M. Smith.
Berryville e225 jee ees 1855-1857... S22 Miss E. Kounslar.
NSH Sr Sane eae Dr. R. Kounslar.
Blacksburgh --. csc © 1873 Goose c J. L. Hann.
Bridgeton <.---2 .. evs eee SOS C. R. Moore.
Bridgewater.-YS0222 332.22: CaaS cone maces Jed. Hotchkiss.
Buttalo. -22--sOetienies ey eae 1851-1854. Prof. G. R. Rossiter.
IS55—=L6b8e=ee See Samuel Couch.
1858-1859... 2-222 William R. Boyers.
Burning Springs...--..----- WA cosas goods caoe Rev. Henry Bliven.
Cedar Hill... 0. S89 eS ae USHIS Ss occes seas Capt. David B. Horne.
Cartersville) 222. See RN EL ene tee meee eee Randolph Harrison.
Chambers’ Valley-.----.---- USIBs cooocn ssq0deée J. B. Sunbach.
Charleston: 2557-222. s2oNe. ISB NCGY/ Co csoe soe Jas. E. Kendall.
Charlottesville==22202 . a2 PEAQ-1Shiles see ee Charles J. Meriwether.
1859-1861... -2. 25: J. Ralls Abell.
Christiansburgh ..-.25-.2.:. Leola eee eee William C. Hagan.
Cobham :220565.. -20 58s NGAQ-185 Ieee eae: Charles J. Meriwether.
Cobham Depot:...-822/-22. 1859-186) = 22/222 22s: George C. Dickinson.
€richton’s Store... 22900222. HES 2 NSM eee eee R. F. Astrop.
Diamond Grove. ..---..----- 1849-15 ese see. R. F. Astrop.
Dover Mines!. $22 8222..22-2. ISPS GAA cUcian ea meTe Charles A. Harrington.
Mairfax 22 222d bls EE NSO SNS Tiles ee Miss L. R. Thrift.
Falmouth ) 228230 ne 2 1859-186) 7-2-5522 Abraham Van Doren.
Fredericksburgh..---..----. Wea QUO cb boo saoe Charles H. Roby.
HSAQ GSR EAs rece B. R. Wellford.
Hork Union 2325s Ses eee cocodsese Silas B. Jones.
Ganyswallleercn asec seers SEs csongacagesoes Dr. T. A. Beckwith.
LCG ASS ee An esels Julian C. Ruffin.
Gosportien mecca erases Ue) coocen 66555905 U. 8. navy-yard
JEEVAN NWO. bo S565 H4oceo oe Shoe SOQ NS Seeeseeeee James M. Sherman.
lartwiOOd so-so Se itebelS ppcemenaao aaes Abraham Van Doren.
Heathsvilles 22 222 esses SAG is ance as thor ns ee J. C. Wills.
lewilettis. 2-2. oss as oles: WAY SG6o5os -| J. F. Adams.
Holliday’s Cove...---------. IKSBISs coon oaacau cogs B. D. Sanders.
Johnsontown ..------------- SOS SWS ese cee C. R. Moore.
Weesburghi sees eee ceo She eS aRemeoaeoS N.F. D. Browne.
NSA Meee rep eee Samuel X. Jackson.
IVE soo copsoodososeus SOI tere rie ee OE Wm. K. Park.
1867-1870 ee W.H. Rufiner.
Nein wood sles asec eee SHO SS ereme rer Prof. J. L. Campbell.
USSU ST Jenene D. Payne.
DT Oy de NS ere Ra ere [HEL OO Oi ave rapeyiors ees vera George W. Upshaw.
GON SOO de ae see ptee eee tee ee OO Meare eltetecte crater Thomas J. Wickline.
ynchburg lisesi INS SA see erie areal A. Nettleton.
1866-1873 ...--- 2-2. Charles J. Meriwether,
Madison) s.22 02) tesa elo Soo sae arnm ser Dr. A. M. Grinnan.
Markham Station....---.--. USO ernatnley, ele rete ee L. E. Payne.
Meadow Dale. 222-2. s2227s8S TheB YE Mee ocaaaqe adas James Slaven.
Mechaniesville.--.2. 2... ---. S69 NSS ss eee William A. Martin.
Middlesex Scns.) Secs eb eeeacadiccocesse L. C. Breckenstein.
Momb callus epee emt TICE el ca mensscccic Charles J. Meriwether.
Montrose essa cesseea eee ILS ROSE Y/ Sansa sSosee H. H. Fauntleroy.
IMOMPROSS eae acne PeSS USD O Ree eens Edward E. Spence.
Miossys@reeleteeemer cnn tceaets 1856-1858 7.2.22. 2222 Jed. Hotchkiss.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

ry

12

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Period.

Name of observer.

ie i aro

Piedmont ..--- Rear ane aN b
Portsmouth

Powhatan Hill
Prince Hdward: -4.-.5- 22-4. :
IRiGlonaNonGl At osee see ea ae

ROSS, JBM Ee Bet aeeec eases oSce
FROMPEMONG...c. -/s. ae oes
Ruthven
Salem

Snows oe ee a

Staumtomenesces so 50- seas.
Stribling Springs -.... -:-..-
Surry
heme lainss see eer a oe
Vienna

Wiyithevalle see os aac ee Sere oe

Zinn Station

Washington Territory.

Cathlamet...-...-.-
Hort Colvilless. 222. -
Fort Steilacoom
Fort Vancouver..-.-....----.
Neeah Bay

ontpAngelosesaa=— ss -% sos ee
Port Townsend . --
Seattle
Union Ridge
Walla Walla

West Virginia.

Ashland
Burning Springs
Capon Bridge
Crackwhip
Grafton
Hampshire County
Hianper’s Merry si -.c--82- t acc
Huntersville
Huttonsville

1856-1856, 1867-1868
NS68=187 3352 ee
1857-1858
1859-1861

1860-1861
Ss 9-187 Seats
1849-1852
1849-1854
1859-1861

1857-1858
1S57S1858e eee
1856-1858
1857-1858
1856-1861
1867-1870
1872-1873

1865-1866, 1872-1873
1868-1873
1869-1871

1870-1873
1860-186 L
1863-1864

--- ee ee ee eee eee

1865-1872......-2--

pececce ence

James T. Clarke.

J.T. Clarke and Miss Bell Clarke.
James Fraser.

James Fraser.

U.S. Naval Hospital.
Franklin Williams.

N. B. Webster.

Naval Hospital.
Edward T. Tayloe.
Prof. Francis J. Nuttaner.
David Turner.

Charles J. Meriwether.
John Appleyard.

G. C. Vincent.

George W. Upshaw.
George C. Dickinson.
Julian C. Ruffin.
J.Carson Wells.

Jobn R. Purdie.

J. W. Stalnaker.

EK. D. Stenker.

J.B. Imboden.

J.C. Covell. i
Jedediah Hotchkiss.
Renjamin W. Jones.
John Pickett.

H.C. Williams.

J.B. Bowman.

G. A. Bowman.
Randolph Robey.

Mrs. 8S. E. Chamberlain.
J. W. Marvin.
Chalkley Gillingham.
W. D. Roedel.

Howard Shriver.

Rev. James A. Brown.
Robert Binford.

Charles McCall.
Captain Hague.

Dr. David Walker.

Dr. Barnes.

James G. Swan.
Aiexander Sampson.
Alexander M. Sampson.
8.8. Bulkley.

Mr. and Mrs. J. E. Whitworth.
A. H. Simmons.
Thomas M. Whitcomb.

Charles L. Roffe.
Robert H. Bliven.
Dr. J. J. Offutt.

D. H. Ellis.

Dr. W. H. Sharp.
8. J. Stumps.

L. J. Bell.
William Sheen.
Jacob I. Hill.
David L. Ruffner.

128

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Kamala) 2.22 52 =
Kanawha Salines |..---.----
Lewisburgh

Morgantown .----.-.---+----
New Creek Station...-.---.-
Point Pleasantins-sse 2-2
INOINNE\/ So'4e So sei

SistersVvallemmeee seme sere
Wardensville
AWelisipungelns aS o5ue csoeuseaac
Weston

Westie Wmilome esate peers
Wheeling
Wirt

Wisconsin.

Appleton

Ashland
Audubon
ONG A TEEN alee On BE eel ray
Baraboo

IBA? Olliivecsoadedasossocacece
Baines! sseoseccsuss sosoasco
Bellefontaine ....-
IB OVONG Exerc eee etapa

Black River Falls. .
Brighton
Burlington

Caldwellabraitienss-cemecee.
Cascade! Walleye ijccise ei
Ceresco
Dartford
Delafield .

we wee ee tee ee ee we wee

Delavan

Seen ai ie ie

Edgerton
Elkhorn
Emerald Grove
HIND ATR ASS Hees Cee eee eee
Malissok Sts Gross senses

Galesville
Geneva

Period. * Name of observer.

1858, 1860-1861. .--- James E. Kendall.
1858-1859... .-..---- W.C. Reynolds.
LESI—H1NB52 sss se See Dr. William N. Patton.

CES EE SosoS Sco Dr. Thomas Patton.
[SHO kAs Bases eee Thos. Patton and J. W. Stalnaker.
HA59-1861- =. sso 22 J. W. Staknaker.
ICV iey@ooocos esac Prof. 8.G. Stevens and Miss M. T,

Stevens.

NEON ob eococous Hendricks Clark.
WEB 66 Sacobu ccopas W.R. Boyers.
POSQs ke as ces eoee Marshall McDonald.
1866-1870... .-..--: W.H. McDowell.
OC MeehsoG5 ooGcas Enoch D. Johnson.
1855, 1859-1861. ---. D. H. Ellis.
1859-1860.-..-.--.- B. D. Sanders.
1868,-1870-1871, 1873] Benjamin Owen.
1869. Crh 2G oe A Ee H. P. Camden.
TOSR Ves Cees see Ke. Ralston.
on iat eles eh as W.C. Quincy.
eM) cesose soe George P. Lockwood.
oes shew i oe Josiah W. Hoff.
S56 SCs ees Prof. R. Z. Mason.
NSO ee eee John Hicks.
THOL OP Aare ebay yest oa Dr. M. J. E. Hurlburt.
NSO get ili perene Prof. J. C. Foye.
ASLO Sst ol oa ee Edwin Ellis.
MSS et Ree RMS A. T. Dearborn.
1849-11852 .. 222. James C. Brayton,
AQ SISO eee Dr. B. F. Mills.
IEG SS Coolbbooss M. C. Waite.
RESTS TOs ses eee Edwin Ellis.
1858-1859 ---..-. --. Harvey J. Nourse.
NG AEB scsesoccos Andrew Tate.
SSS SGA Sees Thomas Gay.
138401854 eee Eee 8. P. Lathrop.
[SEAN sis a sane Oe A J. McQuigg and W. Porter.
1Le55=USC0heee eee Prof. William Porter.
WSOils Wels oce sss Soas Prof. Henry 8. Kelsey.
LB63= 1867 202 VBE Henry D. Porter.
SUAVE SS eiemeie ee Beloit College.
ICA RSG SUMO Gee Emil Hauser.
NECGZ=18 0382522 see George Mathews.
TUG EAS Pa elie aga e NS D. Matthews.
SOOM ee seis wath iad D. and G. Matthews.
PEO RES eae a cs George Matthews.
1860-1861 .-.......-- S. Armstrong.
1 CLS Gey area sy Sette, Samuel R. Seibert.
e541 85 dee eee Miss M. E. Baker.
S61 1860R2= eae M. H. Towers.
LE59=1S60s sees nese Prof. A. W. Clark.
LeOl=1863 2522S 5s: Charles W. Kelly.

SHdSlSG7 cose eeeel Levens Eddy.
SAY els wie yt CM pee ) Ei. N. Lee.
UOMeViGionoddsoase Henry J. Shintz.
IeWasdesesosscscos Geo. W. Hodges.
BAG 18502 ee ee -| Orrin Dinsmore.
1864, 1866-1873. .-.. J. Everett Breed.
1857. Satis ea a M. T. W. Chandler.
ISBioleaee gases soadde Wu. M. Blanding.
Gy ailehitelee as Se .-| Wim. Gale.
1663 >l87/se2see eee W. H. Whiting.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

128

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

(GmeeMeB aye vs. aeia weie sash -
Green Lake
Hartford
Hingham
Hudson
Trish Sectlement
amesvilile 2-2 2. aces oles

Ienosha sees. seeder. S-kt
Kilbourn City
Hale pvt s) fas = yer) areata

ee ee eee eee oe ee te ee oH ee
wee ee ee ew eee ees coe eee o-

eee e es pe emece cece cae,

Manitowoe
Menasha
Milton
Milwaukee

INIOSIMeCU = a acs SESte we fs see
Moo, MIO Boo kou sdSeease
New Holstein
New Lisbon
New, dWuomdon\. We oss s2eagas
Norway
Odanah
Otsego

AT CEGWAlle 2.5 ss. teen & See
latbemilencetns occeeerme ce te

Plymouth
HResCObuls =< yeast Re oe hk
Racine .

ec eee ce cee ems coee oe

Sonthport
SiimAR Cin BEV a aaoase oodbEeda

tees ene cee cone Hees

Summit
SUPCTION I =. 045 .3eceepee oe:

9S

Period.

1854, Sadao Cocoos coos

TOO reo ee
GRA oe alae ratte ee
1856-1858 .-.- 222.

SOO as en i pete:

We Sey Sconoeae odes
INeBYSUCViSes5eaeKaes
NST NESS es 8- eeey

1849-1852, 1854, 1857-

1871
TSH SUG Anos GSE
18% dO-1E5O

1857-

S59qNSOO = ess
1501860552 Sees
INeb Seis) es eeas ose
LS59=V8O0E= sees
1865-1870...--. -..-

tee See rae seen

1859-1863. .------.
1859-1863... 52.

Name of observer.

Col. D. Underwood.
Frederick Deckner.
C. F. Pomeroy.
Judge Hopewell Cox.
John De Lyser.
G.F. Livingston.
John O’Donoghoe.
J. F. Willard.

Geo. J. Kellogg.

Dr. Clark G. Pease.
Daniel Strunk.

3| kev. John Gridley.

James H. Bell.

Isaac Atwood.

J. C. Hicks.

Elliott H. Benton.

R. H. Struthers.

Prof, 8. H. Carpenter.

S. H. Carpenter and J. W. Sterling.
Dr. A. Schue.

Prof. J. W. Sterling.

J. Jennings.

Prof. J.W. Sterling and 8. P. Clarke.
Prof. J. W. Sterling and W. Fellows.
W. W. Daniels.

Jacob Liips.

Col. D. Underwood.

Evan L. Davis.

J. A. Lapham.

Dr. Carl Winkler.
F. C. Pomeroy.
Prof. E. P. Larkin.
J.S. Pashley.
Wm. F. Horstord.
Ferdinand Hachez.
Jobn L. Dunegan.
J. Everett Breed.
John E. Himoe.
Dr. Edwin Ellis.
L. H. Doyle.
S. Armstrong.
Dr. J. L. Pickard.
A. K. Johnson.
G. Moeller.
Spencer L. Hillier.
Rev. Roswell Park.
W.J. Durham.
Hiland W. Phelps.
Prof. W. H. Ward.
W. W. Curtis.
Homer Ruggles.
R. H. Struthers.
Rev. John Gridley.
Rufus M. Wright.
Mrs. C. C. Pinney.
Edward S. Spencer.
Wm. H. Newton and L. Sane
ton.
L. & R. Washington and C. Lor-
ing, jr.
Win. Mann.
G. R. Stuntz and E. H. Bly.

130

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

Walworth
Waterford
Watertown
Waukesha

Waupaca

WEES ND Ageasooe oaSceuoocece
Wautoma
Weyauwega

Wyoming Territory.

Atlantic
Laramie City

CENTRAL AMERICA.

COSTA RICA.

eee ce cee eee & cee coc eee

GUATEMALA.

Guatemala

Belize

NEW GRANADA.

-Aspinwall

NICARAGUA.

@eeecee cee eee wo ee cocees coe eee

Frontera Tabasco .....------
IMIS C052 ce
NMisiiraitiits aya yyy ee
MUTA COR sexe yee ne ie
San Juan. Bautiste 32. .22. 20
UNAS PO EU L Ue eo e
Vera Cruz

ecae eee ees cece cone

Ue 1873. eee

Period.

TERT Ce Sa RS Ue i 1
1855-1856, 1858-1859
Hesoallsoo-eeee eee

1870- 1873.
TSKAO ASO S556 Sane

L366 so. soe pees

1855. .

Name of observer.

N. J. Read.

S. Armstrong.

William Ayres.

Prof. 8. A. Bean and Dr. L. C. Slye
Prof. 8. A. Bean.

J. Everett Breed.

M. C. Mead.

C. D. Webster.

Dr. W. A. Gordon.

-; Jonathan Spaulding.

Melzar Parker.
William Woods.
John C. Hicks.
Dr. Jas. Matthews.
H. H. Nicholson.
Dr. Edwin Ellis.
Jacob Duerstein.

George H. Lewis.
D. J. Pierce.

Felipe Valentin.

C.N. Riotte.

Dr. A. Von Frantzius.

Oficina Central di Estadistica.

Antonio Canudas.

S. Cockburn.
K. Purdot,

Dr. W. T. White.
Dr. J. P. Kluge.
Drs. J. P. Kluge, G. V. Rucker.

J. Moses.

Charles Laszlo.

J. A. Hieto.

Charles Laszlo.

Prof. L. C. Ervendberg.
Charles Laszlo.

Dr. Charles Sartorius.
Charles Laszlo.
Benjamin Crowther.
Herman Berendt.

MONTHLY

METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS.

131

Monthly meteorological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution—Continued.

Name of station.

ANTILLES.
Sombrero Island). o52 45 .0--6-

BAHAMAS.

Turk’s Island

INES DINGS Eee eyo e Etaeid/ Scie 53
BERMUDA.
iFiamiitiOs Soosqeouoe sooBeo ee

Shrelibya@bayaaeceeiss oi. = cr =
Silo CODEN S5654GSs euisaoe Seese

Ireland Island --....-..-..--

JAMAICA.

Upper Park Camp .........-
- PORTO RICO.

Pst. SanjYsidro.s..2--)-..--
SAN SALVADOR.
AanWiMiOns 1 se toys ets ec
ST. DOMINGO.
SOUTH AMERICA.

DUTCH GUIANA.

RS UITGITN ERIN tae eo ee ics ace ee

Period.

1860-1873... 2. -_--

Name of observer.

Alexis Julien.
Milton Brayton.

-| J. B. Hayne.

J.C. Crisson, Capt. W. Hamilton.

...-| A. G. Carothers.
-| United States consul.

J. C. Crisson.
S. G. Garland.
A.M. Smith.

Captain Alexander.
Royal Gazette.

James B. Arnold.
James Crawford.
Center Signal Station.
John G. Calder.

James G. Sawkins.
Col. W. B. Marlow.
George Latimer.

Dr. Charles Dorat,

Jonathan Elliott.

C.J. Hering.

Rev. George C. Knapp.

Naval Hospital.

United States steamships Alaska
Narragansett, Shenandoah, Lan
caster, Monongahela.

132 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

CLASSIFIBD LIST OF METEOROLOGICAL PUBLICATIONS,
AND METEOROLOGICAL ARTICLES IN PERIODICALS, RE-
CEIVED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN 1873,
AND DEPOSITED IN THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.

AURORAS.

Die Nordlichter verursavht durch die Stromungen im Luftmeere an den
Beobachtungen nachgewiesen. Professor Prestel. (Zeitschrift der
dsterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie, vii, No. 10.)

Le aurore boreali e i fenomeni meteorvlogici di Ottobre 1879.

Note a propos d’une aurore boréale observée a Orléans le 4 février 1872
(Mémoires de la Société d’agriculture, ete., d’Orléans, tome xv,
Nos. 1-2.)

HARTHQUAKES.

Il tremuoto delle notte da 12a13 Dicembre 1869. (Rendiconti della
Societa dei naturalisti di Modena, No. 1.)

Note sur le tremblement de terre ressenti le 22 octobre 1873, dans la
Prusse rhénane et en Belgique. M. Albert Lancaster.

Notes sur les tremblements de terre en 1869, avec suppléments pour Iles.
années antérieures de 1843 41867. (Mémoires couronnées et autres
mémoires publiées par Académie royale des sciences, ete., de Bel-
gique, tome xxii.)

Sui terremoti recenti nelli Romagne. Dottore Jacops Michez. (Hffe-
meridi della Societa de letture e conversazioni scientifiche, anno 2,
vol. 1, fascioli 1-2.)

ELECTRICITY.

Resultate delle osservazioni sull elettricismo atmosferico, istitute nel
xeale osservatorio di Modena. D. Ragona.

FORESTS.
Der Einfluss des Waldes auf das Klima. Th. Hartung, 1871.
GENERAL METEOROLOGY.

Contributions to our knowledge of the antarctic regions. London, 1873.

La meteorografia del globo studiata a diverse altitudine da terra. F.
Zantedeschi. (Commentari dell’? Ataneo di Brescia per gli anni
1868-69.)

Lumidita. Lettura del Prof. D. Ragona. Milano, 1873.

Osservazioni su la evaporazione, del Prof. D. Ragona.

Papers on the cause of rain, storms, the aurora, and terrestz all magne-
tism. G. A. Rowell. ‘ont am: 1871.

Sopra aleuni fenomeni di fisica terrestre in relazione con aleuni fenome-

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. hae

ni di fisica solare. A. Palagi. (Memoria dell’ Accademia delle
scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologne, serie 3, tomo 2, fasciolo 2.)

Suggestions on a uniform system of meteorological observations. (Royal
Dutch Meteorological Institute, Utrecht, 1872.)

Sur un systéme météorographique universel. M. Van Rysselberghe.
(Bulletin de PAcadémie des sciences, des lettres et des beaux arts
de Belgique, 42e année, 2e série, tome 36, Nos. 9-10.)

Rapports de MM. Gloesener et Liagre sur la notice de M. Van Ryssel-
berghe, concernant un systeme météorographique universel. (Bul-
letin de Académie royale des sciences, etc., de Belgique, 42e an-
née, 2e série, tome 36, No. 8.)

Ueber die Ursachen des eisfreien Meeres in den Nordpolargegenden.
F.V. Kuhn. (Zeitschrift der Osterreichischen Gesellschait fiir Me.
teorologie, vol. 7, No. 10.)

INSTRUMENTS.

Descrizione dell’ igrotermografo del Reale osservatorie di Modena del
Prof. D. Ragona.

Descrizione della nuova finestra meteorologica del Reale osservatorio di
Modena del Prof. D. Ragona.

Descrizione del barometro registratore del Reale osservatorio di Modena
del Prof. D. Ragona.

Esposizione e discussione dei resultate del barometro registratore del
Reale osservatorio di Modena per V’anno 1867, del Prof. D. Ragona.

_ MAGNETISM.

Contributions to terrestrial magnetism, No. 13. Gen. Sir Edward Sa-
bine. ;

Magnetiska Observationer under Svenska Polarexpeditionen, Ar 1868,
af Karl Selim Lehmstrom. Stockholm, 1870.

Sulla possibile connessione fra je eclisse di sole ed il magnetismo ter-
restre. Memoria del Prof. Francesco Denza Barnabita. Roma,

1873.
METEORITES.

Bolide observé 4 Bruxelles le 21 juillet 1873. (Bulletin de Académie
royale des sciences, etc., de Belgique, 42e année, 2e série, tome 36,
No. 8.)

Considerazioni sul radiante della pioggia meteorica del 27 Novembre
1872. Nota del Prof. Domenico Ragona. Firenze, 1873.

Les étoiles filantes, les bolides. (De Vastronomie dans l’Académie roy-
ale de Belgique, rapport séculaire, 1772-1872.)

Meteorsfallet vid Hessle den 1sta Januari 1869, af A.-H. Nordenskiold.

November meteors, 1869. Charles Meldrum, Mauritius.

Sopra una probabile connessione fra le eclisse di sole ed il magnetismo
terrestre. J. Michez. (Memoria dell’ Accademia delle scienze dell’
Istituto di Bologna, serie 3, tomo 2, fasciolo 1.)

134 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Stelle meteoriche di Agosto 1867, osservati nel Reale osservatorio di
Modena. D. Ragona.

Sulla relazione fra le comete, le stelle cadenti, ed meteorite. Schiapa-
relli. (Memoria del Reale istituto lombardo di scienze e lettere,
vol. 12, 3 della serie 3, fasciolo 3.)

Sur les étoiles filantes de la période de novembre 1871, et sur les aurores
boréales des 9 et 10 du méme mois. Note par M. Ad. Quetelet.

Sur les étoiles filantes du mois @aotit 1873, par M. Ad. Quetelet. (Bul-
letin de Académie des sciences, des lettres et des beaux arts de
Belgique, 42e année, 2e€ série, tome 36, Nos. 9-10.)

LOCAL METEOROLOGY.
AFRICA.
Hoypt.
Statistique de PHgypte, année 1873.
| Mauritius.

Monthly notices of the Meteorological Society.
Rain-fall of Mauritius, by Charles Meldrum.
Port Louis.—Results of observations at the observatory, 1870.

ASIA.
India.

Report on meteorological observations in the northwestern provinces of
india, by Murray Thompson.

Bengal.—Meteorological observations. (Proceedings of the Asiatic So-
ciety of Bengal, December, 1872, and January to April, 1873.)

Report of the meteorological reporter to the government of Bengal
for the year 1867-68, with a meteorological abstract for the year
1867. Caleutta, 1868.

Report of the meteorological reporter to the government of Bengal
for 1870. Henry T. Blanfora. Caleutta, 1872.

Report of the meteorological reporter to the government of Bengal.
Meteorological abstract for 1872. By Henry Blanford. Calcutta,
1873.

Bombay.—Magnetieal and meteorological observations at the govern-
ment observatory from 1865 to 1870.

Water-supply of Bombay. (Professional papers on Indian engineer:
ing, 2d series, vol. 2, No. 9.)

Oudh.—Report on meteorology in the province of Oudh, for 1871-72.
Punjab.—Report on the meteorology of the Punjab, for the year 1871,
by A. Neil. Lahore, 1872.

(x |

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 13

Japan.

lend

Meteorology of Japan. Dr. Thomas Antisell. 1872.
AUSTRALIA.

New South Wales.

Results of meteorological observations made in New South Wales in
1872 by H. C. Russell. Sydney, 1873.

Meteorological observations made at the government observatory,
Sydney, in 1871-73, under the direction of H. C. Russell.

Results of meteorological observations in 1871. H.C. Russell. Syd-
ney, 1872.

Brisbane.—Meteorological summaries from about fifty stations. H.

McDonnell.
EUROPE.

Austria.

Zeitschrift der Osterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie. Dr. C.
Jelinek und C. Hahn. Vol. 7. Wien.

Jabrbiicher der kaiserlich-kéniglichen Centralanstalt fiir Meteorologie
und Hrdmagnetismus, von Dr. C. Jelinek und Carl Fritsch. Wien,
1873.

Uebersicht der phanologischen Beobachtungen im Jahre 1870.

Cracow.—Meteorologische Beobachtungen, angestellt an der kaiserlich-
koniglichen Sternwarte in Krakau im Jahre 1872.

Pola.—Kaiserlich-konigliches hydrografisches Amt. Witterungsiiber-
sicht, 1872.

Prague.—Magnetische und meteorologische Beobachtungen auf der
kaiserlich-k6niglichen Sternwarte zu Prag in 1871.

Belgium.

Observations des phénoménes périodiques pendant Vannée 1869. (Mé-
moires de Académie royale des sciences de Belgique, tome 39.)
Observations des phénoménes périodiques pendant année 1870. (Ex-

trait du tome 39 des Mémoires de l’Académie royale de Belgique.)

Note sur les orages qui ont sévi a Aartselaer le 23, le 26, et le 29 juillet
1873. (Bulletin de Académie royale des sciences, etc., de Bei-
gique, 42e année, 2e série, tome 36, No. 8.)

Antwerp.—Mesures Waltitudes barométriques prisés a la tour de la
cathédrale d Anvers, sous l’influence de vents de vitesses et de direc-
tions différentes. (Bulletin de PAcadémie royale des sciences, etc.,
de Belgique, 42e année, 2e série, tome 35, No. 6.)

Brussels.—Détermination de la déclinaison et de Vinclinaison magné-
ticue & Bruxelles en 1873. (Bulletin de Académie royale des sci-
ences, ete., de Belgique, 42e année, 2e série, tome 36, No. 8.)

Mechlin—Observations faites & Malines par M. Doumet. (Annales de
la Société @horticulture de PAllier.)

136 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.
Denmark.

Monthly meteorological records for Shagen, Hammershut, and other

places.
Engiand.

Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 2d series, vol.
8, part 1.

Meteorology of England during the quarter ending December 31, 1871.
James Glaisher.

On the rain-fall of 1872. James Tait. (Proceedings of the Berwick-
shire Naturalists’ Club, vol. 6, No. 7.) j

Quarterly Journals of the Meteorological Society. Edited by James

Glaisher.

Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological Society, vol. 1, 1873.

Quarterly weather-report of the meteorological ofice, pa 4, Octo-
ber to December, 1870.

Quarterly weather- He pant of the meteorological office, July to Septem-
ber, 1871, and July to September, 1872.

Report of the meteorological committee of the Royal Society for the
year ending December 31, 1872.

Symons’ Monthly Meteorological Magazine, March, 1873. London.

Weather-reports, July 1 to December 31, 1872. Meteorological office.

Weather-reports, January 1 to December 31, 1871. Meteorological
office.

Cornwall.—Meteorology of West Cornwall. (Fortieth annual report
of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society.)

Greenwich.—Results cf the magnetical and meteorological observations
made at the Royal Observatory, 1570.

Greenwich magnetical and meteorological observations, 1871.

Stonyhurst.—Results of meteorological and magnetical observations,

1871
France.

Annuaires de la Société météorologique de France, 1869-71.

Annuaire de la Société météorologique de France, tome 18, 1870.

Sur les grands erues survenues dans le bassin de la Loire pendant
Phiver 1872-73. (Annales des ponts et chaussées, avril 1873.)

Le Mans.—Table résumé des observations faites au Mans par M. D. Bon-
homet pendant le 3e et 4e trimestres de 1871. (Bulletin de la So-
ciété d’agriculture, sciences et arts de la Sarthe, lle série, tome
13.) Le Mans, 1872.

Lyons.—Observations météorologiques faites & Vobservatoire de Lyon du
ler décembre 1869 au ler décembre 1871. (Mémoires de l’Acadé-
mie des sciences de Lyon, tome 19.)

Montsouwris.—Bulletin de VObservatoire météorologique central, 1870-71.

Bulletin de ’Observatoire météorologique central de Montsouris, jan-
vier, février, 1872.

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 137

Supplément, juillet a septembre 1870.

Supplément, 1871, additions et corrections.
Paris.—Atlas annuel de Vobservatoire de Paris, 1872.

Bulletin international, juin 1873.

Bulletin mensuel de ’observatoire de Paris, 1872.

Toulouse—Résumé annuel des observations météorologiques faites a
Yobservatoire de Toulouse pendant les années 1868-70, par M.
Daguin. (Mémoires de Académie des sciences, inscriptions et
belles-lettres de Toulouse, Te série, tome 3.)

Tableaux mensuels de principales observations météorologiques faites
& Vobservatoire de Toulouse, pour les quatre dernier mois de l’an-
née météorologique 1869-70, par M. Daguin. (Mémoires de l’Aca-
démie des sciences, inscriptions et belles-lettres de Toulouse, 7e
série, tome 3.)

Tours.—Observations météorologiques du mois d’octobre. Observations
météorologiques du mois de novembre. Résumé météorologique de
VYannée 1870-71. M.de Tastes. (Annales de la Société @agricul-
ture, sciences, arts et belles-lettres, 102e année, tome 1, No. 3.)
Tours, 1871.

e

Hanover.

Der Boden, das Klima und die Witterung von Ostfriesland, von M. A.
fF’. Prestel. Emden, 1872.

Holland.

Résumé des observations météorologiques faites 4 Luxembourg en 1870.
M. F. Reuter. (Publications de VInstitut royal grand ducal de
Luxembourg, tome 12, 1872.)

Hungary.
Magnetische Ortsbestimmungen im Konigreiche Ungarn. Wien, 1871.
Ireland.

A comparative view of meteorological observations made in Ireland
since 1788. Richard Kirwan. Dublin.

Italy.

Bolletino meteorologico. (Giornali agrario italiano.)

Sul clima d'Italia. Luigi Rolla. (Commentari dell’ Ateneo di Brescia.
per gli anni 1868-69.)

Brescia.—Osservazioni meteorolegiche dell’ anni 1868-69. (Commentari
deli’? Ataneo di Brescia per gli anni 1868-69.)

Milan.—Rigoledo nel 1871. Note statistiche d’idroterapia ed climatolo-
gia del dottore Carlo Zucchi.

Sul grande commovimento atmosferico avvenuti il 1° Agosto 1872,

nella bassa Lombardia e nella Lomellina. Annotazione di Giovanni
Celosia, 1873. (Bolletino del Reale osservatorio di Brera in Milauo.)

138 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Modena.—Le stazioni pluviometriche della provincia di Modena.
Lvumidita. Lettura del Prof. D. Ragona, direttore del Reale osserva-
torio di Modena.
Résumé des observations sur la météorologie faites 4 VObservatoire
royale de Modena, par M. le professeur D. Ragona, année 1867.
Naples.—Specolareale di Napoli. Osservazioni meteoriche del Dicembre
1872, fatte dal astronomo professore F. Brioschi.
Turin.—Supplemento al Bolletino annuale 1870 dell’ osservatorio astro-
nomico dell’ Universita di Torino.
Bolletino meteorologico ed astronomico del Reale osservatorio dell’
Universita di Torino, 1871.
Udine.—Osservazioni meteorologiche istituto in Udine nell anno 1870.
(Annali scientifici del Reale istituto tecnico di Udine, 1871.)
Venice.—Bolietino meteorologico con annotazione statistiche e mediche
per Gennaio e Febbraio 1872. (Atti del Reale istituto veneto di sci-
enze, lettere ed arti dal Novembre 1872 all’ Ottobre 1873, tomo 20,
serie 4a, dispensa 2a.)
Bolletino. meteorologico con osservazione statistiche e mediche pei _
mesi di Maggio e Giugno 1872. (Atti del Reale istituto veneto di
scienze ed arti, tomo 20, serie 4a, dispensa 5a.)

Prussia.

Meteorologische Beobachtungen aus Mihren und Schlesien in 1870.
(Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brunn, 9ter
Band.)

Frankfort.—Zwo6lf Monatstabellen. Hauptergebnisse, Grand wasserbeo-
bachtungen, Vegetationszeiten, Sternschuuppenbeobachtungen, vom
Jahre 1871 und 1872. Graphische Darstellung der Witterungs- und .
Grundwasserbeobachtungen. (Jahresbericht des physikalis chen
Vereins zu Frankfurt am Main fiir das Rechnungsjahr 1871-72.)

Russia.

Repertorium fiir Meteorologie. Dr. H. Wild. St. Petersburg, 1872.
Dorpat.—Meteorologische Beobachtungen angestellt in Dorpat im Jahre
1866. . Doktor Arthur von Oettingen.
The same for 1870.
Meteorologische Beobachtungen in Dorpat, 1871.

Saxony.

Monatliche Berichte iiber die Resultate aus den meteorologischen Beo-
bachtungen in Sachsen in 1871. Dresden, 1872

Resultate aus den meteorologischen Beobachtungen angestellt an 24
sichsischen Stationen im Jahre 1870, von Dr. C. Bruhns. Dresden
und Leipzig, 1873.

Chemmtz.— W itterungsbeobachtungen aus den Jahren 1870-72. (Vier-
ter Bericht der naturwissenschaitlichen Gesellschaft zu Chemnitz,
1873.)

METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 159

Scotland.

Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society, January to April, 1872,
with tables for the half-year ending December 31, 1871.

Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society, with tables for the half-
year ending December 31, 1872.

Quarterly reports of the Meteorological Society of Scotland, 1859-62.

Sweden.
Meteorologiska Jaktagelser i Sverige, utgifna af kongl. svenska Ve-
tenscaps-Akademien, vols. 9-11.

Upsal.—Bulletin météorologique mensuel de Vobservatoire de ’univer-

sité d’Upsal, vols 1-3. Dr. R. Rulenson.
Switzerland.

Monthly meteorological observations at Neuchatel, Chaumont, and Af-
foltern. (Bulletin de la Société des sciences naturelles.)

Schweizerische meteorologische Beobachtungen, December 1871 und
Januar und Februar 1872.

Schweizerische meteorologische Beobachtungen, herausgegeben von der
meteorologischen Centralanstalt der schweizerischen naturforschen-
den Gesellschaft. Prof. Dr. Rudolf Wolf. Tter Jahrgang. Zii-
rich, 1870.

Geneva.—hésumé météorologique de Vannée 1871, pour Geneve et le
Grand St. Bernard, par E. Plantamour.

Lausanne.-—Bulletin mensuel des observations météorologiques de Lau-
sanne, par J. Marguet, 1871. (Bulletin de la Société vaudoise des
sciences naturelles, vol. 11, No. 66, 1871.)

Wiirtemberg.

Wiirtembergische Jahrbiicher fiir Statistik und Landeskunde. Stutt-
gart.

NORTH AMERICA.
Canada.

Toronto.—Monthly meteorological register and remarks. (Canadian
Journal of Science, Literature and History.)

United States.

Meteorological observations at lake stations. (Annual report of Chief
of Engineers, Washington.)
North Carolina.—Western North Carolina, its agricultural resources, |
climate, &c. EH. J. Aston. Milwaukee, 1870.

SOUTH AMERICA.

Notes on the climate of the Maranon. Francis L. Galt. (Proceedings
of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. 17, No. 2.)

Chili.wResumen mensual de las observaciones meteorologicas efectua-
dos en el atio de 1870.

Venezuela, Caracas.—Observaciones meteorologicas en Caracas, 1868-69.

140 METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.
WEST INDIES.

Cuba.—Memoria de la marcha regular, 6 periodica é regular, del barome-
tro desde 1858 4 1871 ine., por el R. P. H. Vibes, director.
Observaciones maguneticas y meteorologicas del Real colegio de Be-
len, 1870-71.
Observaciones magneticas y meteorologicas per diferentes horas del
dia. (Anales de la Academia de ciencias, medicas, fisicas y natu-
rales de la Habana.)

OCHAN-CURRENTS.

The sea temperature and currents of the 10° square of the Atlantic
between the equator and 10° north and 20° to 30° west. (Lecture
by W. HE. Nicholson, in Journal of Royal Service Institution, No. 72.)

OZONE.

Sui coefficienti ozonometrici dell’ umidita e della temperatura. Nota
del Professore Ragona.

RAIN.

Rain-fall and evaporation in its relation to water-supply. Alexander
Leslie. (Transactions of the Royal Society of Arts, vol. 8, p. 3.)

Sulla pioggie di Ottobre 1872. Nota del Prof. Domenico Ragona, diret-
tore del Regio osservatorio di Modena.

TEMPERATURE.

Coefficiente termometrico per ricovare la temperatura media diurna dar
termometri a massima e minima. Calcolati per ogni giorno del?
anno dal Prof. Domenico Ragona, direttore del Reale osservatorio di

Modena.
WIND.

Air-eurrents in the Indian Ocean, by Charles Meldrum.

Rotation of the wind, by Charles Meldrum.

Die Wirbelstiirme, Tornado, und Wettersiulen in der Erd-Atmosphire.
Dr. Th. Reye, Hannover.

Extraordinary hurling of missiles by the Saint Louis tornado of 1871.
John H. Tice. (Inland Monthly, July, 1873.)

La velocita del vento, del Prof. D. Ragona. Milano, 1872.

Le burrasche di Novembre 1869. (Rendiconti deila Societ& dei natu-
ralisti di Modena, No. i.)

Note on the form of cyclones in the Southern Indian Ocean. C. Mel-
drum. London, 1873.

Vents régnants de Yocéan atlantique nord entre les Etats-Unis et La
Manche. (‘Traverses des paquebots entre La Manche et New York.
révue maritime, ete., juillet 1873.)

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Executive Cominittee of the Board of Regents respectfully submit
the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the re-
ceipts and expenditures for the year 1873, and the estimates for the
year 1874:

Statement of the fund at the beginning of the year 1874.

The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the

United States,in accordance with the act of Sue

Ore Ou Aueust, 1846 vo. se cep oe die slots ie eas $515, 169 00
The residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1565, de-

posited in the Treasury of the United States, in accord-

ance with the act of Congress of 8th February, 1867... 26, 210 65

MNotalibequest of Smithson koi 1h. eieiaysasae clos: 541, 379 63

Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States,
as authorized by act of Congress of Sth February, 1867,
derived from savings of income and increase in value of

1DVOSUNGUS sks Ooka ties Hon CRE Re Sos 6 APE Ram anil s anes 108, 620 37
Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury
of the United States, bearing interest at 6 per

cent., payable semi-annually in gold.-.... .....- 650, 000 CO

In addition to the above there remains of the extra fund

from savings, &c., in Virginia bonds and certificates,
viz, consolidated bonds, $58,700; deferred certificates,

$29,375.07 ; fractional certificate, $50.13, now valued at. 33, 000 00
Cash balance in United States Treasury at the beginning
of the year 1874, as a special deposit, for current ex-

ARCS Cty LP sh TNO SEBO.) 2 shatter One oO Cate oale 12, 226 63
Amount due from the First National Bares, (present oe
MMO WIR S AUS MIO OT 0s. OOe ME COT) $5, 757 4

——-

Total Smithson funds, January, 187£.......... PY 2S 556951226768

142 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Virginia bonds originally puchased by the Institution were as
follows:

Five bonds of $10,000 each, (Nos. 146 to 150;) one bond of $5,000,
(No. 201,); three bonds of $1,000 each, (Nos. 3497 to 3499;) one bond of
$500, (No. 658;) two bonds of $100 each; making in all $58,700. —

On the 9th December, 1871, the above bonds were exchanged for Vir-
ginia coupon-bonds, consolidated debt, (see Report, 1871, page 105,) as
tollows:

Fitty-eight bonds, at $1,000 each, (Nos. 11521 to 11578)........ $58, 000

Onesbond eat $500, (No 1330) eee eer We ielelaa cy erry eae 500

Two bonds, at $100 each, (Nos. 4192 and 4191)............... 200
58, 700

These bonds are in the cashier’s vault of the United States Treasury,
in charge of General Spinner. Coupons due July 1, 1873, and January
1, 1874, are still attached to these bonds.

In addition to the above bonds the institution holds a certificate of
indebtedness, (No. 4,543,) deposited with Riggs & Co., from the State of
Virginia, (dated July 1, 1871,) for one-third of the amount due for prin-
cipal and interest surrendered under the provisions of an act of the leg-
islature of 30th March, 1871, this amount having been reserved until an
adjustment is made between the States of Virginia and West Virginia
as to the old debt of Virginia, amounting to $29,375.07.

There is also a certificate of indebtedness (No. 2,969) for $50.13 for an
odd amount of interest.

The uninvested balance in the First National Bank at the beginning
of 1873 was $17,811.36. This balance would this year have been in-
creased by a saving of $172.73 had it not been for the suspension of the
First National Bank in September last, in which $5,757.41 still remain
unpaid, and will probably be, to a considerable extent, a loss.

In accordance with the law of Congress, the interest on the Smithson
fund is payable semi-annually, on the 1st of July and ist January, and
from the beginning of the operations of the institution this semi-annual
interest was deposited with Messrs. Riggs & Co., until at the meeting of
the Board of Regents on the 22d February, 1867, a resolution was
adopted directing the deposit of the income in ‘a national bank which
was an authorized Government depository.” In accordance with this
direction of the Board, the money was deposited in the First National
Bank, which proved, however, to be an unsafe curator of the funds.
The whole amount on deposit at the time of the suspension of the bank,
19th September, 1873, was $8,224.87, on which, however, a dividend of
30 per cent., or $2,467.46 was paid on the 11th November last, leaving,
as stated above, $5,757.41 still due.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 143

Statement of receipts and expenditures im 1873.

RECEIPTS.

From interest on $650,000, at 6 per cent. in

COG 2. odd SERGE ee aN ae La ae $39, 000 00
From premium on gold, June and December,

(LES etl TO ie re a pee ge ee 5,191 87
From interest on Virginia stock, (sale of

coupons due January 1, 1873*)........-.-..- 1,091 83

MOE ANEre CENTS Sears baie Sed ts Aa SO bY .. $45,283 70
EXPENDITURES.

Total expenditures from the Smithson income during 18753,
as Shown by the detailed statement below......-....-. 45,110 97

Balance unexpended, which is included in the cash
balamcennmithemlreasury te cpuaee vorrei biodata. 172 73

Statement of expenditures in detail from the Smithson fund for 1873.

BUILDING.

mepams Olvhe OUUdINg 2.5.2.6. 22522 ee $3, 252 23
VULMMUMCC AMO TXEUTES sone socio ene ee ew 386 26
: ——— $3, 638 49
GENERAL EXPENSES.
Mreetmes of the’ boards. sec os .c cm we es $300 75
michtine-the building 2222.52 f25.525-. sce 322 65
EAP cme OUT GING: outta ces he. sols sel ece 554 38
gosto. oun ee BSN Soe Boeri 971 10
FS EEN SOLED Ac ors eens cee nel eat oe 394 91
HERE ROLE INAS) siege eee cis ee eR hari 757 47
pulariessand clerk*hires: 254. 222200021 202: 12, 429 96
Purchase of books ard periodicals.......-... 411 54
—— 16,142 86

PUBLICATIONS AND RESEARCHES.
Smithsonian contributions, quarto.......- _. $8,706 08
Miscellaneous collections, octavo..........- 4,514 46
IE BOnUS, CLAVOIN: UL OOUIZ0U SD Re NOVO 8 593 55
“Interest on $58,700 coupons at 3 per cent....-..........--.---- $1,761 00
Deduction of one-third for West Virginia...--.---.--- $087 00
Meductionttor Stateitawse eA otwy. 0 OR ENE Oe ob 73 37
Deduction for charge of Riggs & Co.’s commission.... 8 80

ING GINO UMIEMe CO LVI Clee eee aetna an Ul ay HUMPS SL falc 2 EAU eR AMAA a IL $1,091 83

144 REPORT OF THE EX®CUTIVE COMMITTER,
Meteorology and researches. ...-...-...2-- $3, 232 Si
ASP AT AUS 2," YS c.6 5 separ ee een Ree ee ae 815 09
AO TALON Moe yes lsie 5 ache okies eee ee ee 109 83
IDEGPICHRITIONS 1 500 Go oases odaspoagcoessosae 228 00
IOC EUTES e232.) 5 0 ee Sere ee Seema eae 600 00
— $18,799 87
EXCHANGES.

Literary and scientific exchanges through agencies in Lon-

don, Paris, Leipsic, Amsterdam, Milan, &c:. -......-.. 6,251 74
MUSEUM.

Incidentals in addition to Government appropriation. .... 278 31

Total expenditure from Smithson fund in 1873..... 45,110 97

During the past year the Institution has advanced money for the
payment on account of the Government for freights on specimens, pur-
chase of apparatus for Government expeditions, &c., the repayments
ot which, together with the amount received for sales of publications,
&e., have been deducted from the several items of the foregoing ex-
penditures, as follows:

From museum, for repayments for freight.................- $967 46
From museum, for repayments for labor, &c.-.......-.-.-- 510 GO
From exchanges, for repayments for freight,............... 196 85
From apparatus, for instruments for expeditions.......... é 394 67
rom postage. tor repay mirenusi ane e ecto a rece eters ue ov 45
From building, for repayments ...----.-2-.---.. 22-22. 1,258 ° 37
JPN NSN IONE INEM AMINE MOSS Soca cancogcuesaogHSesucosg=- 325 21
From cost of books, for repayments .....-.+..----...-...- 3 00
From Smithsonian contributions, from sales..........---... 99 O07
From Smithsonian miscellaneous collections, from sales..... 119 95
From Smithsonian reports, from sales..-..-...-....-.---.- 16 09
From incidentals, from sales old material.......-.-.-.----- 39 30

Total repayments and miscellaneous credits in 1873.. 3,993 48

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

For several years past Congress has made an annual appropriation
of $15,000 for the support of the National Museum, under the care of
the Smithsonian Institution, and it has also in the last two years appro-

priated $25,000 tor the completion and fitting up of the halls required -

for the Government collections, and $12,000 for the introduction of

>

‘REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, 145

steam-heating apparatus. The following is a tabular statement of the
condition of these funds at the present time:

Appropriation for preservation of collections
for fiscal year ending June 30, 1874. (Stat-

pies at Large, vol. 17, p. 518).-.-.....-...- $15, 000 00
Amount expended to 31st December, 1873.
(See Museum journal A, p. 55) ............ 7,590 00

Balance for support of museum to June
BND) TUSSLE ees Se a Beate en me ea ge enh ier gn 87, 500 00

Appropriation for completion of the hall re-
quired for the Governmentcollections. (Stat-
Ubes aulWaree, vol. Ay, pyoOl.) 0.2225... 10, 000 00

(The whole of this has been expended. See
Museum journal A, p. 509.)

Appropriation for fitting up the new halls re-
quired forthe Government collections. (Stat-

Mbesaty Warse, Vol: 17, 9p: 518)... 2825 -eci- - $15, 000 00
Amount expended to 2d January, 1874. (See
Museum journal A, p, 519) ............-.-. 9,449 08

Balance unexpended, but due on con-
MIGIS sotcésosdgoudbopcsidspanwobsaseds sob amie 5, 550 92

Appropriation for steam-heating apparatus.

(Statutes at Large, vol. 17, p. 518).......-.-. 12, 000 00
Amount expended to 3lst December, 1873.

(See Museum journal A, p.533).......... Lett p10, OMe

Balance unexpended, but due on con-
CEACUG HI bij sete ela la a c).e 4) as, 25 bake seatarene cue qoneyapeaahs Bs eroae 3, 462 03

iB alamces seamen MSA 5 2 eye tierce ese 2 2 a 9, 012 95

Previous to 1873 all the disbursements on account of the appropria-
tions of Congress for the support of the National Museum were made
directly by the Institution and afterward refunded by the Department
of the Interior; but during the past year as strict a division of the
accounts as possible has been made, and those relating to the muse-
um have been paid directly by the disbursing agent of the Department
of the Interior.

10 8

146 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE ESTIMATES FOR THE YEAR
1874:
RECEIPTS.

Interest on the permanent fund, receivable 30th

JuMe S74, 1M COMM eee ee eterrepe ee eer $19, 500
Interest on the permanent fund, receivable 31st
December, 1874, in gold ._...-.. By rae eal 19, 500
Probable premium on gold, 10 per cent.......... 3, 900
Igiverestom Var einia som (Ss sais. seer err ree 2, 000
$44, 900
APPROPRIATIONS.
Hor jo uildimey ite sete crepe ted ere el nieieprce 2,000 |
Horjgeneral expenses. ser, 42sec aie 14, 000
For publications and researches .........---.--. 20, 000
For exchanges ....-... sBdeoaeasesodobockoooes: 7, 000
Hor pookksyand apparavus a. o-mec aes ee se een - 600
SOR COMMINRS NOES todsnoncodobauebecusboGubobeS 1, 400
44, 900

Lhe executive committee have examined eight hundred and eighty-
five receipted vouchers for payments made during the four quarters of
the year 1873. In every voucher the approval of the Secretary of the
Institution is given, and the certificate of an authorized agent of the In-
stitution is appended, setting forth that the materials and property and
services rendered were for the Institution, and to be applied to the pur-
poses specified.

The quarterly accounts-current, bank-book, check-book, and ledger
have also been examined and found correct, showing a balance in the
care of the Treasurer of the United States, 13th January, 1874, of
$12,226.68.

Respectfully submitted.

PETER PARKER,
JOHN MACLEAN,
W.T. SHERMAN,
Executive Committee.
JANUARY 24, 1874.

REPORT ON THE APPROPRIATIONS AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR THE NA-
TIONAL MUSEUM.

Since the foregoing report was presented to the Board of Regents and
accepted by them, as authorized by a resolution of the board, January 26,
1874, the undersigned, members of the executive committee, have exam-

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 147

ined the accounts of appropriations and disbursements for the National
Museum for the year 1873, and find for each disbursement a voucher
approved by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and a certifi-
eate of an authorized agent of the Institution appended, setting forth
that the account is correct, the articles or services charged therein were
required, and furnished on account of the objects specified, and that
the same were necessary, and the charges reasonable.

The undersigned have also examined the journal and ledger of the
National Museum, and find the balances remaining, on the Ist of Jan-
uary, 1874, of the appropriations of Congress for Smithsonian building
and for preservation of collections in the National Museum to corres-
pond with the certificate of the 2d February, 1874, of the disbursing
clerk of the Interior Department, viz: Smithsonian building, 1874,
$9,012.95, (see page 518, journal A;) preservation of collections, 1874,
$7,500, (see page 55, journal A ;) total balance, $16,512.95.

The other member of the committee (Dr. Maclean) was obliged to
leave the city previous to this examination.

Respectfully submitted.

PETER PARKER,
W. T. SHERMAN,
Executive Committee.
WASHINGTON, February 5, 1874.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS

OF

Ql’ BR OvACR DOr” RE CoE iNet

OF THE

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.*

| WASHINGTON, December 19, 1873.

A special meeting of the Board of Regents was held at 7 p. m. at the
institution. Present, Mr. Justice Nathan Clifford, acting Chief Justice
of the United States, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. J. A. Garfield, Hon. L. P.
Poland, Hon. Peter Parker, General Sherman, and the Secretary, Pro-
fessor Henry.

The Seeretary stated that the meeting had been called for the pur-
pose of electing a chancellor in place of Chief Justice Chase, who had
deceased, and that this was a case of emergency, as the semi-annual
interest, due on the first of next month, necessary to carry on the opera-
tions of the Institution, could only be drawn according to law on the
requisition of the chancellor and secretary of the Institution.

On motion of General Garfield, Mr. Justice Nathan Clifford was
elected chancellor.

The Secretary announced that since the last meeting of the board
two of its most prominent and valuable members had deceased, Chief
Justice Chase and Professor Agassiz.

On motion of Mr. Hamlin, a committee was appointed to prepare reso-
lutions expressing the sentiments of the board in regard to the death
of Mr. Chase and Professor Agassiz.

The chancellor appointed Messrs. Hamlin, Sherman, Parker, and
the Secretary as the committee.

General Garfield made the following remarks:

Mr. CHANCELLOR: I rise to second the motion for the appointment
of a committee to draught resolutions in reference to the death of our
distinguished brother regents Chief Justice Chase and Professor
Agassiz.

Never before in a single year has the Board of Regents suffered so
severe a loss. It would be difficult to find, in any organization, two
men more eminent, and representing a wider range of culture, than the
two regents who have fallen since the last mecting of this board.

—EE

* Continued from page 86, Report for 1872.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 149

This is not the occasion. to speak at length on the subject; but as my
term of service will expire before the next meeting, I ask the indulgence
of the board while I refer briefly to some of the marked characteristies
of our late distinguished associates.

Few Americans have filled so many high places of trust and honor as
Salmon P. Chase; and few have brought to the discharge of the duties
of their high station such masterly ability and such rare and varied
accomplishments. His career adds another to the many illustrations of
the truth, that he who loses his life for the truth’s sake shall find it.

In his early manhood, following his own conviction of duty, he com-
mitted himself, without reserve, to a cause which seemed, at the time, to
shut bim out from all hope of public preferment. He stood by his con-
victions, and lived, not only to see his doctrines prevail, but to be one
of the honored leaders in the cause he had espoused.

Whether at the bar, in the practice of his profession ; in the executive
chair of his own State; in the National Senate; as the great finance
minister of the republic in the stormy days of war; or as Chiet-Justice
of the United States, there ran through his whole life a depth of con-
viction, a clearness of comprehension, and a force of utterance that made
his power felt, and marked him as a man who filled and overfilled, hon-
ored and adorned, tke great stations to which he was called. If, in the
course of his high career, he felt the promptings of that ambition which
has been called “the last infirmity of noble minds,” it must be acknowl-
edged that he aspired to no place beyond his capacity to honor.

Throughout his long and'honered life the cares and demands of pub-
lic place did not diminish his ardent love for the pursuits cf science:
and the keen enjoyment of literature and art. The great masters of.
song were his daily companions. I was his guest for many weeks, dur-
ing the stormy and troublous winter of 1862-’63, when to the deep anxie--
ties of the war were added the gravest financial problems that have
ever confronted an American Secretary of the Treasury. And many a
time, at the close of a weary day of anxious care and exhausting labor, T
have seen him lay aside the heavy load, and, in the quiet of his study,
read aloud, or repeat from memory, the rich verse of Tennyson, or of
some other great master of song.

It was this life of art and sentiment, within the stormy life of public
duty, that fed and refreshed his spirit, and kept his heart young, while:
his outer life grew venerable with years and honors.

As the Chancellor of this Institution, we saw in happy and harmoni-
ous action his ample knowledge of our institutions, his wide experience
of finance, his reverential love for science and art, and his unshaken
faith in the. future of his country as the grand theater for the highest
development of all that is best and greatest in human nature. No con-
tribution to science offered to this board escaped his attention. Noth-
ing that was high or worthy in human pursuits failed to elicit his ap-
preciative and powerful support.

150 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

In Professor Agassiz we have lost a man of kindred powers, whose
life was spent in a different though hardly less conspicuous field of
action. ;

Few lives were ever so sincerely and entirely devoted to the highest
and best aims of science. I was led to appreciate this by a remark
which Professor Agassiz made to me several years ago, which is, I
believe, the key to his own career, and deserves to be remembered by
all who would follow in his footsteps. His remark was that he had
made it the rule of his life to abandon any intellectual pursuit the moment
. it became commercially valuable.

He knew that others would utilize what he discovered; that when he
brought down the great truths of science to the level of commercial
values, a thousand hands would be ready to take them and make them
valuable in the markets of the world. Since then I have thought of
him as one of that small but elect company of men who dwell on the

upper heights, above the plane of commercial values, and who love and
seek truth for its own sake. Such men are indeed the prophets, the
‘priests, the interpreters of nature. Few of their number have learned
more, at first hands, than Professor Agassiz; and few,if any, have sub-
mitted their theories to severer tests.

It was a great risk for the astronomer to announce that the perturba-
tions of the solar system. could only be accounted for by a planet as yet
unknown, and to predict its size and place in the solar system, trusting
to the telescope to confirm or explode his theory. But perhaps Profes-
sor Agassiz took even a greater risk than this. Who does not remem-
ber the letter he addressed to Professor Peirce, of the Coast Survey,
just before he set out on the Hassler expedition, predicting in detail
what evidences of glacial action he expected to find on the continent of
South America, and what species of marine animals he expected to dis-
cover in the deep-sea soundings along that coast? He risked his own
‘reputation as a scientific man on the predictions then committed to
writing.

What member of this board will forget the lecture he delivered here
after his return, detailing the discoveries he had made, and showing
how completely his predictions had been verified ?

While he was the prince of scholars, and a recognized teacher of man-
kind, yet he always preserved that childlike spirit which made him the
most amiable of men. He studied nature with a reverence born of his
undoubting faith. He believed that the universe was a cosmos, not a
chaos; and that throughout all its vast domains there were indubitable
evidences of creative power and supreme wisdom.

We have special cause for regret that his early death has deprived
this community aud the world of a series of lectures which were to
have been delivered here this winter, on subjects of the deepest interest
to science. His death will be deplored in whatever quarter of the globe

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 151

genius is admired and science is cherished. He has left behind him as
a legacy to mankind a name and a fame which will abide as an everlast-
ing possession.

The Secretary stated that prior to February 22, 1867, the money re-
ceived from the United States, as semi-annual interest on the bequest
of Smithson, was deposited with the bankers Coreoran & Riggs, and
subsequently with Riggs & Co., but on that date the regents had adopted
a resolution directing that all money received by the Institution “ be
deposited in a national bank, which is also an authorized, Government
depository,” (Report for 1866, page 78.) In accordance with this instrue-
tion and the direction of the chancellor, Chief Justice Chase, the
income was deposited in the First National Bank of Washington.
Unfortunately, on the 19th of September, 1873, that bank suspended
payment, having $8,224.87 to the credit of the Institution. Since that
time, however, a dividend of 30 per cent. ($2,467.46) has been received
on this balance, leaving $5,757.41 still due the Institution.

On motion of General Garfield, it was

Resolved, That the Secretary of the Institution make arrangements, if
possible, with the Secretary of the Treasury to deposit the income here-
after received in the United States Treasury, to be drawn out on checks
signed by Professor Henry; and that if this course could not be adopted,
that Congress be requested to pass a law to this effect.

The board then adjourned sine die.

WASHINGTON, January, 21, 1874.

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution, fixing the time of the beginning of their annual
meeting on the third Wednesday in January of each year, the board
met to-day at 7 o’clock p.m. Present: Mr. Associate Justice Clit-
ford, chancellor, Hon. H. Hamlin, Hon. J. W. Stevenson, Hon. A. A.
Sargent, Hon. S. S. Cox, Rev. Dr. Maclean, Hon. Peter Parker, Gen-
eral Sherman, Governor Shepherd, Prof. H. Coppée, and Professor
Henry, Secretary.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The Secretary announced the following appointments as regents:

By joint resolution of Congress (approved January 19, 1874) Prof. Asa
Gray, of Harvard College, Cambridge, Massachusetts, vice Prof. L.
Agassiz, deceased; Prof. J. D. Dana, of Yale College, New Haven,
Conn., vice Professor Woolsey, declined re-election; Prof. Henry
Coppée, of Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., vice William B. Astor, |
declined re-election; Rev. Dr. John Maclean, of Princeton, N. J., and
Hon. Peter Parker, of Washington, D. C., re-elected for the term of six
years.

152 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

By the President of the Senate Hon. A. A. Sargent, of California,
as regent for the term of his service as Senator, (1879,) vice Mr.
Trumbull.

By the Speaker of the House, Hon. 8. 8. Cox, of New York, re-ap-
pointed, and Hon. E. Rockwood Hoar, of Massachusetts, vice Hon. J.
A. Garfield, and Hon. G. W. Hazelton, of Wisconsin, vice Hon. L.. P.
Poland; for two years from the fourth Wednesday of December, 1873.

Mr. Hamlin, from the special committee appointed_at the last meet-
ing, reported the following resolutions:

Resolved, That in the death of Chief Justice Chase, the Smithsonian
Institution has lost a wise counsellor, an efficient friend, and a zealous
advocate of its policy and operations.

itesolved, Thatin his death, the country has lost an elevated statesman,
a wise, a just, and an upright judge.

Resolved, That the cause of civilliberty, of pure Christianity, and the
advance of higher civilization have lost in the death of Chief Justice
Chase the co-operation of one of the most prominent and influential minds
of the day.

Kesolved, That a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the
family of the deceased.

Mr. Hamlin made the following remarks:

I did not expect to utter a word on this occasion. I have, however,
at the solicitation of the Secretary, been induced to make some brie
remarks upon the subject of the resolutions reported by the committee.
I first met Mr. Chase at the time when he entered upon his official
duties as a Senator of the United States, and from that time to the
close of his life I knew him well and intimately. This Institution has
lost an earnest, able, and devoted friend, and that we shall miss him in
our counsels we well know, much better than the world, for we always
found him at the post of duty, uniting with a broad and capacious intel-
lect, good, common, practical sense, and always ready to counsel well and
wisely. We shall miss him here. In the counsels of the nation he did
his duty welland nobly. He had what at the time were called his pecu-
liar opinions, and he avowed and maintained them at a time when it
required moral courage to do so; but, however others disagreed with him,
none would say that he did not advocate his views with courtesy and em-
inent ability. In the heat of debate he might sometimes make a quick
retort, but his bearing was always that of a gentleman, and his position
that of anelevated statesman. Onthese occasions hedid what he believed
would subserve the best interests of man and elevate him to a higher and
nobler civilization, Asanexecutive officer during the war, he administered
the Treasury Department with great ability, and his name and fame wilk
be connected with those times in the history of the country. To him,
more than any other man, are we indebted for the means by which the

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 153

life of the nation was saved. i knew less personally of him in judicial
life, but I think it is known and well understood through all the land
that he wore the judicial ermine with honor and untarnished ; that he
commanded the respect due to his judicial and legal learning, and that
his decisions comported well with those of the eminent men who had
occupied the same exalted position, and was a worthy successor of those
who preceded him.

On motion of General Sherman, the resolutions were unanimously
adopted.

Mr. Hamlin, from the same committee, also reported the following
resolutions :

Resolved, That the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
record on the minutes of their proceedings their high appreciation of
the character and labors of their lamented associate, Louis Agassiz, and
the expression of their profound sorrow on account of his unexpected
death, in the full exercise of his power, and amidst his unparalleled use-
fulness. 7

Resolved, That Professor Agassiz, by the attraction which he exerted
on all who came under the magical influence of his genial temperament
and generous sympathies, nobly advocated the claims of science to high
popular estimation, private endowments, and liberal public patronage.

Resolved, That as an instructor in his adopted country, he introduced
methods of study and directed attention to fields of research in natural
history far more elevated than those which had been previously in use;
that as an original investigator he made additions to human knowledge
which do honor to the science of the nineteenth century, and associate
his name with those of the prominent benefactors of his race.

Resolved, That in the death of Professor Agassiz, the Smithsonian
Institution has lost a wise adviser in its scientific operations, a power-
ful supporter of its policy in regard to original research, and an influ-
ential friend, ready at all times to advocate its claims on Congress for
the independent support of a national museum.

Kesolved, That the Board of Regents deeply sympathize with the
family of the deceased, on account of their sad bereavement, and that a
copy of these resolutions be transmitted to them.

Dr. Parker spoke as follows :

Mr. CHANCELLOR: It may seem presumptuous in me to rise to move
the adoption of the resolutions submitted.

To calculate the distance and magnitude of the sun, requires an as-
tronomez, and to analyze its chemical properties is the province of the
spectroscopist, but multitudes who are neither astronomers nor spectro-
Scopists can delight in the revelations which are made in regard to
that luminary.

IT am nota scientist; still, [can appreciate, in some degree, the labors
of one who shone a star of the first magnitude in the firmament of science !

154 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

Tt is sixteen years since I first met Professor Agassiz, whose death the
Board of Regents so deeply lament. It was at commencement at Har-
vard University, in 1858, the first year after my return from a long
residence in China. The Emperor Napoleon had made tempting offers
in the way of high position to Professor Agassiz to goto Paris. In
tense solicitude on the part of his friends in Cambridge and the coun-
try generally, was felt as to his decision. It was on this occasion that
their anxious suspense was relieved, as Professor Agassiz, after dinner,
rose and announced his determination henceforth to be an American
citizen. This declaration was received with most enthusiastic demon-
strations of rejoicing.

Lam happy the resolutions now submitted recognize his adopted eiti-
zenship. An incident that has come to my knowledge within thelast hour
has given me great pleasure, as illustrating the patriotism of the man. A
mutual friend said, ‘“‘ Professor Agassiz, it fills me with gratitude
every time I think of your declining the very flattering proposition that
was made to you from the court of France.” To which he replied: “ Yes,
and do you know that proposition was renewed to me after the war be-
gan, and I replied with more earnestness than before, if Iloved my adopted
country too much to leave it when all was peace, I certainly shall not
leave it now, when a shadow has come over its prospects.”

In the resolutions adopted by different scientific and literary institu-
tions throughout the country, much prominence is given, and rightly,
too, to the irreparable loss sustained by the decease of this pre-eminent
man of science.

While we sympathize most fully with that sentiment, there is another
consideration that should not be overlooked. I refer to the kind Provi-
dence that has given to the world such a man, preserved his life to ma-
ture years, and enabled him to accomplish so much as he has done for
the science, not only of the day and of this country, but of the age and
world. .

To Louis Agassiz belongs the distinction of having awakened, in a
remarkable degree, a spirit of scientific inquiry, and of having discovered
changes our planet has undergone, through the influence of laws he
was the first to demonstrate, arriving at such a knowledge of their
operations that it may be truly said of him that the remote consequences
of these laws, first predicted by his theory, were, in repeated instances,
most signally verified upon two continents by his observations.

In the circumstances of his departure from this life, there were pecu-
liar mercies that call for grateful recognition. Fears were at one time
entertained, and not without cause, lest he might linger through years
of suffering, deprived of reason; but he and his loving family have been
spared that affliction, and he has been, as it were, translated, to resume,
or rather to continue, on a higher plane, his advance in the knowledge of
the works of the Creator, with devout and endlessly increasing adora-
tion of their Divine Author.

On motion of Dr. Parker, the resolutions were unanimously adopted.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 155

The Secretary presented a senna statement of the condition of the
fund, and the receipts and expenditures for the year 1873, which was
referred to the executive committee.

The Secretary called attention to the liberality of Mr. George W. Riggs,
the banker, who, after the suspension of the First National Bank, in Sep-
tember last, had advanced the funds necessary to carry on the ShenanonE
of the Institution, amounting to upward of $10,000, on which he had
declined to charge any interest.

On motion of Mr. Hamlin, it was

Resolved. That the cordial thanks of the Board of Regents be tendered
to Mr. Riggs, for his generosity in his financial services to the Institu-
tion.

The Secretary stated that, in acvordance with the resolution of the
- Board, he had applied to the Treasury Department to take charge of
the Smithsonian funds for current operations, and that arrangements
had been made with General Spinner, United States Treasurer, to re-
ceive deposits from the Institution, and make: payments on checks of
the Secretary, in the same manner as had been done in the First National
Bank.

The Institution is indebted to General Spinner for his prompt acqui-
escence in the proposition, and his authority for carrying it out in all
the details necessary to facilitate its operation.

The Secretary gave an account of the history and operations of the
Institution, particularly for the information of the new members of the
board.

The board adjourned at 9p. m., ue meet on Monday, 26th January,
at 7 o’clock p. m.

JANUARY 26, 1874.
A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 7 o’clock p.
m. Present Mr. Justice Clifford, chancellor of the Institution, Hon. H.
Hanlin, Hon. J. W. Stevenson, Hon. A. A. Sargent, Hon. EH. R. Hoar,
Hon. G. W. Hazelton, Hen. P. Parker and the Secretar y, Professor
Henry.
The minutes of the last We nate were approved.

Dr. Parker presented the annual report of the executive committee,
which was read and, on motion of Mr. Stevenson, adopted.

The Secretary called attention to the bequest of James Hamilton,
and presented the following letter from one of the executors:

CARLISLE, PA., January 23, 1874.
DEAR SiR: Yours of 20th instant received and contents noted.
The executors will be ready to pay over the legacy (bequeathed by Mr.

156 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

Hamilton) to the Smithsonian Institution about the first week in Feb-
ruary. Please inform us who is authorized by the Board of Regents of
the Smithsonian Institution to receive the legacy and release the exe-
cutors, and we will send the release next week to you to be executed by
the proper officers of said board, and one of the executors or a repre-
sentative will be in Washington in the early part of next month to pay
over the money and get the release.
Yours, respectfully,
JOSEPH A. STUART,
One of the executors of Jas. Hamilton, deceased.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY.

N. B.—Below you will notice a copy of the section of the will contain-
ing said legacy to the Institution.

SECTION 8. “I give one thousand dollars to the Board of Regeits of the
Smithsonian Institution, located at Washington, D. C., to be invested
by said regents in some safe fund, and the interest to be appropriated
biennially by the secretaries, either in money or a medal, for such con-
tribution, paper, or lecture, on any scientific or useful subject, as said
secretaries may approve.”

On motion of Mr. Hamlin, it was

Resolved, That the bequest of the late James Hamilton, of Carlisle,
Pa., be accepted ; that the chancellor and Secretary of the Institution
be authorized to receipt for the money and that it be deposited with the
Secretary of the Treasury, on the same terms as the original bequest
of Smithson, in accordance with the act of Congress approved Sth Feb-
ruary, 1867.*

The Secretary gave an account of the correspondence of the Institu-
tion and spoke of the immense mental activity which existed in this
country in regard to scientific speculations. In connection with these
remarks he laid before the Board, at the request of the author, a series
of manuscripts entitled “‘ Disclosures in Science, etc,” by Henry Kor-
ner, of Powhatan, Ohio, which had been urged upon the Institution for
publication. In these manuscripts the author states that he has dem-
onstrated the insufficiency of the theory of gravitation, as propounded
by Newton, to explain the mechanical phenomena of astronomy, and
also the inadequacy of the received principles of molecular action to
account for the phenomena of physics and chemistry, and that he has
himself discovered principles to which all these may be referred.

The Secretary stated that after examining these manuscripts he had
informed the author that they could not be published by the Institution,
since nothing could be accepted for that purpose unless it had previ-
ously been submitted to a commission for critical examination, and a
favorable report had been obtained; that these speculations were

*Statues at Large, vol. 14, page 391.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 157

either so far in advance of the received scientific principles of the day
or so far behind them that the two were out of all harmony with each
other ; that it would be impossible to obtain a favorable report in regard.
to them from any commission cwmposed of men of scientific reputation ;
that he would, however, suggest that the mauscripts be deposited in
the archives of the Institution, free of access to any who might wish
to consult them with the proviso that no extracts be taken from them
without full credit being given to the name of the author. This sug-
gestion was favorably received by the author.

On motion of Mr. Stevenson, it was

Resolved, That the action of the Secretary in ‘relation to the Korner
manuscripts be approved.

The Secretary stated that, in accordance with the policy of the Insti-

tution to enter into harmonious relations with other establishments in

this city, as had already been done by depositing the plants and insects
in the Department of Agriculture, the skulls in the Army Medical Mu-
seum,-&c., he desired to enter into friendly relations with the Corcoran
Art-Gallery, of which he had recently been elected a trustee. He
thought that, inasmuch as this gallery had been opened to the public,
and had been established with a permanent endowment, larger even than
that of the Smithsonian Institution, it was proper that some of the ar-
ticles of art now in the building should be deposited in the Corcoran
Gallery, subject, of course, to the order of the regents.

On motion of Mr. Hamlin, it was

Resolved, That the Secretary be authorized to deposit in the Corcoran
Art-Gallery, to be reclaimed at any time, such works of art belonging to
the Institution as may be approved by the executive committee.

The Secretary presented his annual report of the oper ations of the In-
stitution for the’ year 1873, which was read; and

On motion of Mr. Hazelton,

Resolved, That the report of the Secretary be accepted and transmit-
ted to Congress as usual.

The Secretary stated that during the past year Mr. P. T. Barnum had
presented the National Museum with the following valuable specimens
of natural history, viz: A Malayan tapir, a Bactrian camel, a dromedary,
an African panther, a Florida manatee, an. Indian rhinoceros, a man-
drill, and others, furnishing the means of preparing both their skeletons
and mounted skins. He had also promised to give the Institution the
bodies of all the animals that die in his menagerie.

~ On motion of Dr. Parker, it was

Resolved, That the thanks of the Board of Regents be tendered to P.
7. Barnum, esquire, for his liberal donation of the bodies of animals to
the National Museum, which form a very important addition to the col-
lection of speciméns necessary to illustrate the science of zoology.

158 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

Dr. Parker stated that prior to 1873 all accounts for the museum had
been paid in the first instance by the Institution and audited with the
Smithsonian vouchers by the executive committee. Last year, however,
an arrangement had been made by which bills for the National Museum;
after approval by Professor Henry, were presented to the disbursing
agent of the Department of the Interior, who paid the parties directly.
The accounts were audited by the disbursing officer of the Interior De-
partment, and afterward by the Treasury Department. Inasmuch as
the regents of the Institution, however, are responsible for all expend-
itures connected with its operations, he would ask the opinion of the
board as to the propriety of examining all the vouchers for payments
made for the National Museum from the Government appropriations.
Professor Henry had retained a duplicate set of vouchers for these pay-
ments, and had the books carefully kept, and had offered them to the
committee for examination.

On motion of Mr. Hoar, it was

fesolved, That the board approve of the examination by the execu-
tive committee of the vouchers for the expenditures of the National
Museum, as requested by the committee and desired by the Secretary.

The Secretary stated that the system of international literary and sci-
entific exchanges had now become so extensive that he feared the cost
would be too great for the means of the Institution, and it had been
suggested that the larger societies and establishments which received
so much benefit from the system might contribute something annually
for its support. After some discussion,

On motion of Mr. Hamlin, it was

Kesolwed, That the Secretary be authorized to receive aid from socie-
ties and individuals in defraying the heavy expense of the exchange
system. =

The board then adjourned to meet at the call of the Secretary.

APRIL 27, 1874.

A meeting of Board of Regents was held at 10 o’clock a. m.

Present: The Chief Justice of the United States, Hon. M. R. Waite,
Hon. Peter Parker, Hon. E. R. Hoar, Hon. G. W. Hazelton, Professor
Asa Gray, and the Secretary, Professor Henry.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The Secretary stated that the object of the meeting was the election
of a chancellor.

On motion of Mr. Hoar, Chief Justice Waite was unanimously elected
chancellor.

Dr. Parker, from the executive committee, presented a report on the
examination of the accounts of the National Museum for 1873, and a

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 159

statement relative to the accounts of the Institution and of the National
Museum for the first quarter of 1874; which were accepted.

The Secretary stated that, on the 24th of February, 1874, Mr. Joseph
A. Stuart, one of the executors of the estate of the late James Hamil-
ton, of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, had paid the legacy of said Hamilton,
viz, one thousand dollars, into the Treasury of the United States, in ac-
cordance with the resolution of the Board of Regents adopted January
26, 1874.

The following is a copy of the receipt:

No. 10,564. ] TREASURY OF THE UNITED STATES,
Washington, D. C., February 24, 1874.

I certify that Prof, Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Sraiteontan In-
stitution, has this day deposited to the. credit of the United States one
thousand dollars, on account of amount received by bequest of the late
James Hamilton, of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, accepted by the Board of
Regents by resolution of January 26, 1874, providing that the amount
be deposited with the Secretary of the Treasury on same terms as the
original bequest of Smithson, in accordance with act of February 8,
1867,* for which I have signed duplicate receipts.

$1,000. L. R. TUTTLE,

Assistant Treasurer United States.

The Secretary gave an account of the operations of the Institution ;
and after inspecting the building, the board adjourned sine die.

* Statutes at Large, vol. 14, page 391.

GENERAL APPENDIX

TO THE

SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 187s.

The object of this appendix is to illustrate the operations of the Institution by
reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence, as well as to furnish information
of a character suited especially to the meteorological observers and other persons
interested in the promotion of knowledge.

11s

CHARLES BABBAGE.

| [COMPILED FOR THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. ]

Charles Babbage, upon being urged to write his own biography, re-
plied that he had no desire to do it while he had strength and means to
do better work. Some men, he said, write their lives to save them-
selves from ennui, careless of the amount they inflict on their readers;
others, lest some kind surviving friend in showing off his own talent in
writing personal history might show up theirs; and others still from
fear that the vampires of literature might make them a prey. He be-
longed to no one of these classes. Whataman had done for others, not
what he might say about himself, formed his best life. And so to many
who asked him to prepare an autobiography he sent a list of his works,
‘¢ which,” he naively adds, ‘‘no one cared to insert.” Still, few persons
who have made a name while living are insensible to posthumous fame,
and Babbage was among the number. While professing to treat these
applications lightly, he nevertheless set about placing on record an ae-
count of himself, and though he rejects the name of autobiography, he
has left behind him, in a work which he entitles “ Passages from the
Life of a Philosopher,” a memoir which in variety of detail and clear-
ness of description, liveliness of style and sententious remark, is almost
without its parallel. Without being confined to this witty and erratic
narrative, and putting the estimate of the thinking men of the age
rather than his own upon what he was and what he did, this notice
will aim to do justice to certainly not the least remarkable man of this
nineteenth century.

Of the mere personal history of this eminent philosopher and sci-
entific mechanist little need be recorded. He was born of gentle blood
and moderate competence on December 26, 1792. From earliest years
he showed great desire to inquire into the causes of things that
astonish childish minds. He eviscerated toys to ascertain their man-
ner of working; he sought to prove the reality of the devil by draw-
ing with his blood a circle on the floor and repeating the Lord’s
prayer backward; he dissipated toothaches by reading Don Quixote;
he bargained with another boy that whoever died first should appear
to the survivor, and spent a night of sleeplessness when the first event
of the compact occurred, awaiting in vain his comrade’s appearance.
In college he was perpetually puzzling his tutors by abstruse questions.
When the circulation of the Bible with or without comment became a
fierce controversy at Cambridge, he formed, with Herschel, Maule,

CHARLES BABBAGE. 163

D’Arblay, and others, an analytical society for the translation of La-
eroix’s Differential and Integral Calculus, maintaining that the work
needed no comment; that the ‘d’s” of Leibnitz were perfect, and con-
signing to perdition all who supported the heresy of Newton’s “ dots.”
It being hinted that the society was infidel, the young student replied,
“No! We advocate the principles of pure ‘ D’-ism in opposition to the
‘Dot’-age of the university.” He studied the game of chess and beat
every expert that was brought against him; formed a ghost club to col-
lect all reliable evidence of the supernatural; joined high players at
whist in order to show them that, staking only shillings, he could win at
guinea-points; embarked in boating not more from the manual labor
than from the intellectual art of sailing; and by making a collection ot
examples of mathematical problems, in which the notation of Leibnitz
was employed, he made it for the interest of tutors of the colleges to
abandon the symbols of Newton.

During Babbage’s college life the course of his studies led him into a
critical examination of the logarithmic tables then in use. ‘The value
of these tables had long been recognized in every part of the civilized
world. Large sums of money were expended in their preparation, and
the greatest care produced only proximate accuracy in the calculations.
The young mathematician set himself to consider whether, in the con-
struction of these tables, in place of the perturbable processes of the
intellect, it were not possible to substitute the unerring movements of
mechanism. The thought was perpetually recurring during the latter
portion of his college course. He gave up his leisure time to experi-
ments having this end in view—discussed the subject with Herschel,
Ryan, Maule, and others of his class who were interested in philsophical
mechanism, and was no sooner graduated than he visited the various
centers of machine labor in England and on the continent, that he might
become familiar with the combinations in use and study their functions.
Returning home, he began to sketch arrangements for a machine
by which all mathematical tables might be computed by one uniform
process. 7 :

The idea of a calculating machine did not originate with young
Babbage. Pascal, nearly two hundred years before, had constructed,
when in his nineteenth year, an ingenious machine for making arithmetical
calculations, which excited admiration. In his Pensées, alluding to
this engine, he remarks: ‘‘La machine arithmétique fait des effets qui ap-
prochent plus de la pensée que tout ce que font les animaux ; mais elle ne
fait rien qui puisse faire dire qwelle a de la volonté comme lesanimaux.” Sub-
sequently, Leibnitz invented a machine by which arithmetical computa-
tions could be made. Polenus, a learned and ingenious Italian, put to-
gether wheels by which multiplication was performed; and in the vari-
ous industrial exhibitions since 1851, contrivances for performing cer-
tain arithmetical processes have been exhibited. The principle upon

164 CHARLES BABBAGE.

which Babbage’s engines have been constructed, however, is entirely
new, and intended to do work of a much more important character.

On the 1st of April, 1823, a letter was received from the treasury by
the president of the Royal Society, requesting him to ask the council
to take into consideration a plan which had been submitted to gov-
ernment by Mr. Babbage for applying machinery to the purposes of
calculating and printing mathematical tables, and desiring to be favored
with its opinion on the merits and utility of the invention. This is the
earliest allusion to the calculating machine on the records of the Royal
Society. The invention, however, had been brought before the mem-
bers in the previous year by a letter from Mr. Babbage to Sir Hum-
phry Davy. In that he had given an account of a small model of his
engine for calculating differences, which produced figures at the rate of
44 a minute, and performed with rapidity and precision all those caleu-
lations for which it was designed. He had concluded this letter by
saying, “that though he had arrived at a point where success was no
longer doubtful, it could be attained only at a very considerable expense,
which would not probably be replaced by the works it might produce
for along period of time; and which is an undertaking T should feel
unwilling to commence, as altogether foreign to my habits and pur-
suits.”

The council of the Royal Society appointed a committee to take Mr.
Babbage’s plan into consideration. It was composed of the following
gentlemen: Sir H. Davy, Mr. Brande, Mr. Combe, Mr. Baily, Mr. Brunel,
Mr. Colby, Mr. Davies Gilbert, Sir John Herschel, Captain Kater, Mr.
Pond, Dr. Wollaston, and Dr. Young. On the Ist of May, 1823, this
committee reported: ‘That it appears Mr. Babbage has displayed great
talents and ingenuity in the construction of his machine for computa-
tion, which the committee think fully adequate to the attainment of the
objects proposed by the inventor, and that they consider Mr. Babbage
as highly deserving of public encouragement in the prosecution of his
arduous undertaking.” This report was transmitted to the lords of the
treasury, by whom it was printed and laid before Parliament. Two
months after this a letter was sent from the treasury to the Royal Soci-
ety, informing them that the issue of £1,500 had been directed to Mr.
Babbage ‘to enable him to bring bis invention to perfection in the man-
ner recommended.”

It is not within the purpose of this memoir.to describe the misunder-
standing which arose between Mr. Babbage and the British government,
during the following twenty years, in consequence of this letter, received
by the Royal Society from the lords of the treasury. He regarded the
machine he now undertook to build as the property of the government.
They understood it to be his. He received the first advance of money as an
earnest that all necessary funds would be furnished to complete this
difference engine No. 1. They seemed to have regarded it in the light of
a temporary assistance, given to a man of genius for the purpose of en-

CHARLES BABBAGE. . 165

abling him to complete an invention which would be of great public
benefit. He commenced the work, giving his own labors gratuitously,
according to what he considered to be an order. Government looked
on, furnished further moneys, consulted the Royal Society once and
again as to the progress of the work, but declined committing itself
further. Mr. Babbage advanced considerable sums, but was not reim-
bursed; made great improvements upon his original plans, but was not
encouraged; carried with him the convictions of the scientific men of
his country and continental Europe, but was left behind by the treas-
ury; and finally, when, in the opinion of such philosophical mechanists
as Sir John Herschel, Sir Mark Brunel, Mr. Pond, the astronomer
royal, and ethers, he was on the eve of results far surpassing in impor-
tance all that had been contemplated, he was informed that “ultimate
success appeared so problematical and the expense so large and so
utterly incapable of being calculated, that the government would not
be justified in taking upon itself any further liability.”

Thus terminated in 1842 the engagement which had existed more than
a score of years between Charles Babbage and the British government.
During this period of time he had made heavy sacrifices, both pecuniary
and personal, had refused highly honorable and profitable situations ;
had employed in his own house, at his own expense, the most intelligent
and skilled workmen to assist him in making experiments necessary for
attaining a knowledge of every art which could possibly tend to the
perfection of his engine; had repeatedly, at his own expense, visited the
manufactories of England and the continent; had invented incidentally,
and constructed, mechanical tools and labor-saving machines of great
public value, not one of which he protected by letters-patent, and had
gratuitously given the results of his energetic mind to the perfect con-
struction of the machines which he regarded asthe great purpose of his
life. Whether success would have equaled expectation had his gov-
ernment rendered him the required aid, can never be known. He has
left behind him no thinker or philosophical mechanic capable of com-
pleting his work.

It was to calculate and print tables of figures connected with various
Sciences; with almost every department of the useful arts; with com-
merce, astronomy, navigation, surveying, engineering, and everything
which depends on mathematical measurements.

To show the immense importance of any method by which these
numerical tables, absolutely accurate in every individual copy, could be
produced with facility and cheapness, let the reader revert to what
European governments have attempted to do in the last hundred years.
Dodson’s Calculator, published in London in 1747, contained a table of
multiplication extending to 10 times 1,000. In 1775 this table was ex-
tended to 10 times 10,000. The English board of longitude employed
Dr. Hutton, in 1781, to caiculate numerical tables up to 100 times 1,000;
and to add to these, tables of the squares of numbers as far as 25,400;

166 CHARLES BABBAGE.

and also tables of cubes of the first ten powers of numbers reaching to
100. In 1814, Professor Barlow, of Woolwich, published in an octavo
volume the squares, cubes, square-roots, cube-roots, and reciprocals of
all numbers from 1 to 1,000—a table of the first ten powers from 1 to
100, and a table of the fourth and fifth powers of all numbers from 100
to 1,000.

To a still greater extent were similar tables prepared on the con-
tinent. In France, in the year 1785, was published an octavo volume
of the tables of squares, cubes, square-roots, and cube-roots of all num-
bers from 1 to 10,000; and in 1824 from 1,000 times to 100. A larger
table of squares than at that time existing was published in Hanover in
1810: a larger still in Leipsic in 1812; a more perfect one at Berlin in
1825; and a similar table at Ghent in 1827.

This class of tables involves only the arithmetical dependence of ab-
stract numbersupon each other. ‘To express peculiar modes of quantity—
such as angular, linear, superficial, and solid magnitudes—a larger num-
ber of computations are required. Volumes without number of these
tables also have been computed and published at infinite labor and ex-
pense. Then come tables of a special nature, of importance not inferior,
of labor more exacting—tables of interest, discount, and exchange;
tables of annuities and life insurance, and tables of rates in gen-
eral commerce. And then, above all others, tables of astronomy,
the multiplicity and complexity of which it is impossible to describe, and
the importance of which, in the kindred art of navigation, it would be
difficult to over-estimate. The safety of the tens of thousands of ships
upon the ocean, the accuracy of coast surveys, the exact position of
light-houses, the track of every shore from headland to headland, the
latitude and longitude of mid-sea islands, the course and motion of eur-
rents, direction and speed of winds, bearing and distance of mountains,
and, in short, everything which constitutes the chief element of interna-
tional commerce in modern times, depends upon the fullness and accu-
racy of logarithmic tables.

Inadequate as is the notion of the importance of these tables that has
been conveyed, still more inadequate must be any notice of their errors.
The expedients resorted to for even a limited degree of accuracy have
been almost innumerable. The first french Republic, aspiring to lead the
nations in science, undertook, throughits mathematicians, by a division of
labor so admirable that it seemed impossible errors should be committed,,
or, if committed, remain undetected, to produce a system of logarithmic
and trigonometric tables so accurate thatit should form a monument of
the kind more imposing than had ever been conceived. The attempt
failed, for one singular reason among others, that the computers who
committed the fewest errors were those who understood nothing beyond
the process of addition. Dr. Lardner discovered in forty tables, taken
at random, no less than 3,700errata. Inthe Nautical Almanae Mr. Baily
detected more than 500 errors of calculation. The “tables requisite to

CHARLES BABBAGE. 167

be used with the Nautical Ephemeris for finding latitude and longitude
at sea,” computed, revised, and rerevised with the utmost care, under
direction of the British board of longitude, and published by the govern-
ment, was found to contain above a thousand errors. The tables of the
distances of the moon from certain fixed stars, published by the same board,
is followed by 1,100 errata, and these themselves contained so many errors
as to make errata upon errata necessary. For the special use of the
nationalsurvey of Ireland, the logarithmic tables, most carefully prepared,
were found to contain six errors, and these, by comparison, were found to
exist not only in tables published during more than two hundred years in
Paris and Gouda, Avignon and Berlin, Florence and London, but also in a
set printed in China, in Chinese characters, and purporting to be original
ealculations. In fact, absolute correctness in logarithmic tables has
never been attained. Year after year, through eight generations of
mathematicians, one set has followed another to correct its predecessor.
Even the last claims but approximate accuracy. Precautions, compari-
sons, revisions, and alterations from computers to computers, make ad-
vances only toward an end that is never absolutely reached. And no
wondér. We need but to consider the nature of a numerical table, where
a thousand pages are covered with figures alone, where neither note nor
comment, letters of the alphabet, nor rules of syntax, are permitted to
intrude, to understand that the law of chance is on the side of error, and
that for one mistake that may happen to be detected a score may escape
unnoticed.

Besides the errors incidental to computation, there arethose of trans-
scribing for the press, and of composition into print. Nor does the liability
to error stop even here, errors being often produced in the process of
printing. A remarkable instance of this occurs in one of the six errors
of the Irish Survey Tables, just mentioned. The last five figures of two.
successive numbers of a logarithmic table were

35875
10436

Both were erroneous. The ‘‘8” in the upper line should be ‘'4,” and the:
“4” in the lower line should be “8.” It is evident that the types, as.
first composed, were correct—that two of them, ‘4” and “8,” became
loose, adhered to the inking ball, and were drawn out—and that the:
pressman in replacing transposed them. And this inadvertent error in.
Blacq’s tables of 1628, traveled over three continents, and, with more:
or less of mischief, remained undetected for two hundred years.

Numerical correctness in logarithmic tables, is then, and has ever been,
the great desideratum. This Mr. Babbage proposed to attain by ma-
chinery; to calculate the tables unerringly, as if by a law of nature,
and by the same law to reduce them as unerringly to type. Thus was.
the single purpose of the difference engine No. 1.

The difference engine No. 1 was only partially competed.. Confided’
to the care of King’s College, it remained for twenty years in the mu-

168 CHARLES BABBAGE.

seum at Somerset House. In 1862 it was exhibited at the Great Indus-
trial Exhibition, since which time it has been stored at the South Ken-
sington Museum. The finished portion of the engine showed itself
capable of computing any table whose third difference is constant and
less than 1,000; while at the same time it showed the position in the
table of each tabular number. In Mr. Babbage’s own words:

‘1st. The portion of the machine exhibited can calculate any table
whose third difference is constant and less than 10.

‘9d. It can show how much more rapidly astronomical tables can be
calculated in any engine in which there is no constant difference.

“3d. It can be employed to illustrate those singular laws which might
continue to be produced through ages, and yet after an enormous inter-
val of time change into other different laws; each again to exist for
ages, and then to be superseded by new laws.”

Tt will be borne in mind that all work upon difference engine No. 1 was
stopped in the early part of the year 1833. At the general meeting of
the Royal Academy at Brussels in May, 1835, a letter received from Mr.
Babbage was read announcing that he had been engaged for six months
in making drawings of a new calculating machine of far greater power.
‘““T am myself astonished,” he wrote, ‘at the power I have been enabled
to give to this machine: a year ago [should not have believed this result
possible. The machine is intended to contain a hundred variables, each
consisting of twenty-five figures; it will reduce to tables almost all
equations of finite differences; it will calculate a thousand values (ofe. g.

abedby the formula p— ey print them, and reduce them to zero,

and will then ring a bell to give notice that a new set of constants
must be inserted.” “When there exists,” he continues, “a relation
between any number of successive co-eflicients of a series, provided it
can be expressed, the machine will calculate them and make their
terms known in succession; and it may afterward be disposed so as to
find the value of the series for all the values of the variable.”

This was the first announcement to the scientific world of a machine,
capable of executing not merely arithmetical calculations, but even those
of analysis when the laws are known. It was, in fact, the analytical
engine, never destined to be completed by its inventor in actual fact,
but so perfect in its drawings, so clear in its descriptions, so certain in
its sequences, and so logical in all its principles, that, to the minds of
men capable of comprehending the details, it became as certainly the
realization of a gigantic idea as if it had been doing its work in their
presence. If it be asked, how such a machine could of itself, without
recourse to thought, assume the successive dispositions necessary, Mr.
Babbage answers that Jacquard solved the problem when he invented
his loom.

In the manufacture of brocade there are two species of threads, the

CHARLES BABBAGE. 169

one longitudinal, which is the warp, the other transverse, which is the
woof.

Of course the analytical engine could not originate. It would have
always been the servant—never the master. It could have done what-
ever its inventor knew how to order it to do. No more. It assisted—
marvelously indeed, but it only assisted—in making the known available.
It could have followed analysis, never anticipated it. But had it been con-
structed, it would have achieved three desiderata of science—cconomy
of time, economy of intelligence, rigid accuracy. It would have made ob-
servations fertile that are now barren for lack of computing powers;
it would have saved time for contemplation that is now wasted in arid
calculations by men of genius, and it would have made certain arith-
metical numbers, without the aid of which the veil that envelopes the
mysteries of nature can never be raised.

_ Asillustrative of the estimate put upon the operations of the analytical
machine, it may not be inappropriate to quote here Mr. Babbage’s own
remarks: ‘ An excellent friend of mine,” he writes, ‘the late Professor
MacCullagh, of Dublin, was discussing with me the various powers of
the analytical engine. After a long conversation he inquired what the
machine could do, if, in the midst of algebraic operations, it was required
to perform logarithmic or trigonometric operations. My answer was, that

whenever the analytical engine should exist, all the developments of°

formula would be directed by this condition, that the machine should.
be able to compute their numerical value in the shortest possible time;
I then added that if this answer was not satisfactory, I had provided
means by which, with equal accuracy, it might compute by logarithmic
or other tables.

“I explained that the tables to be used must, of course, be computed
and punched on cards by the machine, in which case they would un-
doubtedly be correct. I then added, that when the machine wanted a
tabular number it would ring a bell and then stop itself. On this the
attendant would look at a certain part of the machine and find that it
wanted the logarithm of a given number, say of 2303; the attendant
would then go tothe drawer, take the required logarithmic-card, and place
it on the machine. Uponthis the engine would first aseertain whether
the assistant had or had not given it the correct logarithm of the num-
ber; if so, it would use it and continue its work. But if the engine
found the attendant had given it a wrong logarithm, it would then ring
a louder bell and stop itself. On the attendant again examining the en-
gine, he would observe the words, WRONG TABULAR NUMBER, and then
discover that he really had given the wrong logarithm, and of course
would have to replace it by the right one.”

- As between the two engines, the difference and the analytical, their —

powers and principles of construction, the capabilities of the latter would
have been immeasurably the more extensive. They hold to each other,
in fact, the same relationship that analysis holds to arithmetic. The dif-

=

170 CHARLES BABBAGE.

ference engine was intended to effect but one particular series of oper-
ations. It was not the general expression even of one particular fune-
tion, much less of any and all possible functions of all degrees of gen-.
erality. Indeed, it could do nothing but add. It certainly performed
the processes of subtraction, multiplication, and division; but then only —
so far as these could be reduced to a series of additions. The analytical
machine, on the contrary, would have been able to add or subtract, mul-
tiply or divide—it could have done either and all with equal facility—
and it would have performed these operations directly in each case with-
out the aid of any of the other three. This fact implies everything.
The one engine merely tabulated but never developed; the other both
tabulated and developed.

Mr. Babbage’s third invention, which he named “ difference engine,
No. 2,” need not be dwelt upon here. It was never built. Its drawings
even were never quite completed. Asan entity it had no existence out.
of his own mind. In laboring to perfect the analytical machine he dis-
covered the means of simplifying and expediting the mechanical pro-
cesses of difference engine No.1. The Harlof Rosse, who was greatly
interested in the application of mechanism to purposes of calculation,
and who was well acquainted with the drawings and notations of the
second difference engine so far as made, proposed that Mr. Babbage
should perfect and give them to the government, upon condition that
they would undertake to construct it. To this, with some reluc‘ance, he
consented. It was then proposed to the Earl of Derby, he being prime
minister, that the government should apply to the president of the In-
stitution of Civil Engineers to ascertain—

ist. Whether it was possible from Mr. Babbage’s drawings and nota-
tions to make an estimate of the cost of constructing the machine.

