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THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION

THER YEHAR 1874.

WASHINGTON: ©.
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1875.

FORTY-THIRD CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION.

CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES,
In THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES,
February 27, 1875.

The following resolution, originating in the House of Representatives, February 24,
1875, has this day been concurred in by the Senate:

Resolved by the House of Representatives, (the Senate concurring,) That ten thousand
five hundred copies of the report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1874 be
printed, two thousand copies of which shall be for the use of the House of Representa-
tives, one thousand for the use of the Senate, and seven thousand five hundred for the
use of the Institution: Provided, That the aggregate number of pages of said report
shall not exceed four hundred and fifty, and that there shall be no illustrations except
those furnished by the Smithsonian Institution.

Attest:

EWD. McPHERSON, Clerk.

LETTER

FROM THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

TRANSMITTING

The Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1874.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, January 26, 1875.
GENTLEMEN: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to
submit to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the
operations, expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution
for the year 1874.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. HENRY WILSON,
President of the Senate.
Hon. J. G. BLAINE,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FOR 1874.

This document contains:

1. The annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera-
tions and condition of the establishment for the year 1874, with the sta-
tistics of collections, exchanges, meteorology, &e.

2. The report of the executive committee, exhibiting the financial
affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund,
the receipts and expenditures for the year 1874, and the estimates for
1875.

od. The proceedings of the Board of Regents.

4, A general appendix, consisting principally of reports of lectures,
translations from foreign journals of articles not generally accessible,
bunt of interest to meteorologists, correspondents of the Institution, teach-
ers, and others interested in the promotion of knowledge.

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

ULYSSES S. GRANT, President of the United States, ex officio Presiding Officer of the
Institution.

MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief-Justice of the United States, Chancellor of the Institu-
tion, (President of the Board of Regents.)

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary (or Director) of the Institution.

REGENTS OF DHE INSTITU LLON.

MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief-Justice of the United States, President of the Board.
HENRY WILSON, Vice-President of the United States.

H. HAMLIN, member of the Senate of the United States.

J. W. STEVENSON, member of the Senate of the United States.
A. A. SARGENT, member of the Senate of the United States.

S. S. COX, member of the House of Representatives.

E. R. HOAR, member of the House of Representatives.

G. W. HAZELTON, member of the House of Representatives.
JOHN MACLEAN, citizen of New Jersey.

PETER PARKER, citizen of Washington.

ASA GRAY, citizen of Massachusetts.

J. D. DANA, citizen of Connecticut.

HENRY COPPEE, citizen of Pennsylvania.

GEORGE BANCROFT, citizen of Washington.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

PETER PARKER. JOHN MACLEAN. GEO. BANCROFT.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

U. 8. GRANT, President of the United States.
HENRY WILSON, Vice-President of the United States.
M. R. WAITE, Chief-Justice of the United States.
H. FISH, Secretary of State.

b. H. BRISTOW, Secretary of the Treasury.

W. W. BELKNAP, Secretary of War.

G. M. ROBESON, Secretary of the Navy.
MARSHALL JEWELL, Postmaster-General.

C. DELANO, Secretary of the Interior.

GEO. H. WILLIAMS, Attorney-General.

J. M. THACHER, Commissioner of Patents.

OFFICERS AND ASSISTANTS OF THE INSTITUTION AND
NATIONAL MUSEUM.

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary, Director of the Institution.
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary.

WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.

DANIEL LEECH, Corresponding Clerk.

CLARENCE B. YOUNG, Book-keeper.

HERMANN DIEBITSCH, Exchange Clerk.

JANE A. TURNER, Exchange Clerk.

MAGGIE E. GRIFFIN, Recording Clerk.

SOLOMON G. BROWN,,. Transportation Clerk

ASSISTANTS IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM.

F. M. EnDuicu, Mineralogist.
RoBerRT RiDGway, Ornithologist.
G. B. GOoDE, Zoologist.

JOSEPH PALMER, Taxidermist.
T. W. SMILLIE, Photographer.
JOSEPH HERRON, Janiter.

RESIDENT COLLABORBRATOBS.

Dr. THEODORE GILL, General Zoology.
Prof. F. B. MEEK, Invertebrate Paleontology.
Dr. E. CovEs, Mammalogy and Ornithology.
W. H. DALL, Malacology.

Prof. O. T. Mason, Ethnology.

Prof. EDWARD FOREMAN, L£thnology.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, PROFESSOR HENRY, FOR THE
YEAR 1874. .

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution :

GENTLEMEN: I have again the honor to present to you another an-
nual report of the operations and condition of the Institution which the
Congress of the United States has placed under your charge. During
the period embraced in this report, that of the year 1874, nothing has
happened to interfere with the prosecution of the plans which have been
adopted for ‘‘the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.”
The Institution, having now existed upward of twenty-five years, has
established a character and reputation in the eyes of the world, the
tradition of which will tend to perpetuate the same policy, with only
such improvements as experience may suggest, notwithstanding the
changes to which the personnel of the administration may from time to
time be subjected.