2d. In case this question was answered in the affirmative, then could
a mechanical engineer be found who would undertake to construct it,
and at what expense.

It was explained to Lord Derby that the cessation of work upon the
first difference engine was owing to no fault of Mr. Babbage; that, being
new in design and construction, and requiring the utmost mechanical
Skill for its execution, it had necessarily been costly; that the necessity
of constructing and, in many instances, inventing tools and machinery of
great complexity for forming with requisite precision parts of the appa-
ratus dissimilar to any used in ordinary mechanical works, had produced
unavoidable delays, and that the foremost men of practical science all
over EKurope who were acquainted with the facts, so far from being sur-
prised at the time and expense that had been required to bring the
engine to its then present state, felt much more disposed to wonder that
it had been possible to accomplish so much. “If this work,” Mr. Bab-
bage wrote to the minister, ‘upon which I have bestowed so much time
and thought were a mere triumph over mechanical difficulties, or simply
curious, or if the execution of such engines were of doubtiul practica-.

~

CHARLES BABBAGE. i

bility or utility, some justification might be found for the course which
has been taken; but I venture to assert that no mathematician who has
a reputation to lose will ever publicly express an opinion that such a
machine would be useless if made, and that no man distinguished as a
civil engineer will venture to declare the construction of such machinery
impracticable.”

It seemed now (1852) as if there were a probability that government
would order a resumption of the work. The Earl of Derby was a man
of large gifts and extended views, and his chancellor of the exchequer,
_ himself the son of a philosopher, was known as widely almost by his
philosophie sentiments as by his great powers of debate. The country
was at peace. The first exhibition of the whole world’s industry had by
its marvelous success the previous year given a new impulse to the arts.
Politics, indeed, ran high, but in every other aspect there was encourage-
ment. The Royal Society; the Society of Civil Engineers; the Royal
Academy of Sciences, at Brussels; the principal philosophical mechan-
ists of the three kingdoms, led by the Earl of Rosse and Sir Benjamin
Hawes ; the astronomical observers following in the bold path opened
by Sir John Herschel; and Prince Albert, the most accomplished, as he
was the most judicious, of thinking men; together with Plana, Menabria,
MacCullagh, Mosotti, Plantamour, Dr. Lardner, and Lady Lovelace—
this last an example, almost equal to that of Mrs. Somerville, of the
power sometimes possessed by the female mind in dealing with abstract
truths—all gave the weight of their opinion in favor of the difference
engine, when completed, as fully adequate to the attainment of the
objects proposed by the inventor. ‘ No enterprise,” said the president
of the Royal Society, when reciting the history of the engine at their
anniversary in 1854—“ no enterprise could have had its beginning under
more auspicious circumstances. The government had taken the initia-
tive; they had called for advice, and the adviser was the highest scien-
tific authority in this country—your council guided by such men as
Derby, Wollaston, and Herschel. By your council the undertaking was
inaugurated; by your council it was watched over inits progress. That
the first great effort to employ the powers of calculating mechanism, in
aid of the human intellect should have been suffered in this great
country to expire fruitless because there was no tangible evidence of
immediate profit, as a British subject I deeply regret, and as a fellow
my regret is accompanied with feelings of bitter disappointment. Where
a question has once been disposed of, succeeding governments rarely
re-open it; still, lL thought I should not be doing my duty if I did not
take some opportunity of bringing the facts once more before govern-
ment.”

This was accordingly done. It was shown that mechanical engineer-
ing, tools, trained workmen, the founder’s art; and screw-cutting ma-
chines, had made such progress during the years the difference-engine
had been laid aside that it was probable persons could be found willing

172 CHARLES BABBAGE.

to complete it for a specific sum. Never had a ministry a nobler oppor-
tunity to illustrate its history by the encouragement of science. It was,
however, all in vain. Art was weighed against gold, and the former,
touched the beam. The chancellor of the exchequer, to whom Lord
Derby referred the question, pronounced the project as—

‘1. Indefinitely expensive.

2. The ultimate success problematical.

“3, The expenditure utterly incapable of being calculated.”

“This Herostratus of science,” Mr. Babbage characteristically remarks,
“if he escape oblivion, will be linked with the destroyer of the Ephesian
Temple.”

It would be unjust to the memory of the great philosophical mechanist
were no reference made to the incidental invention of a mechanical
notation which Mr. Babbage explained in a paper read before the Royal
Society in 1826. Dr. Lardner entitled it a discovery of “the utmost
practical value,” and it has long been adopted as a topic of lectures in
institutions all over Kurope for the instruction of civil engineers. It
came up in this wise: Memory has its limit. There cannot be borne
in mind a great variety of motions propagated simultaneously through
complicated trains of mechanism. Incompatible motions will encoun-
ter each other. The memory can neither guard against nor correct them.
Some expedient which at a glance could exhibit what every moving
piece in the machinery was doing at each instant was needed. Ne-
cessity, the mother of invention, suggested to Mr. Babbage a system
of signs, by which the mechanist, simply moving his finger along a cer-
tain line, could follow out the motion of every piece from effect to cause
until he arrived at the prime mover. The same sign which indicated
the source of motion indicated also its species. It also divided time
into parts, showing what was being done by a machine at any moment.
By this means the contriver understood the situation instanter, saw as
if by intuition the fault, and discovered the niche in which to place the
movement required. It also enabled the inventor to dismiss from his
mind the arrangement of the mechanism. Like algebraic signs, it re-
duced wheels and valves, rods and levers, to an equation. In fact,
what algebra is to arithmetic Mr. Babbage’s notation was to mechanism.

During the construction of some parts of the calculating machinery
a question arose as to the best method of producing and arranging a
certain series of motions necessary to calculate and print a number.
Mr. Babbage, with his assistant, an eminent practical engineer, had
so arranged these motions that they might be performed by twelve revo-
lutions of the principal axis. It was desirable there should be less. To
this end each put himself to work, the engineer to a study of the com-
plicated working machinery, the inventor to a consideration of his
notation symbols. After a short time, by some transposition of these,
the latter sueceeded in producing the series by eight turns of the axis.
Pushing his inquiries still further, he proceeded to ascertain whether

CHARLES BABBAGE. 173

his scheme of symbols did not admit of a still more compact arrange-
ment, and whether eight revolutions were not needless waste of power.
The question was exceedingly abstruse. Finding every effort to keep
in mind the order and arrangement of wheels and pulleys, levers and
shafts, claws and bolts, so as to suggest any improved arrangement, the
engineer completely broke down. Mr. Babbage, however, with scarcely
any mental exertion, and merely by sliding a bit of ruled pasteboard
up and down his plan in search of vacant places, contrived at length to
reduce the eight motions to six, to five, and to three. This application
of an almost metaphysical system of abstract signs, by which the mo-
tion of the hand alternately performs the office of the mind and practi-
cal mechanics, to the construction of a complicated engine, is regarded
by many eminent engineers as the most wonderful and useful discovery
the great inventor ever made.

_ Although no one of the principal inventions of the philosophic mech-
anist has ever been completed, and though his marvelously compre-
hensive thoughts of what machinery, working on the border land of
intellect, might be made to accomplish would seem to have passed from
the world without good, yet his work was not in vain. Hundreds of
mechanical appliances in the factories and workshops of Europe and
America, scores of ingenious expedients in mining and architecture,
the construction of bridges and boring of tunnels, and a world of tools
by which labor is benefited and the arts improved—all the overflowings
of a mind so rich that its very waste became valuable to utilize—came
from Charles Babbage. He more, perhaps, than any man who ever
lived, narrowed the chasm that from earliest ages has.separated science
and practical mechanics.

_ This memoir has thus far treated its subject as a mathematician and
philosophical mechanist. He was both, in a degree that made his name
famous. But he was more than this. As ascientific man, keeping him-
self abreast with the progress of modern discovery; aS a man of intel-
lect, accepting, analyzing, and suggesting thought that is emancipating
mind from old traditions; and as a man of his time, the associate for
more than half a century of statesmen and poets, chemists, and geogra-
phers, engineers, and philologists, he is worthy of notice. Upon what-
ever he spoke or wrote he was always perspicuous. Language was to
him pre-eminently the embodiment of ideas. Logical sequence was
the one essential element of his train of thinking. His estimate of men
was formed less from what they were than from what they did. He
was neither tuft-hunter nor cynic. Faults his character possessed,
grievous and ridiculous, perchance, when viewed in certain lights, but
they were never inconsistent with his independent manliness, nor de-
rogatory to his elevated philosophy. He knew his own worth; asserted
his rightful claims; kept an unquailing aspect in his long single-hand
fight in behalf of his inventions with purblind rulers; victorious never,
but never vanquished; heroic in most that he said and all that he did;

174 CHARLES BABBAGE.

above ordinary stature; and, saving perhaps the acceptance of certain
rules of obedience to law, without which no one can wisely govern him-
self, played a part in the drama of life that will not be soon forgotten.

It is proposed now to speak of Charles Babbage in the two characters
of an observer of his time and as a contributor to knowledge. In each, as
the most certain way to reach the end in view, we shall quote without
restriction or further acknowledgment from his own writings:

‘My engine,” he said to some scientific friends after a friendly break-
fast, ‘will count the natural numbers as far as the millionth term. It
will then commence a new series, following a different law. This it sud-
denly abandons and calculates another series by another law. This
again is followed by another, and still another. It may go on through-
out all time. An observer, seeing a new law coming at certain periods,
and going out at others, might find in the mechanism a parallel to the
laws of life. That all men die is the result of a vast induction of in-
stances. That one or more men at given times shall be restored to life,
may be as much a consequence of the law of existence appointed for
man at his creation, as the appearance and re-appearance of the isolated
eases of apparent exception in the arithmetical machine. Miracles,
theretore, may not be the breach of established laws, but the very
circumstances that indicate the existence of higher laws, which, at
appointed times produce the preintended results.

“For example, the analytical engine might be so set that at definite
periods, known only to its maker, a certain lever might become movable
during the calculations then making. The consequence of moving it
might be to cause the then existing law to be violated for one or more
times, after which the original law would resume its reign. Of course,
the maker of the calculating engine might confide this fact to the person
using it, who would thus be gifted with the power of prophecy if he
foretold the event, or of working a miracle at the proper time if he
withheld his knowledge from those around until the moment of its taking
place. Such is the analogy between the construction of machinery to
calculate, and the occurrence of miracles. A further illustration may
be taken from geometry; curves are represented by equations. In cer-
tain curves there are portions, such as ovals, disconnected from the rest
of the curve. By properly assigning the values of the constants, these
ovals may be reduced to single points. These singular points may exist
upon a branch of a curve, or may be entirely isolated from it; yet these
points fulfill by their position the law of the curve as perfectly as any of
those which, by their juxtaposition and continuity, form any of its
branches.” |

‘“‘ Miracles,” Mr. Babbage adds, “are not. therefore the breach of es-
tablished laws, but the very circumstances that indicate the existence
of far higher laws which, at the appointed times, produce their prein-
tended results.”

Now whatever may be thought of the conclusiveness of this reasoning,

BG

CHARLES BABBAGE. 175

its originality is obvious, and its ingenuity undeniable. That it was
satisfactory to a mind whose reach was as wide and whose logic as
consecutive as that of Charles Babbage, is sufficient to demand for it
fair consideration. He evidently believed it; urged it upon other minds
upon the same level with his own, and received no answers that detected
in it a fallacy or showed it to be a sophism.

There is surpassing interest in watching the workings of a great mind
in honest search after truth. There are no volumes of the fathers ; no ser-
mons of Laurin or Bossuet; no essays of Fénelon or Pascal; no per-
sonal narrative of Arnauld, Frangoise de Sales, de Rancé, or of the
saints of Port Royal; no memoirs of the pietists of France, or martyrs of
England ; no lives of foreign missionaries, Protestant or Catholic, who
gave their all, even to death, to propagate what to them was Divine that
in our apprehension can confine the attention or challenge the judg-
ment of a sincere, intelligent inquirer after truth, like the thirtieth chapter
in the “‘ Passages from the Life of a Philosopher.” One sees in it no fav-
orite opinion to be defended; no peculiar error to be denounced ; no class,
no creed, no caste to be built uy; no prejudice to be favored nor tradi-
tion exempted from trial; nothing, in fact, but the record of the thoughts
of a great mind in honest pursuit.of truth. It would be marred by quo-
tations, and its life deadened by condensation; though it does not
traverse the ground of more modern skepticism, and deals only with
the old positions of the eneyelopedists and Hume, it assumes a position
in regard to Divine revelation which, if not impregnable, has never yet
been overturned.

We cannot easily resist the temptation to quote a few of his clear and
vigorous remarks from the chapter in question. Speaking of an ex-
amination of the Creator’s works as one of the sources of our knowledge
of His existence, Babbage says:

“Unlike transmitted testimony, which is weakened at every stage,
its evidence derives confirmation from the progress of the individual
as well as from the advancement of the knowledge of the race.

“Almost all thinking men who have studied the laws which govern
the animate and inanimate world around us, agree that the belief in the
existence of one Supreme Creator, possessed of infinite wisdom and
power, is open to far less difficulties than the supposition of the absence
of any cause, or the existence of a plurality of causes.

“In the works of the Creator, ever open to ourexamination, we possess a
firm basis on which to raise the superstructure of an enlightened creed.
The more man inquires into the laws which regulate the material wni-
verse, the more he is convinced that all its varied forms arise from the
action of afew simple principlés. These principles themselves converge,
with accelerating force, toward some still more comprehensive law
to which all matter seems to be submitted. Simple as that law may
possibly be, it must be remembered that it is only one among an in-
finite number of simple laws; that each of these laws has consequences

176 CHARLES BABBAGE.

at least as extensive as the existing one, and, therefore, that the Creator
who selected the present law must have foreseen the consequences of all
other laws. ;
‘““Yhe works of the Creator, ever present to our senses, give a living
and perpetual testimony of his wisdom and goodness far surpassing
any evidence transmitted through human testimony. The testimony
of men becomes fainter at every stage of transmission, while each new
inquiry into the works of the Almighty gives to us more exalted views
_of his wisdom, his goodness, and his power.”
The true value of the Christian religion in Babbage’s estimation rested
not upon speculative views of the Creator, which must necessarily be
- different in each individual, according to the extent of the finite being
who employs his own feeble powers in contemplating the infinite, but
’ rather upon those doctrines of kindness and benevolence which that re-
ligion claims and enforces, not merely in favor of man himself but of
every creature susceptible of pain or of happiness.

There is something exceedingly refreshing in the original views Mr.
Baggage takes of every subject that comes within the scope of his
vision. His autobiography—for such in spite of his disclaimer it really
is—has the interest of a romance. He is never dull, never tiresome,
never cloudy. His style is clear as limpid water and natural as a run-
ning brook. He possesses a rich fund of humor, which flecks and dap-
ples even his mathematical descriptions like sunshine falling through
foliage.

‘A curious reflection” he says in the chapter we do not willingly
leave, ‘“‘presents itself, when we meditate upon a state of rewards and
punishments in a future life. We must possess the memory of what we
did during our existence upon this earth in order to give them those
characteristics. In fact, memory seems to be the only faculty which
must, of necessity, be preserved in order to render a future state pos-
sible.

“If memory be absolutely destroyed, our personal identity is lost.

‘‘Wurther reflection suggests that in a future state we may, as it were,
awake to the recollection that, previously to this our present life, we
existed in some former state, possibly in many former ones, and that
the then state of existence may have been the consequences of our con-
duct in those former stages.

‘It would be a very interesting research if naturalists could devise
any means of showing that the dragon fly, in its three stages of a grab
beneath the soil, an animal living in the water, and that of a flying
insect, had in the last stage any memory of its existence in its first.

‘‘ Another question connected with this subject offers still greater
difficulty. Man possesses five sources of knowledge through his senses:
He proudly thinks himself the highest work of the Almighty Architect,
but it is quite possible that he may be the very lowest. If other animals
possess senses of a different nature from ours, it can scarcely be possible

,

CHARLES BABBAGE. aaa

that we could ever be aware of the fact. Yet those animals, having
other sources of information and of pleasure, might, though despised
by us, yet enjoy a corporeal as well as intellectual existence far higher
than our own.”

Mr. Babbage’s autobiography, relating isolated facts, which, with a
sort of indifference to the estimate history might put upon his char-
acter—strongly in contrast with even the best class of journals and
diaries, say, Sir Walter Scott’s, or Dr. Chalmer’s, or Edward Payson’s,
or Missionary Judson’s, as if while it was necessary that they should
take care of their post-mortem fame his possessed the vitality to care for
jtself—are arranged without order of time or similarity of subject, after
ali divides itself very naturally into the two branches of personal recol-
lections and personal experiences. He remembers Wollaston, Rogers,
and Sir Humphrey Davy, and gives pen-outlines of their: characters as
vivid and living as the portraits of Duow. He has discussed mathe-
matics with Laplace, compared analysis with Fourier, exhibited and ex-
plained his inventions to Biot, and lived on terms of intimacy with Hum-
boldt. He was the frequent companion of the Duke of Wellington; was
the associate of various branches of the Bonaparte family ; was the triend
of Mosotti, Menabria, and Prince Albert, and throughout life, from col-
legiate competitions to the mutual respect of mature years, held firmly
as his friend the younger Herschel. Of all these his notes are pictures,
unequalled even by the descriptions which Boswell gives ot the asso-
ciates of the great lexicographer.

It is the same with his experiences. He risks drowning by water and
baking by fire, loss of life by railway speed and loss of reputation by
picking locks, character in exploring the secrets of theatrical displays,
and purse in traversing the haunts of St. Giles. His thirst for knowl-
edge knew no bounds. Into an electioneering contest he entered with
the same indomitable energy that he pursued a mathematical calculus.
The same keen avidity that detected a logarithmic error was applied to
suppressing a street nuisance. He vitalized whatever he touched. If
life gives beauty it might be more truly said of Charles Babbage than
of most men of mark, Nihil tetigit quod non ornavit. In fact there was
no secret of nature he hesitated to explore, no enigma of the sphynx
which he was afraid to question. Impulsiveness, want of patience, and
hatred of shams have indeed left many of his investigations partial and
fragmentary, but about every one of them there is rich compensation in
striking aphorisms, profound observations, wisdom applicable to human
need, and wit available for its enjoyment. He says of himself:

“T have always carefully watched the exercise of my own faculties,
and I have always endeavored to collect from the light reflected by
other minds some explanation of the question.

“TI think one of my most important guiding principles has been this:

That every moment of my waking hoars has always been occupied by
DRA

178 CHARLES BABBAGE.

some train of inquiry. In far the largest number of instances the subject
might be trivial, but still work of inquiry was always going on.

‘<The difficulty consisted in adapting the work to the state of the body.
The necessary training was difficult. Whenever at night I found my-
self sleepless and wished to sleep, I took a subject for examination that
required little mental effort, and which also had little dependence on
worldly affairs by its success or failure.

‘“On the other hand, when I wanted to concentrate my whole mind
upon an important subject, [ studied during the day all the minor acces:
sories and after 2 o’clock in the morning I found that repose which the
nuisances of the London streets only allow from that hour until 6in the
_ morning.

“ At first [had many a sleepless night before I could thus train myself.

““T believe my early perception of the immense power of signs in aiding
the reasoning faculty contributed much to whatever success I may have
had. Probably a still more important element was the intimate con-
viction I possessed that the highest object a reasonable being could pur-
sue was to endeavor to discover those laws of mind by which man’s in-
tellect passes from the known to the discovery of the unknown.” |

In perusing the writings of Mr. Babbage, one is constantly struck
with the philosophical nature of his mind. His style is not only preg-
nant with thought, but, like Montaigne’s, is perpetually shaping itself
into apothegms. “Men,” he writes, when managing an election contest,
“will always give themselves tenfold more trouble to crush a man
obnoxious to their hatred, than they will take to serve their most
favored ally.”

Again, speaking of Dr. Lardner, who had candidly admitted that
some of those doctrines he had once supported further information had
shown him were erroneous, our author says, “ Nothing is more injurious
to the progress of truth than to reproach any man who honestly admits
he has been in error.”

In order to put down street organ-grinders, with whom he had life-
long quarrels, he proposes to himself to act upon this principle: “to make
it more unprofitable to the offender to do the wrong than the right.”

‘‘It requires considerable training to become an accurate witness of
facts. No two persons, however well trained, ever express in the same
form of words the series of facts they have both observed.”

‘“‘Qnee, at a large dinner party, Mr. Rogers, author of ‘Italy’ and
other poems, was speaking of an inconvenience arising from the custom,
then commencing, of having windows formed of one large sheet of glass.
He said that a short time ago he sat at dinner with his back to one of
these single panes of plate-glass ; it appeared to him that the window was
wide open, and such was the force of the imagination that he actually
caught cold. ;

‘“‘It so happened that I was sitting just opposite to the poet. Hear-
ing this remark, L immediately said, Dear me, how odd itis, Mr. Rogers,

CHARLES BABBAGE. 179

that you and I should make such a very different use of the faculty of
imagination. When I go to the house ofa friend in the country and
unexpectedly remain for the night, having no night-cap I should natu-
rally catch cold. But by tying a piece of pack-thread tightly round my
head, I go to sleep imagining that I have a night cap on; consequently I
catch no cold at all.”

‘“T was once asked by an astute and sarcastic magistrate, whether I
seriously believed that a man’s brain would be injured by listening to an
organ. My reply was, Certainly not, for the obvious reason that no man
having brains ever listened to street musicians.”

These fragmentary quotations, however, scarcely do Mr. Babbage
justice. Let us allow him to tell one of the many experiences of his life
in his own way.

Under the head of “ Hints for travelers,” in his ‘‘ Passages from the
life of a philosopher,” Mr. Babbage says:

“A man may, without being a proficient in any science, often make
himself useful to those who are most instructed. However limited the
path he may himself pursue, he will insensibly acquire other informa-
tion in return for that which he can communicate. I will illustrate this
by one of my own pursuits. I possess the smallest possible acquaint-
ance with the vast fields of animal life, but at an early period I was
struck by the numerical regularity of the pulsations and the breathings.
It appeared to me that there must exist some relation between these two
functions. Accordingly I took every opportunity of counting the num-
bers of the pulsations and the breathings of various animals. The pig
fair at Pavia and the book fair at Leipsic equally placed before me
menageries in which I could collect such facts. Every zoological collec-
tion of animals which I visited thus became to me a source of facts
relating to that subject. This led me at another period to generalize the
subject of inquiry, and to print a skeleton form for the constants of the
class mammalia. It was reprinted by the British Association at Cam-
bridge in 1833, and also at Brussels in the Travaux du Congres General
de Statisque in 1853.

“One of the most useful accomplishments for a philosophical traveler
I learned from a workman who taught me how to punch a hole ina
plate of glass. The process is simple. Two center-punches, a hammer,
an ordinary bench-vise, and an old file, are all the tools required. Hav-
ing decided upon the part of the glass, seratch a cross (x) upon the spot
with the point of an old file, turn the glass over and scratch the same
on the other side corresponding. Fix one of the small center-punches
with its point upward in the vise. Let an assistant hold the glass with
its scratched point (x) resting upon the point of the punch. Take the
other punch, place its point in the center of the upper scratch, hit it
very slightly twice or thrice, turn the glass two or three times, repeat-
ing the slight blows, and the hole is formed.

‘‘ The principles of this are, that glass is a material breaking in every

130 CHARLES BABBAGE.

direction with a conchoidal fracture, and that the vibrations which would
have caused cracking are checked by the support of the fixed center-
punch.

“In the year 1825, during a visit to Devonport, I had apartments in
the house of a glazier, of whom I inquired one day if he knew this
secret. He answered that he did not, and expressed great curiosity to
see it done. Finding that at a short distance there was a blacksmith,
we went to his shop, and selecting from his rough tools the center-
punches and the hammer, I executed the whole process.

‘“On the eve of my departure I asked for my landlord’s account, which
was sent up correct except the omission of charge for apartments. I
added the eight guineas for my lodgings; and the next morning, having
placed the total amount upon the bill, I sent for my host in order to pay
him, remarking that he had omitted the principal article of his account,
which I had inserted.

“He replied that he had intentionally omitted the lodgings, as he
could not think of taking payment for them from a gentleman who had
done him so great service. Quite unconscious of having rendered him
any service, | asked him to explain. He replied that he had the con-
tract for the supply and repair of the lamps of Devonport, and that the
art in which I had instructed him would save him more than twenty
pounds a year. I found some difficulty in prevailing on my grateful
landlord to accept what was justly his due.”

Seareely at the risk of being tedious—which no passages in the life
of this extraordinary man can ever be—but at the greater risk of space
which must be devoted to his contributions to knowledge, we cannot
forbear a single quotation further, which, like a dash from the brush of
Rubens, depicts the multifariousness of his character: ’

“While I was preparing materials for the ‘Economy of manufac-
tures,” he writes, “‘I had occasion frequently to travel through our
mining and manufacturing districts. On these occasions I found the
travelers’ inn or travelers’ room was usually the best adapted to my pur-
pose, both in regard to economy and to information. As my inquiries
had a wide range, I found ample assistance in carrying them on. No-
body doubted that I was one of the craft; but opinions were widely dif-
ferent as to the department in which I practiced my vocation.

‘¢In one of my tours I passed a very agreeable week at the Commer-
cial Hotel in Sheffield. One evening we sat up after supper much later
than is usual, discussing a variety of commercial subjects.

‘¢ When I came down rather late to breakfast I found only one of my
acquaintances of the previous evening remaining. He remarked that
we had had a very agreeable party last night, to which I assented. He
referred to the intelligent remarks of some of our party, and then added
that when I left them they began to talk about me. I merely added
that I felt quite safe in their hands, but should be glad to profit by their
remarks. It appeared, when I retired for the night, that they debated —

CHARLES BABBAGE. 181

about what trade I traveled: for. ‘The tall gentleman in the corner,
said my informant, ‘maintained that you were in the hardware line,
while the fat gentleman, who sat next you at supper, was quite sure
that you were in the spirit trade. Another of the party declared that
they were both mistaken; he said he had met you before, and that you
were traveling for a great iron-master’ ‘Well,’ said I, ‘you, I presume,
knew my vocation better than our friends.’ ‘Yes,’ said my informant,
‘I knew perfectly well that you were in the Nottingham lace trade!’”

In the year 1828 Mr. Babbage was nominated to the Lucasian pro-
‘fessorship of mathematics in his old university, occupying in that ca-
pacity a chair which had once been held by no less a man than Sir Isaae
Newton. This chair he held during eleven years. It was while holding
this professorship, at the general election of November, 1832, which fol-
lowed on the passage of the first reform bill, that he was put forward
as a candidate for the representation of Finsbury in Parliament. He
stood in the advanced liberal interest as a supporter not only of par-
liamentary, financial, and fiscal reform, but of the ballot, triennial par-
laments, and the abolition of all sinecure posts and offices. But the
electors did not care to choose a philosopher; so he was unsuccessful,
and never again wooed the suffrages of any constituency.

Mr. Babbage was the author of published works to the extent of some
eighty papers. A full list of these, however, would not interest or edify
the reader. Perhaps the best known of them all is what he styled the
Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, (which it was not,) a work designed at once
to refute the doctrine, supposed to be implied in the first volume of that
learned series, that an ardent devotion to mathematical studies is un-
favorable to a real religious faith ; and also to adduce specimens of the
defensive aid which the science of numbers may give to the evidences
of Christianity, if that science be studied in a proper spirit. As com-
pared with the eight treatises written by Chalmers, Whewell, Sir
Charles Bell, Dr. Buckland, and others, so far from discrediting its sup-
posititious name, it has probably been more generally read than any
work of the series.

Mr. Babbage’s contributions to political economy were both incidental
and direct. The tendency of his mind, upon whatever it was engaged,
was toward the practical. Thereis scarcely one of his works—nay, there
is hardly one of the various employments in which he engaged himself
with his whole soul during his long life—that in its ultimate reach does
not lay hold of the industrial condition of mankind. Keen in investiga-
tion, acute in analysis, subtle in detection of error, and pre-eminently
logical mm conclusions, no matter how purely intellegtual may be the
laboratory of his workings, the experiments he makes and the outlooks
in which he indulges have for their end invariably the material benefit
of the working classes. Whether it be the solution of “ problems relat-
ing to the calculus of functions” or relating to the “knight’s move in
chess;” whether the ‘‘ determination of the general term of a pew class

182 CHARLES BABBAGE.

of infinite series” or the “‘ application of machinery to the computation
of mathematical tables,” the “‘measurement of heights” or the “improve-
ments of diving-bells,” “ proportion of letters occurring in various lan-
guages” or “observations on the Temple of Serapis,” “thoughts on
the principles of taxation” or “statistics of light-houses,” his purpose
in every essay is practical good. He enlivens the dry subject of politi-
cal economy by the most interesting and pertinent anecdotes; draws the
attention of engine-drivers and stokers to his abstruse discussions of
curves and gauges on railways by maxims and rules that are of constant
use; discusses the subject of Greenwich time-signals with a variety of
illustrations that makes it attractive to every ship-master; mingles his
philosophical theories on occulting lights with narratives of observations
and experiences that amuse and instruct the most ordinary minds; and
treats the vexed question of glaciers with a liveliness and perspicuity
which interest if they do not convince.

The reader will judge whether we have overestimated or misunder-
stood the real characteristics of Mr. Babbage’s mind from the examples
we now propose to give from some of his contributions to knowledge.

Mr. Babbage was one of the oldest members of the Royal Society at ”
the time of his death in October of last year. He was also, more than
half a century ago, one of the founders of the Astronomical Society, and
he and Sir John Herschel were the last survivors of those founders. He
was also an active and zealous member of many of the leading learned
societies of London and Edinburg, and, in former years at least, an ex-
tensive contributor to their published transactions. His last important
publication was the amusing and only too characteristic autobiographi-
cal work from which we have freely quoted—“‘ Passages from the Life of
a Philosopher.”

There were methods of action—qualities they might perhaps be more
properly called—in the mind of Charles Babbage that recall to the
philosophical peruser of his works in the exact sciences traits not dis-
similar in kind, however distinct in degree, to those possessed by that
most original of all thinkers, Sir Isaac Newton. He possessed in com-
mon with Newton extraordinary powers of intellectual introversion.
What he desired to accomplish he thought owt. His mind, like a pho-
tographie plate, was cleansed by a continued force of will to think
rightly, and when cleansed received its impressions from the light of
truth. Not only his contributions to knowledge and his complex and
intricate caleculating-machines, but the scores of lesser inventions which
he produced from time to time, are illustrative of this. Like Newton,
he first pondered his facts, illuminated them by persistent thought, and
then proceeded to the principles on which these facts depend.

Pestalozzi, the Italian philanthropist, after a long life spent in works
of benevolence, came at last to the conclusion that no man could be
much helped or hindered by any one but himself. The remark is appli-
cable to Charles Babbage more than to most persons. He both made

CHARLES BABBAGE. 183

and marred his own fortune. There was not a place which he ever
sought (the Lucasian chair he did not seek) that he gained. He aspired
to the professorship of mathematics at the East India College at Har-
leyburgh; to Playfair’s chair at Edinburgh; to aseat at the Board of Lon-
-gitude; to the mastership of the mint; and to the office of registrar-gen-
eral of births and deaths—and failed in all. On the other hand, there
was not an invention connected with his name—and in mathematical
mechanics he ranks among the foremost the world ever produced—which,
in the opinion of the best-disciplined minds of his day, he could not
have perfected had sufficient pecuniary means been at his command.
Unfortunately, he measured everything by his own unaided impressions, -
and judged himself by others instead of judging others by himself. To
rest all claim to greatness on self-assertion rather than self-denial, though
it may have made the heroes of the classic ages, cannot but be a grave
fault in the conduct of any modern life. Still, he bore his disappoint-
ments bravely, possessed his intellect undimmed up to the verge of his
fourth-score year, made his old age a lesson—not unwisely at any time
enforced—of the philosophy with which the rest of death may be awaited,
and was to the last ready to contemplate calmly in his own case what
arose to the thought of Antony—

Ihave been sitting longer at life’s feast
Than does me good. I will arise and go.

Extracts from a notice of Charles Babbage, by A. Quetelet, of Brussels, translated
from the ‘‘Annuaire de ’Observatoire royal de Bruxelles” for 1873.

Babbage says, in his passage from the Life of a Philosopher, ‘“ From
my earliest years I had a great desire to inquire into the causes of all
things and events which astonish the childish mind. At a later period
I commenced the still more important inquiry into those laws of thought
and those aids which assist the human mind in passing from received
knowledge to that other knowledge then unknown to our race.” These
few lines express sufficiently well the character of the distinguished
savant whose career we shall endeavor rapidly to sketch. Notwith-
Standing his own ardent desire to inquire into everything which could
interest himself, our author never seems to have dreamed of informing
others as to his exact age. According to his friends, he was born in
1792, and was consequently about 80 at the time of his death.

He did not begin seriously the study of mathematics until. after
the age of 22, when he was with his friend Herschel at Trinity College,,
Cambridge. They soon after published a joint work on mathematics,
which did much toward introducing the continental methods and nota-
tion of this science into England. Fourteen years after this, while Mr.
Babbage was in Rome, he accidentally read in an English newspaper the:
following paragraph: ‘“ Yesterday the bells of St. Mary rang out a peal

184 CHARLES BABBAGE.

to celebrate the election of Charles Babbage as Lucasian professor of
mathematics at Cambridge;” or, in other words, his appointment to the
chair formerly occupied by Newton.

it was in Paris, in 1826, at a dinner given by Bouvard, the astronomer,
that I had an opportunity to become acquainted with Babbage. There
were at the same time present Poisson and several other of the scientists
‘who then made Paris illustrious, with all of whom he was a center of
interest. He, with truly fraternal kindness, offered me his assistance in
procuring from the English mechanicians, among whom was the cele-
brated Troughton, the instruments for the Belgian observatory. Healso
proposed my co-operation in a work which he had projected which was
to contain a register of everything capable of being measured, such as
the specific gravity of bodies; the linear expansion of metals; their
weight; the size of animals; the quantity of air they breathe; the
nourishment they need, &v. ‘The extent of this work,” I said, “is too
vast to be carried out unless by the co-operation of many minds. The
outline of what may be necessary for man alone is so great that with the
help of many friends I could not hope to complete more .than a skeleton
of the whole.” The reply was that time is an element of solution which
overcomes the greatest difficulties of investigation; and if our efforts
are properly directed our descendents will finish what we have properly
begun.

Nothwithstanding his immense labor connected with the caleulating-
machine, Babbage, in April, 1835, turned his attention to assist his
friend Herschel, then at the Cape of Good Hope, in carrying out over
the whole world, on certain days, a system of meteorological observa-
tions. These days, which were called term-days, were the 21st of
December, 21st of March, 21st of June, and 2ist of September. At
these times continued observations were to be made at every hour,
commencing at noon on the days above mentioned and terminating the
next day at the same hour. These observations, in the introduction of
which Mr. Babbage took an active part, were continued in Europe,
America, India, and Afriea, and led finally to the establishment of the
various systems of simultaneous weather-reports of the present day.

While I was in London, in 1851, at the great exhibition of indus-
trial products, Babbage made me acquainted with Lord Lovelace, a
gentleman of great ability and high reputation, who had married the
cherished daughter of Lord Byron. This charming lady, remarkable
for her beauty and personal accomplishments, and noted for her in-
tellectual powers, had published a translation of an Italian account of
the calculating-machine. She received me very graciously, and urged
Mr. Babbage and myself # visit her frequently for conversation on
literary and scientific subjects, with which she was familiar. She was
especially interested in the calculus of probabilities, and so far did we
carry our discussions on this point that it was agreed’that we should

CHARLES BABBAGE. 185

compose and publish a joint work on this subject. Unfortunately, the
plan was prevented from being carried out by the premature death of
this interesting lady.
T owe it to the friendship which long united me with Mr. Babbage to
having seen in London, on several occasions and in the greatest detail,
-all the parts of the calculating-machine, and to having been able to
form for myself a just conception of a labor of which I had often heard
but of which very few people knew the particulars. The machine is
certainly very complicated, and extreme attention is needed to follow
the action of its different parts; hence, I shall not attempt to give a
description of it, which would unquestionably fill quite a considerable
volume if we paid respect to the ideas of the inventor, to the extreme
perfection of the mechanical workmanship, and to all the mathematical
calculations which the machine can perform.

- Researches into statistics also claimed the attention of Babbage, and
he was personally instrumental in adding to the committees of the Brit-
ish Association one on this subject. The attention of the committee on
statistics was first turned to the need of exact documents in regard to”
population, a want much felt in England, especially as to everything
relative to births, deaths, &c. Meetings were afterward held in Lon-
don of persons interested in the subject of statistics, in which Mr. Bab-
bage took an active part, and to which I was admitted. They exam-
ined, among other questions, that of the labor imposed upon children in
manufacturies. The following questions were propounded to me in
regard to Belgium, which I transmitted to the minister of the interior,
who promised to have collected the necessary data for a satisfactory
reply. The honorable savants asked—

‘“The number of births produced by each marriage during its entire
length ;

‘““The proportional number of children who reach the period of mar-
riage ;

“ The number of children living by each marriage ;

‘The salaries paid in manufacturies and agriculture in different prov-
inces, especially the price of an average day’s labor in agriculture ;

“The quantity of wheat which such a day’s pay can procure in ordi-
nary times; .

‘Phe mean price of different kinds of grain ;

“The habitual food of the day-laborer ;

‘¢ The proportional number of sterile marriages ;

‘The proportional number of marriages having five or six children
living.”

As an instance of our friend’s singular disposition to enter upon in-
vestigations of the most out-of the-way character, I may mention that
for a time he lost sight of the profound speculations of political economy,
and busied himself with the question as to how many times any letter

186 CHARLES BABBAGE.

in different languages doubles itself in 10,000 words. The following
table gives the result which he obtained :

Number of times different letters are doubled in ten thousand words.

Letters. English. | French. | Italian. |German.| Latin.

[In regard to the question of what use is this, we would remark that:
this question is never asked by the student of nature; since every item of
knowledge is.connected in some way with all other knowledge. Noth-
ing can be said to be useless which tends to exhibit new relations, and
indeed it is impossible to say a priori that a given fact may not find an
application even in practice, however remote it may seem from anything
of this kind. The results given in the foregoing investigation may be
of importance in determining the casting of double types. The number
of occurrences of a given letter in 10,000 words of any language deter-
mines the number of types of that letter in a font.—J. H.]

Our physicist always took care, in traveling, to carry with him those
instruments which would enable him to carry on some investigations.
He was essentially a man of experiment. He held that the eye and the
ear were great aids to the judgment, and a demonstration never seemed
to him complete until he knew how to render it evident to the sense and
the reason. Toward the end of his life his vivacity was considerably
- moderated, and the mortification which he felt on account of not being

able to complete his calculating-machine, and the loss of fends, cast a
shadow over his latter days.

[I had myself the pleasure to make the acquaintance of Mr. Babbage
in 1837, while he was in the zenith of his mental power, and to witness
the operation of his first caleulating-machine. I again visited him in
1870, after an interval of just one-third of a century. I found him in the

CHARLES BABBAGE. 187

same house, still interested in the calculating-machine, with apparently

_but little diminution of mental activity. He informed me that he felt
himself gradually declining ; that he endeavored to note the change in
himself; that he found it difficult to enter upon new subjects of thought,
but that he could reason and mentally act on materials already in his
mind in the way of new computations and new deductions. He regret-
ted the loss of memory, since with it was the loss of personal identity.—
J. H.]

[Extract from writings of Charles Babbage. ]
OF OBSERVATIONS.

There are several reflections connected withthe art of making obser-
vations and experiments, which may be conveniently arranged in this
chapter.

Of Minute Precision.

No person will deny that the highest degree of attainable accuracy is
an object to be desired, and it is generally found that the last advances
toward precision require a greater devotion of time, labor, and expense
than those which precede them. The first steps in the path of discov-
ery and the first approximate measures are those which add most to
the existing knowledge of mankind.

The extreme accuracy required in some of our modern inquiries has,
in some respects, had an unfortunate influence by favoring the opinion
that no experiments are valuable unless the measures are most minute
and the accordance among them most perfect. It may, perhaps, be of
some use to show that even with large instruments and most practiced
observers this is but rarely the case. The following extract is taken
from a representation made by the present astronomer-royal to the
council of the Royal Society, on the advantages to be derived from the
employment of two mural circles:

“That by observing, with two instruments, the same objects at the
same time, and in the same manner, we should be able to estimate how
much of that occasional discordance from the mean, which atiends even
the most careful observations, ought to be attributed to irregularity of
refraction, and how much to the imperfections of instruments.”

In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M.
Delambre, which is the more important, from the statement it contains
relative to.the necessity of publishing all the observations which have
been made:

‘Mais quelque soit le parti que l’on préfére, il me semble qu’on doit
tout publier. Ces irregularités mémes sont des faits qu’il importe de
connoitre. Les soins les plus attentifs nen sauroient préserver les observa-
teurs les plus exercés, et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles toujours
parfaitement @accord auroit été singuliérement bien servi par les circon-
stances ou ne seroit pas bien sincére.”—Base de Syst¢éme métrique, dis-
cours préliminaire, p. 158.

188 CHARLES BABBAGE.

- This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of ex-
perimenters from points of far greater importance, and it seems to have
been too much overlooked in the present day that genius marks its
track, not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the
acutest senses, but by placing Nature in such circumstances that she is
forced to record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale that an
observer, possessing ordinary faculties, shall find them legibly written.
He who can see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of his
species confers an obligation on them by recording what he sees; but
their knowledge depends both on his testimony and on his judgment.
He who contrives a method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary
observers communicates to mankind an instrument of discovery, and
stamps his own observations with a character alike independent of tes-
timony or of judgment. —

On the Art of Observing.

The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of those
who are already observers, but are intended to show to persons not
familiar with the subject that, in observations demanding no unrivaled
accuracy, the principles of common sense may be safely trusted, and
that any gentleman of liberal education may, by perseverance and atten-
tion, ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument
and himself.

If the instrument is a divided one, the first thing is to learn to read
the verniers. If the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is fre-
quently doubtful, the best plan will be for the learner to get some ac-
quaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments, and, having set the
instrument at hazard, to write down the readings of the verniers, and
then request his friend todo the same. Whenever there is any difference,
he should carefully examine the doubtful one, and ask his friend to point
out the minute peculiarities on which he founds his decision. This
should be repeated frequently, and, after some practice, he should note
how many times in a hundred his reading differs from his friend’s, and
also how many divisions they usually differ.

The next point is, to ascertain the precision with which the learner
can bisect an object with the wires of the telescope. This can be done
without assistanee. It is not necessary even to adjust the instrument,
but merely to point it at a distant object. When it bisects any remark-
able point, read off the verniers, and write down the result;*then dis-
place the telescope alittle and adjustitagain. A series of such observa-
tions will show the confidence which is due to the observer's eye in bisect-
ing an object, and also in reading the verniers; and as the first direc-
tion gave him some measure of the latter, he may, in a great measure,
appreciate his skill in the former. He should also, when he finds a de-
viation in the reading, return to the telescope and satisfy himself if ke
has made the bisection as complete as he can. In general, the student

CHARLES BABBAGE. 189

should practice each adjustment separately, and write down the results
wherever he can measure its deviations.

Having thus practiced the adjustments, the next step is to make an
observation. But in order to try both himself and the instrument, let
him take the altitude of some fixed object, a terrestrial one, and baving
registered the result, let him derange the adjustment, and repeat the
process fifty or a hundred times. This will not merely afford him
excellent practice, but enable him to judge of his own skill.

The first step in the use of every instrument is to find the limits in
which its employer can measure the same object under the same circum-
stances, and, after that, of different objects under different circumstances.

The principles are applicable to almost all instruments. If a person
is desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain-barometer, let him be-—
gin by adjusting the instrument in his own study, and, having made the
upper contact, let him write down the reading of the vernier, and then let
him derange the upper adjustment only, re-adjust, and repeat the reading.
When he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make that
adjustment, let him do the same repeatedly with the lower, but let him
not, until he knows his own errors in reading and adjusting, pronounce
upon thoseof the instrument. In the case of a barometer, he must also
be assured that the temperature of the mercury does not change during
the interval.

A friend once brought me a beautifully-constructed piece of mechan-
ism for marking minute portions of time; the three hundredth part of
a second was indicated by it. It was a kind of watch, with a pin for
stopping one of the hands. I proposed that we should each endeavor
to stop it twenty times in succession at the same point. We were both
equally unpracticed, and our first endeavors showed that we could not
be confident of the twentieth part of a secénd. In fact, both the time
occupied in causing the extremities of the fingers to ebey the volition,
as well as the time employed in compressing the flesh before the fingers
acted on the stop, appeared to influence the accuracy of our observa-
tions. From some few experiments I made I thought I perceived that
the rapidity of the transmission of the effects of the will depended on
the state of fatigue or health of the body. If any one were to make ex-
periments on this subject, it might be interesting to compare the rapidity
of the transmission of volition in different persons with the time occu-
pied in obliterating an impression made on one of the senses of the
Same persons. For example, by having a mechanism to make a piece
of ignited charcoal revolve with different degrees of velocity, some
persons will perceive a continuous cirele of ligbt before others, whose
retina does not retain so long impressions that are made upon it.

On the Frauds of Observers.

Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads
of pretenders; and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks of all who

190 CHARLES BABBAGE.

really value truth, by stating some of the methods of deceiving prac-
ticed by unworthy claimants for its honors, while the mere circum-
stance of their arts being known may deter future offenders.

There are several species of impositions that have been practiced in
science; which are but little known, except to the initiated, and which it
may, perhaps, be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary under-
standings. These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing, forging,
trimming, and cooking.

Of Hoaxing.—This, perhaps, will be better explained by an example.
In the year 1783, M. Gioeni, a knight of Malta, published at Naples an
account of anew family of Testacea, of which he described with great
minuteness one species, the specific name of which has been taken from
its habitat, and the generic he took from his own family, calling it Gioe-
nia sicula. It consisted of two round triangular valves, united by the
body of the animal to a smaller valve in front. He gave figures of
the animal, and of its parts; described its structure, its mode of ad-
vancing along the sand, the figure of the track it left, and estimated
the velocity of its course at about two-thirds of an inch per minute.
He then described the structure of the shell, which he treated with
nitric acid and found it approached nearer to the nature of bone than |
any other shell.

The editors of the Encyclopédie méthodique have copied this deserip-
tion and have given figures of the Gioenia sicula. The tact, however,
is, that no such animal exists, but that the knight of Malta, finding on
the Sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the species of Bulla,
of which some are found on the southwestern coast of England,*
described and figured these bones most accurately, and drew the whole
of the rest of the deseription from the stores of his own imagination.

Such frauds are far from4ustifiable; the only excuse which has been
made for them is, when they have been practiced on scientific academies
which had reached the period of dotage.

It should, however, be remembered that the productions of nature are
so various that mere strangenesst is very far from sufficient to render
doubtful the existence of any creature for which there is evidence; and
that, unless the memoir itself involves principles so contradictory ¢ as to
outweigh the evidence of a single witness, it can only be regarded as a
deception without the accompaniment of wit.

Forging ditfers from hoaxing, inasmuch as in the latter the deceit is
intended to last for a time, and then be discovered to the ridicule of

*Bulla lignaria.

tThe number of vertebre in the neck of the Plesiosaurus is astrange but ascertained
fact.

t The kind of contradiction which is here alluded to is that which arises from well-
ascertained final causes; for instance, the ruminating stomach of the hoofed animals is
in no case combined with the claw-shaped form of the extremities, frequent in many
of the carnivorous animals, and necessary to some of them for the purpose of seizing ~
their prey.

CHARLES BABBAGE. 191

those who have credited it; whereas the forger is one who, wishing to
acquire a reputation for science, records observations which he has never
made. This is sometimes accomplished in astronomical observations
by calculating the time and circumstances of the phenomenon from
tables. The observations of the second comet of 1784, which was only
seen by the Chevalier d’Angos, were long suspected to be a forgery, and
were at length proved to be so by the calculations and reasoning of
Encke. The pretended observations did not accord among each other
in giving any possible orbit. But M. Encke detected an orbit, belong-
ing to some of the observations, from which he found that all the rest
might be almost precisely deduced, provided a mistake of a unit in the
index of the logarithm of the radius vector were supposed to have been
made in all the rest of the calculations. (Zach. Corr. Astron., tom.
iv, p. 456.)
_ Fortunately, instances of the occurrence of forging are rare.

Trimming consists in clipping off little bits here and there from those
observations which differ most in excess from the mean, and in sticking
them on to those which are too small; a species of “equitable adjust-
‘inent,” as a radical would term it, which cannot be admitted in science.

This fraud is not, perhaps, so injurious (except to the character of the
trimmer) as cooking, which the next paragraph will teach. The reason
of this is, that the average given by the observations of the trimmer is
the same, whether they are trimmed or untrimmed. His object is to
gain a reputation for extreme accuracy in making observations; but
from respect for truth, or from a prudent foresight, he does not distort
the position of the fact he gets from nature, and it is usually difficult to
detect him. He has more sense or less adventure than the cook.

Of Cooking.—This is an art of various forms, the object of which is
to give to ordinary observations the appearance and character of those
of the highest degree of accuracy.

One of its numerous processes is to make multitudes of observations,
and out of these to select those only which agree or very nearly agree.
If a hundred observations are made, the cook must be very unlucky if
he cannot pick out fifteen or twenty which will do for serving up.

Another approved receipt, when the observations to be used will not
come within the limit of accuracy which it has been resolved they shall
possess, is to calculate them by two different formulas. The difference
in the constants employed in those formulas has sometimes a most
happy effect in promoting unanimity among discordant measures. If
still greater accuracy is required, three or more formulas can be used.

It must be admitted that this receipt is in some instances most
hazardous; but in the cases where the positions of stars, as given in
different catalogues, occur, or different tables of specific gravities, spe-
cific heats, &c., it may safely be employed. As no catalogue con-
tains all stars, the computer must have recourse to several; and if heis
obliged to use his judgment in the selection, it would be cruel to deny

192 CHARLES BABBAGE.

him any little advantage which might result from it. It may, however,
be necessary to guard against one mistake into which persons might
fall.

If an observer calculate particular stars from a catalogue which
makes-them accord precisely with the rest of his results, whereas had
they been computed from other catalogues the difference would have
been considerable, it is very unfair to accuse him of cooking ; for those
catalogues may have been notoriously inaccurate, or they may have
been superseded by others more recent, or made with better instru-
ments; or the observer may have been totally ignorant of their exist-
ence. .

It sometimes happens that constant quantities in formulas given by
the highest authorities, although they differ among themselves, yet
they will not suit the materials. This is precisely the point in which
the sxill of the artist is shown; and an accomplished cook will carry
himself triumphantly through it, provided, happily, some mean value
of such constants will fit his observations. He will discuss the relative
merits of formulas he has just knowledge enough to use; and, with
admirable candor, assigning their proper share of applause to Bessel,
to Gauss, and to Laplace, he will take that mean value of the constant
used by three such philosophers which will make his own observations
accord to a miracle.

There are some few reflections I would venture to suggest to those
who cook, although they may not receive the attention which, in my
opinion, they deserve, from not coming from the pen of an adept.

In the first place, it must require much time to try different formulas.
In the next place, it may happen that, in the progress of human knowl-
edge, more correct formulas may be discovered, and constants may be
determined with far greater precision. Or it may be found that some
physical circumstance influences the results, (although unsuspected at
the time,) the measure of which circumstance may perhaps be recovered
from other contemporary registers of facts.* Or, if the selection of
observations has been made with the view of its agreeing precisely with
the latest determination, there is some little danger that the average of
the whole may differ from that of the chosen ones, owing to some law of
nature dependent on the interval between the two sets, which law some
future philosopher may discover; and thus the very best observations
may have been thrown aside.

In all these, and in numerous other cases, it would most probably hap- _
pen that the cook would procure a temporary reputation for unrivaled
accuracy at the expense of his permanentfame. It might also have the
effect of rendering even all his crude observations of no value; for that
part of the scientific world whose opinion is of most weight is generally
so unreasonable as to neglect altogether the observations of those in

* Imagine, by way of example, the state of the barometer or thermometer.

CHARLES BABBAGE. 193

whom they have, on any occasion, discovered traces of the artist. In
fact, the character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted, is destroyed.

The manner in which facts apparently lost are restored to light, even
after considerable intervals of time, is sometimes very unexpected, and
a few examples may not be without their use. The thermometers
employed by the philosophers who composed the Accademia del Cimento
have been lost; and as they did not use the two fixed points of freezing
and boiling water, the results of a great mass of observations have
remained useless from our ignorance of the value of a degree on their
instruments. M. Libri, of Florence, proposed to regain this knowledge
by comparing their registers of the temperature of the human body and
of that of some warm springs in Tuscany which have preserved their
heat uniform during a century, as well as of other things similarly cir-
cumstanced.

Another iliustration was pointed out to me by M. Gazzeri, the pro-
fessor of chemistry at Florence. A few years ago an important suit in
one of the legal courts of Tuscany depended on ascertaining whether a
certain word had been erased by some chemical process from a deed then
before the court. The party who insisted that an erasure had been made
availed themselves of the knowledge of M. Gazzeri, who, concluding that
those who committed the fraud would be satisfied by the disappearance
of the coloring matter of the ink, suspected (either from some colorless
matter remaining in the letters, or perhaps from the agency of the sol-
vent having weakened the fabric of the paper itself beneath the supposed
letters) that the effect of the slow application of heat would be to render
some difference of texture or of applied substance evident by some
variety in the shade of color which heat in such circumstances might be
expected to produce. Permission having been given to try the experi-
ment, on the application of heat the important word re-appeared, to the
great satisfaction of the court.

[One of the most noted deceptions of this kind was that called the moon
hoax, published in New York about thirty years ago, which purported to
beaseries of discoveries made in the moon by Sir John Herschel during
his residence at the Cape of Good Hope. These discoveries were said to
be the result of a great improvement in the telescope. It is well known
that, with a given-sized object-glass, the power of this instrument is
limited by the degree to which the image in the focus of the glass can
be magnified; the light remaining the same, the more the size of the
image is increased the darker it becomes. The alleged improvement
consisted in the illumination of this image by artificial light. By the
application of this idea, the telescope employed by the astronomer at the
Cape of Good Hope admitted of an eye-glass of such magnifying power
that moving objects on the surface of the moon were observable, and
men and animals of remarkable forms were actually discovered.

It is astonishing the effect which the annunciation of these discoveries

Pac auce’. Instead of detecting at once the scientific absurdity of illu-
S

194 CHARLES BABBAGE.

minating a shadow in order that it might be more highly magnified,
many persons, even professors in colleges, gave the announcement
credence, and thus added to the popularity of the hoax. This fraud
owed its success, in a great measure, to a want, at the time, of precise
scientific knowledge in this country, and after the absurdity was pointed
out the invention was cried up as a most extraordinary production, since
those who had been hoaxed by it attributed their credulity to the inge-
nuity of the deception rather than to their own want of knowledge.

The success of this hoax has had an exceedingly bad influence on the
character of our country for veracity. It was followed immediately
after, and has been even down to the present time, by a series of con-
temptible imitations; and, indeed, to such an extent was this imitation
carried on a few years ago, that scarcely any announcement of phe-
nomena of unusual occurrence could be accepted as truth. Among
these imitations within a few years, the most successful, and one which
evinced considerable reading as well as ingenuity, was that of the
pretended discovery of a series cf Runic inscriptions on the face of a
rock in the Potomac River near Washington. This was the invention
of a young student of law in this city, and excited quite a sensation
among the archeologists of this and other countries. It was copied in
various ethnological journals as a truth, and was hailed by the Scandi-
navians aS a new evidence of the early explorations of the Northmen
in the United States.

Such inventions must be classed with those practical jokes which have
been happily termed “‘ gymnastic wit,” of which a notable example was
given in England, where a “society” was founded for “insulting women
and frightening children.” The chronicler naively remarks that the
members were never discovered, and, what is just as remarkable, the
wit was equallya mystery. “Truth,” says Dr. Johnson, ‘‘is a matter of
too much importance to be tampered with, even in trifles.’—J. H.]

On the Permanent Impression of our Words and Actions on the Globe we
inhabit.

The principle of the equality of action and reaction, when traced
through all its consequences, opens views which will appear to many
persons most unexpected. The pulsations of the air, once set in motion
by the human voice, cease not to exist with the sounds to which they
gave rise. Strong and audible as they may be in the immediate neigh- ~
borhood of the speaker, and at theimmediate moment of utterance, their
quickly-attenuated force soon becomes inaudible to the human ears.
The motions they have impressed on the particles of one portion of our
atmosphere are communicated to constantly-increasing numbers, bur
the total quantity of motion measured in the same direction receives no
addition. Each atom loses as much as it gives, and regains again from
other atoms a portion of those motions which they in turn give up.

CHARLES BABBAGE. - LOB

‘Phe waves of air thus raised perambulate the earth and the ocean’s
surface, and in less than twenty hours every atom of its atmosphere
takes up the altered movement due to that infinitesimal portion of the
primitive motion which has been conveyed to it through countless
channels, and which must continue to influence its path throughout its |
future existence.* .

But these aerial pulses, unseen by the keenest eye, unheard by the
acutest ear, unperceived by human senses, are yet demonstrated to
exist by human reason; and, in some few and limited instances, by call-
ing to our aid the most refined and comprehensive instrument of human
thought, their courses are traced and their intensities are measured.
Ifman enjoyed a larger command over mathematical analysis, his know1]-
edge of these motions would be more extensive; but a being possessed
of unbounded knowledge of that science couid trace every the minutest
consequence of that primary impulse. Such a being, however far
exalted above our race, would still be immeasurably below, even our
conception of infinite intelligence.

But supposing the original conditions of each atom of the earth’s
atmosphere, as well as all the extraneous causes acting on it, to be given,
and supposing also the interference of no new causes, such a being
would be able clearly to trace its/future but inevitable path, and he
would distinctly foresee and might absolutely predict for any, even the
remotest period of time,t the circumstances and future history of every
particle of that atmosphere.

Let us imagine a being, invested with such knowledge, to examine at
a distant epoch the coincidence of the facts with those which his pro-
found analysis had enabled him to predict. If any the slightest devia-
tion existed, he would immediately read in its existence the action of a
new vause; and, through the aid of the same analysis, tracing this dis-
cordance back to its souree, he would become aware of the time of its
commencement and the point of space at whica it o1iginated.

Thus considered, what a strange chaos is this wide atmosphere we
breathe! Every atom, impressed with good and with ill, retains at
once the motions which philosophers and sages have imparted to it,
mixed and combined in ten thousand ways with all that is worthless
and base. The air itself is one vast library, on whose pages are forever
written all that man has ever said er woman whispercd. ‘There, in their
mutable but unerring characters, mixed with the earliest as well as with
the latest sighs of mortality, stand forever recorded, vows unredeemed,
promises unfulfilled, perpetuating in the united movements of each
particle, the testimony of man’s changeful will.

But if the air we breathe is the never-failing historian of the sentiments

*“TY.a courbe décrite par une simple molécule d’air ou vapeurs est réelée d’une maniére
aussi certain que les orbites planétaires; il n’y a de différence entre elles que celle
qu’y met notre ignorance.”—La Place, Theorie Analytique des probabilités, introdaction,
p- iv.

tSee note C in the Appendix.

196 - CHARLES BABBAGE.

we have uttered, earth, air and ocean are the eternal witnesses of the
acts we have done. The same principle of the equality of action and
re-action applies to them; whatever movement is communicated to any
of their particles is transmitted to all around it, the share of each being
diminished by their number, and depending jointly on the number and
position of those acted upon by the original sources of disturbance. The
waves of air, although in many instances perceptible to the organs of
hearing, are only rendered visible to the eye by peculiar contrivances ;
but those of water offer to the sense of sight the most beautiful illustra-
tion of transmitted motion. Every one who has thrown a pebble into
the still waters of a sheltered pool has seen the circles it has raised,
gradually expanding in size, and as uniformly diminishing in distinct-
ness. He may have observed the reflection of those waves from the edges
of the pool. He may have noticed also the perfect distinctness with
which two, three, or more series of waves each pursues its own unim-
peded course, when diverging from two, three, or more centers of dis:
turbance. He may have seen, in such cases, the particles of water
where the waves intersect each other partake of the movements due to
each series.

No motion impressed by natural causes or by human agency is ever
obliterated. The ripple on the ocean’s surface, caused by a gentle breeze,
or the still water which marks the more immediate track of a ponderous
vessel gliding with scarcely expanded sails over its bosom, are equally
indelible. The momentary waves raised by the passing breeze, appa-
rently born but to die on the spot which saw their birth, leave behind
them an endless progeny, which, reviving with diminished energy in
other seas, resisting a thousand shores, reflected from each, and per-
haps again partially concentrated, will pursue their ceaseless course till
ocean be itself annihilated. )

The track of every canoe, of every vessel which has yet disturbed the
surface of the ocean, whether impelled by manual force or elemental
power, remains forever registered in the future movement of all suc-
eeeding particles which may occupy its place. The furrow which it
“eft 1s, indeed, instantly filled up by the closing waters ; but they draw
after them other and larger portions of the surrounding element, and
these again once moved communicate motion to others in endless suc
cession.

The solid substance of the globe itself, whether we regard the minutest
movement of the soft clay which receives its impression from the foot of
animals, or the concussion arising from the fall of mountains rent by
earthquakes, equally communicates and retains, through all its count-
less atoms, their apportioned shares of the motions so impressed.

While the atmosphere we breathe is the ever-living witness of the
Sentiments we have uttered, the waters, and the more solid materials
of the globe, bear equally enduring testimony of the acts we have com-
mitted.

CHARLES BABBAGE. 197

If the Almighty stamped on the brow of the earliest murderer the
indelible aud visible mark of his guilt, he has also established laws by
which every succeeding criminal is not less irrevocably chained to the
testimony of his crime; for every atom of his mortal frame, through
whatever changes its several particles may migrate, will still retain,
adhering to it through every combixation, some movement derived from
that very muscular: efiort by which the crime itself was perpetrated.

The soul of the negro whose fettered body, surviving the living char-
nel-house of his infected prison, was thrown into the sea to lighten the
ship, that his Christian captor might escape the limited justice at length
assigned by civilized man to crimes whose profit had long gilded their
atrocity, will need, at the last great day of human account, no living
witness of his earthly agony. When man and all his race shall have
disappeared from the face of our planet, ask every particle of air still
floating over the unpeopled earth, and it will record the cruel mandate
of the tyrant.

LOUIS AGASSIZ,

A DISCOURSE DELIVERED BY REV. RUFUS P. STEBBINS, D. D.,
OF ITHACA, NEW YORK.

Agassiz is dead! Science weeps, and Religion mourns. Nature
has lost a friend, and asks, ‘‘ Who will now read the inscribed Jeaves of
my rocky tablets with such loving enthusiasm? Who will now study
and describe all living things with such sympathetic admiration?”

Agassiz is dead! No more will he walk the gray cliffs of Nahant,
lifted into communion with highest themes by the voice of the ocean’s
anthem! No more will he traverse the coral reefs of Florida to learn
how promontories and islands are built by the tiniest and frailest of living
things! No longer will he visit the high Alps, and measure the velocity
and force of its great rivers of ice, to teach us how the rocks have been
carved on the mountain-tops, and scattered over the valleys! No longer
will he dredge the depths of the ocean to astonish the world with the
living creatures which have their home a thousand fathoms below the
storms! No longer will he examine with kindling enthusiasm the ger-
iinating egg under his microscope, and thrill the scientific world with
delight as he announces some new phenomenon, illustrating some new
method of the divine order! No more will he be seen in his museum, the

pride of his heart, the joy ofhis life! Never again will he visit Penikese,
where, with such ardor he last summer opened his new school to study
living nature and not merely the printed page, and where he, the man
of science, paid such a memorable tribute to religion!* No more shall we
meet that regal form, look into that beaming face, grasp that warm hand,
hear those wise and cheering words! His personal work here is done.
But he has inspired thousands to press after the truth; he has founded
an institution which wiil live after him in ever-increasing efficiency and
usefulness. His praise will be spoken by tongues in all languages, in the
most ancient and renowned universities of the world. Thousands of
hearts will mourn his absence in halls of science before whose as-
semblies of the foremost scholars of two continents he laid the golden
treasures of his researches with the simplicity and joy of a child. How
many of his pupils, whose names are even now high authority, will
forget the stern requirements of the teacher in their admiration of the
man, and their gratitude for the enthusiasm with which he inspired them,
the very accuracy of observation to which he compelled them! Thou-
sands of intelligent citizens will look in vain for those reported lectures,
so transparent in style, so clear in description, which have been a joy and
a revelation to them for the last quarter of a century.

* See “Prayer of Agassiz,” by Whittier.

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 199

Agassiz is dead! Well may the flags of his adopted city fall to half:
mast! Well may the orator pause in the torrent of his argument and
drop a tribute to his memory! Well may the bells of our universities
toll at the hour of his funeral, for he was not of one university but of
all! Well may the academies of science on both continents record his
worth in memorial resolutions, for he was of both continents; nay, of
the world! Im the midst of this wide appreciation of the wonderful
labors and discoveries of Agassiz, this universal showering of tributes
upon his grave, by the learned, the world-renowned; I tremblingly bring
my single leaf to be lost among the pyramids of flowers, of no im-
portance to the grateful pile, but of great importance to the promptin gs,
the demands of my own heart.

Louis John Rudviph Agassiz was born May 28, 1807, in the parish of
Motiier, near Lake Neufchatel, in Switzerland.

And Nature, the dear old nurse, took
The child upon her knee,
Saying, “ Here is a story-book
Thy Father has written for thee.”
“Come, wander with me,” she said,
““Tnto regions yet untrod,
And read what is still unread
In the manuscripts of God.”

He was of Huguenot descent, and his ancestors were driven from France
by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. For six generations his lineal
ancestors had been clergymen. His mother was a woman of uncommon
intelligence, and had special oversight of his early education, and just
pride in hismature fame; and in after life, Agassiz illustrated the depth of
his gratitude and filial love by laying aside his studies, from which noth-
ing else could call him, to make the voyage to Kurope and the journey
to Switzerland, that he might once more receive his mother’s blessing and
give her his own.

At the age of eleven years young Agassiz was sent to school at Bienne
for four years, Where he studied the ancient and modern languages, and
amused himself by observing the habits of fishes and collecting insects.
During his vaeations, spent at his father’s new home under the shadow
of the Jura, by the influences of a young clergyman named Fivaz, he was
first inspired with a love of the natural sciences, and he became inter-
ested in botany. When fifteen years of age, Louis entered college at
Lausanne, where he remained two years, and having determined to
study medicine he went to Zurich when he was seventeen years oid,
where he remained two years. Wishing to avail himself of the best
- educators, he went to Heidelberg when nineteen, devoting himself to
the study of anatomy and physiology and zoology and botany under
such professors as Tiedemann, Leuckart, and Bischoff. But as the uni-
versity at Munich had then been re-organized, with the most eminent
scientists on the continent in its faculty, young Agassiz was attracted

200 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

thither in his twentieth year; for his motto thus early in life seems to

have been, ‘Of instruction, the best; of investigation, perfection.” There

were Oken and Martius and Schelling and Dollinger, each of whom

was an original investigator and discoverer, founder eyen of some_
branches of science. He was received to the intimacy of these eminent

men—a vast advantage, when there is manhood behind acquisitions, and

sense behind genius; otherwise, the sorest misfortune that can befall a

student. There young Agassiz reveled in all the luxuries of original

investigations for four years. His fellow-students were delighted with

the brillianey of his discussions, and he was the inspiring genius of a
select society of young men who were engaged in scientific studies,

which embodied so much talent and made such discoveries that it was

called the Little Academy, and attracted the presence and participation —
of the professors. During these four years he published a few special

papers. But ke at once placed himself in the foremost rank of natural-

ists by his discussion and classification of the fishes of Brazil, to which

work he was assigned by his teacher Martius. It was published in

Latin in folio. This was his first work, his first contribution to natural

science.

Agassiz was now twenty-four years of age. His thirst for the study of
natural science had become so strong that he was diverted from the pro-
fession of medicine which his parents wished him to adopt, and became
an interpreter of nature. He lost thereby the paternal allowance, but
gained mental independence. He took his doctorate of philosophy at
Erlangen with distinction, after an unusually severe examination. He
obtained his degree of doctor of medicine in the same year at Munich,
and maintained in his thesis the superiority of woman to man.

Agassiz was how a graduate with high honors, and with the world
before him as an inheritance—the world full of richest fields to be
explored. For twenty-two years, till his coming to America in 1846, he
gave himself with most unbounded enthusiasm and hereulean labor to
original investigations; spending weeks over his microscope in observing
the changes in the processes of the growth of animal life from the germ to
the mature form; following the courses of rivers and visiting the different
basins of Europe to determine the distribution of its fishes; traversing
the lake-shores and mountains of Switzerland to learn the causes of the
erosion of the rocks and the transportation of the bowlders; visiting
England and Scotland to compare the insular with the continental phe-
nomena; pitching his tent, season after season, upon the Alpine glaciers.
that he might study accurately their movements and force; making the
acquaintance of the princes of science and taken joyfully into their int-
macy—Humboldt, Cuvier, Baer, Owen, Murchison; and, calling around
him the most accomplished artists, in his own study, under his own eye,
he caused to be drawn from nature and printed an outline of the results
of all these travels, observations, and acquisitions. First came his great
work on the ‘Natural History of the Fresh-Water Fishes of Europe,”

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 201.

full of original suggestions, and proposing some theories of local crea-
tions, which startled the scientific world, and whose discussion has hardly
yet subsided. Then came his greater work on “Fossil Fishes.” He
devoted seven years to the investigation of the subject before he com-
menced publishing. He visited all the great collections in Europe and
England, accompanied by a skillful artist to make his drawings. More
than eighty museums, public and private, were visited by him, and from
which he was permitted to retain some of the most rare and precious
Specimens for many years that he might make his work as perfect as
possible by repeated and rigid comparisons. The last sheets of this
work came before the public in 1844, having been in the press ten years,
and containing the results of seventeen years’ study, such study as few but
Agassiz understood and accomplished. This work was in five large
volumes, with a folio atlas, containing four hundred plates. One thou-
sand species are figured in their natural size with the colors of their beds, '
and seven hundred species more are partially represented and described.
New types of fishes were discovered, and a new classification was ren-
dered necessary by the publication of this work. And hardly less im-
portant was its influence upon geology than upon ichthyology. The
relative ages of different formations were more accurately determined by
these fossils. The relations of the other classes of vertebrates were also:
discovered, and some very important general conciusions were drawn
from these seventeen years’ study of paleontology and collateral inves-
tigations. The indications of purpose, of designed arrangement every-
where discovered, not only in the teeth of the fossil shark but also in the
arm of a polyp, so impressed his mind that he affirmed the “existence
ot a superior intelligence to have been established by rigid demonstration
and on a truly scientific basis.” “Have we not,” he exclaims at the close
of his work, after summing up its great facts, “have we not here proof of
the existence of a mind as powertul as prolific? the acts of an intelligence
as sublime as provident? the marks of goodness as infinite as wise?
The most palpable demonstration of the existence of a personal God, Author
of all things, Ruler of the universe, and Dispenser of all govd? This, at
least, is what I read in the works of creation.” The great paleontologist
was led from Nature up to Nature’s God.

While Agassiz was preparing this great work for the press, a labor
one would suppose equal to any student’s strength, and sufficient to
gratify any student’s ambition, he made most elaborate original investi-
gations, and published monographs, upon “ Fossil and Living Radiates
and Mollusks,” accompanied with full descriptions of their habits and
relations. During the same period, as if his strength was as inex-
haustible as the fields of science which he cultivated, he published his
“ Zoological Nomenclature,” (Nomenclator Zoologicus,) containing the
names of all the genera in the animal kingdom, and the names of the
students who first proposed them, and the time when they were given.
And to this he added another and very important work, the ‘+ Library

202 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

of Zoology and Geology,” (Bibliotheca Zoologie et Geologic,) in which he
gave a list of the works of the authors named in the former publication,
with such notices as they seemed to demand. It was published in Eng-
land in four large octavo volumes.

But the work of these seventeen years is not yet all told. For nine
years Agassiz spent his summer-vacations among the Alps. He pub-
lished two very able works containing the result of his observations,
and including the germs of his “Glacial Theory,” which he afterward
announced, and which is now one of the greatest objects of interest to
the geologist. And still more: during fourteen of these seventeen years
he was professor of natural history in the College of Neufchatel; and
a most enthusiastic teacher he was. His fame became co-extensive
with civilization. - The scientific societies and learned academies of both
the old world and the new hastened, in generous rivalship, to do them-
selves the honor of recognizing his unsurpassed merits as a student of
nature. The prizes of successful investigations and new disceveries
were received from kings and emperors. Learned degrees were con-
ferred upon him by the great universities of the continent and of
England. His name was a synonym for scientific genius, indomitable
labor, and brilliant achievement. Having become familiar with the
scenery and the flora and fauna, both fossil and living, which beautified
and inhabited the old world, or were buried in its sepulchers, a new world
was given him to conquer.

In 1846, at the age of thirty-nine years, he received from the King of
Prussia, at the suggestion of Baron Alexander von Humboldt, a com-
mission to visit the United States, and make explorations in behalf of
science, and at the same time he received an invitation to come over and
deliver a course of lectures before the Lowell Institute in the city of
Boston.

At this time there were very few scholars in the United States who
had given any special attention to the higher problems of zoology.
Most of the studies in regard to it had been confined to the description
and classification of new species, and there was not in all our colleges a
single chair devoted to instruction in this branch of natural history.
There was, however, an awakening attention toit; thestudy of the micro-
scope had been introduced, and the use of this instrument was beginning
to be applied to the verification of the discoveries which had been nade
in Kurope. Agassiz came at this period of awakening, bringing with him
a Kuropean reputation, miraculous stores of knowledge at perfect com:
mand, years of experience as teacher and out-door observer, with a most
winning and commanding presence; fascinating as a lecturer, though
pronouncing our language quite imperfectly; magnetic in his influence
upon hearers, so that those who left his presence knew not which had
most captivated them, thé perfectness of his knowledge, the transparency
of his descriptions, or the warmth of his heart.

His lectures were crowded. He took Boston, as it were, by storm.

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 203

The lecture of the evening was repeated the next afternoon, and stil!
there was not room; still'there were unsatisfied ears; still there were
longing hearts. He met the little coteries of amateurs, and amazed
them as he narrated the length and persistency of his observations of
some of the changes and transformations of the lower forms of living
creatures. One of the most eminent of the microscopists of the city
stated to a club the results of three or four days’ observations of some
objects under his glass; and those obtained were so meager that he had
laid all further inquiry aside. A discussion was started, and after an
expression of opinion from different members respecting the practicability
of obtaining any satisfactory results as to the subject under investi-
gation, Agassiz, their guest, was called upon for his cpinion. He amazed
them all by saying that he had made an investigation of this subject,
but instead of continuing it only three days, he had continued it for six
weeks, night and day, at regular intervals, so that no change could take
place without his notice, and the result was most satisfactory, con-
firming his conjectures respecting the class in the animal kingdom to
which the objects should be referred. “Six weeks, night and day!”
Our amateurs had not dreamed of such persistent labor. Nor did they
dream of it in the future, but commenced to practice it in the present,
and, under the influence of Agassiz, were transformed from mere ama-
-teurs to working zoologists.

Indeed, such was the effect of the sympathy and enthusiasm which he
exerted that, thenceforward and to-day, you will find merchant-princes
and bankers of Boston hastening, after business-hours, not to club-rooms,
but to their homes, to seat themselves at the eye-glass of their expensive
microscopes to continue their observations of the habits and transfor-
mations of the crowded population of a drop of sea-water or a spray
of alga. The spirit of Agassiz took possession of their souls.

But I am running before my story. The brightness of its termination
has attracted me from the less brilliancy of its commencement. But to
trace with any minuteness the labors of Agassiz for the last twenty-six
years of his life in this discourse would be impossible. It would be almost
like writing the history of some branches of science.

His first course of lectures was fully reported in one of the Boston
papers, together with the illustrations which he gave on the blackboard.
He was at once called upon to lecture in the great cities of the country,
and overwhelmed with invitations to meet with scientific societies and
social assemblies. The latter he almost invariably declined; the former
he as uniformly accepted.

His commission from the King of Prussia introduced him to our Gov-
ernment, and he was invited as a guest on board the vessels of the Coast
Survey, and dredged the ocean along our coast, gathering new and
abundant specimens for future examination.

The next year, 1847, the Lawrence Scientific School was founded at
Cambridge in connection with Harvard University, and Agassiz was

204 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

appointed in this professor of geology and zoology. He now determined
to make this country his home, and sent for a discharge from his commis-
sion given by the King of Prussia. It was granted him in the assur-
ance “that wherever he took up his abode, his time would be eee
to the best advantage of science.”

At this time there was no collection of specimens of zoology in America
which would compare for a moment with the museums of the Old World;
and it now became with Agassiz an absorbing passion of his life to found
one which should rival the richest that the ambition and wealth of emper-
ors and empires had established. His enthusiasm sent collectors to the
steaming bayous of the Gulf, the frozen coast of Labrador, and around the
unexplored shores of the northern lakes. He inspired with one purpose
young and old, on land and on sea. The Pacific as well as the Atlantic
coast was his tributary. Every ship brought him some contribution.
Every train paid tribute to his accumulating riches. Traveling from
city to city, and charming as well as instructing by his lectures, he en-
listed young and old in his great enterprise till it seemed as if the whole
population of the country were his agents or assistants. Stored in barns,
in warehouses, in cellars, and in attics, Cambridge was full of packages
for the museum. The hour was fully come. He now turned his back
more promptly and firmly against all temptations to abandon his great
purpose. To an offer to give his knowledge and genius to the ad-
vantage of a great pecuniary undertaking which would have poured a
fortune into his lap, he simply replied, “ZI have no time to make money.”
When Napoleon, at the recommendation of the academy, invited him to
the highest scientific position in France, and intimated, not obscurely,
that as a citizen of France it was hardly right or honorable for him to
give his transcendent talent and world-wide fame to a new and un-
scientific country, and not to add to the renown of the institutions of the
land of his ancestors enriched by imperial bounties and honors, he re-
plied in substance that he was not a citizen of France, and that his
family and ancestors owed nothing to France but exile and poverty;
that he prized more highly the spontaneous gratitude and gifts of a free
people than the patronage of emperors and the formal regard of nobles.

His great work, ‘“ Contributions to the Natural History of the United
States,” had been commenced ; the school which his wife had opened in
his house for young ladies, to aid in supporting his family, was in full
success and received daily lectures from him; he was overwhelmed, not
only with correspondence on scientific subjects from all parts of the
world, but with specimens, so that the neighborhood of his work-room
often appeared like the storehouse of an importer. The college had
already purchased his earlier collections to enable him to collect more.
After twelve years of indefatigable labor, the mass of materials had
become simply enormous; and there was no place to store them in
security, much less any place where they could be either exhibited
or studied. What could be done? The will of Francis C. Gray, of

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 205

Boston, was at this moment opened, and a bequest of $50,000 was
found for the museum. This was the first ray of morning, showing
that the day was coming from behind the mountains,

Agassiz seemed filled with a prophet’s enthusiasm and assurance;
his face shone brighter and brighter as the day advanced. Seventy
thousand dollars were raised by subscription in Boston and its vicinity in
a few months, and the next winter the great scientist, with the faith of
a saint and the prospect of a martyr, went before the Massachusetts
legislature of farmers and mechanics to ask for $100,000 to aid him
in his work! Remember this was immediately after the universal
bankruptcy of 1857. What a hopeless mission, to ask, under such cir-
cumstances and of such men, an appropriation of one hundred thousand
dollars to promote purely scientific inquiries ; to aid in gathering rocks
and bones and fishes and shells and insects, and erecting a building
in which to store them! But Agassiz’s enthusiasm was so great that
there was no room for doubt; he could not disbelieve; he would net
hesitate. He met the committee of the legislature appointed to hear
him explain his proposition. ‘The hearing was in the hall of the house of
representatives, and all the members of both bodies of the legislature,
allured by his fame, crowded to hear him. Incarnate science stands in
the presence of incarnate expediency, thrift, and palpable economy! What
could he say? The great interpreter of nature made no appeal to love
of gain. He could promise no golden treasures in return for their bounty.
He did not tell them that he could make the crops more abundant,
the soil more fertile, the fabrics more marketable. He said that he
would have the wonderful works of nature, of God, better illustrated,
more carefully studied. He would have Massachusetts—and here with
consummate adroitness he touched the tenderest spot in the sensibilitics
of the old Bay State—ieep the lead in the great educational movemenis
of the century. He had determined to give his life to that end if she
would aid him! ‘My great object,” these are his very words, “is to
have a museum founded here which will be equal to the great museums
of the Old World. We have a continent before us for exploration, which
has as yet been only skimmed on the surface. My earnest desire has
always been, and is now, to put our universities on a footing with those
of Europe or even ahead of them.” Science was honored in the presen-
tation of her representative. Neither party nor pelf soiled the whiteness
of her robes. But when the question came before the house for con-
sideration an attempt was made to throw ridicule on the proposition by
designating the establishment where science was to be honored a ‘“ Pal-
ace for Bugs.” But this attack was repelled; the appropriation asked
for was granted, and Agassiz triumphant, with over two hundred thou-
sand dollars at his command, broke ground for his ‘‘ Museum of Compar-
ative Zoology.”

At this period I became personally acquainted with him. His hands,
his heart, his head, were full. Fortunately he had matured his plan for

206 LOUIS: AGASSIZ.

his building during previous years: He had introduced into it all the
excellencies of the best museums of Europe, and added many which his
own experience had suggested. It was to cover three sides of a square,
and but half of one of the wings was to be undertaken at this time. He
would build as he needed, but permanently and perfectly for all coming
time. And when it was finished and filled with specimens, like the
widow’s cruse of oil, everything was still full; hundreds of precious
packages still unopened; hundreds of capacious casks still untouched.
For once the great heart of Agassiz faltered ; his hands fell helplessly
by his side; he stood still. The pause was but for a moment; the em-
barrassment was one of riches. He saw in vision the walls of the rest
of the wing arise, and he now set himself to accomplish it. He went to
the Amazon, sent out by a princely banker of Boston, who gave him a
carte blanche, to draw on him for what means he required. With an en-
thusiasm which consumed his very life, regardless of exposure, shrinking
from no labor, he navigated and forded rivers, penetrated thickets, and col-
lected treasures for his future cabinets, which amazed himself and his
enthusiastic and laborious companions, when they arrived at Cambridge.

The legislature again aided him. Oongress remitted the tariff on
the alcohol needed for the preservation of his stores. With lecturing,
writing, collecting, arranging, his active brain grew dizzy, his broad shoul-
ders. bowed, his firm step trembled. He must close his books; he must

leave his laboratory; he must not read; he must not think; he must take

himself away from all inquiries, and rest. I met him in his exile at
the White Mountains when he was convalescing. He greeted me with
his usual cheerful heartiness, and thanked me with his usual cordiality
when I expressed a confident expectation of seeing him soon in the mu-
seumatCambridge. But he never regained his former health. The work
-at the museum, however, went on under his general supervision. The
addition to the wing was completed, the shelves, the cases, the jars all
filled, and still the masses of his collections were hardly perceptibly
diminished.

He was again working too hard. Arrangements were made to allure
him from his tasks in Cambridge by holding out to him greater attrac-
tions. He was invited by Professor Pierce to make a voyage in a Coast
Survey vessel around Cape Horn to San Francisco; and her com-
mander was instructed to give him such opportunities as he desired
for dredging in deep water, and making inland excursions when possible.
Accompanied by his wife and his intimate scientific friend, Rev. Dr. Hill,
ex-president of Harvard University, and one or two others, he per-
formed the voyage with his usual success in the line of new discoveries
and abundant collections. Landing at San Francisco, he was welcomed
with an ovation worthy of the head of anation. Here his enthusiasm be-
came epidemic, and a scientific spirit was awakened which has resulted
in an endowment for its advancement of a million of dollars. He re-
turned to Cambridge much improved in health by his voyage, and gave

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 8967

himself again to the examination and arrangement of the great stores
ot his recent collection, with a devotion and enthusiasm which filled the
hearts of his friends with fear lest he should again break down. But
he could not refrain from living among his treasures, and directing the
orderly and scientific study of everything. And so perfectly was it
done, that in his last report he says, ‘The scientific officers of the
museum have so efficiently carried on the work that the past year has
proved beyond question that it is now so organized (vitalized as it
were with the spirit of thought and connected with work) that my
presence or absence is of little importance. It will keep on its course
without any new or repeated stimulus beyond the necessary appro-
priations for its maintenance.”

It would seem that there was now nothing left for him to do but to
fold the robes of half a century’s labors and honors around him and
watch the descending sun. No, rest was not for him. He would work
while his pulse beat, and he planned to open a free school at Nantucket
for the instruction of all who wished to avail themselves of its privi-
leges, in the investigation of livingobjects. Mr. Anderson, of New York,
heard of his purpose and generously presented him with the island
Penikese for the purpose. Agassiz unhesitatingly accepted the princely
offer; he could not let. the golden opportunity pass. His friends
were troubled. But his enthusiasm sustained his diseased frame and
earried it through the exhausting labors and excitements of the werk.
Sometimes his weakness conquered his resolution, and then he said, “TI
want rest; I am ready to go; I am tired!” Great soul! No wonder
thou wast tired! No wonder thou didst pine for rest! “ But,” he con-
tinues, “I will work while [ live. While I have strength I will labor;”
and he arranged courses of lectures and series of investigations, and an-
nounced that he desired to die with the harness all on, the dust on his
sandals, the word on his lip, the sketch on the blackboard, the object under
the glass. And his prayer was answered. His first article of a long
serieswas going through the press; tickets were sold for his lectures in
New Haven, New York, and Washington. He had just returned to his
home from his favorite laboratory in his museum, and—the curtain fell;
not thick and impenetrable, but thin and translucent; and for a few
days slight communications passed, and then all was still. Agassiz
was dead! Nay, not dead. He was translated to fields whose glory
and luxuriance will furnish opportunities of research which no gorgeous-
ness of tropical abundance can rival. Every living thing has lost a
friend, an interpreter; every student of nature a guide and inspirer.

Such is a glimpse of the gigantic labor which this devoted student per-
formed; such is a hint of the success which he achieved. It would be
difficult to tell which most kindled his enthusiasm, obtaining or impart-
ing knowledge. How his face shone, how his whole massive frame
trembled, when he discovered some new phenomenon! How his eyes
beamed when he narrated his discovery! I have heard him pour out the

208 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

stores of knowledge derived from new investigations before the
savants of this continent with the simplicity and self-forgetfulness with
which a child would pour its toys into yourlap; and I have heard him
talk with apparently equal interest before a company of farmers and
mechanics, whose knowledge of nature was almost infinitesimal. Yet he
was most exacting of his students, sometimes even to a discouraging
severity. He would say, ‘There is the subject, there are the tools; tell
me what you can learnaboutit.”. Perhaps the severity of his own methods
prevented his fully sympathizing always with the struggling, discouraged
student. But one thing is clear, those who survived the fiery ordeal are
among the foremost in their depareents everywhere; and if they carry
sears of their hard warfare, ney are not of shame but of honor. They
ar. all in front.

One of the most marked features of Agassiz’s mind was its tendency
to discover analogies, relations. Severe as was his scratiny of particu-
lars, marking the slightest variation from the typical form, things were
not independent and unrelated, but parts of one great whole. His gen-
eralizations were aS comprehensive as his examinations were minute.
He saw system, provision, adaptation, everywhere. He had so pene-
trated the divine purpose, he‘had become so imbued with the methods
and the forms of nature, that he could draw a whole from any part of
a figure, and predict the image of an inhabitant of an unexamined zone
or stratum. This ability, partly natural, partly acquired, enabled
Agassiz to perform marvels in discovery. <A solitary scale of a new
species of fish was found in the fossiliferous rocks of Scotland. As
no naturalist of the island could determine, and hence delineate, the
species of fish to which the scale belonged, it was sent to Agassiz,
then residing in his home in Switzerland, to see if he could con-
Struct the fish from the scale, giving its size, form, and probable
habits. He examined the seale; determined what the size and form
of the fish must have been; made a drawing of it; gave a full
description of its habits; and returned the scale with his monograph and
drawing to Scotland. Now it so happened that while Agassiz in his
study in the shadow of the Alps was constructing this fish from a single
scale, and describing its habits, a whole impression was found of a fish
of the same kind or species as that whose scale had been sent to him.
The Seotch naturalists were excited with intensest curiosity to learn
whether he, with a single scale, would be able to correctly draw and
describe the fish. What was theirmingled delight and astonishment on
opening his communication to find that he had so accurately figured and
described the fish that hardly a line of his drawing needed to be erased
or changed that it might conform to the original recently found.

Not only was his knowledge of the structure of fishes so perfect
as to enable him, froma single scale, to construct the whole fish, but his
knowledge of the period in which the different families and species of
tishes existed upon the earth was such, so accurate, so minute, that he

LOUIS AGASSIZ. 209

could predict the kind of fish whose remains would be found in any given
‘deposit or stratum should the discovery of any such fossil be made. A
remarkable instance of his sagacity in this respect is related of him when,
in early life, he visited England by invitation of the British Association
for the Promotion of Science, to attend the annual meeting of its most
eminent scholars. The students of the natural sciences in the island
determined to put his knowledge of comparative zoology to the
test, and to a crucial one. A fossil fish had very recently been found
in a rock which was so low in the series that it was not supposed that
any organic remains were deposited in it, and it had been classed with
the azoic rocks. Agassiz was not aware, of course, that any such dis-
covery hadbeen made. At oneof the sessions of the section in ichthy-
ology, one of the members, in the course of the discussion, asked him
what the structure and habits of the fish of that period would probably
be if any remains should ever be discovered in the rocks then de-
posited. Agassiz was silent for a moment, and then, after a few
suggestions in regard to the order observed in creation as known, he
stated in a few words what he believed the size and structure of the fish
would be, and, stepping to the blackboard, and taking the crayon, with a
few basty strokes he drew the form and general structure and appearance
of the fish of that age, should it, indeed, be discovered; the possible fish
which the harmony of nature would demand. Arter he had finished his
sketch and taken his seat, what was the mingled surprise and de-
light of the members of the section not im the secret, when one of
them stepped forward and removed a screen from the wall, revealing
the tablet on which was the fossil, of just such proportions, of just such
form, of just such structure as the one that Agassiz had drawn upon the
blackboard. To such an extent had this great scientist advanced in a
knowledge of the plan of God in nature.

He was eminently a religious and a devout man. He was ever
looking for the indications of thought and purpose in nature from
monad to mastodon. He studied nature as the work of an intelligent
mind, not of blind forces. The more he discovered of order, the more he
perceived of intellect. This vast display of animate and inanimate na-
ture was to him the result and perpetual expression of the divine thought,
areveiation of God. How Ihave seen his face glow as he described some
of the most striking of the evidences of intellectual action in nature! He
has been accused of weakness for yielding to such impressions, advaunc-
jig such opinions. It was his great glory not to esteem the thing above
the thought, the product above the producer. To see behind adapted
forms a purposing mind is not a weakness, but a necessity for every
comprehensive mind. The studies of Agassiz did not lead him into the
mire of materialism nor the deserts of pantheisim nor the dreary solitudes
of atheism, but to the sublime ideas of God and. immortality.

Yes; Agassiz was reverent. Said he to his class at Penikese, ‘‘ The

study of nature is direct intercourse with the highest mind. It is
48

210 LOUIS AGASSIZ.

unworthy an intelligent being to trifle with the works of the Creator. A
laboratory of natural history is a sanctwary, in which nothing improper
should be exhibited. I would tolerate improprieties in a church as soon
as in a scientific laboratory ” and in this spirit he did his work. May the
same pervade all the investigations of his pupils and compeers!

Behind ali his eminent attainments in science, Agassiz stood one of
nature’s noblemen, equally at ease in the presence of emperors and
peasants; he could speak a word that would charm a child or delight a
philosopher. He was too great to be distant from any one. Only little-
ness is distant, inaccessible. With what pitying sympathy would he listen
to the story of the perplexed and discouraged inquirer, and how his
words of instruction sent him away joyous as the morning!

Did he sometimes err? In the midst of bis million cares and crushing
burdens was he sometimes severe, merciless, if you please, in his exac-
tions? Remember that with all his marvelous attainments, and yet
more marvelous capacities to attain, he was still a man of like pas-
sions with us. But as aman he was such a one as we shall not soon
look on his like again. The memory of hours spent with him will be
evermore precious. The sweet tones of that musical voice will linger
long in many a hall and laboratory and heart.

Of the value of many of his theories it does not become me to speak.
They must be tried in the furnace of freest and fullest investigation.
But however many of them may be proved to be dross, enough, I doubt
not, will come out of the trial approved, to place him in the rank of
the great discoverers of the nineteenth century. And American secien-
tists will now with one consent proclaim that his instruction and enthu-
siasm have inspired and guided our students so that from his arrival on
these shores a new scientific era may be dated. And American theolo-
gians, those whose blind eyes do not need cleansing’in some Siloam, will
confess with grateful hearts their obligations to one who has opened to
them the great volume of nature, and taught them to read it reverently.
And finally, when over his grave, amid the fragrance and glories of
Mount Auburn, his monument is erected, let it be a column entwined
with wreaths and symbols of his life’s work, and on it there be inseribed,
“THE INTERPRETER OF NATURE, WHO LOOKED FROM NATURE UP
TO NATURE’S GOD.”

SKETCH OF THE LIFE AND LABORS OF PROF, JOHN TORREY,

OF

COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK, UNITED STATES ASSAYER, AND FOR
MANY YEARS AN ESTEEMED COLLABORATOR OF THE SMITHSONIAN IN-
STITUTION.

By Dr. ASA GRAY, OF HARVARD COLLEGE.*

John Torrey, M. D., LL. D., died at New York on the 10th of March,
1873,in the seventy-seventh yearof his age. Hehas long been the chief of
Ameriean botanists, and was at his death the oldest, with the exception
of the venerable ex-president of the American Academy, (Dr. Bigelow.)
who entered the botanical field several years earlier, but left it to gather
the highest honors and more lucrative rewards of the medical profession
about the time when Doctor Torrey determined to devote his life to
scientific pursuits.

The latter was of an old New England stock, being, it is thought, a
descendant of William Torrey, who emigrated from Combe St. Nicholas,
near Chard, in Somersetshire, and settled at Weymouth, Mass., about
the year 1640. i

His grandfather, John Torrey, with his son William, removed from
Boston to Montreal at the time of the enforcement of the ‘* Boston port
bill.” But neither of them was disposed to bea refugee; for the son,
then a lad of seventeen years, ran away from Canada to New York,
joined his uncle, Joseph Torrey, a major of one of the two light infantry
regiments of regulars (called Congress’s Own) which were raised in that
city; was made an ensign, and was in the rear-guard of his regiment
on the retreat to White Plains; served in it throughout the war with

* From the proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

+ Insome notes furnished by a member of the family, the descent is endeavored to
be traced through the eldest of the five sons who survived their parent, namely, Saniuel,
who came with him from England, became a minister of the Gospel, and had the un-
precedented honor of preaching three election-sermons (in 1674, 1683, and 1695) as
well as of having three times declined the presidency of Harvard College, (after Hoar,
after Oakes, and after Rogers.) Although educated at the college, he was not a oradu-
ate, because he left it in 1650, after three years’ residence, just when the term for the
A. B. degree was lengthened to four years. The tradition has it that, “at the prayer-
meetings of the students he was generally invited to make the concluding prayer,”
for which an obvious reason suggests itself, for “such was his devotion of spirit that,
after praying for two hours, the regret was that he did not continue longer.” Students
of the present day are probably less exacting.

The desire to claim a descent through so eminent a member of the family is natural.
But our late venerable associate, Mr. Savage, in his Dictionary of Early New England
Families, states that he could not ascertain that Samuel had any children.

Qh? LIFE AND LABORS OF PROF. JOHN TORREY.

honor, and until at the close he re-entered the city upon “ Evacuation
Day,” when he retired with the rank of captain. Moreover, the father
soon followed the son, and became quartermaster of the regiment.
Captain Torrey, in 1791, married Margaret Nichols, of New York.

The subject of this biographical notice was the second of the issue of
this marriage, and the oldest child who survived to manhood. He was
born in New York on the 15th of August, 1796. He received such
education only as the public schools of his native city then afforded,
and was also sent for a year to a school in Boston. When he was fif-
teen or sixteen years old, his father was appointed fiscal agent of the
state-prison at Greenwich, then a suburban village, to which the family
removed.

At this early age he chanced to attract the attention of Amos Eaton,
who soon afterward became a well-known pioneer of natural science,
and with whom it may be said that popular instruction in natural
history in this country began. He taught young Torrey the structure
of flowers and the rudiments of botany, and thus awakened a taste and
kindled a zeal which were extinguished only with his pupil’s life. This
fondness soon extended to mineralogy and chemistry, and probably
determined the choice of a profession. In the year 1815, Torrey began
the study of medicine in the office of the eminent Dr. Wright Post, and
in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, in which the then famous
Dr. Mitchell and Dr. Hosack were professprs of scientific repute, he
took his medical degree in 1818; opened an dffice in his native city; and
engaged in the practice of medicine with moderate success, turning the
while his abundant leisure to scientific pursuits, especially to botany.
In 1817, while yeé a medical student, he reported to the Lyceum of
Natural History—of which he was one of the founders—his Catalogue
of the Plants growing spontaneously within thirty miles of the city of
New York, which was published two years later; and he was already,
or very soon after, in correspondence with Kurt, Sprengel, and Sir James
Edward Smith abroad, as wellas with Elliott, Nuttall, Schweinitz, and
other American botanists. Two mineralogical articles were contributed
by him to the very first volume of the American Journal of Science and
Arts, (1818~'19,) and several others appeared a few years later in this
and in other journals.

Eliiott’s sketch of the botany of South Carolina and Georgia was at
this time in course of publication, and Dr. Torrey planned a counter-
part systematic work upon the botany of the Northern States. The
result of this was his “ Flora of the Northern and Middle Sections of
the United States, i. ¢., North of Virginia,” which was issued in parts,
and the first volume concluded in the summer of 1824, In this work
Dr. Torrey first developed his remarkable aptitude for descriptive botany,
and for the kind of investigation and discrimination, the tact and acumen,
which it calls for, Only those few—now, alas! very few-—surviving
botanists who used this book through the following years can at all

LIFE AND LABORS OF PROF. JOHN TORREY. PES

‘ appreciate its value and influence. It was the fruit of those few but
precious years which, seasoned with pecuniary privation, are in this
country not rarely voucbsafed to an investigator, in which to prove his
quality before he is haply overwhelmed with professional or professorial
labors and duties.

In 1824, the year in which the first volume (or nearly half) of his Flora
was published, he married Miss Eliza Robinson Shaw, of New York, and
was established at West Point, having been chosen professor of chem-
istry, mineralogy, and geology in the United States Military Academy.
Three years later he exchanged this chair for that of chemistry and
botany (practically that of chemistry only, for botany had already been
allowed to fall out of the medical curriculum in this country) in the Col-
lege of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, then in Barclay street.
The Flora of the Northern States was never carried further, although
a “Compendium,” a pocket-volume for the field, containing brief char-
acters of the species which were to have been described in the second
volume, along with an abridgment of the contents of the first, was
issued in 1826.. Moreover, long before Dr. Torrey could find time to go
on with the work, he foresaw that the natural system was not. much
longer to remain, here and in England, an esoteric doctrine, confined
to profound botanists, but was destined to come into general use, and to
ehange the character of botanical instruction. He was himself the first
to apply it in this country in any considerable publication.

The opportunity for this, and for extending his investigations to the
Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains on their western boundary, was
furnished by the collections placed in Dr. Torrey’s hands by Dr. Edwin
James, the botanist of Major Long’s expedition in 1820. This expedi-
tion skirted the Rocky Mountains belonging to what is now called
Colorado Territory, where Dr. James, first and alone, reached the charm-
ing alpine vegetation, scaling one of the very highest summits, which
from that time and for many years afterward was appropriately named
James’s Peak; although it is now called Pike’s Peak, in honor of Gen-
eral Pike, who long before had probably seen but had not reached it.

As early as the year 1823, Dr. Torrey communicated to the Lyceum
of Natural History descriptions of some new species of James’s collection,
and in 1826an extended account of all the plants collected, arranged under
the natural orders. This is the earliest treatise of the sort in this country,
arranged upon the natural system ; and with it begins the history of the
botany of the Rocky Mountains, if we except a few plants collected early
in the century by Lewis and Clark, where they crossed them many de-
grees farther north, and which are recorded in Pursh’s Flora. The next
step in the direction he was aiming was made in the year 1831, when he
superintended an American reprint of the first edition of Lindley’s In-
troduction to the Natural System of Botany, and appended a catalogue
~ of the North American genera arranged according to it.

Dr. Torrey took an early and prominent part in the investigation of

214 LIFE AND LABORS OF PROF. JOHN TORREY.

the United States species of the vast genus Carex, which has ever since
been a favorite study in this country. His friend, Von Schweinitz, of
Bethlehem, Pa., placed in his hands and desired him to edit, during
the author’s absence in Hurope, his monograph of North American
Carices. It was published in the Annals of the New York Lyceum, in
1825, much extended, indeed almost wholly rewritten, and so much to
Schweinitz’s satisfaction that he insisted that this classical monograph
‘should be considered and quoted in all respects as the joint production
of Dr. Torrey and himself.” Ten or eleven years later, in the succeed-
ing volume of the Annals of the New York Lyceum, appeared Dr. Tor-
rey’s elaborate monograph of the other North American Cyperacezx,
with an appended revision of the Carices, which meanwhile had been
immensely increased by the collections of Richardson, Drummond, &c.,
in British and Arctic America. <A full set of these was consigned to his
hands for study (along with other important collections) by his friend,
Sir William Hooker, upon the occasion of a visit which he made to Europe
in 1833. But Dr. Torrey generously turned over the Carices to the late
Professor Dewey, whose rival Caricography is scattered through forty
_or fifty volumes of the American Journal of Science and Arts; and se
had only to sum up the results in this regard, and add a few southern
species at the close of his own monograph of the order.

About this time, namely, in the year 1836, upon the organization of a
geological survey of the State of New York upon an extensive plan, Dr.
Torrey was appointed botanist, and was required to prepare a flora of
the State. A laborious undertaking it proved to be, involving a heavy
sacrifice of time, and postponing the realization of long-cherished plans.
But in 1843, after much discouragement, the Flora of the State of New
York, the largest if by no means the most important of Dr. Torrey’s
works, was completed and published, in two large quarto volumes, with
one hundred and sixty-one plates. No other State of the Union has
produced a flora to compare with this. The only thing to be regretted
is that it interrupted, at a critical period, the prosecution of a far more
important work.

Karly in his career, Dr. Torrey had resolved to undertake a general
flora of North America, or at least of the United States, arranged upon
the natural system, and had asked Mr. Nuttall to join him, who, how-
ever, did not consent. At that time, when little was known of the
regions west of the valley of the Mississippi, the ground to be covered
and the materials at hand were of comparatively moderate compass ;
and in aid of the northern part of it, Sir William Hooker’s Flora of
. British America—founded upon the rich collections of the Arctic ex-
plorers, of the Hudson Bay Company’s intelligent officers, and of such
hardy and enterprising pioneers as Drummond and Douglas—was
already in progress. At the actual inception of the enterprise, the
botany of Eastern Texas was opened by Drummond’s collections, as
well as that of the coast of California by those of Douglas, and after-

LIFE AND LABORS OF PROF. JOHN TORREY. 215

ward those of Nuttall. As they clearly belonged to our own phyto-
geographical province, Texas and California were accordingly annexed
botanically before they became so politically.

While the field of botanical operations was thus enlarging, the time
which could be devoted to it was restricted. In addition to his chair in
the medical college, Dr. Torrey had felt obliged to accept a similar one
at Princeton College, and to all was now added, as we have seen, the
onerous post of State botanist. It was in the year 1836 or 1857 that
he invited the writer of this notice—then pursuing botanical studies
under his auspices and direction—to become his associate in the Flora
of North America. In July and in October, 1838, the first two parts,
making half of the first volume, were published. The great need of a
full study of the sources and originals of the earlier-published species
was now apparent; so, during the following year, his associate occupied
himself with this work in the principal herbaria of Europe. The re-
maining half of the first volume appeared in June, 1840. The first part
of the second volume followed in 1841; the second in the spring of 1842;
and in February, 1843, came the third and the last; for Dr. Torrey’s asso-
ciate was now also immersed in professorial duties and in the conse-
quent preparation of the works and collections which were necessary to
their prosecution.

From that time to the present the scientifie exploration of the vast
iterior of the continent has been actively carried on, and in consequence
new plants have poured in year by year in such numbers as to overtask
the powers of the few working botanists of the country, nearly all of
them weighted with professional engagements. The most they could do
has been to put collections into order in special reports, revise here and
there a family or a genus monographically, and incorporate new materials
into older parts of the fabric, or rough-hew them for portions of the edi-
fice yet to be constructed. In all this, Dr. Torrey took a prominent part
down almost to the last days of his life. Passing by various detached
and seattered articles upon curious new genera and the like, but not
forgetting three admirable papers published in the Smithsonian Con-
tributions to Knowledge, (Plante Premontiane, and those on Batis and
Darlingtonia,) there is a long series of important, and some of them very
extensive, contributions to the reports of Government explorations of
the western country, from that of Long’s expedition, already referred
to, in which he first developed his powers, through those of Nicollet,
Fremont, and Emory, Sitgreaves, Stansbury, and Marcy, and those con-
tained in the ampler volumes of the surveys for Pacific Railroad routes,
down to that of the Mexican boundary, the botany of which forms a
bulky quarto volume of muchinterest. Evenat the last, when he rallied
transiently from the fatal attack, he took in hand the manuseript of an
elaborate report on the plants collected along our Pacific coast in Ad-
miral Wilkes’s celebrated expedition, which he had prepared: fully a
dozen years ago, and which (except as to the plates) remains still un-

216 LIFE AND LABORS OF PROF. JOHN TORREY.

published through no fault of his. There would have been more toadd,
perhaps of equal importance, if Dr. Torrey had beenas ready to complete
and publish, as he was to investigate, annotate, and sketch. Through
undue diffidence and a constant desire for a greater perfection than was
at the time attainable, many interesting observations have from time
to time been anticipated by other botanists.

All this botanical work, it may be observed, has reference to the
flora of North America, in which, it was hoped, the diverse and sepa-
rate materials and component parts, which he and others had wrought
upon, might some day be brought together in a completed system of
American botany.

It remains to be seen whether his surviving associate of nearly forty
years will be able to complete the edifice. To do this will be to supply
the most pressing want of the science, and to raise the fittest monu-
ment to Dr. Torrey’s memory.

Inthe estimate of Dr. Torrey’s botanical work, it must not be forgotten
that it was nearly all done in the intervals of a busy professional life ;
that he was for more than thirty years an active and distinguished
teacher, mainly of chemistry, and in more than one institution at the
same time; that he devoted much time and remarkable skill and judg-
ment to the practical applications of chemistry, in which his counsels
were constantly sought and too generously given; that when, in 1857,
he exchanged a portion, and a few years later, the whole, of his profes-
sional duties for the office of United States assayer, these requisitions
upon his time became more numerous and: urgent.* In addition to the
ordinary duties of his office, which he fulfilled to the end with pune-
tilious faithfulness, (signing the last of his daily reports upon the very
day of his death, and quietly telling his son and assistant that he need
not bring him any more,) he was frequently requested by the head of
the Treasury Department to undertake the solution of difficult problems,
‘especially those relating to counterfeiting, or to take charge of some
delicate or confidential commission, the utmost reliance being placed
upon his skill, wisdom, and probity. |

In two instances these commissions were made personally gratifying,
not by pecuniary payment, which, beyond his simple expenses, he did
not receive, but by the opportunity they afforded to reerwit failing
health and to gather floral treasures. Wight years ago he was sent by
the Treasury Department to California by way of the Isthmus; lastsum-
mer he went again across the continent; and in both cases enjoyed the

~ Tt ought to be added that, when the Government assay-office at New York was
established, the Secretary of the Treasury selected Dr. Torrey to be its superintendent,
which would have given to the establishment the advantage of a scientific head.
But Dr. Torrey resolutely declined the less laborious and better paid pest, and tools in
preference one the emoluments of which were much below his worth and the valuable
extraneous services he rendered to the Government, simply because he was unwilling

to accept the care and responsibility of treasure. ‘

LIFE AND LABORS OF PROF. JOHN TORREY. Ane

rare pleasure of viewing in their native soil, and plucking with his own
hands, many a flower which he had himself named and described from
dried specimens in the herbarium, and in which he felt a kind of pater-
nal interest. Perhaps this interest culminated last summer, when he
stood on the flank of the lofty and beautiful snow-clad peak to which a
grateful former pupil and ardent explorer, ten years before, gave his
name, and gathered charming alpine plants which he had himself named
fifty years before, when the botany of the Colorado Rocky Mountains
was first opened. That age and fast-failing strength had not dimmed
his enjoyment may be inferred from his remark, when, on his return
from Florida the previous spring, with a grievous cough allayed, he was
rallied for having gone to seek Ponce de Leon’s Fountain of Youth.
“No,” said he, “give me the Fountain of Old Age. The longer I live
the more I enjoy life.” He evidently did so. If never robust, he was
rarely ill, and his last sickness brought little suffering and no diminution
of his characteristic cheerfulness. To him, indeed, never came the ‘“ evil
days” of which he could say, ‘ I have no pleasure in them.”

Evineing in age much of the ardor and all of the ingenuousness of
youth, he enjoyed the society of young men and students, and was help-
ful to them long after he ceased to teach, if, indeed, he ever did cease;
for, as Emeritus Professor in Columbia College, (with which his old
medical schovl was united,) he not only opened his herbarium, but gave
some lectures almost every year, and as a trustee of the college for many
years he rendered faithful and important service. His large and truly’
invaluable herbarium, along with a cheice botanical library, he several
years ago made over to Columbia College, which charges itself with it8
safe preservation and maintenance.

Dr. Torrey leaves three daughters, a son, who Has been appointed
United States assayer in his father’s place, and a grandson.

This sketch of Dr. Torrey’s public life and works, which it is our main
duty toexhibit, would fall short of its object if it did not convey, however .
briefly and incidentally, some just idea of what manner of man he was.
That he was earnest, indefatigable, and able, itis needless to say. His
gifts as a teacher were largely proved, and are widely known through a
long generation of pupils. As an investigator, he was characterized by
ascrupulous accuracy, aremarkablefertility of mind, especially as shown
in devising ways and means of research, and perhaps by some excess of
caution.

Other biographers will doubtless dwell upon the more personal aspects
and characteristics of our distinguished and lamented associate. To
them, indeed, may fittingly be left the fall delineation and illustration
of the traits of a singularly transparent, genial, delicate and conscien-
tious, unselfish character, which beautified and fructified a most indus-
trious and useful life, and won the affection of all whe knew him. For
one thing, they cannot fail to notice his thorough love of truth for its
own sake, and his entire confidence that the legitimate results cf sci-

~

218 LIFE AND LABORS OF PROF. JOHN TORREY.

entific inquiry would never be inimical to the Christian religion, which
he held with an untroubled faitb, and illustrated most naturally and
unpretendingly in all his life and conversation. In this, as well as in
the simplicity of his character, he much resembled Faraday.

Dr. Torrey was an honorary or corresponding member of a goodly
number of the scientific societies of Europe, and was naturally connected
with all prominent institutions of the kind in this country. He was
chosen into the American Academy in the year 1841. He was one of the
corporate members of the National Academy at Washington. He pre-
sided in his turn over the American Association for the Advancement
of Science. He was twice, for considerable periods, president of the
New York Lyceum of Natural History, which was in those days one of
the foremost of our scientific societies. It has been said of him thatthe
sole distinetion on which he prided himself was his membership in the
Order of the Cincinnati, the only honor in this country which comes by
inheritance.

As to the customary testimonial which the botanist receives from his fel-
lows, it is fortunate that the first attempts were nugatory. Almost in his
youth a genus was dedicated to him by his correspondent Sprengel: this
proved to be a Clerodendron, misunderstood. A second, proposed by
Rafinesque, was founded on an artificial dismemberment of Cypreus.
The ground was clear, therefore, when, thirty or forty years ago, a new
and remarkable evergreen tree was discovered in our own Southern
States, which it was at once determined should bear Dr. Torrey’s name.
More recently a congener was found in the noble forests of California.

nother species had already been recognized in Japan, and lately a fourth
inthe mountains of Northern China. Ali four of them have been intro-
duced, and are greatly prized as ornamental trees in Hurope ; so that, all
round the world, Torreya taxvifolia, Torreya Californica, Vorreya nuci-
fera, and Torreya grandis—as well as his own important contributions
to botany, of which they are a memorial—should keep our associate’s
memory as green as their own perpetual verdure.

A MEMORIAL OF GEORGE GIBBS,

By JOHN AUSTIN STEVENS, JR.

[The subject of the following memorial, George Gibbs, was for many years an active
collaborator of the Smithsonian Institution, especially in the line of ethnology. He
had charge of all the Indian vocabularies which had been collected by the Institution,
and was preparing them for publication at the time of his death. The valuable and
laborious service which he rendered to this Institution was entirely gratuitous, and in
his death this establishment as well as the cause of science lost an ardent friend
and important contributor to its advancement. ‘The following tribute to his memory,
by John A. Stevens, jr., read before the New York Historical Society, October 7, 1873,
finds a proper place for republication in the annual report of this institution to which
he rendered such signal service.—J. H.]

George Gibbs, so long familiar to the members of this society as its
unwavering and faithful friend, and for many years its librarian and cus-
todian, has passed from the scenes of his busy and useful life to that
sphere in which all histories of this finite existence find their sum and
complement.

The son of Col. George Gibbs, of the Newport, R. 1, family of that
name, and of Laura Wolcott, he was born on the 17th July, 1815, at
Sanswick, Long Island, near the village of Hallett?’s Cove, now known
as Astoria. His father was a man of singular culture and talent. Brill-
lant in conversation, polished in manners, and of large and various
experience of men and life, Colonel Gibbs was one of the marked men
of his day, and his large mansion at Sunswick was the seat of a broad
and elegant hospitality rarely to be met with in this country at that time.
As an instance of the extent of this hospitality, it may be stated that
during the cholera-summer of 1832 several families found refuge here
and at the lodge during the whole time of the pestilence. The beauti-
ful mansion, with its front upon the Hast River at one of its most
picturesque points, and its rear opening wpon a broad inward landscape
of fertile farm-fields, was then one of the landmarks of the river. And its
stone descent from the terrace to the shore still marks the old house,
which is now occupied as the Convent of the Sacred Heart. In Colonel
Gibbs’s day, fine horses and dogs were always to be found about a gen-
tleman’s residence. Passionately fond of tield-sports, he was constantly
at the south side of Long Island, where deer and small game were then
the certain reward of the day’s hunt, and his son was often his compan-
ion. For access to the city, he had for years a small yacht, which he
styled the Laura. His gardens were celebrated for the character and
abundance of their splendid crops. ‘To these, as to all that he touched,

220 MEMORIAL OF GEORGE GIBBS.

Colonel Gibbs brought the resources of his weli-stored mind. Within
was his fine library, abounding in the works of the best authors, and
in many tongues; added to this, a mineralogical collection. It may be
here mentioned that the extensive and valuable collection now in the
possession of Yale College was made by Colonel Gibbs himself while
abroad. These incidents in the life of the father are alluded to here as
having a direct bearing upon the career of the son.

The mother of George Gibbs was Laura Wolcott, daughter of
Oliver Wolcott, the Secretary of the Treasury under Washington
and the elder Adams, one of the fathers of the country. It is not
needful in this city, where her true, brave character, her well-stored
and independent mind are still fresh in remembrance, to dwell upon the
influence of such training upon her rising family. The original purpose |
of Colonel Gibbs was to give his son a West Point education and to fit
him for an army career; this and the navy were at that time considered
as the only true occupations for the sons of gentlemen. Asa prelimin-
ary step he was sent to the Round Hill School, at Northampton, Mass.,
then kept by Mr. George Bancroft, the historian, and Mr. Cogswell, the
late learned and distinguished superintendent of the Astor Library.
At seventeen, it having been found impossible to secure for the youth an
appointment to the Military Academy—political favor then, as now,
being indispensable to success—he was taken to Europe by bis maiden
aunt, Miss Sarah Gibbs, and for two years enjoyed the advantage of
foreign travel, observation, and study, the influence of which upon his
education and character was never lost. Though the family were disap-
pointed in their wish to enter the eldest son as a military student, their
efforts were not relaxed; as the one grew beyond the age at which alone -
the candidate is eligible, the claim for an appointment was transferred
to the next son, and as persistently urged. Those who know the family
on both sides of the house know of the unwavering determination with
which they press to the point in view. The second son, in turn, was
compelled to give up his ambition, and entered Columbia College, to
take high rank as a scholar, and is now well known as the professor of
chemistry at Harvard College. Later, a third son, the late Maj. Gen.
Allred Gibbs, received the long-sought commission, and history has
already inscribed his gallant deeds on her imperishable scroll.

Gn his return from Europe, George Gibbs commenced the reading of
law, and in 1838 took his degree of bachelor of law at Harvard Univer-
sity. His first essay in literature was here made. In 1854, the very
year of his entrance, he published, at Cambridge, a work entitled ‘The
Judicial Chronicle, being a list of the judges of the courts of common
law and chancery in England and America, and of the contemporary
reports from the earliest period of the reports to the present time,” in
octavo. On his return to New York he entered the law-office of the
late Prescott Hall, and by degrees attacljyd himself to his profession
and engaged in such practice as he could obtain. With this agreeable

:

MEMORIAL OF GEORGE GIBBS. Doe

and genial gentleman he continued the most friendly and intimate
relations until his death. .A great part of his time, however, he passed
in the country. His early taste for an out-door life always clung to
him. Shooting and fishing were his favorite amusements, diversified
with a practical and useful attention to geology and natural history.
When the family removed to the city from Suuswick, in 1835, he had
already made and mounted with his own hands a large collection of
birds, and he had also gathered together a considerable mineralogical
cabinet. The latter he sent to New Haven, as a gift to be added to his
father’s collection. These early tastes mark the natural tendency of his
mind, and his whole career shows how strongly they were implanted in
his nature; how foreign to his general intellectual bias must have been
the plodding and confinement of the study of the law. Early he seems
to have made his election as between science and law, although the
crippled condition i which his father’s death left the family estates did
not allow of his deserting that profession which he had adopted and to
which he looked for his own support. Norcould he ever have contented
himself with the dry study of Blackstone and Chitty, or any other of
the law werthies. His taste for literature was too catholic for this, and
his intellectual rambles about his father’s library had opened too many
vistas of charming pasturage for him to stay his appetite with the dry
food of legal disquisition. He showed this taste even in the practice of
his profession. He gave himself up with hearty zeal to the historical
branch of conveyancing, and made valuable collections of titles and
abstracts in this department of law.

George Gibbs loved literature. He was familiar with all the good
old books which our fathers wire wont to read. He loved the strong
and Saxon language of the earlier day—of Latimer and Hall, of Swilt
and Sterne, of Bolingbroke and Shaftesbury. The cast of his mind
was puritanic in its stern hatred of new-fangled notions and new-fash-
ioned phrases. He loved with his grand sonorous voice to roll out the
verses of the old covenanter hymns or the paraphrases of the psalms
of Sir Philip Sydney, a “pure well of English undefiled.” He loved
politics also. Ardent in all that he engaged in, he soon found himself
occupied in a history of the times of Washington and Adams, and a
vindication of the policy of his grandfather as Secretary of the Treasury
and a member of the cabinet of John Adams. The hot teud between
the federalists and the republicans had not died out, and the young
polemic took up the “burning brand,” which in those days was indeed
passed on from sire to son as thoroughly as ever by Scottish partisan in
Scottish feud. To use his own words, Mr. Gibbs “ felt himself not only
the vindicator, but in some sort the avenger, of a by-gone party and a
buried race.” ;

This work occupied a great part of his time. He embraced in it the
correspondence of Oliver Wolcott, and it stands to-day as a text-book
of the history of the day—as an unquestioned authority upon the per-

229, MEMORIAL OF GEORGE GIBBS.

sonages and the politics of that stirring period. It is written in strong,
nervous style, with great clearness and simplicity. It is questionabie
whether at the time the publication of these volumes was of benent to |
the young lawyer. The law in those days was supposed to allow of no
divided suit for her favor, and literary lawyers received few briefs.
This publication, under the title of ‘The Memoirs of the Administration
of Washington and Adams, edited from the papers of Oliver Wolcott,
Secretary of the Treasury,” was printed in 1846, in two volumes octavo.

In 1848 an event occurred which strangely affected the minds of all
those restless spirits who chafed under the confinement of city life, and
yearned for the freedom of nature. Gold-fields were discovered in Cali-
fornia. The wonders of the fifteenth century were renewed in the very
current of our daily life, and a new El Dorado opened an inviting field
for adventurous character. Dissatisfied with the dull routine of a slug-
gish practice, and urged on by his unwearied taste for practical scientific
research, Mr. Gibbs took advantage of an occasion which the march of
the Mounted Rifles overland from Saint Louis to California afforded him,
and accompanied them to Oregon, where he established himself at Colum-
bia. |
Before he left New York he had taken a lively interest in politics, and
was an active member of the whig party. Not a man to remain quiet
when his feelings were aroused, he soon became prominent among men
of the whig opinion, and was a leader in the councils of the young
men’s committee. When Mr. Fillmore sueceeded to the Presidency of
the United States, Mr. Gibbs received, in 1854, the appointment of col-
lector of the port of Astoria, which he held during his administration.
Later he removed from Oregon to Waskington Territory, and settled
upon a ranch a few miles from Fort Steilacoom, at a small settlement
called by the same name. Here he had his headquarters for several
years, devoting bimself to the study of the Indian languages, and to the
collection of vocuwbularies and traditions of the northwestern tribes.
During a great part of the time he was attached to the United States
Government commission in laying the boundary as the geologist or
botanist of the expedition. Kach commission in turn sought eagerly for
the aid of his practical experience, his varied and extensive acquirements,
and the comfort of his brave, cheerful, genial nature. He was specially
attached as geologist to the survey of a railroad-route to the Pacific
under Major (afterward General) Stevens. His associates on this expe-
dition were Drs. George Suckley and J. G. Cooper as naturalists, to
whose reports Mr. Gibbs made large contributions.

In 1857 he was appointed to the northwest boundary survey, under Mr.
Archibald Campbell as commissioner, with General J. G. Parke as chief
engineer, and after the close of the survey prepared an elaborate report
on the geology and natural history of the country.

It must not be supposed that the life in Oregon in those days was a
life of ease or leisure—rather a rude struggle with nature for even exist-

MEMORIAL OF GEORGE GIBBS. 293

cs

ence—weeks and months in the cold and heat, amid snows and rain,
surrounded by the savage beasts of the forest, and exposed at times to.
the treacherous attacks of the wild Indian or the more dangerous whites,
who, breaking loose from their frail attachment to society, spread over
the Territories, and returned practically to the original state of man. Yet
with all this there was a charm which none who have experienced it
have ever forgotten; not alone “the pleasure in the pathless woods,”
nor yet the “ society where none intrudes,” but that intimate relation of
man with man, of mind with mind, that fellowship, in the midst of
solitude and danger, of a body of cultivated and intellectual men, all
serving one common cause, and all impelled by one common impulse—
that cause the prosperity of their native country—that impulse the love
of science. He who has witnessed the meeting of those friends, most of
them of West Point education—Army men all—has not failed to note with
admiration—with which even regret mingled, that such was not his lot—
the affectionate relations which neither time nor distance, nor the natural
separation which life always brings, seemed sensibly to affect or weaken.

Many a one fell face to the foe in the dreadful struggle which brought
every man home from his distant post. One by one they drop away and
_ join the increasing column in that undiscovered country whose boun-
daries no human eye shall ever survey, and whose wonders no human
tongue shall ever tell, where the pale-face and the red-man shall meet
in brotherhood, and speak one common language. To the close of his
life Mr. Gibbs continued warm friendships contracted amid these wild
scenes. His intimacies were to a great extent with Army men, but his
friends were in all ranks of society. Few men had such a large acquaint-
ance as he, and few lived more loved and died more mourned. During his
whole life at the West he never failed to write once or twice a week to
his family. His letters are full of graphic description of life and nature,
and should be published. No better contribution could be made to the
history of the early days of these settlements.

In 1860, Mr. Gibbs returned to New York, not intending to remain per-
manently. Nature still whispered her tender song in his ear, and would
no doubt have charmed him to her bidding but for the outbreak of the
war. This brought with it other occupations and other duties. Too
uncertain in health for continuous service, and even then laboring under
the painful disease which finally brought him down, he threw himself,
with his strong character, his great perseverance, and his abundant
energy, into the service of the Union in another form. He was an early
and active member of the Loyal National League, which did so much
to crystallize public opinion in the second year of the war, and also of
the Loyal Publication Society, which distributed such masses of tracts
and healthy patriotic literature over the whole country. Of great per-
sonal bravery, he was always ready to expose life in defense of princi-
ple. In Washington, during the dark hours of March and April, 1861,
he took his musket and went upon duty to guard the Capitol at the

PA. MEMORIAL OF GEORGE GIBBS.

first sign of danger. And in the New York riots he sought the place
of greatest peril, and volunteered for the defense of the house of Gen-
eral Frémont, when a night attack was threatened. He was not a man
to ask another to do that which he was not ready to do himself.

Later he resided in Washington, and was mainly employed in the
‘Hudson Bay Claims Commission, to which he was secretary. He was
also engaged in the arrangement of a large mass of manuscript bearing
upon the ethnology and philology of the American Indians. His serv-
ices were availed of by the Smithsonian Institution to superintend its
labors in this field, and to his energv and complete knowledge of the
subject it greatly owes its success in this branch of service.

He published, some years since, a series of the vocabularies of the
Clammal, Lemini, and Chinook languages, and of the Chinook jar-
gon, besides other tracts of a similar kind; and at the time of his
death was engaged in superintending the printing for the Smithsonian
Institution of a quarto volume of American Indian vocabularies, and
had fortunately arranged and carefully criticised many hundred series
before his death. This publication will continue under the direction of
Prof. W. D. Whitney, J. H. Trumbull, LL. D., and Prof. Roehrig.
His large collection of papers on the Indian languages, of translations
of many and curious legends, all of incalculable value to science, has
been bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution, bis numerous maps
and charts to the Geographical Society, and such of his books as were
suitable for the purpose to this society.

In 1871 Mr. Gibbs married his cousin, Miss Mary Kane Gibbs, of
Newport, R. L, and removed to New Haven, where he died on the Sth
of April, 1873. Though a great sufferer at times from a chronic disease
of the most painful character, his last years were happy beyond the
common lot. His house was celebrated for its simple, unaffected hospi-
tality, and was the resort of a charming circle of refined and cultivated
people.

Yo whatever work Mr. Gibbs was engaged he devoted his whole heart
and every energy he possessed. ‘This historical society owes its present
prosperity as much to his aids as to those of any person. Its revival,
in 1840, was largely owing to his determined efforts; its librarian for
six years, from 1842 to 1848, and long a leading member of the execu-
tive committee and library committees, he never wearied in his efforts
to promote its prosperity. Its frequenters have not forgotten his hale
and hearty presence, his genial manner, his cheerful temper. Honest to
the requirement of the ancient philosopher, generous to a fault, though
in his varied life he had received but small aid from fortune, he was
one of the warmest-bearted, most charitable of men. Who will soon
forget his plain, outspoken, manly, and unvarunished speech, his indig-
nant denunciation of wrong, bis hatred of oppression? The edge of
his speech did not always carry the polish of the scimitar, but its blow
fell heavy as that of the battle-ax.

/

MEMORIAL OF GEORGE GIBBS. Ds

He was aman; truth was his element; no fraud or humbug throve
in his society. He was as bold to expose as he was quick to see through
false pretense. For this he was thought by some as uncompromising
beyond reason. He had no enemies. He bore no malice. His was not
a nature to see faults in others which were foreign to itself. His.
friendships were always warm; his antipathies were rarely personal.
His faults were all those of a large, generous nature, such as one may
look to find in the broad, deep-chested, short-statured man, whose large
play of vital functions keeps him forever harshly busy until the whole
machine breaks down in one crash.

How to speak of his domestic character! A more lovely nature never
breathed. Many an eye moistened as it met the mournful notice of his
death, Many a one felt that one of those true friends on whom abso-
lute, entire reliance might always be placed, had gone and left a void
there is no filling. One mourned him asa brother. Brotherless him-
self, he had been wont from early years to attach himself to this frank,
noble nature. The attachment of the child for the youth strengthened
into friendship as manhood found both on the same level, and through
long years of personal intimacy when together and of correspondence
when separated, that friendship remained unbroken by a word of
quarrel, unshadowed by a look of unkindness. The survivor may be
forgiven that, deprived by an ocean’s breadth from the fulfillment of the
last office of friendship to his more than kin, he pours out here an
offering of memory and affection to his silent shade.

*

1d 8

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE.

A discour se before the New York Academy of Medicine, with additions.
By JouHN C. Daron, M. D.

The anniversary meeting of the Academy of Medicine may be regarded
as a sort of annual conference, in which one of its members is deputed
to offer to the Academy a short address upon some topic of general pro-
fessional interest, and more or less appropriate to the time. Perhaps
we can hardly employ the occasion to-night in a more suitable way than
by endeavoring to see what, on the whole, is the direction in which
medical thought is now most active; to cast the professional horoscope,
so to speak, for the present, and to anticipate, as nearly as may be, what
we are to expect from it in the immediate future.

Not that we should be willing to claim the gift of prophecy or to place
too much confidence in delusive flights of the imagination. Medicine
is essentially a skeptical science, and very properly regards with dis-
approval anything which claims her attention without offering, at the
same time, unmistakable guarantees of respectability. But there may be
a kind of anticipation which is really a scientific one. Within the past
two or three years we have seen our own Meteorological Bureau triumph
over what was proverbially the most difficult of all popular puzzles, and
foretell the weather of each day with a certainty which has excited our
surprise and admiration. With telegraph-lines from all over the
continent converging to the central office at Washington, the chief
of the Bureau can trace, from hour to hour, the progress of a meteor-
ological change, moving, with uniform or agesleniet. speed, from Saint
Paul to Milwaukee, from Milwaukee to Detroit, from Detroit to Buf-
falo; and he knows that within a given period it will reach New York,
with almost as much certainty as though he stood on the top of a watch-
‘tower and saw it coming. Within such limits as these it may perhaps
be allowable sometimes to indulge in surmises, even in the strictest and |
most exacting of the natural sciences.

Is there anything in the aspect and condition of any part of medicine
to-day that looks like a change in the scientific barometer? Can we see
such a tendency in the medical mind at present as would suggest what
may fairly be called a new movement—in which successive ideas and
discoveries are not only accumulating as heretofore, but in which they
also seem to be taking, or about to take, a new interpretation; so as to

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. 227

give expression, in definite terms, to a doctrine which has heretofore had
only a vague and uncertain existence?

If there be any one direction in which progress is now so marked as
to constitute a dominant feature of the present state of medicine, and to
embrace a practically new medical idea, I should say it was that of the
origin and propagation of disease by independent organic germs. Perhaps
it would be wrong to say that this doctrine is even yet distinctly formu-
lated. Itis certainly far from being definitely established as a general
truth. Some very wild and reckless statements have been made in regard
to it by observers possessed of more zeal than knowledge; and some
elaborate but baseless theories relating to the specific development and
transformation of organic germs have been tried at the bar of scientific
investigation, and, being convicted of incompetency, have suffered ac-
cordingly the just penalty of extermination. Perhaps the doctrine
itself will also be finally abandoned. It may be that the evidence in its
favor, which is yet only partial, will hereafter lose its special signifi-
cance; and the appearances which now seem to sustain it may come to
be naturally explained in some other way. Still there can be no doubt
that the idea is at present entertained, and that it is by no means con-
fined to the minds of careless or irresponsible theorizers. So far, it ex-
ists in the form rather of a scientific instinct than of a positive belief’;
and its gray light hangs about the edge of the medical horizon like the
coming dawn of a new period.

Now, can this instinct of the medical mind be justified in any way ?
Are there any facts and discoveries, already established beyond the
possibility of doubt, which have naturally led it in this direction, and
which point, like the telegraphic reports of successive meteorological
stations, to a continuous and definite movement of scientific pathology?

I think it really began many years ago, in the early investigation of
parasitic diseases. Perhaps we can hardly include under this designa-
tion the effects produced by ordinary intestinal worms, like tenia or
ascaris, because the animal and parasitic nature of these worms was
perfectly palpable, and could not be mistaken by any one. But scabies
was on a different footing. It was a contagious, eruptive affection,
capable of spreading over a large portion of the body, and of giving the
patient great discomfort ; and, when it was found to be due simply to the
presence and propagation of a parasitic insect, the discovery was a
great achievement, and for the first time made it possible to have a dis-
tinct and rational comprehension of the origin of the disease, as well as
of its propagation and means of cure. A remarkable circumstance in
the history cf our knowledge in regard to Sarcoptes scabiei is, that its
discovery in the present century was in fact 2 rediscovery of something
which had been known centuries before and long forgotten; or, at least,
the method of finding the insect having been lost, the most eminent
dermatologists of forty years ago had never seen it, and were really in
doubt as to its existence. However, this uncertainty was terminated in

a

228 THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE.

1834, by the Corsican student Renucci, and the study of its structure
and development was afterward accomplished by Raspail and Bour-
guignon; so that our knowledge, both of the disease and its parasite,
was then placed upon a permanent footing.

Perhaps the most suggestive part of this discovery related to the
reproduction of the parasite, the manner in which the female lays her
eggs in galleries excavated in the skin, and the time required for the
hatching and dispersion of the young, because this showed a direct
connection between the local spread of the disease and the increase, by
ordinary sexual generation, of the young brood of the parasite. How-
ever, there was nothing very remarkable in the mode of this genera-
tion. The eges of the female were deposited and hatched in the usual

way, and the young sarcoptes came to resemble their parents after a
very short and regular period of development.

But ten or fifteen years later a discovery was made with regard to
some of the internal parasites which had a character of unexpected
peculiarity ; that was, the specific identity of two parasites formerly
supposed to be distinct, namely, cysticercus and tenia. These two
worms—so unlike in their size, their general configuration, and even in
the species of animal which they inhabit—were shown by the researches
of Siebold and Kiichenmeister to be only different stages of growth
of the same creature—one the encysted and quiescent, the other the
intestinal and reproductive form. The well-known experiments carried
on in this investigation showed furthermore the regular and natural
conversion of these two forms into each other; and thus we came fully
to understand that the existence of tape-worm in man was owing to his
having eaten measly pork containing cysticercus, and that the pig be-
came contaminated with cysticercus by devouring the eggs or the egg-
bearing articulations of Tenia solium. The knowledge of the alternation
of generations and of the migration of parasites from one habitat to
another at different periods of their development became in this way con-
nected with the pathology and mode of propagation of certain well-
known and perfectly distinct morbid affections.

But so far, perhaps, these morbid affections hardly deserved the name
of diseases. They were simply local disorders, due to the presence of a
parasitic intruder in the substance of the skin or in the cavity of the
intestinal canal. It was another thing to learn, some years later, that
a microscopic parasite might diffuse itself generally throughout the
system, and thus give rise to a rapid and fatal train of symptoms hardly
distinguishable from those of any febrile constitutional disease. No
doubt cases of infection by Trichina spiralis have always occurred as
frequently as they do now. But previous to the year 1850 the milder
ones in all probability were supposed to be rheumatic in their origi,
while the fatal cases passed for fevers of a typhoid character. ‘There
were even epidemics of the trichinous affection, as there are of typhoid
fever and influenza; and, when the true character of the disease be-

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. 229

came known, it was perfectly evident how these epidemics originated |
and exactly how far they might extend. Hach one was commenced by
the slaughter and preparation for food of a trichinous pig; and the pa-
tients affected were precisely those who had introduced into their sys-
tems ever so small a portion of the infectious food.

In this instance, also, there was found to be an unexpected relation be-
tween two different forms of the same parasite. Trichina spiralis had
been known since 1830; but it had yet been seen only in its quiescent,
encysted form, embedded in the muscular tissue, without movement or
reproduction. Consequently, though we were familiar with the worm
itself, we knew nothing of the disease produced by it. Its new growth
and active reproduction in the intestinal canal, the swarming emigra-
tion of its innumerable progeny, and the constitutional symptoms which
followed, were a new revelation, and showed that the whole system, as
well as a particular organ or tissue, might suffer from the effects of para-
sitic contamination.

In all the affections which have now been enumerated, the parasite is
one of an animal nature, with regular generative apparatus and active
sexual reproduction. But the last thirty years have seen avery remark-
able advance also in our knowledge of the vegetable parasites. This has
naturally coincided with a similar activity among scientific botanists
in the study of the simplerforms of vegetation, the cryptogamic plants in
general, and particularly ofthe microscopic fungi and alge. A little over
a half a century ago the species of flowering plants described by bota-

nists were much more numerous than the cryptogams; but now the preo-

portions of the two classes are reversed. In 1818, according to Mr.
Cooke,* an eminent British botanist, “less than eighty of the more mi-
nute species of fungi, but few of which deserved the name of micro-
scopic, were supposed to contain all then known of these wonderful
organisms. Since that period microscopes have become very different
instruments ; and one result has been the increase of the 564 species of
British fungi to 2,479. By far the greater number of the species thus
added depend for their specific characters upon microscopical exam-
ination. At the present time the number of British species of flowering
plants searcely exceeds three-fourths of the number of fungi alone, not
to mention ferns, mosses, algze, and lichens.”

A large proportion of these microscopic plants are parasitic upon other
organisms; and for the earliest study of them, as connected with dis-
ease in the human subject, we are indebted to the dermatologists.

The first discovery of parasitic vegetation in cutaneous affections was
by Schénlein, in 1839,t who found, in the crust of favus, eryptogamic vege-
table filaments ramifying in the diseased growth. In 1841 Gruby made
a, similar observation,{ and described accurately both the mycelium fila-

* “Introduction to the Study of Microscopie Fungi,” London, 1870, p. 45.
t Muller’s Archiv for 1839; cited in Robin’s “ Végétaux parasites,” Paris, 1853, p. 477.
| “Comptes Rendus de Académie des Sciences,” 1841, tome xiii, pp, 72, 309.

230 THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE.

ments and the spores. He asserted them to be always present in cases
of favus, and declared that the malady itself was essentially “nothing
but a vegetation.” The parasite thus described proved to be the same
with that previously seen by Schénlein, and it was at last definitely
known by the name of Achorion Schonleimii.

Gruby continued his examinations, and in 1844 discovered a micro-
scopic vegetation growing upon the skin, in a case of Porrigo decalvans ;*
and the same parasite, the Trichophyton tonsurans, has since been recog-
nized as a constant accompaniment of Tinea sycosis and Tinea circinnata.

Finally, Microsporon furfur was discovered by Hichstedt, in 1846,} as
a parasitic vegetation in Tinea versicolor ; so that within seven or eight
years three distinct microscopic fungi were discovered and recognized as
occurring in diseased conditions of the human skin.

Now, the first question which naturally came up in relation to the dis-
covery was this: Is the microscopic fungus the cause of the disease, or
is the disease the cause of the fungus? Hither of these two suppositions
might be the true one. In the first place, the fungus, by its accidental
presence and growth in the skin, might excite all the irritation and mor-
bid discharges characteristic of the malady. On the other hand, its
presence might be altogether secondary, and a result of the morbid ac-
tion instead of itscause. Hvery vegetable requires a soil suited to its
erowth. The fungus-germs might be ineapable of fastening themselves
upon the healthy skin, but might readily flourish in the decomposing
mixture of inflammatory exudations. This question, in the earlier
stages of the investigation, presented a real difficulty. Henle, in 1840,
believed that Achorion Schénleinii was merely an incidental formation in
the crust of favus, while Remak and others regarded it as the cause and
essential element of the disease.

Now, how was this difficulty to be settled? If Tinea tonsurans is
always accompanied by trichophyton, and if trichophyton is never found
upon the skin except in some form of tinea, how can we tell which of
these two is the cause and which the consequence of the other?

The test of this is twofold: 1. Inoculation of the parasite and repro-
duction of the disease; 2. Destruction of the parasite and cure of the
disease.

Both of these tests have been successfully carried out. The inocula-
tion of Achorion Schonlenii was accomplished by Remak,f in 1840, and
subsequently by Bennett,§ Hebra, Vogel, Bazin,|| Koébner and Deffis;
that of Trichophyton by Deffis] and Kébner;** and, finally, that of

* “Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences,” tome xviii, p. 583.
t Cited in Robin’s “ Végétaux parasites,” Paris, 1853, p. 438.

¢ Cited in Robin; “Végétaux Parasites,” Paris, 1853, p. 477.

§ “Principles and Practice of Medicine,” New York, 1867, p. 850.

|| “Affections cutanées parasites,” Paris, 1858, p. 56.

| Bazin, ‘“Affections cutanées parasites,” p. 147.
** Schmnidt’s “Jahrbiicher,” exxvi, p. 260.

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. Dauk

Microsporon, by Kobner,* in 1864. The fun gus-spores, transplanted upon
the skin of other individuals, or upon other parts of the skin of the
patient, after a certain interval germinate and multiply, and so create a
secondary focus of the disease. The contagious character of the malady
is thus seen to depend, not upon a virus, in the old sense of the word,
but upon the actual communication of reproductive germs, which give
origin in their new location to a vegetative growth similar to the old.
The vegetable growth, therefore, precedes the disease, and must be
regarded as its cause rather than its consequence.

The actual transportation of these germs through the air is also a
matter of demonstration. Lemairet placed glass jars filled with ice in a
shallow basin, so that the condensed moisture of the atmosphere, depos-
ited upon the cold sides of the glass, might trickle down and collect in
the basin below. He then applied friction to the head of a boy with
favus, near by, and found that the spores of achorion were floated by
the air-currents for a distance of twenty inches into contact with the
jars; and then, being entangled by the condensed moisture, were carried
down into the basin. He sometimes found as many as thirty spores in
a single drop of condensed moisture.

The second part of the test is equally well established. I presume
that dermatologists are now fully agreed that, for all cutaneous afiections
known to be characterized by the presence of a microscopic fungus, the
one essential element of cure is the application of some parasiticide which
shall destroy the vitality of thefungus. Iodine, sulphurous acid, or mer-
curial bichloride, by killing the vegetable, as sulphur-ointment kiils the
animal parasite of scabies, in simpler cases absolutely puts an end to the
disorder, and in the more complicated ones leaves behind only secondary
symptoms, which have no longer any specific or contagious character.
Of course there are various points relating to these affections which are
still more or lessin doubt. Some microscopic cutaneous fungi have been
described as distinct species, which have not received general recogni-
tion, and some observers are disposed to question whether the three
principal ones may not all be simple varieties or forms of development
of the same plant.

But there are similar points of difference still existing among scientific
botanists with regard to microscopic fungi in general; and I believe that
the three principal facts of (1) specific parasitic vegetation as a cause of
cutaneous disease; (2) 1ts propagation by the transport and germination
of spores; and (3) its treatment and cure by parasiticide applications,
may now be regarded as wholly beyond a reasonable doubt.

[have already alluded to the remarkable activity of botanical research
of late years in the department of cryptogamic vegetation. The most
striking results have been attained by these investigations, in increased
knowledge of the modes of development and reproduction of these organ-

* Cited in Neumann’s “Handbook of Skin-Diseases,” translated byDr. L. D. Bulkley,

New York, 1872, p. 434. -
t “Comptes Rendus de VAcadémie des Sciences,” 1864, tome lix, p. 127.

Dave, THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. *°

isms. The phenomena of the so-called alternation of generations and of
migration from one habitat or locality to another, are by no means con-
fined toanimal parasites. Onthe contrary, the most remarkable instances
of both are to be found in cryptogamic vegetables. Fungi formerly
regarded as distinct species, and even as belonging to different genera-
are seen to be suecessive forms of the same plant, following each other
in definite order through the regular cycle of their annual reproduction.

The three fungi, known as Trichobasis, Puccinia, and Aicidium, appear
in succession, as different members of the same specific generation, upon
the cereal grains in summer and in autumn, and upon the barberry in
the spring; while corresponding differences are to be seen in their spores
and mode of germination at these different epochs.

It would perhaps be difficult to imagine a scientific pursuit less likely
to produce anything of value for practical medicine than the study of
microscopic fungi growing as parasites upon other vegetables. And
yet, if it should finally turn out that these minute researches are prelim-
inary to the discovery of a means for preventing or controlling an epi-
demic of scarlatina, we can say with truth that such a result would not
be more remarkable than many which have actually followed from purely
scientific investigations in chemistry and physics.

At all events, it is certain that these botanical discoveries have had
an important influence in directing medical research in the path which it
is now following. It could hardly be otherwise, from the moment they
were found to have a direct connection with certain epidemic diseases
in the vegetable world, some of which are of great practical conse-
quence to us as affecting the annual supply of food.

Let me remind you of the history of our knowledge in regard to the
disease known as the potato-rot.

This disease first made its appearance, so far as we know, about
thirty years ago. The most destructive season of that epidemic in this
country was was in 1844.* Previously to that time, the annual crop of
potatoes in the United States amounted to over one hundred million
bushels ; but, in consequence of the blight, it was reduced in some parts
of the country to one-half or even to one-quarter of the ordinary yield.

In 1845, it showed itself in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and spread
with great rapidity. This is the account of it given by Mr. Cooke,t one
of the highest authorities on that subject:

“It first appeared in the Isle of Wight, in the middle of August; a
week afterward it had become general in the south of England, and at
the end of a fortnight there were but few sound samples of potatoes in
the London market. The course of the disease was this: in the month
of July or August the leaves of the vines would be suddenly seen to be
marked with black spots. They then began to wither, and give off an

* American Quarterly Journal of Agriculture and Science, January, 1845.
t “ Patent-Office Reports, Department of Agriculture,” 1856.
¢ “Introduction to the Study of Microscopic Fungi,” London, 1870, pp. 144, 146.

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. 230

offensive odor, and the disease spread so rapidly that the whole vine
would be blighted in a few days, and a field, which had before been cov-
ered with a luxuriant growth, at the end of a fortnight was merely a
scene of desolation, and looked as if it had been struck by a severe frost.
Tf the potatoes were immediately dug out of the ground, many of them
were found already partially decayed, or touched with brownish and soit-
ened spots.”

The disease broke out again in 1854 and 1855, and was destructive in
the State of New York, in Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Ohio, Illinois,
and at various other points ;* and about 1865, or ten years later, it made
its appearance for a third time. Iam told by an old and experienced
farmer of Washington County, New York, that in 1864 and in 1865 the
potato-crop in that region was practically destroyed ; so that often in a

_twenty-acre field there would not be a single good potato. Potatoes
were usually to be had at that place for seventy-five cents per bushel,
but in those years they were in some cases sold at eight dollars per
bushel, for farmers’ consumption.

This destructive malady was at last found to be due to the ravages of
a microscopic fungus, called, from its mode of fructification and its in-
jurious effects, the Peronospora infestans. |

The fungus has a mycelium of fine, cylindrical, ramifying tubes. Its
fructifying part consists of filaments which stand up vertically from the
mycelium, dividing at the end into four or five branches, and each branch
bears upon it several successive swellings, making a kind of sausage-
like chain, whence its name of “ Peronospora.” At the end of each
chain there is a complete oval spore, and the spore, when ripe, detaches
itself and germinates, to produce again a new mycelium.

When the Peronospora is placed in contact with the leaves of a potato
vine, its filaments penetrate into and through -the epidermie cells, and
so reach the intercellular tissue of the leaf and stem; and there they con-
tinue to grow, producing a rapid withering and blight. When the parasite
has attained a certain growth, it begins to fructify. Its upright fila-
ments burst through the pores of the leaves, and are crowned with
the characteristic chain of spores. Each spore, when ripe, if supplied
with moisture, produces six or seven secondary zoospores, armed with
long vibrating cilia, and capable of a rapid spontaneous motion. After
moving about for a short time, the zoospore becomes quiescent, throws
out an elongated filament, and germinates afresh. 3

It is no doubt in this way that the germ of the parasite reaches the
tuber of the potato at the root of the vine. For if sound potatoes be
placed in the ground, and the surface of the soil be sprinkled with the
spores of Peronospora, and then watered from time to time, the potatoes
are found to be infested with the disease in about ten days.t

* “Patent-Office Reports, Department of Agriculture,” 1856; “ Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture,” 1856.
t Robin, “Traité du Microscope,” Paris, 1871, p. 967.

234: THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE.

So the fructification of the fungus naturally takes place upon the sur-
face of the leaves of the potato-vine. The spores fall off, are carried by
the rain into and through the soil, and so reach the potatoes beneath.
Next year, when the infected potato-eyes are planted, germination begins
again, the mycelium filaments grow upward through the stem and leaves,
and in July or August fructification appears on the exterior as before.

This species affords a good example of the extreme fecundity of the
parasitic fungi. It has been estimated that, on the under surface of a’
potato-leaf, one square line is capable of producing over three thousand
spores. Each spore supplies at least six zoospores; so that from one
square line we may have nearly twenty thousand reproductive bodies, —
each capable of originating a new mycelium ; and a square inch of sur-
face may yield nearly three million such bodies.

The mycelium filaments can penetrate the cellular tissue of a leaf in
twelve hours, and, when established there, may grow and bear fruit in
eighteen hours longer, while the spores are perfected and ready to ger-
minate in twenty-four hours after they have been detached and placed in
water. This fully explains the rapidity with which the disease is known
to spread.

The subject of internal vegetable parasites is of the greater impor-
tance, because we now know that they may attack animals as well as
plants. The best illustration of these affections is perhaps the disease
which, under the name of pebrine, has been so destructive to the silk-
worm in Franee. Hight or ten years ago its effects were so serious that,
in 1865, the annual production of silk in that country was reduced to
less than one-sixth of its former average, and the loss in money-value
for that year alone amounted to twenty million dollars.* It was due
entirely to the influence of a microscopic vegetation, which destroyed
the silk-worm, and was readily communicated to the neighboring broods.

It is plain, therefore, that the study of parasitic diseases, for many
years, has been increasing in development and becoming of greater im-
portance in general pathology. From being confined, as at first, to a
few cases of local disorder, it has now come to embrace a great variety
of morbid affections. It has demonstrated the close connection existing
between animal and vegetable pathology, and it has shown that severe
and even fatal constitutional disorders of the animal frame may result
from the internal growth of microscopic parasites of a vegetable nature.
And these facts have been ascertained by patient microscopic inves-
tigation, and laborious experiment on the development of eggs and spores,
and the phenomena of infection and contagion. It cannot be denied
that the results, so far, are genuine.

We now come to a part of the subject which may seem to be less
directly connected with medical doctrines ; and yet it is one which, if it
really havea bearing on pathology, gives to the whole question a char-
acter of still greater importance. Thatis, the true nature of the process.
of fermentation.

* Tyndall, “Fragments of Science,” New York, 1872, p. 288.

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. 235

The more essential phenomena of fermentation have been known from
time immemorial. If we add to asolution of sugar, or to any clear veg-
etable-juice containing sugar, a small portion of yeast, and keep the
mixture in a moderately warm place, after a few hours of apparent inac-
tivity, certain remarkable changes take placein it: 1. The liquid becomes
uniformly turbid. 2. It is more or less agitated by minute bubbles of
gas, which are generated in its interior, rise to the surface, and escape
there. 3. The sugar gradually disappears from the solution, and alco-
hol takes its place. 4. When all the sugarhas been thus consumed, the
gas-bubbles cease to rise, the liquid again becomes clear and quiescent,
its turbid contents being slowly deposited in a whitish layer at the bot-
tom; and, 5. This deposit is found to be itself a layer of yeast, often
much greater in quantity than that originally added, and capable of
exciting the same kind of fermentation in another saccharine liquid.

Besides this, chemical investigation has shown that the gas evolved
is carbonic acid, and that the weight of the sugar which disappears is
accounted for, within reasonable limits of accuracy, by that of the ear-
bonie acid and alcohol produced, with a little glycerine and succinic acid
formed at the same time. It is therefore a chemical transformation, in
which the elements of the sugar are separated from their combination,
- and re-arranged to form other non-nitrogenous compounds.

But it is a chemical change which will not take place spontaneously.
Tt requires the presence of yeast artificially added, or of a natural fer-
ment, present in the vegetable-juice. The theory of fermentation for-
merly in vogue was, thatthe nitrogenous matter in solution in the yeast
excited, by its own molecular changes, the decomposition of the sugar ;
taking by itself no direct part in the chemical phenomena, and neither
absorbing nor discharging any of the materials of the solution.

In enumerating these facts I do not always follow the exact chrono-
logical order in which they were discovered, nor do I wish to take up
your time in alluding to all the details and varieties of fermentation. It
will be sufficient for our present purpose to bear in mind simply the main
features of the process, namely, the addition of ferment to a saccha-
rine liquid, turbidity of the solution, decomposition of the sugar, appear-
ance of alcohol and carbonic acid, and, finally, reproduction of the
ferment.

Two hundred years ago Mr. Anthony Leeuwenhoeck was investigat-
ing all sorts of natural objects with his newly-constructed microscopes,
consisting each “ of a very small double convex glass, let into a socket
between two silver plates.” He examined the blood-globules, the ¢a-
pillary vessels, the spermatic corpuscles, the structure of wood, of hair,
of teeth; and with the same instruments he saw in yeast little glob-
ules collected into groups of three or four together.* But he had too
many other novelties, all attracting his attention together, to spend
much time on any one of them, and he did not learn the nature or spe-

* “Philosophical Transactions,” 1681, p. 507.

236 THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE.

cific characters of the globules of yeast; he only determined the bare
fact of their existence.

But in 1837 the French chemist Cagniard-Latour* examined the yeast-
globules with more care. He measured their size, and found them to be
at most,,0f an inch in diameter. He declared that they were of a
vegetable nature, and that they multiplied by the process of budding.
He called attention to the fact that during the fermentation of beer the
ferment increases in quantity, producing at the end of the process six
or seven times as much yeast as was introduced at the beginning; and
he first broached the idea that ‘it is probably by some effect of their
vegetation that the yeast-globules destroy the equilibrium of the ele-
ments of the sugar.”

The theory, however, was at that time premature, and it did not meet
with general acceptance. The existence of the yeast-plant, so far as
then known, was an isolated fact, confined to the single case of ferment-
ing beer. The opposite theory, of the catalytic action of an albuminous
liquid, was maintained by Liebig with all the force of his remarkable
genius, and was consequently almost universally adopted. The yeast-
plant was thought to be an incidental growth in the fermenting fluid,
and not to have any direct or important connection with the process
itself.

About fifteen years ago anew epoch was inaugurated in the history
of fermentation by the brilliant researches of Pasteur. The existence
and growth of a fungoid vegetation were now found not to be confined
to the single case of beer-yeast, but to be a general fact common to the
alcoholic fermentation of beer, wine, and bread, and also to a variety of
other kinds, such as the viscous, butyric, andacetic fermentations. The
fungus itself was industriously studied in its different genera and spe-
cies, with their specific modes of growth and reproduction, like those of
any other natural family of plants; so that the Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
or the yeast-fungus of beer, can now bedistinguished from the other spe-
cies of alcoholic ferments, as well as from the fungi of other kinds of
fermentation.

The different view thus introduced is most distinctly expressed by
Pasteur himself. “According to the old theory,” he says, ‘‘ fermenta-
tion is a process correlative with death, and depends on the decay of
albuminous matter; according to the new one, it is correlative with life,
that is, theactive growth and development of thefungous vegetation. * *
The yeast-globules are actual living vegetable cells, capable of producing
the transformation of sagar, just as the cells of the mammary gland in a
living animal transform the ingredients of the blood into the ingredients
of the milk.”

The discussions on this subject, which lasted for ten years, took a
very wide range, and especially became connected with the kindred
topic of “spontaneous generation.” The experiments of Pasteur and

* “ Annales de Chimie et de Physique,” 1838, tome lxviii, p. 216.

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. 237

others showed that the germs of the yeast-plant may be disseminated
by the atmosphere, and that the same precautions which exclude the in-
troduction of germs from without into a fermentable liquid also exclude
the process of fermentation itself; so that we can now accept with confi-
dence the double fact—1. That the growth and reproduction of the yeast-
fungus will take place only in a fermentable liquid ; and, 2. That such a
liquid will ferment only when the yeast-fungus is present and in a state
of active development.

The revolution in opinion on this point was so complete that, in regard
to the alcoholic fermentation at least, its essential results were finally
accepted by Liebig himself. In his last treatise on fermentation, pub-
lished in 1871, he says:* ‘There no longer remains any doubt as to the
‘nature of the ferment of beer and wine. It is a cryptogamic vegetation,
more or less fully developed * = * We may conclude that the
albuminous matters of the yeast take part in its action upon the sugar,
and it is evident that these albuminous matters acquire their property of
exciting fermentation by becoming an actual constituent of the yeast
itself.”

Consequently, the fermentation of a saccharine liquid is the result of
vegetative activity. We add to the liquid a few cells or spores of the
_ yeast-fungus. These grow and multiply, and the turbidity of the liquid
is due to their increase and dissemination. They decompose its sugar,
appropriate some of its elements, and leave as a result alcohol and car-
bonie acid. When all the sources of their nourishment are exhausted,
fermentation stops, and the liquid becomes clear, the yeast-cells subsid-
ing to the bottom. But the ferment has in the mean time been repro-
duced, like so much grain which has been sown, raised, and harvested ;
and alittle of the deposit left at the bottom of the vessel, if introduced
into another saccharine liquid, will in turn reproduce the process of fer-
mentation.

It isimpossible not to perceive a certain analogy between the general
phenomena of fermentation and those of contagious and infectious
diseases. The period of incubation which intervenes between the ex-
posure to a contagion and the appearance of the malady—the regular
course of the symptoms—their natural termination within a definite time,
and the evident reproduction of the contagious element—all these facts
were so many points of resemblance, which could not escape the atten-
tion of medical observers. The analogy, indeed, has long been recog-
nized in our nomenclature ; and the term zymotic diseases cannot mean
anything else than diseases depending upon some cause which acts after
the manner of a ferment. But this name was adopted only as a matter
of convenience, and was understood altogether in a symbolical sense.
Of late we have begun to suspect that after all it mel be simply the
expression of a literal fact.

A sunilar order of discoveries has recently been made with regard to

* “ Annales de Chimie et de Physique,” 1871, tome xxiii, pp. 9, 10.
ysique, ? » Pp. Y,

238 THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE.

putrefaction. This has a more immediate connection with pathology
than fermentation, because it is a change which takes place in animal
substances, while fermentation, at least in its simpler forms, relates
mainly to products of a vegetable origin.

Putrefaction was formerly regarded as the natural and inevitable de-
composition of dead animal matter when exposed to the oxygen of
the atmospheric air. But in reality something else is necessary. In
every putrefying liquid there are a growth and development of minute
living organisms. If we take a clear solution of any nitrogenized ani-
mal or vegetable matter and expose it to the air at a moderate tempera-
ture, after a short time it becomes turbid. This turbidity is the first
evidence of commencing putrefaction, and it is exactly analogous to the
turbidity of a saccharine liquid which is beginning to ferment. Micro-
scopic examination shows that it is due to the presence of innumerable
Bacterium-cells, =2)5 of an inch long, by zg4,, of an inch wide, moving
in every direction, and multiplying by a rapid process of subdivision.
As long as putrefaction goes on, so long the Bacteria multiply. When
it comes to an end the liquid becomes clear, and there is a quiescent
layer of Bacteria deposited upon the bottom. The least particle of this
layer added to another albuminous liquid will excite putrefaction in it,
and will produce a new development of Bacteriwm-cells, the quantity of
which is limited only by that of the albuminous matter which serves for
their nourishment and growth.

Now, Bacteria are the smallest and most obscure of living things
Their minute size alone is a sufficient obstacle, with our present micro-
scopes, to theircomplete and satisfactory study in all particulars. Never-
theless, some important facts have been established with regard to them.
In the first place, they are undoubtedly vegetable in their nature, and
consist of eells which multiply by division, not by budding. They
require for their growth a temperature between the limits of freezing
and boiling water. They consist of a protoplasmic matter, surrounded
by an envelope of vegetable cellulose. They live upon nitrogenized
and carbonaceous organic matters in solution, and, like other colorless
plants. absorb oxygen and exhale carbonic acid. They present a variety
of genera and species, which may be distinguished from each other with
some approach to accuracy ; and, of these, Bacteriwm termo is the most
constant and indispensable inhabitant of putrefying infusions.

As to the true relations between bacteria and putrefaction, almost the
same course of inquiry has been followed as in the case of the yeast-fungus
and fermentation. At first regarded simply as an incidental accompani-
ment of the process, they are now considered as its essential and imme-
diate cause. This view is distinetly stated by Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, to
whom we owe more definite information on the natural history and mi-
croscopic characters of Bacteria than to any other observer. Dr. Cohn
is a professed scientific and experimental botanist, and director of the
Institute of Vegetable Physiology at Breslau. He was the first to

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. 239

-establish, twenty years ago,* the vegetable nature and structural rela-
tions of Bacteria, and he has recently contributed largely to our knowl-
edge of their classification and general physiology.t According to him
the putrefaction of nitrogenous organic matters is neither a spontaneous
post-mortem decomposition, nor is it a simple oxidation under the influ-
ence of the atmosphere. ‘It is rather a chemical process caused by the
action of Bacterium termo. Just aS sugar is never converted sponta-
neously into alcohol and carbonic acid, and is brought into fermentation
only by the yeast-fungus, so nitrogenous organic matters never putrefy
of themselves, but only by means of the vital activity and multiplication
of Bacteria. * * * We may therefore,” he says, ‘‘ apply Pasteur’s doc-
trine also to the decomposition of animal matters, and may adopt as
true the seeming paradox that putrefaction is an incidental phenomenon,
not of death, but of vitality.”

~ The proof that living Bacteria are the cause of putrefaction, and not
merely its accompaniment, is that a putrescible liquid which has been
sufficiently boiled and received in a super-heated glass vessel may be
kept in contact with the atmosphere indefinitely without putrefaction,
provided the aceess of Bacteria be prevented by a plug of cotton-wool.
But, if the minutest portion of any liquid already infected with Bacteria
be added, putrefaction at once begins. Dr. Burdon-Sanderson, by a
Series of very important experiments in 1871, has established the fact,
which is also confirmed by the researches of Cohn,§ that contamination
by the germs of Bacteria takes place, as a general rule, not directly from
the atmosphere, but by means of water and unclean moist surfaces;
while, on the other hand, the germs of the mold-fungi, like penicilium
and mucor, are more or less constantly present in the air, and so readily
gain access to organic substances, even in a dry atmosphere. Conse-
quently, such substances, if properly protected against Bacteria, do not
putrety, but, on the other hand, may become covered with a mold-fungus-
Dr. Sanderson even cut out the muscular tissue of the thigh of a recently.
killed Guinea-pig, and hung it up under a bell-glass, using for this pur-
pose a knife and hooks which had just been subjected to the flame of a
Bunsen burner, but taking no other precautions; and for thirty-one
days, though the exposed tissues were overgrown with penicilium, there
was no development of Bacteria, and no evidence of putrefaction.

The natural history of Bacteria 1s especially connected with the ques-
tion of spontaneous generation, because they are the only class of organ-
isms now remaining in which reproduction by spores has not yet been
discovered, and because they appear so promptly and abundantly in all
putrescible liquids under ordinary exposures.

Whatever may be the difference of opinion, therefore, with regard to

* “Nova Acta Academic Carolo-Leopoldine,” lib. xxiv, p. 1.

t “Beitriige zur Biologie der Pflanzen,” 1872, No. ii, p. 127.

{ “Thirteenth Report of the Medical Officer uf the Privy Council,” London, 1871.
9 “Beitriige zur Biologie der Pflanzen,” No. ii, p. 189.

240 THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE.

the possibility of spontaneous generation within limited and exceptional
conditions, there is hardly a doubt remaining that as a rule, in the
regular operations of nature, the Bacteria or their germs are, in point of
fact, conveyed from one putrefying substance to another, and that putre-
faction is a process excited by contagion, and accomplished only by the
growth and nutrition of Bacteria.

It was an important discovery, when it was found, ten years ago, that
Bacteria might be developed in the interior of the living animal or-
ganism. In 1863 and 1864, Davaine* showed that in the disease of sheep,
known in France as “charbon” or “sang de rate,” and called by the
Germans ‘ milebrand,” the blood of the affected animal, during life, con-
tained Bacteria. He showed that the disease might be communicated by
inoculation to other animals, always with a fatal result, and always with
the development of Bacteria in the blood previous to death. He after.
ward} extended the same observation to cases of malignant pustule,
which he declared to be one form of the “sang de rate” disease.

In 1868 Vulpiant found that a fatal disorder might be produced in
frogs by the administration of cyelamine; that the malady was accom-
panied by the development of bacteriain the blood, and that inoculation
of this blood reproduced the disease in other healthy animals of the same
species. é

About the same time, Professors Coze and Feltz,§ formerly of the
University of Strasbourg, had been making researches in a similar diree-
tion. They ejected putrescent liquids into the veins or subcutaneous
tissue in dogs and rabbits, producing in this way a fatal artificial sep-
ticemia; and they found that Bacteria were developed in the blood of
the animal simultaneously with the appearance of the febrile’ condition.
But the effect produced did not stop there. The blood of such an animal,
though not itself putrid, had become infectious, and would excite. septi-
cemia in another animal by inoculation. A still farther remarkable re-
sult was obtained from these experiments: “By reproducing in this
manner,” the authors say, ‘‘ several successive inoculations, it becomes
evident that the infectious element is at last moreactive than the putres-
cent matters themselves. Injection of putrescent liquids is not so rapidly
fatal as inoculation of the blood ofan animal already infected.”

These facts have been confirmed by the observations of Davaine and
Vulpian, which show the extraordinary activity of infectious blood, even
at a high degree of dilution. Davaine|| found that putrefied bullock’s
blood, injected into the subcutaneous tissue of the rabbit, was rarely

fatal in doses of less than ;3,5 of a drop, and never so in less than 5745-.

But a series of twenty-five successive inoculations showed that septi-
cemia, once established, could be transmitted to the healthy rabbit by a

* “Comptes Rendus de ’Académie des Sciences,” tomes lvi, lix.

+ “Comptes Rendus,” 1865, tome Ix, p. 1297.

t “ Archives de physiologie normale et pathologique,” 1868, p. 466.
_§ “ Recherches cliniques et expérimentales sur les maladies infectieuses,” Paris, 1872.

|| “‘ Bulletin de PAcadémie de Médecine,” Septembre 17, 1872.

> oa

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. 241

dose of infectious blood so diluted that it represented only one-trillionth
part of a drop. Vulpian* injected a rabbit with infectious serum, and
produced death in twenty hours. A second rabbit was inoculated with
the blood of the first, diluted to ,,, and died in twenty-four hours. A
third rabbit was inoculated with the blood of the second, diluted to 5,44,
and died in twenty-three hours. <A fourth animal, inoculated with the
blood of the third, diluted to 5553599, died in fifty-two hours; while the
fifth, inoculated with a dilution of ; 5554 na000) became ill, but finally
recovered.

In cases of septicemia, therefore, the Bacteria really multiply in the
circulation during life; and the small quantity of infectious blood neces-
sary to produce the disease is explained by their singular activity of
reproduction.

These experiments certainly bring the study of morbid contagion into
very close relationship with that of putrefaction and fermentation; and
there is no doubt that the, analogies between them become more distinet
and suggestive at every step of the investigation. It only remains to
show that the same results will apply to diseases of more regular type
and more familiar occurrence.

If we were to choose any single morbid affection as a fair represent-
ative of the whole class of contagious disorders, I suppose small-pox
would be the one selected. Its virulence, the certainty of its communi-
cation, the abundance of infectious matter generated, the regularity of
its symptoms, and the definite periods of its incubation and develop-
ment, all make it, so to speak,a kind of exponent of the essential quali-
ties of infectious disease. Besides this, its singular relations to vaccine
give it a peculiar interest; and the vaccine affection also, though
milder in its symptoms, is hardly less marked asa contagion than small-
pox itself. Conclusions derived from experiments with either must be
of great value in regard to the study of contagion as a whole.

The first definite experiments in regard to the contagion of vaccine
we owe, I think,toChauveau.t He endeavored to ascertain whether the
contagious principle of vaccine lymph is in its liquid or in its solid
portions. For this purpose he treated vaccine lymph by the process of
diffusion. The result showed that the contagious property of the lymph
does not reside in its liquid part, but in its solid corpuscles and granu-
lations. The liquid withdrawn by diffusion, though always found to
contain abundance of albuminous matter in solution, failed when used.
for vaccination; while that containing the solid granules possessed its.
normal activity and succeeded as fully as the fresh lymph. The results.
of these diffusion experiments were confirmed by those of Dr. Burdon-
Sanderson, performed subsequently.

Chauveau also adopted a second plan for investigating the same point,

* Gazette Médicale de Paris, 1873, No. 3, p. 30.

t “ Comptes Rendus de Académie des Sciences,” 1868, tome Ixvi, p. 289.

¢ “ Twelfth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council,” London,.1870, pp.
233, 235.

168

QA? THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE.

namely, that by dilution. The significance of this test depends on the
following consideration: If the real vaccine virus be a fluid, it is of
course uniformly distributed through all parts of the lymph ; and if this
lymph be diluted to any extent, the fluid virus will still be equally dis-
seminated throughout the whole. When the dilution becomes so great
as to extinguish the activity of the virus, this activity ought to dimin-
ish and disappear at the same time uniformly through all parts of the
liquid. On the other hand, if the contagious principle reside in the solid
particles, each one of which is capable of reproducing its kind, these par-
ticles will only be separated from each other by the dilution, and made
less likely to be taken up in the drop used for vaccination. But, if one
of them should be so taken up, it would still produce its full effect. In
this case, the number of successful vaccinations would diminish in pro-
portion to the dilution, and the number of failures would increase. But

every vaccination Sieh failed would fail completely, and every one
which succeeded would produce a normal result.

Chauveau’s experiments showed that the latter supposition was cor-
rect. Vaccine lymph might be diluted with from two to eighteen times
its weight of water without sensibly losing in efficacy; and in one case
the experimenter obtained a single pustule from a number of vaccina-
tions made with lymph diluted to ;1,. He obtained, however, the most
remarkable results with the lymph of sheep-pox, upon which he experi-
mented largely.* He inoculated the same animal, by twenty-one pune-
tures, with pock-lymph diluted to =4,; and of these twenty-one inocu-
lations eight failed, while thirteen gave origin to full-sized pustules.
He then diluted the pock-lymph at once to;z,355; and with this diluted
lymph, out of twenty inoculations he obtained only a single pustule, but
that pustule presented its normal HOLIETTES, and went through the usual
stages of development.

The active properties of the lymph of vaccine and variola, therefore,
do not reside in its liquid ingredients, but in its solid corpuscles. These
corpuscles, which were already observed by Chauveau and Burdon-San-
derson, have been recently examined and described with great care by
Dr. Cohn.t This observer adopted every precaution against the intro-
duction of foreign elements into the lymph. Some children with healthy
vaccine vesicles were brought to the Botanical Institute, the vesicles
opened with a new, unused lancet, the lymph taken up by aspiration in
a recently-heated dapiliiy glass fate: dropped upon a microscope-slide,
and fitted with a glass cover, both the slide and cover having just been
thoroughly cleansed with ammonia and boiling water. The edges of the
cover were then lacquered down, to exclude the air, and the lymph-cor-
puscles examined at successive intervals of time.

According to Dr. Cohn’s observations, these corpuscles are single cells

=“ Comptes Rendus,” 1868, tome Ixvii, p. 749.
+ “Organismen in der Pockenlymphe.” Archiv fur pathologische Anatomie und

Physiologie, 1872, pp. 55, 229.

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. 243

of a spherical form, not more than 5,4,, of an inch in diameter. They
belong to the genus Micrococcus, and those of the vaccine lymph are
designated by the name of Micrococcus vaccine. They increase in num-
bers if kept at the temperature of the living body, forming chains and
groups of associated articulations. Dr. Cohn finds similar bodies in
the fluid of small-pox vesicles, identical in size and appearance with
those of the vaccine lymph. ‘ We must, therefore,” he says, “for the
present regard the pock-lymph corpuscles as living and independent
organisms, belonging to the smallest and simplest of all living things,
which multiply, without formation of mycelium, by cell-division alone,
and perhaps also by the production of resting spores.”

Finally, another kind of micrococcus has been described by Dr. Oertel,*
of Vienna, and by Prof. Ebert,t of Ziirich, as constantly present in cases
of diphtheria; and both observers have found that its inoculation in dii-
ferent parts of the body in healthy animals produces a diphtheritic mal-
ady, having its starting-point at the place of inoculation.

The contributions to medical literature on this subject have increased
of late with unusual rapidity. Since the beginning of 1870 more than
two hundred distinct publications have made their appearance, either
in the medical journals, or as separate volumes, on septicemia and
diphtheria, on micrococcus and bacteria, the ferment-corpuscles, ferment-
ation and putrefaction, their relation to contagion and infection, and
kindred topics. Many of these essays are extremely important, others
of more or less doubtful value. I have not attempted to notice them
all, but only those which seem to have really established some new facts
relating to the origin and propagation of disease. Should the discov-
eries of the next ten years continue to lead in the direction now indi-
cated, it will illustrate more fully than ever the intimate relation which
exists between all the branches of medicine and natural science ; for it
will show how large a part of human patholegy is connected with the
general physiology of vegetative life.

In connection with this subject a considerable degree of interest at-
taches to the ingenious experiments of Professor Tyndall on the dust-
particles suspended in the atmosphere. The fact that the atmosphere
is almost never free from floating molecules, diffused in greater or less
abundance by the air-currents, has for a long time attracted attention;
and it is a common observation that these dust-particles, even when in-
visible by diffused daylight, may at once be rendered evident by admit-
ting a sunbeam into a darkened apartment. The minute particles then
reflect the light, and become distinctly visible in the track of the beam
by contrast with the surrounding non-illuminated space. Professor
Tyndall, by passing the electric beam through a closed glass tube, has
shown that the atmospheric air, however transparent it may appear to
ordinary vision, is never so free from suspended particles that it will not

*“ Deutsches Archiv fiir klinische Medicin,” 1871, B. viii, p. 242.
t “Zur Kentniss der bacteritischen Mykosen,” Leipzig, 1872.

244 THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE.

betray their presence, under such circumstances, by a luminous track
passing lengthwise through the tube. In following out these investi-
gations, he arrived at two rather unexpected and somewhat important
results.

The first was that the solid corpuscles in suspension in the atmo-
sphere are to a very great extent of organic origin. As the dust which
‘settles upon our shelves and moldings, when collected and examined,
was known to be largely composed of mineral particles, it was naturally
thought that the floating impurities of the air were probably of a similar
character. But when Professor Tyndall allowed the illuminated electric
beam to pass directly over the flame of a spirit-lamp, he found that a per-
fectly dark space was cut out of the beam—wreaths of darkness rising up-
ward from the flame and taking the place, at that point, of the luminous
particles. A hydrogen flame, a red-hot poker, or a bundle of incandescent
platinum wires, placed in a similar position, produced the same effect.
That is, the floating molecules of the air, which have the powerof dis-
persing the light of the electric beam, instead of being rendered incan-
descent and more luminous than before by a high temperature, are de-
stroyed by it and resolved into transparent vapors. They are therefore
combustible and organic.

This fact is of great importance, because it gives us our first definite
knowledge with regard to the nature of the greater part of the atmo-
spheric dust. If this be really the channel by which germs of disease
are disseminated in the form of distinct corpuscles, we shall never be
fully satisfied until we have been able to examine and recognize them,
soas to place the fact beyond a doubt. But thus far it has been found
exceedingly difficult to capture and place under the microscope the mi-
nute ingredients of the atmospheric impurities. This has, it is true,
been accomplished for a very few of the simpler and well-known fungus
germs; but as for the larger portion of the floating particles which a —
sunbeam brings into view, our knowledge has heretofore been limited
to the mere fact of their existence. It is therefore a great step to learn
that, whatever may be their remaining characters, they are at all events
_ of organic origin. The minute size-of these bodies, and especially their.
lightness, no doubt explain fully the persistence with which they are
raised and disseminated by the gentlest air-currents, while the heavier
particles of a mineral nature are more readily deposited in the form of
dust upon all inclined and horizontal surfaces.

The second fact brought out by the observations of pion Tyndall
- is the extreme difficulty of excluding from the air all of its finer dust-
particles, so as to obtain it absolutely free from suspended matter. The
electric beam, passing through the glass tube before spoken of, wasused
by the experimenter as a test for the presence of solid impurities in the
air contained inthe tube. As the beam is, of course, invisible by itself,
and becomes perceptible to the eye only by meeting with bodies capable
of reflecting its light, any luminosity in its track through the tube would

THE ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DISEASE. 245

indicate the existence of floating particles in the contained air. It was
fovnd by this test that, contrary to expectation, air which had been
passed in succession through tubes containing fragments of glass wetted
with concentrated sulphuric acid and with a solution of caustic potash
immediately beforeits admission to the tube still contained similar impu-
rities. Even when it had been allowed to bubble through the liquid sul-
phuric acid and caustic potash, the electric beam still revealed the pres-
ence of suspended matter. Either the contact of these liquids could
not be made sufficiently complete with all parts of the air passing
through them, or for soine other reason they failed to purify it entirely
of its organic ingredients.

But a burning temperature succeeded in accomplishing the object.
A platinum tube, containing a roll of platinum gauze, was placed in a
small gas-furnace, and heated to incandescence. The air was slowly
drawn through this apparatus, and then, when admitted into the glass
experimental tube, was found to be absolutely free from suspended ma-
terial. The electric beam passed through it, from end to end, without
exhibiting any luminosity; the interior of the tube being perfectly dark,
while outside of it the track of the beam was lighted up by floating dust-
particles, as before. A tube filled with air in this condition was said by
Professor Tyndall to be optically empty; that is, it contained only the
transparent gases of the atmosphere without any admixture of corpuscles
- capable of reflecting light.

The air may also be freed from its suspended impurities by filtration
through cotton-wool. A quantity of this substance was packed rather
tightly ina glass tube, so as to form a thick, porous plug. The air,
drawn through this tube into the experimental receiver, showed itself to
be non-luminous, and consequently pure. This property of cotton-wool
has been often utilized in experiments on the necessary conditions of
organic development, and it is found that air thus thoroughly filtered
does not carry with it any germs capable of producing infusorial or veg-
etative life.

Finally, Professor Tyndall also demonstrated that air, which has once
passed through the deeper pertion of the respiratory passages, has un-
‘dergone a sinilar filtration. If the expired breath be made to traverse
a luminous electric beam, it at first produces upon it no visible effect.
But toward the end of the expiration it makes itself evident by a dimi-
nution in the amount of dispersed light, and at last extinguishes coim-
pletely the luminosity of the beam, cutting out at the point of contact
a perfectly dark space. Precisely by what mechanism this filtration is
accomplished it is not easy to say, since the smallest of the pulmonary
passages in the human lung have a diameter of not less than one-fifth of
a millimeter; but there can be little doubt, in point of fact, that by the
time the air reaches the ultimate divisions of the respiratory cavities, it
is thoroughly freed from the ordinary suspended matter which it con-
tained on entering the trachea.

ON LATER VIEWS OF THE CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY eo
MAGNETISM,

REVIEW OF MATHEMATICAL THEORIES.
By PROFESSOR HELMHOYZ.

[From the London Academy. ]

The problem of determining the primary causes of the so-called elec-
tro-magnetic and electro-dynamic phenomena is connected intrinsically
with some of the most important theoretical questions of natural phi-
losophy regarding the general character of force and the essential
attributes to be ascribed to the medium which fills space. The subject,
therefore, has attracted the.attention of natural philosophers and
mathematicians since the time of Oersted’s first discovery regarding
the deviation of a magnetic needle by a galvanic current, in 1820, till
the present moment; and this attention has grown even the more
intense and concentrated the more our knowledge of the experimental
facts approached to completeness. The force of gravitation, Newton’s
grand conception, has been hitherto the model for nearly all the scien-
tific hypotheses by which philosophers have striven to connect and to
explain the various kinds of physical and chemical phenomena. Hy-
potheses of this kind, based on the assumption of forces acting between
two material points along the straight line of their junction, either
attracting or repelling, the intensity of which is independent of time and
velocity, but dependent on the distance of the two points, have been
applied with great success, not only to the effects of celestial and ter-
restrial gravity, but also to those of elasticity in rigid, fluid, and gaseous
bodies, including the phenomena of sound and light. In the theory of
heat and chemical actions, it appears highly probable that we have to
do with forces of the same kind, although of a much more limited
sphere of activity. In consequence of the extreme complexity of
causes and conditions, only very small parts of these branches of
science have been worked out so far that the connection between actual
phenomena and elementary forces can be traced the whole way and
deduced by mathematical analysis. The nearest analogy with the laws
of gravitation we find in the phenomena of electricity and magnetism
as long as these agents are in a state of repose and equilibrium. We
find the same law of action at a distance, and the inferences derived
from this law are even more open to controlling experimental measure-
ments of the highest degree of precision than those of gravitation, or
of the molecular forces, which keep up the motion of heat, produce
chemical combinations, and are the alternate cause of elasticity. The
very existence of the electro-static and magnetic forces must have
increased a good deal the tendency of natural philosophers to generalize
this kind of hypothesis, which answered so well to the requirements of

CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. DAG

Science, and to consider the attributes of these’ forces enumerated
above as the general and necessary attributes of all ultimate forces of
nature.

In order to distinguish the forces of this description by a short name,
I may be allowed to call them forces of the first class. Forces the
intensity of which depends either on time or on velocity may be dis-
posed of in a second class.

Are there really alternate and elementary forces, which are to be
reckoned into this second class, which cannot be reduced into an agegre-
gate of forces of the first class, and do not bend under that great gen-
eralization, like the majority of other physical and chemical forces?
This is, evidently, a question of the highest theoretical interest, and
the problem of electro-dynamics turns out so important, because the
so-called electro-dynamic forces, acting between two electri¢ currents, or
between one such current and a magnet, seemed really to afford an
example of the second class.

First among them we have the discovery by Oersted of the forces
moving ponderable matter, (pondero-motor forces, according to Prof. C.
Neumann’s nomenclature,) and the laws of their action were brought
into a relatively simple, accurate, and comprehensive formula by
Ampére. These forces are completely latent as long as electricity is in
a state of rest; they become active when electricity begins to flow
through conducting bodies. This appears as a first fundamental differ-
ence between electro-dynamic forces and those of the first class, a gen-
eral characteristic of which is, that their action is not at al! altered
by any motion of the points between which they act. Secondly, the
electro-magnetic force of a galvanic wire carries the pole of a magnet
round the wire without end and without ever leading it toa pla& of
equilibrium and rest. All the forces of the first class, on the contrary,
tend to carry the bodies which they move to a certain final resting-
place. This relatiou, moreover, is reciprocal; for just as a magnetic
pole is carried around an electric current, a galvanic wire can be carried
around a magnet or around a coil of wire, through which an electric cur-
rent passes.

A second class of electro-dynamic phenomena are the induced currents
discovered by Faraday in 1831. In these cases, the electro-dynamié forces
do not act on ponderable matter, but they act as electro-motor forces on
electricity itself. They drive the opposite electric fluids of a wire into
opposite directions, either when another wire carrying an electric cur-
rent is in motion relatively to the first wire, or when the intensity of the
current in the second wire is altered. Instead of the second wire,a
magnet may be substituted. It produces an induced electro-motoric
force either when it is moved or when the intensity of its magnetism is
altered. For all these electro-dynamie actions, a magnet may be con-
sidered always as a system of electric currents, flowing circularly around
the magnetic axis.of every magnetized particle.

248 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM,

These electro-motor forces, induced by electro-dynamic action, show
the same character as the pondero-motor forces before mentioned. They
depend on motion, and the lines along which they act are closed lines
without end; for a magnet, losing its magnetism, induces electro-motor
forces in circular directions all around its axis.

In spite of this fundamental difference, it has been proved by the experi-
ments of Mr. J. Prescott Joule and by the general theoretical deductions
of Sir W. Thomson and the author of this article, that all the known
effects of electro-dynamie action are subject to the great principle of con-
servation of energy, although a theoretical deduction of this universal
principle of nature can be given only for forces of the first class, which are
independent of motion, and which tend always to a final positionof equilib-
rium. Itcan be proved that when an electric currrent, by moving a mag-
net, does mechanical work, the current induced by the motion of the mag-
net alters the relation between the chemical processes going on in the bat-
tery and the heat evolved in the galvanic circuit, so that a part of the
chemical forces is not spent in the production of heat, but used for the
mechanical work of the electro-dynamie forces.

There are two principal questions which have been discussed: the one
a question of fact; the other a question of theory.

The first is this: hitherto we knew with some degree of accuracy
the electro-dynamic actions of closed galvanic currents only, viz, of cur-
rents which circulate along a closed line or a system of closed lines, and
have no end, where electricity would be obliged to stop and to accumu-
late. The investigations of Ampére, Gauss, Neumann, (senior,) Kirchoff, —
W. Thomson, &e., have led to a highly-developed mathematical theory
of closed currents, which enables us to calculate their electro-dynamic
effé@ts for circuits of any length and form, and which has been compared
with actual experimental measurements of the highest degree of pre-
cision.

But there exist also currents with ends, as for instance those produced
by the discharge of a Leyden battery in the wire which connects the
tin-foil coatings of the glass jars. These coatings are the ends of the
conducting wire, and they are separated by the insulating glass of the —
jars. We know that the wire produces electro-dynamic effects during
the discharge, like a wire closing together the ends of a galvanic bat-
tery, and that the currents in such a wire go to and fro, oscillating
between the two tin-foil coatings; but we do not yet know experiment-
ally how far these electro-dynamic actions are modified at the place
where the conducting circuit is interrupted by the insulating glass.
This question may be of little practical importance, because the actions
in question cannot but be very feeble, and it will require great experi-
mental skill to make them visible. On the other hana, in order to define
the ultimate causes of electro-dynamic actions, it is necessary to know
with certainty the part which every linear element of a current contrib-
utes to its general eftect, and the linear elements even of a closed
eircuit are not closed lines, but lines with two ends.

35 7 a3

CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. ZAI

Ampere has derived his well-known law of the attracting or repelling
force between two linear elements of electric currents, not, however,
without introducing into his reasoning a hypothesis. He assumed,
namely, that between every pair of such elements there acts only one
force, not a couple of forces, and that the direction of this force is the
straight line joining the center of the elements.

Another elementary law was derived from the phenomena of induced
currents at first by Gauss, as early as 1835, but not published, and
afterward by Prof. F. EK. Neumann, (senior,) of Konigsberg, in 1545.
The mathematical expression of this law was based on.the value of the
mechanical work which could be done by Ampére’s forces, or, as it was
ealled in analogy with the nomenclature applied by Green and Gauss to
magnetic and electro-static forces, on the value of the electro-dynamic
potential of two currents. This value again was determined completely
only for closed circuits, but its mathematical expression led to a value
of the same quantity also for linear elements, which is much less com-
plicated than that of Ampere’s forces. To calculate it, take the product,
1, of the intensities of the two currents; 2, of the length of both the
linear elements; 3, of the cosine of the angle between the directions of
the latter, and divide by their distance.

Taken negatively, this potential expresses the potential energy of the
pondero motoric forces which is spent when two currents move without
altering their intensity, and the forees can be calculated from the value
of this energy by well-known methods. Taken positively, the same.
potential gives the value of the energy, which is equivalent to the exist-
ing motion of electricity, and which is spent in induced currents if the
intensity of the currents or their position in space is altered. In this
way this whole chapter of physics, containing the greatest variety of
new and surprising phenomena, has been brought under one most
simple law.

As has been said already, the value of the electro-dynamie potential is
completely determined for closed circuits, but not for linear elements.
To the latter, certain arbitrary functions may be added without altering
the potential of closed circuits. Neumann had already remarked this
ambiguity. In my first paper I have treated this question, and have
striven to find out such consequences of the theory as might lead
to an experimental decision of the problematical point. I limited the
arbitrariness of the unknown function by the assumption that the
law according to which the unknown part of the potential depends
on distance is the same as for the known part. Then the whole
uneertainty is reduced to the value of one unknown constant, which
plays in the theory of electricity nearly the same part as the second
constant of elasticity in the theory of elastic solids. I was able to
decide one important peint at least, namely, that this new constant
cannot have a negative value without producing an unstable equilib-
rium of electricity in conducting bodies. Under such an assumption

250 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

certain motions of electricity, as, for instance, radial oscillations in
a conducting sphere, ought to grow without end in intensity and to pro-
duce an infinite quantity of motion and of heat, which, of course, must
be regarded as impossible. This inference was of some importance for
our choice between the different theories of electro-dynamics, because it
showed that the laws of induced currents derived trom the hypothesis
of W. Weber, and in the same way those derived from the different
hypothesis which Prof. C. Neumann, jr., has proposed, are inadmis-
sible, leading, as they do, to unstable equilibrium of electricity. I
do not think that my objections have been invalidated by the argu-
ments brought against them by my opponents, but this I must leave
to the judgment of my mathematical readers.

J may omit here, perhaps, another pointof discussion. Mr.C. Neumann
believed that the law of the forces derived from the value of the poten-
tial led to inferences opposed to the results of experiment in those cases
where one part of the conducting wire slides along the surface of another
part of the same circuit. I have striven to prove that there is no
contradiction between the law of the potential, rightly interpreted, and
the observed facts.

The potential theory, when applied to the calculation of the pondero-
motoric forces, produced by and acting on unclosed circuits, gives
not only forees acting between two linear elements of electric cur-
rents, according to the law of Ampére, but also other forces acting be-
tween the end of the current and a linear element of another, and forces
acting between two ends. At the extremities of an open stream-line,
quantities of free electricity are either appearing or vanishing. We may
say, therefore, that those forces are acting between electricity in statu
nascendi and streaming electricity.

It was not difficult to prove that the law of the electro-dynamic poten-
tial was in accordance with the principle of conservation of energy, even
for currents with open ends. It was to be questioned if the same is the
case for the original law of Ampére. This question has been investi-
gated by Mr. Neumann, jr. He bases his reasoning on the suppo-
sition that forces, one of which acts between every pair of linear
elements of currents, are the only pondero-motorie forces existing. Be-
sides, he supposes that the forces of superimposed currents are sim-
ply superimposed themselves, and that the principle of conservation
of energy is valid. He concludes from a very clever and skiilful analy-
sis that these assumptions are sufficient to determine all the ques-
tionable points. But the law of induction produced by change of inten-
sity, which results from his analysis, corresponds to an unstable equilib-
rium of electricity, and to a negative value of the constant, introduced
by myself. I infer, therefore, from the results arrived at by Prof. C.
Neumann that his hypothesis is inadmissible, and that there must exist,
in reality, other pondero.motoric forces at the ends of currents besides
those of Ampere, — i think that the theory based on the existence of an

CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 251

electro dynamic potential is the only theory hitherto known which gives
a complete and unobjectionable expression of all the different classes of
electro-dynamic phenomena. It isrecommended, besides, by the extreme
simplicity of its fundamental law.

Now we come to the second fundamental question. It must not be
forgotten that the mathematical laws hitherto spoken of give not an
explanation of the ultimate vera causa of electro-dynamic effects, but
only a comprebensive and precise determination of their quantitative
value. They perform as much for the knowledge of these actions as the
laws of Kepler did for astronomy. But the work of Newton has also
to be done for this branch of science.

In order to find the real elementary causes of electro-dynamie effects,
two different ways have been followed, the one by Gauss, the other by
Faraday.

- Gauss thought that the distinguishing peculiarities of electro dynamie

forces might depend on the time which they required to reach distant
points of space. Among the papers published after his death, in the col-
lection of bis works, there are some very remarkable attempts of this
kind. One of these papers, written in 1834, (Gauss, Werke, bd. v, p.
617,) contains the nucleus of a theory similar to that published seme
time later by his friend and collague, Prof. W. Weber, and perhaps
even less objectionable. But Gauss did not publish anything about this
subject. ‘ Nil actum reputans, si quid superesset agendum,” as he says
himself.

Among the theories of this kind which have received the most elabo-
rate development, and have met fora long time with the almost general
assent of continental philosophers at Jeast, was the theory of Prof. W.
Weber, of Gottingen. It has played a prominent part as the theoretical
basis of the highly important experimental measurements by which
Professor Weber determined the fundamental natural constants of this
branch of science. According to this hypothesis, every quantum of
electricity exerts upon every other quantum a force the value of which
not only depends on the actual distance of the two electric quanta, but
also on the velocity with which this distance is changed and on the
acceleration of this velocity.

Sir W. Thomson and Prof. P. G. Tait were the first who pronounced
this hypothesis of Weber to be contradictory to the principle of con-
servation of energy, without specifying their objection. I was led to
the same inference by independent investigations, as mentioned above.

Besides this, the late Professor Riemann and Prof. C. Neumann, jr.,
have tried to develop the idea of Gauss. The latter has given a rela-
tively simple mathematical form to the assumptions necessary for this
end. These assumptions, interpreted physically, are rather startling,
and, besides, this hypothesis leads to the same contradiction of the law
of conservation of energy as the law of Weber. Hitherto, therefore,
the theoretical attempts of this class have not been very successful.

252 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

Another way has been entered upon by Faraday. He objected to all
forces acting into distance without intermediate links of connection,
and he endeavored to show that electric forces spread out by contigu-
ous modifications of the mediuin, filling the space ‘between the electri-
fied bodies. He succeeded, at least, in proving that electric as well as
magnetic action into distance is not independent of the medium through
which it is propagated; and the phenomena of diamagnetism, discov-
ered by him, go on in such a way as if diamagnetic bodies had even
less magnetic polarity than the ether of a vacuum. Faraday concluded
from his researches that the molecules of electric insulators (dielectric
media) are influenced in the same way by electric forces as the molecules
of magnetizable bodies are influenced by magnetism; that a separation
of the two electricities, or, as he calls it, dielectric polarization, goes on, in
the first case, as there is a separation of the magnetic fluids, or magnetic
polarization in the second. Prof. C. Maxwell has brought these coucep-
tions of Faraday into a precise mathematical form. He dispenses com-
pletely with forces acting at a distance, and assumes actions going on in
every elementary volume of ether of the same direction and of the same
kind as the electro-magnetic actions between magnets and galvanic con-
ductors of common size and distance. According to his opinion, every
change of magnetic polarization in an elementary volume of ether pro-
duces in the same element an electric force of a circular direction around
that of the magnetic momentum, and every change of dielectric polariza-
tion, which is equivalent to a flow of electricity through the molecule,
produces magnetic torce, acting in a circular direction through the same
molecule. In the interior of electric conductors he supposes that dielec-
tric polarization is continually fading away by a certain imperfect elas-
ticity of the ether. These assumptions give, indeed, a sufficient basis
for the development of a complete mathematical theory of electro-static,
electro-dynamic, and magnetic phenomena. It is in perfect accordance
with the results of experiments hitherto performed, and with the laws
derived from the existence of an electro-dynamic potential, at least for
moderate distances, through which light is propagated in a time the
duration of which may be neglected. But the theory of Maxwell also
indicates that electro-dynamic action is not propagated instantaneously
into distance, and it is highly remarkable that the velocity of the propa-
gation, calculated from experimental data which were obtained at first
by W. Weber, coincides almost perfectly with the velocity of light.
This coincidence had been remarked before by Kirchoft for the propa-
gation of electric currents in conductors of infinitely small resistance.
An ether, indeed, with the faculty of electric and magnetic polarization,
which Professor Maxwell ascribes to the ether of insulating media, can
propagate transverse electric and magnetic oscillations with the veloc-
ity of light. Magnetic and electric oscillations must be combined in
this case always in such a way that their directions are perpendicular
to each other and to the direction of propagation. The old undulatory

CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 253

theory of light, in which the mechanical attributes of a rigid elastic solid
are ascribed to the ether, is beset with many theoretical difficulties. It
appears that the new electro-magnetic theory of light answers better in
Some cases, as, for instance, in the theory of reflection and refraction ;
whether it does so everywhere must be decided by its further elabora-
tion. This natural and unsought-for connection of the new electro-
magnetic theory with the theory of light is, indeed, an important suc-
cess, which gives rise to the greatest hopes for the future.

In his former papers, Professor Maxwell has already shown that the
same kind of influence which, according to his electro-dynamic theory,
neighboring elementary volumes of ether have upon each other, can
be imitated by a mechanism containing a system of rotatory elastic
spheres, every one of which acts on its neighbors by means of a system
of friction-balls interposed between them. Such a mechanism may
appear rather too complicated for the structure of the ether; nevertheless,
itis a result of great general importance that actions the laws of which
are congruent with those of electro-dynamic phenomena can be produced
by the play of common mechanical forces.