The following changes have taken place in the Board of Regents
during the year: Chiet-Justice Waite has been elected Chancellor of
the Institution, in place of Chief-Justice Chase, deceased. Prof. Asa
Gray has been elected Regent by Congress in place of Prof. L. Agassiz;
Prof. J. D. Dana, in place of Professor Woolsey; Prof. H. Coppee, in
place of William B. Astor; Hon. A. A. Sargent, in place of Hon. Mr.
Trumbull; Hon. E. R. Hoar, in place of Hon. James A. Garfield; Hon.
G. W. Hazelton, in place of Hon. L. P. Poland; and Hon. George
Bancroft, in place of General Sherman. The change in the govern-
ment of the District leaves vacant, for the present, the position of
Regent occupied by the governor of the District.

The resignation of General Sherman, on account of his change of res-
idence to Saint Louis, Mo., leaves a vacancy in the executive committee.
It gives me pleasure to present to the board, as an expression of his
feelings toward the Institution, the accompanying letter.* It is proper
to mention in this connection that during the interval between the
death of Chief-Justice Chase and the appointment of his successor,
Mr. Justice Clifford, of the Supreme Court, presided as Chancellor of the
board, and with the Secretary signed the requisition for drawing the
semi-annual interest from the Treasury of the United States on the 1st
of January, 1874.

Since the establishment of the Institution several different bequests
have been made, intended to increase its usefulness ; but from none of
these has anything as yet been realized, except from that of JAMES
HAmILton, Esq., of Carlisle, Pa., who bequeathed one thousand dollars

* See proceedings of the Board of Regents.

8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, the interest to
be appropriated biennially for a contribution, paper, or lecture, on a
scientific or useful subject. The money from this bequest has been
received and placed in the Treasury of the United States, in accordance
with the law of Congress authorizing the Secretary of the Treasury to
receive any money which the Board of Regents may obtain from gifts,
or savings of income, on the same terms as those of the original bequest.
The first instalment of interest of the Hamilton bequest has just been
received, and will be appropriated in accordance with the will of the tes-
tator at the end of next year, and so on continually at the end of every
two years. A statement of the manner of expending this income will
be given in the accounts of the operations of the Institution, with due
credit to the donor. His name will therefore appear from time to time
in the annual reports, and thus be kept in perpetual remembrance.

Wheu the public shall become more familiar with the manner in
which the income of the additional bequests to the Smithson fund is ex-
pended, with the permanence and security of the investment, and with
the means thus afforded of advancing science. and of perpetuating the
names of the testators, we doubt not that additions to the fund in this
way will be made until it reaches the limit prescribed by law of one
million dollars.

Since the establishment of the Institution great change has taken
place in the public mind as to the appreciation of the importance of ab-
Stract science as an element in the advance of modern civilization. At
the time the bequest of Smithson was made the distinction between
original research and educational instruction in science and literature
was scarcely recognized. As an evidence of this it may be stated that,
in answer to a circular-letter addressed to a number of the most dis-
tinguished writers in this country, asking what should be done with a
fund intended to increase and diffuse knowledge among men, the unan-
imous reply was, “ Establish a national university ;” the idea of a uni-
versity being at that time an institution simply intended to drill youth
in the ancient classics, in the elements of mathematics and physical and
moral science. The idea of an institution intended for the higher
object of increasing knowledge, or enlarging the bounds of human
thought by original research, had not dawned at that time upon the
mind of the general public, and the plan proposed for realizing this
idea was violently opposed by some of the most intelligent and influ-
ential men of the country. Happily, since then a great change has
been effected both in this country and in Europe, and to effect this
change the persistent policy of the Institution has contributed in no
inconsiderable degree. The plan adopted of applying the income as
far as possible to the promotion of original research and the distribu-
tion of a knowledge of the results through its publications, has received
the approval of the civilized world. The Congress of the United States

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 9

has fully signified its appreciation of the plan adopted, by relieving the
Institution from the support of a library and the National Museum.

Congress having made an appropriation of $20,000 for the support of
the National Museum, almost the entire income of the Smithson bequest
has been left free to carry on what is now considered the legitimate
operations of the Institution. It was thought, however, desirable to re-
tain a part of the income in order to make up the loss of last year, oc-
casioned by the failure of the First National Bank of Washington. The
whole amount of deposit in this bank at the time mentioned was
$8,224.87. On this the Institution has received 50 per cent., in two pay-
ments, leaving a balance of $4,112.43. Toward making up this loss, the
expenditure during the year has been less than the receipts by $3,683.31.
The funds of the Institution are therefore in a favorable condition, as
may be seen by the exhibit hereafter to be presented.

FINANCES.