Recently Prof. Clerk Maxwell has given, in his treatise, (p. 111, ch. 6,)
a more general and abstract demonstration of the same result, derived
from Lagrange’s (or Hamilton’s) general principles of mechanics. He
takes for that end the electro-dynamic potential as expressing the vis
viva of all the known and unknown motions which are connected neces-
sarily with the motion of electricity in a conductor. Without any special
assumption about the nature of these motions, the laws of pondero-mo-
toric and induced electro-motoric force may be deduced from this con-
ception in its most general form. This shows again that electro-dynamic
forces are subject to the same general principles of action as common
mechanical forces.

The two volumes lately published by Professor Maxwell coutain not
only this new theory, but a very complete, methodical, and clear expo-
sition of all those parts of electric science which could be brought under
precise theoretical conceptions, and be developed mathematically. He
has done a great service by this work to every student of physics.
Hitherto we were obliged to search after the papers treating the dif-
ferent parts of this subject through a great number of scientific period-
icals and books. Besides, in relation to the original parts of the book,
principally those treating of the ultimate causes of electro-dynamic
action, I do not hesitate to say that I consider his method of forming
new theoretical conceptions, which are at the same time perfectly definite
in their quantitative determination and yet as general as possible, and
not more specified than is needed, or more than our present knowledge
of the facts allows, as really a model of cautious scientific progress.

254 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

ACTION AT A DISTANCE.
By ProrressorR CLERK MAXWELL.

[From the Proceedings of the London Institution. ]

I have no new discovery to bring before you this evening. Imust ask
you to go over very old ground, and to turn your attention to a question
which has been raised again and again ever since men began to think.

The question is that of the transmission of force. We see that two
bodies at a distance from each other exert a mutual influence on each
other’s motion. Does this mutual action depend on the existence of
some third thing, some medium of communication, occupying the space
between the bodies, or do the bodies act on each other immediately
without the intervention of anything else?

The mode in which Faraday was accustomed to look at phenomena of
this kind differs from that adopted by many other modern inquirers,
and my special aim will be to enable you to place yourselves at Fara-
day’s point of view, and to point out the scientific value of that con-
ception of lines of force which, in his hands, became the key to the
science of electricity.

When we observe one body acting on another at a distance, before
we assume that this action is direct and immediate we generally inquire
whether there is any material connection between the two bodies; and
if we find strings or rods, or mechanism of any kind, capable of account-
ing for the observed action between the bodies, we prefer to explain the
action by means of these intermediate connections rather than to admit
the notion of direct action at a distance.

Thus, when we ring a bell by means of a wire, the successive parts of
the wire are first tightened and then moved till at last the bell is rung
at a distance by a process in which all the intermediate particles of the
wire have taken part one after the other. We may ring a bell at a dis-
tance in other ways, as by forcing air into a long tube, at the other end
of which is a cylinder with a piston which is made to fly out and strike
the bell. We may also use a wire; but instead of pulling it we may
connect it at one end with a voltaic battery and at the other with an
electro-magnet, and thus ring the bell by electricity.

Here are three different ways of ringing a bell. They all agree, how-
ever, in the circumstance that between the ringer and the bell there is
an unbroken. line of communication, and that at every point of this line
some physical process goes on by which the action is transmitted from
one end to the other. The process of transmission is not instantaneous
but gradual: so that there is an interval of time after the impulse has
been given to one extremity of the line of communication, during which
the impulse is on its way, but has not reached the other end.

It is clear, therefore, that in many cases the action between bodies at
a distance may be accounted for by a series of actions between each
successive pair of a series of bodies which occupy the intermediate space;

CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 255

/
and it is asked, by the advocates of mediate action, whether, in those
cases in which we cannot perceive the intermediate agency, is it not
more philosophical to admit the existence of amedium which we cannot
at present perceive than to assert that a body can act at a place where
it is not?

'To a person ignorant of the properties of air, the transmission of force
by means of that invisible medium would appear as unaccountable as —
any other example of action at a distance, and yet in this case we can
explain the whole process and determine the rate at which the action is
passed on from one portion to another of the medium.

Why, then, should we not admit that the familiar mode of communi-
cating motion by pushing and pulling with our hands is the type and
exemplification of all action between bodies, even in cases in which we
can observe nothing between the bodies which appears to take part in
the action? x

Here, for instance, is a kind of attraction with which Professor Guth-
rie has made us familiar. <A disk is set in vibration, and is then brought
near a light suspended body, which immediately begins to move toward
the disk, as if drawn toward it by an invisible cord. What is this cord?

Sir W. Thomson has pointed out that in a moving fluid the pressure
is least where the velocity is greatest. The velocity of the vibratory
motion of the air is greatest nearest the disk. Hence the pressure of
the air on the suspended body is less on the side nearest the disk than
on the opposite side; the body yields to the greater pressure, and moves
toward the disk.

The disk, therefore, does not act where it is not. It sets the air next
it in motion by pushing it, this motion is communicated to more and
more distant portions of the air in turn, and thus the pressures on op-
posite sides of the suspended body are rendered unequal, and it moves
toward the disk in consequence of the excess of pressure. The force is,
therefore, a force of the old school—a case of vis & tergo, a shove from
behind. |

The advocates of the doctrine of action at a distance, however, have
not been put to silence by such arguments. What right, say they, have
we to assert that a body cannot act where it is not? Do we not see an
instance of action at a distance in the case of a magnet, which acts on
another magnet not only at a distance, but with the most complete
indifference to the nature of the matter which occupies the intervening
space? If theaction depends on something occupying the space between
the two magnets, it cannot surely be a matter of indifference whether
this space is filled with air or not, or whether wood, glass, or copper be
placed between the magnets.

Besides this, Newton’s law of gravitation, which every astronomical
observation only tends to establish more firmly, asserts not only that
_the heavenly bodies act on one another across immense intervals of
space, but that two portions of matter, the one buried a thousand miles

256 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

deep in the interior of the earth, and the other a hundred thousand
miles deep in the body of the sun, act on one another with precisely the
same force as if the strata beneath which each is buried had been non-
existent. If any medium takes part in transmitting this action, it must
surely make some difference whether the space between the bodies con-
tains nothing but this medium, or whether it is occupied by the dense
matter of the earth or of the sun.

But the advocates of direct action at a distance are not content with
instances of this kind, in which the phenomena, even at first ‘sight,
appear to favor their doctrine. They push their operations into the
enemy's camp, and maintain that even when the action is apparently
the pressure of contiguous portions of matter, the contiguity is only
apparent—that a space always intervenes between the bodies which act
on each other. They assert, in short, that so far from action at a
distance being impossible, it is the only kind of action which ever occurs,
and that the favorite old vis a éergo of the schools has no existence in
nature, and exists only in the imagination of schoolmen.

The best way to prove that when one body pushes anotber it does not
touch itis to measure the distance between them. Here are two glass
lenses, oneof which is pressed against the other by means of a weight.
By means of the electric light we may obtain on the screen an image of
the place where the one lens presses against the other. A series of
colored rings is formed on the screen. These rings were first observed
and first explained by Newton. The particular color of any ring
depends on the distance between the surfaces of the pieces of glass.
Newton formed a table of the colors corresponding to different dis-
tances, so that by comparing the color of any ring with Newton’s table
we may ascertain the distance between the surfaces of that ring. The
colors are arranged in rings because the surfaces are spherical, and,
therefore, the interval between the surfaces depends on the distance
from the line joining the centers of the spheres. The central spot of
the rings indicates the place where the lenses are nearest together, and
each successive ring corresponds to an increase of about the four thou-
sandth part of a millimeter in the distance of the surfaces.

The lenses are now pressed together with a force equal to the weieby
of an ounce; but there is still a measurable interval between them,
even at the malice where they are nearest together. They are not in
optical contact. To prove this I apply a greater weight. A new color
appears at the central spot, and the diameters of all the rings increase.
This shows that the surfaces are now nearer than at first, but they are
not yet in optical contact, for, if they were, the central spot would be
black; I therefore increase the weights, so as to press the lenses into
optical contact.

But what we call optical contact is not real contact. Optical contact
indicates only that the distance between the surfaces is much less than
a wave-length of light. To show that the surfaces are not in real con-

CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 257

tact, I remove the weights. The rings contract, and several of them
vanish at the center. Now, itis possible to bring two pieces of glass so
close together that they will not tend to separate at all, but adhere
together so firmly that, when torn asunder, the glass will break, not at
the surface of contact, but at some other place. The glasses must then
be many degrees nearer than when in mere optical contact.

Thus we have shown that bodies begin to press against each other
while still at a measurable distance, and that even when pressed
together with great force they are not in absolute contact, but may be
brought nearer still, and that by many degrees.

Why, then, say the advocates of direct action, should we continue to
maintain the doctrine, founded only on the rough experience of a pre-
scientific age, that matter cannot act where it is not, instead of admit-
ting that all the facts from which our ancestors concluded that contact
is essential to action were in reality cases of action at a distance, the
distance being too small to be measured by their imperfect means of
observation ?

If we are ever to discover the laws of nature, we must do so by
obtaining the most accurate acquaintance with the facts of nature, and
not by dressing up in philosophical language the loose opinions of men
who had no knowledge of tke facts which throw most light on these
laws. And as for those who introduce ethereal or other media, to
account for these actions, without any direct evidence of the existence
of such media, or any clear understanding of how the media do their
work, and who fill all space three and four times over with ethers of
different sorts, why the less these men talk about their philosophical
scruples about admitting action at a distance the better.

If the progress of science were regulated by Newton’s first law of
motion, it would be easy to cultivate opinions in advance of the age.
We should only have to compare the science of to-day with that of fifty
years ago; and by producing, in the geometrical sense, the line of
progress, we should obtain the science of fifty years hence.

The progress of science in Newton’s time consisted in getting rid of
the celestial machinery with which generations of astronomers had
incumbered the heavens, and thus “‘ sweeping cobwebs off the sky.”

Though the planets had already got rid of their erystal spheres, they
were still swimming in the vortices of Descartes. Magnets were sur-
rounded by effluvia, and electrified bodies by atmospheres, the properties
of which resembled in no respect those of ordinary effluvia and atmos:
pheres.

When Newton demonstrated that the force which acts on each of the
heavenly bodies depends on its relative position with respect to the
other bodies, the new theory met with violent opposition from the
advanced philosophers of the day, who described the doctrine of
gravitation as a return to the exploded method of explaining every-
thing by occult causes, attractive virtues, and the like.

17s

258 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

Newton himself, with that wise moderation which is characteristic of
all his speculations, answered that he made no pretense of explaining
the mechanism by which the heavenly bodies act on each other. To
determine the mode in which their mutual action depends on their
relative position was a great step in science, and this step Newton
asserted that he had made. ‘T'o explain the process by which this action
is effected was quite a distinct step, and this step Newton, in his Prin.
cipia, does not attempt to make.

But so far was Newton from asserting that bodies really do act on
one another at a distance, independently of anything between them,
that in a letter to Bentley, which has been quoted by Faraday in this
place, he says:

‘¢ It is incopeeivable that inanimate brute matter should, without the
mediation of something else which is not material, operate upon and
affect other matter without mutual contact, as it must do if gravitation,
in the sense of Epicurus, be essential and inherent in it. That gravity
should be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so that one body
can act upon another at a distance, through a vacuum, without the
mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and
force may be conveyed from one to another, is to me so great an absurd-
ity that I believe no man who has in philosophical matters a eompetent
faculty of thinking can ever fall into it.”

Accordingly, we find, in his Optical Queries and in his letters to
Boyle, that Newton had very early made the attempt to account for
gravitation by means of the pressure of a medium, and that the reason
he did not publish these investigations ‘ proceeded from hence only,
that he found he was not able, from experiment and observation, to
give a satisfactory account of this medium, and the manner of its
operation in producing the chief phenomena of nature.” *

The doctrine of direct action at a distance cannot claim for its author
the discoverer of universal gravitation. It was first asserted by Roger
Cotes, in his preface to the Principia, which he edited during Newton’s
life. According to Cotes, it is by experience that we learn that all
bodies gravitate. We do not learn in any other way that they are
extended, movable, or solid. Gravitation, therefore, has as much right
to be considered an essential property of matter as extension, mobility,
or impenetrability.

And when the Newtonian philosophy gained ground in Europe, it was
the opinion of Cotes rather than that of Newton that became most
prevalent, till at last Boscovich propounded his theory, that matter is a
congeries of mathematical points, each endowed with the power of
attracting or repelling the others according to fixedlaws. In his world,
matter is unextended and contact impossible. He did not forget, how-
ever, to endow his mathematical points with inertia. In this some of
the modern representatives of his school have thought that he “had

* Maclaurin’s Account of Newton’s Discoveries.

CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 259

not quite got so far as the strict modern view of ‘matter’ as being but
an expression for modes or manifestations of ‘ force.’ ”*

But if we leave out of account for the present the development of the
ideas of science, and confine our attention to the extension of its bound-
aries, we shall see that it was most essential that Newton’s method
should be extended to every branch of science to which it was applica-
ble—that we should investigate the forces with which bodies act on each
other in the first place, before attempting to explain how that force is
transmitted. No men could be better fitted to apply themselves exclu-
sively to the first part of the problem than those who considered the
second part quite unnecessary.

Accordingly, Cavendish, Coulomb, and Poisson, the founders of the
exact sciences of electricity and magnetism, paid no regard to those old
notions of “ magnetic effluvia” and “electric atmospheres” which had
been put forth in the previous century, but turned their undivided atten-
tion to the determination of the law of force according to which electri-
fied and magnetized bodies attract or repel each other. In this way the
true laws of these actions were discovered. And this was done by men
who never doubted that the action took place at a distance, without the
intervention of any medium, and who would have regarded the discovery
of such a medium as complicating rather than as explaining the
undoubted phenomena of attraction.

We have now arrived at the great discovery by Oersted of the con-
nection between electricity and magnetism. Oersted found that an elee-
trie current acts on a magnetic pole, but that it neither attracts it ner
repels it, but causes it to move round the current. He expressed this
by saying that “ the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner.”

The most obvious deduction from this new fact was that the action of
the current on the magnet is not a push-and-pull force, but a rotatory
force, and accordingly many minds were set a speculating on vortices
and streams of ether whirling round the current.

But Ampére, by a combination of mathematical skill with experi-
mental ingenuity, first proved:that two electric currents act on one
another, and then analyzed this action into the resultant of a system of
push-and-pull forces between the elementary parts of these currents.

The formula of Ampére, however, is of extreme complexity as com-
pared with Newton’s law of gravitation, and many attempts have been
made to resolve it into something of greater apparent simplicity.

I have no wish to lead you into a discussion of any of these attempts
to improve a mathematical formula. Let us turn to the independent
method of investigation employed by Faraday in those researehes in
electricity and magnetism which have made this institution one of the
most venerable shrines of science.

No man ever more conscientiously and systematically labored to im
prove all his powers of mind than did Faraday from the very beginning

* Review of Mrs. Somerville, “‘Saturduy Review,” February 13, 1869, vol. vii, No. 53.

260 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

of his scientific career. But whereas the general course of scientific
method then consisted in the application of the ideas of mathematics
and astronomy to each new investigation in turn, Faraday seems to
have had no opportunity of acquiring a technical knowledge of mathe-
maties, and his knowledge of astronomy was mainly derived from books.

Hence, though he had a profound respect for the great discovery of
Newton, he regarded the attraction of gravitation as a sort of sacred
mystery, which, as he was not an astronomer, he had no right to gainsay
or to doubt, his duty being to believe it in the exact form in which it
was delivered to him. Such a dead faith was not likely to lead him to
expiain new phenomena by means of direct attractions.

Besides this, the treatises of Poisson and Ampere are of so technical
a form that to derive any assistance from them the student must have
been thoroughly trained in mathematics, and it is very doubtful if such
a training can be begun with advantage in mature years.

Thus Faraday, with his penetrating intellect, his devotion to science,
and his opportunities for experiments, was debarred from following the
course of thought which had led to the achievements of the French
philosophers, and was obliged to explain the phenomena to himself by
means of a symbolism which he could understand, instead of adopting
what had hitherto been the only tongue of the learned.

This new symbolism consisted of those lines of force extending them-
selves in every direction from electrified and magnetic bodies, which
Faraday in his mind’s eye saw as distinctly as the solid bodies from
which they emanated.

The idea of lines of force and their exhibition by means of iron filings
was nothing new. They had been observed repeatedly, and investigated
mathematically as an interesting curiosity of science. But let us hear
Faraday himself, as he introduces to his reader the method which in his
hands became so powerful :*

‘““It would be a voluntary and unnecessary abandonment of most
valuable aid if an experimentalist who chooses to consider magnetic
power as represented by lines of magnetic force were to deny himself
the use of iron filings. By their employment he may make many con-
ditions of the power, even in complicated cases, visible to the eye at
once; may trace the varying direction of the lines of force and determine
the relative polarity; may observe in which direction the power is
increasing or diminishing; and in complex systems may determine the
neutral points or places where there is neither polarity nor power, even
when they occur in the midst of powerful magnets. By their use prob-
able results may be seen at once, and many @ valuable suggestion gained -
for future leading experiments.” ;

Haperiment on lines of force.

Tn this experiment each filing becomes a little magnet. The poles of
opposite names belonging to different filings attract each other and

* Experimental Researches, 3284.

CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 261

stick together, and more filings attach themselves to the exposed poles ;
that is, to the ends of the row of filings. In this way the filings, instead
of forming a confused system of dots over the paper, draw together,
filing to filing, till long fibers of filings are formed, which indicate by
their aeeeHOn the lines of force in every part of fe field.

The mathematicians saw in this experiment nothing but a method of
exhibiting at one view the direction in different places of the resultant
of two forces, one directed to each pole of the magnet, a somewhat coin-
plicated result of the simple law of force.

But Faraday, by a series of steps as remarkable for their geometrical
definiteness as for their speculative ingenuity, imparted to his concep-
tion of these lines of force a clearness and precision far in advance of
that with which the mathematicians could then invest their own formulas.

In the first place, Faraday’s lines of force are not to be considered
merely as individuals, but as forming a system, drawn in space ina
definite manner, so that the number of the lines which pass through an
area, Say of one square inch, indicates the intensity of the force acting
through the area. Thus the lines of force become definite in number.
The strength of a magnetic pole is measured by the number of lines
which proceed from it; the electro-tonic state of a circuit is measured
by the number of lines which pass through it. |

In the second place, each individual line has a continuous existence in
Space and time. When a piece of steel becomes a magnet, or when an
electric current begins to flow, the lines of force do not start into exist-
ence, each in its own place, but, as the strength increases, new lines are
developed within the magnet or current, and gradually grow outward,
so that the whole system expands from within, like Newton’s rings in
our former experiment. Thus, every line of force preserves its identity
during the whole course of its existence, though its shape and size may
be altered to any extent.

I have no time to deseribe the methods by which every question relat-
ing to the forces acting on magnets or on currents, or to the induction
of currents in conducting circuits, may be solved by the consideration
of Faraday’s lines of force. In this place they can never be forgotten.
By means of this new symbolism, Faraday defined with mathematical
precision the whole theory of electro-magnetism, in language free from
mathematical technicalities, and applicable to the most complicated as well
as thesimplestcases. But Faraday did notstop here. Hewenton from the
conception of geometrical lines of force to that of physical lines of force.
He observed that the motion which the magnetic or electric force tends
to produce is invariably such as to shorten the lines of force, and to
allow them to spread out laterally from each other. He thus perceived
in the medium a state of stress, consisting of a tension, like that of a rope.
in the direction of the lines of force, combined with a pressure in all
directions at right angles to them.

This is quite a new conception of action at a distance, reducing it to

262 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

-@ phenomenon of the same kind as that action at a distance which is
exerted by means of the tension of ropes and the pressure of rods.
When the muscles of our bodies are excited by that stimulus which we
are able in some unknown way to apply to them, the fibers tend to
shorten themselves and at the same time to expand laterally. A state
of stress is produced in the muscle, and the limb moves. This explana-
sion of muscular action is by no means complete. It gives no account
of the cause of the excitement of the state of stress, nor does it even
investigate those forces of cohesion which enable the muscles to support
this stress. Nevertheless, the simple fact that it substitutes a kind of
action which extends continuously along a material substance for one
of which we know only a cause and an effect at a distance from each
other, induces us to accept it as a real addition to our knowledge of
animal mechanics. :

For similar reasons we may regard Faraday’s conception of a state
of stress in the electro-magnetic field as a method of explaining action
at a distance by means of the continuous transmission of force, even
though we do not know how the state of stress is produced.

But one of Faraday’s most pregnant discoveries, that of the magnetic
rotation of polarized light, enables us to proceed a step farther. The
phenomenon, when analyzed into its simplest elements, may be described
thus: Of two cireularly-polarized rays of light, precisely similar ‘in con-
figuration, but rotating in opposite directions, that ray is propagated
with the greater velocity which rotates in the same direction as the elec-
tricity of the magnetizing current.

It follows from this, as Sir W. Thomson has shown by strict dynamical
reasoning, that the medium, when under the action of magnetic force,
must be in a State of rotation ; that is to say, that small portions of the
medium, which we may call molecular vortices, are rotating each on its
own axis, the direction of this axis being that of the magnetic force.

Here, then, we have an explanation of the tendency of the lines of
magnetic force to spread out laterally and to shorten themselves. It
arises from the centrifugal force of the molecular vortices.

The mode in which electro-motiye force acts in starting and stopping

he vortices is more abstruse, though it is, of course, consistent with
dynamical principles.

We have thus found that there are several different kinds of work to
be done by the electro-magnetic medium if it exists. We have also seen
that magnetism has an intimate relation to light, and we know that
there is a theory of light which supposes it to consist of the vibrations
of a medium. How is this luminiferous medium related to our electro-
magnetic medium ?

It fortunately happens that electro-magnetic measurements have been
made, from which we can calculate, by dynamical principles, the velocity
of propagation of small magnetic disturbances in the supposed electro-
magnetic medium. E

ss

CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 263

This velocity is very great, from 175,000 to 200,000 miles per second,
according to different experiments. Now, the velocity of light, accord-
ing to Foucault’s experiments, is 185,000 miles per second. In fact, the
different determinations of either velocity differ from each other more
than the estimated velocity of light does from the estimated velocity of
propagation of small electro-magnetic disturbance. But if the luminif-
erous and the electro-magnetic media occupy the same place, and trans-
mit disturbances with the same velocity, what reason have we to distin-
guish the one from the other? By considering them as the same, we
avoid at least the reproach of filling space twice over with different
kinds of ether.

Besides this, the only kind of electro-magnetic dicHumhance: which
can be propagated through a non-conducting medium is a disturbance
transverse to the direction of propagation, agreeing in this respect with
what we know of that disturbance which we call light. Hence, for all
we know, light also may be an electro-magnetic disturbance in a non-
conducting medium. If we admit this, the electro-magnetic theory of
light will agree in every respect with the undulatory theory, and the
work of Thomas Young and Fresnel will be established on a firmer

_ basis than ever when joined with that of Cavendish and Coulomb by

the keystone of the combined sciences of light and electricity—HKaraday’s
great discovery of the electro-magnetic rotation of light.

The vast interplanetary and interstellar regions will no longer be
regarded as waste places in the universe, which the Creator has not
seen fit to fill with the symbols of the: manifold order of his kingdom,
We shall find them to be already full of this wonderful medium; so full
that no human power can remove it from the smallest portion of space,
or produce the slightest flaw in its infinite continuity. It extends
unbroken from star to star; and when a molecule of hydrogen vibrates
in the Dog-star, the medium receives the impulses of these vibrations ;
and after carrying them in its immense bosom for three years, delivers
them in due course, regular order, and full tale into the spectroscope of
Mr. Huggins, at Tulse Hill.

But the medium has other functions and operations, besides bearing
light from man to man, and from world to world, and giving evidence
of the absolute unity of the metric system of the universe. Its minute
parts may have rotary as well as vibratory motions, and the axes of rota-

- tion form those lines of magnetic force which extend in unbroken conti-

nuity into regions which no eye has seen, and which by their action on
our magnets are telling us, in language not yet interpreted, what is
going on in the hidden under-world from minute to minute and from
century to century.

And these lines must not be regarded as mere mathematical abstrac-
tions. They are the directions in which the medium is exerting a ten-
sion like that of a rope, or rather like that of our own muscles. The
tension of the medium in the direction of the earth’s magnetic force is

264 CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

in this country one grain weight on eight square feet. In some of Dr.
Joule’s experiments, the medium has exerted a tension of 200 pounds
weight per square inch.

But the medium, in virtue of the very same elasticity by which it is
able to transmit the undulations of light, is also able to act as a spring.
When properly wound up, it exerts a tension different from the mag-
netic tension, by which it draws oppositely electrified bodies together,
produces effects through the length of telegraphic wires, and, when of
sufficient intensity, leads to the rupture and explosion called lightning.

These are some of the already discovered properties of that which has
often been called vacuum, or nothing at all. They enable us to resolve
several kinds of action at a distance into actions between contiguous
parts of a continuous substance. Whether this resolution is of the
nature of explication or complication, I must leave to the metaphysicians.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY AT COR-
DOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC,

An address to citizens of Boston by Dr. B. A. GOULD, the Director.

More than half a century ago the great astronomer Bessel undertook
the formation of a catalogue which should contain the positions and
magnitudes of as many stars as possible between the parallels of 45°
north declination-and 15° south, down to the ninth magnitude; thus
including all stars one-fifteenth part as bright as the faintest which
he could discern with the naked eye. This great work he carried to a
successful conclusion; commencing the observations in 1821 and com-
pleting them in 1833, and securing more than 72,000 observations of
62,380 different stars. These have since been carefully computed, and
the resultant catalogues published by the Imperial Observatory of
Russia, at the public expense, affording a priceless aid to astronomers.
In France an analogous attempt had been made near the close of the
last century, by La Lande, who undertook a scrutiny of all the stars
between the north pole and the southern tropic, and his 47,000 observa-
tions have been computed and published at the expense of the British
government; but the superiority of modern instruments and methods
rendered Bessel’s undertaking essentially a new one.

Later, his pupil and assistant, Argelander, upon whom his mantle
had fallen, extended his scrutiny by two more series of zone-observa-
tions—one on the north, reaching from 45° to 80°, the other on the south
from 15° to 319, the two jointly containing about 50,000 observations.
The vicinity to the pole upon the one side and to the horizon on the other,
presented peculiar difficulties, yet the continued improvement of astro-
nomical instruments and methods, and the rare skill of Argelander,
enabled him to attain both a somewhat higher degree of accuracy and
a relatively greater number of observations. Thus, in 1852, the
heavens had been well studied from 80° north of the equator to 31°
south; and when in that’ year our lamented countryman, Gilliss, re-
turned from his expedition to Chile, he brought with him the manuscript
results of an extensive series of zones, which he had observed around
the south pole. Soon afterward, the English astronomer, Carrington,
explored the ten degrees around the north pole; so that for the last
eighteen years the only region of the heavens which has not been care-
fully investigated is that which lies between the parallel of 31° south
and the northern limit of Gilliss’s yet unpublished observations. To
fill this hiatus and complete the survey of the heavens on some plan

266 OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

analogous to that of Bessel and Argelander was naturally an alluring
problem. ,

The singularity and strange beauty of some portions of the southern
sky has from the first attracted the attention of navigators. At the
very beginning of the sixteenth century the luminous patches now
called the “ Magellanic clouds,” as well as the ‘*Coal-sacks,” those dark
blots upon the brilliant milky-way, had been vividly portrayed; and
even Amerigo Vespucci boasted that be had looked upon the tour stars
which, according to Dante, had been

““Ne’er seen before, save by the primal people,”

but which have been now, for more than three centuries and a half,
renowned in song and story under the name of the ‘‘Southern Cross.”
Nor need we wonder at the poet’s fervor when he adds:

“ Rejoicing in the flamelets seemed the heaven.

O thou septentrional and widowed site,
In that thou art deprived of seeing these!”

The glory of the southern sky in the region near the Cross is indeseri-
bable. There, where the Milky Way is crossed by the thick stream of
bright stars which skirts this river of light, its brillianey is wondrously
increased, and it exhibits a magnificence unequaled in any other portion
of the heavens. There glitter a multitude of bright stars, more thickly
scattered than in any region within our northern view, while the back-
ground is gorgeous in its splendor. Often, on some clear night, when
this region has suddenly been brought to my view in passing some
edifice, or turning some street-corner, I have stood amazed at the flood
. of light which it diffused; and often, too, when leaving the observatory
in the early morning-hours after a night of wearying labor, I have felt
reluctant tv abandon the magnificent spectacle, for the sake of much-
needed repose. In close proximity are the rich constellations of the
Centaur, the Keel and Sails of the ship Argo, and the Wolf; and the
glory reaches through the Altar even to the southern portion of the
Scorpion. There extend large tracts which rival the Pleiades in the
profusion of their stars, gleaming upon a background of nebula. Hlse-
where the southern heavens are not so brilliant as the northern, nor do
they contain so many stars as bright as the faintest which we can dis-
cern; but there is nothing between the two poles comparable in beauty
with the tract to which I refer.

Yet the earliest accurate observations of southern stars were those
of Halley, afterwards Astronomer Royal of England, who visited St.
Helena for the purpose between the years 1676 and 1678, under the pat-
ronage of King Charles II and the East India Company, and there
determined the positions of 341 stars. Seventy-five years later, in 1751,
the French astronomer Lacaille undertook a similar expedition to
the Cape of Good Hope, then a Dutch colony, at the expense of the
French government, and with the official support of the French

OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 267

Academy of Sciences, the States-General of Holland, and the Prince
of Orange. With but one assistant, and only employing a little tele-
scope half an inch in aperture and twenty-eight inches in focal length,
strapped to the tube of a mural quadrant, he succeeded in determin-
ing the positions of 9,766 stars, between the tropie and the pole, in
the short period of less than eleven months; but his observations were
not published until eleven years later, and then in so crude a form that
they were with difficulty available until about a quarter-century ago,
when they were computed and published, like those of La Lande, at the
expense of the British government. These have tiil now been a prin-
cipal reliance of astronomers for their knowledge of the southern
heavens. I may not dilate on what has been done elsewhere; at Para-
matta, where the observations, though laboriously made, have rendered
comparatively little service to science; at Madras, 13° north of the
- equator, where Taylor made excellent observations of some 6,000 southern
stars; at the Cape of Good Hope, where observations of great precision
and value have been made by various eminent men, and where Sir John
Herschel devoted seven years to forming a catalogue of nebulas and
double stars; at Saint Helena, where Johnson, one of the most skillful
and delicate observers of our times, fixed the position of 606 southern
stars ; or of the observatory established at Melbourne twenty years ago,
from which have emanated observations of the highest quality, and
where the director, Mr. Ellery, has commenced a grand study of the
southern heavens, upon a different plan from mine in Cordoba, and for
a different purpose. To Gilliss’s labors in Chile I have already alluded,
and at the observatory of Santiago, in that republic, the places of a
considerable number of stars have been determined by him and his
successors.

Such, my friends, were the circumstances as they presented them-
selves a tew years ago. Argelander’s explorations reached only to 31°
south, which is but 8° above his horizon, and where his observations
were not only difficult, but subject to serious embarrassments from the
excessive influence of refraction. Beyond this, no systematic series,
aiming at both accuracy in the positions and tolerable completeness,
had been attempted since Lacaille’s, with poor instruments, a century
and a quarter ago, unless we except Gilliss’s unpublished observations
around the south pole, which future astronomers may or may not see.
The only other observations available were the scattered ones already
mentioned, in which the aim had been not to fix the places of many
Stars, so much as by repeated observations of some principal ones to
obtain for these the highest accuracy. In all, I scarcely think they
included more than about 12,000 different stars.

Information from various sources having led me to believe that the
climate of Cordoba, midway between the Atlantic and Pacific, and
exempt alike from the frequent tornadoes of the one coast and the
earthquakes of the other, was especially favorable for astronomical

268 OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

research, I addressed a letter, in October, 1865, to Mr. Sarmiento, then
Argentine minister te this country, telling him of my desire to make
an astronomical expedition thither, and of my hopes of being able to
secure the necessary pecuniary means from lovers of science. In this
letter [I asked him whether such an expedition would be cordially
received by the national government and by the people of Cordoba;
whether protection would be afforded in case of need; and whether I
could reasonably hope that on my own departure the establishment
would be adopted by the government and continued as a national insti-
tution. His reply was most cordial, answering all my questions favor-
ably, and promising even more than I had ventured to ask; and in due
time a full official indorsement was received from the Argentine govern-
ment, and Doctor Costa, Minister of Public Instruction, in a note dated
January, 1866, expressed his regret that the heavy sacrifices which
the nation was making, in its mortal struggle with the tyrant Lopez of
Paraguay, deprived him of the power of offering yet more effective
support to the undertaking. My plan failed at that time, owing to my
want of success in obtaining the necessary pecuniary means. yet Mr.
Sarmiento’s interest in it never flagged; nor did he, when nominated
for President eighteen months later, forget the astronomical project
amid official cares, educational labors, or political excitement. One of
his earliest acts after assuming the presidency in 1868 was to recommend
a national observatory. This was voted by the Argentine congress at
its first subsequent session ; and in the latter half of 1869 [received from
Doctor Avellaneda, then Minister of Public Instruction, an invitation
to organize a permanent national observatory and provide the needful
instruments and buildings; and money-credits were furnished for doing
this in an adequate, though unpretending, way. I took the necessary
steps as speedily as possible, and a happy combination of circumstances
aided the prompt acquisition of instruments, which would else have
required a long time for their construction. Happily, as it proved,
although it had cost me some regrets in the interval, I had more than
three years previously ordered, upon my own responsibility, from the
celebrated artist Repsold, of Hamburg, a meridian-circle of dimensions
and character especially adapted to the proposed work; and this had
been completed but a few months when the opportunity for its employ-
ment arrived.

The ready assistance and encouragement which the undertaking
received from every side, aS soon as it became publicly known, will
always afford me delightful remembrances. Not only in its private and
personal, but also in itsscientific relations—not only by words that meant
something, but, likewise, by the most practical actions—aid came to it
from all directions. The Superintendent of the Coast Survey hastened
to offer the loan of such portable instruments as might be serviceable ;
an offer which I accepted as freely asit was made. The secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution did the same; and both these institutions, as well

OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 269

as the Naval Observatory and the Nautical Almanac office, contributed
full series of all their publications. By some grievous mischance the
boxes containing these invaluable books never reached their destination,
but the loss has been repaired toa considerable extent by new gifts.
The American Academy of this city lent money, from its Rumford fund,
to purchase apparatus for studying the light of the stars, and gave me
permission to return either the instruments or the money, and at the
most convenient time. Four of the scientific societies of England, the
observatories of Greenwich, Pulkowa, and Leipzig, astronomers in Eng-
land, France, Germany, Russia, and Italy, sent such generous gifts of
valuable books, maps, charts, &c., that the faintest heart could not have
farted to gather courage. Not to mention my own countrymen and all
I owe them, Professors Bruhns and Zéllner in Leipzig undertook to
superintend the construction of instruments for the new institution ;
and, during the whole period of my absence, the former has attended to
all the apparatus and books which I desired from Germany. So, too,
Professor Auwers in Berlin took charge of extensive computations which
I needed to have made in some place where professional computers could
be found. And, from the beginning of my labors to the present time, I
have been encouraged and aided by the sympathy and counsel of my
revered friend, Professor Argelander.

The means available for procuring the necessary assistance were in-
sufficient to permit the engagement of trained astronomers, and it was
an especial disappointment that I was unable to secure the companion-
ship of any of my own former pupils or assistants, whose aid in such an
enterprise would have been doubly valuable. But I did secure the aid
of four very capable and well-educated young men, recently graduated,
three from Pennsylvania and one from New England. These gentlemen
sailed for Buenos Ayres direct, while I went by way of Europe, and. we
reached our destinations at about the same time.

It was the 25th August, 1870, when I arrived in Buenos Ayres with
my family, and from that day until that on which I left the same pleas-
ant capital just two months ago, our history is a record of private kind-
ness and publie generosity.

Thence we ascended the La Plata, threading an exquisite maze of
beautiful and closely crowded islands, decked with the dark-green foliage
and glowing fruit of the orange; through narrow channels guarded by
luxuriant willows, whose trailing branches swept our decks; amid jungles
sheltering unnumbered alligators and countless tigers ; and then, enter-
ing the vast delta of the Parana, moved up that stately river for about
twenty hours; now descrying on its western bank the buildings of some
large pastoral estate, and now touching at some one of the embryo cities
which are, at no distant day, to become flourishing sea-ports and centers
of an active commerce.

In the thriving town of Rosario, 250 miles above Buenos Ayres, we
found a hospitable welcome at the house of our distinguished country-

270 OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

man, Mr. Wheelwright, whose energy and enterprise had given to South
America her first steamboat, first railroad, first telegraph, first water-
works, and first gas-illumination ; and on the day following we traversed
the pampa westward for yet another 250 miles, over the railway which
he had just completed, and which had been inaugurated afew weeks
before. For the second time within two years, we raced with the ante-
lopes, and saw the prairie dogs and owls amicably seated at the threshold
of their common dwelling. Ostriches were running at speed across the
boundless and level expanse; herds with thousands of cattle, and flocks
with tens of thousands of sheep, roamed at will, ignorant of all restraint.
The spaise settlements could be seen for a dozen or more miles away,
their whitewashed walls and their few trees arresting the attention on
the horizon of this terrestrial ocean, just as a distant sail fixes the gaze
of aseaman. At intervals the ground was scarlet or white or purple
with great patches of verbena or portulacca; the taller shrubs served
as trellises for the passion-flower or the white bignonia; and many of
our most favorite exotics studded the prairie with brilliant colors.

Sixteen hours brought us to the western limit of the pampa, and to
the city of Cordoba, the goal of 10,000 miles of journeying, where still
another cordial welcome awaited us. Here the provincial, or as we eall |
it the state, government empowered me to select for the observatory
whatever site might appear to me most desirable, and I chose one upon
the high pampa level, at the brink of the precipitous declivity bordering
the valley in which the city lies, 120 feet below. The floor of the obser-
vatory is on a level with the crosses upon the high church-towers,
three-quarters of a mile away.

Such portions of the building as could be constructed of wood or
metal had been made at home, and forwarded by vessel, and it was my
expectation that all the work of construction would be completed in
three months, so that the observations could begin early in 1871. But
the Cordobese workmen had enjoyed no Yankee apprenticeship, and it
was not until July that the first dome was completed. We celebrated
the Fourth by mounting the equatorial—an instrument of American
construction, the joint work of the optician Fitz and of our neighbor
Alvan Clark. Meantime the instruments and books from Europe had
suffered unprecedented delays. Some were on a French ship, and some
on German vessels, and all were blockaded for many months by the
war, which had been declared a day or two before we sailed from Liver-
pool, and the first tidings of which were received after our arrival in
Cordoba. The war over, the ship with the meridian circle was frozen
up for the winter in the Elbe. When at last it reached Buenos Ayres,
the port was practically closed and the city laid waste by the yellow
fever, and many more months elapsed before the quarantine was re-
moved which closed the interior against the capital in conformity with
the yet prevalent traditionary prejudices inherited from Spain, and
which are so interwoven with all the popular ideas that more than one

- OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 271

generation will probably pass before they disappear. Thus season after
season passed away, and it was not till May, 1872, that the meridian-
circle was mounted ready for use, nor until the 9th of September, 1872,
that the regular observations were commenced for the celestial survey
which I had planned seven years before.

But this long delay proved in the end not to have been a misfortune,
irksome as it was. Within the first month it became evident that the
construction of the building would demand a disproportionate amount
of time and attention, and that although the large telescope might be
employed to some extent, a long time must elapse before the work with
the meridian-cirele could begin. Although I little dreamed how great
‘would be the delay, I determined to use this opportunity for the con-
struction of a uranometry, or catalogue of all the visible stars of the
southern sky, with an exact determination of the brilliancy of each.
The labor of these first eighteen months was certainly as assiduous and
fruitful, and I believe it was as serviceable to science, as the later work.
Thirty years before, Argelander had made such a uranometry, giving
the brightness of each star to the nearest third of a unit of magnitude.
In Albany, in 1858, we had done the same work, for a portion of the
heavens, to tenths of a magnitude, while awaiting the mouuting of the
instruments. These observations, although stereotyped at the time,
have never been published; but they had given me a good deal of expe-
rience, which now became very useful.

Thus the scientific labors of the first year went to the construction of
star-lists and charts of the visible heavens, as they appeared on the
clearest nights to the sharpest unassisted eyes, the magnitudes being
estimated to tenths of a unit. No instruments were used other than
common opera: glasses; but the purity of the air at Cordoba, and an ele-
vation of about 1,300 feet above the sea-level, give a remarkable trans-
parency to the atmosphere on favorable nights. My own near-sighted-
ness precluded me from taking part in the actual observations, but I
found more than enough to do in identifying those stars whose places had
been determined. by previous astronomers, in providing for our own
future observation of those not to be found in the catalogues, in main-
taining a uniform system of estimates by the four observers, and in the
general management of the work. Every test in my power was brought
to bear upon the accuracy of the work asit progressed, and each scrutiny
served to confirm my confidence in the carefulness of all engaged in
the observations. After the completion of this undertaking, the results
were subjected to careful revision by repeating the whole process in a
somewhat different form, assigning to each of the observers a region
which in the first scrutiny had been given to some other one. The defi-
nite results are now available for publication, and the Argentine govern-
ment has authorized me to make the necessary arrangements. The
published work will consist of an atlas of the heavens, from 10° north
of the equator to the south pole, showing every star to the seventh mag-

|

272. OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

nitude inclusive, and no others, and accompanied by the corresponding
catalogues. As a matter of simple justice and propriety, I have given
it the name of Uranometria Argentina. The magnitude of each star
has been determined on the average by more than four observations,
and by as many as three different observers. At present, Mr. Thome,
whom I have left in charge of the observatory, and who is the only one
of the original corps now remaining in Cordoba, is engaged in a last
systematic scrutiny of the finished work, to insure that no star is either
omitted or wrongly placed. Much more than a quarter part of the
actual observation has been done by him; and from his constant and
assiduous devotion to the undertaking for nearly four years, I am sure
that he now possesses a greater personal familiarity with the southern:
sky than any man ever attained before. Nor does this comparison in
the least diminish the honor due to his late colleagues, to whom a large
portion of the excellence of the work must justly be attributed. Of
another assistant, not on the observatory’s books, but without whose
untiring and devoted aid my work could scarcely have been accom-
plished, I may not speak.

Less than two years ago there was published by Professor Heis a
new uranometry of the northern sky, precisely on the same plan as
Argelander’s, of which it is, in fact, an enlargement, with the addition
of fainter stars seen with his unassisted eye, which is of exceptional
strength. My plan was somewhat different, and we availed ourselves
of opera-glasses to obtain more accurate estimates; and after I found
the stars of the seventh magnitude as distinctly visible at Cordoba to
eyes of average power, I fixed this magnitude as the limit for the uran-
ometry, a large number of fainter stars being excluded, although their
magnitudes have been well determined. If we only consider stars as
bright as the sixth magnitude, Heis found 3,139 of these in the northern
half of the sky, while we have only three-quarters as many in the southern
half. Yet while he has in all 4,909 northern stars, we have 7,670 southern
ones, So great is the difference between the transparency of the sky at Cor-
doba and at Miinster. The number of stars in the whole sky visible to the
naked eye has usually been estimated at about 5,500. Heis estimates
that there are about 6,800 of a brightness not inferior to the faintest
which he can see. But I now find that if the sky was as transparent
as that at Cordoba on a good night, even an average eye would probably
discern not much less than 15,000 in the full circuit of the heavens.
The Uranometria Argentina contains 8,522 stars, of which 7,670 are
situated in the southern heavens, and 852, or just one-tenth of the
whole, are within the first ten degrees of north declination.

In connection with the uranometry, an opportunity presented itself
to introduce, or rather to suggest to astronomers for their acceptance, a
greatly-needed reform in the arrangement and boundaries of the south-
ern constellations, which have from the beginning been in a state of
such confusion as to call forth continual complaints from those who

OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. nts

have had to deal with them, and which are depicted alike in no two
different maps or globes within my knowledge. Ihave now re-arranged
the whole system in such a manner that the boundaries of the constella-
tious shall be formed, so far as possible, by meridians and parallels. of
declination, and have found it practicable to arrange this with almost
insignificant disturbance of the nomenclature of the principal staxs.
To this portion of the labor, also, I attach considerable value.

The meridian circle possesses essentially the same optical power as
the instruments employed by Bessel and Argelander, the object-glass
having an aperture of 44 Paris inches. But methods of observation
have made considerable advance in twenty years, and this new instrument
is supplied with varous conveniences which the others did not possess.
The principal difference of method, however, is in the employment of
the chronographic method of observing transits, the instants of these
being registered by telegraphic signals upon a cylinder revolving at
® uniform rate. Vhe fundamental plan of all the zone observations of
which I have spoken consists in restricting the vertical motion of the
telescope to narrow limits proviously assigned, and then determining
the moment of transit and the declination of every star that traverses
the field within these limits, which of course regulate the width of a
strip or “zone” of the heavens, whose length is determined by the du-
ration of the process. It is manifest that the width of the zone can be so
chosen that only a small portion of the stars of sufficient magnitude
can escape detection. Thus, beginning each zone where the adjacent
one ends, the whole region in question is gradually explored.

The most essential point in which the plan of my undertaking differed
from that of previous observers, is, that it was my aim to make the
determinations absolute, instead of relative. The principle adopted more
or less completely in former series has been, in fact, to observe an entire
zone in such a way as to determine the differences of the several stars
among themselves, and then, identifying those whose positions may be
found in catalogues already existing, to calculate the places of the new
stars from those of the others. Such had been my own original plan;
but I soon became convinced that a sufficient number of star-places of
the needful precision was not accessible, aud that it was desirable to
keep the work independent of any previous catalogue, aiming at what
is called an absolute determination of the stars observed—that is to say,
an entire independence of the work of all other astronomers, outside
of the data in the astronomical almanacs. ‘This implied a great
increase of labor, since it would demand nearly an hour of addi-
tional observations, before and after every zone, for the sole purpose of
ascertaining the needful corrections to the indications of the instrument
and the clock, which vary appreciably from hour to hour. It likewise
entailed much additional labor in the computations; and it became
necessary to prepare for our use in Cordoba the daily places of funda-
mental polar stars, which northern observers find calculated to their

13 §

274 OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

hands in the “ Nautical Almanac.” Still, it was manifestly desirable,
and thus the work was arranged. Whenever possible, we observed,
each night, three zones with their belongings, which consumed about
eight hours—often more. The zones averaged about a hundred minutes
in length: more than this strained eye and nerves too much.

It is an exhausting process to lie for this length of-time with the eye
glued to the telescope—one hand signaling the instants of each star’s
transit over a group of delicate threads, and the other pointing the tele-
scope by means of a long screw-handle, estimating, at the same time,
the magnitude, and calling out the data to be recorded—the udgment
being meanwhile kept in active exercise for deciding upon the best
order in which to observe the various stars which are within view at
once, and the telescope kept in motion over the whole width of the zone,
(which is many times wider than the field of view,) in order that as
few stars as possible shall pass unobserved. In many zones we thus
observed more than 260 stars; in one there were 285, an average of one
star to every twenty-one seconds. Nor is the labor much less for the
assistant at the microscope. He must be on the alert to measure and
record the reading of the graduated circle as soon as the telescope is
pointed; must record the magnitude and groups for each star, as well
as the approximate moment from the clock-face, to prevent danger of
confusion when his record comes to be combined with that upon the
chronograph. And, what is more, he must watch the various pieces of
apparatus to see that nothing goes amiss, for chronographs will run
down, pen-points will clog and cease to mark, and telegraphic connec-
tions will sometimes give out; and when they do, itis always at some crit-
ical moment. The quickness and dexterity which the assistants acquired
was a source of astonishment and delight to me; and, should our results
prove to be what I hope and believe they will, there is no one of the
five gentlemen who have at different times taken part in this labor,
who may not feel a just pride, not only in the conscientious fidelity with
which he performed his part, but also in the skill which he attained in
most difficult operations.

A full night’s work consisted of three zones, with four series of obser-
vations for instrumental corrections. All the zones, and the last series
of determining stars, I observed myself; and, until the last few months,
the first series also. Between the zones I gave rest to my eyes. The
remainder of the work was distributed, as well as might be, among
three assistants, in such a way that each should be able to rest his eyes
for about an hour and a half on the nights of greatest labor, and also
have each third night free. But there was a period of six or eight
weeks when our force was temporarily reduced, so that the aid of
Messrs. Thome and Bachmann was needed every night. I need not
add that just at this time we had a spell of exceptionally clear weather,
with only two cloudy nights in a whole month. But there was not the
shadow of a complaint, nor was labor ever more cheerfully or cordially

OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 275

performed than this, which I should hardly have been justified in ask-
ing, but was contributed with the readiest good will.

The climate of Cordoba did not correspond with my expectations. |
Knowing that it was rainless during half the year, and remembering
the astonishing continuance of favorable weather which Gilliss had
enjoyed in Santiago, I had counted upon an abundance of unclouded
sky. But to my sorrow it soon betame evident that absence of rain by
no means implies absence of clouds; and judging from my memory, I
should not estimate the number of: good nights in Cordoba as much
greater than in Boston; although, to be sure, we should there scarcely
be favored with our present experience of a four days’ northeaster at
midsummer, The sky has provoking tricks of suddenly clouding over
just at nightfall, after a magnificent day, or covering itself in a few
minutes with a thick veil of mist without previous warning. Thus the

rapidity with which the survey progressed has been by no means pro-

portional to the labor expended. Still the conclusion of the first year
of the observations in September last showed the gratifying number of
429 zones, containing more than 56,000 observations, and, so far as I
could judge, about two-thirds of the region to be explored were dis-
posed of. And it was manifest that, with no better fortune in the
weather than in the year past, all the remaining work could be accom-
plished, and all the unsatisfactory zones repeated in less than a year
more. [ have not mentioned that the width of the region to be explored
had been increased by one-half from my original plan. Instead of
taking 29° as the northern limit, and thus lapping 2° upon Argelander’s

work, I had, at the earnest instance of Argelander himself, commenced

at 25°, thus overlapping his zones by 8°, and beginning at a point 16°
above the horizon of Bonn; and instead of going only to Gilliss’s
northern limit at the southern polar circle, the Cordoba zones extend to
within 10° of the pole itself, thus covering a belt 57° wide, or about
one-third of the whole heavens as measured from pole to pole. On the
13th of April, when my last observation was made, the number of zones
observed had reached 619, and the number of star-places was nearly
83,000. These were, furthermore, in the full tide of preparation for the

press, five persons being engaged in transcribing and preparing them

for computation.

Although the object of labor is not to conquer diffieulties—this part
of the process being only a means and not an end, and the only proper
motive being to secure results—it is pardonable to look back upon the
obstacles and impediments, and I can truly say that these have been
neither few nor small, nor indeed conquerable, except with the aid of
such faithful and able co-workers as I have been favored with. I will
not weary you with the tale of all the mishaps, large and small—instru-
ments disturbed, apparatus giving out, tornadoes, dust-storms and the
like; of insects in one’s nose and eyes and mouth, when the hands
could not be used to fight them nor the head moved from the telescope

276 OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

—but there is one inhabitant of the pampas whose memory can never
fade. This is the vinchuca, an elder brother of that unnameable insect
whom Birdofredum Sawin found running away with his colonel in Mex-
ico; but itis a dozen times longer and broader and thicker, and far
more savage. And it has wings. By night this insect comes flying in
from all the open country round, and it seems to have a special predi-
lection for astronomers. But for them the observation of the summer
zones would have been easier.

The plan of the zones was based, as I have said, upon the funda-
mental idea that the determinations should bé absolute in their character ;
still it is by no means certain that one observes under the high nervous
tension inseparable from such work in the same manner in which he
would make a leisurely measurement of the position of an isolated star.
It has, therefore, seemed desirable that the positions of not less than
six or Seven Stars in each zone should be determined with all possible
accuracy, and by means of repeated observations. With this view I
prepared a list of a few thousand stars, whose places were to be meas-
ured on not less than four nights, as opportunity should offer; and
the intervals between the transits of the fundamental stars, as well
those nights or parts of nights on which flying clouds or mists preclude

‘the zone work, although the heavens are partially clear, have been
devoted to this class of observations. Already a very considerable
amount of material of this sort has been collected and computed, and
this work is now going on in my absence.

Among my most cherished hopes, when leaving home, was that of
supplementing in the southern hemisphere the remarkable and import-
aut results obtained here by our gifted countryman, Mr. Rutherfurd,
whose ingenious methods and surpassing skill had enabled him, and
him alone, to obtain photographic impressions of star-clusters with a
Sharpness permitting delicate measurements, as well as to execute these
measurements with such an accuracy as to yield results rivaling, if,
indeed, not surpassing, those afforded by direct observation with the
most elaborate and costly instruments, and with a hundredfold greater
expenditure of time. It had been my privilege to subject these measure-
ments for the first time to those numerical computations by which the
stellar positions are reduced to the corresponding astronomical form of
right-ascensions and declinations, and thus, through the kindness of the
valued friend to whom both the new method and its sole results were
due, to connect my name in a slight degree with this great step, by
determining the relative positions of the principal stars in the Pleiades
and the Preesepe from his measures of the photographic plates.

Just before my departure, Mr. Rutherfurd had supplied himself with
a yet larger telescope, adapted to the same purpose, and I improved this
fortunate opportunity of securing the identical photographic object. glass
which he had employed in all his previous investigations. And when I
left home it was not without some ground for hoping that a sufficient

L

OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Det

sum would soon be contributed from private sources to enable me to
carry out the plan of securing photographic impressions of the chief
southern star-clusters without appealing to the Observatory or to any
other institution. The telescope is adapted for either photographic or
optical use, since the two object-glasses are easily interchangeable, and a
camera can readily be substituted for the astronomical eye-piece. Im-
mediately on arriving in Buenos Ayres I explained these plans to the
President and Minister, and received their cordial promise of all needful
aid—promises which, like all others from the same source, were more
than fulfilled. Inasmuch as the direct observations proposed would
clearly demand all my available time and strength, I naturally desired
to secure the photographie impressions from my private resources; not
only because all of the observatory’s funds would be required for the
regular work, but also that I might be justified in reserving the photo-
graphs for measurement and study at my subsequent leisure, and might
remove them from the country without impropriety, should I desire.
Consequently, I addressed to the government a formal application for
leave to use the large telescope for this purpose, at such times as might
not interfere with the regular work of the observatory, and this per-
mission was at once accorded with great cordiality, and a full under-
standing of the case. .

The endeavor to secure the requisite funds by private subscription
met with the same fate as the similar one in 1865, in behalf of the expe-
dition then proposed. Promises were secured for a portion of the
necessary means, but the difficulty of obtaining the full sum was found
too serious to warrant a continuance of the efforts, and the plan was
therefore abandoned. But this disappointment was alleviated by an
unexpected and delightful encouragement. My parents, by blood and
matriage, gave a practical support and token of sympathy by author-
izing me to draw on them for the means of carrying out my fondly
cherished plan. And although I was fortunately able to go forward
without availing myself of this generous permission, it was of essential
service in the justification it afforded me in undertaking this work, upon
which I might not otherwise have ventured.

That this undertaking has thus far been less successful than the rest
of the work, many of you know; and I will not dwell upon the various
troubles, mortifications, and disappointments which have attended my
Struggles in this direction. A photographer was engaged in New
York by the friendly efforts of Mr. Rutherfurd, who caused him to be
instructed in his observatory, and sent him out to me, with all the neea-
ful apparatus and chemicals. But when, after his arrival in Cordoba, I
unpacked the photographic object-glass, the flint lens was found broken
In two, and all efforts to restore it to full usefulness proved fruitless.
Nevertheless, a contrivance was carried into effect by a skillful Swiss
watchmaker in. Cordoba, by means of which each of the broken pieces
was supported by three pairs of adjusting screws, thus permitting it to be

AN

278 OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

rought into position with sufficient nicety to yield results which, if not
perfect, will be at least very serviceable. Meanwhile, I resolved to
avail myself of the opportunities at my disposal for procuring a new
object. glass like the former, and sent the order to Mr. Fitz. But here,
too, the Argentine government was ready with its support, and not only
volunteered to assume the cost of the new lens, but expressed its desire
to provide the services of the photographer. This new lens arrived in
Cordoba many months ago, and although the person originally engaged
accomplished but little, and proved in the end unworthy, my plan
is by no means abandoned. The experience and knowledge already
acquired cannot fail to render essential service in the new attempt, and
the results of the Uranometry and the Zone-observations have enabled
me to complete and correct the list of southern clusters well adapted
for photographie determination. Meanwhile, the stellar photographs
already secured, although by no means what I had hoped, and very
dicpraperi annie in number to the expense and sacrifices which they
entailed, certainly possess a ligh scientific value. Repeated observations
of the principal stars of each group have been made with the meridian-
circle, for the purposes of fixing the scale of measurement, and of eontroll-
ing the reductions; and I entertain the confident hope that the relative
positions of mere than a dozen important southern clusters have thus
been secured in a form which is both very accurate, and as valuable for
future generations as for the present.

I have spoken of the liberality of the Argentine government. In
both its executive and legislative departments there are continual illus-
trations of the strong desire of the cultivated men of the nation to foster
the intellectual development and the scientific reputation of the country
by every neansin their power. I have mentioned the readiness of the
government to aid an astronomical expedition at the very time when all
the nation’s energies and resources were taxed to the utmost by the
struggle with the Paraguayan despot, Lopez, one of the most sanguinary
and ruthless tyrants in all history. At the time of my arrival in Buenos
Ayres this monster had been overthrown by the allied forces of Brazil
and La Plata, but internal rebellion, probably im part a consequence of
that struggle, still remained, and pressed heavily upon the almost ex-
hausted nation. Still there was not only ready support for the observa-
tory, but additional provision was made for its maintepance. Thus it
has been from the beginning to the present time, and the fact of such
readiness in a young nation to bear its part in scientific investigation
speaks for itself. Another illustration is afforded by the recently estab-
lished meteorological office.

The climatie relations of the vast territory of the Argentine nation
were a sealed book. Throughout the immense tract from the tropics to
the Straits of Magellan, and from the Atlantic to the Andes, the mete-
orologieal characteristics of the country were almost unknown. Only,
two or three small series of partial observations had ever been published,

\

OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 279

and these were not easily accessible. And although my powers were
already taxed to their utmost by the astronomical work, it seemed to
me that it would be disloyal alike to science and to the country to which
Towe so much gratitude and affection, did I not make some effort to
remedy this defect. In public communications and private conferences
I called the attention of the government to the need of such a national
meteorological office, and offered such aid as I could give. The mete-
orological office was thereupon established without opposition ; funds
being voted for the salary of a secretary, and for the purchase of instru-
menis, to be distributed to such competent persons as might be willing
to undertake systematic observations. This is the second year, and
means have now been provided for computing and publishing’ the obser-
vations received, and for purchasing yet more instruments. There seem
to be persons enough who are abie and willing to undertake the necvs-

sary labor, troublesome as'it is, and with no other stimulus than their

desire to serve science and their country. In three cases I have found.
gentlemen who have carried on observations of the sort during past
years, unaided and unencouraged. These have cordially offered all their
data, gratified at seeing their labors appreciated at last, and their results
put in the way of rendering service to science and the country. The
transportation of delicate instruments in the interior is extremely difficult
and hazardous. Outside the province of Buenos Ayres few railroads are
yet completed, and notwithstanding the recent efforts of the govern-
ment, there are as yet few roads over which a vehicle can safely pass
for any considerable distance. But I am gradually succeeding in con-
veying mercurial barometers, thermometers of various sorts, rain-gauges,
vanes, anemometers, &e., into remote regions, and the monthly reports
have already begun to flow in from various quarters. The principal
objects at first must be to interest and instruct observers, to provide
them with facilities, and to collect and reduce all possible data, old and
new, and subject them to careful study. Thus far I feel well satisfied.
with the interest already awakened, and I think that this young nation,
so long struggling with foreign enemies and internal dissensions, has
reason to be proud of the number, relatively large, even though intrin-
sically small, who are ready to work for her welfare and honor, without
hope of personal glory or emolument. A few years will afford material
for a knowledge of the climatic relations of various points; I shail then
hope for simultaneous observations in numerous places, and who knows
but the Argentine Republic may yet have an ‘‘ Old Probabilities” of her
own ? ‘

I cannot close this cursory but, I fear, tedious sketch of the results
of my undertaking, without referring again to the extreme friendliness
and kindness of the people. Not to dwell too much upon personal mat-
ters, let me say, once for all, that from no Argentine, high or low, have
we had other experience than cordial hospitality, fraternal kindness, or
respectful consideration. A heartier welcome, a Sincerer sympathy in

280 OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

weal or woe, we could hardly have expected in our own country. Iam
the more anxious to mention this, since I have seen paragraphs circu-
lating in the public press to the effect that some of our instruments
have been maliciously broken. If we should say “ wantonly,” the
statement would be true to some extent; yet not because the apparatus
was ours, but because its necessary exposure presents a tempting lure
for some half-civilized gaucho, fortified with a full complement of alco-
hol, to try the accuracy of his aim. All races have their weak points,
and our apparatus has fared far better than the new street-lanterns of
Cordoba; nor would it be fair to expect from the unbreeched and untu-
tored sons of the pampas, what I am assured could not be reasonably
expected from the youth of some portions of the United States.

The fact that the thoughtful men and leaders of opinion in the Argen-
tine Republic are awake to the educational and social needs of the
peeple, furnishes in itself a guarantee that these needs will continue to
be supplied. All the tendencies are toward progress. The vast terri-
tory of the nation possesses a population scarcely greater than that of
Massachusetts, and three-fourths of this is a mixed progeny of the
African negro, the South American Indian, and the Spanish peasant,
in which it is difficult to say which element predominates. To a sur-
passing agility and dexterity in the arts of savage life they join all that
sleepy indifference to improvement which the southern sun seems to
engender in the lower classes. With not the slightest lack of what is
called religion, they have a melancholy want of morality, and discrim-
inate broadly between the two, which indeed they consider to have little
to do with each other. Reading and writing are a rare accomplishment
among this class, and not even pecuniary stimulus to labor is of mueh
avail. Outside the cities, such elegances as pantaloons are rare, and
various accessories which we consider absolute necessities of civilized
life are unknown. Yet in constant intercourse with these people are
others, their own countrymen, refined, accustomed to opulence, and
desirous of contributing to the advancement of their native land. From
this class come the legislators; and happy is that land whose lawgivers
are taken from among the best educated and most patriotic! All the
national energies not requisite for self-defense or self-preservation are
now given to the development of the resources of the country, physical
and moral. Our four years’ observation has exhibited one continuous
series of essential improvements. Railroads and telegraphs are spring-
ing into being with marvelous rapidity, spanning the before limitless
pampas, and traversing the Andes. Roads, bridges, schools, and col-
leges have been almost doubled within my own experience. Mails are
crossing the almost trackless prairies, steamboats are exploring the
unnavigated rivers. And, more than all, these advances are not the
mere policy of a single administration, enlightened as this policy has
been; but they represent the spirst and determination of the ruling
classes, which the result of no election can restrict, but in manifesta-

OBSERVATORY AT CORDOBA, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 281

tions of which all parties vie. An impulse has been given to trade,
new comforts have been introduced, and the habits and usages are
growing more similar to those of other countries. In Cordoba, which
the residents of other parts of the country love to ridicule as the special
abode of bigotry and priesteraft, we have never suffered the smallest
discourtesy for our difference of creed, but a frank and cordial treat-
ment from clergy and laity alike. Buenos Ayres, like New York, is a
cosmopolitan rather than a national city, and can just as little be said
to represent the country of which it is the principal seaport. There we
find the luxury, the vice, and the strange contrasts which a great capital
always presents; but there, too, we find as earnest and enlightened a
patriotism as any country can boast or desire. Both cities will be for-
ever endeared to us by the memory of successful labors, of continual
kindness, of cordial aid, and, lastly, of the most tender sympathy.

RECENT ESTIMATE OF THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD.

By Ep. MaILiy.

{Translated from the French* for the Smithsonian Institution. ]

Nore.—The auther has made all his calculations in square kilometers. They have
been reduced by the translator to English square miles by the following formula:
1 square kilometer=.38614 square miles.

Attempts have been made at different periods to estimate the pop-
ulation of the world. Confining ourselves to recent times, in 1787
Biisching estimated the number to be 1,000,000,000. Until about fif-
teen years ago this number was still admitted as a base in arranging
the population according to the different races, religious creeds, &eé.
In 1858, M. Dieterici stated the number to be 1,283,000,000; that is,
not far from 1,500,000,000., MM. Behm and Wagner however , recently
estimated the ND: at 1,377,000,000.4

The difficulties of arriving at a correct estimate will readily be under-
stood. The present regularly-organized systems of census do not in-
clude more than one-fourth of the human race, while the numbers of
the remaining three-fourths have to be estimated from the reports of
travelers; and in using this only resource we are very frequently puzzled,
by obtaining contradictory results, from amid which nothing but care-
tul criticism can obtain an approximation to truth.

The ideal of the statistician would be to have a census taken of the
population on the same day and on the same ecnetdl plan in all the
inhabited parts of the world.

Probably this can only be attained at a future time, when people

become naturally precise ; still it should no longer be deemed chimerical.

A knowledge of the distribution of the population in the different
parts of the ¢lobe, or over the different countries which compose these
parts, has comparatively little value, unless accompanied by that of the
area of these countries, in which case we may calculate the relation
between the number of inhabitants and the surface of the territory over
which they are distributed.

*L’Annuaire de ’Observatoire royal de Bruxelles, for 1873, p. 128.

tIn the annual report of the observatory for the year 1859 was given an analysis of
the memoir ou the population of the earth, contributed by M. Dieterici iLO the Academy
of Sciences of Berlin in March, 1858.

{ Mittheilungen aus Justus Perthes’ geographischer Anstalt, von Dr. A. Petermann,
No. 33, 1872.

by

THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD. 283

The measurement of the surface of the earth is also to a considerable
degree uncertain; but it is much easier to approximate the truth in
this particular than in the case of population. Large triangulations have
been extended over considerable parts of the earth, while the form and
the dimensions of continents, by the determinations of latitudes and
longitudes, leave not much cause for doubt. After their value has been
ascertained, by employing a uniform standard of measure, we are finally
able to determine the superficies with a suificient exactness.

In the following work we intend to give a general idea of the late
researches of MM. Behm and Wagner, of which we previously made
mention. The authors do not propose to present comparative numbers
concerning the changes in the population of countries in which the
census is taken periodically, but have endeavored to obtain the most
probable actual number of the total population for each state from
the latest determinations. The areas are given by MM. Behm and Wag-
ner in German geographical square miles and in square kilometers, for
the reductions of which the following formulas have been employed:
1 German geographical mile, or 7; of a degree at the equator =
7420.43354 meters; 1 German geographical square mile = 55.0629081
square kilometers. We shall here give the areas in square miles;
but we also give the number of inhabitants per square mile, an element
which our authors have not calculated, but have reserved for another
publication. In order to facilitate the comparison of the different states
of Kurope, we add the proportional numbers relating to population and
to the area of the states, separately considered.

Population of the earth.

Inhabitants per

j q *& 7 *
Parts of the globe. Square miles.* | Population. Spare weal.

3, 787, 400 301, 605, 000 79. 63

16, 924, 600 724, 000, 000 45. 97

3, 425, 400 4, 365, 000 V27

11, 557, 460 192, 520,000 | 16. 66

15, 987, 000 84, 524, 000 0. 29

eset ee eae
Oba A ee eemiae eee aetes = oa osc ceeeshoelees ol, 681, 800 | 1, 377, 014, 000 26. 64

*Tn round numbers.

It must be borne in mind that the numbers in the fourth column rep-
resent only ratios; but if we should desire to reject fractions of inhab-
itants, it would become necessary to give the number per square league,
and to obtain this it would be sufficient to multiply the numbers of the
fourth column by 9. The result of this operation would be 717, 423, 11,
150, and 48, respectively, per square league, in Europe, Asia, Australia,
Africa, and America. For the earth, the number would be 240. We
might also consider the number of inhabitants per 100 square miles,
and then the decimals would disappear entirely, giving the results 7,963,
4,697, 127, 1,666, and 529; and by multiplying these numbers by .9, we
would re-produce those which represent the number of inhabitants per
Square league.

284 THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD.

L—EUROPE.

=)
As Proportions. —
gs
Ae E
Countries. Square miles. | Population. So =
4 <q oy
German\em pines asters ee eeeeeeee eee cee ee 208, 632 41, 058, 139 196. 80 5. 51 13. 61
ANUSIROATE LOHMAN, § Godino oakbos Hoe. cobaeoGsanDS 24), 363 39, $04, 435 149. 38 6.35 11.91
Principality of Lichtenstein: --.--- (5-02 La: 62 8, 320 US} EH) soca pomcllasagsase
Sywaitiz Seelam Use ees ene apse Ne pL 15, 993 2, 669, 147 166. 9 0. 42 0. 89
(Denmark. ess see ee 14, 754 1, 784, 741 120. 97 0. 39 0.5:
Faroe Islands and Iceland’.-.....---.---.---. 40, 269 79, 755 1.98 1. 06 0. 03
Sweden and Norway !.:c.5-- sic 2-0 255... 292, 891 5, 921, 525 20. 22 7, 133 1. 96
INGihHeWaAN Sita. eG eels net eon eee teoe eens e 12, 681 3, 688, 337 290. 85 0. 33 il, 22
Grand Duchy of Luxemburg..-...--...-..--. 999 197, 504 197. 00 0. 08 0. 07
Belgie eee aoc oe eb see ete scien eee 11, 374 5, 021, 336 441. 47 0. 30 1. 67
Great Britain.and Ireland. .-.........-.-...:-- 121, 122 31, 817, 108 262. 68 3. 20 10.55
Helgoland, Gibraltar, and Malta ---.....-.... 145 UGH SO sf MO 0 iooces == - 0.05
panes) 2200) Sab ae Gee SRR UG ee ie 204, 104 36, 469, 836 178. 68 5. 39 12. 09
Spain es ARERR Gee MGS ee a es 192, 978 16, 374, 844 84, 86 5. 10 5. 43
Canary Tslandstek Beast. Coe ue. ye ee 2, 808 267, 036 95.10 0. 07 0. 09
Portugal-s-s-leeseeee see eee se 34, 504 3, 995, 153 115. 80 0.91 1 BP
Aizores and’Madeinaae -cee- seen eee eee 1,311 365, 821 279. 04 0. 05 0, 12
INE MUOIKG OF AIMCO) > so5ososcocaboscsbeuseue 149 12, 000 BOL 04! 115s, Saeed eee
Tita yes se SO I ee BR) Ae Seles 114, 302 26, 716, 809 233. 74 3. 02 8. &6
Rniicipalityaot Mona cote sae seeet en esses 6 3, 127 OE essawaselbcuscess
Republictot(SaneMianino. =. 2-2) eae] eee} 22 7, 303 GbR |lcacosassieccese ‘.
ANUS Tia) IDUUNC NS) 5 de aodsoaosodueoseunecoeceS - 134, 003 10, 510, 000 78. 43 3.54 3. 49
RG AID NT Bhs AR UR ie PA hye 46, 713 4, 500, 000 96. 33 1.25 1.49
SC Tvs aye sense Scie Hy ot ili a Ue eo eee ont 16, 818 1, 319, 283 78. 45 0. 44 0. 44
MontGnecrowsiene ssn bee as on eee senescent 1,701 100, 000 58. 79 0. 05 0. 03
IBTISS Measels Bren “Soto hate Ma aneesa so Mera ae ne 2, 059, 335 71, 195, 405 34.57 | 54.35 23:61
GEST Gite te cee ee eee ayaa speedos fase 19, 354 1, 457, 894 75. 33 0. 51 0. 48
Ro bale sees ee eee ee ae eee ee | 3, 787, 413 | 301, 605, 227 79. 63 | 100.00 | 100.00

On a mere glance at the foregoing table we are astonished at the
greatness of the Russian empire; it occupies more than half of Europe.
Arranged in the order of their size, there follow Sweden and Norway,
Austro-Hungary, the German empire, France, Spain, Turkey, Great
Britain and Ireland, and Italy, all of which together do not comprise four-
tenths of the surface.

Ranged according to population, the above-named states will appear in
the following order: Russia, Germany, France, Austro-Hungary, Great
Britain and Ireland, Italy, Spain, Turkey, Sweden and Norway. Rus-
sia retains the first place, but the kingdom of Sweden and Norway
ranks with the small countries ; itis the least densely populated country
in Kurope, as is evident by examining the column of the preceding
table, headed “ Inhabitants per square mile.”

Passing over the very small countries whose population does not reach
one million, and which would furnish but illusory or exceptional results,*
we remark that there are two second-rate countries which rank in this
particular with the great powers, namely, Belgium and the Netherlands,
which have the greatest number of inhabitants per square mile, that
is, in the language of statisticians, have the densest population. They
are followed by Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Germany, France, ~

* Thus it is evident that we would not place in the front rank Helgoland, Gibraltar,
and Malta, on one hand, and Monaco, on the other, the densities of whose populations
reach the following numbers: 427.65 and 208.46 per square kilometer, or 1,106 and 521
per square mile.

THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD. 285

Switzerland, Austria, Denmark, Portugal, Roumania, Spain, Turkey,
Servia, Greece, Russia, and Swedea and Norway, the two largest countries
of Kurope being reduced to the lowest grade in regard to the density of
the population.

We shall now consider some of the great countries of Europe in de-
tail.

The following table shows the states which, combined, form the Ger-

man empire:
(a.)—GERMAN EMPIRE.

Inhabitants
States. Square miles.| Population. per square
mile.

a peas SiseG ep nIeHes
Kingdoms of—

GUSSIa IM ClLUGIN SAGA WENO UT My = s/s) =/-\=/ssi deo aos elele ee eee 134, 396 24, 691, 203 183. 72

TEEN GTEEY BA G6 Gen Bee BEES S ae AT MPS ones Hines ae ene tea 29, 294 4, 861, 402 165. 85

WAROMM ee ceet iste a ccie k Eve stpte yt eke opps Saetes Reber: jer tarpaltea 5, 780 2, 556, 244 442. 26

VW HaFE MTORR 6S 5 Ceoace doce spShAB ssopna coe acaososooeseuSss : 7, 533 1, 818, 434 241.42

Plo falaneeredemn te! visa tase Sus) pee waaeeen ds. 177,603 | 35, 927, 333 191.70

ean xd Cltosaasestaeisees «2 tse aQg= soe Oa oe SEE Etec ceceges 18, 942 8,571, 974 18€. 57

TOROMUGS) OBE SSIS Bo aU pan Cee ee are ic eee ee eee 4, 549 1, 019, 414 224.10

PIN GIPAMES) eee cae ekas - asa coco. .so5e dee eens a Da aeeied se 2,174 476, 262 219. 08

Re Gat OM Sie see as acc iala diel: Sufee Jase eR REE oclosincerctae 368 513, 697 1, 395. 91

PSasssothmIM Geen kee, .se' ujo- ese ho ola EE Ra cence ee 5, 596 1, 549, 459 276. 90

The above table shows that, among the kingdoms which compose the
German empire, Saxony is the most important in potnt of density of
population, the number of inhabitants per square mile even exceeding
that of Belgium.

The grand duchies are six in number, namely : Baden, Hessen, Meck-
fenburg-Schwerin, Saxe-Weimar, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Oldenburg.
The largest population is found in Baden, (1,461,428;) but it is most
dense in Hessen, amounting to 111.10 per square kilometer, or 287.61
per square mile, while in Mecklenburg-Strelitz it is represented by the
number 35.09 per square kilometer, or 92.17 per square mile.

The duchies are five in number, namely: Brunswick, Saxe-Meiningen,
Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and Anhalt, and the density of
their population is much more uniform than that of the grand duchies;
Saxe-Altenburg, however, excelling, having 107 per square kilometer,
or 278.53 per square mile.

The number of principalities is seven, namely: Schwarzburg-Rudol-
Stadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Waldeck, Reuss, (senior branch,)
Reuss, (junior branch,) Schaumburg-Lippe, and Lippe-Detmold, and
their combined population does not reach half a million. The least
dense population is found in the largest of these principalities, Waldeck,
being 50.14 per square kilometer, or 130 per square mile; while in the
much smaller Reuss (senior branch) it numbers 164.12 per square kilo-
meter, or 425 per square mile, thus showing a density of three times
that of Waldeck.

The free towns are Lubeck, Bremen, and Hamburg. In these the
density is very considerable, amounting in Hamburg to 827.21 per
square kilometer, or 2,142.25 per square mile.

286 THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD.

(b.)—AUSTRO-HUNGARY.

} Inhabitants
States. Square miles.) Population. | ber square

inile.
ANURMBR) -Asodo}esdodoosdoaadseesodes coodonsaneednosqobosc00R¢ 115, 916 20, 394, 980 175. 95
IBLE Ae soo emonaad UMN 2 ooodos Coo nee poocaonSecDecaedHoe moe 124, 447 15, 509, 455 124. 63

Austria consists of fourteen states, of which the most densely-popu-
lated are Austria proper, Styria, Bohemia, Moravia, and Galicia; Hun-
gary includes Hungary proper, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slavonia,
the Military Frontier, and the free town of Fiume.

(c.)—GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

. Inhabitants
States. Square miles.| Population. | per square
mile.

Great Britain:
Tava Fe pad Meg yy Cea UVR RSE eNO eta nL aN Dia 50,926 | 21, 487, 688 421.94
SOULS ed OO AG Rs ele ies De ea ead | RRR DE RE 7, 398 1, 216, 420 164. 42
SiC Of an cL ae Ras eee ee eet eccnerepaetera oie alc oie rea inital eye ei eretatoeters 30, 658 3, 358, 613 109. 44
Bis Venn OSes ve eae yee Bo aA Mae oth etere crore, A eeterajareevere ele siets 354 144, 439 408. 00
SNES ae ep en aD OL SE a 31, 756 5, 402, 759 170.13
Senos Oaks CE WHS COMMUN (> S5qsanco5 550s conaHobUsoodoedouooNcbollecoooabecccass PANE MS | coasosascosne

The foregoing table plainly shows that the density of population per
square mile in England nearly equals that of Wales, Scotland, and Ire-

land combined.
Il—ASIA.

Countries.

Square miles.

Russia in Asia 5, 944, 962

Turkey in Asia 672, 559
Arabiaggiresaaselt 1, 026, 104
IPO ES Ae ae ete sick eeiesieiae) Semlee ee cteenicls 636, 000
Afehanistan, including Herat 251, 180
BelOuehistantwee meee eee Sees eee sees 106, 774
iRiafinistamer2 sete tee sea 2 eb E te SNe ud 19, 958
Tie yea Nap MUSA Na GI 54, 208
Bolshama ees ee ee ee ine Oe eh ee 76, 305
TKeh Ola a ena ae Uaioe Jaycee wiarope ae lbe alanis 30, 020
Turconm ani ae ee eee espe citeierele sei sisaralate 144, 189
Other khang and territories of Tourou....-.. 134, 550
MMUnkes bam serseryetieyereire ercis ,oagDne0RR SONS 595, 428
CHD Mee aecleuonaoeiee eke isciiet wees etomemeiers 3, 742, 083
DRA Se ee ARNG RC farerraiay a tatareihort ek a 149, 408
Hither India sosccceceesesesesee ete eee 1, 558, 845
Ceylon eeepc ease eran see 24, 706
Ruanphe rin diay esse kaos eee isteiscreeeisci renege Py sil
TndianvArchipelagors faeces ae cers sislelcisiaisicl= 799, 408
HOE) MEER BR aSe Mn aor ostes ime ements 16, 718, 818
Caspian Sea.--. 178, 882
SeajofwAral 5). MOONS Se ce eee OR ety 26, 947
Total 5. G00 00008. so% eGGOUEN RS we 2)s 16, 924, 647

FY
2, 3 Proportions.
ie
Population. & 2 =
_ x] eS
P= =] ot a
SiS ® =
cae. ces
= <4 Ss
10, 730, 000 1.81 | 35.56 1.35
16, 463, 000 24, 48 4, 02 2.07
4, 000, 000 3.90] 6.14 0.50
5, 000, 000 7. 86 3. 80 0. 03
4, 000, 000 15.92 1.50 0. 50
2, 000, 000 18. 73 0. 64 0.25
300, 000? 15. 00 0.12 0. 04
1, 500, 000 27. 67 0. 33 0.19
2, 500, 000 Ozu) 0. 46 0.°32
200, 000 26. 65 0.18 0. 10
770, OCO 5. 34 0. 86 0. 10
2,000,0002) 14.87] 0.81 0.25
580, 000 0. 97 3. 96 0. 07
446, 500, 000 119. 32 Q2. 38 56. 22
34, 785, 3212 232. 82 0. 89 4.38
206, 225, 580 132 29 9. 32 25. 97
2. 405, 287 97.36 | 0.15 0. 30
21, 018, 062 27. 94 4.50 2. 65
32, 620, 000 40. 80 4.78 4.11
794, 197, 250 *47. 53 | 100. 00 100. 00

* This number differs a little from the one (46.97) given in the first table, in which the Caspian Sea

and the Sea of Aral were included in the area of Asia.

THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD. 287

From the above we see that the Russian empire, covering more than
half of the European continent, occupies also about three-eighths of the
surface of Asia. ‘China does not extend over much more than two-
tenths of the total surface; but, in the arrangement according to popu-
lation, it is entitled to the first place, followed by British India, Japan,
and the Indian Archipelago; these added together, include nine-tenths
of the entire population, while their total surface does not cover much
more ground than Russia in Asia.

In point of density Japan excels, nearly equaling the Italian king-
dom. Next, but at a considerable distance, follow En elish India,
China, and the island of Ceylon. The density of the Chinese empire
nearly equals that of Denmark.

We shall now examine more in detail some of the states presented in
the foregoing general table.

(a.)—RUSSIA IN ASIA.

Inhabitants
States. Square miles.| Population.*; per square

mile.
RD AIC SUS ere eerste ose rane Steel inj pinlncre ajers nell rsioei nes aerae arsine oleae ~ 169, 641 4, 661, 824 27. 48
SHIGA; 225 Ba3 Nee See ee ae ee a eee 4, 718, 283 3, 320, O27 0.75
Ciermnngelt AASIY 5c reyes oe ae SR 5 oe ge ea ee 1, 057, 038 2,740, 583 2,59

* The total is 10,730,034, while in the general table the round number, 10,730,000, has been giyen.

(b.. HITHER INDIA, INCLUDING BURMAH.

Inhabitants

States.

Square miles

Population.

per square
mile.

seein es] ss nln ch age ae niet fase) ctet 2) 2)ararefcloeralcselers orate oj atayal ravers coretee 910,809 | 159, 666, 428 175. 28
French possessions, (Pondicherry and Chandernagore) ...-.- 196 259, 981 1, 326. 43
Portuguese possessions, (Goa, Damaun, and Din) ..--.--..-- 1, 553 53, 283 34. 31
lindependentiStatessa--see\se to oe eis ites) hiew elas latent sine] 646, 187 46, 245, 888 71. 56

The extraordinary density of population in the French possessions is
explained by the fact that these possessions are reduced to the cities of

Pondicherry and Chandernagore.

The area of the territories belong-

ing to England is only double that of the more or less independent
States, but the population is about three and one-half times as large.

(c..—FARTHER INDIA.

Inhabitants
States. Square miles.) Population. per square
mile. .

[SUSE RI Dh cay ons cae Saat aes Cae cae eI Mes ei aaa pun 190, 529 4, 000, 000 21.00
rSHNEIPDY. es hehe SEAS SEA ESTER INL OR ai are a 309, 043 6, 298, 000 20. 38
ANTON SSE 6 Bae HES SSCS I GENE aes ae Oe ip ons SA tA eng pea 198, 655 9, 000, 000 45. 44
Wachim- Chinas ren chi jie aetna en nea cy ERNE nase mignon al 21, 718 1, 204, 287 55. 45
DIstrichotevial a c Cae ea eet eee ee nae eee ee 1, 084 306, 775 283. 0)
eminsulalote Malaccan ee seat ease elas lyseerie Hee ange 31, 702 209, 009 6. 58

ee

288 ‘PHE POPULATION

OF THE WORLD.

The relatively large density of population of the English establish.
ments in the distriet of Malacca is due to the nature of those establish-
Their populations are, Sing-
apore, 97,131; Malacca, 77,755; Penang and Wellesley, 131,889.

ments, which contain two important cities.

(d.)—EAST INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO.

States.

Islands of Sunda and Molucca
Philippines and island of Sooloeo
Groups of islands, (Laceadives, iMavarecas Po oS Vets SR ase eae

Square miles.

678, 512
114, 134
6, 761

Population.

25, 000, 000
7, 450, 000
170, 000

Inhabitants
per square
mile,

36. 84
65. 238
25. 14

The Dutch possessions in the Sunda Islands and in the Moluccas have

93,337,
4,319,269.

III.—AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

829 inhabitants; the Spanish possessions in the Philippines,

Inhabitants
Countries. Square miles.| Population. per square

mile.
Amaraelieny Corima@iniic sononG oadodeonacscensosancesobenanosasee 2, 945, 409 1, 565, 294 0. 53
IPRS Soassands onde docond cacsen puaoeonosooo GbbeeaasDu oon 480, 011 2, 800, 000 5. 83
FIG Gaensler patel aah ale 8 OND seca SALW RHR east 3, 425, 420 | 4, 365, 294 1.27

(a4.)—AUSTRALIAN CONTINENT.

Inhabitants
States. Square miles.| Population. per square

mile.
New Sout Wiales sic os ais tees reece ers slots mis estan nie ists iajstvetee 308, 579 501, 580 1. 62
AVGIGIDIO ENN els Mes En eyes penta aie Se Oy op eh een Seg ere neato 88, 456 729, 868 8. 25
SoutlyyAsts tral tare Sys ae cee wie eaters Pas Toner ec penta ean no ra 380, 626 188, 995 0 50
(Cir ieyen ois} Cah a bis at he Oe ed agaaaenanocdadeoddseoe 668, 300 120, 066 0.18
Wiest-Australia. > scecosecde eee Se erate nse wetitineeoeees 975, 884 24, 785 0. 02
RerricvonyzouneyNOrUhvemaeracceteeteeeeecer see eerremerc ree BPBROWE) Boononoeacadadienoconcoosacs

(b..—POLYNESIAN ISLANDS.

Inhabitants
States. Square miles.| Population. per square

mile.
‘TLasmania--..-ceascseetree se eee ee oe nee eee ee Ue SER ES 26, 217 99, 328 3-19
ING wii Zeal ain he eee eu eee iia ct aif ee eae ete oe tetera 106, 266 294, 028 Ql
Islands belonging to France or under French protection ER ai 11, 09x 78, 000 7.03
New Guinea... ss 274, 535 1, 000, 000 3. 64
Sandwich Islands 7, 633 62, 959 8.25
Spanish possessions, (Caroline, Palao, and Mariana Islands) . 1, 333 33, 610 Opa
Otheriislan dss sects see eee ee ee nee ee 52, 929? 1, 232, 075 23. 28

THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD. ' ID89

IV.—AFRICA.
Bs :
23 Proportions,
SSPE 4
States. Square miles. | Population. | = 2 =
ais GI
3 5 5 7S
ag $ e
a i) S
Lal <q a
INDENN AVHTCs55 585 cob o So bos ORB eB Gen EEE OUn Oeaeoe 4, 004, 000* 20, 420, 000* 5.1 ito Ie 10. 61
Mohammedan empire of Middle Soudan. ....-.--. 631, 096 38, 800, 000 | 61.48 5. 86 20.15
WEE SOCIO RSESSES BASE Ge ee ee ee oe 818, 617 38, 500,000 | 47.03 7. 60 20. 00
SBS ASO G55 as a a ae 1,594,758} 29,700,000 | 18.62 | 14.80] 15.43
Seren CAC ea ee 1, 966, 032 | 16,000,000} 814] 18.25 8.31
Equatorial territory ---..- Oe ARO MS San ASC ese 1, 522, 356 43,000,000 | 28.24 | 14.13 22. 33
Pelstandsim thepAtilamtic: --4-c2scs-.-----st ee. soe 2,723 99,145 | 36.41 0. 02 0.05
Islands in the Indian Ocean .----.-.-----.------- 233, 885 6,000,000 | 25.65 2.17 Sr12
EG haley! ie MSG 10, 773, 440¢| 192, 519,145 |.....-.. 100.00 | 100. 00

* Round numbers.

+ From the Senegal to the Lower Niger, including Upper Guinea.

t The ditference between this number and the one given in the general table of the world is due to
the fact that this table of the principal divisions of Africa does not include the interior lakes, the desert
of Kalahari, &e.

From the above table we learn that the northern and southern por-
tions of Africa, whose territories are proportionally the greatest, have
the least population. Middle Soudan, West Soudan, and the equatorial
region, which, combined, occupy only half as much surface, have a pop-
ulation tree and one-third times greater, which is the densest in Middle
Soudan.

(a.)—NORTH AFRICA.

Inhabitants
States. Square miles.| Population. per square
mile.

WIDRDOBRD scadessdossssedeue Soseecouueos oe seep corsosesrebsdcs 259, 601 2, 750, 000 10. 59
Alita 2 2 ne as BOE | eee Been ee 258, 328 2, 921, 146 Ti, Bil
Tunis ...... ia aT Ags GEIR NTC pant Ay ea Rn NR 45, 719 2, 000, 000 43. 74
Aripol with Barca and Mezzani-2--+-..ses-.----- sere 344, 437 750, 000 2.18
LEM OWco sade boeeaSeedasoos Aa sSeoesacoo S65 ade esos SeeduEEeouooS 659, 141 8, 000, 000 12. 14
Solara pees edn OR Ute: irae Res AEE RR SCORES 2, 436, 621 | 4, 000, 000 1. 64

The density of the population is about the same in Morocco, Algeria,
and Egypt, while that of Tunis is about four times as great.

(b..—WEST SOUDAN.

| Inhabitants.
States. Square miles.| Population. | per square
mile.

Senegambia, (Mrench)* 52 5 ees ooo socio oa psn nlairir ain 96, 535 209, 162 Peal
ILP OSHA Soacestnes: Soeosoages sare eaopHEas uo assueeoaoRe esoc ous 9, 576 718, 000 74. 98
TD pyrene sel Stee ae eee ee he AL ae Ree een ete ee 3,985 180, 000 45.17
to iShiPOSSESSIGNS see oh eee eleelaim wcll) oe Sa fae 17, 116 577, 313 33.73
Portuguese possessious § .s-..2 -2--------------2----2------- | 35, 880 8, 500 0. 24

* Senegal and dependencies.

+ American colony, founded in 1821, in Upper Guinea.

t Sierra Leone, colony founded in 1787, Gambia, Cote d'Or, Upper Guinea, and Lagos.
& In Senegambia and Guinea.

19s

290

(c.)}—-EAST AFRICA.

THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD.

Inhabitants
States. Square miles.| Population. per square
‘mile.
IN DSEMONAY 5 ab 54 bososb ob oeesosg oyoneS gucasdodaeedooss coogaese 158, 395 3, 000, 000 19. 00
(d.)--SOUTH AFRICA.
; Inhabitants
States. Square miles.| Population. per square
mile.
Portuguese territory, (on the east side) * ...---.- We ele ee ils 382, 279 300, 000 0.78
Portuguese territory, (on the west side) t ...-.--------------- 312, 542 9, 000, 000 22. 39
Colony of Cape of Good Hope.........-.--------------------- 221, 325 682, 600 3. 08
BINTCeaitecal Ses ett Se NN Sie a A a at alec ea bape yetedahauatotel chad pave 17, 803 269, 362 15. 13
Free State of Orange River .......-..----------------------- 42, 475 37, 000 0. 87
Republiciof rans yaa wens ea see cele ce ala eral lal 114, 365 120, 000 1.05
* Mozambique, Sofala, &c. + Angola, Benguela, Mossamedes.
(€.)—ISLAN DS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.
Inhabitauts
States. Square miles.| Population. per square
Tnile.
islandoWapenvierd erinse se epscr ee ene passa cle ne elise stele 1, 650 67, 347 40. 81
Islands of: Saint Thomas and Prince* ..-:..-.---------..----- 454 19, 295 * 42. 30
Islands of Fernando Po and Annobont .--..--. -----..--.---- 429 5, 590 -11. 43
ING CCTISIOM els] am Giese ere ane eetetore ela clones iestehetelsinlsistelniereleeieieiet 38 |.) oe CARER EOS EE
slandyofis aim tieel ena esen. satay smiamretysererinals).tslevelerssiote 47? 6, 860 145. 94
AUoiiehe Chaouitiney SOSH e eee ae ba Beas oddososososuoduscodse 45 53 1.18
* To Portugal. + To Spain. t To England.
(he \—-ISLANDS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN.
Inhabitants
States. ‘Square miles.| Population. per square
mile.
DSLOXCLOL Gee PR ete? Cas ela teal gene HR lH eat AS UU 1, 701 3, 000 1. 76
MAN Cle Cutter aioe ate = tia|aysiseieitins io alclnlcteinietin Siesie minora Deeeeeslnine 64 100 1. 56
REN BNG Ale EA ny pS Sh RA re PT Mee aE a es 617 380, 000 615. 89
Miadaeascare ss ses ssst ses simese wesc se 228, 588 5, 000, 000 21. 87
Comoro Isles, (with Mayotto)-... 1, 062 64, 600 60. 83
PONE vAwCOMMS| aim MSN SE Cees ee eee ae ence ae yaya pe a acc cee Na LAI Me see LL NG ARR) RR pea
GUDLOMALS) ANGRY EE A DE ARR CEO OSES eine US eG yas 970 209, 737 216. 22
Mauricejandidepanderciesiy sseeicceel ee seeaaneesce eee eet 708 322, 924 456. 11
* To France. t To England.
V.--AMERICA.
w 3
Ag Proportions.
£3 —-
‘ 3 =| A
States. Square miles.| Population. | = 92 <
Si S S
Ge a aH =
c 4 8
ANNO C WAI Cri Casey ean ae eae na tte ee fac eet 8, 658, 122 51, 964, 000 6.00 | 54.46 61. 48
GentraltAmerica eee ae 188, 387 2, 671, 000 14.18 1.19 3. 16
IVAEST HR ATES Se Pee ie Sale WS Tee 91, 664 4, 214, 000 45. S7 0.58 4.99
SoutheAmmerica see asia Se ay ene lee yee ara ea 6, 959, 015 25, 675, 000 3.69 | 43.77 30. 37
SO Cay eu pay No a NS SL a ee a 15, 897, 188 84, 524, 000 5.31 | 100.00 | 100. 00

THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD.

(a.)—NORTH AMERICA.

291

BH
ag Proportions.
mel
i aa FI
States. Square miles.| Population. se Be
2s a a
e
eels B
a <q AY
Greenlandseeer esos een tee ere as a ea 159, 861 10,000 |.....--. 8.78 0. 02
British possessions}......-...-------------------- 3, 524, 370 3, 888, 557 1.10) 40.7] 7. 48
IRSA ME cooks cosoCONSODODUOBOEUE Ub See Obo0Nu5 24 TOE DS ee eiac el laocesoon 0. 02
St. Pierre and Wihigie@) Win ao 46cocndoe ses acccosocuKe 8L SMO eevee 45.5 eee 0. OL
Wrimbedl States renee seco cise S01 clnnee owe secs ales 3, 612, 068 38, 877,000 | 10.76] 41.72 74. 82
IVI XG C CSN Se etal iape ia cla letsl saints cicle claimaicicieleieais's 761, 718 9, 175, 052 12. 04 8.79 17. 65
* To Denmark. .
} Comptising Canada, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island.
+ To England.
(b.)\—CENTRAL AMERICA.
a :
a 6 Proportions.
me a
States. Square miles.| Population. a ) se
8 ‘ 8
ae 3 3
sl cw 2 a
q | iS)
= <q Ay
Republic of Guatemala........-.-...---.- Biel 40, 781 1,180,000 | 2893 | 21.65 44.19
Republic of San Salvador........-.-.------.----- 7, 336 - 600,000 | 81.79 3. 89 22.47
Republic of Honduras..........--.--- peu beaaees 47, 095 350, 000 7.43 | 25.00 13. 10
Republic of Nicaragua .....-...-.--------.------ 58, 174 350, 000 6.01 | 30.88 13. 10
Republic of Costa Rica...--..--..--.------..---- : 21, 496 165, 000 7.67 | 11.41 6.18
Bit sh Honduras) j--ce1j- cise <eeoie= «ls -eloisie cle 13, 501 25, 635 1,90 7.17 0. 96
(c..—WEST INDIES.
I °
S é Proportions.
aE J
States. Square miles.| Population. | so P=
Bs 8
3 3 5
Be ete
A <q ay
Spanish possessions* .......---------------cenees 49, 483 2,068,870 | 41.81 | 53.98 49.10
English possessions}..--..------------+----++---- 12, 636 1,054,116 | 83.42} 13.79 25. 01
French possessions}.----...---------+----------- 1,017 306, 244 | 301.12 1.11 4 27
DD UGChyPOSSESSIONS Hae ees oie Selniw we el eisielel-ieeeonic sce 368 SorABoall eee ecee 0. 40 0. 84
Danish possessions .........-.- Pe Apes SEN aa as 119 Boer Weosnoous 0.13 0. 90
Swedish possessions.........--.------------+---- 8 ON SOR) meee 0. 01 0. 07
Republi crotelary tie ean enuies aN VR A 10, 206 572,000 | 56.04 | 11.13] 13.57
Republic of San Domingo .........-..-.--------- 17, 828 136, 500 7.66. | 19. 45 3. 24

* Cuba and Porto Rico.
{ Jamaica, Barbadoes, Tabago, Trinidad, &c.
t Martinique and Guadaloupe and dependencies.

292 THE POPULATION OF THE WORLD.

(d.)—SOUTH AMERICA.

fu
& 3 Proportions.
Qo
i , aa a
States. Square miles.) Population. | 2% BS
a= | =
2s . =
e 3s
cially S
i) <q Ay
SBiEVAILA Coooanpeioeodae qooOboKgoRsodb ous boeseacco0Ne 3, 253, 230 10, 000, 000 3.07 | 46.74 38. 95
Mrench Gulanaeeeeceescccetestee eee ee ear 39, 081 25, 151 0. 71 0. 50 0. 10
Dut ehyGwianaaceaeeecamateseee ists eeleeatseterelaiaiel= D9, 802 59, 885 1. 00 0. 86 0. 23
Iso, (Chop soooosackosqoososacooueadscoumsad. 99, 933 152, 932 1.53 1. 43 0. 60
WGHGYAIE Pisa 6 sacko sed saacooounuddcemadacaos0aosu6 368, 262 1, 500, 000 4. 08 5. 29 5. 84
United States of Colombia.........--.--.----.--. 357, 180 3, 000, 000 8. 40 5. 13 11. 69
TROMEVIKPs suacdassenoeddsoodscoseadbaococseS wcooS 21, 941 1, 300, 000 5. 94 3. 15 5. 06
Gallapagos Islands ..........-..----------------- PU Syl ewab nate seellmaneaeas C04 eee
IEGIED podassdosodedooocoouNs Geoab0dKuboopsodcoudsls 510, 477 2, 500, 000 4. 90 7. 33 9. 74
IRONING Sonddooodoad adoasboaonnHddocosbodbodeneS 535, 962 2, 000, 000 3.73 7. 10 veut)
(Glib, soe susesoueabeceou coueenqeascu coduaconoGde 132, 624 2,000,000 | 15.08 1.91 179
Argentine Confederation SIS SeE a Sh Rea 871, 904 1, 812, 000 2.08 | 12.53 7. 06
Patagonia and Terra del Fuega...---.----..----- 376, 487 24,000). 2.2228. 5. 41 0. 09
Paraguay Sdacbaddoosacuoagaae 5s 63, 790 1, 000, 0002) 15.67 0. 92 3. 89
Wiru gua yyeesen ese eee a He 66, 725 300, 000 4.50 0. 96 1.17
Falkiand Islands 4,741 G8ONiaeeenee O.0%-)ceceete
Aurora Island and Georgia Tbisliin Besa neaaaueseo lseadcuos (83 osooecce

In examining the above tables one will at once be astonished at the
disproportion between the population of North and South America.
While their areas are in the proportion of 10 to 8, their populations are
_in the proportion of but 10 to 4.9.

The population of the United States forms nearly three- faiths of the
North American and nearly one-half of the entire American population.
Though its area is about the same as that of the British possessions, it

has nearly ten times the population.
While the area of Mexico and that of Greenland are the same, their

populations differ in the proportion of 917 to 1.

Among the small republics in Central America, Guatemala has the
largest population; but, in regard to density, San Salvador excels.
They all combined have a much denser population than the United
States and Mexico.

In the West Indies the Spanish possessions occupy the first place,
not in regard to extent, but to population. But, with an area of about
one-fourth that of the former, the English possessions have a popula-
tion of more than half their number; that is to say, twice the density.
The density of population in the French possessions is still greater,
attaining the number of 116 per square kilometer, or 300 per square
nile.

Brazil occupies the first place in South America. Its territory ex-
tends over nearly as much ground as that of the United States or of the
British possessions in North America, but its population, though a little
denser than that of the latter, is much less than that of the former
country.

The greatest density is found in Paraguay and in Chili, approaching
that of the kingdom of Sweden and Norway in Europe.

ON WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

By ARTHUR Morn,
Director of the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, Paris.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by Clarence B. Young. ]

[General Morin, the author of this manual, has long been known as
one of the most distinguished technologists of the French Academy.
The translation and publication of his work on warming and ventilation
will doubtless be considered a valuable additien to the English biblio-
graphy of the subject.—J. H.]

1. The means for producing warmth and ventilation are so closely con-
nected, especially during the cold season, that it is almost impossible
to treat them separately, even in such a review of the teachings of
‘science and experiment as the present, and hence both these subjects
have been included in the title.

WARMING.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

2. Heating-apparatus.—We may consider forms of heating-apparatus
in three different respects:

‘1. In regard to economy of fuel.

2. In regard to effect on health.

3. In regard to comfort.

For heating places occupied but for short periods, such as the vestibules
of public buildings, stairways, waiting-rooms, and even churches, the
first of these considerations should decide the choice of apparatus.

For occupied buildings, however, the second consideration should
have more weight; and bere we may give as a rule that every heating-
apparatus or system of heating which does not provide in itself for an ample
and regular change of air, or which is not connected with suitable arrange-
ments for producing such a change, is injurious to health.

In regard to the third consideration, while it is often opposed to the
first, it is closely connected with the second, since there can be no
method of producing pleasant warmth but such as is also healthful.

In the rapid review of heating-apparatus which we shall make under
these three heads we shall distinguish between those used for special
purposes and those for general heating.

294 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.
OPEN FIRE-PLACES.

3. At the head of comfortable and healthful forms of heating-appa- -
ratus used within buildings are placed open fire-places, of which two
different kinds may be distinguished: a

1. Ordinary fire-places. a “#5

2. Ventilating fire-places.

The remarks which will be made in regard to the first, and the
proportions suitable for them, will also apply to the second, which, in-
deed only differ by having some special arrangements.

COMMON FIRE-PLACES.

Two distinct types may be considered. The first,
which is the one most frequently met with, consists
of a chimney of proper size, connected with the
hearth at the bottom by means of a more or less
narrow opening, the lower part of which forms the
passage which Rumford called the throat of the
ehimney, (Fig. 1.) On the upper part of the flue
is placed a sort of ajutage, called a chimney-shaft
when built of bricks or tiles, and chimney-cap when

Fig. 2. made of terra-cotta, (Fig. 2.) The opening
for the escape of the smoke is much smaller
| than the sectional area of the main flue.
\ This type is almost the same as that de-
vised by Rumford, and which bears. his
name; but while he pointed outitsadvantages
over the old forms of chimneys in regard to draught,
he did not determine the correct proportions of the 7
several parts. Wi

In the second type, often met with in the upper stories of houses in
Paris, the flue, which is usually cylindrical, has the same sectional
area throughout. It has been recommended by M. Peclet, in his treatise
on heat, as proper for every case; but its use should be restricted to
very small chimneys, and, in general, to cases where stoves are used for
heating.

4. General advantages and disadvantages of ordinary fire-places.—Ordi-
nary fire-places, which cause the removal of a considerable amount of
air, and, therefore, the change of that in the apartments, present the
incontestable advantage of forming a healthful mode of heating. But
thé air which is removed must necessarily be replaced by the external
air, entering usually through the loose joints of the doors and windows,
thus causing currents of cold air, which become more unpleasant the
greater the size of the chimney or the stronger the draught produced by
the fire. Consequently, as Rumford says, “the draughts chill one part
of the body, while the rest is roasted by the fire in the fire-place, and
this cannot but be injurious to health.” . All have noticed these effects

MQ GQq

MOV
WS

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. 295

near a large fire-place in which a strong fire is burning. It is especially
in the large rooms of country-houses that these effects are most appar-
“ent and unpleasant.*
In other and frequent cases—especially in Paris, owing to the con-
- fined kitchens, the proximity of water-closets, and the application of
. weather-strips to the joints of doors and windows—the draught of a
chimney in which a strong fire is burning is supplied in part by the air
which has passed through those places, thus introducing into the living-
rooms unpleasant and unwholesome odors.

5. Heating-effect of ordinary fire-places—The hot air from the fire
passes out of the chimney at a temperature often at 140°, 175°, 212°, or
‘more. It carries with it and diffuses in space, without useful effect, the
greater part of the heat given out by the fuel.t This loss is as great
as six-sevenths, seven-eighths, and more, of ‘the heat produced, so that
what can be called the heating-effect of an ordinary fire-place scarcely
exceeds 12 or 14 per cent. of the total amount of heat produced by the
fuel. It is necessary then, while retaining the advantage of a quick
change of-air, to restrict the amount and the temperature of the escaping
air to that necessary to maintain the healthful condition of the room
and the force of the draught.

6. Proportions necessary to secure change of air and draught.—A com-
men chimney of the proportions usually adopted at present in Paris
removes in an hour on an average an amount which equals and often
exceeds five times the capacity of the room it is intended to warm, and
this change of air will be sufficient in rooms of the usual size to secure
a ventilation of over 1,000 cubie feet of air an hour for each person,
supposing there be more than one for every 10 square feet of floor-room.

Again, in order that the draught should be sufficiently strong and
unaffected by the wind, it is only necessary that the products of combus-
tion should escape with a velocity of 10 feet a second in the case of a
fire of average intensity ; but it is unnecessary, and even injurious, to
have so great a velocity in the main flue, where it should be only from 3
to 7 feet.in a second, which is secured by making the flue sufficiently
large.

The theoretical discussion of the conditions of the motion of air in
chimneys, and the results of experiment, lead to the following rules for
the proper proportions for chimneys in dwelling-houses.t

7. Proportions of flues and shafts for private houses.—For dwelling-
houses in the city or in the country, only a few stories high, where the
walls that the flues are built in are of sufficient thickness, the chimneys.
may be made of common bricks, and then the proper dimensions for the
flues as well as for the shafts at the top, according to the size of the
room, may be determined by the table given on the next page.

* Essais politiques, économiques et philosophiques du comte de Rumford, t, ler, p. ol.
t Etudes sur la ventilation, tome ler, chap. 3, pp. 295 et suivants.

296 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

It may be remarked that the dimensions of flues given for rooms
with an area of 10,000 cubic feet are quite large, and that it would be
difficult to exceed them without causing the great annoyance which is
experienced in large flues, that of causing descending currents of smoke
when the fire is kindled.

It will, therefore, be better in warming such large rooms to use a
heater in addition to the fire-place.

ais Flues. Shafts.

. o

8 S'S

S ay Of a re iy a a

A o Be s Rectangular. 2&8 eS Rectangular. Qs
om os & Ag 43 Ag ae)

= OR || 2 2 i= S 8 aa

eo Be aa $8 ae
3 Gai 3 Length. ‘| Breadth. Be S Length. | Breadth. Be

Cubic ft. | Cubic ft.| Sq.in. |Ft. In. |Ft. In. |Ft. In. Sq.in. |Ft. In. In. Ft. In.

3, 932 17, 658 144 |i. 2, 9-16'0.> 9, 13-16 |0. 11, 1-2 U2) ss ab 5, 1-2 | 0. 7, 1-2
4,226 | 21, 189 172 |1. 2, 9-16/0. 11, 13-16|0. 11, 3-16 86 1. 2, 9-16] 5,78 10. 81-4
5, 296 26, 487 213 |1. 6,1-8 |0.11,13-16/1. 1 108 /1. 1,11-16 8 0.9, 7-8
6,356 | 31,784] 258 |1. 9,58 |0.11,13-16|1. 2,1-2 129 1. 4,18 8 0.10, 3-16
7, 769 38, 847 316 |1.10, 13-16)1. 1, 11-16]1. 3,3-4 158 |1. 7, 11-16 8 0.11, 3-16
10, 382 45, 910 373 |1.11, 18-16)1. 3,3-4 |1. 5, 5-16 186 /1. 11, 5-8 8 i. 0, 3-16
10,595 | 52,973 430 |2. 2 1. 33-4 |1. 61-2 215 |1.11,5-8 9 ieus

8. Proportions of flues and chimney-caps in apartment-houses.of many
floors.—In cities where houses are built of many stories to rent in flats,
especially in Paris, chimneys are built of bricks of special forms or of
pottery-ware pipes, on the top being usually placed cylindrical caps of
the following dimensions:

Sectional
Number of the pattern. Diameter. aoe
Inches. Sq. mM.
Te TE iS ee a see ron a in ST ant ee UR ts sto St aa Caen SE SOR Saeco 9, 13-16 76
Gs ear I MY Le NSS REN ai UIA UNSER Ol Wis oo 8, 11-16 59
Dee HBAS SS ROSH e EEE CEBGEESMcaA te 6 dnc COSDAD AEH aOR OSOBOeaERCedeD deovoeceaS 7, 1-2 44
AIST ARRAN SRE RIA RE SRS UE ee SL SS ES I ed ithe | I Sel SN Sy Nar ayicibbayura eta tar atata rete 6, 5-16 31

Three types of pottery-ware pipes may be distinguished :
9. First type, pipes made in sections called wagons.—(Fig. 3.)—They

Upon Y;

Y

are placed in the thickness of the partition-walls or in the face of the
wall and forming part of it. Of these there are five different patterns
‘or numbers, the proper one to be used depending upon the size of the

rooms to be warmed and the thickness of the walls in which they are
‘to be placed. *

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED, BUILDINGS. 297

The number of the pattern of pipe and cap to be used may be deter- ©
mined by the following table:

Table of wagon-shaped pipes and caps to be used according to the thickness of walls and the
size of rooms.

Ge Set Cee Ge Co

g © B Internal dimen- eS 3 aie Sia 3 >

zB GB B I sions. Lo) aS a a a 5 ie sis
Capacity of room. Bie 22 ee Pa OUSh Mesic — of

gi as. SOI ESI IS Gh ll as

S &, Length. | Breadth. iS 3 a 5 © & 2 = = 2 4

Cubic feet. Ft. In. Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Sq. in. Sq. in
3, 532-4, 944.......-. 1. 7, 11-16 1 1.1, 1-4 0. 8, 1-4 111 1 76 1.45
OY a3) dbo aeaeeene 1. 4, 1-2 2 0.11 0. 8, 1-4 91 2 59 1. 54
0) (sP—3} GRY oogo be 1.3, 3-4 3 0.10, 3-16} 0.8. 1-4 85 2 59 1. 43
© 825-3, 532......... 1.1,3-8 4 | 0.10,5-8 | 0.8, 1-4 a8 2 59 1.49
15992919. 2. 0.9, 13-16 5 Onmv7-@tn)| 07s 1e16 51 4 31 1.78
1. 54

10. Second type, pipes made in sections called measures, designed for chim-
neys which project from the wall against which they are built.—(Fig. 4.)—

fig. h.

OO
aod

These pottery pipes are thin and have a mean height of 1 foot 9 inches.
They are made in six numbers, which may be selected by the particulars
given in the following table:

Dimensions of pipes made in the shape of measures and of the corresponding caps to be used
according to the size of the place to be warmed.

Internal dimensions. Number | Sectional Ratio,
Size of place to be | Number Area of flue.| of corres- |area of pas- A
warmed. GispIPERs| Raa al| Se A ponding sage, _—
Length. | Breadth. cap. A! A!
Oubic feet. Inches. Inches. Sq. inches. Sq. inches.

3, 532-4, 944 2.22... 1 11, 13-16 9, 13-16 116 1 62 1.53
2, 825-3, 5382... 2.2... 2 9, 13-16 8, 11-16 85 2 59 1. 44
2, 119-2, 825 ........- 3 9, 13-16 6, 5-16 62 3 44 1. 42
eal = 2820 Aa eee 4 8, 11-16 7, 1-2 65 “3 44 1. 48
1, 589-2, 119 ......... 5 7, 1-2 6, 11-16 ol 4 31 1. 62
6

6, 5-16 5, 1-8 SOU MM [ec ane an NOTE UR y 1.50

ES,

‘}
298 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

11. Observation.—It will be seen that these pottery flues are only
suitable for rooms of ordinary size, and would be entirely insufficient for
large reception-rooms.

12. Third type, arch-shaped pipes called Gourlier’s.—( Vig. 5.)—

7 2 S ° é Yj
This form of pipe is only employed for small chimneys or where Zi
° : 5 ‘ Y
stoves are used. The sections are molded in the form of vous- Dy

RG

soirs, and four are joined together to form the flue. Their thick-
ness is usually 22 inches. There are only two patterns, one 7
forming a passage of 913 inches in diameter, or 76 square inches Via :
in area, designed for walls 1 foot 744 inches thick; the other
having an internal diameter of 814 inches, or 59 square inches
in area, used for walls of 1 foot 33 inches in thickness. These /
flues can only secure ventilation in very small rooms, and should
not have caps placed on them. Their use is generally limited
to rooms warmed by stoves.
VENTILATING FIRE-PLACES.

Ly

ILS WESSUSUX

~ N
\\ A N
=< SO KRSR A

13. These fire-places, the main idea of which is not new, are,
like many other plans proposed by build-
ers, intended to utilize more effectually
than the common forms the heat given
out by the fuel by introducing a consid-
erable quantity of fresh air, warmed to a moderate
degree, to replace that which has passed up the
chimney, and also to reduce the amount of cold
air entering from the outside through the cracks
of thedoorsand —
windows. But. ’
while the plans Y
at first pro- 7
posed drew in Z
but a small
quantity of
fresh air, scarcely equal to one-tenth of that pas-
sing out through the chimney, and raised it to
temperatures of from 200° to 250° and often more,
the forms devised by the ingenious Capt. Douglas
Galton for the fire-places of English barracks
- have furnished —,
a very Satisfac- /
tory solution of /
the problem, as /
hasbeen proved 4
Zz, DY Some experi-
“ments made
with two fire-places of this kind at the Conservatory of Arts and Trades.*

at H

WE

S

My

* Annales du Conservatoire, 68 volume, 1866.

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. 299

Figs. 6, 7,8, 9, 10, show that these fire-places consist of an ordi-
nary grate for wood or coal, completely separated from the wall behind.

cial
pf);

ty,

Y.

from that passing off up the

The flue, as far as to the top of the room to be
warmed, consists of a cast-iron pipe placed in the
center of a shaft extending to the ceiling, and
into the latter passes the external air admitted
from below, on the side or at the back, according
to local conditions.

Near the ceiling the shaft through which the
external air has passed and been warmed con-
tains an opening fitted with inclined slats, which
direct the air toward the top of the room. This
opening should contain a register, which may be

. easily opened or closed according as the fire is

bright or dull.
‘Observation shows that with
the dimensions given below
the amount of air thus intro-
duced at 80° differs but little

chimney, so that the admission
of cold air through the doors
is almost prevented. This in- —
troduction of. warm air, in ad-
dition to the warmth produced
by the ordinary radiation from
the fire, increases its heating-

|

effect, which becomes as much as 35 per cent. of the heat produced by
the fuel, while the common forms of fire-place give but 12 or 14 per cent.,
and those supplied with Fondet’s apparatus but about 20 per cent.

14. In every building where this form of fire-place can be used it is
evident that it should be preferred to all others, and in its construction
the proportions given below should be followed.

It is well to add that most forms of iron grates suitable for burning
coal or coke are easily adapted to this form, provided that it be possible
to provide for the admission of the external air.

Size of room to be | Amount of air to be | Sectional area of | Sectional area of | Sectional area of
warmed. changed every hour. smoke-pipe. shaft. fresh-air flue.
Cubic feet. Cubic feet. Square inches. Square inches. Square inches.

3, 532 17, 658 B78) 39 Q17
4, 238 21, 190 93 47 260
4, 297 26, 487 116 58 326
6, 357 31, 784 140 70 391
7, 770 38, 848 171 85 AUT
9, 182 45, 911 202 101 564

10, 595 52, 974 233 116 651

300 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

Above the room to be warmed, the warm-air shaft is discontinued and
the flue carried up in the usual way. If, however, it be desired to use
the shaft for warming rooms above, it may be prolonged ; a register being
fitted to it at each floor to regulate its action. ;

The hearths of these fire-places should be arranged as in common fire-
places. They should be made of cast iron, and the fire-place lined with
fire-brick if coal or coke is to be used. A movable blower should be
arranged to be used for kindling the fire.

15. Observation relative to large rooms.—It is proper to repeat here that
the dimensions given for these ventilating fire-places cannot be much
increased, even for the largest rooms. But while two fire-places of the
usual form, placed in the same room, often interfere with each other,
the same difficulty is not experienced with ventilating fire-places, which
supply themselves with the air necessary for draught.

Still, in such cases, it is better, in addition to the fire-places, to employ
heaters, arranged according to the principles given further on, to be
chiefly used in warming vestibules, stairways, corridors, anterooms,
&e., only introducing into the living-rooms warm air, which has the
moderate temperature of 94° to 100° in the upper portions.

STOVES.

16. Domestic use.—Stoves, usually placed within the room, form the
most economical method of heating. Those which are made of poree-
lain, sheet-iron, or cast iron, without hot-air passages, and deriving
their supply of air from the rooms in which they are placed, give out
into the rooms they warm 85 to 90 per cent. of the heat produced by the
fuel. (Fig. 11.)

But the amount of air which passes through
the stove and escapes up the chimney is only
about 80 cubic feet to each pound of wood
burned, from 96 to 112 cubic feet to each
pound of coal, and from 160 to 192 cubic feet
to each pound of coke, even with a brisk fire.
Stoves of this kind only produce a very slow
change of air, equal, at most, to one-tenth the
capacity of the place warmed, the air of which
consequently would only be completely changed
by them once in ten hours.

Warming by means of stoves is, then, evi.
dently injurious to health. They have, besides, §
the defect of causing considerable differences 777 LED,
between the temperatures which prevail at H Z Y//
different heights. These differences may be
as much as 18° or 20° in rooms 18 to 16 feet
high.

17. Injurious effects produced by cast-iron |
stoves.—Cast-iron stoves are much more inju- —4
rious than porcelain ones on account of the great and irregular heating of

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. oO0L

their sides. They are usually so badly made that they should not be used
in dwellings. According to some recent direct and careful experiments*
made in 1867 by H. Deville and Troost, cast iron, at a red heat, readily
allows the passage of gas, especially hydrogen and carbonic acid, which
explains the very injurious and even poisonous effects produced by the
use of stoves in the rooms of a dwelling. At best, they should only be
used for warming passages and such rooms in the house as are frequently
opened, or in which the air may be easily changed.

Stoves made of porcelain or sheet-iron are far preferable, and are not
subject to the same defects, but they do not secure a more rapid change
of air.

It is proper to add, however, that, for some years back, stove-founders
have been striving to improve cast-iron
stoves, the imperfections of which, though
not at first so well known, were still per-
ceived. Stoves are often made at present
so that after the fire is started, the opening
of movable doors or the removal of blowers
converts them into grates detached from
the wall, and able, with sufficiently large
chimneys, to produce ventiiation similar
to that of ordinary fire-places. In addi-
tion to these plans, many forms of which
are made in foundries, if a fire-brick lining,
which is easily renewed, be placed in the

stoves, the essi and 1d Wu“; ar
ves, excessive and sudden over __J

heating of the iron and the rapid destruc-
tion of the metal will be prevented, and _
the unpleasant effects resulting from the Uj
use of cast-iron stoves much diminished.

Similar arrangements might also be in-
troduced into those little furnaces used at
the same time for warming the room and
for cooking; as well as in the construction
ef hot-air furnaces.

18. Stoves with circulation of hot air.—When the air which passes
through the pipes and out through the hot-air openings is taken from
the room itself, the previously-mentioned unpleasant effects continue,
and, besides, since the air from these openings is at a temperature often
above 212°, they injuriously affect ‘the people near them, and are un-
healthful. :

If the hot-air passages and the draught be supplied from the external
cold air, a part of the heat given out by the fuel being employed to
warm this air, the heating-effect of this apparatus will be slightly
increased, because the escaping gases will be less warm; but it will not

* Comptes rendus del’ Académie des sciences, 13 janvier 1868,

302 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

be less unhealthful, beeause the hot air which it furnishes is always at
an excessively high temperature.

The removal of the foul air of the room, also, is rather diminished
than increased, since the temperature of the escaped gases is less.

19. Stoves with circulation of air made on the model devised by the late
René Duvoir and the General Gas-Light Company.—These stoves, with
which some schools in Paris are provided, and which are recommended
to the public by the General Gas-Light Company for coke-burning stoves,
utilize 67 per cent. of the heat produced by the fuel.

The escaping products of combustion often have at 13 feet from the
fire a temperature of 750° or more. The warm air which passes into
the room is as high as 392°, and its volume is only 800 cubic feet for
each pound of coal burned, because the passages provided for it are
much too small. Those of the usual proportions only produce a change
of air of about 2,119 cubic feet an hour, or 352 cubic feet to the pound
of coal. They are consequently unhealthful, and do not merit the name
of ventilating stoves, which some makers give to them. In order
to make them cheap, most stoves of this kind are made with the
total heating-surface scarcely equal to twenty times that of the grate,
while it should be at least three or four times as much. The surface of
the hot-air passages is scarcely equal to that of the grate. This should
also be three or four times as much, to increase the amount of air
introduced and to reduce the temper ature!

The chimney has an area equal to 18 per cent. of that of the stove.
It would be well to double it to secure at least a more rapid change of
air; but then the heating-eftect of the apparatus would be materially
reduced.

20. Portable heaters—Chaussenot’s and similar models.—(Fig. 13.)—
This builder has made, for large rooms, hall-ways, &c., stoves with hot-
air circulation, which are true heaters, because, before escaping into
the air, the products of combustion pass through many pipes, and a
considerable amount of warm air may be obtained, drawn, if necessary,
from the outside of the building. Their heating effect is as much as
93 per cent. of the heat produced by the fuel. They are capable of in-
troducing into the places to be warmed about 2,551 cubic feet of air for
each pound of coal consumed, but the temperature of the air is as high
as 266°, or even more, which shows that the passages are not sufficiently
large. With their present proportions, they only remove 91 cubic feet
of foul air for each pound of coal burned. They are, consequently, un-
healthful, and are only suitable for warming passages, such as vestibules,
stairways, &c., where the external air enters and mixes freely with the
warmed air. In a stove of this kind experimented upon at the conserva-
tory, the total heating-surface is more than one hundred times the grate-
surface, which is a good and large ratio. The surface of the air-passa-
ges is equal to three times the grate-surface, which is not quite enough.

The chimney has an area equal to 47 per cent. of the grate-surface,

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. 303

which is enough for draught, but does not secure a sufficiently rapid
removal of foul air.

21. Improvements to be made in the construction of stoves.—The princi-
pal defects of all stoves, without exception, are— ;

1. Not carrying off foul air as quickly as necessary for health.

2. Giving too high a temperature to the air which passes through
them.

The means of lessening these faults
are—

1. Making separate ventilating shafts,
heated directly by the stove and the
chimney. :

2. Enlarging also the size of the hot-_—.——. hh | cc | ee
air passages, and always, when not
mpossible, taking the air from the
outside of the building in order to pre-
vent it from entering through the doors
and windows.

3. Furnishing the stoves with doors,
which, being opened after the fire is
kindled, change them almost into open _
fire-places, and cause a strong draught 77
in the chimney, the size of which should _

Rig. 15).

Hi

y Z Yy Z,
be enlarged, without fear of increasing Uy Uy Yj
Wf YY

too much the expense for fuel.

German stoves and those of some
French makers have an arrangement
of this kind, though still imperfect.

22. Fire-places and stoves with reversed
draught.—In some cases the want of
a flue above the fire-place renders it necessary to carry the smoke
to a horizontal passage below, which conveys it to the bottom of a
vertical flue, placed some distance off. To obtain in such & case a
draught at the instant of lighting the fire, it is generally necessary to start
a small fire in an opening in the horizontal passage at the foot of the
vertical flue, which causes a momentary draught; the external supnly
of air to this fire being stopped as soon as it is kindled, in order that,
taking air from the horizontal passage alone, it may produce a current
which will extend to the chimney or to the stove. But this arrange-
ment is often insufficient, at least unless the extra fire be kept up, which
would be very troublesome.

In houses lighted by gas it is preferable to introduce into the chimney
at the oceupied story, and not at the level of the Jower horizontal pas-
Sage, gas-jets inclosed in a little metallic chimney 913 inches to 1142
inches high, with a separate air-supply, in order to prevent it from
being extinguished -by the smoke. Three or four jets, each consuming

304 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

4 cubic feet an hour, are usually enough. The heat given out by the
combustion of gas produces in the flue an increase of temperature,
which keeps up the draught of the stoves or chimney. After the fire is
well started, the gas-jets may be put out. An arrangement of this kind
applied at the conservatory to a stove, the draught of which could not
be kept up regularly by an extra fire of the usual kind, and which was
also in very bad condition, succeeded very well, even during strong
winds.

STEAM-HEATING.

24. The rapid circulation of steam even under very slight pressure,
and the large amount of heat it gives out in condensing, are the princi-
pal advantages of this mode of heating, which only requires, for the
passage of the steam, pipes of small dimensions, but it has with the
forms of apparatus most in use very grave defects.

Irregularities in the fire affect very sensibly the circulation of steam,
and want of attention, especially apt to occur during the night, leads to
coudensation. When the fire becomes hot again, the steam, which then
flows quickly into the pipes, where a partial vacuum has formed, meeting |
a great deal of condensed water, drives it violently, and the shocks
occasionally produce explosions, often cracks and leaks, or at least very
frequent disagreeable noises.

These great objections have generally led to the abandonment of
warming by direct steam-circulation, except in factories where the
escape-steam from the engines is made use of. In that case it flows
constantly through large exposed pipes, having a slope sufficient to pre-
vent the accumulation of condensed water. But when it is designed to
warm dwellings by carrying the steam through thin floors, the diificul-
ties increase, and all the unpleasant effects become manifest.

Grouvelle, a skillful civil engineer, has designed and constructed for
several hospitals an arrangement in which the steam does not directly
heat the radiators placed in the rooms, but the steam-pipes heat water
placed in those radiators. This system, in consequence of the great
density of water and its imperfect conductibility of heat, prevents the
too sudden checking of the radiation when the flow of steam is dimin-
ished or stopped. These radiators have, on top, a little opening, which
prevents the temperature of the water from rising above 212°, and the
pipes which furnish a passage for the air coming in from the outside
do not allow the temperature of that air to exceed 104° or 1139.

Special arrangements also allow the steam to be carried through the
radiators, or through external pipes, so as to moderate the temperature
of the room by using only a few of the radiators. But if this plan
secures a more regular warmth, it does not prevent trouble from con-
densation in the pipes passing through the floors, nor from leaks, which
are always difficult to discover and to stop. Some accidents which have

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. 305

happened at Lariboisiére Hospital have even shown that this system is
not entirely free from sudden ruptures.

The advantages of steam-heating may be retained, without its prin-
cipal defects, by arranging the circulating-pipes vertically in shafts
formed in the thickness of the walls, or specially built for them, as
has been done in some wards of the Vincennes Hospital, or as d’Hame-
lincourt has arranged it for the circulation of water at the company’s
office at the Northern Railway.

Some of these pipes may be exposed in the form of columns, and be
used for warming the hands or the feet, as is done in many establish-
ments in Germany and Switzerland.

These arrangements, which agree very well with the condition that

the fresh air should enter near the ceiling, secure the immediate return

of the condensed water to the boiler, and, therefore, greatly diminish
the effect of leaks, which would be more easily prevented than in the
forms usually adopted at present.

Nothing should prevent the adoption, in each ward 6f a hospital, of
an evaporator warmed by steam on Grouvelle’s system, in order to pro-
mote the comfort of the patients.

It is proper to add that when the radiators and pipes have a heating-
surface of 215 to 258 square feet for 35,316 cubic feet capacity of halls,
an elevation of temperature of 29° or 32° may be obtained even in the
coldest weather. At Lariboisiére Hospital the proportion is 280 square
feet, and it is evidently greater than necessary. But there remains
against steam-heating the charge of being too readily affected by irreg-
ularities in the fire, and particularly by want of attention on the part
of the firemen, which during the night may: be very much prolonged.

HOT-WATER HEATING-APPARATUS.

25. This system of warming, which has been known and in use for a
long time with various modifications, is much less apt to cause sudden
variations of ten‘perature than the preceding, since hot-water vessels
and pipes of equal capacity always contain a much greater number of
units of heat than if filled with steam. The great density of water and
its steady circulation through the heater long after the fire has become
low, maintain a very regular heat in spite of temporary want of atten-
tion.

The temperature of the air warmed by this apparatus is always
very moderate. Itis even difficult to raise it above 100° or 112° with
large radiating-surfaces. In this respect this method of heating is very |
healthful, provided that ample ventilation be maintained in addition.

It is not essential to follow L. Duvoir’s plan of placing regulating-
receivers in the upper part of the house to which the warm water
ascends, in order to secure a sufficiently rapid circulation by the differ-
ence in the density of the high ascending and descending columns.

20 8

306 WARMING AND “VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS

Heating-apparatus of this kind in use at Guy’s Hospital, London, at
the Sydenham Palace, and all those used in warming green-houses, prove
that, provided the pipes be sufficiently large, a small difference in height
between the ascending and descending pipes is sufficient to maintain the
circulation with even a slight difference of temperature. Another con-
clusive example is found in the apparatus used in warming some baths.

The hot-water circulating-pipes may be arranged to warm the air
either in the lower portions or in vertical shafts built in or against the
walls, through which the outside air passes and becomes warmed by
contact with the pipes.

The first arrangement, in which the pipes may be in sight throughout
their whole length and placed in easily accessible places, renders leaks
of little consequence, and allows them to be easily found and stopped.

The second, which is used by d’Hamelincourt, and in which hand-hole
plates are placed at the top of each section, gives almost the same
facility and allows of the removal of the leakage-water.

Both these plans are more cheaply applied than that which has been
adopted by L. Duvoir-Leblane, who carries the water inthe thickness
of the floors, and they are free from the somewhat too severe condem-
nation which has been visited upon the plans of that builder.

In these systems, radiators may be entirely dispensed with or confined
to one in each ward for the comfort of the patients.

26. Proper proportions of heating-surfaces.—A hot-water heating-appa-
ratus does not give out as much heat asa steam-heating apparatus with
the same surface. An examination of the results obtained at Lariboi-
siére Hospital shows that a heating-surface of 291 square feet for rooms
with a capacity of 35,316 cubic feet is scarcely sufficient in very cold
weather, and we think that it would be better to give to the radiators
or receivers placed within the rooms to be warmed at least 323 to 344
square feet of total heating-surface for that capacity of 35,316 cubic feet
in places similar to hospitals.

‘In regard to apparatus placed in cellars and designed to warm air
which is carried thence through pipes which may cool it, or into rooms
not kept constantly warmed, prudence requires that the heating-surface
should be 538 square feet for warming rooms containing 35,516 cubic
feet, and it is also necessary that the air should not be carried to a great
distance.

‘In general, this system has a smaller heating-capacity than that in
which the water is carried in pipes or through the air-passages.

But when the heater, the pipes, and the radiators are all contained in
the room to be warmed, the loss from waste heat is reduced, as in the
ease of stoves, to that carried off by the chimney. Besides, since the
heat requires to be kept moderate, this system unites the advantage of
healthfulness to that of economy of fuel, and appears to me as a system
of general heating preferable to the other systems employed for the same
purpose.

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. 307

Under these conditions, the total heating-surface might be reduced to
269 square feet for heating rooms of 35,316 cubic feet.

A regular moderate and constant temperature being much better
secured by a circulation of water that can be increased, checked, or even
stopped, partially or entirely, as well as in the systems making use of
steam, we believe that it should generally have the preference, but
especially in the case of hospitals.

27. Heating by the circulation of water of very high temperature.—In
regard to that system of heating by the circulation of water of high
temperature known under the name of Perkins’s system, where the water
often attains a temperature above 572°, it cannot, without danger, be
carried through pipes placed in the thickness of the floors or near pieces
of wood, which would be slowly affected by so high a temperature and
disposed to spontaneous combustion, as more than one fire has shown.
Also, at present, in establishments where this system of warming has
been adopted, all the pipes are in full view, and hung against the walls
or ceilings, which makes a very unpleasant appearance. It is, besides,
essential to surround with a grating or case those portions of these
pipes which are in contact with the building in order to prevent serious
accidents. On all these accounts we do not think it proper in any case
to make use of this system of heating.

28. Combination of hot-water and hot-air heating-apparatus.—The diffi-
eulty of heating by means of a hot-air furnace to a greater distance
than 40 or 50 feet horizontally from the heaters may be overcome, as
we have said before, by placing in the furnace, either a boiler or tubes,
called bottles, leading into the hot-water pipes communicating with the
radiators and the return-pipes. In this way a combined system of
heating is obtained, one part by warm-air and the other by warm water,
the latter being capable of useful effect at a great distance.

29. Combination of warming and ventilation.Apparatus for heating
by steam, hot water, and by both air-and water may easily be connected
with arrangements for direct ventilation; water or steam vessels being
placed in the pipes or in the chimney to give it the proper activity.

30. General conclusions from experiments on heating-apparatus made in
1865—66.—Experiments, the results of which I have given in notes
appended to the Annals of the Conservatory, together with those which
Thave already published on fire-places, lead to the following classifica-
tion of the ditterent forms of heating-apparatus examined, made with -
reference to their heating-effect; that is, the ratio of the heat which
they give out directly or indirectly in the places for which they are
intended to that developed by the fuel consumed. The table also
shows their advantages and defects as regards ventilation and effect on
health :

308 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

Classification of heating-apparatus in regard to heating effect.

co oN
Sis]
~
Forms of apparatus. gee Remarks.
Cec
ooo
AY
Ordinary fire-places.......--..--....---....---- 10-12 | Carry off foul air but do not directly bring in
fresh air. Effect of system healthful.
Ventilating fire-places ....-.------.-----.+----- 33-35 | Carry oif foul air and directly introduce mod-
erately warmed freshair. Healthful system
Se of heating.
“ ( § Coa 90
Commons: BUON O8h Cast iron, burning) Coke. 83 I Produce a very insufficient change of air.
ti f ai Porcelain, burning wood, J Unhealthful system.
Poneke Cea slightly healthful ...... 87
Metal stoves, with ( Model i in use in schools } Do not produce sufficient change of air and
circulation of air} in Paris.............--. 68 heat too much the air they introduce. Very
taken from the) With vertical pipes, injurious system of warming if pipes be of
outside or inside. | Chaussenot’s model..-.. 93 cast iron; slightly healthful if of sheet iron.
) Cannot es ectly produce a suiticlent Hemoxal
: = of foul air and in general supply over-
Pieter avidly: pipes! Horizontal......--..---.. 63 | heated air, but may easily te modified so as
inven Wiertieal 225. nae raeteis 80 " to give out air at 86° or 104°. System in-
p | jurious when not combined with means of
ventilation.
( When the pipes and radi- }

ators are very numer-
ous with large surface
Apparatus for cir- compared with that of

culation of hot, theheater...........-.. 65-75

water. When the boiler, furnace,
and all the radiators or
pipes are contained in
| the place tobe warmed.| 85-90 | J

\ Easily adapted ‘for the establishment of reg-
« ular direct ventilation.

VENTILATION.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

ol. Properties of air.—Before giving the rules to be followed and the
proportions to be adopted to secure in dwellings a proper change of air,
it will be useful to state some general principles of physics relative to
the properties of this gas.

Air, composed of 21 per cent. of oxygen and 79 of nitrogen, is a pon-
lente body. At the temperature of 32°,and under the pressure of
30 inches of mercury, 1,000 cubic feet of air weigh 14 ounces. Itis subject,
then, like all other bodies, to the laws of oe Its molecules, like
those of all gases, are but feebly bound to each other by molecular
attractions; the slightest force, the least elevation of temperature, the
teeblest reduction of pressure, causing the preponderance of the repul-
sive forces and separating the elements from each other. On the contrary,
the slightest depression of temperature unites more closely the mole-
cules of air, and renders it more dense and heavy.

Air expands under the action of heat and contracts under that of
cold, the same as other gases, and its volume varies with the tempera-
ture, according to Gay-Lussac’s law, expressed by the formula—

=[ 14 0.002036 (t—32) ] Vo=[ 1+ 4 (t—32) ] Vo
in which—

Vo=its volume at 32°, and at the maronteonc pressure of 30 inches
of mercury. rf

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. 309

V the volume which it occupies at the temperature é; and

a=0.002036=a constant co-efficient obtained by experiment, and
which expresses the proportion in which the volume increases for
each degree Fahrenheit.

This formula shows that, under the same barometric pressure, a vol-
ume of one cubic foot of air at 32° becomes— :
[i+a (¢—32) ]|=[1+0.002036 (t—32)] cubic feet in passing to the

temperature of ¢ degrees.

If the temperature falls instead of rising, the air contracts, its volume
diminishes in cooling, and it follows in this contraction the same law,
expressed by the formula—

V=| 1 — .002036 (¢—32) ] Vo=[ 1—a (¢—32)] Vo
which is the same as the preceding formula if the temperature ¢ is con-
sidered plus when above 0 and minus when below.

32. Variation of density.— When the temperature of the air rises and
its volume increases, its density, or the weight of a cubic foot, diminishes
according to a law expressed by the following formula, assuming that
the atmospheric pressure remains constantly equal to that of 30 inches
of mercury:

Wes ad. pl 0.081
1+a(t—32) 1+40.002036 (¢—32)
The density or the weight of 1,000 cubic feet of air at different tem-

peratures, calculated by the above formula, is given in the following
table:

eS So | ba. S Ba. S ae S
eee Se eee Sal eS ll reo lS le as rag
Hoo 45 44 0 hn QD eh) aS oO Wes)
Be Slay ca Sie eye) ce Bee |] 3 Bag! ws
a ee aes | fe eee | See ieeee ce
feb) “e SS > ool 74 ope ) esl; — om = =)
ae g ee ae 3 "eee Eis 2 2 || aie 3 ee
| Sas 05 Ses 58 sas KOS) | Bas Do
a = a S a = = 5
° Los. ) Lbs. ° Lbs. e Lbs.
—4. 0 0875 64.4 - 0760 132.8 . 0673 201.2 . 0603
—0.4 0868 68. 0 . 0755 136. 4 . 0669 204.8 . 0600
3. 2 0861 71.6 0751 140. 0 . 0665 208. 4 . 0597
6.8 0855 75.2 | .0748 143.6 | .0661 212.0] .0594
10. 4 0849 78.8) .0741 147.2 | . 0657 215.6 | .0591
14. 0 0842 82.4 | .0736 150.8 | .0653 219.2 | .0587
17.6 0836 86.0 | .0731 154.4 | .0649 222.8] . 0584
ihe 0829 89.6 . 0726 158. 0 . 0646 226.4 . 0581
24.8 0824 93.2 . 0721 161.6 . 0642 230. 0 . 0578
28. 4 03819 96.8 . 0716 165. 2 . 0638 233. 6 . 0575
32. 0 0811 |} 100.4 . 0712 168. 8 . 0634 237. 2 . 0572
35. 6 0803 104,0 | .0708 172.4 | .0631 240.8 | .0569
39.2 0799 107.6 . 0703 176. 0 . 0628 244.4 .0566
42.8 0794 LS . 0699 179.6 . 0624 248. 0 . 0563
46. 4 0788 114.8 . 0694 183. 2 . 0620 251.6 . 0561
50. 0 0783 118. 4 . 0690 186.8 0616 25082) . 0558
53.6 0777 122.0 . 0686 190. 4 . 0613 258. 8 . 0555
Se 0771 125. 6 . 0681 194. 0 . 0610 262.4 |, .0552
60.8 0766 129, 2 0677 197.6 | .0606 266.0 |: . 0549
i

310 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

33. Mariottes law.—According to this familiar law, the temperature of
the air remaining constant, its volume varies inversely as the pressure
to whieh it is exposed, and its density is proportional to those pressures.

34. General relation between the pressure, volume, temperature, and density
of air.—Calling—

pressure corresponding to the ¢ (¢/—32) degrees,
temperatures, (¢ —32) degrees,

>) 4 9

do, Vo, Po, ( The density, the volume, and the ( 32 degrees,
d', Vv’, P’,

the following relations result from the combination of Mariotte’s and Gay-
Lussac’s laws:
V=v! [1+0.002036 (¢—32)] P’
~ [1+4-0.002036 (t/—32)| P
eat [1-+0.002036 (t/—32)]
[1+0.002036 = 32)|

P
Pp!

If we suppose that /=0 and P= P’= one atmosphere, d’= 0.081
pounds, the last formula becomes—

ws 0.081
~ 1+0.002036 (¢—32)
which has been found before.

35. Principle of Archimedes, its effects.—Air, like all fluids, follows that
elementary principle of physics, according to which a body plunged into
a fiuid loses a part of its weight equal to that of the displaced fluid.

Thus, at the temperature of 32° and under the pressure of 30 inches,
every cubic foot of air in the atmosphere weights 0.000081 pounds; and
as it occupies exactly the same space as every other volume of air of
the same weight, it remains wherever it is placed, unless disturbed by an
external force.

If, on the contrary, the temperature of this cubic foot of air be reduced,
for example, in consequence of its contact with some cold body, as a
window-pane or a wall, it contracts, its volume is reduced, its density
increases, it becomes heavier than the volume of air which it displaces
in the mass, which is assumed to remain at about the same temperature.
Then the excess of its weight over that of a similar volume tends to
make it descend.

Thus, in a place where the general temperature is 689°, if a portion
which was at first at that temperature, with a density of 0.0000756 pound
to the cubic foot, becomes cooled by contact with a cooler body, such as a
window-pane or the walls, at a temperature of 32°, its density will
become equal to 0.000081, and each cubie foot will tend to fall with a
force equal to the excess of its new weight over that of a cubic foot of
the surrounding air, or 0.000081 —0.000076=0.000005 pound. This effect .
is constantly produced in winter, when the surfaces of windows and
walls are colder than the air of the warmed apartments.

On the contrary, if the temperature of a part of the air be raised above

>)

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. oe

the mean temperature of the surrounding air, that air expands, its
detsity diminishes, and each cubic foot, no longer weighing as much as
the same volume of the rest of the air, is pressed upward by a force
equal to the difference of densities.

Thus, in summer, the air in contact with the window-panes becoming
warmed, and, in winter, the same effect being produced by stoves, lights,
and even by the people in the room, the air, becoming less dense, rises
toward the ceiling.

If, for example, the mean general temperature of any place is 61°, the
density of the air is 0.000077 pound, and if owing to the action of the
sun the air in contact with the windows becomes raised to 79°, its den-
Sity becomes 0.000074, and each cubic foot of that air is foreed upward
by a force equal to 0.000077 —0.000074=0.000003 pounds.

36. Hrequency of the preceding effects.—The effects which we have just
mentioned frequently manifest themselves in a very unpleasant way
in winter, when a person is seated by a window, in a room where the
general temperature is high, and still more sensibly in large halls,
lighted by skylights. In the latter case, it is often necessary, to avoid
these difficulties, while retaining the lights, to heat the space between
the roof and the ceiling to 86° or 104° by means of stoves, examples of
which will be given further on.

On the contrary, glazed ceilings, recently introduced into some
theaters and palaces to admit the light from a large number of gas-jets,
also heat the room to a very unpleasant degree.

A similar effect is produced in summer in railroad-stations, courts,
workshops, and in large buildings covered with glass roofs in which
sufficient ventilation has not been provided. The temperature in such
piaces often rises to 104°, 110°, and more.

3%. Unstable equilibrium of air.—Cooling and warming effects similar
to those just mentioned are constantly taking place in dwellings, the
air is never atrest, and the slightest variation in temperature and press-
ure produces almost endless motion. The air, then, is always in unsta-
ble equilibrium.

38. General principles of ventilation.—Change of air in occupied
places is only rendered necessary by the alteration produced in it by
respiration, bodily exhalations, the heat given out by the occupants, by
the lights, or by these different causes combined. The many observa-
tions which I have made, and a comparison of experiments made by
different eugineers and by myself, have led me to the following conclu-
sions, which I regard as proper to serve as fundamental principles in
the formation of plans for the ventilation of occupied buildings, and
especially of hospitals:

1. Ventilation is designed for the removal of foul air and the substi-.
tution of fresh air.

2. The principal object of ventilation is the immediate withdrawal of,
foul air. It should, in general, act as near as possible to the points.

B12 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

where the air is contaminated by injurious exhalations, in order to pre.
vent them from affecting the air of the rooms. Inversely, fresh air
should be introduced at points removed from the occupants.

3. The different plans which act by means of a draught, when they
are properly proportioned and well made, fulfill better and more surely
the foregoing conditions than those which act exclusively by forcing in
fresh air. The latter do not, of themselves alone, secure the removal
of foul air uniformly and constantly under all cireumstances and in all
seasons.

4. The introduction of fresh air taken at the desired height and in
sufficient quantity may be obtained in most cases by the action of
draught alone, and without the help of blowing-apparatus, by making
the air-shafts and their openings sufficiently large, and having them
properly arranged. "

5. The draught may be produced, first, by the fire-places or stuves
with their chimneys, which are used for general heating or by similar
apparatus; secondly, by the same means, aided, if necessary, by auxiliary
fires at the bottom of ventilating-shafts, 50 to 65 feet high in large
establishments, when these are needed. The air to be removed should
flow toward the base of these shafts; in most cases it should be carried
there through one or more channels which branch out and terminate in
openings close to the sources of infection.

6. Ventilation, by means of draughts produced by grates and chim-
neys, is easily adapted in most cases to all the modifications rendered
necessary by the size and arrangement of rooms. It approaches, as
closely as could be desired, the usual and natural aeration of rooms and
apartments; it allows the amount and temperature of the air-currents
to be varied as needed. It only requires cheap fire-places and their
chimneys and pipes or channels, which, once made, cost little to keep in
order. It needs no other attention than the regular supply of fuel to
the fires, to which account all the attendance may be charged.

Ventilation by blowing or by mechanical apparatus requires, besides
chimneys and ventilating-flues, common to both systems, blowing-
engines and steam-engines, with special channels for the introduction of
the air-blast. It requires the attention of special laborers, mechanics,
and firemen, besides involving expense for repairs.

7. For hospitals or for buildings having several floors, the blowing-
system does not give the same guarantees as the other system against
carrying foul air from one room to another, nor against the return of
foul air through the air-shafts or through cracks in their sides, when an
accidental circumstance, as the opening of doors or windows, disturbs
the usual pressure and motion of the air in the rooms.

8. Draught maintained by simple fire-places and chimneys, with open-
ings of sufficient size suitably placed for the admission of fresh air,
earries off the foul air without the help of any mechanical apparatus,
and becomes, except under exceptional circumstances, the readiest

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. 313

method of securing healthful ventilation as strong as desirable in ocecu-
pied buildings, and especially in the wards of large hospitals, or inthose
of small hospitals capable of being warmed by an open grate.

9. As regards those establishments where it would be necessary, un-
der special conditions, to employ mechanical methods of forcing in air,
it would always be well to aid their action by a strong draught, partic-
ularly affecting those places from which exhalations are supposed to
arise. :

The latter case seldom occurs in establishments where ventilation
must be continually maintained; the amount of air removed and intro-
duced remaining almost always constant. When, on the contrary, this
work must be frequently changed from one place to another in the same
building, and when the amount of air to be changed differs very greatly
from one day or hour to another, as is the case, for example, in Saint
George’s Hall, Liverpool, where these amounts vary from 1 to 50, it
may become necessary, or at least advantageous, to assist the action of
the draught produced by heat, by that of a mechanical apparatus to
produce a sufficient motion in the air-supply pipes.

These conclusions, based upon the discussion of a large number of
experiments made by several observers, have been accepted by the
hospital consulting committee of hygiene and medical practice, ap-
pointed .by the secretary of the interior, under an imperial decree of
August 29, 1862. They apply to ventilation of all occupied places, and
they serve as foundations for the special rules which we shall present.

39. Influence of seasons.—It is important not to forget that, in the
winter, ventilation may be secured directly and at the same time as
warmth. It is this, in particular, which renders warming by means of
fire-places in winter so healthful. But itis proper to repeat that this
natural ventilation, due to differences of temperature, which are usually
quite small, is essentially inconstant, and, therefore, liable to act alter-
nately in the reverse direction, which would often cause great trouble.

The simple difference of internal and external temperature, and, con-
Sequently, of the densities of the external and internal air, are then
capable of producing sufficient velocity in the receiving and discharging
channels to maintain the renewal of air ina proper manner. Thus is
obtained what is called natural ventilation.

40. Amount of air to be changed every hour to preserve the healthful con-

dition of the room:
Cubic feet.

Hospitals:
For ordinary cases of sickness .............-20-..---- 2, 119-2, 472
For surgical. and lying-in cases .......--..--..------ 3, 082
Durinteepidemicss She 2 ST a oat CDOT LE AE 3, 709

IEERISOMS omnes ONS) GEES POTS SOG I OBIE ON, ars 1, 766

Workshops:

Ordinary Cceupations 2 BEV 2980 ue Ves ts 14 345 a 2, Lg

Wmbealthinl occupations se sce ee as souls c 20 3, 532

314 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

Barracks:

During thelday. 7 <2) eco ee eee re ofan 1, 059

ASE FIDE ENG TI LT ore Lys rege cles hae Whence PN 3) we eee 1, 413-1, 766
MRC ALORS ee ero t Eee ees We i A cee OS ae sete pees ele MN - 1, 413-1, 766
Assembly-rooms and halls for long receptions.........-... 25 119
Hails for brief receptions; lecture-rooms.......-........ 1, 059
EGY SCHOOIS, «(2% Sei =e <cee teeta eieeeee recy toate eee 42-4, 530
ANCWMIG FONCOS: Bs as5cassssaones JUaneasodasdeecussubones 883-1, 059
Seables s -sevee e Ce ERI NG eee ee ee erat be 6, 357-7, 063

These amounts, much larger than those deemed necessary a few years
ago, are not at all excessive, and are for the most part based on direct
observations.*

In manufactories and other buildings, where the number of persons is
not very large, but where other causes may affect the air, the amount
to be withdrawn should be determined by the condition that the air in
each of these places should be completely changed a certain number of
times an hour. Thus, for dwelling-rooms, this change should take place
about four or five times an hour.

We will specify further on the proportions to be adopted in some
other particular cases.

41. Proper temperature.—In well-ventilated places, with a constant
change of air, higher temperatures can be easily borne, and even be
found pleasant, than those which would be found oppressive where the
air is not changed. Nevertheless, the internal temperature should not
be kept above the following points:

Nurseries) asylums; and)schools <a... -le ese ee eee age
Workshops, barracks, prisons....-.....-...--.-...---- Hed 592
Flospitals, 32 SP See eae Os Se See Seni: ee ee a 61°-64°
Theaters, assembly-rooms, lecture-halls .............-.-.--.. 669-689

The fresh air introduced should generally have about the tempera-
ture it is desired to maintain in the room as soon as this is sufficiently
warmed.

If, however, the room has large glass surfaces which cool the air, if
there are not many occupants or lights, the fresh air should be warmer,
and its temperature may be as much as 86° or 95°.

If, on the other hand, there are many lights burning and large gath-
erings, the temperature of the fresh air should be a little less than that
of the room itself. Trial will readily determine the proper temperature
in each case.

42, Means of regulating the temperature of the fresh aiy.—During the
period of artificial heating, it is proper to reserve means of mixing with
the warm air supplied by the heating-apparatus cool air, the amount of
which may be regulated by convenient registers. For this purpose the
warm air supplied by the heating-apparatus should be received in a

* Titudes sur la ventilation, 1 er vol.

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. 315

special receiver or mixing-chamber, into which the cold air also enters
before passing into the distributing-pipes.

43. General rules, theoretical and practical—Theory and experiment
agree in showing that, calling—

’ A the sectional area of a chimney or air-shatft;
H its height;
I” the temperature of the external air;
T the mean temperature in the shaft;
V the mean velocity of the air in the shaft;
K a numerical co-efficient, constant for each shaft, and depending
upon its size and position; and
Q the volume of air passing through in a second,
we have the equations—
V=KvyCl2=?T) a
and
Q=KAvy(T—-T’) H

44, Consequences of these formulas.—Ité follows from these formulas
that the velocity, V, of the air or smoke in a chimney is proportional—

1. To the square root of the excess of the temperature of the gases
in the chimney over the temperature of the external air;

2. To the square root of the height of the chimney, and that the
volume of air or smoke discharged in a second is proportional to the
same quantity and also to the sectional area of the flue.

It follows then—

1. That the velocity, V, and, consequently, the volume, Q, of the gases
given off by the chimney are increased, or the draught rendered
stronger by increasing the height of the chimney.

2. That the volume of gases or air removed are increased by giving
a greater sectional area to the chimney.

3. That having given the height, sectional area, and general arrange-
ment of a chimney, or any shaft whatever for air or gas, the volume of
air which it will remove will always be the same if the temperature
within the shaft always exceeds that of the external air by the same
number of degrees.

The latter consequence, perfectly confirmed by observation, renders it
necessary to proportion the heating-apparatus, which produces the cur-
rent for the case, when the temperature of the external air is greatest,
and consequently for the summer-season.

45. Difference of temperature usually sufficient—Observations made in
mines where the circulation of air is the most extended and complicated,
as well as of ventilating arrangements of the largest hospitals and
amphitheaters, show that a difference of 36° to 45° between the temper-
ature in chimneys and that of the external air is usually sufficient to
produce, throughout_the air-passages, the velocities which will be men-
tioned further on.

316 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

In theaters, in consequence of the great number of passages, the
difference should be 65° to 72° to secure the necessary discharge.

46. Insufficiency of natural ventilation—It also follows from what
precedes that in proportion as the difference of temperatures becomes
less the velocity of the circulation of air diminishes, which explains
why, if in winter the natural ventilation produced simply by the exeess
of the temperature of occupied places—usually kept at about 60°—over
the external temperature is sufficient in most cases to secure a proper
change of air when well-proportioned ventilating-flues have been put
up, if is no longer so in spring and still less in summer. In ‘these
seasons, natural ventilation becomes inefficient, and, as besides it is not:
always possible to keep the windows open, it becomes necessary to have
recourse to artificial ventilation whenever it is deemed necessary to
obtain a regular change of air.

47. Accidental reversal of the motion of the air.—When the shafts are
not kept at a sufficiently high temperature, it often happens that the
motion of the air becomes reversed, and the flues introduce the external
cold air instead of causing the discharge of the foul air. This effect is
frequently produced in arrangements where, by the introduction and
discharge of air, natural ventilation cannot be counted upon, notwith-
standing the difference of height in the entry and discharge shafts.
This is frequently observed in reception-halls, where, several rooms
being thrown into one, the chimneys of some, being heated more or less,
serve as discharge-flues, while others bring in cold air. The same effects
are also produced in places which are only ventilated a part of the day,
such as lecture-rooms, theaters, &c. It then often happens that the
motion of the air is periodically reversed. The cold air enters by the
discharge-flue, and the warmer air of the places which have been oceu-
pied escapes through the openings for the admission of air. This
reversal, which produces a useless cooling effect, may be prevented by
placing in the air-pipes and channels doors or registers, which may be
shut when the ventilation is to be discontinued.

Finally, it is also necessary to close the communication with the places
to be ventilated when starting the fire, mentioned further on, placed at
the bottom of the ventilating-shaft for producing draught, so as to avoid
a down-draught, as in the preceding case, filling the room with smoke.
A special air-supply should be reserved for this fire.

48. Insufficiency of window-openings—It is generally believed that
opening the windows of a large room will produce a complete change of
air, and many physicians think that in hospitals the opening of a cer-
tain numbers of windows placed on opposite sides, will have that effect.
This is not as true as supposed; and in summer, when the air is still and
there is no wind, it often happens that the complete opening of five or
six windows, on opposite sides of a large reception-room, coach-house,
railroad-station, or riding-school, produces but a very imperfect change

WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. 317

of air, and does not at all prevent an excessive increase of temperature.
Examples of this kind are very numerous.

49. Position of openings for the admission and discharge of air.—None of
these openings should be placed at the level of the floors as builders
usually, but improperly place them, because the sweepings fall in them,
and soon choke the corresponding flues.

Openings arranged to admit warm or cold air should be placed near
the ceiling, or at such a distance from. the occupants of the room that
they may not perceive any current of air.

When, on the contrary, the openings are placed near the floor the
* warm air in winter ascends rapidly to the ceiling, while in summer the
fresh air, which is heavier, remains at the lower part. In both these
cases it is unpleasant to stay near these openings. In public halls and
lecture-rooms especially, the admission of air under the seats and between
the feet of the audience is improper. In the Palace of Luxembourg and
the Chamber of Deputies this mode of introducing air has had to be
given up entirely.

Discharge-openings, on the contrary, should, ia general, be arranged
near the floor, and also in the vertical walls. Some special cases, in
which this latter rule must be violated, will be mentioned further on.

50. Proper velocities of the air in the discharge openings.—These veloci-
ties should increase from the first openings in the room to the chimney,
which it is well to make common to all the ventilating-flues of the same
‘house. ‘They should be governed as far as possible by the following:

First ventilating-openings, velocity in one second. 1 ft.4 in. to2 ft. 4 in.

First collecting-passages.....-... Ae ay Aye BOS 3 S80
Second collecting-passages.........--.-.1....-- 4 3 4 7
General discharge-chimney . 2-229. -/25 22225 2 5 6 6 6

These velocities are easily obtained in most cases by means of an
excess of 36° to 45° in the chimney over that of the external air.

51. Sectional area to be given to openings and flues.—The total volume of
air to be discharged in a second, being calculated in advance according
to the number of occupants and the conditions of change of air, dividing
this volume by the proper velocity for each passage will give in square -
feet the free sectional area. By free sectional area is meant the actual
passage-way, the gratings which often obstruct it being deducted.

EXAMPLE.—Take the case of a hospital-ward of twelve beds, to each
of which is allowed 2,825 cubic feet of air an hour, making in all 33,900
cubie feet an hour, or 9.42 cubic feet a second, the mean pelpaty in

Tag
square feet. If it be necessary to have one to each bed, the pipe behind

the channels being 2.3 feet a second, their total section would be

4.1 ;
each bed should have a section equal to 7,=0.54 square feet, and its

dimensions should be 7 by 7 inches. The collecting-pipes, which receive

318 WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS.

the foul air from the six beds on each side, should dischar ge 4.715 cubie
feet in a second, at the velocity of 34 feet asecond. Their greatest sec-
tional area should be 1.437 square feet, and their dimensions 1 foot by
1 foot 5 inches; but they should be made smaller at first, and propor-
tioned at every point to the amount of air to be removed. The sizes of
the other air-passages should be determined in the same way. If there
are three stories to each wing, or thirty-six beds in all, the amount of
air to be removed will be 101.710 cubic feet an hour, or 28 feet a second.
The velocity in the chimney being given at about 7 feet, the area should
be 4.3 square feet, and the dimensions 2 feet 1 inch by 2 feet 1 inch.

52. Proper velocities for the air in fresh-air openings.—When the open-
ings are placed in the ceiling of the places ventilated, and when the air
descends vertically, the velocity of the fresh air should not exceed 1%
feet a second. ;

When the air is distributed laterally, and almost parallel with the ceil-
ing, or at 16 to 20 feet above the heads of the occupants, the velocity
of the entering air may be 34 feet without inconvenience. Such enter-
ing velocities are usually easily produced by the simple effect of the
draught, which causes the removal of the air. Thus, in the large
lecture-hall of the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, which often con-
tains 750 auditors, to each of whom is allowed 1,059 cubie feet of air an
hour, which requires a change of 794,610 cubic feet an hour, or 227
cubic feet a second, the total free section of fresh-air openings is about
129 square feet, and the adinission of this large volume of air is scarcely
perceptible.

53. Proper area of fresh-air openings.—Although in every case a part
of the air carried off will be naturally replaced by that which enters
through the joints of the doors and windows, it will be well to calculate
the free area of the openings for the admission of fresh air by dividing
the total amount to be introduced in one second by the fixed velocity
of entrance. Thus, the currents of air from the doors and windows will
be diminished.

54. Means of overcoming the effects of currents of air produced by the
draught.—The system of ventilation by direct draught is rightly charged
with producing currents of air, often very unpleasant, when the out-
side doors are open; but the effect of these currents may be rendered
less unpleasant by following the preceding rules, and, besides, they
may be rendered almost entirely imperceptible by taking care to warm
the entrances to ventilated buildings, such as corridors, vestibules,
waiting-rooms, &c., so that the opening of doors will only cause the
admission of warm air at a temperature at least equal to that of the
places to be ventilated. We will specify in each case the particular
arrangements to be adopted for this purpose,

[ To be continued in the next volume. ]

ADDITIONS TO A MEMOIR ON METHODS OF INTERPOLATION AP-
PLICABLE TO THE GRADUATION OF IRREGULAR SERIES, |

By E. L. DE Forsst, M. A.
EU au Biss Beas .)

The memoir referred to may be found at page 275 of the appendix to
the Smithsonian Report of 1871. Its contents need not be repeated
here, and the reader will be presumed to have that report before him.
The formulas and tables we shall now obtain will be numbered consecu-
tively with the previous ones.

INTERPOLATION BY MEANS OF AN ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION.—FIRST
METHOD.

The question was left unsettled whether it is best to assume groups
of equal extent, as in the case of formulas A, B, C, &c., (pp. 279 to 285,)
or to make them of unequal extent and in accordance with Tehebicheff’s
system of arrangement, as in formulas (40), (41), and (42). Some further
investigation has made it seem probable that the latter system, though
not always the best, is the most likely to give uniformly good results. It
agrees better with Cauchy’s method, of interpolation, and compares very
favorably with that method, so far as can be judged from a few trials
which have been made. Hence it is desirable to extend the series of
formulas (40), (41), &e., so as to include the cases of six, seven, eight, and
nine assumed groups. This has been done, and the numerical co-effi-
cients involved have been carried out to as many as nine significant
figures—a larger number than is required in ordinary practice; but it
was thought best to compute them, once for all, with as great accuracy
as can ever be needed for any purpose. The labor of computation need
never be undertaken again, for their accuracy can be easily tested, as
follows. Take, for instance, formula (42), and suppose that the terms of
the given series are each equal to unity; then in the equation of this
series we ought to have A =1, while all the other constants, B, C, &c.,
should be zero. The sums 8, S82, S3, &e., are equal to 1, m2, Ns, &e.,
respectively, so that we have—

A = 3.777709 x .3090170 + 2 x .0954915 — .4111456 x 4 = 1.0000001

This differs from unity by only an unit of the seventh decimal place,
which is as close an approach to exactness as can be attained without
carrying out the decimals farther than is done in formula (42). So, too,
in the cases of the constants C and EH, we have—

C= 5(55. 33315 X $—T71.73251 x.3 uae 0954915) =y,(— .0000004)

p=", 309017042 x 0954915 —4) =

WN

320 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

The expressions for the alternate constants B and D cannot be put to.
the same test, because (S,—S.2) and (S;—S,) are necessarily ZeYO; SO We
will make another supposition, namely, that the given series consists of
the natural numbers, the middle term being 0, and the successive terms
on the right being 1, 2, 3, &c., while those on the left are —1, —2, —3, °
&c. Here we ought to have, in the equation of the series, B=1, and
all the other constants equal to 0. The sums of the terms in the several

groups are—
Sa = S. — Nag ({5")

S=— Sim (n i

Hence we have—

B= iS 13.088544 1,4 (ns + 14) — a Ns (2 Ng + 23+ Ns) ;

1)

2 9 ey
RS { = Ns (2 Ng + Nz + 25) — 63.28668 ir, (M3 + 14) i j

and substituting the values of ns, 24, and 2;, we find—

1
B = 1.00000007 10) == Qe (= 6000003)

which are very nearly unity and zero, as they ought to be.

The accuracy of each of the following formulas can be tested in a
similar way. The five-group formula (42), when the decimals are car-
ried out a little further, becomes—

Formula (79).

he aN G OA 5) = .0954915028 N
N

[=

ve

Nz = Ny = 4 (cos 5 — cos 57 5 = =4N

Dx
nN; = N cos i .0090169944 N

has) an 708764 S5 + 1 (S; + Ss) — 411145618 (S: +8, }

peel afi (ue aie ih een

B= x, | 13.08854382 (8, — 8.) -— > (8; — 81) |

C = x, | 553337474 (S, + S,) — 71.7325052 8, — 4 (8, + Ss) |
1 4512

D = x, | 7 (Ss — 81) — 63.2866805 (S, — S,) |

peor {S.+ (Sie SAS) GSH
NG 1 5) 2 4 §

The six-group formula can be expressed without decimals :

(SU)
bo
—w

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

Formula (89).

m= n= 4N(1—cosg )=4N (2 — V3)

Ny = Ns = 4 IN (cos 5 —c0s3 ) = tN (V3—1)

ts =, = 4N cos; =4N

1 ss
Axa | (15 —4V3) (Si +S) + 3(8 +8) — (4:V3 — 3) (Sr + Ss) |
Bo zqu | 19 Si —S) +3/8,—S) —5 (8, —8,) |

16 oe a
C= 57) (OV5—4 4) (S, + S;) — 4 (Si + S) — (11 — 5.73) (Ss + 8)
D=s yi {3(Ss—S) —4(S: 8) —2 (8 — 8) }
_ 1280 ry = ?
Haye (Si Rp OS — ¥3) (83 + Ss) — (V3 — 1) (82 + Ss) §
= Ayr | Ge 8) +B — 8) - (Ss — S.) }

When seven groups are assumd, we get the following:

Formula (81).

ni =m —4N € — cos ;) = ,0495155660 N

ny = te = 4 N(c08

S7-
Dx zr 2
N= 1s — + IN| (cos 7 — cos 7) = .2004844340 N

2a
cos 7) = .1387395330 N

jee 5.244333412 8, + 209118318 (S_ + S,) — 525857833 (S, + Ss)
—1(S:+8,

24.6748182 (S5— Ss) + - (S; — S,) — 16.4349544 (S,— S,) ;

ass

1?

Oe a 138,5583290 (S3 + S5) + =2° (S; + S,) — 194.1045503 8,

— 59.2465387 (So + Sc) ie

Dice = 392.527327 (Ss — So) (S, — 81) — 286.517454 (S, — Ss)
he - 1685.91223 S, + 1189.67603 (Sp + Sc) — 1533.08214 (S3 + S;)
6400
— on (Si + Sn t

218

oom METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

ie as ee — §,) + 781.239210 (S; — S,) — 1407.744414 (S, — s,)}

= (S; +85) + (Si + S:) — Si — (S: + 8)

The eight-group formula can be expressed without decimals:

m =m =2N(1—cos,) =41N(2—V24+ V2)

a = = 4 N(c08 5 — eos ) =iN(V24+ V2-Vv2)
x
a4 T 37 — -:
Nz = = N (co sj 08's )=EN (v2 — V2 = 78)
my = Ns =4N cos > = 4N V2— V3

1 marlin i As WEA ren gtd
A= x [ {4 V2 VE— (142 V2) (S48: 4 (2 V2C— V3) 118.48)

— (142/22 V2 22=VA(Ss+8) (i480) |

pe es (7-4 /2)(S,—S»)— (4 V2—3) (Ss —S,)—(S:—S)) |
O =| 1949-78 V2 VEE +7 V2) +8) 45(5, +80

—{ f2—= V3 (4+7 V2)—5}(S:+S:)—{ V24 Va(6-44 72)

~(5+9-¥2){(S.+8s) |
D = {| 3(142V3) (S—8:)-+5 (S:—S:)—17 (Ss -S,)
3 (5 -2./2)(S;—8) |
pa PP | I= T8647 V2)—64(8.4-8)42{ VEE VS (143 V9)
—(344 V2)}(Si +85) 6 (Si +S,)— {2 (3+-4 V2)
— V2= V2 (647 V2)1(S:+8%) |
r= ete 5(S;—S,)+ (5— V2) Ge V2) (Se—Ss) —3 (Ss— 81) }
G@ = els 840+ V2— V2E SSS) (0/24 VI
—{ /22+ V2)—(1+ V2} G83)
H = “tf (8:—8:)+(S:—8:) -(8:-8)) (8:8) |

This is so complicated that, for practical purposes, we will employ
decimals, as follows:

Fei’

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. Bes)

Formula (82).

N= Nz = $N (1 = co s3)= .0380602537 N

m= ms = IN (cos 5 — cos a 1083863757 N

X

Cos
Nz = Ng =t N G
Ryn

ty = Ms = 4N cos — —.1913417162 N

8
x TaN

cs “* \ =.1622116744 N
4 cos 3 ) 144 N

he : ' 3.56260914 (S,+ Ss) +1.16478440(S,+ S;)— 1.66364272(S3-++ Se)

— (S;+ 8s) ;

B= 5 | 44 (S;— S,) + 5.37258300 (S; — S2) — 10.62741700 (Ss — Ss)

1
?
—4(%-8)}

o= a | 170.1530208 (S3 -+ Sz) + 120 (S; + S;) — 135.3171087 (S; + S:)

— 91.4672651 (S; + 85) }

p= 735.058008 (Ss— $3) + 320 (S,— 8,) 1088 (S;— 8.)

N+
— 416.941992 (S; — So)
ee { 1974.062909 (S» + S;) + 659.380867 (S, + Ss) — 1920 (Si + Ss)

—1646,323811 (S5 + Se)

pe on 7680 (S; — 8,) + 5507.76797 (S; — S,) — 6780.23203 (S5 — Ss)
Jb
G05 (S; 5.) ;
C= a 7168 (S, + Ss) + 4060.34584 (S, + S,) — 6076.73698 (S. + S,)

— 1425.80385 (S,+ Ss) ;

Ha! (&—S8:) + (&—S) — Ss — 8) — G— 8)

Lastly, the nine-group formula is—
Formula (83).
Fee Sean G — cos 5) = 0301536896 N

T We
No = Ns = 4N (cos 9g — COS 7) = .0868240888 N

Oe oa
ne = oN (cos 5 — 00s 2) — 1330222216 N

324 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

Pee aN (cos 5 = cos = — 1631759112 N

2; = N cos Ty 1736481777 N
1
Jos 6.718900297 S; -+.238136413 (S34. S,) + ; (S: + So)

— 650752476 (Sy + Se) — 140549851 (S, + Sy) }

Bee S | 10.1146355 (S;—S,) + 19.9843419 (S,—S,) —25.6631423 (S;—S;)
“100, EG }

C= J, { 283.1606672 (Si + S:) + 67.0638653 (S, + S,) — 409.8722695 8;
_ 111.5059994 (8, + $,) — 16° 5 (+8) }

De a { 1053.695090 (S; — 8.) 4,230 (Sp — S,) — 923.898793 (S, — S»)
— §23.638243 (S; — 8,) }

E = y, | 6330.21204 8; + 3859.01970 (8:4 S,) ae (S: + Ss)

— 5527.64697 (S,-+ S,) — 2594.89398 (S» + Sz)
FE = | 9605.23187 (S,— S,) +5158.73566 (S.— 8.) Ses ;=48))

— $494,59768 (S; — Ss)

SS

qk - 13 33866.1397 (S, + Se) + 25281.7661 (S, + S,) — 35452.4678 Ss

200704
2 es Sr

(Sp — S;) + 19011.3716 (S, — Sj) — 25613.9516 (S,— Ss)

— 29849.4159 (S3 + S;)

; 262144
aa

I 65536 ¢ g g ie : ee A é
Tce | st (Ss+ S;) + (Sit- Sg) — (Sut Se) — (S2+ Ss) }

We have now the means of representing any given series by an eqta-
tion of a degree not higher than the eighth, assuming groups of either
equal or unequal extent. In constructing the eraduated series from
such an equation, it will be most convenient to proceed as stated on
page 329 of the previous memoir. The work of finding the values of
Cv, D’a®, &e., will be much facilitated by using the accompanying
tani: which shows at once the seven-figure logarithms of the powers of
all the values of 2 which can be required in constructing a series of not
more than one hundred terms. Increased accuracy, too, will be attained

by using this table, for care has been taken to make the seventh decimal
figure always correct to its nearest value.
if the logarithm were taken in the usual way from a seven-figure table,
and multiplied by the index of the power required, for then the last
figure might be in error by an amount not exceeding half the number

of units in the index. For instance, an ordinary table gives

METHODS

This would not be the case

OF INTERPOLATION.

log (1.5)?= 8 x .1760913 = 1.4087304
whereas the true value is 1.4057301.

325

Logarithms of powers of integers and half-integers from 0 to 50.

© log x? log «3 log a4 log « log «8 log a? log «8
0.5} 1.3979490 | 1.0969100 | 2. 7958800 | 2, 4948500 | 2. 1938200 | 3.8927900 | 3.5917600
1.0 . C000000 . 0000000 - 0800000 . 0000000 - 0000000 . 0000000 - 0000000
L.5 . 8021825 . 9282738 . 1043650 . 8804563 | 1.0565476 | 1,2326388 | 4. 4087301
2.0 . 6020600 . $03U900 | ° 1. 2041200 | 1. 5051500 1. 8061800 | 2.1072100 | 2. 4082400
a) . TISEAUO 1. 1932200 1. 5917600 1. 9897000 2. 3876401 2. 7855801 3. 1835201
3.0 . 9542425 | 1.4513638 | 1.9084850 | 2.3856063 | 2.8627275 | 3. 3398488 | 3.8169700
3.5 1. 0881361 1. 63822041 2. 1762722 | 2. 7203402 | 3. 2644083 3. 8384763 4, 3525444
4.0 | 1. 2041200 1. 8061800 | 2.4082400 | 3.0103000 | 3.6123599 | 4.2144199 | 4. 8164799
4.5 1. 3064250 1. 9596375 2. 6128501 3. 2660626 3. 9192751 4, 5724876 5. 2257001
5.0 | 1.3979400 | 2.0969100 | 2. 7958800 | 3. 4948500 | 4.1938200 | 4.8927900 | 5. 5917600
ay) 1. 4807254 2. 2210881 2. 9614508 3. 7018134 4. 4421761 5. 1825388 5. 9229015
6.0 | 1.5563025 | 2.3344538 | 3. 1126050 | 3. 8907563 | 4.6689075 | 5. 4470588 | 6. 2252100
6.5 | 1. 6258967 | 2.4387401 | 3.2516534 | 4.0645668 | 4.8774801 | 5. 6903935 | 6.5033069
7.0) 1.6901961 | 2.5352941 | 3.3803922 | 4.2254902 | 5. 0705882 | 5.915863 | 6. 7607843
7.5 | 1.7501225 | 2.6251838 | 3.5002451 | 4.3753063 | 5.2503676 | 6.1254288 | 7. 0004901
8.0} 1.8061800 | 27092700 | 3.6123599 | 4.5154499 | 5. 4185399 | 6. 3216299 | 7. 2247159
8.5 | 1.8588379 | 2. 7882568 | 3. 7176757 | 4.6470946 | 5. 5765136 | 6. 5059325 | 7. 4353514
9.0 | 1.€084850 | 2.8627275 | 3.8169700 | 4.7712125 | 5. 7254551 | 6.6796976 | 7. 6339401
9.5 | 1.9554472 | 2.9331708 | 3.910&944 | 4. 88861280 | 5. 8663416 | 6.8440652 | 7. 8217888
10.0} 20000000 | 3.0000000 | 4.0000000 | 5.0006000 | 6.0000000 | 7. 0008000 | 8. 0000000
10.5 2. 0423786 3. 0635679 4. 0847575 5. 1059465 6. 1271358 7. 1483251 8. 1695144
11.0 2. 0827254 3. 1241781 4. 16855707 5. 2069634 6. 2483561 7. 2897488 8. 3311415
11.5 | 2.1213957 |] 3.1820935 | 4.2427914 | 5. 3034892 | 6. 3641870 | 7. 4248849 |. 8. 4855827
12.0 | 2.1583625 | 3.2375437 | 4.3167250 | 5.3959062 | 6.4750875 | 7. 5542687 | 8. 6334500
12.5 2. 1938200 3. 2907300 4. 3876401 5. 4845501 6. 5814601 7. 6783701 8. 7752801
13.0 | 2.9278867 | 3.341830L | 4. 4557734 | 5.5697168 | 6. 6836601 7. 7976035 | 8. 9115468
(3.5 | 2. 2606675 | 3.3910013 | 4.5213351 | 5. 6510688 | 6. 7820026 | 7. 9123364 | 9. 0426701
14.0 2. 2922561 3. 4383841 4. 5845121 5. 7306402 6. 8787682 8. 0228962 9. 1690243
14.5 | 2.3227360 | 3.4841040 | 4.6454720 | 5.8068400 | 6.9682080 | 8.1295760 | 9. 2909440
15. 0 2. 3521825 3. 5262738 4. 7043650, 5. 8804563 7. 0565476 8, 2326388 | 9. 4087301
18.5 2. 3806634 3. STOS9SL 4, 7615268 5. 9916585 7. 1419802 8. 33823219 9. 5226536
16.0 2. 4082400 3. 6128599 4. 8164799 6. 0205999 7. 2247199 8. 4228399 9. 6329599
16.5 2. 4849679 3. 6524518 4, 8699358 6. 0874197 7. 3049037 8. 5223876 9. 7398716
17.0 2. 4608978 3. 6913468 4. 9217957 6. 1522446 7. 3826935 8. 6131424 9. 8435914
17.5 | 2. 4860761 3. 7291141 4. 9721522 6. 2151902 7. 4582283 8. 7012663 9. 9445044
18.0 2. 5105450 3. 7658175 5. 0210900 6. 2763625 7. 5316350 8.7869075 | 10. 0421200
18.5 | 2.5343435 | 3.8015152 | 5. 0686869 | 6.3358586 | 7. 6030304 | 8. 8702021 | 10. 1373738
19.0 | 2.5575072 | 3.8362608 | 5.1150144 | 6.3937680 | 76725216 | 8. 9512752 | 10. 2300238
19.5 2. 5800692 | 3. 8701028 5. 1601384 6. 450 L731 7. 7402077 9. 0302423 | 10. 3202769
20.0 | 2.6020600 | 3.9030900 | 5. 2041200 | 6.5051500 | 7. 8061800 | 9. 1072100 | 10. 4082400
20.5 | 2.6235077 | 3.9352616 | 5,2470154 | 6.5587693 | 7. 8705232 | 9. 1822770 | 10. 4940309
21.0} 2. 6444386 3. 9666579, 5. 2888772 6. 6110965 7. 9333158 9. 2555351 | 10. 5777544
Q1.5 2. 6648769 3. 9973154 5. 3297538 6. 6621923 7. 9946308 9. 3270692 | 10. 6595077
22.0 | 2. 6848454 4. 0272680 5. 36968907 6. 7121134 8. 0545361 9. 3969588 | 10. 7393814
22.5 | 2. 7043650 4. 0565476 5. 4087301 6. 7609126 8. 1130951 9. 4652776 | 10. 8174601
23. 6 2. 7234557 4. 0851835 5. 4469113 6. 8086392 8. 1703670 9. 5320949 | 10. 8938227
23.5 | 2. 7421357 4. 1132036 5. 4842714 6. 8553393 8. 2264072 9. 5974750 | 10. 9685429
24.0 2. 7694225 4, 1406337 5. 5208450 6. 9010562 8. 2812675 9. 6614787 | 11. 0416899
(24.5 | 2.7783322 | 4.1674983 | 5. 5566643 | 6.9458304 | 8. 3349965 | 9. 7241626 | 11. 1133287
25. 0 2. 7958800 4. 1938200 5. 5917600 6. 9897000 8. 3876401 9. 7855801 | 11. 1835201
25.5 | 2. 8130804 4, 2196205 5. 6261607 7. 0327009 8..4392411 9. 8457813 | 11. 2523214
26.0 | 2.8299467 | 4.2449200 | 5.6598934 | 7.0748667 | 8. 4898401 9. 9048134 | 11. 3197868
26.5 2. 8464917 4, 2697376 5. 6929835 7. 1162294 8. 5394752 9, 9627211 | 11. 3859670
27.0 2. 8627275 4, 2940913 9. 7254551 7. 15681283 8. 5881826 | 10.0195463 | 11. 4509101 |
27.5 | 2. 8786654 | 4.3179981 | 5.'7573308 | 7. 1966635 | 8. 6359962 | 10.0753289 | 11. 5146616
28.0 | 2 8943161 | 4.3414741 | 5. 7886321 | 7. 2357902 | 8. 6829482 | 10. 1301062 | 11.5772643
28.5 | 2.9096897 | 4.3645346 | 5.8193794 | 7. 2742243 | 8. 7290692 | 10. 1839140 | 11. 6387589
29.0 | 2.9247960 | 4.3871940 | 5. 8495920 | 7. 3119900 | 8. 7743880 | 10. 2367860 | 11. 6991840
29.5 | 2.9396440 | 4.4094660 | 5. 8792881 7. 3491101 8. 8189321 | 10, 2887541 | 11. 7585761
30 0 | 2.9542425 | 4. 4313638 | 5.9084850 | 7. 3856063 | 8. 8627275 | 10.3398488 | 11. 8169700
30.5 | 2.9685997 | 4.4528995 | 5. 9371994 | 7. 4214992 | 8. 9057990 | 10. 3900989 | 11. 8743987

326 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

4

Logarithms of powers of integers, §:c.—Continued.

x log'a? log 23 log x log 2° loga® | log a? log 28
31.0 | 2.9827234 | 4.4740851 | 5, 9654468 | 7, 4568065 | 8. 9481702 | 10. 4395319 | 11. 9308936
31.5 | 2.9966211 | 4,4949317 | 5, 9932422 | 7, 4915528 | 8. 9898633 | 10. 4881739 | 11. 9864844
32.0 | 3.0103000 | 4,5154499 | 6,0205999 | 7,5257499 | 9, 0308999 | 10. 5360498 | 12. 0411998
32.5 | 3.0237667 4, 5356501 6, 0475334 7, 5594168 9. 0713002 | 10.5831835 | 12. 0950669
33. 0 3. 0370279 4, 5555418 6, 0740558 7, 5925697 9, 1110836 | 10. 6295976 | 12. 1481115
33.5 3. 0500896 4, 5751344 6, 1001792 7. 6252240 9, 1502688 | 10. 6753136 | 12. 2003585
34. 0 3. 0629578 4, 5944368 6, 1259157 7, 6573946 9, 1888735 | 10. 7203524 | 12. 2518313
34.95 3. 0756382 4 6134573 6, 1512764 7. 6890955 9, 2269146 | 10. 7647337 | 12. 3025538
35.0 | 3.088136L | 4,6322041 | 6, 1762722 | 7. 7203402 | 9, 2644083 | 10. 8084763 | 12. 3525444
35.5 | 391004567 | 4, 6506851 | 6,2009134 | 77511418 | 9, 3013701 | 10. 8515985 | 12, 4012768
36.0 | 3.1126050 | 4,6689075 | 6, 2252100 | % 7815125 | 9,3378150 | 10. 8941175 | 12. 4504200
36.5 | 3.1245857 | 4, 6868786 | 6,2491715 | 7. 8114643 | 9, 3737572 | 10. 9860501 | 12, 4983429
37.0 | 3.1364034 4, 7046052 6, 2728069 7. 8410086 94092103 | 10. 9774121 | 12, 5456138
37.5 | 3.1480625 | 4,7220938 | 6, 2961251 | 7. 8701503 | 9, 4441876 | 11.0182189 | 12, 5922501
38.0 | 3.1595672 | 4,'7393508 | 6,3191344 | 78989180 | 9, 4787016 | 11.9584852 | 12, 6382688
38.5 | 3.1709215 | 4, 7563822 | 6, 3418429 | 7. 9273036 | 9, 5127644 | 11. 0982251 | 12. 6836858
39. 0 3. 1821292 | 4, 7731938 6, 3642584 7. 9553230 9, 5460876 | 11. 1374522 | 12. 7285169
39.5 | 3.1931942 |] 4, 7897913 | 6, 3863884 | 7.982985 | 9, 5795826 | 11. 1761797 | 12. 7727768
40.0 3. 2041200 4, 8061200 6, 4082400 8. 0103000 9, 6123599 | 11, 2144199 | 12. 8164799
40.5 | 3. 2149100 4, 8223651 6, 4298201 8. 0372751 9, 6447301 | 11. 2521852 | 12. 8596402
41.0 | 3.9255677 | 4,8383516 | 6, 4511354 | 8,0639193 | 9, 6767031 | 1L. 2894870 | 12. 9022709
41.5 | 3.2360962 | 4, 8541443 6. 4721924 | 8. 0902405 9, 7082886 | 11. 3263367 | 12. 9443848
42.0 | 3.2464986 | 4,8697479 | 6,4929972 | §.1162465 | 9,7394957 | 11. 3627450 | 12. 9859943
42.5.| 3,2567779 | 4,8851668 | 6,5135557 | 8. 1419447 | 9, 7703336 | 11. 3987225 | 13, 0271114
43.0 3. 2669369 4, 9004054 6, 5338738 8. 1673423 9, 8008107 | 11. 4342792 | 13. 0677476
43.5.| 3.2769785 | 4,9154678 | 6,5539570 | 8. 1924463 | 9, 8309355 | 11. 4694248 | 13. 1079141
44.0 3. 2869054 4, 9303580 6, 5738107 8. 2172634 9, 8607161 | 11, 5041687 | 13. 1476214
44.5 | 3.2967200 | 4.9450800 | 6,5934400 | 8. 2418001 9. 8901601 | 11.5385201 | 13. 1868801
45. 0 3. 3064250 4, 9596375 6. 6128501 8. 2660626 9, 9192751 | 11. 5724876 | 13. 2257001
45.5 | 3,3160228 | 4,9740342 | 6,6320456 | 8. 2900570 | 9. 9480684 | 11. 6060798 | 13. 2640912
46.0 | 3,.3255157 | 4. 9882735 | 6,6510313 | 8.3157892 | 9.9765470 | 11. 6393048 | 13. 3020627
46.5 3. 3349059 5. 0023589 6. 6698118 8. 3372648 | 10. 0047177 | 11. 6721707 | 13. 3396236
47.0 | 3.3441957 | 5. 0162936 | 6. 6883914 | 8. 3604893 | 10. 0325871 | 11.'7046850 | 13. 3767829
47.5 | 3.3533872 | 5. 0300808 | 6. 7067744 | 8. 3834680 | 10. 0601617 | 11. 7368553 | 13. 4135489
48.0 | 3.3624825 | 5. 0437237 | 6.'7249649 | 8. 4062062 | 10. 0874474 | 11. 7686887 | 13. 4499299
48.5 3. 3714835 5. 0572252 6. 7429670 8. 4287087 | 10. 1144504 | 11. 8001922 | 13. 4859339
49.0 | 3.3803922 | 5. 0705882 | 6.'7607843 | 8. 4509804 | 10. 1411765 | 11. 8313726 | 13. 5215686
49.5 | 3,3892104 | 5. 0838156 | 6.'7784208 | 8. 4730260 | 10. 1676312 | 11. 8622364 | 13. 5508416
50.0 | 3.3979400 | 5.0969100 | 6.7958800 | 8. 4948500 | 10. 1938200 | 11. 8927900 | 13. 5917600

Before leaving the subject of interpolation by the ‘first method,” it
may be well to notice that the formulas (A), (B), &c., which require that
the assumed groups should be of equal extent, can be used for the pur-
pose of ordinary interpolation from single terms which are equidistant,
and thus may take the place of the ordinary formula for interpolation
by finite differences. We have only to regard the single terms as being
represented by Sj, S:, &e., respectively, and to take », and m both equal
tounity. Suppose, for instance, that from the three equidistant terms—

diy § 21 30
we wish to interpolate the value midway between the two last. The
ordinary formula is—

(2 —1)
ee

u=atwdyt+ x
and we have—
a = 13, Aine, 4o= 6
so that the equation of the series becomes—
w=15+ 8e¢+ 3x (a —1)
and for » = 3 we get w= 274, the value sought.

N|eo

p

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 327
Now, to do the same thing by formula (A), we take—
Sis; S,= 21, S3 = 30, We — a SsS=u

and so get—
u=21 +110 + 32?

“which is the same as the other equation, except that # is reckoned from

the middle of the series. To obtain the interpolated term sought, we
take «= 4, and it gives u = 274, as before.

This mode of procedure will sometimes be preferable to the ordinary
one, because the equation it gives will be arranged according to the
powers of x instead of according to the successive orders of differences
of the series.

SECOND METHOD OF INTERPOLATION WITH AN ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION.

This method, which gives an adjusted or mean value for the middle
one of a group of any odd number of terms, by assigning certain ‘local
weights” to the several terms of the group, was at first regarded by the
writer as chiefly useful in making a rough adjustment of a given series,
preparatory to the application of the first or third method. It appears
now, however, that very little can be gained by such preparatory adjust-
ment; the errors obviated by it being probably smaller than other errors,
which are almost necessarily incurred by employing the first and third
methods when the true law of the series is unknown. But the second
method, in its improved forms, is quite worthy to hold a place of its own
as an independent system of adjustment. In the previous memoir, (pp.
334 and 335,) some doubt was expressed as to which system of local

weights is the best one; but it now seems clear, from the following consid-

erations, that the preference should be given to formulas (69), (71), &c.,
which render the probable value of the fourth differences of the adjusted
series a minimum. On the assumption that the adjusted series ought
to be continuous, so that any five consecutive terms in it can be regarded
as agreeing very nearly with a curve of a degree not higher than the
third, it is easily shown that a minimum value of the probable fourth
difference implies a minimum of probable error in the corresponding
term of the series. Let u, %, &c., be any consecutive terms in a series
of the third or any lower order; then we have—

A, = Gus — 4 (U2 + Us) + (+ Us) = 0
But if each term is subject to a small error of accidental nature, whose
probable value is «, then the probable value of 4,, taken without regard
to sign, becomes—
(4) =e VO +2 (P41) =2 710 = 8.3666 «
and consequently—

eo 2 (44). (84)
We thus see that the probable error of a term bears a fixed ratio to the

328 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

probable value of the corresponding fourth difference, so that if the
latter is a minimum, the former will be a minimum also.

In connection with the least-square formulas, given at top of page 327
of the previous memoir, it was stated that those formulas render the
probable error of the adjusted term a minimum, and this property was
also claimed for them by Schiaparelli, who had obtained them earlier,
in a different way, as mentioned on page 335. But these conclusions
were reached by estimating the probable error «) of the adjusted series
in a manner which was really defective, since it did not take any account
of the condition of continuity which that series ought to fulfill. We
shall see hereafter how the probable error may be estimated on the
other, and, as it seems, the more correct principle.

The formulas (69), (71), &c., being definitely fixed upon as the best, it
became desirable to extend them so as to include as many terms as
possible, and they have been computed accordingly, for 17, 19, and 21
terms, as follows:

Ug = as | 334323 Ug+308308 (Ug Uo) + 238238 (u;+ U1)
+ 145236 (ug 2) + 56056 (t5+ %)3) — 6664 (4+ 244) (85)
— 32844 (alg 215) —28424 (tg uty) —11305 (144 + 0047) }
tho = GLI T6QTATT ty TIS51LB (2g ty) -+ 5783778 (0tg-+ Us)
+3913728 (7+ 13) + 1979208 (Ug 14) + 411264 (s+ U5)
— 515508 (14 + rig) — T6T4AS (Ug + ttyz) 549423 (ty + iy) (OP)

—198968 (w, + 9) }

76608285 2
+ 7360320 (d+ 44) + 4351320 (u; + dys) +167443 2 (Ue the),
— 222870 (5+ U7) —1149120 (4+ a4) — 1218245 (u3+ Uy)

: —769120 (29+ 2129) —259578 (ay-+ U1) t

tat = aeeses {12739727 yy 12046320 (2149+ 242) +-10115820 ( ae

(87)

The work of computation need never be repeated, for the accuracy of
the formulas can be readily tested by the condition that the weights of
any one of them, taken together with the eight nearest zero weights,
constitute a series of the tenth order. For practical use, it will be most
convenient to put the weights in decimal form, and to retain only three
places of decimals. These are given, for the whole series of formulas,
in Table III.

METHODS.OF INTERPOLATION. ‘ 329

TABLE ITIL. *

Local weights of adjustment-fornulas.

5 1 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
lp 570 424 344 290 252 229 200 182 166
iB . 287 £293 270 245 1222 202 184 170 157
Tsk... 072 049 .109 _ 135 145 . 146 (wR iP Sige Cape STD
i — 1054 | — .016 026 - 056 076 087 - 093 04s
1, = 065 || = 5028 = cour 015 034 047 057
i 52023 1) See 0277 4/018 v= 004 - 010 . 022
if ONS ees 022i ok 020) Fs MOIR/Aet ==), 003
ip EVOL Gia o7 OLA Oli ate 015
Ty Le .007 JE 0 PP pone
i 2**(0050 3] 11010
ie — .003
< . 229 . 0822 . 0366 . 0187 .0104 | .00642 | .00422 | . 00273 . 00185

* For some additions to this table, see Appendix.

The upper line shows the number of terms included by each form-
ula; the weights of the middle terms are found in the second line,
those of the terms next to the middle in the third line, and so on.
The third decimal figure has in some cases been changed by a single
unit, so as to make the algebraic sum of all the weights in each formula
exactly unity. (Compare page 324 of the previous memoir.) The lowest
line of the table shows the ratio, for each formula, which the probable
error -/ of a term in the adjusted series bears to the probable error ¢« of
the corresponding term in the given series. These ratios are obtained
in the following manner:

Let any adjustment-formula whatever, comprising 2m - 1 terms, be
represented thus:

= lot + hy + Uy) + h(wepu.)+---- +l, (¥at un.) (88)
where w is the middle term, w, %, &c., are the adjacent terms on the
right, w_,, us, &e., are those on the left, and hh, 1, lb, &c., are the local
weights in fractional form. Then, by a process similar to that which
was followed in demonstrating formulas (69) and (71), we shall find that
the fourth difference of any five consecutive terms in the adjusted series
is—

A", = (61) — 81,4 2 mean ert aire a Ist (Uy + %#_1)
+ §6h—4( + ly) + (lot l)} (tot ws) + - “os
- +561, o— 4 (Un tls) + (lat L. oh (Um 2+ Un ))
eee)
+561, i-f£ (0,44, +l, 3h (u fa si a Aer »)
+(6 Um — 4 Im 1+ bin_2) (Um Un) + (Um 1—4 lm) (Umi U_m+1))
+ ln (Uinta + U_(m+2))

Nee

Now, take the series—
LC Olysp RLM Los wils, cise Ree AE OO. ama)
and let its fourth differences be—
By Aig bys 3 3 4 2 oe e Zhang 9 Bhan 4mncy

330 ’ METIIODS OF INTERPOLATION.

then (89) may be written—
A", = ApuUo+ 4, (Uy + U_1) +A, (Ay + U_2) + BS ve SS lo oes 90)
BBV OLG) oO! GG. o + 4ine2 (Um+2+ U_(m+2))

If the given series 2%, %, U2, &e., is of an order not higher than the
third, and if the adjustment-formula (88) is one which, as we will suppose,
expresses the relation between any 2m-+1 terms in a series of the third
or any lower order, then the adjusted series will be the same as the orig-
inal or given one, its fourth differences will be zero, and both members
of equation (90) will be equal to zero. But if each term of the given
series is liable to deviate from its normal value by an error of accidental
nature, whose probable amount is «, then the probable value of the
fourth difference of the adjusted series becomes—

(AG) te Ao ate) (Any se ocelot ee ++ Am +2") (91)
If now we denote by </ the probable error of a single term in tue
adjusted series, formula (84) gives—
efi) LOD 2 (Aya)
Consequently we shall have—

Sie ae oe a eH 9 (OS)
This is the desired expression for the ratio which the probable error
of a term in the adjusted series bears to that of the corresponding term
in the given series. Let us proceed to compute this ratio, when, for
example, the eleven-term formula (73) is used, the weights being taken
asin Table Ifl. Setting down the series—
135, .245, .290, .245, .135, -.026, —.028, —.023, 0, 0; 0; 8
its fourth differences are found to be—
050, .041, —.012, —.050, -—.045, .000, .064, —.023

and we have—

ef ue
‘ =,.11952 V.050?+ 2 (0412+ .012?-+ 050? 045? 064? .023?) = .0187

which is the value shown in Table III. To illustrate the fact that this
is @ minimum value, that is, less than it would be for any other eleven-
term formula, we will next take formula (21), in which the weights are
in arithmetical progression. Here the series—
OB HOSA Hig, MBAS OB OO 12 OT e101 0, 1Ojor0,09 0
has for its fourth differences— '
44, —22, 0, 0, 21, —52, 41, — 10
and, consequently, we have—
Shui LD

Again, let us try the improved formula (56). Using only three places
of decimals, we have the weight-series—
Ald 9288s) oi204.01 L238y oud 5088.1) 02904, 02357705. Ori. Omar’)

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 331

whose fourth differences are—
028, 032, .005, —.022, —.070, —.014, .083, —.028
and consequently —
= .0205
€
. Lastly, let us extend.the series of least-square formulas at top of page
027 in the previous memoir, so as to include eleven terms; this gives—

Us — 5 { 89 Ug + 84 (us + Uz) + 6D (uy + Ug) + 44 (U3 + Uy) + 9 (U2 +10)

— 36 (uy + U1) ;

and proceeding as in the case of formula (21), we get—
a JU

e429
Now, comparing all these four cases, and considering that the accuracy
of the adjustments made by any formula is measured by the smallness

V2 (91? + 208? + 153” + 36?) = .1088 .

of the ratio eo we see that formula (73) is the best, (56) nearly as good,
S 4

(21) considerably inferior, and the least-square formula the poorest of all.
It is not to be understood, however, that when the formulas of Table III
are used, the probable errors of the adjusted terms will be really as
small as indicated‘ by the ratios given in that table. In making use of
these or any other adjustment-formulas under the second method, we
are obliged to assume, first, that the true law of the given series can be
regarded, within the limits of the formula, as being of algebraic form
and of an order not higher than the third ; secondly, that the probability
of error, or of deviation from the true law, is the same for one given
term as for another; and, thirdly, that the number of terms included by
the adjustment-formula is large enough to make the actual distribution
of errors agree with that which is assigned by the theory of probabili-
ties. None of these three assumptions can be regarded as, practically,
anything move than a rough approximation to the real state of things

/

5 6 &
in any given case. Hence, we must take the values of —, not as giv-

iS

ing absolute measures of the ratio of the probable errors of adjusted
and unadjusted terms, but as a means of estimating the relative ae-
curacy attained by the use of different adjustment-formulas. They will
also serve to measure the relative smoothness of adjustment, since we
have, according to formula (84),

Gs)

(44)
that is, the probable value of the fourth difference is diminished by

adjustment in the same ratio as the probable error.*
we /

The numerical values of the ratio — given by formula (92) differ greatly

* The actual diminution of the fourth differences, however, is found to be much more
rapid than that of the probable errors, and is very nearly that which theory requires.

332 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

from the values which would be obtained if we neglected the principle
of continuity in the adjusted series. In that case, denoting the proba-
ble error of an adjusted term by <9, we should have—

a= Vig 2 (PEP Py sy USL TE. ie)
and the system of weights which renders this ratio a minimum is that
of the least-square formulas already referred to.

The first two and last two terms of a given series are not reached by
any of the formulas of Table ILI, and it is impossible to adjust them
with the same accuracy as other terms. ‘The best we can do, perhaps,
is to apply formulas (60) and (61), or sometimes to use only tour given
terms instead of five, in which case we get by the same method—~«

i — 3 (19 1% + 3 — 3 us + uu) (93)
= 7 BU+ I —+9%—3%) (94)

When the law of the given series varies so rapidly that any five con- ~
secutive terms cannot be regarded as approximating closely to the form
of a curve of the third degree, we may have recourse to adjustment-
formulas of the nature of (22) and (59), which assume that the series is
of an order not higher than the fifth. Then, by processes precisely
analogous to those by which formulas (84) and (69) were demonstrated,
it can be shown that the probable error of a term bears a fixed ratio to
the probable value of the corresponding sixth difference, namely,

e = .032898 (46)
that the best adjustment-formula is consequently the one which renders
the probable sixth difference of tle adjusted series a minimum; and that
to include only seven terms, this formula is—

w= S054 i 1959uU, +, 825 (U3 + Us)— 330 (U2 + Us) + 55 (uy + az)
or, to three places of decimals,
Us = 640 Uy + .270 (ug + U5) — 108 (2 + a6) + .018 (a + Uz) ,
The weights of formula (95), taken together with the twelve nearest zero-
weights, constitute a series of the sixteenth order. It has been found

that the ratio of the probable errors of the adjusted and unadjusted
terms 1s—

(98)

ss

ef
= = 0.232
&

In the case of formula (76), for adjusting a double series, the weights
of the formula, taken together with the forty nearest zero-weights, con-
stitute a double series or rectangular table of forty-nine terms, whose
complete fifth differences 4;,; are equal to zero. The employment of
such an adjustment-formula as this involves the assumption that the
true law of the given double series is such that any rectangular group
of nine terms will satisfy the condition—

Appo = 4 Us— 2 (Uy Us Up Us) + (Ui Us+ Uz+ Uy) = 9

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. O00

(See the figure of1 page 320 of the previous memoir.) By a process
strictly analogous to that which we have followed in the case of ordi-
nary series, it can be shown that the probable error of a term in the
double series bears a fixed ratio to the probable value of the correspond-
ing complete second difference, namely,
c= $ (4249)

that the formula (76), which renders the probable value of 42, in the
adjusted series a minimum, is, therefore, the one which will make the
most accurate adjustment; and that the probable errors of the adjusted
and unadjusted terms will, in this case, bear to each other the ratio—

© = 0.305
=
If the least-square formula (48) were used, the ratio of error would be

increased to—
/
= — 0.460

&

It was remarked in the previous memoir that formula (48) gives exact
results when applied to a double series or table constructed from a com-
plete equation of the third degree. This is also true of (76), and, more-
over, such formulas will be found exact in the case of a table constructed
from an entire polynomial of any degree whatever in x and y, provided
that no term of this polynomial shali contain 2 y? as a factor. This is
only a particular case under the general theorem that if we denote by
Anen the result of m finite differentiations with respect to x, and » with
respect to y, we shall always have—

Antn = 0
in a double series constructed from an entire polynomial of any degree
whatever inv and y, provided that no term of this polynomial shall con-
tain z™y? as a factor.

TEST OF A GOOD ADJUSTMENT.

When a table of mortality or other irregular series is to be adjusted,
for instance, by one of the formulas of Table III, the question presents
itself, Which formula is most suitable for use in the given case? This
question cannot be answered definitely in advance, but we can easily
see that if only the five-term formula is used, the adjustment may be
insufficient ; that is, some undulations may be retained which are due
to accidental causes, and do not properly belong to the true law of the
series. On the other hand, a formula of twenty-one or more terms
might smooth out the series too much, so as to obliterate some features
of the natural law. The necessary course of procedure will be, to judge
as well as we can which formula is most likely to be suitable, and, hav-
ing adjusted the series by it, to apply some test of its sufficiency. The
natural test seems to be this: that on taking the differences between
the adjusted and unadjusted terms throughout the series, the system

334. METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

of residual errors thus obtained should correspond, as nearly as possible,
to the theoretical’errors of the given series.

To find these theoretical errors, we employ certain known principles’
of the doctrine of chances. Denoting by p the probability that an event
will happen, (1 — p) being the probability that it will fail to happen, we
know that if a large number M of trials are made, the most probable
result is that the event will happen p M times; that is, the number is
more likely to be p M than to be any other particular number assigned.
Nevertheless, it will probably be found, on trial, to happen not exactly
p M times, but some other number of times which differs from p M by a
small quantity or error. If the M trials are repeated a large number of
times, the square root of the mean of the squares of the various errors
thus obtained is called the “‘ mean error,” and its value, according to the
theory of probabilities, is—

vp(l—p)M
Hence, denoting by / the number of persons observed to be living at a
given birthday, and by q’ the true probability of dying within a year at
that age, the number of such persons who actually die within the year
will probably be not exactly q’ l, but some other observed number, and
the mean error of this observed number will be—

vq (L— ql
Dividing this by 1, we have for the mean error of the observed probability
of dying within a year—
as Je (1 = q’) (96)

A demonstration of the foregoing principles may be found in the Assur-
ance Magazine for October, 1872.

Now, let us consider the table of mortality for insured lives of healthy
male persons in England, recently prepared by the Institute of Actu-
aries, and published by them, in an unadjusted form, in the Mortality
Experience of Life Assurance Companies, London, 1869, and in an ad-
justed form, with commutation-tables, &c., in the Institute of Actuaries’
Lite-Tables, 1872. From page 273 of the former work we take the ob-
served values of the probability of dying within a year, from age 18 to
91, inclusive, and enter them in column 1 of Table IV, first multiplying
them by 100 to save space. This is the same series which we used in
Table II of the previous memoir, with only a few small differences, due
to the fact that that series was taken from American insurance reports,
which gave the data in a somewhat imperfect form. For the ages 10 to
17 and 92 to 99, the defects of the series have been supplied, as in Table
If. At some of the other earlier and later ages, some places of decimals
have been neglected as having no real value.

—

METHODS OF: INTERPOLATION.

TasBLe IV,

(4.) le

a.) | @) (3.) (6.) (7.)
v 2
100g | 100e, | 100gxxi | 1000 ©) Awvi) |idove,
1

44

139

137

137

138

40

144

148

61

"70

158) |asns2iho «6808 t= Ootrla. 151) ye: 899\04 188

ETO I seta 6510) | 1049" | 16 "37 | 1132

162° |) 2098 ||. e617))) =). 042°] S18 | 2. 89)| | 106

ta) 0a |) Gaal 104 | 1.19 él | . 118

1686 | 1079 | 6683 ois | .05 199)| | 1a17

SA SOR | 1G | 2 cise | Ga | Oy

e902 | 2085 || =< 6818 010 | .02 1938 | . 108

GAT MORN HEGGOT | e050) nee eral e099

783 | 1060 | 7170 066 | 1.21 68 | 1093

1736 | .055| .7393'| — .003| .00,| — .64| .086

i826 | 1055 | i 7624 064 | 1.85 Kas) OTA

1736 | .050| .7e57| — .050| 1.00] — .65| 071

1932} 1051 | <8091| 023] .20 142) lout

1831. | .050| 833i ||— .002 |, .00,|— .26| 066

869 | 1050) 852 oll | 105 O30 WOMO57

1824 |) 048) 8847 I= J06L | Ise | =) s2ehlys 40st

1885] .049| [9130] — .028| .32 ‘09 | 5048

1956 | .056| .9418 on 63 | aa Oe
1.029] .052| 9698] .059/ 1.28] — .03|] .039
1.063 | .053| 9966] .066 | 1.56 132 | 1038

‘987 | .051| 1.0228 | — .036| .50| — .42| .039
1.047| 1052] 1.0501 | — .003 | .00 iva laeoan
1.071 | .053| 1.0814] — :010| -04 iv |) © 1039
1059 | 1054], 1. 1903/2 oct | 1.28] — (37| | 036
1.180 | .057| tiess| .o11| .04 193 | 1038
1.935 | .059| 1.9267| .008|] .02 “16 | .039
1251 | 061 | 19015] — 040) 144 — 150 | ..039
1.415 | 4066 | 1.3607| .054| 67 ‘er | 1043
eapgils = Oey | ti 4920) — 024 || S13) a1 |e 2040
1.597 | 107m | 1.50e3| .019'| .07 ‘og | 1052
1.650| .075 || 1.5879| .062| .69|— 06] .052
1,741 | 1079} 1.6793 | 069] .76 198} 1056
A702) |) 4080, | 1. 1631) 3406) ya5e N08 |. 070
1.719 | (083 | 1/8626 | — .144| 3,00] — [04] . 084
Te So5h ee oeo: | akonsiel) “Orci ena) ee AeA | .084
2996] .101| 20972| 199/388] 1.07] .079
9/309) 104 | 29366] (072| .48|— .48| .075
2-389 | .110 | 2.3935 |= 5004] 200) = 112] 076
9.512| 1116 | 25688 | — .057| .24 80 |. 076
9.534| 121 | 2.7617 | — 928/353 | — 1.66] .078
3.114| 1130|.29741] 1140/1002) 1.51.) . 087
3.952 | 1148 | 3.210 042 | .08| — .52| .092
SetGt 501s 3 4G7ie| == s006s 4 00K es soGN ly 4 LT
3.737 | 1172 | 3.739 | = 1002 |- 00 Mai | 198
45019) |.) 2187) = 4.020, |, 2,001 |-y. 00; + 413)|, 4. 153
4.357 | 1904 | 4.304 053 | 107 02] 1928
4.67 | .922| 4.603 "067 | 09 Bsa) Wena
ae Peo cease PLEO | Oa i a oO. azel
5.53 | 1269 | 5.324 1206 | 58) — 155 | .520
6.10 | .300| 5.779 321/114] 3.20] 1569
5.60 | .307| 6.306 | — 706 | 5.29) —218| 604
6.22 | .343| 6.902 | — .682/3.96| —299| 608
7.97 | 1409] 7555 415 |1.02| 7.59 | .636
Tet | 1438 | 8047 |= 377) 74 | 1113: 679
10.5 1540 | 8.976 | 91.554] 8.99| 12.60] .725
©, 73) |) seed; Or. || = JED Ih nS) |) SOLO) ERD
10.65... .650 | 10.583 067 | 101; 5.51 | 1.03
10187 | . 724} 11.493 || — 1623 | 74 | — 3.47 |. 1.93
12.93 | [939 | 12.486 | — .206| 106 155 | 1.34
13,60 | .967 | 13.572 028} .00| 92.95] 1.33
UU NST) | RGD es Gn emer bein) igee
TGAOW ate Sih GSO“ vod (im OON Ih 5h aly aon
AHO IPAS se ir Bitte |) eeaiyel| Hoon |) ties) || wenas
27 | 1.88 | 18.513 | 219 | 1.36] 200 | 2.31
18.0 | 2.09 | 19.607 | 1.61 | 150] -223 | 268
a6 | 258 e058 | 1.01 | 115! 13.3 | 3.15

tw)

5

336 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

TabLE I1V—Continued.

(1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) (6.) (7.)

100g | 100e, | 100gxxi | 100» |(2)] ay 100¢>

3.04 | 21.513 19 - 00 2.6

3.09 | 22.441 | — . 64 03 | —27.4
88 | 28. 4.7% 23. 448 4.6 ». 96 49,
5.2 24.097 | —5.6 1.17 | —37.

$1 2128 bw

UD WD =
WANDS

In order to estimate the mean errors of this series, we turn to page 244
of the Mortality Experience, and there find the data from which it was
derived, namely, the number of lives exposed to risk and the number of —
deaths occurring within a year at each age. For instance, at age 40
the number of lives exposed was 38195, the deaths were 377; and the
observed probability of dying within a year is therefore—

te Sy

To obtain the mean error of this from formula (96), it might seem that
we ought to know in advance the true or adjusted value q’; but it has
been found by trial that for the purposes of our present investigation it
will make no material difference in the final results whether we use any
good adjusted value q’, or only the observed value g. We have, then,
approximately —

ie pe (1 — .00987)
38195
and this, multiplied by 100, is entered at age 40 in column (2). Having
thus found the mean error of q for all the ages from 20 to 89, we can
find the probable error, if desired, by multiplying the mean error by
0.6745.

Now, let us make an adjustment of the given series of values of 100 q
by means of one of the formulas of Table III, for instance, the twenty-
one-term formula, and denote the results by 100 q,.; The adjusted
series is shown in column (3), for the ages 20 to 89, which are all that can
be reached by that formula. To ascertain whether this adjustment is a
good and sufficient one, let each of the terms be subtracted from the
corresponding term in column (1). The residual errors thus obtained are
denoted by 100 v, and are entered in column (4). Assuming that the
adjusted values in column (3) are the true ones, each residual in column
(4) is the actual error of the corresponding term in column (1), and, theo-
retically, the sum of the squares of the mean errors in column (2) ought to
be equal to the sum of the squares of the actual errors in column (4). But

= .00051

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. oo"

if we were to add up the squares of the errors in these columns, we should
be giving much greater weight to some portions of the series than to
others, because the liability to error is much greater in some parts than
in others, as is evident from an inspection of column (2), where the mean
errors diminish from age 20 to age 39, or thereabouts, and then increase
up to the end of the series, being more than ten times larger at age 75
than they are at age 30. We wish to test the applicability of the ad-
justment-formula used to all parts of the series alike; and to do this we
must put the errors on an equality by dividing the terms in column (4)
by thosein column (2). Each resulting value of ” will denote the amount
Sil
of actual error for every unit of mean error. The squares of these values
are entered in column (5). Now, the arithmetical mean of the squares of
the units of mean error ought to be equal to the arithmetical mean of
the squares of the proportional actual errors. But the former quantity
will be unity, therefore the latter ought to be unity also; that is, the

arithmetical mean of all the values of G >) ought to be, approximately,

unity. This is the proposed test of a good adjustment.

To see how far it is satisfied in the present instance, we compute the
arithmetical mean of the seventy terms in column (9d), and find that it is
only 0.90. But we cannot expect that such a result will be found exactly
equal to unity in any given case, for, the number of terms in the series
being limited, the actual distribution of errors will vary considerably
from that which theory assumes. What we do require is, that the dif-
ference from unity should not be greater than the probable error of the
arithmetical mean. This probable error can be roughly computed in
the usual way. Subtracting the mean value 0.90 from each of the
terms in column (5), we find that the sum of the squares of all the remain-
ders is 164.7, and consequently the probable error sought is—

0.6745 oe SE

It thus appears that the value 0.90 does not differ from unity by more

than its prebable error; so that the series (3) satisfies the proposed test,

and may be regarded as well adjusted. The mean value of ( >)

might, however, be brought nearer to unity, if desired, by re-adjusting
series (3) with the same formula or some other one from Table III.

And here we may observe that when repeated adjustments are made.,,.
the order in which the formulas are used is immaterial. For instance,
if a given series is adjusted by the five-term formula of Table LI, and
that result is adjusted again by the seven-term formula, the series thus
obtained is precisely the same as though we had used the seven.term
formula first and then the five-term one. And the ratio of the probable
error of the final series to that of the original one is, in. both. cases,.
theoretically,

29 g 229 x .0822 = .0188

338 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

Before the adjustment in column (3) was made, several others had
been made with different formulas from Table Ii, the details of which
may be omitted here; but the results were that when the five, nine, and

. 3 Oe
fifteen term formulas were used, the arithmetical means of ¢) were
1

found to be considerably less than unity, namely,
0.40, 0.58, 0.80
the probable errors being about the same as in the other case; so that

none of these adjustments satisfied the test. The mean value of (G Je
Si

is here seen to increase as the number of terms included by the adjust-
ment-formula is increased.

The test we have proposed may be satisfied by adjusted series obtained
in many different ways, the problem of adjustment being really, to some
extent, indeterminate, as stated at page 301 of the previous memoir.
When the adjusted series (4) in Table II is tried in the same way, within

, 2
the same limits of age, the arithmetical mean of e is found to be
or

1.05, so that that series also satisfies the test. It is believed, however,
that the present adjustment is the better of the two, the arrangement
of the weights in the formulas of Table III being such as to make the
closest possible approximation to the actual form of a given series.
And the writer would here express the opinion that, for the mere purposes
of smoothing down irregularities, the second method of adjustment, as
perfected in the formulas of Table III, is in most cases preferable to
either the first or the third method, both on the ground of simplicity
and of accuracy.

So long as the true analytical layy of a series remains unknown, it
must be considered futile to attempt to fix a precise value for the prob-
able error of an adjusted term. According to the theoretical ratio in
Table III, the probable error of a term in series (3) is only .00185 of that
of the corresponding term in series (1). But the ratio is really not less
than about 1, so far as can be judged from a comparison of several
different adjustments which satisfy the test proposed. This discrepancy
is owing to the fact already noticed, that the assumptions we are obliged
to make regarding the law of the series and the distribution of the errors
are only a rough approximation to the real state of things.

MEAN ERRORS ESTIMATED FROM IRREGULARITIES OF SERIES.

When the theoretical mean errors of the terms in a given irregular
series cannot be estimated as in column (2) of Table IV, either because
the original data are not given, or from other causes, it may still be pos-
sible to make a rough approximation to their amount by means of the
actual irregularities of the series, provided that it has not been tampered
with, but gives the unaltered results of observation. ‘To illustrate, let

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 339

us take the fourth differences of the terms in column (1), by means of
the formula—
A,y=6 Uy — 4 (Uo + Ws) + (Ur + Us)
The results are entered in column (6). But equation (84) shows that the
probable error is approximately equal to the probable fourth difference
multiplied by 0.11952. Hence, if we multiply each of the values of 4,
by 0.11952, we shall get a system of errors which may be taken to rep-
resent the actual errors of the given series (1). But as their sequence
will be very irregular, we must take the average, without regard to
sign, of a group of adjacent ones numerous enough to get a fair average
value, and this will represent the ‘‘meaa of the errors.” We know from
theory that the ‘“‘mean error” is equal to the ‘“‘mean of the errors” mul-
tiplied by 1.2533. Hence, we can get the mean error by taking an av-
erage value of 4, without regard to sign, and multiplying it by—
. 0.11952 x 1.2533 = 0.14979 = 0.15 nearly.
If the average of fifteen values of 4, is used, the process amounts sim-
ply to taking the sum of every fifteen adjacent terms in column (6) with-
out regard to sign, and dividing it by 100. The results are given in
column (7), for the ages 27 to 82. For instance, at the age 40 the sum of
the nearest fifteen terms in column (6) is 5.95, and dividing by 100 we
have 0.39 as entered in column (7). To get the first seven and last seven
terms of this series, an average of less than 15 values of 4, was employed.*
- The mean errors thus obtained are denoted by ¢, to distinguish them
from the theoretical mean errors ¢,. The differences between the values
of c, and <9, though considerable, are sometimes in excess and sometimes
in defect, and are, perhaps, no greater than we ought to anticipate, from
the usual discrepancies between theoretical and actual systems of errors.
It is thought that this method of obtaining the mean error may be use-
ful, at least for purposes of rough estimation, in those cases where the
more exact method cannot be applied.
To find the probable errors directly from the average values of 4,, we
should multiply the latter by—
0.14979 x 0.67449 = 0.10103
that is, the probable error is about one-tenth of the average fourth
difference.

INTRINSIC WEIGHTS OF OBSERVED TERMS.

We have hitherto proceeded on the assumption that the terms in-
cluded by an adjustment-formula are all equally liable to error, or devi-
ation from the true law of the series. It is possible, however, to assign
to each term its own proper liability to error; that is to say, its own

* It would have been better to have obtained all the averages from only nine or
eleven values of Ay, instead of fifteen. Owing to the general curvature of the series,
the average of a group of terms differs a little from the normal average of the middle
term, and this error increases nearly as the square of the number of terms in the group.

340 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

intrinsic weight. This was attempted in formula (24) of the previous
memoir. We should now prefer to use one of the formulas of Table ILI,
rather than (16), and so write— -
__ 570 ¢3 U3 + .287 (C2 Up + Cy U4) — O72 (G, Uy + Cs Us)
ite DTV 63 + «287 (C2 + C4) — 072 (4 + 6s)
The numerator here is formed by taking the series of products ¢, Uy, Co Ur,
&e., which are obtained by multiplying each given term by its intrinsic
weight, and adjusting them by formula (69). The denominator is formed
by adjusting the series of intrinsic weights alone with the same formula.
The adjusted value of aw; is consequently exact whenever the series of
preducts and the series of intrinsic weights are both of an order not
higher than the third. But the product of two algebraic and entire
polynomials is of a degree equal to the sum of the degrees of the two
factors. Hence, formula (97)-will give exact results whenever the ob-
served terms %, ts, &c., and their intrinsic weights c, c, &ec., form two
series of such orders that the sum of their indices does not exceed 3.
Such will be the case, for example, when the former series is of the
second order, and the latter is of the first order, or an arithmetical pro-
gression. Generally speaking, there is no necessity that the intrinsic
weights should follow any sequence at all, but in the case of a table of
mortality they ordinarily do, the number of lives observed being, in a
rough way, a function of the age, as can be seen in the column of numbers
‘Exposed to risk.” at page 244 of the Mortality Experience already
referred to, the numbers increasing continuously up to age 40, where
they are at a maximum, and then diminishing continuously to the close
of life. If it would be too much to assume that any five consecutive
numbers in this series are in arithmetical progression, we can more
safely say that any seven of them form, approximately, a series of the
second or third order. Now, let us employ formula (95), which gives
exact results when applied to a series of the fifth or any lower order
Taking the intrinsic weights into account, we shall have—
_ 640 64g + .270 (€3 Us C5 Us) — 108 (C2 Ue + Cg Ug) + .018 (CU + C7 Uz)

ai .640 6, + .270 (¢3 + 5) — 108 (G + 5) + .018 (6 + ¢7)
and this will be exact whenever the observed terms 1, a, &e., and their
intrinsie weights ¢, ¢2,, &c., form two series the sum of whose indices
does not exceed 5. Such will be the case, for instance, when the former
series is of an order not higher than the third, and the latter is of an
order not higher than the second, or vice versa.

In applying this or any similar formula to the adjustment of a series,

such as (1) in Table IV, we can employ the known principle that the
intrinsic weights are inversely proportional to the squares of the mean

errors, and so take
Cr Gia a

But there is reason to think that, in most cases, it is not best to take
the intrinsic weights into account. If the observed terms w, w., &€¢.,

Us

(97)

(98)

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 341

and their weights ¢, @, &c., form two series the sum of whose indices
does not exceed 3, then the adjusted value which formula (97) gives is
not at all different from that which (69) will give when the intrinsic
weights are neglected. So, too, when the sum of the indices does not
exceed 5, we get the same result by using formula (95) and neglecting
the intrinsic weights, as we would get by taking them into account and
using formula (98). From this we may infer that when the intrinsic

' weights form a regular sequence, it will make no great difference whether

we take them into account or not. But the more important point to
notice is, that the intrinsic weights of different terms do not bear to
each other the same relation as the weights of different observations of
the same term would do. For instance, in observing the value of w, in
formula (98), any m observations, each of whose weights is n, are precisely
equivalent to any n observations each of whose weights is m; but these
m or n observations of u, cannot be fully replaced by any number ot
observations of wu, or u;, because those are quantities differing from wu,
in magnitude, and their relation to uw, is but imperfectly known. ‘This
consideration indicates that in making adjustments, the intrinsic weights
should be used only to a limited extent, if at all, and that the best we
can do is to observe the value of each term as accurately as possible,
and then regard all the terms as of equal weight, or nearly so.

The same consideration will prevent our assigning different intrinsic
weights to the several terms combined together to form the sums S,, &),
&c., in the first method of interpolation.

ADJUSTMENT-FORMULAS OF OTHER WRITERS.

Before quitting the subject of interpolation by the second method, the
present writer would observe that the process by which the new Insti-
tute of Actuaries’ Life-Tables were adjusted, and which was first pub-
lished in the London Assurance Magazine for July, 1870, is really a
special case under this method, and by merely changing its notation, can
be reduced to the formula—

Ug = .200 ug + .192 (z+ Ug) + .168 (U¢+ U9) +.096 (s+ U1) +.024 (t+ 2012)

+ .060 (v3 + U3) — O16 (uy + U4) — .024 (uy + U5)

Its publication was of later date than my first proposal of formulas of
this character for adjusting mortality-tables. The earlier portions of
my memoir, which contained formulas (13), (14), (15), and one or tivo
others of similar character, were presented to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, and were sent by it to England for examination, in the summer of
1868. The formulas (17), (19), (20), &c., in which the weights form arith-
metical progressions, were presented later in the same year. When
these are extended so as to include fifteen terms, we get—

Ug = i { 28 Ug + 23 (Uz + Up) + 18 (a5 + U9) + 13 (U5 + 1) +8 (Uy + rh)

+ 3 (us + U3) — 2 (e+ Us) — T(t + 5) |
and this is a better formula than the English one, as can be readily

342 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

shown by comparing the respective ratios of the probable errors of the
adjusted and unadjusted terms, computed according to formula (92).
The adjusted series of probabilities of dying within a year at each
age, given at page xcrv of the Institute of Actuaries’ Lite-Tables, was
not obtained directly from the corresponding observed series; but the
sufficiency of its adjustment can be tested all the same; and on compar-
ing it with the observed series, we find that the arithmetical mean of

2
@) between the ages 20 and 89, inclusive, is only 0.82. This value
Sil

falls short of unity by more than its probable error, and indicates that
the series m question has not been smoothed out quite enough to give
it the greatest accuracy attainable.

The earliest publication of adjustment-formulas of the kind we have
been considering, so far as I am aware, is that of Schiaparelli, already
referred to, (Smithsonian Report of 1871, page 335.) As his work may
not be generally accessible, it is perhaps well to state what that general
relation is, which he discovered to exist between the numerical co-effi-
cients which we have called local weights. The notation of formula (88)
being used, it amounts to this: that if the formula is such as to give
exact results when applied to a series of the third or any lower order,
we Shall have the two conditions—

b+ 2(ht+bh+h+ G0 O)0 0 00 6 O06 6 + ln) sl
Meee ele Oe Uneeteter ans sree cheat as en eos + m ln» =0
But if the formula is exact in the case of a series of the fifth or any
lower order, like our formulas (22) and (59), then to the above condi-
tions this third one is added—
14, + 244 + 34 + os or FE MERE, + ml, = 0
If the formula holds good for a series of the seventh or any lower order,
as in the case of (23), we have a fourth condition—

16 7, + 2° I, + 361, + OO D0 0 4 00 see 5 mS 0
and so on for formulas of higher orders.

INTENSITY OF MORTALITY.

Writers on the law of mortality have often made use of what is called
the intensity or force of mortality, meaning thereby the ratio of deaths
to population at any given instant of age. If we consider a stationary.
population, and denote by y the number of persons who annually attain
a given year of age or birthday, and denote by x the age in years, then
y dx will represent the number living at the exact age x, and —dy will
represent the number dying at that exact age. The intensity of mor-
tality then is— P

dy
eae
If it were possible to discover the true analytical form of the function
which expresses the relation between mortality and age, this quantity »
would naturally be the essential element in it. But if the hope of dis-

jo—

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 343

covering the {rue law is chimerical, as there seems much reason to think,
it may be doubted whether the quantity » can have much practical
importance. Wewill proceed, however, to obtain some formulas for find-
ing the intensity, which cannot be directly observed, from the observed
quantities; and, conversely, for finding the latter from given values of
the intensity.
Let us consider any five consecutive birthdays, and let the numbers
of persons annually reaching them be—
Yiy Y25 Y35 Yay Ys
We will assume that the relation of these numbers to the ages may be
regarded, within the limits of these five years, as being of algebraic
form and of a degree not higher than the third, so that we have—
y=A+t+Bar4+C2x#?+ D2
We will also suppose, for simplicity, that the age x is reckoned from the
middle birthday, taken as an origin of co-ordinates. Then assigning to
rv in succession the values —2, —1, 0, +1, and +2, we have—
yi = A—2B+4+4C—8D
Y3 =A
y=A4+B4+CO4D
Ys = A+2B44C0+48D
and these equations determine the values of the constants. We find—
A= Ys; B= qa} 8 (Ys — Y2) — (Ys — )$

l : :
But when «=0, we have y=A and a = B, so that the intensity of

mortality at the middle birthday is—
yee

ydx A

3 =

and consequently—
8 (Y2— Ys) — (Yi — Ys)
12 y3
which is the formula sought. Thus, if we have found by observation
the numbers of persons annually attaining any five consecutive birth-
days, or, what amounts to the same thing, the “numbers living” at
those five ages out of a given number of persons born, the above for-
mula will give the intensity of mortality at the middle birthday. It is.
a little more accurate than the usual formula,
a Yitemos

“2%
The numerical value of » does not differ very greatly from that of the
probability of dying within a year.

We turn now to the converse problem, that of finding the probability
of living one year, or ef dying within a year, from certain given values,
of the intensity of mortality. Let 1, 42, v3, v4, be the intensities at anyy

{3 =

(99)

L

344 . METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

four consecutive birthdays, and let us assume that they are connected
with the age by the law—
dy
ydax
Placing the origin of co-ordinates at the middle, and assigning to # in
succession the values — 3, — By +4, and + 3, we have— ~

y= A 3B +2 C — 27D

i ee Ree gies D

fg=A+4B41C+41 D

fom a8 ep as af IN)
from hen the four constants can be ann. and we have—

A = 75 39 (v2 + 43) — (41 + 4)}
) = } (Ha + #4) — (Yo + 13)

pitas —=A+Bar+C02+D23

But integration gives us— ‘
—log’y=Ax+iB +2C2+1Da* + constant.
At the second birthday, taking “x=—tand 4 Ys Yo, we have—
Hog y aerangiat in pieelie _-D + constant;

and at the third ves with # =1+ and y = ¥3, we have—
— log’ ¥3 = NS Semis C+ 27, D+ constant.
Subtraction of the first ‘of these two equations from the second gives—

— |oo0/ Ys = AiG
une CR) ee

But 7 is the probability p. of living one year from the second birthday;
72

so that, substituting the values of A and C, we have—

— log’ pp = sz {13 (v2 + v3) — (4 + pa)? (100)
and this is the formula canna It, for example, 1, 2, &c., denote the
-imtensities at the ages 39, 40, 41, and 42, then Jog’ p. will be the Napier-
ian logarithm of the probability that a person aged 40 will live at least
one year, and 1 — p, is the probability of dying within the year.

INTERPOLATION BY MEANS OF A CIRCULAR FUNCTION.

We have already noticed that the algebraic formulas (A), (B), (C), &e.
of the previous memoir can be employed in place of the usual formula of
finite differences, for making ordinary interpolations from single terms
taken as data. In a similar way, the circular formulas (a), (b), (ce), &e.,
given at page 336 of the memoir, are capable of being used for the purpose
of ordinary interpolation, and may thus take the place of such formulas
as are found in the appendix to vol. II of Dove’s Repertorium, page
275. The given single terms are supposed to be either three, four, six,
eight, or twelve in number, and to be situated at equal intervals through-
out the whole circular period. We have only to regard them as consec-
utive areas represented by S;, S., &¢., respectively, and take n equal to
unity. For example, let there be four of these given terms or equidis-
tant values of the function, namely,

(ey 2 a)

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 54

Or

then the four-term formula (b) gives—
Bote B, = — 24, C,=1, B, = — 24
and substituting these values in formula (78), and taking—

= P= Se, v= Siu

we get the equation—

u = 8.25 + 3 sin 45° §— 5 sin (x 0) + cos (# 0)} — 2.25 sin 2 (x 8)
which is transformable into—

u = 8.25 + 1.803 sin a 6 + 168° 41’) — 2.25 sin 2 (a @)

When the values — 3, —4, + 4, + 3, &c., are successively assigned to
# in this equation, the resulting values ae uw will be the four given terms
or data, and for any assumed intermediate values of « intermediate
values of the function can be interpolated.

One of the formulas of the Repertorium above mentioned, the one
which includes twelve given terms, is the same as the formula subse-
quently demonstrated and used by Everett; with a ditterent notation, in
his articles on ‘‘Reducing observations of temperature,” in the Amer-
ican Journal of Science and Arts for January and September, 1863. In
connection with the remarks made at page 314 of my previous memoir,
respecting Everett’s method of correcting annual equations of tempera-
ture, it ought perhaps to be said that I have not had access to the Edin-
burgh New Philosophical Journal for July, 1861, in which his work was
first published; but the method is presumed to have been essentially
reproduced by him in the American Journal for January, 1863. (See
foot-note on page 27 of the latter.)

INTERPOLATION BY MEANS OF AN EXPONESTIAL FUNCTION.

In the discussion of this subject at page 329 of the previous memoir,
all the roots of the equation of relation were supposed to be real and
positive. We shall now consider the general case in which the roots
may be either real or imaginary, and shall proceed as before, after the
analogy of Prony’s treatment of the subject of ordinary interpolation
from single terms or ordinates. Instead of placing the origin of co-
ordinates at the middle of the left-hand group as before, we shall now
place it at the middle of the series. This is equally convenient, and
more symmetrical and accordant with the system we have followed in
the cases of algebraic and circular functions.

The appearance of imaginary roots in the equation of relation implica
a change in the form of the function whose equidistant values constitute
the recurring series. Just as each real and positive root corresponds to
a term of the form b 3” in the function, so each pair of imaginary roots
corresponds to a term of the form—

$¢ sin (#0) + d cos (x 0) 7*
where c, d, and 7 are constant numbers, and @ is a constant are. Now,
let us write the equation of the curve as follows:

346 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

y=A + B (log! 2) & + By (log! &;) &:* + Bs (log? By) fo" + &e. )
+ 3(C log’ 7 — Dé) sin (#0) + (D log’; + C 0) cos (x 6)} 7”
» +3 (OC, log! 74—D, 0;) sin (@ 0) + (D log’ 7:+ C; 0) cos (@ 0;) 71"
+ &¢., &e.
By integration we get —
Syda=Ac+B +B Be + Bae + &e.
+ {C sin (% 0) + D cos (a# 0)}7*
+ $C; sin (#@ 0) + D, cos (#@ )) $74?
+ $C» sin (@ Oy) + D, COS (x Oz) $72"
+ &, . &., + constant;
and taking this between the limits x —4n and # + $n, and employing k,
ky, ko, &e., and 1, hy, b, &e., as auxiliary letters, we have—

k= (7" —7—*") cos $ (00) C= (72+ 7—™) sin 3 (n 8) \

. (101)

ky = (712” — 71-2”) Cos J (7 01) b= (712” + 712”) Sin 4 (n 0;)
XC, SC. &C., &E.
S= An -+ B (3" — 6-3”) + B, (8:3" — 6-3”) Ay? + Se. (102)
+{§(Ck— DI) sin (x 0) + (Dk + Cl) cos (x 0) 377
+ }(C,k; — Dy i) sin (@ 6) + (Dy ky + Ch) cos (@ 1)?
+ &e., &e.

This is the expression for the sum S of any n terms taken in a group,
the abscissa of the middle point of the group being w. It is of the same
form as the expression for y in (101), so far as the variable v is concerned.
To apply it to the graduation of a given irregular series, we assume
certain groups of equal extent and equidistant, and denote the number
of terms in each group by n,, and the constant interval between the
middle points of the groups by h. If we substitute 2, for n in (102), and
assign to # in succession the values corresponding to the middle points
of the assumed groups, we shall obtain expressions for the sums 8), 8»,
Ss, &e., of the several groups. These sums will form a recurring series
of the mth order if the number of groups assumed is the even number
2m, in which case the constant A is to be omitted from the function
altogether. But if an odd number, 2 m+ 1, of groups is assumed, then
A must be retained, and the differences—

(S; — An), (S. — A 2), (S3 — A 7), &e.,
will form a recurring series of the mth order. Let the m terms of the
seale of relation be denoted by—
aur Janis eae Ag, Ta A3, Cp EOS ON OT AC TaD Tear Am
When the number of groups assumed is even, the numerical values of
the scale-terms A,, Ao, &e., are found from the m equations—
AV S;+ A,S, + A383. 4. ne eo: Seam te) Sn of

A, Sy + A» Ss + Az Su sinitsl = = aaah + An Simca SP Sin+2 —10) (103)

Ay Sint Ay Sin 41 + A; Sint2 SCRE EL SIME + An Syma fe SrA _

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 347

But if the number of groups assumed is odd, we have the m + 1 equa-
tious—

A,(Si— Am) + Ao(S,—Am)+- -+An(Sm —Am)+(Sni—Am)=
Ax(S,—Am) + Ao(S3—A m)+ - -+ Am(Sm41—-AM)+8mn+2—Am) =

o 2

(104)

Aj(Sm417-Am)+A2(Sm42—Am)+. -+An(Sem—Am)+(S2m41-AM)=9
and A 2, being eliminated by subtracting each equation from the suc-
ceeding one, there will be m equations remaining from which the values
of the scale-terms may be found as before. Whether the number of
groups assumed is 2 m or 2 m + 1, the equation of relation will be—
PE Se, IN, GT Cae alee ae a Ste AE eee 4+- Age+ A, =0
This numerical equation of the mth degree being solved, its real roots
are the values of the constants 6", @>, &%, &c. As for the imaginary
roots, each pair of them are the roots of a quadratic factor of the equa-
tion of relation. These factors being found, let us denote them by—
YPtpetgq =0
2tonet+n=9

&e., &e.
Then we shall have—
gq =7> p =—2;7" cos (h@)
Gi— Fane pi = — 271" Cos (h 4) (105)
&e., &e. &ec., &e.

and thus the values of the constants 7, 71, 72, &c., and of the constant
ares 0, 61, (2, &c., become known. Substituting them and the values of
8, 21, Gs, &e., in the general formula (102), and assigning ton the numerical
value of n,, and to S the successive numerical values of S;, S2, &c., and
to x the corresponding values for the middle points of the groups, we
shall have a system of equations which, besides the constants A, B, B,,
By, &e., C, Cy, C2, &e., and D, D,, D2, &e., contains only numerical quanti-
ties. These constants will be m or m + 1 in number, according as there
are 2m or 2m-+1 assumed groups. We shall only have to form as
many equations as there are constants, and then the values of the con-
stants can always be found.

Having thus completed the determination of all the constants in
formula (102), we are enabled to interpolate the sum S of any group of
n terms in the graduated series; and if we take—

ale S) ==
the equation of the series may be reduced to the simple form—

u=A + bf? + bd, By + by hy + &e.,
+e sin (x0) + dcos (a 0)} 77 /
+ {ce sin (x 0;) + d; cos (# 0;)} 71°
-- &e., &e.

The sums of the terms in the 2m or 2m-+-1 assumed groups will be the

same as in the given series. If the number of groups assumed was 2m,

the graduated series will be recurrent, and of the mth order; if the

(106)

348 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

number of groups was 2m -+ 1, the series will be of the (m+1)th order,
but after the constant A has been subtracted from each tcrm, the
remainders will form a series of the mth order.

We will now make an application of this method to the graduation
of series (7) in Table II of the previous memoir, in order to illustrate the
working of the formulas, but without any design of specially recotn-
mending the method for adjusting mortality-tables. Let us assume six
consecutive groups of equal extent, so as to have—

m = 3, iD
The sums of the terms in these six groups are—
S,= 7.8522 S3 = 21.069 S; = 182.02
S. = 12.255 S.= 54.573 S, = 446.84

Substituting these values in the equations (103), we have three equa-
tions from which we find the three-scale terms—
A, = — 27.799, A, = 24.863, A;= — 6.6914
and the equation of relation therefore is—
2 — 6.69142? + 24.863 2 — 27.799 = 0
This has only one real root,
2 =) = 1.6960);
and consequently we have @ =1.0358. Dividing the equation of rela-
tion by—
z — 1.6960 = 0
we get the quadratic factor—
2 — 4.99542 + 16.391 = 0
which contains the pair of imaginary roots. Hence, by the formulas
(105) we have—
1G SO 7208 4.9954 = 27 cos 156
which give for the values of the two constanis—
OSGi 6 = 3° 27! 31.8
Now, substituting the values of @, 7, and @ in (102), and taking—
r= = 15, A=0
we find—
k = 1.3628, $= 1.0981
and assigning to S in succession the values of S,, S;, and S,, and to «
the corresponding values 13, 42, and 4, we get the three equations—
54.573 = .69599 B+ 3.1862C+4 1.4977 D
182.02 =1.1804 B+12.731 C— 6.4117 D
446.84 = 2.0019 B+ 11.368 C— 56.579 D
from which the values of the three remaining constants are found to be—
B = 57.520, C = 6.6876, D = — 4.5182
We have thus determined all the constants of formula (102) which are
required for the case in hand, and are enabled to find by interpolation

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 349

the sum 8 of any group of terms, the abscissa of whose middle point
isg. It we take—
ti S=4u

we shall have—
k = .093216, . l= .060463
and consequently —

U = 2.0259 6 4+ §.89658 sin (a 0) — .01682 cos (x 4)} 77
which may be transformed into— '

U = 2.0259 6? + .89675 sin (x 0 — 1° 4! 29”) +"

and this is the equation of the graduated series, the values of 6, 7, and
6 being, as already stated,

B= 1.0358, 7 = 1.0977, O32 213.8
When the values —4, +4, + 3, &c., are successively assigned to a, the
resulting values of w will be the adjusted terms for the ages 54, 55, 56,
&c. The whole series is shown in the accompanying table. The sums
of the terms in the six assumed groups are equal to those in the given
series (/).

Age. Uw Age. u Age. U Age. UU Age. U
10 . 4167 298 ~ (210 46 1. 2958 64 3.977 82 16. 949
11 . 4304 29 . 1421 47 iso3l 65 4.310 83 18.197
12 . 4445 30 - 7637 48 1. 4158 66 4. 676 84 19, 497
13 ~ 4589 31 . 7861 49 1. 4846 67 5. O77 85 20. 84
14 4737 32 - 8092 50 1. 5601 68 5. 516 86 Q2523
15 . 4889 35} - 8331 avi 1. 6434 || 69 5. 995 87 23. 64
16 . 0044 34 . 8580 52 1. 7352 70 6. 517 88 95. OF
17 . 5202 30) . 8840 53 1. 8366 71 7. 085 89 PXays Sol
18 . 0365 36 . 9110 54 1. 9486 72 7. 701 90 27. 94
19 . dadl 37 . 9395 55 2. 073 73 8. 367 91 29. 33
20 oO 33 . 9695 56 2. 210 74 9. O87 92 30. 67
21 . 0875 39 1. 0011 57 2. 362 75 9. 862 93 31.93
22 . 6052 40 1. 0348 58 2, 530 76 10. 695 94 33. 07
Q3 . 6234 41 1. 0706 59 BY, ¢(illay 77 11. 586 95 34. 06
24 . 6420 42 1. 1091 60 2. 921 78 12. 538 96 34. 86
25 . 6610 43 1. 1503 61 3. 147 79 13. 550 97 395. 41
26 . 6805 44 1. 1950 62 3. 397 80 14, 624 98 30. 67
Q7 . 7005 45 1. 2432 63 3. 673 81 15. 758 99 30. OT

When we assume only three groups, S;, 82, and S;, in a given series,
the three constants will be—

m— (S28)
: 1) 1h
Lit Sees
A=} S, Cah (107)
S;— 8,

(epee) (a2 iaet)
These are the same as in (67), except that the origin of co-ordinates is
now placed at the middle of the series.

The foregoing processes will serve for the purpose of ordinary inter-
polation from single terms, if we denote tne given terms by S,, S2, &c.,
and take—

n=nh = h=1
This corresponds to what has already been noticed in connection with
algebraic and circular functions.

350 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

A great drawback to the utility of this whole methed of interpolation
is that the equation of relation will sometimes be found to have one or
more negative roots, in which case the method fails, although it may
succeed if we assume a different set of groups. It is evident that if we
have, for instance, 8 negative, then @ will be either negative or imagin-
ary; and when values differing from each other by unity are successively
assigned to xv in 6x, the resulting values will be either alternately posi-
tive and negative, or some of them will be imaginary, and in either case
the series becomes useless for purposes of interpolation.

It should also be observed that in the process we have followed, the
roots of the equation of relation are all supposed to be unequal. If any
of them were equal, it would involve a change in the form of the func-
tion. For instance, if there were m real roots equal to 6", they would
together correspond to a term in the function of the form—

bl+a07+m74+.-...... +b Ayn 1 2) B
while, if there were m equal pairs of imaginary roots, they would be
represented in the function by a term of the form

A+aqv¢r+mae+... bo + dy_10™2) Se sin (@ 0) + d cos (« 0) ~
But the case of equal roots is a special one, which can hardly be expected
to occur when the equation of relation has been constructed from an
irregular series of numbers derived from observation; so that, for prac-
tical purposes, it is not necessary to consider this branch of the subject
any further.

We see from the above that an algebraic and entire polynomial is a
special case under the class of recurrent functions, the case, namely, in
which all the roots of the equation of relation are equal to unity, so as
to make @=1, and consequently Sr =1. That any series of algebraic
form is recurrent, is evident when we consider, for example, a series of
the third or some lower order. To say that any five consecutive terms
in it are characterized by the property—

A, = 6 uz — 4 (Uy + U4) + (Uy, + Us) = 0
is merely saying that any term w; can be obtained from the four terms
next preceding it by multiplying them severally by the scale of relation—
—A,=-—l1, — A, =4, — A; = — 6, — A,=4

and adding the products together. Upon this recurrent property
depends the construction of all the adjustment-formulas of our second
method. They, however, are not the only ones which can exist under
the general form (88), for we can assign any real values we please to the
weights lo, 4, , &c., and the formula will still apply to some transcen-
dental series. For instance, we have seen that the formula—

1
Us = pg) Ele + A (Ug + Us) — (U1 + Us) }
‘n which & is any arbitrary number, will give exact results when applied
to a series of the third or any lower order; that is, to any equidistant
values of the function—
u=A+Br+Cr+De2e

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 351

Similarly, the Satan

Us FS hl Kus + 9 (Wa + tt) — (ta + Us)

will give exact results for any series of equidistant values of the func-

A ae Neg EER C —) joi (C el

provided that these values are taken at intervals equal to unity. So,
also—

tion—

1
ee — Rawal kuz +3 (ug + Us) — (1 + Us) }
will be exact for equidistant values of—
w=A+Br4Csin = +D cos

taken at intervals of unity. But these two last adjustment-formulas
will not apply to series of values of the functions taken at any equal
intervals other than unity, and therein lies their inferiority to the for-
mulas of our second method, which apply alike to all equidistant values of
the algebraic function independently of the magnitude of the interval.

We may notice further that the circular funection—
u = B, sin (#0) + C, cos (#6) + By sin 2 (#0) + C, cos 2 (v0) 4+... --

B Sorte + B, sin m (#0) + C,, cos m (#0)

is a recurring function of the 2mth order, whose equation of relation
has no real roots, but has m pairs of imaginary ones, such as to make 7,
71) 72) &e., all equal to unity, the equation of relation being a reciproca)
equation. The property demonstrated by Airy, in connection with a
process for smoothing down the irregularities of series of cireular form,
in the Transactions of the Royal Society for 1870, is a consequence of
this recurrent character of the function. If a constant term A were
added to the function, the series would be raised to the (2m + 1)th order,
the constant being represented in the equation of relation by a single
real root equal to unity.

APRIL, 1874. _

APPENDIX. :
Additions to Table ILI.

When these adjustment-formulas are to include a considerable number
of terms, the easiest way to construct them will be to regard the weights,
in their fractional form, as ordinates to a curve of the tenth degree, and
to take the weight of the middle term as the axis of Y, so that the curve
will be symmetrical on either side of this axis, and its equation, con-
taining only even powers of x, may be written—

y= At Be4+ Cr+ De + Ee + Fo
Suppose, for instance, that we wish to find the 23-term formula, Let

352 METHODS OF INTERPOLATION.

che constant interval between the weights be taken as the unit of 2.
Schiaparelli’s two conditions give the two equations—
23 A + 2 § (11°) B 4+ (114) C + (11°) D + (11°) E + (11”) Fy = 1
(11?) A + (i1*) B + (11°) C + (118) D4 (1%) E4 (11")F =0
where the notation used is—
(eS Be teats Go) ais elie ale + 11"
Since the curve passes through the positions of the eight nearest zero-
weights, we have also these four equations:
A+12?B+12°*C + 12°D 4 122°R4 12° F—0
A+13°?B +4 13*C + 13° D4 138E4 18° F=0
A+1#B4144C04 148D41@EH4 14°F —0
A+18 B+ 15¢*C + 15°D4+ 15°E 4+ 15°F =—0
This makes six equations in all, enabling us to compute the numerical
values of the six constants, A, B, &c., in the equation of the curve, after
which, by assigning to xin succession the values 0, 1, 2, 3, &c., we get
values of y which are the weights of the adjustment-formula sought.
Commencing with the middle term, they are—
1534 1463 1262 0969 .0635 0317 .0065 } (108)
—.0092 —.0151 —.0183 —.0077 —.0025
« a similar way, the weights of the 25-term formula have been found
to be— :
1424 1368 1205 .0962 0678 0395 0151 109°
—.0024 —.0119 —.0140 —.0110 —.0060 —.0018 t Cr)
If it were desirable, there would be no great difficulty in extending
the series of formulas still farther.
In each of the foregoing cases, if the greatest nicety of adjustment is
required, the weights ought to include as many as four places of deci-

/
° ° ° €

mals, because, if the fourth figure is neglected, the error-ratios — are
&S

found to be materially increased. These ratios, as computed by formula
(92), are respectively .00124 and .00091 when four places are retained,
but with only three places they are increased to .00191 and .00197 re-
spectively.

On the other hand, it is found that the error-ratios for the 5, 7, and
9-term formulas of Table III are not materially altered by dropping the
third decimal place, so that the first part of that table might as well
stand thus:

5 7 9
lo 56 42 34
l, 29 . 29 Yi
i, | —. 07 . 05 Salil
ls —.05 | —. 02
Uy —.03
e! : i q
= 33 . 080 038
: |
points l

,

METHODS OF INTERPOLATION. 353

To secure the greatest practical facility in making adjustmeats, uo
more figures should be used than are really necessary. f
AUGUST, 1874.

ERRATA.

At age 54 of column (a), in Table I, (Smithsonian Report of 1871, p.
287,) for 1.80 read 1.43. The error occurs in the original table in the
Massachusetts Report.

In the foot-note at page 317 of the Smithsonian Repost of 1871, for
TAonville’s read Liouville’s.

23 8

ETHNOLOGY.

RES ON THE KJOKKEN-MYDDINGS ON THE NORTHW EAT COAST OF
AMERICA.

By PAUL SCHUMACHER.

During my excursions along the coast, from Crescent City (latitude
41° 44” 30”) to Rogue River, (latitude 42° 25/,) I found numerous vei-
dences of Indians of a past time who occupied houses.

Near a river, or in places on the coast where there are groups of rocks
stretching out frequently for miles into the ocean, there are almost cer
tain to be found on every eminence which would serve as a look-out to
prevent sudden attacks, traces of former dwellings.

As in certain seasons the rivers yield vast quantities of trout and
salmon, so also do the rocks supply edible shell-fish, which principally
adhere in clusters to the rocks washed by the ocean; in the shallow
water on the shores, in the tangled masses of sea-plants, all kind of fish
deposit their spawn and search for food, while the sea-lion and its relation,
the seal, disport themselves among the breakers, alternately fishing and
sunning themselves on the rocks. Shell-heaps, bones of sea-lions, deer,
and bear, chiefly mark the localities where these ancient dwellings have
formerly existed. These remains are in layers, which become more and
more indistinct as their age and depth increase, until the whole is
reduced to a dark and ash-like earth, in which stone implements alone
remain distinguishable as evidence of a prehistoric population.

At the suggestion of the Smithsonian Institution, I visited the shell-
heaps, which to the present Indians are known by the names of Chit,
(now Chetko;) Nat-6-nét, (Lone Ranch;) Khiist-é-nét, (Hustenate ;)
Chétl-6-shin, (Big Rock, now Crook’s Point,) and found there many kinds
of implements, some of which were slightly broken, but most of them
were only fragments.

' Arrow and spear heads were found in great numbers and variety,
besides pestles, knives, pipes, wedges, and other articles, the use of
which I have not yet been able to ascertain.

In the following statement I give a list of the objects which I have
presented to the National Museum, adding such remarks as appear to me
necessary.

KJOKKEN-MODDINGS ON NORTHWEST COAST OF AMERICA. 305

ARROW-HEADS.

The peculiarity of the shape of the arrow as well as spear heads
requires a certain classification, and, having divided them into sets, I
here briefly mention the following kinds:

Nos. 1 to 52.—With long barbs and with projections.

Nos. 33 to 45.—With short barbs and with projections.

Nos. 46 to 47.—Without barbs and with projections.

Nos. 48 to 94.—With barbs and without projections.

(Nos. 48 to 80.) a. Long arrow-heads.

(Nos. 81 to 94.) b. Short. arrow-heads.

Nos. 95 to 96.—Of glass; were made in my presence by a Klamath
Indian, to explain the mode of manufacturing them.

SPEAR-HEADS.

Nos. 97 to 101.—Of a very clearly-defined shape, without barbs, but
with a projection. The pointed teeth show them to have been danger-
ous weapons.

No. 123.—Same species, but blunt.

Nos. 102 to 122.—With short barbs and with projection.

Nos. 124 to 177.—Leat-shaped, without barbs or projections.

Nos. 178 fo 193.—With barbs, but without projections. The circum.
stance that arrow as well as spear heads without projections were
fastened to the wooden shaft with sinews, holding them only long enough
to pierce the object, but detaching them when withdrawn, must lead
us to the conclusion that such implements were only used against
enemies, as making the most dangerous wounds. The well-fastened
heads with projections were better suited for hunting; not only are they
preserved for future use, but the adhering shaft also impedes the flight

of the animal.
KNIVES.

Nos. 201 to 204.—Semi-oval.
Nos. 205 to 207.—Lancet-shaped.

ADZES.

Nos. 196 to 200 and 213 to 214.—Of somewhat differing shapes; No.
198 excelling by its neatly-chipped edge.

The manufacture of arrow and spear heads, knives, and adzes, and
in general of all such implements as are made of flint, obsidian, jasper,
&e., and which have sharp points and edges—if we suppose that the
ancient people were a kindred race with the present Klamath Indians—
may be described as follows: A piece of one of the above-mentioned
stones, which breaks sharp-cornered, and with a conchoidal fracture, is
heated in the fire, and then rapidly cooled, after which it is struck on

356 ETHNOLOGY.

the break-edge, by which means it is split into flakes. To such a flake a
suitable rough shape is given by striking it with a tool, such as may be
seen in Nos. 271 to 273, in which state the real manufacture commences.
For this purpose the tools are used which I have exhibited in the accom-
panying sketch, (Fig. B.) A piece of bone is fastened Fig. B.

to a wooden shatt 14 feet in length, (a,) the working
point of which (b) is crooked and raised to an edge.
The applications to be made of this instrument are
shown with the two principal angles in d, only a
pushing force being employed during the time. To
guide the instrument with a steady hand thé handle is
held between the arm and breast, while the point, with
but little play-room, assisted by the thumb, works on |
the edge of the flake, which again is held, for greater |
safety, in a piece of deerskin. After the two sides
have been worked down to a point, then another in-
strument is required, (c,) with which the barbs and
projections are broken out, (¢.) This is a needle or awl, of about three
inches in length, (Nos. 233 to 235,) and by a pushing motion the desired
pieces are broken out in the same manner as with the first-mentioned
tool.

It would be impossible to produce a more delicately-formed arrow-
head (as, for instance, No. 1) by hammering; and a short trial of
the above-described method will prove the advantage of this method of
operating. .

No. 208—Is an implement of bone, which, together with skull No.
289, clay-pipe No. 242, and implement No. 269, I found in a grave in
Chetko. I saw a similar piece (Fig. E)
in Crescent City, made of dark stone and
nicely polished, which was found in Happy
Camp, at a depth of 40 feet below the
surface. ;

No. 209.—Amulet; probably worn as an ornament around the neck.
Although in shape it is similar to a sinker, it is too carefully made and
ornamented, as well as not heavy enough, to have been used for that
purpose.

Nos. 210 to 287.— Wedges.

Nos. 211 to 212.—Spades.

Nos. 215 to 223.—Drills.

No. 224.—Rubbing-pestle.

Nos. 225 to 226.—Probably drills.

Nos. 227 to 229.—Unknown.

Nos. 250 to 232.—Drills of bone.

Nos. 233 to 235.—Awls used to make arrow-heads, (Fig. B, c.)

No. 236.—Unknown.

\

KJOKKEN-MODDINGS ON NORTHWEST COAST OF AMERICA. 357

No. 237.—Ornament worn through the septum of the nose; prettily
made and ornamented.

No. 258.—Unknown.

No. 239.—A fragment, of which a great number occur on the shell-
- heaps where quarries appear to have existed.

No. 240.—Unknown.

No. 241.—Spoon of bone, which was found in a newer layer.

Nos. 242, 243, 288.—Pipes; the first one of clay, which I found ina
grave with Nos. 208, 269, and 289; the second one (No. 243) is of tale;
probably a failure, and, therefore, not completed, but exhibiting the
manner of manufacturing. The boring of the tube was evidently done
with an instrument, and, according to the explanation of an Indian,

fig. F. this tool is identical with a bow-@rill, (Fig. F,) while the
larger opening, in which it is intended to place the to-
bacco, was hollowed outin theusual manner. The other
pipe (No. 288) appears to be an attempt to work in clay.

Nos. 244 to 249.—Sinkers. Iam not positive whether
No. 209 (also No. 244) was used as a sinker.

Nos. 250 to 259.—Pestles. These instruments are of
different shapes, and are frequently found. But, be-
cause mortars are found but rarely, we must suppose
that in early times, as at the present, the pestles were
fz used mostly to crush acorns on a flat stone, around
/ which was placed a low, bottomless basket, of about
‘14 feet in diameter, into which were thrown the acorns
to be crushed, (Fig. C.)

Fig. C.

The slender pestles (Nos. 250 to 252) I think may also have been
used as war-clubs, in favor of which supposition is their shape, and also
the fact that they have been frequently broken by a side-pressure.

Nos. 260 to 262.—Objects of the uses of which I have no very decidea
opinion. They may have been used as hammers to break shells of
acorns.

No. 263.—Used to rub colors.

Nos. 264 to 266.—Probably used to rub skins. The latter are not fin-
nished yet, thus showing the process of making them. But of the use
of No. 266 I am not sure.

358 ETHNOLOGY.

No. 268..—The handle of a tool for hollowing out canoes, which is
fully shown in the accompanying drawing, (Fig D.)

Fig. D.

No. 269.—The upper part of a handle belonging to a tool like No. 268.
I found it in the excavation with Nos. 208, 242, and 289.

No. 270.—Approaches in shape to an ax, and appears to have been
broken in use.

Nos. 271 to 281.—Stones as shaped by nature, which might easily mis-
lead_the collector. But if the undisturbed position is regarded in
which they were found, we soon come to the conclusion that no Indian
hand gave them this form, but that it was the sand, driven by heavy
winds, which polishes all exposéd objects. I also found such stones on
bare sand-hills, but mainly on the hard yellow ground of Crook Point,
on both sides of which drift-sand is abundant, and where the continual
northwest wind during summer and violent southwesterly storms in
the winter drive heavy masses of sand before them. There these stones:
either stick in the loamy soil, their surface only being exposed, (No. 275 ;)
or they lie in a steep bank, so that only one edge projects out above
the surface, (No. 276 ;) and again others in such a position that the sand
can get at them on all sides, (Nos. 274 and 277.)

Nos. 282 to 283.—Unknown.

Nos. 284 and 285.—Perhaps spades.

No. 286.—Evidently a whetstone.

Nos. 289 to 291.—Skulls, the measurements of which are as follows:

$3 oo ; Sen
S52) e) From orifice of ear— ons
— Y a2
Bera Ie
| aS) bo.
ao 8 noo
Number of skull. lS 5 fl CEL Found at—
sors Over fore: | Over top of| Over occi- | SES
el Bes 2 head and Tneeval nie Aen
Saea4 | occiput. Pee We mOs
Dt Oy = bem
OMA Cie
A Ay
Centimeters.| Centimeters.| Centimeters.| Centimeters.|Centimeters.
DN ee eriaeoaacnecbodrace 37 50 33.5 29 25 Pistol River.
Pe ee aE See ISA Ais aisle 38 53 35. 0 32 30 Chetko.
INot sent). 22.522 see 34.5 49 32. 25 98 24.75 Do.
2 cagsag caeboo bodes d=) 39. 29 51 31. 25 31 US) Big Lagoon.

The following shells, the names of which Mr. Dall kindly ascertained
and fixed for me, I present as the characteristic species which con-
stitute and are found in the Kjékken-Moéddings. The relative percentage
I approximate at 0.7 Mytilus californianus ; 0.2 Tapes staminea ; and 0.1
of the remaining ones, among which Machera patula and Bulimus
and Purpuca lactuca are predominant.

REMARKS ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DESERTED SETTLEMENTS
ON WHICH THESE OBJECTS WERE FOUND.

Chit, now Chetko, (Map G.)—On the elevated right bank of the Chetko

River, near its mouth, there are extensive beds of bleached shells, fish-

KJOKKEN-MODDINGS ON NORTHWEST COAST OF AMERICA. 359:

bones, and those of animals. The layers reach probably to a great
depth, but I only had opportunity to measure to a depth of 10 feet,

Map G.

which was at a place where a settler named Miller was digging a founda-
tion for a house. My visits to this place were only casual, for my duties
allowed me but little time to explore this interesting locality. But on
one occasion I found time to search for graves, and in this was guided by
the following circumstances: In the first place, I made sure of a local-
ity on which, in former times, huts had existed, which I soon recog.
nized by a slight circular depression. In this locality these stretched
along in a pretty regular line to a point where the otherwise level bank
rises in a steep ascent. As these graves are found only a few
steps from the remains of the habitations, [ had not long to search, and
soon found a wooden inclosure which contained a skeleton. I found
the grave to be 34 feet deep, inclosed on the sides with split redwood
plaaks, trees of which are found on the shores and river-banks as drift-
wood. Between these was laid the skeleton, with legs drawn up; the
latter encircled by the outstretched arms, in such a manner that the
bones of the hands were mixed up with those of the feet. Jt was lying on
the back, face up, and turned toward the southwest, (Fig. G, 6.) Over the

Fig. G, b.

Net
ey

nuiamnnsete
ann
He
nth
(it

Hf
ie

alt
( i

ae

ZA

Le =

Sa
——_ =

=

head was a cross-board, resting on the inclosing planks, leaving only one
inch of clear space between it and the skull. The cross-board was
weighted with heavy stones, which had been obtained on the sea-shore.
The other part of the skeleton was unprotected, and closely packed in
the soil.

360 ETHNOLOGY.

About three feet farther on I found a second grave similarly formed
with also a skeleton in exactly the same position, with the exception
that the drawn-up knees had been pressed toward the right side, and
that the head-board, being decayed, had fallen down so that the heavy
stones were resting on the skull. The mouth was wide open, with a
round stone sticking in it, which might have been pressed in when the
head-board fell. Close to the side of the first skeleton lay an implement
of bene, (No. 208,) of which some few pieces were lost, either before
interment or through the hasty manner in which the search was made,
as I did not wish to awaken the suspicion of the natives, and, further-
more, time was precious to me. I found nothing worth mentioning in
the soil about the skeletons. It was mixed with broken stones, which
appeared to have been exposed to fire, such as I have found frequentiy
below the surface, mixed also with pieces of flint, bones, shells, &e.
About one foot above the skeleton I found the handle, No. 269, and
abont the same distance below the surface the fragment of clay-pipe
No. 242; but it appeared to me that the two last-mentioned ones had
been deposited in this place accidentally. I do not share the opinion that
the implements found in the grave of the former owner of the soil had
been purposely broken, as I found in well-preserved graves different objects
in asound condition, mingled with the broken implements; L observed the
position of the latter, and always found the fitting pieces together, from
which it became evident that the pressure of the earth or other accident
had caused their breakage after they had been buried. I think that
at this place numerous other skeletons might be found with little tronble.

Here I must further remark that on the Bald Mountain, which is on
the left bank of the Chetko River, about five miles from its mouth, and
which is about 3,000 feet high—being the highest mountain in this
vicinity—there are said to be various kinds of stone implements, among
which are those whieh, in former times, are reported to have been used
by a medicine-man in his superstitious rites. I give the tale for what
it may be worth.

Nat &nétén, (Lone Ranch.)—If we follow the coast-trail three miles
ju a northerly drection, we come to a side-trail where a way-mark
points to Lone Ranch, which is about six miles from Chetko. Mr.
Oressweli is the owner of this land on which the débris of the former
inhabitants is lying in great quantities. At a measured depth of 28
feet I saw gigantic bones of different kinds of animals. In the lower
layers the shells and bones are completely decayed, and have been
changed into a dark ash-like soil. There is much of interest here, but
my two visits were of short duration, and I was prevented from making
measurements of bones and skulls as Ishould like to have done. These
heaps are the oldest that Ihave seen. The soil is too sandy and too
dry for even a shrub to grow on the large hill, which is near the house.
Opposite the creek are the depressions marking the sites of former huts
still plainly visible, but the quantity of shells is small. About one mile

KJOKKEN-MODDINGS ON NORTHWEST COAST OF AMERICA. 361

south ward there are other sheli-heaps on a small sand-hill. (This is
the locality where the fine obsidian knives were found, which are in a
private collection at this place.)

| OChétl-€-shin, (Big Rock, now Crook's Point, Figure H.)—About
three miles from the mouth of Pistol River and six miles from
the prominent Cape Sebastian southerly, there is a flat point known
as Crook’s Point. Southwest of this is a rock, separated from a group,
which is made prominent by forming a very picturesque arch. After
this rock the deserted homestead of the Indians was named. If from
this point we follow the bluff on the left side, (¢. ¢., northward,) we find
flint splinters and shell and bone remains in large quantities up to a
place where agsmall creek crosses the path; thence the débris is found
in single heaps along the sands toward Pistol River. In a place where
the latter makes a strong eddy, there has been an important rancheria,
and there I found the finest arrow-heads. A little farther up the river,
between the sand-hills, there are yet found remains of the “fort” of
1856, of the time of the Rogue River war. Between Crook’s Point and
this place it was evident that battles had been fought; for along this
distance the finest assortment of arrow and spear heads was found.

If we now cross the river and mount the plateau of the right bank,
we find, immediately in the angle formed by the bend of the river, where
in former times was a settlement, excavations, which stretch for 100
yards beyond Doian’s house, and of which the remains then suddenly
cease, appearing again in small numbers at a place near the cape.

South from Crook’s Point lies Khust-é€-nété, a deposit of great extent,
but [had not even time to give it the slightest examination. Hight miles

362. ETHNOLOGY.

north of the cape, at the mouth of Rogue River, there is another
important deposit, which I also could not visit for want of time.

The skull, No. 290, I found near Big Lagoon, nine miles north from
Trinidad. Riding past the nearly deserted camp of the Big Lagoon
Indians, I saw the skull projecting from the bluff and picked it up. The
ribs and skull were exposed, and the position of the skeleton was recog-
nizable. It lay on its back, face upward, and turned northeastward.
Besides this, I found three well-preserved skulls lying on the surface,
but I had no room for their transportation.

Had I the means to explore the above-mentioned Kj6kken-Moéddings
for say two months, following them up as far as Port Orford, | am
certain that material enough could be found to fill a cabinet.

PLACES WHERE THE DIFFERENT IMPLEMENTS WERE FOUND.

-Chetko.—Nos. 208, 242, 247 to.249, 259, 269, 289.

Lone Ranch.—Nos. 234, 236, 250 to 252, 255.

Crook’s Point.—Nos. 97 to 99, 105 to 107, 190 to 205, 210 to 214, 216 to
229,240, 243, 246, 260, 262, 263 to 268, 270 to 287.

Near Old Fort of 1856.—Nos. 102 to 104, 108 to 112, 118 to 120, 127 to
135, 209, 215, 230 to 233, 237, 241, 244, 245, 261, 291.

Dolan.—Nos. 100, 101, 113 to 117, 121 to 126, 136 to 189, 206, 207, 235,
238, 288. (Hxamine 165.)

Big Lagoon.—Nos. 253, 254, 256 to 258, 290.

Old Fort and Crook’s Point.—Nos. 1 to 94.

NAMES OF. SHELLS.

No. 292. Mytilus californianus, Conr.
293. Tapes staminea.
294. Cardium Nuttall, Conr.
295. Hinites giganteus, Gray.
296. Standella Californica.
297. Pholadidea penita.
298. Purpura lactuca.
299. Purpura septentrionalis.
300. Petricola carditoides, Cour.
301. Machera patula.
302. Bulimus.

(Pursh, fol. 1, page 141, &c.)

CARIB OR KARIF LANGUAGE. 363

(

ON A GRAMMAR AND DICTIONARY OF THE CARIB OR KARIF LANGUAGE,
WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE PEOPLE BY WHOM IT IS SPOKEN.

By Dr. C. H. BERENDT.
~The Rev. Alexander Henderson (Belize, British Honduras) has sent
me the grammar and dictionary of the Carib, or Karif, language, of
which I have written you before, and I have the pleasure to present it,
in the anthor’s name, to the Institution, requesting that your acknowledg-
ment of receipt may be sent to him. He expects to receive a hundred
copies for himself, if it is published by the Smithsonian.

This language is spoken by the descendants of the Indians and half-
breeds brought by the British government in 1796 from the island of
Saint Vincent to Raatan, whence they soon spread over the coast of
Honduras and the British settlement in Yucatan. Their actual number
is estimated at about ten thousand, living in larger or smaller commu-
nities, and working generally in the wood-cuttings ef that coast. Though
nominally Christians, they still retain some of their ancient customs, and
are particularly adverse to monogamy.

These Caribs, or Karifs, as Mr. Henderson spells the name, and accord-
ing to the mode in which they themselves pronounce it, (Karifune,) were
of the original West Indian Carib stock, but had become mixed with
negroes from an African slaver, wrecked on the coast of Saint Vincent.
They afterward were distinguished as red (or yellow) and black Caribs,
according to their similarity in color to one or the other parental race.
Their island having been alternately under French and British dominion,
the language of the natives became mixed with many French and some
English elements. It is asserted that it contains also some African
admixture. After their arrival on the Honduras coast, these Caribs have
further adopted a number of Spanish words, and it is likely that a few
words of their actual language, corresponding with their equivalents in
Central-American languages, have been introduced in the same manner.

Of this language, very little has become known. Colonel Galindo has
given a brief vocabulary (seventeen words, and the numerals from one
to ten) in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, (1833,) and the
author of the present work has printed in Edinburgh (1847) a transla-
tion of the Gospel of Matthew. His missionary life among those people
enabled him to compose the grammar and dictionary of that language,
which is of interest, not only because it is spoken by a useful and numer-
ous tribe of our continent, but particularly as an object for the study of
the transitions in languages which are influenced by admixture from
other languages of an entirely different character. For these reasons
I believe that the publication of this work will be found advisable,
though in its present shape it is not exactly fit for that purpose. It is
but natural that forty years of life in the tropics show their influence in
a septegenarian. <A certain prolixity and some want of order in the
arrangement must be attributed to this cause, but it does not impair

364 ETHNOLOGY.

the intrinsic value of the material. If it were decided to print this’
work, I would suggest a re-arrangement, bringing under the same head-
ings those articles that naturally belong together, but are scattered here
through the whole work, and leaving out those numerous grammatical
forms, which unnecessarily swell the dictionary, as they result from the
rules and examples given in the grammar. I have made such new
arrangement for my own use, and shall prepare a copy for the Institn-
tion, if such be desired.

With regard to the preface, (pp. 339 and 340 of the eighth volume,)
I may be permitted to say that the author’s conjecture concerning a
Maya-origin of the Carib-tribe is not borne out, either by history or
by philological comparison. It is this, a pet-theory of later date, which
has even induced the author to confound the Maya-population north of
Belize with the Caribs living southward of the same place. He writes
to me himself that those Karifs, seventy-five miles north of Belize,
“speak the Maya-language,” and that they discard the name ~ Uaribs,”
while his dictionary, which was certainly made among the Caribs south-
ward of Belize, has the words Karifune for Carib, and Mariniazu for
Red Caribs.

THE MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN.

By HENRY GILLMAN. ‘

Throughout the region of the Great Lakes occur many of the most
interesting relics of the race known as the “‘Mound-builders.” Hven
as far north as the State of Michigan, so large a portion of the bound-
aries along the shore-line of the lakes and rivers of the region abounds
in the presence of those remains as to be a subject of wonder to
all who have investigated the subject. From the west end of Lake
Erie, along the banks of the Detroit River, the shores of Lake Saint
Clair, and the coasts of Lakes Huron and Michigan, through the passage
of the Saint Mary’s River, to Lake Superior, including isolated Isle
Royal, near its northern limits, the remains of the mysterious people,
who resided here hundreds of years ago, may be traced.

Some of those relics may, indeed, be said to be unique—unlike any-
thing of the kind in any other part of this country or even in the Old
World. I refer, for instance, to those which exhibit the flattening of
the tibia, known as platyenemism.

That these people are identical with the race whose monuments of
various deseriptions are found occurring. in such remarkable abundance
to the westward and to the southward, through Ohio, Kentucky, and
Tennessee, even to the Gulf of Mexico, admits now of no question; a
race whose craniological development and evidently advanced civiliza-
tion apparently separate it from the North American Indian and ally 16
to the ancient Brazilian type.

( MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 065

One of the most interesting works of this region, and which, till a
few years ago, formed a member of a numerous series of mounds in the
immediate vicinity, is the tumulus which I have named “The Great
Mound of the river Rouge.” This, in many respects, remarkable work
is situated on the eastern bank of Rouge River, a tributary of the
Detroit, and near the point of junction of the former with the latter
river, or about four and one-half miles from the city-hall in Detroit.
(See Fig. 1.)

Fig. 1

Great Mound, River Rouge,
and
Cireular Mound, Detroit River, A
MIcH.

=

andwich

ly
pyne
is
zal
ONTARIO
Crs

== + {

z
Ss
2
(om
ud
=
par)
=)
ra
kr

‘4 32 4 0 4 2 3 4 5 Miles.

The size, shape, and well-defined outlines of the monument could
hardly fail to attract the attention of even the superficial observer, and
impress him as to its being the work of man. With a height of 20
feet, it must originally have measured about 300 feet in length by 200

566 ETHNOLOGY. '

feet in width; but large quantities of sand have been removed from it
from time to time, greatly reducing its proportions, and scattering or
destroying a large number of interesting relics.

The series of smaller mounds, extending from the great mound to the
eastward, has long since been entirely removed; so has the greater
number of other similar mounds which once stood immediately below
the southern city limits. Those which remain are fast disappearing
before the march of civilization, the sand, of which they are principally
composed, being in demand for building and other purposes.

Indian tradition says that these mounds were built in aneient times,
by a people of whom they (the Indians) know nothing, and for whom
they have no name; that the mounds were occupied by the Tuetle
Indians, and subsequently by the Wyandotts, but were constructed long
before their time. These facts were ascertained by me in the year
1869, when I was further informed that the Tuetle Indians had been
Pisosbadl by the Six Nations, and that if any survived it is among them
they must be looked for.

In this connection it may be proper to state, that I have lately been
informed of the results of some inquiries made at my request, through
the instrumentality of the Smithsonian Institution, in regard to the
name Tuetle. The conclusion arrived at is that the word Tuetle is
probably a corruption of Tutelo, a tribe, ‘‘admitted as a younger mem-
ber of the confederacy of the Six Nations about the middle of the last
century,” and that the Tuteloes “are believed to have migrated from
Virginia northward, to lands assigned them on the Susquehanna by the
Six Nations; but very little is known of their early history and migra-
tions.” An interesting paper on the Tuteloes, by Rev. J. Anderson,
was read before the American Philological Association in July, 1871.
Reporting Mr. H. Hale’s discoveries, this assigns the Tuteloes to the
Dakotan and not the Iroquois stock, and gives an account of Mr. Hale’s
“visit to Nikungha, the last survivor of the tribe of the Tuteloes,” and
who has since died at the age of one hundred and six years.*

The establishment of the identity of the Tuetles with the Tuteloes,
and their residence on these mounds and along the Detroit River, is not
without value, in view of Mr. Hale’s opinion, (opposed to the conclusions
of others regarding the Dakotan migration,) that “in former times the
whole of what is now the central portion of the United States, from the
Mississippi nearly to the Atlantic, was occupied by Dakotan tribes,
who have been cut up and gradually exterminated by the TUPLES and
more energetic Algonkins and Iroquois.”

The relics exhumed from the great mound (which has not even yet
been thoroughly explored) consist of stone implements, such as axes,
serapers, chisels, arrow-heads, and knives; fragments of pottery of a
great variety of pattern, including the favorite cord-pattern; and the

* Proceedings of American Philological Association, July, 1871, pp. 15, 16.

‘ MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. O67

bones of man, generally much decayed, and exhibiting other indications
of antiquity. From the fragments of burned bones and charcoal found
it would appear that in the earlier interments cremation was practiced.

The dibie present, in an extreme degree, the peculiar flattening or
compression pertaining to platyenemic men. In the Fourth Annual
Report of the Peabody Museum mention is made of this; some of the
relics which I collected from this mound having been given to the
museum by the Hon. Robert C. Winthrop, to whom I had presented
them. The curator, Professor Wyman, says: “Of the tibic: of forty
individuals, from the mounds in Kentucky, one-third presented this flat-
tening to the extent that the transverse did not exceed 0.60 of the fore-
and-aft diameter. The most extreme case was from the mound on the
River Rouge, in Michigan, in which the transverse diameter was only
0.48. In the most marked case mentioned by Broea, viz, in the old man
from Cro-Magnon, France, it was, as deduced from his figures, 0.60.”
Professor Wyman draws attention to certain resemblances in this bone
to the same bone in the ape, adding: “In some of the tibie the amount
of flattening surpasses that of the gorilla and chimpanzee, in each of
which we found the short 0.67 of the long diameter, while in the tibia
from Michigan it was only 0.48.”*

Subsequent to this (in 1870) I discovered in adjacent mounds several
instances in which this compression of the tibia was exhibited to even
‘a greater extreme. Two remarkable cases of this peculiarity were
afforded by tibie taken by me from the “ Circular Mound” on the Detroit.
River. In one of those unique specimens the transverse diameter of
the shaft is 0.42, and in the other 0.40, of the antero-posterior diameter ;
exceeding, I believe, any platycnemism which has been observed before
or since. In communicating these facts to the American Naturalist, not
long afterward, I claimed that the last-mentioned case “‘ may be consid-
ered as the flattest tibia on record.”+ Both of the bones are strongly
marked with the saber-like curvature, as are also many others of the
tibice from the vicinity. . The majority of the tibiw present the flattening,
which is an exception to the facts as noted in other sections of the
United States, where it is supposed to pertain to “ only about one-third
of all the individuals observed.”

About three-quarters of a mile to the north and eastward of the
Great Rouge Mound, and only a few hundred feet to the westward of
Fort Wayne, being over a third of a mile from the shore of the Detroit
River, occurs the monument which I have named for distinetion and
from its originally symmetrical shape ‘‘The Great Circular Mound.”
This also appears to have been one of a numerous series, many of which
have been removed for various purposes, but the present occupation of
the land prevents a satisfactory examination of its character.

* Fourth Annual Report of the Trustces of the Peabody Museum of American Arche-
clogy and Ethnology. Boston, 1871.
{American Naturalist, October, 1871, vol. v, p. 663.

368 ETHNOLOGY.

A few years ago a great part of the mound was removed, and some im-
portant results were obtained, the relics being of unusual interest. EKleven
skeletons were exhumed, with a large number of burial vases; stone
implements in great variety and of superior workmanship, consisting
chiefly of axes, spears, arrow-heads, chisels, drillers, and sinkers; pipes;
ornaments of shell and stone; also, a peculiar implement of unknown
use formed from an antler; and two articles manufactured from copper,
one the remains of a necklace, consisting of a number of beads; the
other a needle several inches in length.

One of the skulls is noticed by Professor Wyman as. remarkable for
its diminutive size, though adult, its capacity being only 56 cubic inches,
or less than 67 per cent. of that of the average Indian cranium, which
is given as 84 cubic inches by Morton and Meigs, the minimum observed
by them being 69 cubic inches. In speaking of this skull, Professor
Wyman says: ‘In ordinary skulls the ridges of the temporal muscles
on the two sides of the head are separated by a space of from 3 to 4
inches, seldom less than 2, while in the Detroit-mound skull this space
measures only three-quarters of an inch; and in this respect it presents
the same conditions as the skull of a chimpanzee.” *

It is interesting to remark here that “the flattest tibie on record,”
already referred to, were taken by me from this mound. I regret to
have to add that in the rude method pursued in opening this mound
many choice relics were destroyed; a large number also were carried ~
away, scattered, and lost.

In the following table I give the dimensions of a few of the tibie, of
which I was able to obtain measurements, from the great mound on the
Rouge River and the circular mound on the Detroit River. All these
bones have more or less saber-like curvature :

TABLE I.—Dimensions, §c., of tibiw from the Rouge and Detroit Rivers, Michigan.

fe ule Oo. eee a ae
8 os 23 2° we we
s Aas go PA oe 2°
g Be zs Sse Be 53
a ies} =) Cel an Yop\ aN oe |
ene Bae Ba gee c ae ae
é ao HO = BHA Ae co
5 is PAS. Oe o8 os BS ze.
2 we Dee 2 AZ ROLES aud Bec
a a a5 e¢ aia SEES ek = ae
5 i) yest on A aar a Ores alte)
vA eas aq =| <4 4 A
FEY | Senarine esse A 2.9 BHD TGs OE i liseeeesoaccese. 0. 580
eid at PES ACS ee EN Daa TAS Misr Om ne eee eee 0. 4&2
Cay cae One agi AE SBE LY aI Estab? ASIN" Val Meee eel se oecete 0. 5U0
LNA Meeps aa BallareRog oe = seo se PAG Tony (RSE Meas soa csacec 0. 581
5 14.7 2.8 2. 65 148 by 67 0. 180 0. 452
6 14.9 27 2.8 142 by 69 0. 185 0. 485
We IDET TR hn) A A EA USO es GRIDS REO Milt ecw rete tee 0. 476
8 TA Gi hal ote Meena 2.7 152 by 64 0. 184 0. 421
9 TESOL iS Nec aan 2.9 154 by 62 0. 193 0. 492
NCL S88 aN Gc SLAM A AE : Bey MUN eal rc See AOS oy,
Mean ....| 14.8 2. 73 2. 87 150 by 72 0.185 0. 486

* Sixth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archeol-
ogy and Ethnology. 1873. American Journal of Science and Arts, third series, vol
vii, p. 1, January, 1874.

{ 5
MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 369

In this table the latitudinal index expresses the amount of the com-
pression of the shaft, while the perimetral index represents the thick-
ness.

* In this connection I wish to call attention to the fact that the perfora-
tion of the hwmerus is a characteristic which I have observed to pertain
to the platycnemic specimens from the river Rouge mound. This is of
great interest, as the peculiarity referred to is most frequently met with
in the negro race, has also been observed in the Indian, and, though
not always present, is quite general in the apes, while it is seldom seen
in the white races.

The ridge on which Fort Wayne is built, once nearly a mile in length,
on the bank of the Detroit River, and which occupies a commanding
position, was, I am satisfied, previously occupied by the ancient people
we are discussing. Their bones and implements have been dug out at
that part of the ridge immediately above the fort. The leg-bones from
this point also exhibited in a remarkable degree the flattening.

It is to be regretted that various circumstances prevented my obtain-
ing in many instances the dimensions of the bones; otherwise I should
be able to present an array of facts still more valuable.

Though the stone and other implements from the upper lakes cannot
in general boast of the high degree of ornamentation observable in
those relics from the southern portion of the United States, yet there
are not wanting specimens evincing considerable cultivation in this
direction. The difficulties of manipulation involved in the material
used prevented the indulgence of much art. The pottery, therefore,
seems to have been chosen especially for a display of such taste as
those primitive workmen possessed in this field. The objects of this
material from the lake-mounds present a remarkable variety of devices.

Fig. 2

Stone Pipe from Grosse Point, Lake St. Clair,
Michigan. THalf size.

Figure 2 is an illustration of a stone pipe from Grosse Point, Lake Saint
Clair, Hyon gem which, as an object of this kind, is worthy of some admi-

370 ETHNOLOGY.

ration. Though wanting in symmetry in its details, in its general ap-
pearance it is almost elegant, and even graceful. It is formed of green-
stone, and is beautifully polished; the workmanship, as a whole, display-
ing much skill. This singular relic is in perfect preservation, with
the exception of that part of the base, the restoration of which is
attempted to be shown by the dotted lines. Of the bowl, which in
shape resembles a half-closed tulip, a small portion is also wanting.
The date, 1697, inscribed on one side of the base, is of interest. The
antiquity of the pipe is in my opinion much greater than this would
imply. Such relics are highly valued by the Indians, and handed down
from generation to generation. The date of the settlement of Detroit is
1701; but the Jesuits and other white men had already penetrated to
this region many years before. It is possible that some white person of
note may have been presented with this pipe by its Indian possessor
as a mark of respect, and that the former cut the date on this already-
antique object. The four numerals, though distinct, are yet rudely cut,
and are in marked contrast with the rest of the carving, being evidently
the work of another hand.

! |

Ail

Section. at base, showing oblique borings. &e.

Stone ornament from Grosse Point, Lake St. Clair, Michigan.
Full size.

A stone ornament from the same place is shown in Fig. 3. This is
formed from a beautiful piece of variegated slate, of a grayish green,
interstratified with veins of a darker shade, and is neatly made and.
finely polished. Similar ornaments have been found throughout the

/
ath

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 371

United States; and as there has been considerable discussion as to their
use, I will here state that I have learned, through an aged Indian, that
in olden time these ornaments were worn on the heads of Indian

women, but only after marriage. I have thought that these peculiar

objects, which are always made of some choice material, resemble the

‘figure of a brooding bird; a familiar sight to the “children of the for-

est ;” that thus they are emblematic of maternity, and as such were

designed and worn.

Fig. 4

Mounds at the Head of St. Clair River,
and_on. Black River, Michigan.

LAKE HURON

TRUE MERIDIAN

d 6%
vices 5

MICHIGAN

3 &% _Ft. Gratiot

oS
i"
we

ie
AIT

‘Black River Mound \ug, |

Statute Miles,

a Gere I ae 2

In the year 1872 I made the discovery of one of the most remarkable
and extensive series of tumuli which are known to exist in this part of
the lake region. I refer to the mounds situated at the head of the

°

372 ETHNGLOGY. »

Saint Clair River, and which extend from a point south of Fort Gratiot
for about one and one-half miles northward, along the west shore of the
river and of Lake Huron. [Fig. 4.] A collection of a large number of
relies was made by me from the location, and were forwarded, accom-
panied by a report on the subject, to the Peabody Museum. My paper,
embodying the principal facts, subsequently formed a part of the annual |
report of the trustees,* and was afterward copied into several of the
leading periodicals of the country, including the American Journal of
Science.t The general publicity thus given the discoveries precludes
the necessity of more than a passing notice here.

Those numerous mounds are, with few exceptions, of similar charac-
ter, and were largely used for burial purposes. One of them presented
some features distinctive of the ‘‘refuse-heaps” of our Atlantic coast
and of the North of Europe, a wide area at one end being covered with
“a solid crust of black ashes, from eighteen inches to two feet thick,
containing the bones of various animals used for food, broken pottery,
and stone implements.”

The relics from the mounds, in addition to those usually found, con-
sisted of an extraordinarily large number of broken stone-hammers of
the rudest kind; a plate of mica five by four inches; and two necklaces,
one made of small bones, stained a beautiful green color, resembling
enamel, the other composed of the teeth of the moose, alternating with
well-wrought beads of copper; and the bones of birds, stained green, as
in the first instance. In the mound containing the last-mentioned
ornaments several interments had been made, and the decayed stump
of a scarlet oak, (Quercus coccinea Wang,) two feet in diameter, sur-
mounted the summit, the roots spreading above the contents in all
directions.

The human bones were all very tender from decay, and in most
instances crumbled to pieces. All the tibicw noticed by me exhibited
the characteristic platycnemic compression. In dwelling on this cir-
cumstance, in connection with my previous discoveries in the same
direction, I may remark that “TI cannot but believe, from what I have
seen, that future investigation will extend the area in which this type
of bone is predominant to the entire region of the great lakes, if not
of the great West; or, in other words, that at least the northern
‘mound-builders’ will be found to have possessed this trait in the
degree and to the extent denoted ;” which prediction recent discoveries
in Wisconsin and Iowa would seem in a fair way to fulfill.

In the following table I present an exhibit of a few of the tibie;
though I am convinced they do not show the extreme cases of com-
pression occurring here, as most of the flattest bones fell to pieces
before they could be measured. But such as it is, even, it is valuable,

* Sixth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of Archexology and
Ethnology. Boston, 1873.
+ American Journal of Science and Arts, %d series, vel. vii, pp. 1-9. January, 1874.

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 373

as a proof of the prevalence of this strange peculiarity. The mounds
here and those on the Rouge River are over 60 miles apart.

TABLE I].—Dimensions, §c., of tibiw from the head of the Saint Clair River, Michigan.

—

Transverse diame-
ter, proximal end.
Least circumference.
Antero-posterior di-

ameter and trans-

verse diameter of
Perimetral index
Latitudinal index.

Number.
Length

ait=)
CA
ra
o
Ss
wo

Ww)
i
292
(Ss)
es
ee
Ss
on

1

'

1

1

‘

'

‘

.

'

’

‘

:

'

'

1

1

:

.

1

’

7

1

'
79
DO

_

=

(=)

Ker :

<q <j

~

~

,

’

‘

'

'

‘

'

,

.

'

'

=

oO

oO

i=)

135i by War pooyales eke seek 0. 562

Mean ..-. 14.75 2.7 2.75 147 by 80 0. 200 0. 548

These tibie were all taken from mound No. 3 of the report; which see
for additional information of interest. 8

On the west bank of the Black River, a tributary of the Saint Clair
River, is a burial-mound, which exhibited some unusual features.
[Fig. 4.| A road having been cut through the easterly slope of this
mound, the excavation consequent on grading, &c., revealed a large
number of human bones, pottery, stone implements, and other relics.
Stone-lance or spear-heads of great length were taken out, two of them
being over a foot long, and one sixteen inches in length. But the most
interesting feature of this repository of relics was a grave, the interior
of which was described to me as being lined with pottery similar to
that of which the vases, pots, &c., are formed. This was so peculiar a
circumstance, no other instance of the kind having come to my knowl-
edge, that at first I considered the statement rather doubtful. But not
long after I availed myself of an opportunity of visiting the locality and
making an examination.

Though the construction of the road through the mound had destroyed
most of the original features, and scattered a multitude of valuable re-
mains, further excavation revealed a considerable quantity of fragments of
the pottery above referred to as having been said to have lined the grave.
This certainly appeared to confirm the statement. I found this pottery
to be of rather a coarser description than usual, and marked abundantly
with the cord pattern, found to be of such frequent employment; but in
this. instance made with a large cord or small rope. The side so orna-
mented was invariably concave, while the other side was convex and
unsmoothed ; different from any other specimens I have seen elsewhere.
So rough and unfinished was the unornamented side, that it had every
appearance of having been pressed upon the ground while yet plastic,
and sand, and even small pebbles, adhering to it sustained this impres-
sion. After having viewed the evidence, I had no longer any great
difficulty in receiving the statements previously made.

My chief informant was perfectly uneducated in such matters, and

old ETHNOLOGY.

even attributed the peculiar formation lining the sides of the grave
to the coagulation and final hardening of blood, accounting for its pres-
ence in such large quantity by presuming a battle to have been fought
in the vicinity.

The few fragments of human bones which on this occasion were
exhumed with the pottery were in the last stages of decay.

A large mound, which stands near the northwest shore of Chambers’
Island, in Green Bay, Wisconsin, I have thought worthy. of mention
here from having been the burial-place of platyenemic men, and as
belonging to the lake region, though lving outside of the State of Mich-
igan. It has been explored by a friend of mine of much experience in
such operations, and I have had opportunity to examine the contents.

The accompanying sketch [Fig. 5] sufficiently shows the location,
surroundings, &c., of this mound, which unquestionably is of great age.
Among a large number of relics of the description generally found in
the burial-mounds, there were exhumed here human remains, mostly in
the latter stagewof decay; a few rude stone implements; an urn (pro-
vided witha lid) of the old pottery, of uncommon design and curious
‘ndented pattern, formed largely of curved lines in a sort of scroll-work ;
and a broad, pointed copper-knife, well wrought, and resembling those
found in the works of the “‘ ancient miners” of Lake Superior. Trag-
ments of prepared hide, like rough leather, adhered to the knife; prob-
ably the remnants of arude sheath. One of the skulls, in fair condition,
presented decided indications of artificial flattening, while the tebic al.
exhibited the peculiar compression already referred to, though not to
the extent found to pertain to the tibie of the mounds along the
Detroit, Rouge, and Saint Clair Rivers. The bones of one of the earliest
of the interments gave unequivocal evidence that cremation had been
practiced here. Large pieces of charcoal, well preserved, remained in
the vicinity of the burnt bones. :

The annexed table gives the dimensions of some of the tibiew preserved
from this mound, from measurements which I have carefully made.
The platyenemism of those bones is of importance, as still widening the
area over which the peculiarity prevailed.

TABLE III.—Dimensions, §c., of tibie from Chambers Island, in Green Bay, Wisconsin.

as 5 Bag i 3

Se er iment i q

ig a | Se gi A ae,

De 5 S als 3 x}

: HM ° Sn 4 8

3 a ha 3 32045 o s

Q we) nay = Ho 2A q =

| wv a hr Q 2 g o.4 bn 3

5 8 Ao $ aaeha 5 S

a 4 a> H <q Ay 4
1 15. 54 3. 05 3. 00 153 by 95 0. 190 0. 620
2 15. 48 3. 00 3. 07 155 by 86 0. 1938 0. 554
3 14.15 3. 15 3. 00 152 by &8 0. 212 0. 579
4 13. &0 3.10 3. 04 155 by 93 0. 220 0. 600
Mean..... 14. 74 3. 07 3. 02 153 by 90 0. 205 0. 588

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 375

The mound shown on the southwest side of Chambers Island |Fig. 5]
was noticed and partially examined by me several years ago. It was
then much undermined by the waters of Green Bay; the contents, prin-
cipally human bones, being somewhat exposed by the giving way of the
high bank. I have lately learned that within the last few years this
mound has totally disappeared, owing doubtless to the cause just
referred to. It belonged unquestionably to the larger class of burial-
mounds, and was probably of like age and origin as the mound at the
northwest end of the island.

Fig. 5 hs

Mounds,
Chambers Island, Green Bay,
‘Wisconsin,

cS
=
S
cc
uu
=
Ww
2
c
K

GREEN BAY

0 1 P} 3 4 5 Miles, °

In this connection it is of importance to refer to the late discovery by
Mr. Dawkins of platyenemic men at Perthi-Chwaren, in Denbighshire,
Wales, and to Prof. G. Busk’s valuable notes on those ancient remains.*
Professor Busk and Dr. Falconer were the first, I believe, to call atten-
tion, in 1863, to this particular conformation of the leg-bone in the

* Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, January, 1871.

avo ETHNOLOGY.

“

human remains from the cave on Wind-mill Hill, Gibraltar,* giving to
it the name of “ platyenemic.” M. Broca, in May, 1864, independently,
observed the same condition in tibiw from Chamant and Maintenon, in
France.t

Similar bones were noticed at Montmartre, by M. Bertrand. Professor
Wyman found the same peculiarity in tibie from the Florida mounds,
in this country, and it was through the last-named gentleman that my
attention was called to the subject, some bones which I had procured
from the mound on Rouge River, in Michigan, first establishing the
fact that this platyenemism was a characteristic of the northern tribes
of aboriginal man on this continent. Discoveries of flattened tibie have
also been made in Kentucky and Tennessee; while the mound I have
mentioned as occurring on Chambers Island adds Wisconsin to the list;
and I have lately been informed of like discoveries having recently been
made at Davenport, lowa.

The following table gives the proportions of the tibic from Deubigh-
shire, as taken by Professor Busk, with slight corrections, which I have
made in revising the computations:

TABLE IV.—Dimensions, §c., of tibie from Perthi-Chwaren, Wales.

& g oh

ele z Sials 4 r

ao i BHe o is)

oc (2) at 2) Go} cs

Me: E Sa A 2

5 a Bae 5 ES o4: Bs z

= 3 AS 3 Hara 5 z

Zz SI A 4 < 4 4
1 14.9 2.8 3.2 140 by 80 0-572
2 13.7 2.7 2.9 120 by 75 0. 625
3 13.2 3.0 3.0 135 by 80 0.592
4 12.9 2,5 2.5 125 by 70 0.541
5 12.9 2.5 2. 75 100 by 70 0. 700
6 j 155 by 90 0. 666
1 140 by 90 0. 642
8 130 by 70 é 0.538
9 Bebe es ee 0. 629
ENica ee 13.5 2.7 2. 81 129 by 79 0. 212 0.612

As before explained, the latitudinal index designates in each instance
the amount of flattening of the bone; the perimetral index represent-_
ing, with some approach to exactness, the thickness or bulk of the shaft ;
-and on a.comparison of the preceding table, giving the proportions of
those ancient tébiw from Wales, with the tables in which I have given
‘the dimensions of the tibiw from the mounds on the Detroit and Rouge
Rivers, the greater platycnemism of the latter bones will at once be
apparent.

A further comparison with the normal form of the ordinary English
tibie is afforded by the subjoined table, prepared by Professor Busk,

* Transactions of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archeology for 1868. p.
161.

t Mémoires sur:les ossemeus des Eyzies : Paris, 1868, Reliquiz Aquitanice, p. 97.

a

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 377

which gives the dimensions of “ thirteen leg-bones taken indiscriminately
from a drawer in the College of Surgeons, London.” I have made a few
corrections, however, in re-computing from Professor Busk’s elements

TABLE V.—Dimensions, §:c., of ordinary English tibie.

g a

Ae 5 Te ; i

=o Bs SHS 5

Ss oI S f=) 3 =

a ema A iS

c-0) | s mas = Le

n % 5 of plas oS ics}

- BH a aH? u |

i : ,ee “a aS) : ~ Be

a =| Ba S) 64 O25 @ a)

2 =H m Pa 42 Po) aS q t=}

| | Ales a 2 don oa Sz

I o Ho ) ASF a ® =

4 A H A <q a 4
1 16.7 3.15 3, 4 130 by 100 0. 203 0. 769
2 16. 4 3.2 3.5 150 by 115 0. 212 0. 766
3 15. 8 2.95 3.0 120 by 90 0. 189 0. 750
4 15.5 2.95 2.9 140 by 90 0.187 0. 642
3 15. 3 2.9 2.8 130 by 90 0. 183 0. 692
6 15.2 3. 0 3.2 140 by 90 0. 210 0. 642
th 15. 0 2.8 2.8 140 by 90 0. 187 0. 642
8 15. 0 2.6 2.8 120 by 85 0.187 0. 708
9 15. 0 2.6 2.8 120 by 90 0.187 0. 750
10 15.5 3.0 2.9 120 by 95 0.187 0. 791
11 13.5 2.8 2.9 120 by 90 0. 214 0. 750
12 13. 4 2.715 2.7 120 by 85 0. 201 0. 708
13 12:8 2.5 2.4 100 by 8&5 0. 187 0. 850
Mean ...- 15. 0 2. 86 2.9 It by 92 0.195 0. 727

While the tidic from the Detroit and Rouge Rivers show a degree of
platycnemism somewhat in excess of that of the tibie from the head
of the Saint Clair River, the latter have more of this peculiarity than
the Chambers Island specimens, which, in turn, have this compression
te an extent slightly greater than the bones from other (more southerly)
parts of the United States, as given by Wyman; the last mentioned
being of about the flatness of the Welsh bones from Perthi-Chwaren,
which, as we have seen, are much flatter than the ordinary English
tibie.

The data for determining the perimetral indices are in some cases
hardly sufficient for establishing any positive statement; but, at least
in the American and Welsh tibie, the slenderness of the bone appears
to be related in some degree to the flattening; 7. ¢., the more platyc-
nemic ¢ibie (taking the means) are the more slender. In individual
instances, however, this does not hold good. The ordinary English
tibiee, it will be noticed, are not so thick as the Perthi-Chwaren speci-
mens, but in this respect come between the tibiew from the Detroit and
Rouge Rivers and those from the Saint Clair. Excepting the tibie
from Chambers Island, a remarkable uniformity, it will be observed,
exists in the means of the “ transverse diameters of the proximal end ;”
andthe same may be said of the “least circumferences.” In length the
ordinary English tibiw (modern) are in excess; the Michigan and Wis-
consin Specimens come next; while the ancient Welsh tibie are much
the shortest.

For convenience of reference, I append a table exhibiting a compari-
son of the means of the different tables already given.

e

378 ETHNOLOGY.

TABLE VI.—Means of the dimensions, §c., of tibic.

4S ar BS as 4

Bre & pate | 3 3

oH | Be og | fe

22 Sg | 2983 | 2 @

Locality. c ied da| © ae ea fe] |

ce Bi 55 e428 S ig

ep deg | @ eaaq | 4 3

@ Be & ey aUCSS A 3

A A 4 4 Ay S|
Detroit and Rouge Rivers, Michigan. . 14. 80 2.73 2.87 | 150 by 72 0.185 0. 486
Head of Saint Clair River, Michigan. . 14. 75 2. 70 2.9 147 by 80 0. 200 0. 548
Chambers Island, Wisconsin.......--- 14. 74 3.07 3.02 | 153 by 90 0. 205 0. 588
Perthi-Chwaren, Wales....-...---.--. 13.5 2. 7 2.87 | 129 by 79 0. 212 0. 612
Ordinary English, College of Surgeons, 15.1 2. 86 2.9 127 by 92 0.195 0. 727

nt London.

I refrain from indulging in any extended deductions which will natu-
rally be suggested by the comparison of the different tables here given. —
Professor Busk and M. Broca have pointed out so fully the various
relations of this conformation of the leg-bone as to leave little room for
general comment. I would simply add, that the platyecnemism which I
have observed in Michigan all appears to belong to what is termed
‘‘anterior ;” that is, this abnormal expansion of the bone is in front of
the interosseous ridge. In this respect the Michigan specimens resem-
ble the tibiw from Denbighshire rather than those from Gibraltar and
from Cro-Magnon; in the two latter instances the expansion being pos-
terior. ‘The occasional and not infrequent platyenemism observed in
the shin-bones of negroes,” Mr. Busk states, “is what may be termed
‘anterior.”” He is not prepared to discuss what this difference may indi-
cate, though he considers that, ‘in all probability, it is cohnected with
a difference in the cause of the deformation, (if it be deformation.)”

As to the ethnological value of this platycnemism, he considers ‘“ we
are as yet very much in the dark,” doubting the probability of its being
a race-character, ‘though it may undoubtedly be considered a character
betokening remote antiquity.” After referring to certain distinctions
between the human and the simian foot, he concludes with asking:
‘¢ Would it not, then, be admissible to inquire how far, at any rate, pos-
terior platycnemism may be connected with the greater freedom of
motion and general adaptability of the toes enjoyed by those peoples
whose feet have not been subjected to the confinement of shoes or other
coverings, and who at the same time have been compelled to lead an
active existence in a rude and rugged or mountainous and wooded
country, where the exigencies of the chase would demand the utmost
agility in climbing and otherwise?”

Further observations of abundant material from different parts of the
country, and perhaps of the world, are wanted to afford the requisite
testimony as to the ethnological significance of this peculiarity.

In the year 1856, I found a small burial-mound on the west shore of
Ottawa Point, Michigan, (Lake Huron.) [Fig. 6.| It occupied the bank,
close to the beach, and the washing of the lake in storms had under- |

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 379

mined it, causing it to cave away on one side, and partially disclosing
the contents.

Fig. 6

Mound at Ottawa Point, Michigan.

nN

z
3
Q
i) a A
~ j o ar
4s as :
&
J o Pane
4 wo ul 0 9?
© ’ Sr
a) a Jo, °
ca k lor)
2

18)
sy
A
oo f a Ottawa Point | y

2) : eae

Zone NY

oe gi

% %
I s
IY
y

——————E——— EEE
0 t 2 3 4 5 Miles.

On examination, nothing was found establishing for the work any
great age. The utensils, trinkets, &c., were all of a period subsequent
to the advent of the white man. There was, in fact, no point of resem-
blance between this place of sepulture and those of the “ mound-build-
ers.” The bones exhumed apparently belonged to one body—probably
that of a woman.

On visiting the same point some sixteen years afterward, (June, 1872,)
all trace of the mound had disappeared, doubtless through the en-
croachments of the lake.

380 . ETHNOLOGY.

A mound similar to this was seen by me at Oqueoce River, Lake Hu-
ron, | Fig. 7;] and another at Point La Barbe, in the Straits of Mackinae.
[Fig. 8.] No opportunity was afforded in either case for a thorough

Hig. 7

TRUE MERIDIAN.

Mound, Oqueoce River, Michigan.

examination of the contents. In fact, such mounds are frequent all
along the lake shore, and seem to be invariably of more recent origin
than the first-described works. They are generally quite small; and it
is observable that they are frequently situated in such places as present
some features of natural beauty.

At old Fort Mackinac, opposite Point La Barbe, on the south shore
of the Straits of Mackinac, occur several interesting mounds, |[Fig. 8,|
which have never to my knowledge been thoroughly examined. Long
before the European selected this point for a fort, or even the present

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 881

Indian race had frequented those shores, man had here taken up his
habitation; evidence of which was seen in the usual mounds.

Fig. §
Mounds at Old Fort Mackiyae,

and

Pt. La Barbe, Michigan.

TRUE MERIDIAN.

4 Be
nail) inp “OI ff

} H HN Mt i Hany

o

(mee

Y Pt. St. Ignace.

S pe, n a Ce
ty Qt Gans ro) f M a ec kt
'
+ aracisinae
- oon
SR” a
@ ely, Pier Ae ec
<M Gulpinis». yy TNT a

Sts SEH any i
By

MY, Ayr (
Nitin, ¢ on ° Rts
oO?

0 i 2 3 4 5 6 7 Miles,

When the writer, in 1851, visited the site, attractive from its histor-
ical associations, nothing remained on the bleak, sandy point to denote
the original works of any of the races who had dwelt there save a few
mis-shapen mounds and the remnants of the pickets which once had
formed the sally-port, near which was the stump of the flag-staff,
projecting about two feet above ground. These last were fast being
undermined by the waters of the straits, which washed within a few
feet of them; and, as in stormy weather the waves must have swept
clear over fans, in ail probability they have long since disappeared. The

382 ETHNOLOGY.

great massacre and capture of the fort occurred on June, 1763; and
till within the last few years the place has not been occupied since ten
years after that event.

A remarkable series of mounds occurs at Beaver Harbor, on Beaver
Island, in Lake Michigan. [Fig.9.] They are at present chiefly occu-
pied by the town of Saint James, which was built by the Mormons,
under their leader, James Strang, (‘ King Strang,”) about the year
1852~53. The mounds, which overlook the harbor, are extensive; and
though, so far as I am aware, they have never been systematically
investigated, they doubtless present a rich mine for research.

Fig. 9

Mounds at Beaver Harbor, Beaver Island,
Michigan.

z
=
2
tc
ui
=
ul
=)
rr
-

5 Miles.

A very limited and hurried examination which I made of them in 1871
sufficiently satisfied me as to their ancient origin. They appear to be of
the same character as the mounds on the Detroit River and at the foot of
Lake Huron. They were probably largely used for purposes of sepulture,
and until a comparatively recent period even the present race of Indians
has continued to inter the dead, though not perhaps in the same reposi-
tories, at least in their immediate vicinity. From the success attending

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 383

my brief labors, it would appear that the more valued relics of the “ mound-
builders” have been here deposited in unusual abundance. Highly-
wrought stone implements, many of them being of uncommonly skillful
workmanship, are frequently encountered. These consist of axes, chisels,
fleshing-tools, sinkers, spear-points, arrow-heads, &c., formed of a great
variety of stone, such as diorite, sienite, greenstone, shale, and chert,
many of them being finely polished.

One of the handsomest stone-axes I have seen was taken out at this
place. It is made from sienite, a favorite material for this implement,
and the handicraft displayed in its construction is of high order. An-
other ax, of diorite, is exquisitely polished.

Fig. 10

Stone implement,—Beaver Harbot Mound, Michigan.
Full size.

Sections at the three grooves, c-d, a-b, and e-/,

The implement [Fig. 10] found here, and presumed to be a sinker, I
have thought it worth while forwarding a sketch of. The grooves shown
at its middle and at each extremity, though shallow, are distinctly
marked, and the entire implement is elegantly finished ; apparently too
much so by far for the purpose for which it is supposed to have been
designed. It is made from a grayish shale, and is slightly polished.

Another stone implement from those mounds is the large circular
upper stone of the utensil conjectured to have been employed for grind-
ing the grain used as food. This stone, which is also of sienite, is finely
worked, being much smoother on one side than on the other. It is
possible it may have been employed for another purpose than that
suggested.

Immense amounts of the fragments of pottery of the usual description
and patterns (the well-known cord-pattern being frequent) are found here

384 ‘ ETHNOLOGY.

In quality it compares favorably with that from the Detroit and Saint
Clair River mounds.

I think it of importance to state here that on exhibiting some of the
pottery to several of the more intelligent of the Indians at present
resident on one of the neighboring islands, they professed their igno-
rance as to its manufacture, but attributed it to an ancient people, who
preceded them in the occupation of this country. Among the Indians
So questioned was the chief, a man of large stature, striking personal
appearance, and much dignity of manner, and who is noted for his
knowledge, intelligence, and judgment.

I also specially remarked the indifference with which they beheld the
‘examination of the mounds (which they appeared to have no knowledge
of) and the abstraction of the relics. When it is considered how sen-
sitive and jealous the Indian is as to any interference, even of the most
trifling kind, with the burial-place of his people, this would afford another
argument toward establishing proof of the distinctness of the mound-build-
ing race from the North American Indian. I have known Indians evince
the greatest anxiety and anger on the displacement of the little slip
of wood on which the totem of the deceased was painted. When the rem-
nants of the Pottawatomies, once resident on the Detroit River, migrated
westward, they consigned with the strictest injunctions the care of the
burial-place of their people to friends among the white inhabitants,
making certain concessions or grants in return for the most solemn
promises of the observance of this protection. But this trait of char-
acter is so well known to pertain to the Indian as to require no special
illustration here.

The “ancient mining” on Lake Superior was first brought to notice
in the winter of 1847—48. The first discoveries were made on Keweenaw
Point, and extended to Ontonagon, which afterward proved to be the
center of the great copper region of Michigan. As is well known,
various accounts of those works have been given to the public. Sub-
sequently some “ ancient diggings” were found on Isle Royale, Michigan,
near the north shore of Lake Superior; but the isolated position of the
island operated to prevent any extensive knowledge of the field.

In the year 1872 some of the most remarkable of the ancient works
yet encountered were brought to light by a party of mining explorers
on Isle Royale. The amount and character of the work here revealed
was something so extraordinary as to almost exceed belief.

The facts, as ascertained during a brief visit I made to Isle Royale in
May, 1873, were embodied by me in a short paper, entitled ‘Ancient
Works at Isle Royale, Michigan,” which was some time afterward pub-
lished in Appleton’s Journal, attracting considerable attention.* A subse
quent visit to the island, made by me in August of the same year
contributed additional discoveries of interest.

The works referred to are generally pits of from a few feet to thirty

——

* Appleton’s Journal, August 9, 1873, vol. x, p. 173.

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 4895

feet in diameter; some being quite shallow, while many reach a depth
of from twenty to sixty feet. They are scattered throughout the island,
wherever the amygdaloid copper-bearing rock is found, and are iavari-
ably on the richest veins; great intelligence being displayed in locating
and tracing the veins and in following them up when interrupted, &e.
To quote from my paper, ‘“‘ This has elicited the astonishment of all who
have witnessed it—no mistakes apparently having been made in this
respect. The excavations are connected under ground, drains being
cut in the rock to carry off the water. Stopes one hundred feet in length
are found. A drain sixty feet long presented some interesting features;
having been cut through the surface-drift into the rock, it had evidently
been covered for its entire length by timbers felled and laid across.
When opened, the timbers had mostly decayed, and the center portions
had sunk into the cavity, filling it for nearly its entire length with the
rotted wood.” The amount of mining on three sections of land, at a
point on the north side of the island, is estimated to exceed that of one
of our oldest mines on the south shore of Lake Superior, ‘‘a mine
which has been constantly worked with a large force for over twenty
years.” When we compare the tedious methods of the primitive
miners, and all the disadvantages under which they must have labored,
with our modern improvements in mining appliances and all our
resources, this may well appear almost incredible.

At another point the excavations extend, in nearly a continuous line,
for more than two miles, the pits being often “‘so close together as
barely to permit their convenient working. Hven the rocky islets off
the coast have not escaped observation, and where bearing veins of
copper are generally worked.” But it is probable that, including all
the discoveries, not one-tenth of the excavations have been diselosed.

“The method of mining pursued by this people was, evidently, on:
turning back the overlying drift, to heat the rock by the application of
fire; then, when by dashing on water the rock was sufficiently disinte-
grated, to break and pulverize it with their great hammers.” The rude
stone-hammers or mauls, weighing from ten to thirty pounds, are found
in surprising cuantities. With this exception no tools of stone have
been observed. <A large part of a wooden bowl, originally about three
feet in diameter, which had probably been used for bailing water, was
taken from one of the pits. Fragments of charcoal abound. The tools
formed of copper consist principally of chisels and knives. Arrow-heads
of the same material are frequently collected.

Having seen the remark that the copper tools of the “‘ ancient miners”
are of rough and not polished exterior, inferences being drawn there-
from as to their rude construction, I wish to say that, having examined
a large number of the tools, I believe this roughness to have been
mostly caused by corrosion. In many eases this is quite palpable, the
original surface being apparent in places, and evidently confirming the
fact that at least the external faces of the tool were originally approx-
imately smooth, if not polished.

25 8

386 ETHNOLOGY.

Various arguments have been advanced by Mr. Foster to prove that
the ‘‘mound-builders” understood the art of fusing copper, and that at
least some of their copper tools were made by being cast or molded.*
From the method pursued by this people in mining, in which the agency
of fire bore so prominent a part, it would seem improbable they could
have long remained ignorant of the fusibility of the metal; yet in most
cases the evidence appears conclusive that the rude!y-fashioned tool
was simply wrought by being beaten into the desired form, often in the
roughest manner. Itis possible the two classes of toels here referred
to may mark two distinct eras in the history of this manufacture, and
that the molded tool designates an advance from the primitive method
of hammering the metal into shape. Some of the copper beads taken
from the “mounds” display a wonderful degree of neatness in the
manipulation of the metal, the junction of the bead being in many
cases almost imperceptible; yet thé agency of fire was here evidently
not employed.

As to the time occupied by the operations, and the interval which
has elapsed since the suspension of work at the mines, approximate
estimates are made from data which are given by me in the paper
already quoted from, and to which I must refer the reader for this and
other information. That the latter period may extend from seven
hundred to eight hundred years: does not appear to me to be far from
the truth.

The present growth of forest covers, unbroken, the pits, the débris
excavated from and surrounding them, and the detritus at the bottom,
containing stone, copper, and other implements; all the timber being
of the same character as that on the adjacent land. Several gen-
erations of trees have probably grown there since the desertion of
the works. On the débris at the mouth of a pit an old stump of an oak,
(probably Quercus coccinea, Wang.,) which had grewn and decayed
there, was examined, which, from the calculation made by counting the
annual rings, &c., must have reached the age of five hundred and
eighty-four years before it ceased to grow. A copper knife and other
implements were found beneath this stump. Pines of the present
forest (Pinus strobus, L.) have frequently been cut iu the pits, which
trees the number of the cortical layers make three hundred and eighty

years old.
The absence of the bones of man is a remarkable feature. Accepting

the identity of the “ mound-builders” with the “ancient miners,” it
may be supposed that, through some superstitious belief, they had the
habit of removing their dead to burial-mounds farther south.

It is evident that such extensive operations as are here described re-
quired a system and organization of no mean order for those days.
Besides the animal food afforded by the land and the water of the sur-
rounding region, it is likely that, as the Mound-builders were essentially

* Phreistoric Races of the United States of America: Chicago, 1873, p. 259.

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 387

an agricultural people, and largely dependent on cereals for sustenance,
grain-food was transported to the island in sufficient supply from a
more southern latitude. The so-called ‘Garden-beds,” covering so wide
an area of the Saint Joseph River and Grand River Valleys, Michigan, —
as well as similar grounds of other places, demonstrate the agricultural
habits of the ancient people of this region. The remains of those cul-
tivated fields also afford a clue as to the source of the chief part of the
supplies required for the mining adventures in the northern country.

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Of the excavations en the small islands lying off Isle Royale, an
interesting example was discovered by me on the rocky islet which, for
the purpose of distinguishing it, 1 have named, from its general outline,

388 ETHNOLOGY.

Triangle Island, it being hitherto unnamed on any of the maps. This
island lies about three-quarters of a mile southwest of Washine-
ton Island, the largest of the islands off the southwest end of Isle
Royale, and forming a part of the boundaries dividing Grace from
Washington Harbor. [See Fig. 11.]

Fig. 12

Ancient Works, Triangle Island,
Isle Royale, Michigan. _

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Triangle Island is a sandstone rock, with very little soil on any part
of it. The rock, which is full of inequalities, fissures, and clefts, is
exposed over the greater part of the island, though the northeast end,
the highest part, (18 feet above the lake-level,) is partially covered with
bushes of Cornus stolonifera and a few stunted trees of very small size
(little better than bushes) of mountain ash and poplar. The sides of
the island rise abruptly, and there is no landing for even small boats,
except for a short space on the northeast side and also in a cleft-like
indentation on the south side, [Fig. 12.] The natural conditions of

MOUND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. 389

this last-mentioned landing appear to have been improved by artifi-
cial means. It is 20 feet wide by about 60 feet in length, and has
a gradual slope to the lake, the rock being generally smooth through-
out. On each side are perpendicular walls of rock. Small boats
could easily be hauled out here, particularly with the aid of timbers
laid for the purpose. Near it, and all along it, wherever there are
indications of copper-veins, are the circular pits of the “ancient mi-
ners.” Though of small size, (from 2 to 5 feet in diameter and about as
many feet deep,) they are remarkably distinct. At this place the rock is
mostly as level as the floor of a room, and the well-like pits are imme-
diately perceived to be the work of human agency.

Though the pits were carefully searched, no relics were met with,
other than the angular fragments of the rock, broken off by the usual
methods pursued by those rude miners. The fragments occasionally
contained copper.

One of the small pits, a little over two feet in diameter and nearly
two feet deep, had a large, irregular slab of rock covering its mouth. It
required two men to remove this. We found the pit more than half-full
of the angular fragments above alluded to, ranging from less than a
cubic ineh up to more than two-cubiec inches in size. From the indiea-
tions we hoped to find this the repository of some valuable relics; but,
though the hole was emptied of its contents, nothing other than already
mentioned was encountered. Had any tools or other utensils been
deposited here as a place of safety, they had long since disappeared ;
probably decaying through the lapse of ages. From appearances, and
the isolated character of the island, I am inclined to think that my
hands were the first to touch these objects since the departure of the
primitive workmen.

At two places, at each end of the circular pits, the copper-veins in the
wall-like cliff had been attacked and partly excavated. The rock was
discolored as if from the action of fire, and at the base of the more cen-
tral point the sandstone was considerably hollowed. AJl those works
exhibit the same roughish surface, totally unlike that produced by the
action of water.

Immediately at the end of the southern landing, already described, is
a marked depression, occupying nearly the center of the island, and
presenting some indications of artificial origin. But about 35 feet
northwestward of the head of the landing occurs a more remarkable
excavation. This is of rectangular form, 25 feet by 20 feet, and with
an average depth of nearly four feet. It is filled with water, as are the
pits. The sketches already referred to [Figs. 11 and 12] supply such
further information as I was able to obtain. |

It may not be uninteresting to state, in this connection, that I found
the rare fern, Botrychium lunaria, Swartz., flourishing, and rather abun-
dant on the exposed rock of this island. lt grewiv tufts of Potentilla
tridentata, Ait., grass, and other dwarfed plants.

390 ETHNOLOGY

I shall conelude with the following quotation from my paper on Isle
Royale, to which I have already had occasion to refer :

‘¢ The discoveries on Isle Royale throw a new light on the character
of the ‘mound-builders ;’ giving us a totally distinct conception of them,
and dignifying them with something of the prowess and spirit of adven-
ture which we associate with the higher races. The copper, the result
of their mining, to be available, must, in all probabilty, have been con-
veyed in vessels, great or small, across a stormy and treacherous sea,
whose dangers are formidable to us now, being dreaded by even our
largest craft, and often proving their destruction. Leaving their homes,
those men dared to face the unknown, to brave the hardships and perils
of the deep and of the wilderness, actuated by an ambition which we
to-day would not be ashamed to acknowledge.”

The question will not fail to suggest itself, Were these vast opera-
tions accomplished through slave-labor ? That a conquered people were
kept at this isolated place by their victors, and in this thraldom obliged
to work the copper-mines, is am opinion, however, which ‘ cannot be
received without. further confirmation.”

THE LEIPSIC “MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY.”

Condensed from “Eatra-Beilage zw No. ¥04 der wissenschaftlichen Beilage der Leipziger
Zeitung,” (translated for the Smithsonian Institution by Mr. Arthur Schott,) and from
“FHrster Bericht des Museums fiir Volkerkunde in Leipzig, 1873.”

By Oris 'T. Mason.

- The science which has man for its object stands in a relation to aux-
iliary sciences somewhat similar to that of a statue to its underlying
base; it can be lifted to its position only after they are ready to receive
it, and then, though towering above them, is supported by them. Slowly
and with painful care must these foundation-stones have been wrought out
and set in place. Flaws in the material, faults in plan, and mistakes in
execution have more than once compelled the builders of the past to tear
down the whole structure and to commence anew. It is for us to inquire
whether we are even now prepared to make a systematic arrangement
of the facts respecting the human race, and to put in order those objects
which illustrate the somatical and psychical constitution ef man as well
as his manners and customs.

We are quite sure that neither an ethnological scheme nor a museum
of universal ethnology could have been possible at any previous age of
the world, although we have abundant evidence to prove that thought-
ful men, bringing to the investigation the peculiar spirit of their times,
have always considered the study of man himself to be the worthiest of
all pursuits.

Nor can we now hope to make an exhaustive arr pueemens of the

LEIPSIC MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY. BL

phenomena and aceessaries of human life. We can only attempt such
a Classification as will render accessible and useful that which is at hand,
for the purpose of showing the present condition of our knowledge as
well as our deficiencies; and also in what directions further research
should be made. The advantage of such an exhibition to the education
of youth and to the improvement of scientific observation and taste
among the masses of our intelligent countrymen is incalculable.

Having spoken of the relation which the study of man bears to aux-
iliary sciences, we come to inquire more particularly into these studies,
and also briefly whether they are sufficiently advanced to be helpful in
working out the truth respecting humanity in general.

So complex is the nature of man that a number of sciences are
confined to it alone, viz, anatomy and physiology, with the kindred
sciences of pathology and medicine, or the sciences of the human body;
_ psychology, subdivided into branches specially devoted to conscience,

reason, and volition, and linguistics, or the sciences of the human soul;
sociology, ethnology, history par excellence, and the philosophy of his-
tory, which may be called the sciences of man’s social nature; to which
may be added anthropology, or the science of the human species in
relation to other organic beings. Each of these has had a deeply inters
esting and important record. Each has passed through exceedingly
diversified experiences in order to be a competent witness of facts neces-
sary to the general result. While accumulating material for their own
completion, they have, designediy and undesignedly, reached conclusions
of universal significance. —

Among the nations of antiquity, the Greeks were the first to pay any
attention to anatomy. Is it not astonishing that the inspection of the
careases and entrails of thousands on thousands of human and animal
sacrifices never suggested to the enlightened priests of Egypt, Syria, and
the Tigro-Euphrates nations, the simplest truths on this subject? Hven
the Greeks themselves studied the human body more for the purposes
of medical practice than for the classification of the facts about it.
Their analyses of the races of men were based on the hair, the color of the
skin, or some other mere superficial character. Aristotle knew scarcely
anything about the human skeleton. Hippocrates had a better under-
standing of osteology, although his knowledge of anatomy was meager
enough. The Alexandrian school, basing their knowledge on experience,
deserve credit for pursuing a method which yielded little to them indeed,
but rich results to those who followed up their investigations. The names
of Erasistratus of Ceos, Herophilus of Chalcedon, and Celsus shine out
among these early investigators. The line of the celebrated physicians
of antiquity closes with Galen, (born at Pergamos, A. D. 130,) whose decis-
ions upon many important points of human structure were for fifteen
centuries the dicta of the doctors. We grope in vain amid the dark-
ness of the middle ages for evidences of advance in the knowledge of
general anatomy, or anatomy of the species. Notwithstanding Roger

o92 ETHNOLOGY.

Bacon, Silvins, and a few others, the teachings of Galen had remained
so little affected that when Andreas Vesal proved in the sixteenth cen-
tury, by his own observations, the errors of Galen, the public were will-
ing to believe that human nature might have changed, but not to believe
Galen in error. Mondino da Luzzi, professor of anatomy at Bologna,
first publicly dissected two human bodies in the presence of medical
students. Gabriel Fallopio, of Modena, enjoyed the rare privilege of
being allowed to dissect seven corpses annually, among them the bodies
of convicts, whom he had killed previously with opium. Bartolomeo
Hustachi, after whom the “ Hustachian tube” is named, the victim of
a poverty which kept from publication his “Tabule anatomice,” and
“ which,” says Lauth, “ retarded anatomical studies two centuries,” com-
pletes the medieval triumvirate. With the discoveries of Harvey, human
anatomy began that rapid growth which has brought it, in our day,
well nigh to perfection, and numbers among its investigators many of
the most eminent names in science. The same is true of physiology
and biology. Faint glimmerings dart up along the ages, of truths, of
principles, of analogies, of accurate definition, of guesses bordering on
inspiration, which in our day have blazed out in brilliant deductions,
*veritied by experiment.

From the earliest times, psychology has received more attention than
somatology. ‘The human soul has been scrutinized from various points of
view. Searcely a nation existed in ancient, medieval, or modern times
that has not had its schools of thought, so that it is possible to begin to
bring together, out of the writings of philosophers of the various schools,
in the order of their historical development, those metaphysical dis-
coveries which have added to what we might call general or compara-
tive psychology, or those facts of the human soul upon which ethnolog-
ical relations are founded, together with the laws of their infancy, growth,
activity, and decay.

Gathering together the testimony of ancient and modern travelers,
historians, and conquerors, of missionaries, explorers, and traders of
modern times, respecting the different ideas entertained, about God,
a future life, and the soul’s prospects therein, about all the relations
which go to make up the present life, together with the lenguages, rites,
and customs, in which those thoughts find expression, we shall have
man revealed to us in every stage of culture, from savagery to the
highest civilization. The earth opens her mouth to testify of the men
who passed away before the dawn of written history, the knowledge of
whose far-distant origin and of their progress through diiferent stages
of social development is illuminated by every object of human economy
in our collections.

The first result of this extension of knowledge is elassification on
special bases: wherefore we should naturally imply the results of the
labors of Camper, founded on the facial angle; of Blumenbach, on the
nora verticalis; of Morteu, on the cubical contents of the skull; of

LEIPSIC MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY. 393

Retzius, on cephalo-gnathism ; of some, on the skull-bases; of others, on
skin, hair, pelves, &c ; of Latham, on language; of Max Miiller, on
religion. Though not always pursued and published in a proper spirit,
these labors are necessary in every possible line of investigations. Let
us have more of them. Failure to find the truth, after an honest effort,
is helpful and commendable. Greater patience, with more improved
instruments on other paths, will give results which will become the
axioms of higher generalizations.

In the second place, a number of sciences considered as auxiliary to a
knowledge of the human race have reference to its environment. Among
these are chemistry, physics, meteorology, geology, and one knows not
where to stop in the enumeration. We find man bound up with his
material surroundings by a threefold cord: he resembles it ; he depends
upon it; he subdues it. A knowledge of the facts concerning these
relations is so necessary to an understanding of himself that great
progress in a variety of sciences, and an impartial and comprehensive
view of them, become necessary to a just appreciation of the difficulties.
of ethnological research.

Nearly every law of human embryology, anatomy, and physiology
has been discovered or confirmed through the study of animals and
plants. Man resembles all creatures in his amenability to the laws of
climate and physical forces. So great is the similarity of his body to
that of the animals of related species that it is hard to find anatomical
characteristics worthy to be co-ordinated with the overwhelming differ-
ences between his mental powers and theirs. The same food nourishes;
the same law of decay returns them back to the dust. The floods sweep
over them and they are gone. Their records are read side by side in
the drift-gravels of the river-beds.

The dependencies of man are twofold-—those which he has in common
with other creatures, and those by which climate, tood, the fertility of
the soil, the constancy and suitableness of material supplies, confine him,
determine his character and destiny; by which the poverty of some places
starves him, the luxuriance of others enervates him, the adaptability
of others to his body and mind supplies just those helps, stimulants, and
rewards which conduce to his symmetrical development. When we
‘consider how many upheavals and deposits have helped to prepare a
single acre of ground for his appearance and growth upon it, or how many
ages of the operations of all the forces of nature, and how many species
of natural objects minister to him in savage and in civilized life, we
come to regard him as the most helpless and needy of all beings, and
we must admit the necessity of an acquaintance with all these in order
to have a correct appreciation of him who is their adopted child.

We come now to regard man as nature’s conqueror; for, like the
science which reveals him. he that was erst the infant and most de-
fenseless of all creatures, comes in his later years to be the spotler of the
universe. By the sweat of his brow he earns his bread and clothing

SOL. ETHNOLOGY.

and shelter; by the sweat of what is beneath the brow, I mean the
brain, he earns the food that nourishes the soul. He takes the models
of his’material implements and comforts and the methods of his handi-
work from nature. He clothes his thoughts in words of natural
imagery. He utilizes the forces of nature. He makes the winds and
the seas to serve him. He finds his way by the refraction of the rays
of light which the stars shed down back to the stars, and learns the
secrets of their going.

If, then, we are to treat man properly, we cannot be satisfied with a dis-
cussion of one part of his nature or of one phase of his life. Bthnol-
ogy, and anthropology, its handmaid, undertake to explain the origin,
antiquity, unity of race, primitive condition of the human species; its
relation to lower beings, as well as to its material environment; the
cause and historical development of its implements, clothing, weapons,
shelter, amusements, public life, social phenomena; of its geographical
starting-point and distribution; of its language, religion, present con-
dition, and future prospects. Too much honor cannot be paid to the
philosophers of Greece, to the schools which they founded, and to their
successors in medieval and modern times, for their application of
the inductive method to metaphysical studies. Too much honor
cannot be paid to the long line of anatomists from Hippoerates to Owen
and Huxley, who have found their way, little by little, through the laby-
rinths of hismysterious body. Butmost honor will be due to him whoshall
grasp the theme in its entirety, and give to all the facts their true import
in the series. Meanwhile, it is for each of us, however humble, to bring
his gift to one common altar, and for all to co-operate in paying due
homage to a science which must eventually receive what is good and
true in every method of investigation.

We come now to consider the best means of exhibiting the facts and
objects of human culture. The same rule of proceeding from particu-
lars to generals, from specialties to a comprehensive view, are in force
here. There are many public and private museums in Hurope and
America devoted to single sides of culture. They cover nearly every
part of the work of general ethnology, embracing the prehistoric records
of drift, cave, lake-dwelling, kjokkenmodddings, shell-heaps, mounds,
rude stone monuments, &c., and coming down through the civilizations ©
witnessed by the Nile, the Tigro-Euphrates, the Ganges, the Yang-tse-
Kiang Rivers, by the Mediterranean, the Black, and the Caspian Seas, we
shall find evidences of their condition in special collections for their illus-
tration.

Just as the generalization of all our knowledge concerning the earth
constitutes the true study of the cosmos, as the aggregation of the
sciences auxiliary to ethnology is the basis of our knowledge of culture,
so, too, the existence of these vast and valuable special collections make
it possible to begin to group together those objects which will iliuminate
our investigations about the tribes of men regarded as parts of one

LEIPSIC MUSEUM. OF , ETHNOLOGY. 395

common brotherhood. Considering geographical, isothermal, chrono-
logical, tribal, linguistic, and religions divisions as subordinate, we must
adopt that order for which we are indebted to Wachsmuth and others
in general, but to Dr. Gustav Klemm in particular, which considers human-
ity as one, and believing its progress to be as a whole ever onward and
upward, seeks to illustrate by the arrangement of objects in a museum,
reinforced by models, copies, photographs, drawings, charts, and an ethk-
nological library, the growth of civilization in all those respects wherein
it has manifested itself. To quote the words of Klemm.

“ As natural science investigates, singly, the earth, the phenomena
which occur in and around it, the air, the water, the mountains, the rocks,
the plants, the animals, and mankind as parts of a grand whole, and then
groups them together, so also should the historian study and seek to com-
-prehend and exhibit the human race, in all its members, as a totality, in
its origin, development, present condition, and future prospects, in all
its tendencies and relations.”

‘¢ Therefore, our point of view can be neither a political one, which
exhibits man in relation to the state, nor a literary, an artistic, an anti-
quarian, nor an industrial one, but that from which to observe and
study the gradual development of humanity out of a condition of child-
hood, or one closely approaching the brute creation, up to its separation
into organized communities, embracing all their adjustments, together
with their relations to culture, knowledge, skill, to domestic and public
life in peace and war, to religion, science, and art devéloped among
influences arising from climate, geographical position, and the provi-
dence of God. Mankind is an individual whose organism, like that of
a human body, has its mysterious birth, its infancy, youth, and man-
hood, wherein it grows and waxes strong; and the possessor of intel-
lectuai affections, it is the spiritual germ and bud which are destined to
become flower and fruit; ever growing old, it is to be ever renewed,
until it fulfills the end for which God created it. It is the objective
view of humanity upon the different stages of its development, rising
one above the other, or its whole life, so far as we are in See to
trace it backward and forward. ”

‘The method which we ought to follow can scarcely be any other
than to study the various peoples of the earth in different times and
places; to consider carefully their condition; and then to classify them
conjecturally according to their place in the series. To-day we find the
different tribes of the world existing in diverse degrees of culture—the
Indio da Matto and the Bosjesman, without shelter or personal possession ;
the Arctic tribes, covered with fur and grease; the Negro and the an-
thropophagous New-Zealander, contemporary otih the skillful Chinese,
the cultivated Japanese, the thoughtful German, just as ages ago the
wandering Scyths, the Sarmatian savages, were with the Egyptians, the
Greeks, and the Romans. If, therefore, we were to follow the guiding
threads of geography or chronology in arranging our material, we should

\

396 ETHNOLOGY.

scarcely produce a faithful picture. If we were to take as a basis the
historical development of any one people, say the Greeks, the Romans,
or the Germans, we should find ourselves perplexed by reason of two
inevitable difficulties. In the first place, there is no authentic informa-
tion about the earliest history of any one of these nations handed down
to us by their neighbors whose observations and records are accessible
tous. The origins of nations are as much overlooked by historians as
the infancy of great men. We have to be content with vague tradi-
tions. In the second place, there never has been known a nation in
which have appeared all these phases of development. We must, there-
fore, scrutinize all the successive stages of culture among different tribes
of ancient and modern times, and arrange them in such order as to gain
a view of the growth of the race. We will set aside the usual geograph-
ical, ethnographical, and synchronological arrangements, and divide
the races of men into three fundamental classes—the savage, the barba-
rous, and the enlightened, (represented in time, roughly, by the stone,
the bronze, and the iron age.)”

“]. The condition of savagery.—Mankind comes from the hand of the
Creator a double being, that soon increases to the family. Oblivious of
the past and of the future, he thinks only of his daily wants. Here we
trace the origin of society, in the family; of religion, in shamanism; of
technics, in the search for stones to serve as tools.”

Nore.—Doctor Klemm, considering nature as the foundation of culture,
regarded with especial attention those objects from its three kingdoms
which furnished man the means of subsistence and action without further
preparation, and which became the models of his earliest manufactures.
Among these are the frost-formed and water-worn and pierced pebbles,
immense deposits of which are found in many places, and which assume
almost every shape, afterward adopted for tools in the stone age. To
these are to be added hooked sticks, curiously twisted and knobbed
roots, spiral vines, tubes of reed, combinations of wood and stone,
thorns, teeth, bones, claws, hedge-hog quills, shells, and many other
objects, a fine collection of which graced his celebrated museum.—O. T. M.

‘‘ Permanent settlements, personal property in lands and herds, and
organized governments have no existence.”

“TL. The condition of barbarism.—Herein families have increased to
tribes which restrain and confine each other, and who submit themselves
to the wills of superiors, who strengthen their power by alliance with
the realms of the Invisible, and assume to be prophets, priests, and
even the sons of the deities. They build for themselves holy places and
cities, and guard them with especial care. The adornment of these
shrines develops art, especially architecture, music, and dancing. The
desire to preserve the record of the most important events gives rise to
hieroglyphies, word and syllable writing. So far as it is possible under
priestly rule, the nomadie and stationary modes of life are developed -
successively. The different grades of this series are represented by the

LEIPSIC MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY. O97

Otaheitan, the Malay, the Mexican, the Egyptian, the Chinese, and the
Jew. It is the condition of limitation.”

‘Finally the free nation occupies the topmost grades of culture.
The yoke of priesteraft is broken. Intellectual forces expand in all
directions. Laws to regulate internal affairs, foreign treaties, eager
desire for adventure, the spirit of research, of striving after the remote
and the difficult—these are the phenomena here exhibited. The Per-
sian, the Arab, the Roman, are examples of this, but above all the
German race furnishes the most. perfect examples of this condition of
culture, having Christianity as its peculiar agency for the destruction of
hierarchical rule.”

In perfecting this scheme, Dr. Klemm expended many years of time
and energy, gathering what has been considered the best collection of
objects of huinan culture. On his death, this rich and unique material,
which had cost him 25,000 Prussian thalers, besides containing dona-
tions to an equal amount, was offered for sale by his heirs, first to the
royal government of Saxony, which favored its purchase for the Univer-
sity of Leipsic. The commissioners, Professors Wuttke and Overbeck,
appointed by the university to examine the collection, reported, the
former in the most flattering terms, in favor of procuring the treasure.
But, for reasons not necessary to state, the university decided against
receiving the gift. The heirs of Klemm, fearing that the collection
would be scattered and its usefulness destroyed, offered to take 10,000
thalers for it, on the condition of its becoming the nucleus of a museum
of universal ethnology at Leipsic. The offer was accepted and the
accompanying circular was issued by the Board of Regents, in order to
explain the constitution and design of the “ Leipsic Museum of Eth-
nology.”

It was in the year 1869 that the committee was organized in Leipsic for
the purpose of founding a museum of the history of culture, which should
be an honor not only to the city but to science. There existed already,
elsewhere, magnificent and richly endowed -collections of ethnological
objects. These, however, call especial notice to natural history or geo-
graphical facts, and pay attention to culture-historical development
only in a more or less secondary manner.

The chief impulse to this undertaking was given by the circumstance
that the celebrated museum of the royal Saxon privy-counselor and
chief librarian, Dr. Gustav Klemm, of Dresden, was offered by his heirs
at public sale. The committee published an appeal, soliciting contribu-
tions for the purchase of this material and for the foundation of a gen.
eral anthropological museum. They hoped not only to be able by this
means to foster science, but also to develop a patriotic spirit in securing
to the fatherland the Klemm collection, which would otherwise be scat-
tered in foreign countries.

From the beginning, the labors of the committee had such success,
that although the demands of the heirs of Klemm were not immediately

398 . ’ ETHNOLOGY.

and in all points satisfied, yet the purchase would have been consum-
mated in 1870. The whole business was brought to a happy close by a
contribution from His Majesty King John of Saxony, as well as by
extraordinarily rich presents, which, to the extent of many thousands
of thalers, were secured from unknown friends of the enterprise through
Prof. Dr. Bruhns and Privy-Counselor Dr. Hoffmann.

Shortly before the breakivg-out of the memorable war in 1870, the
objects were brought to Leipsic, where, through the kindness of Prof.
Dr. Kolbe, they next found a provisional location in the building of his
chemical laboratory.

Hereby the first part of the task, the possession of the Klemm collec-
tion, was completed. Now arose a scarcely less important and imperi-
ous demand, to procure a proper place for setting up and exhibiting
the objects. Through the almost total want of suitable room, in spite
of the most earnest and persevering efforts, more than a year was
needed in order to meet the new exigency. Through the prompt co-op-
eration of the council of the city of Leipsic, and especially of the
deputation for the Saint John’s Hospital, the spacious and well-lighted
halls in the second story of the old hospital-building (46 Grimm street)
were procured at a moderate rent. Of course, these very ill-adapted
apartments had first to be transformed and suitably fitted up. This duty
also, a not insignificant care, was lightened for the committee through
the means of the before-mentioned members, who, anew by rich contri-
butions, proved themselves to be worthy patrons, and, in a praiseworthy
manner, added new proofs of their public spirit and benevolence. To
them our warmest thanks are due. When enough had been done to
meet the most pressing needs, it became necessary to provide for the
permanence, the maintenance, the internal perfection, and the extension
of the collection. In addition to this, it was necessary to elevate the
hitherto fluctuating committee into a self-perpetuating and more pow-
erful corporation.

In order to obtain a larger number of members, embracing all
branches of society, and to acquire incorporated rights, the provisional
- directory thought best to call a meeting in order to define more clearly
the constitution of the society. A printed invitation to all citizens of
whatever class, brought together, on the 23d of March in the past year,
in the great saloon of the highly-esteemed Board of Trade, a great number
of friends of the undertaking. On motion of the chairman of the direc-
tory, Prof. Dr. Leuckart, Consul-General Gustav Spiess accepted the
presidency. He opened the meeting with a few remarks upon the design
of the published invitation. Doctor Obst next gave a sbort review of the
previous labors of the committee, described the contents of the Klemm
collection of historic culture, and dwelt upon the importance of a museum
of ethnology which should unite systematically all objects illustrating
the human race and the history of its development. Mr. Gustav Plaut,
the banker, made a short report upon the condition of the treasury ;
and Mr. Rudolph Schmidt, the attorney, gave his opinion upon the

LEIPSIC MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY. ; B)9)

system of rules already drawn up. These were, upon the motion of
Mr. Emmerich Anschiitz, the attorney, approved as a whole, whereby the
future government of the society was empowered to make any necessary
minor changes. The name“ Museum of Hthnology” was adopted. They
next proceeded to the election of the Board of Overseers, which
was carried by acclamation to the unanimous result given in the ap-
pended list. These all signified their willingness to accept. Finally,
Doctor Delitsch made the agreeable statement that the society would
receive a very valuable collection of Swiss lake-dwelling antiquities
from a patroness, who already, at different times, had favored their
enterprise with friendly cheer and rich gifts, and now offered a birth-day
present on the event of its first coming out. After a vote of thanks for
such an interesting and unexpected public spirit, accompanied by such
an offering, the meeting adjourned.

The Board of Visitors subsequently met and elected the following
officers: President, Prof. Dr. Bruhns; vice-president, Doctor Delitsch ;
secretary, Mr. Kaufmann Rosencrantz.

They then proceeded to the election of a Board of Regents, which re-
sulted in the unanimous choice of Prof. Dr. Leuckart; Privy-Counselor
Prof. Dr. Peschel; Doctor Obst; Consul-General Gustav Spiess; Gustav
Plaut, the banker. These all declared their willingness to serve in the
office to which they had been elected.

In acalled meeting of the Board of Overseers, on the 3d of April, 1873,
the revision of the laws which had been submitted in the constituent
meeting was taken up. They were finally and unanimously adopted as
they stand in the ‘‘Constitution and Instructions” which accompany
this paper. The next task was the setting-up of the collection, in order
to make it as accessible as possible and to increase its usefulness. Im-
mediately they went to work arranging it in the rooms which they had
obtained and putitin proper order. The not insignificant expenses were
provided for in the most liberal manner by the Board of Overseers, so
that the museum, in its outward appearance, is not unworthy of its
valuable contents. The extraordinary extent of the work as well as
the great scarcity of workmen everywhere, whereby the making of the
necessary cases and show-tables was much impeded, have still more
delayed the exhibition of the collection and disappointed the hopes and
wishes of the Regents. Then came the order from the Board of Over-
seers, an extremely auspicious event, not to allow the Vienna Exposi-
tion to pass without making it useful to the museum, which rendered it
necessary for Doctor Obst to intermit his work and to remain some time
in Vienna. For the purpose of making necessary purchases, a stated
sum of money was placed at the disposal of Doctor Obst by the coun-
cil of administration. Affairs took such a favorable turn at the expo-
sition that the agent was able to return loaded with foreign treasures
without spending the means so liberally provided. Only a preperticnally
small part was used for necessary expenses.

Upon a more accurate knowledge of the circumstance that a nuseum

400 ETHNOLOGY.

of ethnoiogy had been founded in Leipsic, not only for the beuent of
science, but for the greater progress of arts and industry, a great part
of the commissioners of the exposition were found ready, at the solicita-
tion of Doctor Obst, to assign to him whatever of their material was useful
for the purposes of the museum. In the first rank we must name the royal
Japanese Commissioners to the Exposition, from whom the museum,
through his excellency, Mr. Sano Tsunotami, minister residentin Vienna
of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, received a rich collection of objects
of all kinds, not only interesting but exceedingly valuable. For his
lively interest in the museum we are most profoundly obliged to Minister
Sano, after whom we not less acknowledge the service of Baron Alex.
von Siebold, secretary of the royal Japanese legation at Vienna, and of
Mr. Henry Jonkheer von Siebold, interpreter of the Austro-Hungarian
commission in Japan. Both of.them, as well by their means as by their
influence and solicitation, have been of great service to our enterprise.
Besides, the museum also received valuable gifts from the exposition
through Mr. Viadimir, Count Dzieduszycki, Baron Overbeck, the Austro-
Hungarian consul-general at Hong-Kong; from Alois Klammerth, royal
porcelain-manufacturer in Znaim; from Villeroy and Boch, in Metlach;
as well as from His Excellency Count Fradesso da Silveira, and from
the Spanish and Italian commissioners to the exposition. All of these
honored donors will hereby please to accept our warmest thanks.

Searcely of less importance to the museum than these rich presents
are the numerous and indissoluble sympathies which have been created
in all lands, and the personal influences which have sprung up in favor
of the enterprise, through which the museum cannot fail to have a
prosperous future.

As an especial sign of the importance of the museum, and of the favor
of which it may justly feel proud, it may be noticed that the general
administration of the Royal Museum in Berlin has offered to the Museum
of Ethnology duplicates of the ethnological objects in its collection.
We believe that a gift so extensive and costly will not fail to result by
its praiseworthy example very favorably for our cause.

Finally, we are in prospect of receiving consiguments from the dif-
ferent parts of Europe, from East India, China, Japan, Australia,
Africa, the South Sea, America, &c. The Smithsonian Institution
at Washington, the Ethnograghical Museum at Leyden, as well as the
Society of Anthropology and Ethnology in Moscow, have promised what-
ever they can spare to the Museum of Ethnolegy. In like manner, our
thanks are due to the honored mission of the brethren at Hernhut for
furthering our scheme.

We cannot close without returning thanks to Professor Bastian in
Berlin, and to Counselor Dr. von Scherzer, royal Austro-Hungarian
general consul in Smyrna. With untiring interest from the very begin-
ning they have tried to further the aims of the society in every practi
cal way.

LEIPSIC MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY. 401
THE APPHAL.

Endowed with incorporated rights, an institution has been founded at
Leipsic, which, under the title of “‘ Museum of Ethnology,” has for its
aim the collection of all objects illustrating the nature and history of eul-
ture of the human race and the encouragement of the science of eth-
nology.

The most celebrated known collection of objects of huinan culture,
the property of the late Doctor Klemm, chief librarian at Dresden, forms
the starting-point of the enterprise, which, already increased by rich
donations, will shortly be arranged in a suitable place.

In behalf of the institution, the undersigned appeal to all those who are
interested in the nature and historical development of the human species
with an earnest plea for the support and furthering of their scheme.

The scientific progress of ethnology and the diffusion of knowledge
concerning our race are the objects which they have in view. In order
to obtain them, they need the enthusiastic co-operation of all ethnologi-
cal societies now existing ; and upon them they call so confidently because
it is proposed to accomplish a work which, inasmuch as it concerns the
general welfare, so also only through the general patronage can it be
called into life, and be brought to maturity.

There are already, in Berlin, Munich, Vienna, London, Paris, St. Peters
burg, Copenhagen, and other cities, rich anthropological and ethno-
logical museums; but dependent, as they are, upon the government
which founded them, and upon the public patronage which they receive,
they represent at best only—though perhaps magnificently—special
branches and single directions development of the culture; whereas the
Leipsic “ Museum of Ethnology” shall have as its object to bring into
one general view the nature and productions of the human race of all
ages and countries. Surely it needs only the mention of sueh an under-
taking to lead it to a successful result. Furthermore, it is fortunate that
Leipsic is the city which developed this idea, and through not insignifi-
cant offerings, has given the first impulse to its execution. Lying in the
heart of Germany, indeed, of civilized Europe, a rallying-ground for the
whole world, it ought, as well from its geographical situation as from
its expanding, ever-augmenting influences, from its position in the com-
merece of the world, from its profitable and extensive monetary a‘ffairs,
from its manifold intellectual and material productions, from the import-
ance and patronage of its still growing university, to be the fittest
among many illustrious cities to organize an institution adapted to the
purpose and to make it most abundantly successful.

We are not ignorant that the task before us is great and difficult ;
but we are firmly confident that we, in our endeavors to perform it,
shall have aid and sympathy for every branch of our work.

We are already able to boast of many notable sebscriptions and pres-
ents, which have made it possible for us to begin the coilection, and to
call into existence the ‘Museum of Ethnology ;” nevertheless we need

greater and more persevering endeavors in order to reach the desired
6s

402 ETHNOLOGY.

end, and to bring the undertaking into perfect shape. Therefore, we
appeal, first of all, to our German fellow-citizens, and after them to all
those who are interested in the development of the human race, request-
ing them to encourage our work by becoming members of the museum,
as well as by gifts of money and relies.

We refer to the accompanying constitution, and hope for a large and
liberal indorsement of our enterprise.

Not less welcome to us are all such objects as properly find place in
our collection, and which the accompanying classified catalogue desig-
nates. In this respect we rely especially upon our numerous fellow-
countrymen in foreign parts, who have the requisite facilities, by trans-
mitting any kind of ethnological objects, photographs, pictures, models,
&e., from the countries where they reside, to give a living evidence that
they, realizing the intellectual.endeavors of the fatherland, have also a
warm heart for our cause.

And especially would we earnestly recommend the enterprise to the
consuls of the German government and to its other foreign representa-
tives, and beg them to work diligently for it. So also we propose it as
desirable to organize in proper places local societies for the furtherance
of our scheme. We look upon the formation of such societies as one of
‘the principal duties of the managers, and we invite the foreign friends
‘of the cause who may be so inclined to accept the honor of such an
“agency,” and to oblige the undersigned by informing them of the fact.

We indulge the hope that everywhere, in our country as well as
‘abroad, friends of our work will be found gathered, who will assume
the task of fustering and furthering the Museum of Ethnology, and
‘who will gladly embrace every opportunity to favor us. Those who
render especial service to the museum may be admitted to ‘ honorary
“membership,” or be named in a list of “ patrons,” and receive a diploma
‘therefor.

Finally, we desire for the foregoing circular the widest possible pub-
‘licity.

Lerpsic, April, 1873.

( Prof. Dr. LEUCKART.
| Privy-Counselor PESCHEL.
Board of Regents......... < Doctor OBST.

| Consul-General GUSTAV SPIESS.
| Banker GusTAV PLANT.

( Prof. Dr. BRUHNS, President.

| Dr. OrTo DELITSCH, Vice-President.
K. L. C. ROSENCRANTZ, Secretary.
EMMERICH ANSCHUTZ.

AUGUST FLEISCHHAUER.

é : Dr. GOLDSCHMIDT.

ae Siam sacra \ GEORGE LAMPE-BENDER.
GuSTAV MEYER.

RICHARD OBERLANDER.

Prof. Dr. STRUMPELL.

| Prof. Dr. v. TISCHENDORF.

{| Dr. Vorer.

LEIPSIC MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY. A405

CONSTITUTION OF THE MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY IN LEIPSIC.

1. The association, endowed with incorporated rights under the name
of ‘““Museum of Ethnology” in Leipsic, has for its aim the systematic
gathering of objects illustrating human nature and culture, and the
fostering of the science of ethnology.

2. Any one may become a member by the payment of an annual sub-
scription of two thalers. The payment of at least twenty thalers at one
time entitles one to a life-membership. Those who have rendered espe-
cial service to the science of ethnology or tothe museum may be appointed
by the Regents to an “ agency.”

3. Every member is entitled to free admission to the museum, and to
the use of the collection in conformity with the rules prescribed by the
Regents, and to a voice and vote in the general assembly of members.
Family-tickets are to be issued for members at reduced rates. Resig-
nation may take place atany time. Those who remain in arrears after a
month’s notice will be dropped.

4, In order to foster and enlarge the influence of the museum abroad,
“agents” will be appointed by the Regents, at designated places in
Germany and in foreign parts, who are to hold the distinction of ‘hon-
orary membership” and to undertake the task of representing the
society.

5. The business of the society will be transacted by—

a. The Board of Regents ;.,

b. The Board of Inspectors, (overseers ;)

ce. The general assembly of members.

6. The Board of Regents will consist of five members, who shall,
from their number, elect a first and a second regent, a first and a sec-
ond secretary, and a treasurer. The Regents will be chosen by the
overseers annually from among the members of the society, and shall
hold their office from the day of election until the next election. Ifa
member of the Board of Regents withdraws in the mean time, the Over-
seers shall hold an election to supply his place.

7. All the members of the Board ot Regents must reside in Leipsic or
in its immediate vicinity. Their names will be published in the Leipsic
Daily Journal, and in a German newspaper to be designated by the
Board of Regents, and the publication in the first-named paper shall
serve as their notice of election.

8. All orders and obligations shall be binding on the society if they
have the name “Museum of Ethnology” attached, and the signature
of one regent, of one secretary, and of the treasurer.

9. The “Board of Overseers” shall have the general supervision of
affairs in conformity with section 8 of the law of June 15, 1568, and
shall consist of twelve members, who shall be elected at the annual
meeting of members, to hold office for three years, one-third to withdraw
every year, the first two years by lot, afterward from the date of

404 ETHNOLOGY.

election. Those withdrawing may be re-elected. The official year is
reckoned from the close of one yearly meeting tutil the close of the next.

10. To the Board of Overseers, who shall elect annually from their
number a president and secretary, are especially intrusted with—

a. The oversight of the transactions of the regents;

b. The auditing and approving of the yearly accounts;

c. The election of regents ;

d. The previous approval of every expenditure which shall exceed
$500, as well as the indorsement of commissions which shall exceed
$250 annually ;

e. The convocation and management of ordinary and extraordinary
meetings of members.

11. Every regularly called meeting is competent to transact business,
but for the adoption of motions respecting sections ¢ and d, a majority
of at least two-thirds of the members present is necessary.

12. The Board of Regents shall make a report annually at the close of
the fiscal year, corresponding with the civil year, upon the condition of
the affairs of the society, and send a copy of the same to each of the
members at least two weeks before the annual meeting.

13. In the event of the dissolution of the society, its property shall
go to the University of Leipsic.

Instructions for the “Agents” of the Musewm of Hthnology.

§ 1. The authorized agents have, by § 4 of the statute, the duty of
fostering and enlarging the museum.

§ 2. Their office shall be “ honorary.”

§ 3. They shall be appointed by the Regents properly organized.

§ 4. Their chief service shall be the enrolling of members and_ the
soliciting and receiving of donations of objects and money for extend-
jng and improving the museum.

§ 5. They are likewise authorized to collect the contributions of mem-
bers in their vicinity, especially all those living in our maritime towns
and in transmarine countries, requested to take in charge consignments
designed for the museum, and to forward them as soon as possible to
their destination, and to apprise the Regents as soon as possible of any
known opportunities of enriching the collection.

§ 6. The debts which the agents may incur through collecting, packing,
and sending, &c., and any other authorized expenditures, shall be
refunded. They are also entitled to pay, at the cost of the museum to
mariners and other persons, a premium for relics, &c., not to exceed $10
per single object. For higher grants it will be necessary previously to
consult the Regents.

§ 7. All members’ subscriptions, or, if not collected, an account thereof,
are to be sent at the latest by the close of the first half of the year to
the treasurer of the museum at Leipsic, while any more important

LEIPSIC MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY. 405

gratuities that may be conferred, as well as gifts of objects, are to be
sent to the order of the Regents as soon as they can be apprised thereof.

§ &. The agents are further requested to send at the close of the year,

‘and not later than the month of January, a catalogue of the members
and benefactors living in their vicinity, and a list of contributions and
gifts.

§ 9. Likewise the agents have the authority to issue to members
receipts for contributious, tickets of membership, and annual statements
of their accounts.

LEIPSIC, April, 1873.

By authority of—

THE REGENTS OF THE MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY.

For a more definite description of the objects which are desired for
the “ Museum of Ethnology,” the Board of Regents beg leave to call the
attention of its friends to the following summary, requesting them not
to neglect the smallest thing, whose importance may depend not so much
on the worth of the object itself, as upon the value which it may possess
in the whole series, and upon the amount of its contribution to the com-
pleteness of the collection.

[Norz.—The classes of culture-historical objects are arranged as
nearly as possible in what Dr. Klemm considered to be the order of
development, supposing the human race to have grown up from a con-

dition characterized by the want of all things.—O. T. M.]

I.

OBJECTS WHICH THROW LIGHT UPON THE
CONSTITUTION OF THE HUMAN RACH.

Seletons.
Skulls, methods of measuring and appa-
ratus used.
Pelves.
Single bones.
Mummies.
Brains,
Inner organs,

)

| Preserved in

Embryological specimens, >
adsl

J

alcohol or

Parts of the body, other wise.

Skin,

Teeth.

Hair.

At the same time not only must the
human subject be regarded, but also
the animals which are definitely re-
lated to man, as for example:

Paleontological remains.

“Animal mummies.

Parasites.

Domestic anrmals, &c.

In order to render individual peculiarities
of single men harmless, for the deter-
mination of characteristic [class] attri-
butes, it is desirable to collect the
greatest number possible of skulls, &c.,
of the same race.

IDG

OBJECTS WHICH THROW LIGHT UPON THE
HISTORY OF CULTURE OF THE HUMAN
RACE.

1.—Means of subsistence.

Among which are to be reckoned not only—
Foods ;
Drinks ;

But also means of grattfication, as-—
Tobacco ;
Other narcotics ;
Spices and aromatics ;
Perfumes, &c.

2.—TFire.

Fuel.
Fire, implements for kindling, as—
Fire-sticks ;
Steel implements ;
Skone implements ;
Spunk, tinder, matches, &c.
Heating, burning, and cooking contri
vances, &c¢.

3.— Weapons.

Stone weapons ;
Wooden weapons 5

406

Bone weapons;

Bronze weapons 5

Iron weapons, embracing those for—

Striking and throwing, as—
Sticks or staves ;

Clubs ;
Lassos ;

For cutting and thrusting, as—
Axes and hatchets ; g
Cutlasses ;

Swords ;
Knives ;
Scythes ;

For sawing, as—
Fish-tooth weapons ;

For pricking or stabbing, as—
Lances and spears ;

Rapiers ;
Daggers, &c. ;

For shooting, as—
Missiles, slings 5
Javelins ;
Blowing-tubes and arrows ;
Arrows and arrow-heads ;
Bows ;
Quivers ;
Darting boards and straps;
Catapults ; (2)
Cross-bows and arrows 5
Fire-wreaths ;
Fire-weapons of all kinds ;
Balls and fire-arms.

Means of defense, &¢.—

Shields and bucklers.

Hilts.

Caltrops.

Fetters.

Pitfalls and snares.

Besieging apparatus.

Thereto also the raw materials, mineral,
vegetable, and animal, are to be added,
as well as the originals furnished by
nature, such as—

Drift pebbles.

Pointed and perforated stones, ores,

&C.
Wooden hooks, clubs, &c.
Teeth, &c., serving as models.

4.— Tools and implements.

Those for domestic purposes.
For every kind of handiwork.
For flint pecking and chipping, stone
boring and polishing.
For tanning leather and making shoes,
&e.
For agriculture.
For mining.
For fishing.
For hunting.
For horticulture. a
For manufactures and industrial arts; out
of—
Stone.
Wood and vegetable fibers.
Bones and such like materials.
Metals.

ETHNOLOGY.

To these are to be added raw-materials
and implements furnished by nature;
also machines and their parts, for—

Spinning, knitting, and weaving.
Mealing.
Grinding tools.

Apparatus and necessaries for soioabine
and industrial purposes, and those whose
use is not known.

5.—Clothing.

Raw material, as—
Wool.

Hides and leather.

Animal and vegetable fiber.
Bark and bast.

Other materials.

Materials and products in the different

stages of manufacture, as—
Woolen stufts.
Silk stuffs.
Linen stuffs.
Cotton stuffs.
Different varieties of, and mixed ma-
terials.

Articles of clothing, as—
Aprons and girdles.
Body-clothing—

Breeches.

Shirts.

Vests.

Jackets.

Coats for men.
Outer wrappings and dress of women—

Bodices.

Laces.

Corsets.

Gowns.

Over-garments.
Armor, mail, &c.
Cloths.

Neck-kerchiefs.

Collars and capes.
Shawls.
Pocket-handkerchiefs.
Veils.
Towels.
Coverlets.
Arm-clothing—
Sleeves.
Ruffles.
Gloves.
Foot-covering—
Stockings.
Garters.
Moccasins.
Shoes.
Boots.
Sandals, &c.
Head-gear—
Hats.
Caps.
Hoods.
Cowls.
Head-cloths,
Turbans.
Helmets.
Masks, &c.

LEIPSIC MUSEUM. OF ETHNOLOGY.

Different parts of dress, as—
Pockets and purses.
Aprons, &c.

Sewing and embroidery.
Lace.
Buckles.
Buttons, &e.
Dolls in costume and lay-figures.

6.— Ornament.

Skin dyeing and tattooing.
Head-ornament, as:

Wigs.

Hair-decorations, (modes of dressing.)

Hair-pins.

Combs.

Diadems, tiaras, coronets.

Ear-ornaments.

Nose, lip, and cheek ornaments.
Neck-ornaments—

Neck-chains.

Neck-rings and gorgets.
Breast-ornaments.
Arm-ornaments.
Finger-ornaments.
Leg-ornaments.

Toilet-articles—

Brushes.

Combs.

Mirrors.

Paints.

Cosmetic and cosmetic boxes.

Powder boxes and brushes.

Soaps.

Fans.

Umbrellas.

Artificial flowers.

Feather ornaments.

Miscellaneous objects of ornament, made
of—

Mineral material.

Vegetable material.

Animal material.

7.— Vessels, plates, and other objects for house-
hold-use, from animal material, from vege-
table, as leaves, wood, bark, bast, §¢., and
from minerals, especially including—

Stone vessels.
Clay vessels.
Stone-ware.
Fayence and delft.
Porcelain.
Glass.
Metal, &c., and embracing—
Gourds.
Nuts.
Shells.
Reed-tubes.
Horns.
Baskets.
Woven ware.
Boxes.
Chests.
Casks and the like.
Cans.
Pitchers.

407

Metals, &c.—Continued.

Tumblers,

Goblets.

Beakers.

Flasks.

Plates.

Cups.

Bowls.

Tureens.

Pots.

Jars.

Pans.

Knives.

Forks.

Eating-sticks.

Spoons.

Urns.

Lamps.

Candlesticks.

Tobacco-holders.

Tobacco-pipes.

Miscellaneous plates and vessels, also
the raw material.out of which the
objects have been made.

8.—Dweilings, their appurtenances, and their
ornamentations.

House-furniture.

Building-materials.

Original models and designs—

Nests of birds, insects, and other
animal habitations.

Pits.

Caves.

Huts.

Tents.

Dwelling-houses.

Farm-buildings.

Industrial and professional establish-
ments.

Villas.

Castles. «

Palaces, &c.

Appurtenances of dwellings, as—
Locks and keys, nails and screws.
Windows, verandahs, roofs.
Doors and hinges, &c.

Internal arrangements—

Hearths.
Kitchens.
Living and sleeping apartments.

Outer ornamentations—

Stucco.
Mosaic.

All kinds of internal ornaments, as—
Tapestry.

Carpets.
Curtains, &e.

Housekeeping articles, as—
Furniture. of guest-rocnis.
Hammocks. >of bed-rooms.
Bedding, &c., ) of eating-rooms.
Implements and utensils of all kinds.

9.—Games and playthings.

Games for adults—
Cards.

408 ETHNOLOGY.

Games, &c.—Continued. Amulets.
Chess. Garlands.
Draughts, &e. Rosaries.

Field-sports, &e.
Games for children—

Dolls.

Hoops, &e.

10.— Vehicles and traveling-utensils.

Water-vehicles—

Rafts and floats.

Canoes and models.

Ship-models.

Equipments, as—

Masts and sails.

Rudders.

Oars and paddles.

Anchors.

Outriggers.

Cables, &c.

Miscellaneous objects pertaining to navi-
gation and nautical life.

Land-vehicles and accessaries of jour-
neys—

Originals, models and drawings of—
Palanquins and the like.
Wagons.

Sleds.
Snowshoes.
Skates.
Riding and traveling utensils—

Whips and girts.

Harness.

Saddles.

Stirrups.

Spurs.

Bits.

Horseshoes.

Trappings.

Bells.

Hunting-implements.
Implements for journeys on foot.
Miscellaneous objects connected with—

Postal service.

Railroading.

Telegraphy.

11.—Musicatl instruments.

Cymbals, (castanets.)
Rattles.
Clappers.
Drums.
Bones.
Wind-instruments, as—
Panpipes.
Vifes.
Flutes.
Horns.
Trumpets.
Trombones, &e.
Stringed instruments.
Reed-instruments.
Rebecs.
Various other instruments.

12.—Sacra.

Images of holy persons.
Images of gods.

Exorcising cymbals and drums.
Charms and ‘‘ medicine” cases for witch-
craft.
All objects used in religious worship—
Altars.
‘Sacerdotal dress.
Croziers.
Mitres.
Church and temple furniture.
Censers and incense.
Fetiches.
Teraphim, &c.
Models and drawings of—
Sacrificial places.
Temples.
Churches.

13.—Fine arts.

First efforts of primitive peoples.

Works of architecture.

Works of sculpture and engraving in
wood, bone, ivory, shell, horn, stone,
clay, and metal.

Works of painting—

Portraits.
Designs.
Reproductions, &c.

Casting of metals.

Mosaic and gem cutting.

Productions of lesser arts and of art-traffic.

14.— Writing.

Writing-material, as—
Styles.
Pens.
India-ink, paints, and colors.
Inkstands.
Rulers.
Seals.
Paper.
Parchment.
Rock sculptures and inscriptions.
Inscriptions on—
Stone.
Clay.
Metal.
Paper.
Léaves of plants.
Parchment.
Alphabets and alphabetic systems.
Presses and books.

15.— Measures, weights, coins.

Measures—
Counting and keeping tally.
Notched sticks and tallies.
Measuring-rods.
Scales and weights.
Measuring-instruments in general.
Time-pieces.

Money—
Coin.
Substitutes for coin.

LEIPSIC MUSEUM OF ETHNOLOGY. 409

Money-—Continued. Medical practice.
Paper-money. Eleemosynary and reform,
Certificates of indebtedness. Birth and lineage.

Medals, badges, and other outer decora- | Baptism.

tions. Marriage.
16.—Publie life. Education.

Burial and sepulchers.
All objects which relate to judiciary and | Feasts, &c.
police affairs.

NOTICE.

The objects mentioned in the foregoing catalogue are designed to
exhibit human nature and culture in all parts of the earth, in historical
as well as in prehistoric times.

Where the obtaining of originals is impossible or impracticable, as,
for example, of buildings, &c., let proper models, casts, other imitations,
drawings, photographs, &c., be taken. (It is exceedingly important to
have photographs and truthful sketches of men in the performance of
all the occupations which designate culture.)

Also, in general, the raw material is desirable (as already mentioned
in different places above) out of which the different objects are made;
also the finished and unfinished products of industry and handicraft.

Of drawings, especially those of human subjects, it is desirable to
take as many as possible of the natural size, and to state whether they
were taken immediately from the original subject or were otherwise
procured.

Drawings intended to illustrate races of men should exhibit both the
full face and the profile.

_ The object and the place of its discovery should be accurately noted;
also the people or race from whom it is procured or by whom it is used.

It is further necessary regarding discoveries, especially prehistoric
discoveries, accurately to describe the nature of the places where they
are made so far as practicable, and especially to state the kind of soil
when feasible, accompanied with specimens or proofs. Generally care
ful and diligent attention must be paid to the whole geological and
topographical surroundings, likewise to the depth at which the dis-
covery was made, the time, as well as to other attending circumstances;
to which are to be added accounts of objects which are found lying
with them or near at hand, as, for example, of human relics, bones of
animals, vegetable remains, weapons. tools, vessels, objects of dress,
ornaments, &e.

And, further, great attention should be paid to ancient human habi-
tations and settlements, to cave-dwellings, and pile-structures, and to
whatever is in relation therewith; also to graves, burial-grounds, monu-
mental stones, &c., with the accompanying relics of ancient human and
animal bones, old weapons and tools, old vessels, urns, and like objects.

Likewise is to be associated with the museum a library, which shall

410 ETHNOLOGY.

embody anthropology and ethnology in the widest sense, as well as the
related sciences of geography, travels, philology, general psychology,
&c.; therefore we recommend the enterprise to the favorable attention
of distinguished authors, publishers, curators of libraries, and of scien-
tific associations.

ANTIQUITIES OF UNION COUNTY, ILLINOIS.

By Tuomas M. PERRINE.

A few days ago, I, with three others, citizens of this town, engaged in
exploring one of those mounds located on the Running Lake, about eight
niles from Anna, Illinois. As there is nothing unusual in the form of this
mound, it needs no description. About fifteen years ago it became neces-
sary, in repairing a graded way across the lake, to remove a portion of
the mound, so at this time there is but a small portion of it left. This
portion has often been dug into by the curious, but without obtaining
any result worth mentioning. We were fortunate enough, however, to
get some very fine pieces of pottery, representing in their formation
turtles, fish, &c.; but imagine my astonishment when my spade uncovered
a white “porphyry” stone, of forty pounds weight, which had been
carved from the rough into an idol, or it may have been intended for a
piece of statuary. It is represented in a sitting position, with the left
leg drawn under the body, tailor-like, while the right leg is drawn up
to the thigh, supporting thereon the right hand, with the elbow project-
ing down on the outside of the thigh, forming a very natural arch of 45°,
It was undoubtedly intended to represent the human form in health, and
clothed with muscle and skin. The face is expressive, finely chiseled, and
has a resemblance to a photograph .I have seen of the Sphynx. It is
true to anatomical proportions, and perfect in all its parts. From the
top of the head along the line of the sagittal suture to the chin, it meas-
ures 16 inches; from the point of one shoulder to the other across the back,
9 inches; and the same across the breast or front. The length of arm, —
fore-arm, and hand to point of middle finger is 11 inches; from ear to
ear, across back of head, 8 inches; across the hips, 9 inches. ‘The leg,
thigh, and foot measure 114 inches; the length of face, from the chin
to what represents the hair, is 5 inches; around the neck, under the
chin, 15 inches; the height in sitting-posture is 13 inches. If11J inches be
added for inferior extremities, the height would be 254 inches if extended.
From the spine in the center of the back a line or groove is cut, running
to the right and left, and extending to the cranium or crown of the
head. The ears, eyes, nose, chin, and contour of the head, as well as
the whole image, is perfect, and no way mutilated by time—the stone
being so very hard.

But I am making my letter too long. Inclosed I send you photo-
graphs. The photographs are not good, but they are the best I can get
in this place. I will write to you if anything more of interest is found.

ANTIQUITIES OF KNOX COUNTY, INDIANA, ETC. Al

ANTIQUITIES OF KNOX COUNTY, INDIANA, AND LAWRENCE COUNTY, ILLINOIS.

By Dr. A. PATTON.

The early history of Vincennes is involved in much doubt and uncer-
tainty. No records or monumental remains have yet been found indi-
cating the precise time when this rather ancient place was first settled.

The Piankeshaw Indians had a village here, some remains of which
are still found in making excavations for wells and street-improvements.
But there are unmistakable evidences of a more ancient and no doubt
a more civilized people than the Indians having inhabited this town.
Upon the high elevation of land that almost surrounds the beautiful
_diluvial prairie on which the city of Vincennes is built, there stand in
full view of the town three of the most beautiful mounds in the West.
Until very lately, the largest of these was considered a natural forma-
tion, but few persons suspecting that it was an artificial mound. It is
named Sugar Loaf Mound. Its height is nearly 70 feet, the cireum-
ference at the base 1,000 feet. It stands on a promontory, which no
doubt was once washed by the Wabash River. The observer from the
top of this mound can see not only the entire city lying in the smooth
level valley, more than 100 feet beneath, but other mounds, which are
about one mile distant from each other. The only exploration that
has been attempted of this large mound was done under my direction
in the month of June last. A shaft 4 feet square was sunk in the cen-
ter of it, and carried to a depth of 46 feet. The first observation was
the character of the material composing the structure. It was found
to be a siliceous sand, very slightly mixed with alluvial deposits. Pro-
fessor Collett considers it a fair specimen of the “loess.” There is
a marked difference, however, between the appearance of this earth and
any found in the vicinity of the mound. A brick-manufacturer insisted
that he could show us earth precisely like it, but upon comparing the
two specimens it was evident that there was no similarity, as he admit-
ted himself. All the other mounds in this neighborhood on the east
side of the river are found to contain precisely the same material, but
so far we have not been able to ascertain the locality from which the
material was obtained. Evidently, it was brought from a considerable
distance. The character of the earth composing this mound presenting
such a striking difference from any near it, was sufficient of itself to
demonstrate that the mound was constructed by human hands, and its
great size and symmetrical form indicated skill and intelligence. The
explorations, though not attended with any striking developments
in archeology, revealed other evidences of art in the construction of the
mound, which left no room for further doubt as to its origin. At 10
feet below the surface, bones were found, but which were so tender that
but very small fragments were secured. Immediately below this layer

A412 ETHNOLOGY.

of decayed bones, a layer of ashes and charcoal was found. Thirty feet
below this we reached bones, charcoal, and ashes again. The bones
here were very brittle, and could not be handled. A bed of calcinated
clay was then entered, which was too hard to excavate with the imple-
ments we were using. This we supposed to be either a sacrificial altar
or a place that had been used for cremation-purposes. No pottery or
implements of any kind were found in the shaft we sunk, which may
only indicate that this was not a burial-mound and was erected for
some other and higher purpose; perhaps for a place of worship, or
for an observatory, or for military defense. Many varieties of small
shells were found, some of the specimens having no living representa-
tives in this locality or any climate as far north as this. Vincennes is
situated in 38° 43/ north latitude and 87° 25’ west longitude, and 450
feet above the level of the sea.

Pyramid Mound is one mile south of the Sugar Loaf Mound, and
is named from its form being pyramidal. Its height is 43 feet and cir:
cumterence at base 714 feet; the top is 15 feet wide and 50 feet in length.
Ihave had this mound opened in several places, but no extensive or
systematic explorations have been made of it, owing to objections by the
owner. The first examination was attempted in January, 1872, by Pro-
fessor Tenny, of Williams College, Massachusetts, and myself; but the
weather being very cold, our excavations were not made sufficiently deep
to determine the character of the mound any further than its being
certainly the work of art, and that it had been used as a burial-place
either by the mound-builders or the Indians, as we found parts of a human
skeleton only 3 feet below the surface at the top of the mound. The
long bones were in a fair state of preservation, but the cranium was
broken into fragments. In June and July last some imperfect exami-
nations were made by excavations extending 4 or 5 feet in depth. An
abundance of human bones were found, but all were very rotten. Two
or three arrow-heads were obtained, but no pottery or other relics were
found.

The North Mound has never been examined except by curiosity-hun-
ters. Bones were found, but I can give no.information in regard to them.
The height is 36 feet; circumference at base, 847 feet. One mile north
of this mound is another beautiful one, though not more than 25 feet in
height and 400 feet in circumference at base; it has never been examined.
There are twelve small mounds within the city-limits, situated near the
bank of the river, but above the overflow. One or two of these mounds
have been explored, and human bones in large quantities have been
exhumed. There is a mound three miles below the city, the height of
which is 12 feet. The stump of a large walnut-tree 4 feet across the
center 1s standing on the top of it. The tree was removed about twenty-
five years ago; it is impossible to determine the age of the tree by the
rings at present. I had an excavation made into this mound, but noth-
ing of special interest was revealed except large quantities of broken

ANTIQUITIES OF KNOX COUNTY, INDIANA, ETC. 413

pottery, several flint arrow-heads, and one stone knife having the form
and size of an ordinary knife-blade, and very sharp on both edges.
There were bones, but too tender to handle. Bones and pottery were
found under the stump. I send specimens from this mound marked
‘¢ Bottom Mound.” Prof. John Collett, who made a geological survey of
Knox County in June and July last, thinks there are 300 ancient mounds
in this county.

The mounds in Lawrence County, Illinois, have produced much better
results in an archeological aspect than any examined in Knox County,
Indiana. I hada very large mound excavated that is situated on Mr. An-
tone Ritchirdville’s farm, one mile from this city, from which was obtained
one cranium in a fine state of preservation, and which presents some
very interesting points for the consideration of the ethnologist; but as
it is to be submitted to the examination of an expert, I will give no
descriptions and express no opinion of it. I send with it one femur and
one humerus, a tibia, fibula, and ulna. There was found near this skele-
ton, which was about 4 feet below the surface, a very large shell, a Pyrula
caniculata ; it is 11 inches long, and 6 inches at the widest point.
There were pieces of well-polished stone, one of which has a hole through
its center. There is a white-oak tree (Quercus alba) growing on the
mound, under which were found fragments of crania and some pottery.
It seems to have been burned until charred.

There are fifteen mounds standing near each other, forming a circle,
with one in the center, situated about 400 yards from the river, in the
valley, two miles southwest of Vincennes, where there is an annual over-
flow. They are constructed of materials obtained around them, and
contain nothing of interest so far as examined, with the exception of a
skeleton, which had been inclosed in a rough plank coffin, and was
evidently an intrusive burial by our own people, probably a boatman.
I send the cranium merely for comparison with the others. I have had
five mounds opened that are situated on the Embarras River, near Brown’s
old mill, in Lawrence County, Illinois. They are eight miles south-
west of this place, and have proved rich in relics. The cranium marked
‘¢Brown’s Mill Mound” was obtained by Mr. Carl Busse, who kindly
presented it to our public-school cabinet. It presents some points of
scientific interest. The skeleton was found in a sitting-posture. Near
it was found a beautiful pipe, also a bunch of long straight hair bound
together with a deer-skin thong, and having wrapped around it a piece
of cloth that is curiously woven, and once bad bright colors, but has
faded considerably since it was removed from the mound. There were
twelve skeletons removed from this mound, but the crania were all
rotten, with the single exception of the one J send to the Institution,
In the five mounds lately opened there was nothing of interest discoz-
ered, with the exception of human bones, very much decayed. In the
first one there was a single skeleton, but the bones literally crumbled
into dust when attempted to be removed. In the second, there were

A14 ETHNOLOGY.

four skeletons; in the third, three; in the fourth, four; and in the fifth,
not a bone was found. Several pieces of arrow-heads and some very
hard pottery were found. Some of the pottery found in these mounds
was ornamented in a manner that indicated some skill and appreciation
of order in arrangement. The ornamented pottery was found in the
mound from which the Busse cranium was taken. This mound is 12
feet in height, and 60 in diameter at the base, and nearly the same on
the top.

The skeletons in all these mounds were found from one to four feet
below the surface. The bones nearest the surface were invariably in the
best state of preservation, while those at or near the bottom were com-
pletely decomposed. In some cases, the form and appearance were natu-
ral, but the moment the earth wasremoved from them, and an attempt was
made to remove them, they fell into dust. Others presented the appear-
ance and consistence of soft chalk, a slight pressure between the fingers
causing them to crumble.

I have opened two mounds in Vincennes recently. The first is 110
feet in circumference at base, 45 feet diameter east and west, 6 feet
high. A trench 4 feet wide was cut more than half across it, extend
ing to 1 foot below the base of the mound. It was composed of the
ordinary surface-loam to a depth of 6 feet, where a layer of very
soft tenacious grayish clay was reached, which was only 3 inches in
thickness, and rested immediately upon the top of the ground. This
layer of clay formed the base of both these city-mounds, as it did of all
tbe mounds examined in Illinois. There was nothing of interest found
in either of them; no bones or pottery, ashes, coal, or relics of any kind.
These mounds are near the one described by William Pidgeon in 1867,
in which many bones were found.

Although the mounds in and around Vincennes have so far furnished
no interesting relics or important contributions to science, yet some
doubtful questions have been solved, with a fair probability of a solu-
tion being given to other problems, which may prove of some value to
ethnology. The artificial origin of our large mounds has been fully
demonstrated, which has heretofore been denied by some and doubted
by many. It is certain that the material of which the large mound is
composed is different from any in the neighborhood, and thus the shells
found in the large mound belong to a warm climate, which indicates
either that the mound was constructed when the locality enjoyed a
warmer climate than at present, or that they were brought from the
south. The study of these facts may lead to a solution of some difficult
and obscure questions. By carefully examining the calcinated clay in
the large mound, a question about which there is some controversy
may be settled, as to whether these burned-clay structures are for sacrifi-
cial altars or cremation-purposes. That the age of these mounds can
and will be determined by scientific investigations, I think very prob-

ANTIQUITIES OF KNOX COUNTY, INDIANA, ETC. A415

able, and we may yet ascertain who were their builders, and for what
purpose they were made.

It is to be regretted, however, that more extended and more thorough
examinations of the many mounds in this and Lawrence County, Illi-
nois, have not been made, as this region certainly presents a most
favorable field for ethnological investigations. From the great number
of mounds in this lceality and the very large size of some of them,
together with the relics already found, it may be supposed that the
Wabash Valley, and especially Knox County, Indiana, and Lawrence
County, Mlinois, were once densely populated by that ancient race of
people whose history is so veiled in obscurity that it is difficult to
determine who they were or whence they came. It is very probable
that there have been many intrusive burials in the mounds that have
been examined, and it is,. therefore, diflicult, but very important, to
determine questions of race by the careful inspection of the crania and
the relics removed with them. If a well-preserved cranium could be
discovered near the center and at great depth in any of the larger
mounds, it might be taken for granted that it belonged to the original
race of mound-builders. It is, therefore, desirable that further explora-
tions should be made in the Sugar Loat and Pyramid Mounds. By
tunneling horizontally, commencing near the base and proceeding
toward the center, using strong timbers for protection against the
falling earth, discoveries of great scientific interest might be made,
and I would be very much pleased to see a work of this kind under-
taken by some competent person. The beautiful little valley in the
center of which Vincennes now stands was, doubtless, once a great city,
occupied by the mound-builders, and their villages and farms were
scattered over the country as ours are at present.’ There is a line of nat-
ural elevations almost surrounding the valley on the north, south, and
east sides, having the river on the west. There is alow piece of land lying
between the southern mound and Bunker Hill of about 900 yards, and
from Bunker Hill to the river there is an opening of about a mile, in
which, however, there is one mound still standing; and from the frequent
findings of pottery and stone implements between these points, it is very
probable that there was once an artificial embankment from Bunker
Hill to the river, and from Bunker Hill to the southern mound. In
addition to this, Professor Collett has expressed the opinion that
there is a continuous line of artificial defenses extending from the river
above Fort Krox around to Bunker Hill, nearly. a mile in the rear
of the line on which the mounds are situated. Professor Collett is a very
accurate observer, but his time was too limited to enable him to make a
thorough and satisfactory examination. It has been supposed by many
observers that the Wabash River once occupied the entire plain between
its present western shore and the line of the elevations on which the large
mounds are situated; and that, when those mounds were first erected,

416 > ETHNOLOGY.

they were immediately on the bank of theriver. But while itis, no doubt,
true that the river once washed the base of the promontory on which
Sugar Loaf Mound now stands, it was doubtless long anterior to the
time when that great mound was erected. The small mounds in the
city-limits stand on land that, according to that theory, must have
been under water when the great mound was being erected, but whichis
now above overflow. Hither this view is incorrect, or the city-mounds
were built long after the large mounds were, and by a different race of
people. It is claimed by some ethnologists that the mounds erected on
low and overflowed lands were built by a race of people called fishermen,
who inhabited this country about eight hundred years ago. But the
data upon which these theories are based are of so doubtful a character
and so defective that it will require other discoveries and more accurate
investigations to solve these great questions. It is for the solution of
problems like these and others of still greater importance to ethnologi-
cal science that earnest and faithful inquiries after truth will follow the
pick and shovel in excavating the works of these mysterious people.
It is no idle or unmeaning curiosity, or love of sordid gain, or desire for
a little notoriety, that prompts investigations like these, but a refined
and sacred love of truth and a noble desire to add to the great treasury
of useful knowledge and to aid in perfecting sciences that are now in
their infancy and struggling for existence. Some strictly practical men
may claim that such investigations are useless, and time not well spent;
but they forget that all truth is divine, and that many seemingly unim-
portant facts are necessary to establish a principle, and that principles
make up great systems, and that systems make worlds, and worlds a
universe which is presided over by one Allwise Being, and that all
truth and the world’s activities are emanations from God; and as we
learn more of nature’s great laws and solve problems in ethnological or
any other science, we learn more of our Creator and his laws. It is very
true that the few simple isolated facts that may be gathered by local
ethnological observers would be of but very little value if viewed sep-
arately; but when they are combined and properly arranged with other
discoveries and developments that are being made all over this country
and Europe, great problems may be solved, important principles un-
folded, and the science perfected.

As these city-mounds are erected on land that is above overflow, and
as but few of them present any evidence of their being burial-mounds,
it may be supposed that they were erected by the same race and for the
same purposes as were the large mounds on the hilis; and all are, no
doubt, ancient mounds in the strictest sense of that term; and although
scarcely anything has been found in any of them to indicate their
nature or origin, yet they are not the less interesting to the student of
ethnology.

MISCELLANEOUS «CORRESPONDENCE.

EXPLORATIONS ON THE WESTERN COAST OF NORTH AMERICA.

By Witu1aM H. Dart,
Of the United States Coast Survey.

I am glad to be able to announce that we have returned safely from
a six months’ cruise in the Aleutian Islands, after a satisfactory season’s
work. We have chiefly been employed in the determination of astro- -
nomical positions, the magnetic declination, deep-sea soundings, the
survey of a harbor for the landing-place of the Japanese cable, if it.
should be determined to take it via the Aleutian Islands, hydrographic:
notes of various importance, and the continuation of our meteorological,.
current, and sea-temperature observations of previous years. Our field.
of work has been between Attoo, the most western island and point of
the United States possessions, from island to island, through the chain,.
to the Shumagins.

Many of the islands were found to be several miles in error in their
position, and the magnetic declination had decreased without exception,
in its amount of easting, since the last observations were taken, from
twenty to thirty years ago. The difference averages 2° 30’, but in some:
cases amounts to 6°. Our current and temperature observations con-
firmed those of previous years. We succeeded in finding a good harbor
for the cable on the island of Kyska, and thoroughly surveyed it. Our
soundings put an entirely new complexion on the western half of Behring’
Sea, where we obtained no bottom with a mile of line, quite close to the:
jslands. We found the deposition of “recent chalk” mud going on at
a depth of 800 fathoms—a fact of some importance, as it has not pre-.
viously been reported on the Pacific side of the continent. We deter-
mined the boundaries of the Saunakh reefs, and the non-existence of
the Bogostoff reef, both of which were of considerable importance to
navigators.

In our leisure, the work of collecting specimens of prehistoric remains
and objects of natural history was energetically prosecuted, resulting

in the accumulation of eighteen boxes of specimens, which will be for- . .

warded to the National Museum at the earliest opportunity. In pre-
historic specimens, our results were of the greatest interest, and I feel:

assured of more value than any ever obtained in this region before. We
Or
ai 8

A418 MISCELLANEOUS CORRESPONDENCE.

obtained thirty-six prehistoric crania, some two or three hundred bone and
stone implements, remains of mummies from burial-caves, and two large
cases of wooden carvings, masks, &e., deposited with the dead. 1 will
write more fully as to the'circumstances under which they were found aia
future time. The boxes, which will be shipped as freight in a few days,
have contents as follows:

Kegs 1 and 3 contain fish and miscellaneous alcoholic specimens.

Keg 2 contains skull and skin of an unknown species of seal, and an
enormous crab from Adakh Island.

Box 1 contains dry sponges from Unalashka.

Box 2 contains sponges from Attoo.

Box 6 contains bones of whales, stone lamps, Pin other heavy pre-
historic remains and rocks.

Box 8 contains prehistoric crania from caves on Atka Island.

Box 9 contains porpoise skeleton and one box of stone implements.

Boxes 11 and 12 contain crania from Amchitka, Adakh, Unalashka,
Unga, &e.

Boxes 13 and 14 contain wooden carvings from caves, Unga.

Of these boxes, 1, 2, and 9 I should like to have kept intact (except
taking out the prehistoric specimens from box 9) until my return. I
should like to have the alcoholic specimens, not vertebrates, in the three
kegs also taken care of until 1 may be able to overhaul them myself.
It would be better to have them placed in some receptacle less liable to
evaporation than the kegs until then. The other specimens will be
sent as soon as they can be repacked. |

Our collection of natural history is very valuable. It contains more
material for the determination of geographical distribution and specific
development than has ever been sent from the west coast before. Iam
consequently anxious that none of it should be lost to science. Our
plants I sent direct to Professor Gray, as they would not bear delay.

I trust you will be pleased with the ethnological material, which excels
in quantity and variety all collections yet made in that region.

I have before me one more season’s work, in which | hope to supply
‘many deficiencies and enlarge the boundaries of the region investigated.
In the spring of 1875, under Providence, I hope to return to Washing-
ton, and settle quietly down to study, as I think that seven years of
one’s life are quite enough to be devoted to field-work in such an inac-
‘cessible region.

San Francisco, Cal., November 28, 1873.

DISCOVERY OF A LARGE METEORITE IN MEXICO. A19

CORRESPONDENCE RELATIVE TO THE DISCOVERY OF A LARGE METEORITE
IN MEXICO.

Letter from William M. Pierson, United States vice-consul, Paso del Norte,
Mexico, to the Department of State, Washington.

My attention of late has been drawn to the famous Sierra Madre,
(Mother Mountains,) which are said to be the most prolific in rich gold
and silver mines of all the mountains in the State of Chihuahua, from
the fact of a very singular and large piece of meteoric iron having been
discovered by a party of Mexicans while excavating in the ruins of the
Casas Grandes, (great houses,) measuring 2 feet 6 inches square, and
weighing, as is supposed, over 5,000 pounds. This particular portion of
the Sierra Madre is located one hundred and fifty miles distant, and
almost directly south from this city, in parallel 30.

‘“There is a tradition among the Pueblo Indians (town Indians) that
the Montezuma tribes came from the extreme north in ancient times by
gradual immigration, and settled at various points at intervals, until
they arived at and built the city of Mexico. The truth of this tradition is
verified by the plain trace of old ruined cities, built of adobe-brick, and
extending from New Mexico and Arizona south to the city of Mexico.
In the Gila Valley, Arizona, these immigrants appear to have halted,
built a city, recuperated, raised a sufficient quantity of corn and beans,
and then immigrated some four hundred and fifty miles farther south to
the great plain under the foot of the Sierra Madre, in the State of
Chihuahua, where another halt was made, another city built, and the
same routine of recuperation and raising of corn and beans, preparatory
for the march on to Mexico, was gone through with.

“The ruins of the Casas Grandes on the Gila River in Arizona show
plainly that at one time a numerous and industrious people dwelt there,
and at this day, from the ruins, the structure and plan of the city is
discernable. Large rooms were built for a common depository of grain
for the use and benefit of the public. The great ditch by which the
water of the river Gila was turned out on the plain to irrigate, for the
purpose of raising grain, is still plainly traceable; while the whole plain
for miles around is profusely strewn with broken pottery, on which the
devices and painting exactly correspond with that on the pottery man-
ufactured by the Pueblo Indians of Mexico at the present day. These
remarks will apply to the whole chain of Casas Grandes now in ruins,
south from New Mexico and Arizona to the city of Mexico. It is a well-
known fact that when the Spanish discovered Mexico, as far north as
Santa Fé the country was settled in all the large and fertile valleys by
Pueblo or town Indians, who lived by agricultural pursuits, planting
corn, beans, and pumpkins, and constructing and living in large towns,
built with the adobe-brick, the same as are now used throughout all Mex-
ico; and that the Montezuma Indians possessed large amounts of the

420 MISCELLANEOUS CORRESPONDENCE.

precious metals, which reason teaches us must have been obtained from
the surface of the earth. Even in our day, it is a well-known fact that
over $125,000 in gold was taken from the surface on Antelope Hill, Ari-
zona, ten miles from water, all picked up by hand on top of the ground-
One of my own well-known friends was a participant in this gold-pick-
ing from the surface on Antelope Hill. (See J. Ross Browne on Mineral
Resources of the United States, pages 466, 467.) So far as the American
miner has prospected, he has found it to be a never-failing fact that
near all the Casas Grandes, on the chain of immigration of the Monte.
zumas from north to south, there exist rich gold and silver mines.

‘¢ There is a Small Mexican town, called Casas Grandes, located at the
foot of the Sierra Madre, one hundred and fifty miles south from this
city, and near to the old ruins of the Montezuma Casas Grandes, in
which there lives a brave and hardy race of Mexican mountaineers, who
have braved the inroads of the indomitable Apache, and have set his
malice, skill, and cunning at defiance from time immemorial. Some
three or four years since, a party of these Mexican mountaineers, as a
matter of curious speculation, commenced excavating in the old ruins of
the Montezuma Casas Grandes, each man dritting into the old ruins
at separate and several points. One, Teodoro Alverado, more fortunate
than the others, drifted into a large room, in tke middle of which there
appeared a kind of tomb made of adobe-brick. Curiosity led this bold
knight of the crow-bar to renew his excavations; and when he had
reached the middle of this tomb, he there found this curious mass of
meteoric iron referred to in the fore part of this dispatch, carefully and
curiously wrapped witha kind of coarse linen, similar to that with which
the Egyptians inclose or wrap their mummies. The excavators were
now all summoned to view the curiosity. One anxious spectator, with
more inquiry and ambition than the rest, gave this mass from the skies
a vigorous blow with his crow-bar, whereupon it grave forth a loud
and hollow sound, much resembling a church bell on a funeral occa-
sion, which struck these honest savages with holy and reverential
awe. An adjudication now immediately took place as to whether all
the knights of the crow-bar should have a pro-rata interest in this
interesting specimen, or whether the discoverer should own it in fee-simple.
After due and mature deliberation, it was decided that, whereas each
and every excavator had dug or drifted his own shaft according to
his own notion of loss or gain, separately, therefore be it adjudged
and decreed that Teodoro Alverado, the discoverer, do own the said
meteoric mass in fee-simple. Twenty-six yoke of sturdy oxen were
mustered, and as many or more strong log-chains, and, with this force
and tackle, the monster meteorite was hauled on the ground to the
modern town of Casas Grandes, and deposited in the street, in front
of the discoverer’s door. Alverado and his neighbors et first fixed a

| most fabulous value upon it, but after the lapse of years, both the novelty

DISCOVERY OF A LARGE METEORITE IN MEXICO. 4?1

and the reverential awe having subsided, and Alverado, like many of his
peculiar race, feeling the stern hand of poverty pressing heavily upen
him, has expressed a willingness to sell it for a reasonable price. Mr.
Ernest Angerstein, a wealthy merchant of this city, has an agent
(Mr. Leroy) living at the said modern Casas Grandes for the purpose ef
parchasing grain, and who has resided there for many years past, from
whom I have gathered much information herein stated, although the
main facts are widely known throughout the country; yet, Mr. Leroy
having been an eye-witness, has furnished me several items in the
minutia.

“The aforenamed Angerstein, Leroy, and myself have made up the
necessary funds to purchase this rare and novel specimen, making it a
mutual adventure, and have started a large mercantile wagon capable
of carrying 10,000 pounds to transport it to this city. Our intention is
to secure it for the admiration of the curious and the lovers of science.
We shall have it safely lodged in the consulate within fifteen days from
this date.

‘“‘The Apaches are now at war with the Mexican government, but some
Six years prior to this date they were at peace. This particular locality
of the Casas Grandes, or, I should say, the Sierra Madre, is one of the
Apache strongholds, and during the aforenamed period of peace the
Apaches used to come down out of the mountains every Saturday to the
modern Casas Grandes to trade with the Mexicans. They brought nug-
gets of gold from the size of a pea to a walnut, and exchanged them for
powder, lead, and blankets. They must have known of gold-fields in the
mountains similar to those of Antelope Hills herein referred to, and the
ancient gold-fields known to the Montezumas.

‘6 The Sierra Madre herein referred to are with one accord conceded to
be by the best informed Mexicans the richest in gold and siver mines of
all the mountains in the State of Chihuahua. The natural inquiry will
be, Why, then, do not the Mexicans work these mines? The true reason
and answer is, the peculiar form of the mountains, connected with the
bravery of the warlike Apache, has heretofore been a complete bar,
and prevented the most determined Mexicans from locating and work-
ing these mines. Then, again, the Mexicans are a weak and primitive
people; for instance, their cart-wheels are cumbersome trucks of wood;
the yoke for their oxen is a straight pole, placed across the forehead
and lashed to the horns with strips of rawhide ; their plow for tilling the
soi] is nothing more than a crooked stick of wood. I assert it without
fear of contradiction, that in all of this Rio Grande Valley in my con-
sulate, which is so famous for farming, there are not three iron or steel
mold-board plows in use, nor any kind of a plow, except the crooked
wooden stick.

“The Mexicans at the modern Casas Grandes are the bravest of their
race, and they have all they can do to maintain themselves in the plain
at the foot of the mountains; they have never been able to maintain
themselves up in the mountains for any permanent purpose.”

A292? MISCELLANEOUS CORRESPONDENCE.

The foregoing letter was referred by Hon. William Hunter, Assistant
Secretary of State, to the Smithsonian Institution. The following is the
reply of the Secretary, Professor Henry :

« We have just received your very interesting letter of April 2, contain-
ing a specimen of meteoric iron, accompanied by the communication of
Mr. W. M. Pierson, vice-consul of the United States at Paso del Norte.
There can be little doubt that the specimen is from a meteorite, but to
settle this point beyond controversy we shall have it carefully analyzed.
The facts mentioned in the communication are very interesting; and, if
the State Department has no objection, we would be pleased to publish
it in the appendix to the next report.

“Tt would appear from observations that, on some oceasion in the
history of the globe, a shower of immense meteors fell upon the region
where the meteor in question-is found. The great meteorite at the
Smithsonian Institution came from Tucson, and we have heard of a
number of others of large size that came from the same locality. Large
meteorites are of great interest to the science of the day. They all
exhibit the appearance of having been subjected to an intense heat; and
whatis still more wonderful, in some of them, at least, is found con-
densed within the pores of the material a large quantity of hydrogen-gas,
indicating that. they have in some portion of their past existence been
in an atmosphere of this material.

“Tt would give us great pleasure to subject a portion of the meneorite
in question to an investigation in regard to its gaseous contents; and if
the gentlemen who own it will present it to the Institution, 2 will
cheerfully pay the expense of transportation, and forever associate their
names in the history of science with the specimen, and with the results
of any experiments that may be made in regard to it.”

ON THE HABITS OF THE BEAVER.
By FELrx R. BRUNOT, of Pittsburgh, Pa.

While visiting the Shoshone and Bannack Indian reservation in
Western Wyoming Territory last September, I saw at the saw-mill a
cotton-wood log which had been cut down by beavers, (castor,) and which
is 25 feet in diameter at the butt where the cutting was done. Whether
you have anything of. the kind at the Smithsonian Institution I do not
know. The time will probably come when such tangible proofs of the
rare industry and curious habits of the beaver will be unattainable, and
people will be loth to credit the facts in regard to them.

Mr. 8S. G. Goodrich, in his popular work, ‘The Animal Kingdom,”
quotes the traveler Richardson as saying on this subject, ‘“‘The largest
tree I observed cut down by them was about the thickness of a man’s
thigh, that is, about 6 or 7 inches in diameter; but Mr. Graham says
that he has seen them cut down a tree that was 10 inches in diameter ;”

HABITS OF THE BEAVER. 428

and the author adds, “ This is no doubt an exaggeration, or at least very
uncommon.”

Captain Bonneville tells of having seen trees cut by beavers, which
were 18 inches in diameter, as something marvelous, but this one at the
Shoshone agency is a foot larger. IfI am not mistaken, Washington
Irving also expresses doubts, on the authority of Captain Bonneville, as
to whether the beaver exercises any instinct, or judgment, if you please,
in cutting the trees in such a way as to drop them into the water. I
think he says that. he saw some or many trees which had fallen to the
shore-side, and from this fact reaches his conclusion that the direction
ip which the trees fell was a matter of accident.

I was for a day or two on the bank of Wind River, some forty miles
from the nearest settlement, and where the beavers are quite abundant,
and examined a cotton-wood tree 18 inches in diameter, on which they
were nightly at work. It was just about ready to fall, and was being
cut so as to render its fall in any other direction than toward the water
impossible. This and the remembrance of Captain Bonneville’s doubt
led me to look further, and 1 found within a distance of 300, yards of
the shore-line five other trees, nearly ‘as large, which had been dropped
into the water, and one other about 10 inches in diameter, which had
been partly cut all around, but much more deeply on the water-side.
The fallen trees were in a quick turn of the stream, where swift deep
water swept along the shore, and the stumps showed the deepest cut in
each case next to the water.

These trees were not cut for the purpose of making a dam, but for a
winter-store of food, which the bark and twigs furnish, and they are
dropped into the water to be there kept in a tender and palatable con-
dition for their owners. Some further examinations showed me that there
were other stumps of trees which had been cut off by the beavers a
short distance from the stream, too far off to have been intended to
reach the water, and these seemed to have no uniformity of direction in
their fall. Is it not probable that these and other trees not dropped
into the water are cut during the summer for immediate consumption,
and give no proof whatever that these wise “fellers” do not know ex-
actly what they are about, but to the contrary ?

ON A NATIONAL LIBRARY.
Letter from W. 8. Jevons, of Owens College, England.

When I returned from our long vacation, I found that you had been
so good as to remember our desire to possess the ‘“‘ Smithsonian Contri-
butions to Knowledge” in our library at Owens College. The librarian
has, I believe, forwarded the formal acknowledgment of their receipt;
but, both by desire of our principal and also of my own inclination,
I write to express our warm thanks for so valuable a present to our
library.

424 MISCELLANEOUS CORRESPONDENCE.

T have already read the larger part of the report for 1869, and some
of the pamphlets, which give me access to papers not previously within
my reach, but of which I had heard something.

We hope to receive future reports, although we can hardly hope to
make adequate return. The librarian has already sent our calendar and
catalogue of our library. Iam also about to send to your London agent
a set of my own publications, as I much desire that they may have a
place in the Smithsonian library, which, as I learn from the report,
appears likely to become the great national library of America.

I trust that the design may be carried out of erecting in America a
library of unlimited extent, and of all-comprehensive character, which
may, in course of time, embody the whole literature of the world as far
as possible. This is, as you of course know, the design upon which
our British Museum library is now conducted, and it is impossible to
exaggerate the services which it yields to literature and human know]-
edge, however imperfect the library still is.

It would be no more than we might fairly expect from the wealth,
intellect, and energy of America that it should ultimately create at
least one library equaling or surpassing our national one, but I am
aware it must be a work of time.

You may, perhaps, think these remarks somewhat superfluous, but
I make them because I have a strong opinion that there ought to be in
every part of the world great repositories, where the literature of the
past and present may be put, as far as possible, beyond the risk of
destruction, and handed down for the use of future generations. We
cannot tell what will be of most interest to future ages, and therefore,
the best way is to preserve as much as possible.

PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

SOCIETY FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF SOIENCH, LIT
ERATURE AND ART, DUNKIRK, FRANCE.

Programme of subjects for competition, 1873.

A gold medal for the best work on each of the following subjects:

SCIENCE.

Alcohol: its effects on the animal economy. What are the danger-
ous principles left in the manufacture of aleohol from beets ?

Investigate the means of neutralizing the injurious effects produced
on the mind and the moral nature of man.

The gold medal will have the value of 300 frances.

LITERATURE—HISTORY.

Biography of the Flemish painter Jean de Reyn, born at Dunkirk in
the seventeenth century. Give a systematic catalogue of his works.
The gold medal will have a value of 200 franes.

ART—PAINTING.

A sketch in oil, on a canvas called No. 15, being 65 centimeters (26
inches) long and 54 centimeters (21 inches) broad, the subject of which,
history, landscape, genre, &e., is left to the choice of the contestants.
The canvas not to be framed.

The gold medal will have a maximum value of 300 frances.

The successful competitor will be allowed to choose between the medal
and the sum which it represents.

Nore.—tThe society will also offer one or more honorable mentions
inscribed upon medals of enamel, silver, or bronze.

All the sketches except the one which obtains the prize will be
returned to the artists after the award.

To secure the incognito imposed upon and guaranteed to competitors
who do not obtain a prize, and at the same time to enable them to receive
their works after the award has been made, the society requests them
to send, with their sketches and the sealed envelopes containing their
full names, &c., an address to which the articles can be sent. The works
sent should be directed (free) to the general secretary of the Dunkirk
society betore October 1, 1873. They must not be signed, but should

A426 PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

have a private mark, repeated on a sealed note giving the full name,
profession, and residence of the authors, who shall certify that their
works are unpublished and have not been offered in competition before.
This note will only be opened in case the work merits a prize or honor- |
able mention; otherwise it will be burned during the meeting.

Authors who make themselves known in advance, in any way what-
ever, will be excluded from competing. Works sent for competition
will become the property of the society, but authors may obtain copies
at their expense. The candidate who, having been successful at one of
the five preceding awards, shall obtain the first rank will only be entitled
to a commemorative medal.* In this case an honorable mention,
inscribed on a silver medal, may be granted to the work ranking second.
The contestant who is entitled to several prizes for one of the subjects
open to competition will only receive the highest medal.

The society reserves the right of awarding medals to those who have
presented gifts or unpublished memoirs which, though not invited by
- the programme, shall appear to merit distinction.

For further information address the general secretary of the society.
A. BONVARLET, President.
L. MORDACQ, Secretary.

SOCIETY OF SCIENCE, ART AND LITERATURE, HAINAUT,
FRANCE.

Programme for 1873.
Part I.
LITERATURE.’

I. Eulogy on Francis Fetis.

If. The same in verse.

IIT. A poem on a subject from Belgian history.
IV. A poem on a subject from real life.

BIOGRAPHY.

VI. Biography of a citizen of Hainaut distinguished by his talents or
the services he has rendered.

FINE ARTS—ARCHITECTURE.

VII. Describe the architecture of the monuments and private houses
erected in the city of Mons during the last two centuries.

HISTORY.

VIII. Write the history of any of the old cities of Hainaut, except
Soignies, Péruwels, and Saint-Ghislain.
IX. Give the history of coal-mining in Hainaut.

* This rule only applies to the contestants for the scientific prize.

PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 427
EDUCATION.
X. Give a critical review of the laws in regard to education.
SCIENCE—GHOLOGY.

XI. A deseription of the Post-Tertiary rocks of Hainaut, situated on
the left bank of the Sambre.

XII. Give a correct list of the useful materials in the Tertiary and
Post-Tertiary deposits of Hainaut, with their industrial and agricultural
applications, and mentioning their locations and their economical uses.

XIII. Give the history of the insects most injurious to agriculture,
pointing out the effectual, cheap, and ready methods of destroying them,
or at least of checking their ravages.

MEDICINE.

XIV. Write a practical and popular manual on the first steps to be
taken in case of sickness or accident. The author must strive to over-
throw wide-spread prejudices.

XV. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the treatment of
sick paupers in hospitals of different kinds and at their homes.

AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE.

XVI. Examine the natural or physical causes of the degeneracy of
seeds in cultivated plants.

XVII. The selection of seed and the good results which will result
from it in agriculture and kitchen-gardening.

Part II.

QUESTIONS PROPOSED.

a. By the government:

» XVIII. A critical discussion of the works of J. F. Le Poivre, geome-
trician, of Mons.

XIX. Discuss fully the subject of the treatment of iron-ore on a lees
scale simply with coal.

b. By the standing committee of the provincial council :

XX. Point out and describe, in a general way, the location, the char-
acter, and the treatment of the different iron-ores worked in the province
of Fiennes

Mention the geological indications which may serve to guide in the
search for the deposits of iron-ore which may exist in the province of
Hainaut, and discuss their value.

XXI. Point out and describe the cheapest chemical reagents and the
most simple methods for precipitating all the materials dissolved in the
waste-water from sugar, lamp-black, and chemical manufactories, and
from dye-houses, so that it will only be necessary to filter the water thus —

428 PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

treated in order to obtain it limpid and free from any organic or inor-
ganic substance in solution.

The prize for each of these subjects is a gold medal.

Memoirs should be sent free, before December 31, 1873, to the presi-
dent, 21 rue Compagnons, Mons.

Competitors must not sign their articles, but only put on them a
private mark, also placed on a sealed note containing their name and
address.

From the competition will be excluded: 1. Active members of the
society ; 2. Those who make themselves known in any way whatever, as
well as those who send their papers after the appointed time, or whose
works have been already presented to other academies.

The society will retain the manuscripts addressed to it; but authors,
whose works merit it, may obtain copies at their own expeise.

Announced at the session in Mons, March 14, 1873.

A. HOUZEAU DE LEHAIBR,
General Secretary.

SOCIETY OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE AND ART, HAINAUT
FRANCE.

Programme for 1874.
PART I.
LITERATURE.

1. A poem on a subject from Belgian history.
2. A poem on a modern subject.
3. A novel in prose.

BIOGRAPHY.

4. Life of a citizen of Hainaut distinguished for his talents or the
services he has rendered.

FINE ARTS—ARCHITECTURE.

5. The architecture of the monuments and private houses of Mons
in the last two centuries.
HISTORY.
6. The history of one of the old cities of Hainaut, excepting Soignies,
Péruwels, and Saint-Ghislain.
7. The history of coal-mining in Hainaut.

EDUCATION.

8. A critical review of our laws and regulations in regard to primary
instruction. :

9. The same in regard to intermediate education.

10. The same in regard to higher education.

PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF: SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. A929

SCIENCE—GEOLOGY.

11. Show the present condition of our knowledge of the Quarternary
formations situated on the right bank of the Sambre.

12. Give a precise account of the materials in the Tertiary and Quar-
ternary formations of Hainaut which may be made useful in agricul-
ture and the arts, specifying their location and their economic applica-
tions.

MEDICINE.

13. Compare the advantages and inconveniences of the treatment of

sick paupers in hospitals of different systems and at their homes.

AGEICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE.

14. Investigate the natural or physical causes of degeneration in cul-
tivated plants.

15. Investigate and discuss the useful effect of various artificial or
chemical manures according to the soil or the system of cultivation.

16. How does the cuscuta enter into clover? By what means may its
entrance be prevented? How can it be driven out of an affected plant?

17. The selection of seeds and the advantageous results which it will
produce in agriculture and market-gardening. r

Part II.

QUESTIONS PROPOSED:

a. By the government: —

18. A systematic review of the works of J. F. Le Poivre, geometri-
cian, of Mons.

19. Give a complete account of the descent and ascent of workmen
in deep mines. Under what conditions should it be conducted in order
to insure the lives of the men?

b. By the standing committee of the provincial council :

20. Give a general account of the position, character and treatment
of the several iron-ores worked in the province of Hainaut.

Specify the topographical features which would lead to the discovery
of the deposits of iron-ore which may exist in the province of Hainaut
and discuss their value.

Give an account of the cheapest chemical reagents and the simplest
manipulations for precipitating all the substances dissolved in the waste-
water from sugar-factories, lampblack-factories, chemical works, and
dye-houses, so that it will be sufficient to filter the water so treated, in
order to obtain it limpid and free from any organic or inorganic sub-
stance in solution.

The prize for each of these subjects is a gold medal.
Memoirs should be sent post free before December 31, 1874, directed
to the president of the society, 21 rue des Compagnons, at Mons.

4350 PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Competitors must not sign their papers, but add a private mark,
given also on a sealed envelope containing their name and address.

There will be excluded from competing: 1. Active members of the
society ; 2d. Those who make themselves known in any way, or who send -
their papers after the proper time, or whose works have been previously
communicated to other academies.

The society will retain all manuscripts addressed to it; but authors,
whose papers justify it, may obtain copies at their expense.

Adopted at Mons, session of March 5, 1874.

A. HOUZEAU DE LEHAIE,
General Secretary.

ROYAL INSTITUTE FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF THE
NATURAL, ECONOMICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL SCI-
ENCES, NAPLES, ITALY.

Programme for the year 1874.
I.

The following proposition, which the institute submits to the study
of the men of learning in Italy and other countries, is of undisputed
utility. For what a miserable spectacle is presented by those to whom
nature has been only a step-mother, having deprived them of sight,
hearing, and speech. How much intellectual power, how much human
labor, is lost in those born deaf and dumb or blind. It is well known
that many illustrious men of the most civilized nations have given their
life-work in behalf of our fellow-men who are condemned to a deplor-
able inaction for want of the principal organs of labor. Yet, although
much has been accomplished already, there is much still to be done
before the goal is reached.

The institute, therefore, hopes that the number of benefactors will be
increased by the discussion of the following proposition :

“ Give the history and a critical analysis of all the means of instruc.
tion, physical and mechanical, which have been proposed up to the
present time for those born blind or deaf and dumb, for the purpose of
directing future efforts to the most efficacious and the best adapted
means, and thus contributing to the discovery of more appropriate
agencies for the furtherance of an object of so much social benevolence
and of scientific interest.”

The subject of the instruction of the blind must be treated thus:
First, the methods for teaching literature and sciences; secondly, those
for lansing music; thirdly, those for teaching arts snd trades.

The methods for the instruction of the deaf and dumb must be divided
principally into, first, those which teach them to write; secondly, those
which teach them to speak.

PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 431
Il.

The industry of cnology in Italy does not interest the Italians alone
The freedom allowed to commerce at present has rendered people of
different nations a part of one and the same family. The industrial
progress of one nation redounds to the benefit of the whole human
race. The institute, therefore, doubts not that besides the Italian
cenologists, those also of other nations will study the following subject:

“To expound the principal economical and technical criteria most
advantageous in the manufacture of wines in Italy, especially with re-
gard to their preservation and exportation, distinguishing, if necessary,
those proposed for different sections of Italy in which the cenological
industry can be successfully cultivated.”

In order to prevent any misunderstanding, it may not be out of place
to state here that the institute does not expect from the competitors a
manual, and much less a regular treatise on the manufacture of wines
in Italy. They will be expected to give their attention mostly to the
qualities which science indicates as essential to the preservation and
exportation of wines with safety, and to state how far Italian manufac-
turers are governed by such indications of science. The competitors
will not fail, also, to take carefully into consideration the various types
of wines produced in Italy, to suggest what science, the cnologic art,
and public economy teach, and, if necessary, what legislative enact-
ments are required in order to produce safely and speedily wines which
will resist the injuries of time, and which will be fit to export to dis-
. tant countries.

CONDITIONS OF THE ABOVE COMPETITIONS.

1. Competition on the above subjects will be open to all except the
regular members of the Royal Institute.

2. The competing manuscripts must be in Italian.

3. Such manuscripts must be presented—those in regard to the first
subject, on the 30th day of October, 1874; and those answering the
second, on the 31st day of August, 1875. The above manuscripts should
be addressed to the permanent secretary of the Royal Institute. These
conditions are indispensable.

4. Every manuscript should be distinguished by a motto, which must
be repeated upon a sealed envelope containing the full name, native
place, and address of the author. The authors who in any way make
themselves publicly known will be excluded from the competition.

5. The envelopes of the articles which will receive a premium, and of
those which will be favorably mentioned, will be opened in a formal
meeting of the institute, and the names of the authors will be published.
The envelopes of the unsuccessful articles will be burned; the articles
themselves, however, will be deposited in the archives of the institute.

6. To the author of the article which, in the judgment of the insti-

432 PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

tute, answers all the requirements of the first question, a@ premium will
be given of 1,000 lire ($186) and the large gold or silver medal of the
academy, according as the institute considers the production as
deserving more or less distinction. To the author of the article which
answers all the requirements of the second question, a premium of 1,500
lire ($279) will be awarded and also a gold or silver medal. ‘The articles
receiving premiums and perhaps those also deserving honorable mention
will form part of the published acts of the academy.

7. Each author whose article is published in the acts of the academy
will receive free, with an appropriate frontispiece, one hundred copies
of the-same. Besides this, the author, after the publication of the acts,
will enjoy the copyright of his work.

8. The institute will not refuse those articles which answer only one
part of the above questions; but, in such a case, it reserves to itself
the right of awarding the corresponding premium or not, as it may see
fit; as it also reserves to itself the right of conferring the large academ-
~ ieal medal for those articles which may be honorably mentioned.

The premiums which the institute proposes are not of much material
value, but it is evident that those who will attend to the solution of the
above propositions will find in their work, by reason of the benefit
which it will produce, ample and noble reward.

Napies, Royal Institute, February 6, 1874.

F. TRINCHERA,
President.

F. DEL GIUDICH,
Perpetual Secretary.

ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE AND THE
FINE ARTS, BRUSSELS, BELGIUM.

CLASS OF FINE ARTS.
List of prizes for 1874.

LITERARY SUBJECTS.

First subject.—The history of sculpture in Belgium in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries.

Second subject.—The history and bibliography of musical typography in
the Low Countries, and especially in the provinces now constitut-
ing Belgium.

The values of the gold medals offered as prizes for papers on these
subjects are 1,000 frances ($200) for the first and 800 francs ($160) for the
second.

Papers sent for competition should be legibly written, and may be in
French, Flemish, or Latin. They should be sent, post free, to the perma-
nent secretary of the academy before June 1, 1874.

PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 433

Authors must not append their names to their papers; they should
nerely add a private mark, given also on a sealed note inclosing their
names and addresses. If this aenlapon be not compled with, the

rizes will not be awarded.

Papers sent after the prescribed time, or those of which the authors
make themselves known in any manner whatever, will be excluded from
competition.

The academy insists upon the greatest exactness in quotations; it
requires, therefore, that competitors specify the editions and the pages
of the works referred to in the papers presented for its decision.

Manuscript-illustrations alone will be accepted. The academy re-

serves the right to publish prize-essays. The authors of papers pub.
lished in the collections will be entitled to one hundred copies for their
own use. They may also obtain additional copies by paying the printer
four centimes (one cent) a sheet.
- The academy deems it necessary to remind competitors that papers
which have been submitted to its judgment are retained in its archives
as its property. Authors may at any time obtain copies at their expense
by addressing the permanent secretary to that effect.

SUBJECTS IN APPLIED ART.
Painting.

A design for a painting 1™. 50 (5 feet) high and 4™. 50 (15 feet) broad:
for a frieze 5™ (16 feet) above the floor. This painting is intended for a:
hall in a hospital, and should be on the subject, “ Give food to the hun-
gry and drink to the thirsty.” The design submitted should be made
one-half the above dimensions, namely: 0™. 75 high and 2™. 25 broad.

A prize of 1,000 franes ($200) will be awarded to the successful com-
petitor. A draught of the design will be kept in the academy. , Paint-
ings intended tor competition must be sent to the secretary of the
academy before September 1, 1874.

Hngraving.

A prize of 600 franes ($120) will be awarded to the maker of the
best engraving executed in Belgium, during the period from January
1, 1872, to January 1, 1874, after the design of an old or recent master
of the Blemish sanod

Competitors should submit a copy of their work before September 1,
1874.

General regulations relative to this competition.—Competitors must not
inscribe their names on their productions; they must only affix a mark,
given also on a sealed note containing their name and address, The
prizes will not be awarded if this regulation be not complied with.

Works sent after the expiration of the prescribed time, or those of
which the artist’s name is made known in any way whatever, will be

excluded from competition.
28 8

A434 PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

The committee have selected for the prize-competition in 1876 the
following literary subject: ‘“‘ Trace the origin of the Belgian school of
music, and determine to what period the old masters of that school fol-
lowed the French and English musicians of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries.”

A prize of 1,000 francs will be awarded for the solution of this
question.

Brussels, session of November 6, 1872.

For the department of fine arts,

A. QUETELET,
Permanent Secretary.

ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCH, LITERATURE AND FINE
ARTS, BRUSSELS, BELGIUM.

CLASS OF SCIENCE.
Prize-questions for 1874.
FIRST QUESTION. ’

To perfect, in some important particular, either in its principles or in
its applications, the theory of the functions of an imaginary variable.

SECOND QUESTION.

To give a complete discussion of the question of the temperature of
space, based upon experiments, observation, and calculation, giving the
reason for the choice made among the different temperatures which
have been ascribed to it.

We deem it necessary to explain to the competitors that the question,
in its most general terms, refers to the determination of the absolute zero,
definitely fixed at —272°. 85 C.; (—459°13 F.) but ahistorical and analyti-
.cal discussion of the investigations undertaken previously to 1820, for the
purpose of deciding this question, will prove of real scientific interest.
Attention is particularly directed to the investigations made at the
close of the eighteenth century and the commencement of the nine-
teenth, among others those of Black, Irvine, Crawford, Gadolin, Kir-
wan, Lavoisier, Lavoisier and Laplace, Dalton, Desormes and Clement,
-Gay Lussac, &c. Mention is also made of the temperature of —160°,
C. (—256° F.) given by Person, according to his formula, which connects
the latent heat of fusion with specific heat; this number representing the
absolute zero.. As it agrees very nearly with that given by Pouillet, it
will be important to discover its signification, its sense, or its exact phy-
‘sical value.

THIRD QUESTION.

To give a complete theoretical and experimental investigation of the
absolute specific heat of simple and compound bodies.

PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 43

or

‘ FOURTH QUESTION.

Yo give the result of new experiments on uric acid and its deriva-
tives, principally with regard to their chemical structure and their syn-
thesis.

FIFTH QUESTION.

The polymorphism of fungi attracts more and more attention from
botanists and physiologists. It seems even to furnish new elements for
the solution of the problem of life in general.

Required : ;

1. A succinct critical review of the known observations relative to
the polymorphism of Mucedines.

2. The exact determination—applying only to a single species—of
the part which belongs at first to the proper nature of the vegetable
(to its specific energy) and then to the exterior conditions of its devel-
opment.

3. The positive proof, or the satisfactory disproof, of the fact that
ferment-molds (Micrococcus, Zodglea, Palmella, Leptothrix, Arthrococcus,
Mycoderma, &c.) can under any circumstances whatever transform them-
selves into fungi of a higher order.

SIXTH QUESTION.

To describe, especially in regard to their composition, the Plutonic
rocks, or those considered as such, of Belgium and French Ardennes.

The prize for the first, the fourth, and the fifth questions will be a
gold medal of the value of 600 frances; the prize for the sixth will be
of the value of 800 frances; and the prize for the second and third will
be of the value of 1,000 francs.

The authors of the memoirs inserted in the reports of the academy
will be entitled to one hundred copies of their papers. They will also
have the privilege of obtaining a larger number by paying four centimes
a sheet.

Manuscripts should be written legibly, should be in Latin, French, or
Flemish, and addressed, postage prepaid, to Ad. Quetelet, permanent
seeretary, before August 1, 1874.

The academy requires the greatest exactness in citations; authors
must, therefore, be particular to mention the editions and the pages of
the works cited. Manuscript-illustrations only will be allowed.

Authors must not put their names on their papers, but only a device,
which must be repeated on a sealed envelope containing their names
and addresses. Papers sent after the prescribed time, or those indicat-
ing the author’s names in any way, will be excluded from competition.

The academy deems it necessary to state to the contestants that,
after papers have been submitted to its judgment, they are placed in

436 PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

its archives as its property. Authors may always obtain copies at their
expense by addressing the permanent secretary.
Brussels, session of February 1, 1873.
For the class of science,
“AD. QUETELET,
Permanent Secretary.

ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND FINE
ARTS, BRUSSELS, BELGIUM.

CLASS OF SCIENCE.
Prize-questions for 1875.
FIRST QUESTION.

Examine and discuss, in the light of recent experiments, the disturb-
ing causes which affect the determination of the electro-motive force
and the internal resistance of an element of the electric battery; give
the numerical determination of these two quantities in some of the
principal batteries.

SECOND QUESTION.

Give a summary of the facts discovered on the influence of heat upon
the development of phanerogamous vegetation, particularly in regard
to the periodic phenomena of vegetation, and, for this purpose, discuss
the value of the dynamic effect of solar heat on the growth of plants.

THIRD QUESTION.

Give the results of new researches in regard to the embryonic de-
velopment of Tunicata.

FOURTH QUESTION.

State the results of new researches to establish the composition and
the mutual relations of the albuminoid substances.

FIFTH QUESTION.
Give a description of the coal-measures of the Liége basin.

The values of the gold medals to be awarded as prizes are 1,000 francs
for the fourth and fifth questions, and the former valne, 600 franes, for
the first, second, and third. ;

Authors of the papers inserted in the collections of the academy will
be entitled to one hundred copies of their works. They may also ob-
tain a larger number by paying the printer for the same at the rate of
4 centimes a leaf.

Manuscripts should be legibly written, composed in Latin, French,

PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. A437

or Flemish, and addressed, post free, to Ad. Quetelet, permanent secre-
tary, before August 1, 1875.

The academy “isis upon the utmost accuracy in quotations; authors
should, therefore, be particular to specify the editions and pages of the
works cited. Only manuscript illustrations will be received.

Authors should not sign their names on their papers, but merely affix
a private mark, repeated on a sealed note containing their names and
addresses. Papers sent after the prescribed time, or those the writers
of which make themselves known in any way whatever, will be excluded
from competition. 5

The academy deems it necessary to repeat to competitors that as
soon as papers have been submitted for its examination they are placed
in its archives, as having become its property. Authors may, at any
time, obtain copies, at their own expense, by addressing, to that effect,
the permanent secretary.

Brussels, session of January 10, 1874.

For the class of science,
AD. QUETELET,

Permanent Secretary.

SOCIETY OF SCIENCES, HARLEM, HOLLAND.
PROGRAMME FOR THE YEAR 1874.

The Holland Society of Sciences held its one hundred and-twenty-
second general meeting May 16, 1874.

Director Jhr. G. F. van Tets, recently appointed president of the
society in place of the late Baron F. W. van Styrum, opened the meet-
ing by an address, in which he honored the memory of his predecessor
and recalled the-many services rendered by him to the society in his
capacity as director since 1835 and as president since 1867. The
deceased also performed in 1838 and 1839 the duties of secretary of the
society after the death of the iliustrious van Marum.

In addition to the loss of its president, the society has also had to
mourn, in the course of the past year, that of several of its directors
and members, namely: J. P. A. van Wickevoort Crommelin, A. F. H.
Hoffman, and G. L. J. van der Hucht, directors; H. C. van Hall, G.
©. B. Suringar, and M. Hoek, national members; L. J. R. Agassiz of
Boston, A. A. de la Rive of Geneva, and L. A. J. Quetelet of Brussels,
foreign members.

The president informed the meeting that Jhr. Q. Hoeufft of Harlem,
P. Langerhuizen of Huizen, and D. Visser van Hazerswonde of Amster-
dam had just been appointed directors of the society.

Since the last general meeting, the society has published the following
works :

Archives néerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles, numbers 3, 4,
and 5 of volume 8, and numbers 1 and 2 of volume I.@

438 PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Natuurkundige Verhandelingen, 4to, 3d series, parts 1 and 2 of volume
2, containing two memoirs presented by Dr. Bleeker, namely :

First. Révision des espéces indo-archipélagiques du groupe des Apo-
gonna. Ere

Secondly. Révision des espéces d’Ambassis et de Parambassis de t Inde
archipélagique.

It has also presented, through J. H. van den Broek, the report of the
commission appointed by the directors to examine the claims of the
candidates for the Huyghens large gold medal. This medal should be
awarded, according to the terms of the grant, to the Netherland or for-
eign scientist whose researches, discoveries, or inventions in the course
of the last twenty years should be deemed to have contributed in a
marked degree to the progress of chemistry.

Agreeably to the recommendation of the commission, composed of D.
de Haan, P. J. van Kerchhoff, C. H. van Ankhum, J. H. van den Broek,
A. C, Oudemans, J. M. van Bemmelen, and E. H. von Baumhauer, the
society decided that the Huyghens medal should be awarded this year to
Auguste Kekulé, professor at Bonn, for his interesting researches into
the constitution of the carbon-compounds.

Among the subjects for prize-disecussions in 1872 were the following:

“Wind a satisfactory method of determining the temperature, hu-
midity, and density of the atmosphere at a considerable height above
the surface of the earth; this method should provide for the automatic
registry of the observations, or at least their frequent repetition.”

In reply to this question, the society received a memoir written in
Italian, and bearing the motto Provando e riprovando. Following the
advice of the commission which had been charged with the examination ‘
of the work, the assembly decided that it was not entitled to the prize.

In conclusion, the assembly proceeded to the election of new members
of the society. This election resulted as follows:

NATIONAL MEMBERS.

C. G. Cobet, professor of philosophy and literature at Leyden.

Th. W. Engelmann, professor of medicine at Utrecht.

FE. W. van Heden, of Harlem, secretary of the Netherland Society for
the Encouragement of Industry.

FOREIGN MEMBERS.

A. Kekulé, of Bonn.

M. P. E. Berthelot, of Paris.

A. Secchi, of Rome.

L. Pasteur, of Paris.

The society has proposed, at this meeting, the following subjects for

PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 439

prize-essays, the period for the reception of essays terminating on the
1st of January, 1876:

I. Give the‘results of exact investigations on the dissolving effect of
water and water charged with carbonic acid on gypsum, limestone, and
dolomite at different temperatures and under different pressures, and
in cases where sea-salt and other abundant soluble salts are present.

If. Give the results of exact determinations of the dissolving effect of
_ water and of water charged with carbonic acid on silica and the most
common natural silicates at different temperatures and under different
pressures and in cases where sea-salt and other widely-diffused soluble
salts are also present.

III. Give the results of a new study of the structure of the viscera of
mammals, especially in regard to the epithelial covering in the different
portions of the renal tubes.

IV. Itt appears from recent investigations that the peptones of many
albuminoid materials are composed of substances now known in part
and in part unknown. Required a critical review of these investiga-
tions, Supplemented by personal researches on the same subject.

V. Give the exact determination in Weber’s units of the resistance of
a column of mercury one meter (39 inches) long, and a square millimeter
(4+ square inch) in section at 0°, (382 F.) All the steps relative to this
determination should be given to as complete an extent as possible.

VI. To increase by means of careful experiments our knowledge of
the relation between the two kinds of electrical units, electro-magnetic
units and electro-static units. All the stepsin this determination should
be presented as fully as possible.

VIE. Required new EPID ESN in regard to the influence of pressure
on chemical action.

The society repeats the following estions, the period of competition
for which expires January 1, 1875

I. Give for ten varieties of abe of known chemical composition,
Ist, the co-efficients of expansion between 32° and (at most) 212° F.,
noting the influence of temper and the state of tension; 2d, the co-effi-
cients of elasticity, with exact reports of temperature; 3d, the indices
of refraction for at least ten points taken over the entire extent of the
spectrum; also carefully noting the temperature. The gold medal and
150 florins.

Il. Does the co-efficient of expansion of steel vary with the degree
of temper; and can empirical laws be determined in regard to the con-
nection of these two elements ?

III. Do experiments show a connection between the diffusion of
liquids separated by porous partitions and other phenomena, such as
capillarity, &e. ?

IV. Determine the co-efficient of expansion of at least three liquids of
simple composition, following the method by which the absolute expan-
sion of mercury has been determined.

440) PRIZE- QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

N. B.—The temperatures in all the preceding cases should be reduced,
as far as possible, to that of a thermometer in air.

V. Required researches on the origin of organs of sense, especially
of the organ of sight, among some of the inferior animals; this origin ~
being considered, as far as possible, in connection with the conditions.
~ under which the animal is found, and the exterior induences to which it
is exposed.

VI. In terrestrial magnetism, what periods are known with sufiicient
exactness, and to what point may these periods be confidently associated
with other phenomena, cosmical or terrestrial.

VII. Required new experiments and observations concerning instal.
tion of learning how the albuminoid substances are formed and displaced
in the plant; a historical and critical review of anterior researches should
precede this account. :

VIII. In proportion as the number of known isomeric substances
increases in the domain of organic chemistry, it becomes more desira-
ble that their differences of structure should be harmonized with their
physical characters. Theretore, the society requires the exact deter-
mination of the co-efficitnt of expansion, the fusing-point, the boiling-
point, the specific heat, the index of refraction, and the specific rotary
power of at least twenty organic compounds which are isomeric two by
two and the chemical composition of which ts known.

IX. The experiments of M. Regnault in regard to the specific heat 6
some terpins and those of M. Berthelot in regard to diamylene and tri-
amylene show that the specific heat of polymers of a compound may be
equal to that of the fundamental materials of which they are formed.
The society requires that the investigations should be made as far as
possible to cover other combinations having the same relations with
each other, in order to decide if the fact observed by Regnault and Ber-
thelot may be raised to the rank of a law or not.

X. Submit to a profound investigation the composition of tetraphenol
and its derivatives so as to be enabled to pass judgment on the hypoth-
esis of M. Limpricht concerning the existence of a series of aromatic
substances in the stones of fruit composed of four atoms of carbon:

XI. Required a critical review of the observations and experiments
concerning the existence of bacteries in contagious diseases of men and
other mammals, followed by original researches on the same question
made on one or more of these contagious diseases.. The nature of for-
eign organisms should be exactly determined with figures; and the
author should determine by experiment to what point the contagious
character of the disease is confined to the presence of bacteries.

XI. Of late years the mode of growth of bones has been studied on a
large scale by several scientists, who have obtained very contradictory
results. The society requires a work on this subject in which the

PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES. 44]

author will support his opinion by his own researches and compare
them with those of other experimenters.

XIII. The progress of science has brought some sort of confusion in
the determination of several species of plants and even in the definition
of the species. It is observed that most of the species formerly recog-
nized include diverse forms which some eall races or varieties, and oth-
ers species. The works already written in regard to Rubus, Hieracium,
Mentha, Salix, &ec., are important, but they have the fault of being con-
fined to species very closely related to each other, consequently very °
confused. Besides, the forms studied have usually been confined to
those of a certain country, as the Rubus of England or Germany, in-
stead of comparing all the forms of a certain species of Rubus. Conse-
quently, there isrequired a profound study of some of Linnzeus’s species,
selected from these which present more or less diverse-forms, paying
particular attention to the following particulars :

First. The species should be wild plants, atleast ten and at most twenty
in number, belonging to at least two natural families, and growing in
well-explored countries, such as Europe, the United States, Se.

Secondly. The author should endeavor to describe and classify all the
forms which are more or less distinct and more or less hereditary that
enter into the Linnean species, taking care to specify their place of
growth, their rank, and to tell if the observations were made from living
plants, from dried specimens, or if they are described from books.

Thirdly. Their mode of fecundatiow should be examined, and the point
to which certain forms may be attributed to crossing determined.

Fourthly. The amount of hereditary influence on forms should be de-
termined by experiment, at least in a certain number of cases, and in
the case of woody species during at least two generations.

Fifth!y. For woody species it will be necessary to determine the pos-
sibility or impossibility of grafting on each other forms belonging to
the same kind.

_Sixthly. The classification of forms in species, races, or subspecies,
varieties, subvarieties, variations, subvariations, and other subdivisions
which may be necessary, should be based at the same time on exterior
forms and on the closest affinities shown by fecundation and grafting.

JANUARY 1,.1878.

. Our knowledge is still more limited in regard to the quantity of mud
and other material brought by rivers to the Netherlands, the places where
these matters are most frequently deposited, and the circumstances
which influence their transport and their deposit. We wish to see these
points cleared up for one or several of the rivers of our country, through
observations or experiments continued during many years.

The society recommends contestants to omit in their papers every-
thing which has not an immediate connection with the question pro-
posed. The society desires to find clearness and precision in everything

442 PRIZE-QUESTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

submitted to it, and the propositions demonstrated clearly separated
from vague considerations and unestablished facts.

It repeats also that any memoir written in the author’s hand will not
be received; and that even when a medal has been awarded, the pre- ©
sentation will not be made if the author’s hand has been recognized in
the mean time in the selected essay. The sealed envelopes sent with
unapproved essays will be destroyed unopened, unless it be discovered
that the work presented is only a copy from printed works, in which
case the author’s name will be divulged.

Every member of the society will be allowed to take part in the com-
petition on condition that his paper as well as the accompanying enve-
lope be signed with tke letter L.

The prize offered for a satisfactory answer to each of the questions
proposed consists, at the pleasure of the author, either of a gold medal,
struck from the ordinary die of the society and bearing the name of the
author and the date, or a sum of 150 florins. A supplementary award
of 150 florins may be made if the memoir be judged worthy.

The competitor who receives the prize will not be allowed to print the
prize-essay, either separately or in any other work, without obtaining
for it the express permission of the society.

The memoirs, legibly written in Dutch, French, Latin, English,
Italian, or German, (but not in German characters,) should be accom-
panied by a sealed envelope containing the name of the author, and
sent free to the secretary of the society, Professor KE. H. von Baumhauer,
Harlem.

CONTEHNTS.

Page
Letter from the Secretary submitting report to Congress......22-2022--20ecoececcee sees seeeeecees 7. 3
List of Regents, Committees, and members ea officio of the Institution.........-......-.-.------- 5
OF CERSKOLmEN eyIM St UG MUON icreretetaysis laisse miele Ste piso kee orate eter cia a are eo ae eal ole oe ee eee aoe cree 6
RHE ORTAOH A RORESSORMEENR YS SHORETAR Yer. sek cocci sens See eae Be Ee Se aR 7
ARM AMCTAlES FALCON bl sass acolsje stele: arate sates T eC Se eee ec nt Ia RLU AE naire 7
JN RINGS The, Tey NCO MEN SINC Se Seek ee pets ne Bene a Brone dinaneerUneene Babcrasdh S65 scacan q
iieealhinn GE CeOHae Aosta, GS) Gasdasauaceuovosceeee dorsodoue soaeNeaobooSueseesEdacncocas 8
Hundidimimishe dioniaccount of inflatedicurrency -2:22c4- 5. - eb 2 seen eee ee eee ene erie ee 8
Conchitvion or Tins iin hWeses OBS pease sa ken naa aaaeee aun aaa ante tee mene ol aie nan Were ce RE 8
Nccountofmtheypublications of thedmstitubionse esses -soses ce seee- cee cee eee eee aes 9
hiMlesomaistrapution of publicationst= == seen -an sae aee ane cee te Soe eee ae Ne eee ess 9
PEMUD MC AUONS ANUS OL crore <6 sare oie eee eref so) ape cla Seam ayers efoto iene eye Epa ced atao a 11
Hnplicationsiaccep ted formubuEenyears aja sisse sae sence cine saelseiee eee se ae eee ee eee 11
international literary and Scientific exchamees 225-2 -sceescs ss. cece tees noose os oek nes scenes 25
Honeionycorrespondentgeete. 4. -s ayes aes oe eee aa es eae nc he ey Be bs ce GN I a ee oy 426
EeoMmerehisvenam beds a2 aise a sce oel ee cy oee amie is oma seem eae eee ta eR eee 27
ETL TEVIRV ree Tey ee a aie Sars Ge oiere SS Se SaaS EEE eS ae ee oe a SIS SPE le oe SE SO Conn See Q7
IMG LEOTOLO RAE an MA eA jt Se cae e ek syste fos ARS VEN AMEE Lee CU mane USE RU SRE Os PA Ray CUR A 30
Telegraphic announcements of astronomical discoveries ---.-.-.---.--..-2----0--++--------2e- 32
ISIE AOI TM Mane ene aise ie ot aa ere aes ae ae eee aaa As fed ea ots a AE a A ec 35
BHR LO cA LLONS 4 asec casos Scena ees cto pa Reta tak OLA AM RAPE CI ee Ne ani A ah 37
Mineralogicalucollec tion} -epmaer acta cee ay set se cea eei ne Ors Sete eis aot oeeae nics ee een eats 51
Photocraphsotgantiquities ine brivishyMUsgemmMs see sen ences naeees ae eee eae eee eae 53
(COETES POMC SIG OPS eee ee eee ee ee ee es ee Re a nara his REE be OE eee 53
ONWERSCLERG IS SS AR ce Res aaadc GSCONAe pe eCOpnGaaac emma sie A ern a a See Ge mela e RO Ce rekey camel yee A) 54
Work done in the Institution and in connection with other establishments. ...-........-..--- i
APPIN DIOS TO) INSIO) IID Oly) Tesha) Sooo UNG Ssoes codnonaaoduemosoureadoadabodonun sobecuLuaoaes 58
nies iIsecummecord-Dooks im le (2andletaen meee ee escent seee eeenn ese ceases 58
Distrbuviomor duplicate specimens, to the end) of 1803) soe aa wee as wie elsisin je le selene 58
ADCHTODS VO Whe Colleoinome sha TUS asscosssoososossguadoosauacdabuLd sano saddosoecbaueoneoce 59
inisiommuinenralsimithewNationaleitisenm a siskess ac seer eee en ete aee cena nee eee eae 70
Statistics of literary and scientific exchanges, 1873.........---.------+----------+------------ 72
Packages from Europe for distribution in America in 1872 and 1873 .......-.--.----..----.--- 7
Classified record of monthly metevrological reports preserved in the Smithsonian Institution. 84
Classified list of meteorological publications and articles in periodicals received in 1873...... 132
LEON Gis) Weiho} ISpdaxopopmwnno} (COMM MBMNDID 6 6oogeéconspococsos cons oRobSasobodeads cabo sHbdEceqosodace 141
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. ......-.-..---- 0-022 0-ee eee ene e eee eee eee 148
INIGTTNE? OE IDeee ane Gy WBosssqoéscccosecsseoneacongsacs cnoseabeeo oscseasasooccouEdobaaEoS 148
Address of J. A. Garfield on death of Chief-Justice Chase and Professor Louis Agassiz... 148
Wirsmme @? danawerray ON, Me co sondessenasnaceaoassccenobeccecase HS eS ae Ae Ret ee Sas sey 151
Address of H. Hamlin on death of Chief-Justice Chase..............--.---.--------------- 152
Address of 2: Parker on death of Professor Agassiz ..2..--2--5.-2-2s22-- <2 se-2+-- <n e nme 153
Wigamling of deimummeay YG, IS 6555 abnoeSsooHasoaonsboonooUdnoD dob aS ouodeDDESbosunacoocaboseq09 155
Migernbayer Ort gavel Bre TMS Bondo sub ascosdnodoo Suga asandHeGequssonuuradsosooguodseRaogooeseDess 158
GENERAL APPENDIX.
CHAELES BABBAGE. By N.S. Dodg9..----..------------0eeee-- eee ee = oodsosnouasboncooesaKs 162
Hours: Acassiz. By Rev. Rufus P. Stebbins... .. ..----- <2 5-222. 2s -2e enn eno in nna 198
JOHN TorReY. By Dr. Asa Gray.--..------------------0s-- 02 1-22 e een nee ee ene 211
GHORCENGIBBS. |b yzJohmeAmStinl SbeVieNSs pl sea aes ete lelialninlereeiate <la ele imelare)) wietal=ceel=l= ate (einelo i=l faint 219
ORIGIN AND PROPAGATION OF DisEASE. By John C. Dalton, M. D.-.......-.--...-:.------------- 226
LATER VIEWS OF THE CONNECTION OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM—
Review of Mathematical Theories. By Professor Helmholz........-..-.----.--.------+------ 246
Action at a Distance. By Professor Clerk Maxwell ..........-.-.----.---+-------------2--- 254
ACCOUNT OF THE ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY AT CorDoBA, Argentine Republic. By Dr. B. A.
@OUGl vssoseccsodscvousossous pasagduuEopeogubEbdED CnageuTade boeacomodaobas coqusduNccosbDedSdeoa0 265
ORE

444 CONTENTS.

ON WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. By Arthur Morin.....-......-.--..-----
ADDITIONS TO A MEMOIR ON METHODS OF INTERPOLATION APPLICABLE TO THE GRADUATION OF

LOC OPOUR, Soyo By ID, Ibn IO) ORE so oGa5 condo on boos o00 ace Sano na boboQDODeEDOSoaguDoDONSS 319
RE) STEN © © Gag See ad SI a ASU YD eee a ea ete eo ee aca et 354 +
REMARKS ON THE KJOKKEN-MODDINGS ON THE NORTHWEST COAST OF AMERICA. By Paul

S(olayiyane Ve) bere Wee Te Cae ee sag boob b pan oae GHobbo Eos oube ude mabe soMooS Suu eeEoesauacu sacs 354
ON A GRAMMAR AND DICTIONARY OF THE CARIB OR Karir LANGUAGE, with some account
of the people by whom itis spoken. By Dr. C. H. Berendt ..................--.------.--. 368
THE MouND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. By Henry Gillman......-..-..- 364
THE Leipsic ‘‘MuseuM oF ErTanoLoey.” By A. Schott and Otis T. Mason....---..-..---- 390
ANTIQUITIES OF Union County, ItLinois. By Thomas M. Perrine.....-...--...----.------ 410
ANTIQUITIES OF KNOX CouUNTY, INDIANA, AND LAWRENCE County, ILLINoIs. By Dr. A. Pat-
OTD Pies Bee ee iS Se athe at Satara TIE ey reIW aver eit] ame fa ey tate wah areata Ns aOR so 01s fafa) = Oa ES enema 411
MES CHETAN OUS .CORRE SE ONG BIN Cl tek asa eee eee eee eee es eee eee 417
EXPLORATIONS ON THE WESTERN Coast OF NortH America. By William H. Dall......- 417
DISCOVERY OF A LARGE METEORITE IN MEXico. By William M. Pierson. ..-..-.-----.-.. 419
ON THE ELABITS Ohl TEE BEAVER, iByPHelix Brun Obese e eeeee reels oe eae reise 422
COMPAS INUNINO AN JOrosiaure, | IBY Va tse DIGS Ho cca6 ceeded eacennaooeoode seca dob wseceoeersoes 493
IPRIZENOURSTIONS OF SCIENDIFIC) $0 CIN DIES eee se tee beer eee eee eee eee: See eee eee ee eee eee 425
Society for the Encouragement of Science, Literature, and Art, Dunkirk, France. 1873.... | 425
Society of Science, Art, and Literature, Hainaut, France. 1873 --.-.-2 .2J522-:.---: aS 426
Society of Science, Literature, and Art, Hainaut, France. 1874 2 ...-.-5--.).-25- 22552) cesses 428
Royal Institute for the Encouragement of the Natural, Nconomical, and Technological Sci-
ences) Naples) Ttbaliyi: VST 4 ie eS Sa Ua ie a atstefeti ts eee ee ean Deca naa aaa 430
Royal Academy of Science, Literature, and the Fine Arts, Brussels, Belgium. 1874.-_..-. 432, 434
Royal Academy of Science, Literature, and the Fine Arts, Brussels, Belgium. 1875....-.-. 436
Society; of Sciences of-Haarlem, Hollamd.0o8v4-8) 25951222852 cni. Rees Soe peetee pees 437
ILLUSTRATIONS.
WARMING AND VENTILATING OCCUPIED BUILDINGS. By A. Morin:
Ibiegy is Commenony sires Nee) stoone SSbobo 5 b ddoobucdoaaassoudoosuouoosesauDs sasns0oesosbosesos 294
ING, Qy Clavtawbisny-Cay) escocdabascsosoascussssussaooessu DUES SSO ORO UUDAD ASUS ENEeoobeanosdsce 294
Bigs 3) Wacon-shaped flme-pipese.-- ae sae asi cease = his nels oar gocctcctte tcc esse 296
Fig. 4. Measure-shaped flue-pipes ..-..--..--.---..- PERS ne NOOR TE tae cetera Gere ey a) Ns Cel 297
Hig. gow Anch- shape duiie-plpeSt mice seecieieoereceren ste asec esc erect aac ee eee ee eee 298
‘Higa oO mVientilating mire placesencssnacmecmeeee tiara corer era ae e nee Enee eer eee ee renee 298
JON WS (Caer Oe Shisile) HE5h5 Gacoacdousddb od Guounde on suauoo do sosesauadEScoddodacdoodsaccesons 298
TOT, (eb IBLE HEL Ole RENIN) d oGosonqoadoaossadog cacao sade oaoouasbooKdeoKodeboE FLO ae 298
Fig. 9. Ventilating fire-place for several stories .-..---..-.. 2b. 2c. 52252. 2. ek 299
IMIR MOS KE nmenIS) Ok RENNIN) Losers 56oq pe add secodoue pag ads ons Obacbeuneas od mobos senasedocseasouas 299
JEG, all, (Comma Mn SWO\es cosoocE Sooo DHac soe oboe cosSo sas anne nd 62553 doanuodasacgncenseadasscane 300
DAIS AC ounlennboker Ones conc basoaa os saooUEnadea oo aboosESecoeE oo eee sduonsuKadsos Seo Sbcs55 301
JANG MSs) Jeo Oy eMavee WS eae b Soo Gkooon Sosacas Shoado nod oon boost eapoddas Gbocsoeanedomadaosoodous 303
ETHNOLOGY—
KJOKKEN-MOpDDINGS OF NORTHWEST CoAsT OF NortTH AMERICA. By Paul Schumacher :
Hig. 1. B.. Pools used in the manufacture of arrow-headsv.i.-9-8. 25. esereecd- beeen 356
Aiba, Psp. 1sieyos) sero leh nebo Se SS oScouSsoooE ae Soe uo ee mse asEece sS0ESsbabE spedaUsenssascs 356
DKS, Vas dS) Leo nrhe Neos es ose s Sob bsoon odoosauebooobdadagneschocsdasd asec saouseaoeseaucsscc 357
sneer Ogu eit (ces ean SEE SHORRAEUGBOO sodas HESsoe osoana SSHseduSab ac uBonoSoscadenc Joes 357
Hig. «5. Dins Hool tor hollowing oub Canoes: = 25-26 5-2 as ons sow ae ee cee ete ae ee 358
igs 216.,\G... 2) Mapiot Chetko eee eaere sate aaa e acne eee ack Stee as ee oe ee eee sete es 359
Hig. 7. Gio., Wooden inclosure containing skeleton. 2 ooo ec oe ee RN a 359
Big, SE Ve ewer Crook SPROMt sae see Neen ne soso cites eee eee ee eee ROee eee ree 361
MouND-BUILDERS AND PLATYCNEMISM IN MICHIGAN. By Henry Gillman:
Fig. 1. Map of Great Mound, River Rouge and Circular Mound, Detroit River, Mich..-.. 365
Fig. «2. Stone pipe from Grosse Point, Lake Saint Clair: - 2-223 2 BOO. Seve ee 369
Fig. 3. Stone ornament from Grosse Point, Lake Saint Clair......22225. 0.2.22. - 2 cbs 37
Fig. 4. Map of Mounds on Saint Clair and Black Rivers: ..-.--...--.----.2-.-<+-<-2i/2:5--: 371
Fig. 5. Map of Mounds on Chambers’ Island, Green Bay, Wis..-.-.----.--.--+-----5------=-- 375
is. (6. Maprot Mound iat, Ottawa se ott Vine lis sea Setar ects arena ees a pene nen ae oi
Hic 7s Map of Moun dioniOqueoc shiver: Ni Chieess=- eee tecce ase eae see eree ea ereee seas 380
Fig. 8. Map of Mounds at Old Fort Mackinac and Point La Barbe, Mich..--..--..--..-.... 381
Fig. 9. Map of Mounds.at Beaver! Harbor, Beaver Island, Michy....-...:..--..---.---.--- 382
Fig. 10. Stoneimplement, Beaver “Harbor Mound, Mich... 32_si:s-te2s-5--22- 02 - eet oe 383
Fig. 11. Sketch of position of Triangle Island, Isle Royal, Mich.......-.--...-..-------.--- 387
Fig.12. Map of ancient works, Triangle Island, Isle Royal, Mich.......-......-...--.---.-- 386

idNodaD Ta adi:

Page
OM nsEORCOMeCtIONS IM AS TS oee et sco wane Ce cae ec sce Meet en 59
Agassiz, Prof. Louis, discourse on, by Rev. R. P. Stebbins ............---. sale 198
Mea thi ote seg soe se use Wa EUS A Ue SI a 148
resolutions of Regents relative to: ....-..----- ---+--.-+- 153
remarks of Hon. Peter Parker on ....22-2-2-.----2+ ++ 153
Aoentsofimternational exchanoes.|. Jo) | COlz a Va AOU Baa te ee yoo, 26, 72
Agricultural Department, arrangement with.....2-..0-.2 22-22 2-2. 2-2 ee ne 48
Antiquities. (See Ethnology.)
FAWN CTI CUE COMER crs sel vale ee Si ote anes S cidiehmtiele So hola eye Abe a ee re earner 160
to the report.of thesSecretiary ssacecis-cseterctie Sas sade sSsoeee heat 58
Appropriations by Congress for museum.-.-.---. 22+. .2f-e0. 22122222 eeu ee eee Ve3o, 145
AT CETIiINEKOMSCEVALOLY chases Secs e te cess cmascecee es tee als Te cama a aca 265
Armyevledical Muscum arrancementiwitiias soos soe sesso aie emesis ales 48
Astronomical discoveries, announced by telegraph in 1873....-...---..------- 34
Astronomical discoveries, telegraphic announcement of.......-..----2.+----- 3s
Astronomical Observatory at Cordoba, Dr. Gould’s account of.---....---..--- 265
Babbage, Charles, eulogy by N. S. Dodge....-...-..:---- DOE eS Ce ee 162
byebroteNa@uetele tise meen esc s cu celetes areas senses 183
Exiracis MrOmMPWEbINOS fOls ses seen eae eae ee eee 187
on constants of nature and art.---...----. wbeeetb eet de ps 23
Baird, S. F., on food-fishes..---.----- eb eiiseescros st OTIC oUD hogade cee is 15, 16
A VOU Oi Cul ROU ES Ses Sceseosseees caousauasesdosaae eet 36
Scientiticvand otherdabors of esse ess se eens eiee eee 42, 43, 47, 55
BanMkasuspension Hirst Na blo mellem ats ses) vel ee cee eee a rere oa aea ace ai atelier ae 7, 142, 151
HarnuUMiy ed, CONAbLONS ROM a - coe he oops age see ah eS aa Solel ee ee ee 47
thanks of Board of Regents for presents from.........---.---- 157
BEANE, OM JARONTS Ore, liKyl NG IBIMUHIKOS coe aaoooasosdad aaaocHcoEaus useEacoauGouds 422
Berendt Cake vonsene Carib lanouage essa sos oes ise aetis ste sicens elena naisinee 363
Biography. (See Babbage, Agassiz, Torrey, Gibbs.)
Bird owns Epic SCUM=CASES hy sitaeiale ce cei eel ees eee mee eee cacy cielerais 35
Birds—Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, on.-.-..---225s5) 22222. bled lille el ete 56
Blake & Shotwell, steam-heating apparatus...--. 2-0. .------2-----+----- 3O
Botline=pomibssua ples) Obsession sac oe cele sees cess nesaiete ep stae te lele ene cate 24
Bossange, G., services a3 agent... ...----.---s-00e0- Wastes Mods tev » ease 26,72
BritishyAssociation, report-onmollusks./5-22522)52.4.c45 Se eee Sat ca 15
BrivisheViaseumephotographssstesssne cee cmieecec eect ees esc seca emcee 53
Bronoo elimina bitson the beavers ssa. een streets einvsaie sec eiat =e iesmeme 422
@Wable teleomams scree ee pe oie eye nai senisigiaisiere s See ve Rta ead Rye aye NER 32
@ancerous tumors, Woodward On... --- 2 -~-<--+/--\--)--<2 6-005 seecesce ee eac-s- 24
Carpenter, P. P., mollusks of Western North America...-...----...---2------ 14,15
Wensus Ofiice ;meteorolosical works 10Pssfosess aos shee sone come m ene attele ans 31
Whancellormelected seers see ay eee state ale ie ele mia tsisvolars aieratelalsiarate etareterae ae 148, 158
Chasen @hiet-Justiceyswhes Ce atlny O fee ee ae ee eles tae oe ieee care et rrcuailore 148
resolutions of Regents relative to-....-.-----.----- 152
remarks: by: Mr cHamilin fomesscd 252s soc) 2e 8. 152

Clarke, Prof. F. W., constants of nature and art. Specific gravity tables ..... 24

446 INDEX.

Page
Clark Henrys Je sone WUCermanl ayer ae aleetee waters eleteiniee ee eielieiaiereyaere etee eee 11
Clittord;; Nathan, elected’ Chancellor: 2222 222s 22252 - So jsae sone ecco cte. va == 148
EYGUS,. OB CIS) INR MNS S555 5555 G65505 6450 000000 Gb SoabSeoese 148, 151,155 |
(OUMISS, AX, JOllanaS) IKOIP CRISESIES Sade Sooo code Uooboc osaecctooud osGua0 coe Saeed occe ce 35
(Corvin, J), 18, ayn) Sb Von Om) \AUNOISS S GooG oSccscGodss come HoSeou bocseubeeesose oae 30
Coleoptera yr Ile Combes OMe jeer reperetera ate tetelelete ele = rate reielaetaeretavee o> eee etesiee 23
Collaboratorsyofe Institution essere sae eee eee erie tenes ee sere laiae aca One
Coneress\ appropriations tor museuM.- 2c. Se ee eee cineca wee areca 7, 30, 145
Constanitsiof matureyandlantina-semeee eeeee err eee enone eee ee eeeere 23
Dloranerpentnex (siete Gish Wg IMIS kos oad coooeo CoObsdGa550 cob ace Go SOnSae bone bona ce Teil
Coppée, Prof. Henry; acts of, as hegent? <2... eee ee ela eee 151
GICCURGL IMEEM S55 SSu soon aoopeses0 o60n.6a50 460660 dauoes 151
Corcoran Gallery of Art, deposits to bé made in....--..----------------- ---- 157
Correspondence, miscellaneous ..-...-..-- SER nm yo shee min Get cc He: 417
ACCOUTI OLS 225 SHS AAS ee Le ee A Sa ee erase Ua aee 53, 156
Cox, 8. S., acts of, as Regenti--.........- SAS erly eye ete RIN SVE IEE EE 151
Le-appoimbed Rewemte ees Gaee oo ease fee Seon ele re Se 152
Currency ettectiofainilationvolsss-ee eee eee eens ee eee eee eee eee nee 8
Dall, William H., explorations on west coast of North America......--...---- A17
Dalton, John C., M. D., discourse on origin and propagation of disease..-..--. 226
Dawa Ie: elected INEGemts Hass neice see ersmlae elec averse eel e eet eee ere maces 151
De Forest, EH. L., methods of interpolation........---. ..-.-225-- 1825-2 eles 319
De Saussure, Professor H., monograph of Hymenoptera...--.-.-.-----.-.----.- 18
on philosophy of natural history.-.--..----..2---- 18
Diptera, monograph of, by Ostensacken and Loew..--.....--------------.--- 16
Disease, origin and propagation of, a lecture by Dr. J. C. Dalton..--.....----- 226
Distributioniof duplicaveispecimenssaasice secs cee eee see ene eeee eee 58
Distribution of publications, rules...--..-..---..----. -----4 Pee pais nee aes 9
Dodve Nas:,,oni Charlessbabbagessceecconsacs oc scias cece eee eee eee 162
Wonationsito librarva dhs sshs sees tse Cees eRe ee eee ieee Neel eels 27, 28
! MUSEWMIESA SS Ssh oss eA Aes seek oe eeicrcheeie sis aces Neane eUeereerana 59
Heleston, Profs. mineralsvarransedibyccee sence nese cee acetone cee 36
Heypt,album of museum of Boulaq@ascss sacs sa scese cee aa teas enema 29
Electricity and magnetism, later views on, by Helmholz and Maxwell.-......- 246
Endlich, Dr. F. M., examination of minerals by...-...----..----. 05.2 22--266 55
list: of minerals iny museum: 252-2524. 2 Asset esa ce ee see 70
mineralosical departmenv..---s ces seeieeee estes eee 35
Hstimates of:appropriations, for 1874525252 22222. 255 55° cc oee sacle ieee oeeeise 146
Ethnology :
Antiquities of Union County, Hlinois, Thos. M. Perrine.-.....- ye DRO E SS 410 |
Aleutian Islands:,WecEio Dalle 22022. sec essa ees aeeegee AIT
Knox County, Indiana, and Lawrence County, Illinois, Dr.
Acs Patton «assets occ ces sa GER eas yet 411
Boulaqemuseum,, Heyptts2.5s-.s5 nso sence ces seals eeav eae ereeeae 29
Classes of culture-historical objects .......----..--.------+---- f AU 405
collectionSsinss2catssesss seeds ten dececeneckdesn canes CESS eS 45
Jones, Pennesse@iesreos. cess secu ceca ta cede semis desma sine melicnnegdcle ae 12
Kjékken-Méddings of northwest Coast of North America, P. Schumacher. 304
Leipsic Museum of Ethnology, A. Schott, O. T. Mason ...----..---..----- 390
Moand-builders and platycnemism in Michigan, H. Gillman.......--.-.-- 364
Ona grammar and dictionary of the Carib or Karif language, C. H. Berendt. 363
Peale’s, stone implements .-.--.. DSO PE TON AEE LOPE RENG Eb ARO ee oie 29

Swanon' Haidah indians. see Jouc 2 sae POA WO RS TONY» hee 14

INDEX. 447

Page.

Boxe mam ess ACCOUTUMOL. 8 Set selene ioe oleate ta Mamewaperalate ye ara Uaioe paral 25
aid may be received from societies and individuals in defraying

CED: OLE) SYSL ENaC O) DE ea eared eS Op Ree Seah (gs dies HoLb/T ece B 158

packages for distribution in America...:......---2-..----.------ 73

Stacishies\of sim L873 vas 2 e Mne 2 ae Ae SL pay treeayre eee Abpea ae 72

PREC UENO COMMNTL LES a .5.0, 58 eS te Ue ies et eb Uae ED Uc 5

TEPOTGT OL Ne See Wet Se RG aes he veer ae ieh Lo eh 141

JS xqv NCUA Chub sae Re PO Kee H Se Ba SoReal Gcasaeo! OCoH BOSE Ore Sacn Sooo BosoeE 143

Explorations :

Polarisn@ aptarm alli) (lee sc ek eee 6 aes ee NN AE Uae eatery 37

DOC TORN CSSOLSS 5 ooo ioicisiso/a 5 asa yeas cline oe ree rate Septet ere apy vats 38

TSla. \AVo LUTINO A OS Res Soe e Se any ye ete Ee Seems lai s nS hers yey aee ay ya er 38

W/o JEL OA ae ee eRe SOM Hes eriber mrs Ser warts Snes mses ase sets eer 39

es; Gio: Shure at aes eee a ale Sie Sa ora a eee enegetes yey hae at A Ula ile seamen bs Sy 39

a Ul Eiag S CHUMIACH ER <. eol evasion ais sarees bene: cine ae SPE ae erat 39

Bhs (Oke NYA Doyo LP epee Pe coo MAN ey ECE HUES oa cso ROC aE Be alae AD 39

Wapuge pg VEVSCAMIM ON eee sins eee cuewineiein © sce. ea ee yee ates ere ee 39

WommsnG webs Belen ap sis sertelye helena nisin sees ee ere Men Bae a ape ee ee ae 40

Vo Gis COO NESS Seoa pase rbS Ea bor KGS Co ES obo aa aso ont BABOON Men Gams ae emeG AO

Wiha, Na (CHOY) 0S) 0 ess Mie ciel ters MSO RISE ree iaiara et gn a eee Mat eeu ayge 40

TOD GAY Beh ah ene eae eat yee Ug ee a gays est aes ese eta 40

Archibald Campbell......--- Beis esas Sra Eas a ne NTS vg) IEP is east haya ne) SUE 40

HDD) ABET OW CS cis se iclaieaicin la elapse ehotaie eee «mls Vee ee eg aC Lah oe ae Sls ipa 40

Gonerale: SaaS tanlle ye saees ae patie over tela cree urs pe cme eo ee es 41

Bey, dah SEIU N OLS SSP ee A ha NE AARC LE animes Poteau Sa ate Ae Da equ l anya hs oD 41

JPIRGIE IG Vo JE ROINe SE ee Sete ee An On earn mer netneeeRen aoe E MR ye Al

EVE Uber Cran MCV EIN @CV OR A ieiata\ crete ol nsec ia clea ciciole aint oot pa en) = py eysitegs ail a erence aay Lemp 41

NiO: dik Nis Met OS AAA Re One Bans eioncer mene aha sea rin Mnel Ma Rela mat 41

Capima@hasabemdine css 20s epi lo rio ea a ened ath aE ares ek 42

NAIM SLOMY SUOMC sia eyes tes efeqara ciate Sis a Sens) eine av alt eeieas creer earns ame pH 42

VOUTIES Wo MIMS OC AEE RIES OS Ase Seca hab CNG SAE Aa HORS GNObbo Basa sode bebe 42

WimitedyStatessish Commissions se. e et eee ae eel ae ee 42

IPROLesSOrZOUMMICHTAS ts ae sale co ele sie ie cieiet eis cis eve alae en Seles ey oan 44

MIDE SEIS noo Caso ceab bos poco soSeodEuca saueeGaEods UsnE Kebecoeaedanaseds 44

\Wallll tienen ENE 210) Seer ae Ne EO e Rae MaMa ae Rie ne ana Bats em btn 44

Generale SivAr SEiOrl Dut ses cy oa scree Sars ecee eon ee eye t ent egy an amine Ver SNA 44

Wo Wo JBWEINS 3305 6565 co cedeou s46onaeedc u6ob 6 soGoes saab eacuod seoEE peGeen 44

JPRS SICIEMNE MIRE SS Ge ao co Seounc cabs ecebeae cobebenes eouGsa sueeaadeedcas 44

IPT; JBL UEC CW ANS Se Ree ee SERS E AP mt meme Mh abe CIN See ae 44

G. B. Goode... -.- aie ral Vote ISIEIO et scapetas, sha SHN CU 4 SPC EIN gees al La a 45

IE MNOMSAMGMAUS EWING |e era) == kevelaradatar=laieletal cletovele stejapel- mieten SEIT eel ea ole 45

on west coast of North America, by W. H. Dall...-.......5.-.2..--.2---- 417

Hemrele Ve COMVier CUNO SCTTES). 012 icra olatsray atata pedal ctatayalteya VPM Sa SIE Sr ee crores cay eine il

Field, Cyrus W., liberality of.........- Pea het elaim aharoy 2/2) PERE RE ee 32

IMSn Coimmimigen@n, ACCOM OMe eecsaagaan soscus a dodeed bo soau coSced bee eaon 42, 43, 47, 55

IPSS, GLECUIENe IRELAND! WDE seo Gooooe Hocaee oooees Cokons Chee s eon eee kao e sue o NS 15, 16

ioe Welix. SELVA CES (AS) ACI ele sein este lalw = ciate nisi) alee eS Nrerae rT ke 26, 72

Horeign correspondents.of Institubion. 12 22.2522 J sscc2 oye dececis oes eiae as 26

Freights free by railroad and steamship companies........-.-..-.--------2-- 27

Mund, stapemenbiot theresa. 2 - eevee ee enol ei scneet-15)< SG5u¢ sA0 Sab bodcCn 8, 141

Gariield. dis actssor as Re SemG ‘aiao8 ee tee Scie tS eyed ese taser see 148

remarks relative to Chief-Justice Chase and Professor Agassiz. 148

Gibbs, George, memorial of, by John Austin Stevens, jr..--..-..-..-+----.--: 219

NOwWCeOf byoerotesson Mentyjecs esas eee eee eee 219

448 INDEX.

Page.
Gill, Theodore, arrangement of mollusks..--....---. 1 ate espa ee tera eee eer ‘v
scientific) laborsiofsy ce Gace cr eee see eens eme tae cere emaracee 56
Gillman, H., on mound-builders and platycnemism in Michigan.............. 364
Gould, Dr. B. A., account of observatory at Cordoba-.......--.....---.-.---- 265
, Covoxament GxelnemiVges 645505600 codec $6560 gaRdGe dene 0000 0s5c00 c500005500 72
Grant, U.S., president ex-officio Smithsonian Institution... - seas seers 5
Gray, Asa, elected Regent..--...--.-. j Saari Site aaa ANS taeea sahara eh cdt ss ecelere tater 151
AOUS Ohi, GS INREM Pods sho cdoddabocdeg d65se5b babes 6sdebdeocescseq 158
MP Reyiron tee [Coy np ate REO esha nee ae pe NS Ua ESI iL ie re A ee SIU SG 211
TREAGlaNGnGheNNS de Go Shh) OSes ineoaooouusodunaaas dood bodaos cuoucoooucod4 14
Idlayolivorls ANInes, |NXSCWIESW Ollesg oo 560d boeGun ob64 Gao odd ObbSe4 Sead bNondodée 155
received and deposited in U. 8. Treasury---..----- 159
Islamia, JB naval) RXCHS Ole, BIS INSESME Go oos Gages Sous GdaS Sood ooaeoe cGoues 148, 151, 155
resolutions on\deathyor A@assizie sme eee ese see 153
on: deathot! Clases ee ett ener eee 152
remarks on death of Chase.--.....--.-. gee lan eto toca eisicletere 152
Harkness siWienanacnetismrotaron-cladseesseeseeeen eects celee esis ee aes il
elewelivom, Cr Woy Broome) ARemeInis 646456 Gage docddulsdoads Gensco oneoun beSose 152
actsiof, as Re gemt ae cic aa)) se eee yt alae te leael ayerarsoee eens 155, 158
laloralntis, Guxeullene ial TR WO) 6 Soc5 665505 SodSo0 Sadcee c5bb50 Soge 650560 sone seas 14
Helmholz, Professor, on mathematical theories of electricity and magnetism. - 246
Henry, Prof. Joseph, circular relative to heights. .-......-..........-----.--- 14
directions for lightnine-rods) 2222222222 2-2 -- 22-22. ---- 15, 16
instructions for observation of thunder-storms......---. 14,16
instructions for observation of tornadoes.....----------- 15
monicelor General pAvy Morin ws sa oo yee eee eee 293
MO LICE Ot George) GalbSsneeees sees ee eee eee eee eee 219

on Babbage’s table of number of times letters are doubled
aay, OOO KOS SSAe Sao hose Semocoad ceeaReed cog0 bosoC 186
oni CharlesiBabbages.s.ss2 cee ose ene eee ee oe eer 186
onymeteorite in) Mexi cose saaen eceeiseee eee eee er 422
on the snoonshoam. eee tejec eeu eiaee cece cee neice 193
on pretended Runic inscriptions...-.....---.------..-.- 194
sclentiticjand! obherlabors) fesse sae eee seeeee eee eae 55
Leport; ol Secretary ie ee Ae ee eee oie area 7
ISOS, IE 18, Qyoynommtsl INT poo ob soo6 noosee sedobo asobed aa 4euasacd daesoos 152
Bets’ Of fas MRE Geb see ee ee Oe Nee ST ees ea rae evecare 155, 158
IELOe oh, Wi SENTICTS Gs) CXC SoS 35 Goo 6 be Hodes boobed codeco assoc deodEs Sodes 26, 72
Indiansor. Queen Charlottels Island seeesee ose eeeceeee eee eee eee ee aeaes 14
Imsectsucollechimevand presenvalloyene tee eee eae tss ee eet eee seers 22, 23
Interpolation methods, by E. L. De Forest. ......-..---. IMB: ares RIA oa 319
VEO, M6 Soy ON eh Mein MeN IN OVeHAY C454 coos oboe Houde coau odees secuus cocKee 423
Jones, Joseph, on antiquities of Tennessee... ...--..-.--- ..----4--<.--.---- 12
Vommangyl Orr |sonyeak Ot IeOeMUS 65555 cotoco Gand decade coomoo ooSNoEsooud Goan csoo 148
Korner) Henry,) “disclosues im Science) Dy see sass sine oeinne eee sees cece 156
erContey Il. onicoleoptera,..cctcs sees ee aoe eee orien erecta ane ners 23
Le Conte, John and Joseph, constants of nature and art.........---.----.---- 23
Leeds, L. H., plans for steam-heating apparatus -..-..--...--..----2-+----.:--- 35
JOH EhaS KOON OSES Soo s4us G4eq uses cass Sddaecooee ood oAucee boooes soda eds 27
GOWALTTONS Ola eye Uae ARI ea eae UU I aaa Lau aS een lads aS 27, 28
Oni amationallbynWia Sse MONS emacs ce eo meena eran easier tls 423
IDTOlyHoUbo RKO, TMS THADONOIINS) GUSo's8bideuscousas daceds boa sbccEs soon ceaa ed asad 15, 16
distorforeion\correspondents) saan ase eee cee eel scent eee eee reece eit 15

INShibublonsi libraries (cee eee steerer ee ete ete Gi Ae NS ars 15

INDEX. 449

Page
listommineralsnenational: museums se ese sae. ecko ae io ashe e ee oe oe 70
Suabhsomian: publica tlomge see ae ae gee pele seine ee ee talon ee epee ys 15
Moe pPD ets mMonosrap Mot Dipteraie eee. en eee ete iats) ey arreiree(< e eble 16
Wucennadapelenty Jy Clarks On) oe2 5 doses Nec soeis cle se) settle oe A perro og s ae 11
Mrcleanmolm. acts otvas Regentio ss. se so 26 nse Se tenes hen cae 151
re-elected Regent -......--.. ARs Ae omer eioene arene ars ran Sep 151
REPOR Ome xeculblver CommMitleeesee = eee eee eee eee eee 146
Magnetism and electricity, later views on, by Helmholz and Maxwell.....-..- 246
Eom eC HTSTOMO IMPIEON CLAUS 2 2)- (oct) ceaseless os ec ais) b eee nee ee ane ere 11
Meonlivamiidesonspopulationyot he) worl d=. ssn see eaters ee eee ate 282
MaMUsenipis ONESCIEMtiliC GISCOVET CS\s err = Seance seo eer see eee eens = yee 156
Mason, Otis T., Leipsic Museum of Hthnology....-....---.--2..+----+- 4-2-2: 390
Maxwell® Prof. Clerk, on action at a distance... -...-2---)----2;-foes- 22+ ee 254
McKnight, John W., museum-cases.-.---- Ges tt eee a ey eR ESE 35
Me ckegtebe sce mbricplaporsiOf = jee. oes eo es oko oes ole wearin) tee 56
IT MOIMUSMETeDIOS! Obs ri5 1m aoe teh SE ee As aera RT 24
ee \ombersrersojicvorois they Institutlomes-e css. os o5 soos tee erences 5
Memoirs. See Biography.
Meteorite, discovery of, in Mexico, account of, by William M. Pierson.-...--- 419
Meteorological reports preserved in Institution.....:...--2-,----.---2.----- 84
: Stations ian dobseEvers= wae eee ee anes eei aa ornare ae es 84.
Meteorolegical publications and articles in periodicals received in 1873:
ANUURORPS Rae SAG GE IN DRO Ee Se erin CAE Waa eg rel ay SO 5 132
J BEN RUNG EH SS) s Ses BEWARE Se ce Tea ey Sa eee ei eet se aE eee 132
IBIOUMGIIN S655 6aadas H55e irae Ae bes Mera MeN AN cy aes, ra ste 2 peo BS ete 132
JEORORIS: Skye SARE SA see tes aa i I Re eae egy On ee eee 132
(Comer alente terol 0 Siymaseeit panna ies oe cee ae Wipe ans o a ao 132
NS HE MMIOM US ers aer se eaters Me aya Sew hana yeaa are rd ane am opt We ae eee 133
Macalimeeorclon ype cuit ion oceans cc ne ote ery Woe Cn ie 134
Africa:
HE, Onyi bap May UG TUS = Severe rae are ae acre se eeere tt ey ad eevee 134
Asia:
1 ay B ry ea ECan Ue Cre ue Oe Eee RTE Ne ONES en 134
HI DEWAN Se BO Aa a es ee See Sucre roe aca ce ay ee ee 135
Australia:
ING We SOUb MMW Alesse cas came eeeeeee es ae cla teeee te Ie setae 135
Europe:
aN DU SIL IE ee eo pa eee nN) Sn SRR PMN ey ae eRe gs PRR Peay ea RS 135
IDellasiinin se ee eeneleccesee melo ae mee OCE ee ete ae Com aSre Roce 135
Wem aL as sion tees gare sesamiae a eye oe loners iar Pe hte Spas 136
Efe Ou an iy Nae eae pee Re Meee es a Se pale ee Ae iy nie 136
ERICA COM er spa pa ees yee atara Gyan CCS as UES opty che te Me Se ae ee 136
TS IB WaN NYSE S 6 ara aR sr es lear a ey ate ger CORR ey Ue mIRC 137
HE=HIcoU airy Leet tet cea) SM coe MIEN ag AS Aa Ga ic ce ag EIS Ca 137
BES TER DT: Te yppapegetet ohe co rmr ce aay oN 2s a ay BU Sa a DS ey eo 137
Mins carr Gl pees are sian eas aie ha eda eer ten ial, ae ales Uae eae aia 137
TIGRE ISS ices cata Sere tte genet ee ys aN a Mp EDN RL BRET Racy US 137
TS UPTUV CEST is A a MT a eV ra pe net eta renee ee Meee 138
(TS ESTES Fs 2s Si MRI A aL NYE Se a RE ar Rg 138
SED CONN iis aN Sarat Aa SUC RAE ED ai tess eis os rere RO een 138
IS ot ea oe pis ee ire AE ae ae ev ay ean dee 139
SIMA EX OMEN Oc 5s Sof ce eal A LOSER Pa Uo pr 139
SWwilbZerl ames see see ca ne oe ae esa stares aie Ne erctentel terre ela ea ete 139
VOIR Ge Soka BEES Ss CaG5 Gee bob bobuoU osbooL couese bese ue Vane 139

29 8

ALS 0a "INDEX,

Page.
Meteorological publications—Continued :
Locai meteorolog ieee
North America:
Canada te osc 25s 2s Bees ee ee See ale A ee leprae eee metas en me 139
UWmited States: 2222 2 see sacra oem are mans panne Vo ea 139
South oA mierica ee Moon coi cee es enact ane eee 139
AUCs AS GaY6 Dea eRe Eae ee ene cen aS Sa SONS We Ate Wee Aa 140
Mojometism:. 9208 o0055 ions tec tke Airis chun ak Bre Siete eh) er hayes gee 133
WIGTED) ENS AES aan oe ie ee nae Say ce Saco ja omeeesagkeaSs 133
Ocean currents: sc Bae! Hace ae cele oss (Saces else ereeiaisoe ee sere eran ee eee eee 140
OZONE se es Ao aisha hae SIE ae area ota icta ie ce yoteuat ferent eee eet = em eee 140
1h Lt Serene Aon eee oe semerenmny Stine cence qacceo SAGs Seen ae aso 6 140
Memperac ure, 2 S92! MN ee Tee aes ee eee taylor rs 140
Wain ice Sake ee Ra ONS era a ay ie ca a ate a el ae 140
Meteorolosx jaccountiOn= he eee see eee VEU Nae matellnfaa esate: «rail aia 30°
transferiof systen toi Signal-Ofice sya) 32k: Ae eee epee eee 31
Mexico, discovery of meteorite in\.----2 222222 225--.-22--2--8 Br Pes Opler 419
Mineralogicalycolllection accounbNoten es sneer se een ee ete 51
Nihoeremis,. Gradmerecl lOyy ID ie 185 WNL, TONNE ooo Saks 0555500600 ssen0escoss soce = 30
list of, in National Museum......-...---.--....-. Te Mate Soe o3 70
UK OLe CACTI OMY OP Eoedo web AS acoctasuaasseou hoodoo sosouu cc — §S
Miscellaneous correspondence....-...--..----.----.---= Brae ie Lda ls ea ap ANZ
Mollusksvarranoement) of bye cblieod ores Grill aes cei ee eye eer 14
of Western North America, P. P. Carpenter Ee eet Mal aie vec oe gets 14,15
ATO TATA aE ree FAAS CU ae ole EL ACN SAREE EG LG ane islets eee 193
Morin, A., warming and De atnne occupied] buildiness yess esses 993
Miiller, 1G AIAIGES. BIS) QCM 6s soucoe doosso Useeee cb 4505 anbo Soae couoT ae a 26, 72
AdGitIONS toss Joe ee Ns SI eed Hepa As ties ee Spe a ee 59
Muse sap propriations fol ees hearer eee eee E ee eee ere Eee A: cise Bese 145
distributionvorriduplicatess=se-a seer] heeee ee eee eee eee eee 58
EMUTIES MV ECOL OOK See ee oe ee relocate a .58
Myer, General A. J., Signal-Office meteorological system.....-..----..-...--- 31
National Bankssuspemsiomysc)) 8) Vay ee eer yeicree Bey Vase ees ee ee Ge, WE, Wel
NationaléMuseum accountioleeeeee ss) ees see eae eer ee eee nee eee 35
accounts to be examined by executive committee... ..---- 15&
YO ORO OBANMOMNS HOP oo ch55 Go06 Sous coos uesEdS oS Sec5 9050 7, 30, 144, 145
assistancedLomspecialists).--es 2 - eee ree eee ee ee eee 49
Casesiby Ji sEhe Bind ge sie Al ele eel aye ay AO oe gee 35
CHISES 17 do \iYo MIKGI GME So ooo sdb soe sass boo oon cons paces 3a
condition, progress, and operations of........--...-..-.-. 36
ethnolocicalidepartmenteeeer-s-e-eee eee elo ee eee eee 35
Exploravioms FO ye ee sk hee A Ea Pe a a aie 37
TMCKEABOIOL: p52 Se UE Ma OS Ue as ata a hays Oa 3¢
mineral osicalicollection==eeetes eee EEE Lee eee eee 51
mineralopical/deparimenthos sees Eee ee seen eee 35
MEL Cir MNOS! IRNONENS S555 socene con son coan Seon ooud booa sous BY
photographs of British Mebsren a ie NS is ln sR B)
plans ‘by Asi Cluss yee hee ieee i Rens ney MIL Se esa sia)
ams Psy) TA. A Wand eae aa ee pe lege ele 35
report on appropriations and disbursements for... .-. neeten 146
special.characterfotimuUscume nse eeee eee eee ee Eee eres 49
Steam-heatimoapparatuse seep eerie eee ee eee ee 3D

MENG WINN Ay paseo boscou Suados Goddacssoena besouoT 45

INDEX. A451

Page.
Natural history, De Saussure On} philosophysoteee ene eerie eaten 18
Newberry, Prof. J. S., rocks arranged by .... ---- Eee gett: Os Soca Beal ea eied 36
Norton, Edward, translation of monograph on wasps...--....--------------- 18
MMe RVALLONS obs ADAMO OM ce sien 2 anor wale c csi cieees ese op [lj eatery clei oe ele ete 187
Observatories, centers of communication for telegrams of astronomical dis-
GOVEHOS eben SUSs Sons CUE SBE BeS ESOS Bebe Bes Gneb CLES pe Oneu tbe sed sboeuues 33
Observatory at Cordoba, Doctor Gould’s account of__..............-..----.- 265
(Orbits or planets, secular variations Of 5..)+=- = se asci-)> ser- sae eee cies ee il
OEcOM MMA beraltty Of. 1.8 ook oer ery wee oo aye oa un Oe 32
Osrensacken monograph of Diptera. 2 chi os encase ss geen tee ste sees 16
Ostensacken, on collecting and preserving imsects..........-.-.-.-.----.---- 22
Onis rE GaeAn approval Of) JONes Sem e MOUs eae sss see eo seas eet ee 13
Packard, A. S., on collecting and preserving insects..---. ....-...---..----.- 23
Pair, JOSS ON, tePsOeIMNElicooses Gasbuc boo5u5 eSa5snibooSod baGK4s cabosaLBGo Ss 36
JPaAReIe, IESEIR; ANGUS Ort, Bis) INEMND TN. 6 Sooboy 6eaGee 6aaoao panose yaucan code 148, 151, 155, 158
MOnCLECUC CSCS ON ea eit oe ae eyie th a) Seay tan ayaa rel SUSI RT os 151
TRSTTA NS Cin) CERIN CH NGAI C66 neoacosogdes cascan vooSou oBESHC 153
INE DOUG OE Mpaaeminye) CKonmMmonltjKee occas sococedsoccu sounus oabene& 141, 147
report on accounts of National Museum..--...........-...-..- 147
Patton, Dr. A., antiquities of Knox County, Indiana, and Lawrence County,
JODIINONG; Sé ee eats rie SS ee tt mee le Nee eae Tn muta NS Mies turk a 8 toe 411
Peale, Franklin, photographs of collection of stone implemwents.-..-....----- 29
Peale, Mrs. Caroline, photographs of collection of stone implements...--.-.-- 29
Perrine, Thomas M., antiquities of Union County, Jllinois.........-........- 410
Reverse Osc discoveries: Of; plamets ke Ch. 455 sey oa ys ere ese 32
Photographie work be SSD isyS rat Meee seyeee cries eect ane ce DA en Re Ra ee 56
Pierson, William M., account of discovery of meteorite inpionte et hare ye 419
Platycnemism in Meine NEw Gua a eas Sey ekay ee ys pe ce perce 364
IPollamngl, Jig EQ SAGUS OB BIS INCEC Mises ocose ess cosene coceae ooeee Eier4 sia nolo eta 148
Population of the world, recent estimate of, by Ed. Mailly......-...........- 282
Prize questions of scientific societies:
on kenelows iran Css aets Wok are Ao Sate ace ioe Cok ane Zoran pap cle GN Maneg a Lee Nay 425
JEL ODEN RS ENN Rae NE Gem is eer bi mele tre mele) as alas Ia ta satus ern 426, 428
HNP RSS pelts en as aye ey chine care Le alee PAIL ash eh a Te yc Aol Sena EN 430
JB ELURSHS CE) NSIS Te) Vet CD gS eRe rey am de a ten a Ue a ae te SS A432, 434, 436
Efaaclerm roland ee) santos epae aerate seca sae cle ep eae toe Wee 437
EMDMGAmOnScenenral ACCOWME Os see nse ape = Seer ets ares eiotoy ae ae 8)
IPH DiggrmO ms Tal WSS} BOCODIMH Olfsces cog cedo cods Hdub boodob eaeeno bso cade ce Ge 11
Quicualleiy Gniloay Gada R Eee Ua NERS eeehig aba sadaqecba osos cho aabnoe 183
EV NTAMRELTN CLR SIO WaMbeh I] CES Seen rele ayee cee Ue hiadas ee oaHL Sit MEM ati See dg ad Els pact ji
HVE CE MOLSON Od S753 erase le les iy clue ler operant teas a vary rae ered mapper eet tare nacre RA 143
Regents of the Institution, list of proceedings of..--.. -..-....--.. .s2--. 5-0. 5, 148
sso) DEN aG SLANT wlroweti ayaa LVS eee Na aah el Oy ee eee ees en Se aeae Ee ae 144
Prepon Ome xecuuiye Committee r js. sso 8 oie. sso Veo pan se cla rai wats Wye eraecy. 141, 146
Report of Institution, printing.of extras....-...-..-.---------. Seine eee eee 24
Re pOLMOtet Mey SecChetanye =.) selene ete Hes osha mnie asin sales iy cena eae 7
Report on appropriations and disbur rent for National Museum...-.-.-..- 146
GI og Soa@ OemCle OS loaves eon amie sta pai eure We APU we yl He Gatln yeh NR nee 151
Riggs, eee We ptinancialgardirendeceds yee san een aes oe aero aaa 8
resolution of thanks from Board of Regents, to......------ 155
iRulestfor examination of specimens: 225s) /-2e+. 22 oee sce scs see ne ee ese eee 56
nlesto tdistributionsoie publications esses he cou meen en eee 9

RUMI CNS Chip hlonspretended sesso. as wie ec e tee a ene eeemeie aus ecia 194

452 INDEX.

Page.
SPEEA vals Jhon ICIS OL, BIS INGO ON B66 cSec60 c6b0se S900 noSbae eso50s Stccee sce Soe 151, 155
AO DOMM IG, 1AM 50 sn ooobsoo Boobas Seoo US oSSE CoSSee a bobo SSee 152
Secretary, report of, (see Henry, Prof. Joseph)...........-.-....-.----.----. "le
Schott, Arthur, Leipsic Museum of Ethnology.........-...........-........ 390
SchottyCharlesrAve raim-pablesen sseerstinie- eerie re eereee ese eee er eee 11
Schumacher, Paul, Kjékken-m6ddings of northwest coast of America -.--..--- 304
Shepherd, Alexander R., acts of, as Regent.----..-- aR eS IR SRR RAE 151
Sherman, William 2., acts of, as Regent. 2-7 22-29 2 ene oes wena 148, 151
report of executive committee.-..--.-2.--..---+.---.- 146) 147
Signal-Office, transfer of meteorological system to.....-...--...--.--.----.-- 31
Sromullbi@ys 10s Nie; TOMMOMToyererN OlaMe \yyOwelke [WAY os S656 Send bobo sho ddo coon Gdedocadedecs 56
SPOS ING CAVES, WAU Cliso5oc6 css0 dace Se5e6 HoaD S650 95055 550506 Suda DE esee 24
Spimner,;Genenal, deposit) of income wathe er eme eee ele eee as eee 155
Steam-heating apparatus introduced...........--, .---.--.--..- icici = octane 35
Stebbins, Rey. Rufus P., discourse on Louis Agassiz, by.--..----..--. cle meeee 198
Stevens, John Austin, jr., memorial of George Gibbs.....-...------.--------- 219
SUENZEINEOING do, War CXOUS) Wits AS Jey Mioas snk eess Qamseousacs cosa ucod oduscd cscs 155, 151
Stockwell, John N, secular variations of orbits of eet ee bis aaah es ee 11
Stone, General C. P., presents; Prom. esate sels She eae ne i tees pe 29
Stoners Dichonanyor solubilities se setae neni aes ee a eae eee ee eee eee 24
Suuartewosephea. onuklamil ton) beQuUest sess ceee = see ene ea eee a eee eee ope
Swale. em atdalwimadia ne eee ca gece ere crate snetete elon rere e ee 14
Tables of specific gravities, boiling-points, ee Bie ainine a) fey eyejaisy near oa a Sree ae ere 24
Telegraph companies, liberality of, in reference to astronomical discoveries. - . 32
Telegraphic astronomical discoveries...-....---..----..-------0-+---------- 32
UNeriay NE ORES NOES KON S SESS CARA RS SOB SSS SkGo done caeaco Goabon was koosbo6 oon. , 30
Tennessee, antiquities of, Joseph Jones...--. .----.-..--- 2-22. -.-- 2-2-2 ee 12
Ahi der-storms sin Structlonsee.— sei sss eee eee ee alee ee ise Ceres ieeeee 16,14
Moner Mecturess WiOOd Wald \os cee saskeeiecw sees meee cee eee eee eer 24
TNO MACORS), TNS HCMC MKOIMN 556 sbeoqsos cosa bse6 deco sadeas asoose 6400 saan caso ces 15
Torrey, John, sketch of life and labors of, by Asa Gray...--.. ---.---..----- 211
Treasurer of United States, funds for current operations, deposited with..... 151, 155
Ventilating buildings, by A. Morin...-... BARA SH eS SEA BOUB ABA SaBeee AoSadS Goes 293
Vespide, or wasps, De Saussure, monograph ...-....-.-.-----..------------- 18
Virginia stocks held by the Institution -. .-...-..-...-.----..---.-----...-.- 142
Waite; Morrison R., elected (Chancellor=-22 2222 2252/22. 5 222 2 eee eye ele 158
Wiveningl, 1B lee? ING, ONE NAIS) SHO PCRS dbs odoedaisooooodsadas. A Sado boudegodues boseee 35
Warming and ventilating buildings, by A. Morin.............--..-...-.--.-- 293
WAS Os) DS SanmssiaRs, MNO MGM OG Ss Gob cockou doseso soucss oSdd5u0 Goad sooose coed 18
VYGIS), Ibi RierAaKOeIs) Bs) GMOs obh50 sesees soande sae ceodo9005000 645 sen0 cout 26, 72
Wesley, William, services as agent.----..----.-- Wace odeccoljosecoecoseot cdac 26, 72
WWilllevorm, 18 leaiAy IRONIC ose Sodsos sessneSobn0 008 Sdd4 ono asDSSsSeasen & Heeibe 5
Winds iworkonbyAC oftimere sass eee ee eeisee tees tise cee eee ice eee 30
Woiekot, Doctor meteorology, bynes eee eee ec eeiace ete eee eee 30
Woodward, Dried.) Je,.ON CANCEKOUS LUMONS: “sal yale siete tals celeeene ieee 24

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