The following is a statement of the condition of the funds at the beginning
of the year 1875:

The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the

United States in accordance with the act of Congress of

pAMnCr USGL SAG Se 2 ees LAR a tare ois Pees tie Se $515, 169 00
The residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, depos-

ited in the Treasury of the United States, in accordance

with the act of Congress of February 8, 1867 .........- 26,210 63

DLotal bequestior Smrthsomes. 55, 4. assess cane = . 941,379 63
Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States,
as authorized by act of Congress of February 8, 1867, de-
rived from savings of income and increase in value of

LEER GCAST IONS) 11CSH SRSA aa cee) oa ea td ed AL 108, 620 37
Amount received as the bequest of James Hamilton, of
Carlisle -Ea., Mebruary 24, 1974 «2. 22am ieee 2 nea 1, 000 00

a

Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of
the United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent.,
payable semi-annually in gold. ...202.<2)2 22.552 651, 000 00
In addition to the above there remains of the extra fund ,
from savings, &¢., in Virginia bonds and certificates,
viz: consolidated bonds, $58,700; deferred certificates,
$29,375.07; fractional certificate, $50.13; total $88,125.20,

OVATE Att cietackes tio ero kA Ls MeN Lee lak a 30, 000 00
Cash balance in United States Treasury at the beginning

of the year 1875 for current expenses.........-...-.... 15, 969 99
Amount due from First National Bank, Washington,

$4,112.43, (present value unknown.) ......-:.---- i Eats

Total Smithson funds January, 1875............--. $701, 809 99

10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

On comparing this statement with that made last January, it appears
that the total amount of the fund has been increased during the year
$6,683.31, viz:

By the Hamilton bequest.-....... SOS. SUUGK 2 SUS ee OOO 100
By the increased value of Virginia stock ..... .-.... ities 2, OOF 00
By balance of unexpended annual income ...........-....- 3, 683 31

—_$ ——

$6, 683 31

The Board of Regents and the Secretary will in future be relieved of
all anxiety as to the safety of the semi-annual interest by the arrange-
ment which has been made with the United States Treasurer to receive
it as a deposit, and to make payments from it on checks of the Secre-
tary, in the same manner as has been done heretofore in the First Na-
tional Bank.

The Institution is indebted to General Spinner for his prompt acqui-
escence in the proposition and for immediately carrying it out in all the
details necessary to facilitate its operation.

Congress, at its last session, made an appropriation of $20,000 for the
care and preservation of the specimens in the museum, and $10,000 for
fitting up apartments in which the specimens are exhibited.

The uncollected coupons on the Virginia bonds held by the Institu-
tion were sold on the 9th of May, 1874, by Riggs & Co., with the fol-

lowing result: :

$1,200 Virginia coupons at 774 ...--. Fae eee ee eaation $925 50

$2,322 Virginia coupons at 77 ...-...----. peste re oie 1, 787 94
2,713 44

Less charges. ...- eS Re ae J etenee sees Seniesa EPL

$2, 695 83
This amount was deposited with the Treasurer of the United States
to the credit of the account of the current expenses of the Institution for
the year.
PUBLICATIONS.

Since the reports of the Institution are separately distributed to many
persons who have not ready access to the whole series, it is necessary
in each succeeding one to repeat certain facts which may serve to-give
an idea of the general organization of the establishment. The following
statement is therefore repeated :

The publications of the Institution are of three classes, viz, the Con-
TRIBUTIONS to KNOWLEDGE, the MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, and
the ANNUAL Reports. The first consist of memoirs containing positive
additions to science resting on original research, and which are gener-
ally the result of investigations to which the Institution has, in some

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. it

way, rendered assistance. The Miscellaneous Collections are composed
of works intended to facilitate the study of branches of natural history,
meteorology, &c., and are designed especially to induce individuals to
engage in these studies as specialties. The Annual Reports, besides an
account of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institu-
tion, contain translations from works not generally accessible to Amer-
ican students, reports of lectures, extracts from correspondence, &c.

The following are the rules which have been adopted for the distribu-
tion of the several publications of the Institution:

1st. They are presented to learned societies of the first class which in
return give complete series of their publications to the Institution.

2d. To libraries of the first class which give in exchange their cata-
logues and other publications, or an equivalent from their duplicate
volumes.

od. To colleges of the first class which furnish catalogues of their
libraries and of their students, and all other publications relative to
their organization and history.

4th. To States and Territories, provided they give in return copies of
all documents published under their authority.

5th. To public libraries in this country, containing 15,000 volumes,
especially if no other copies are given in the same place; and to smaller
libraries where a large district would be otherwise unsupplied.

Gth. To institutions devoted exclusively to the promotion of particu-
lar branches of knowledge are given such Smithsonian publications as
. relate to their respective objects.

7th. The Annual Reports are presented to the meteorological ob-
servers, to contributors of valuable material to the library or collections,
and to persons engaged in special scientific research.

The distribution of the publications of the Institution is a matter
which requires much care and judicious selection, the great object being
to make known to the world the truths which may result from the ex-
penditure of the Smithson fund. For this purpose the principal class
of publications, namely, the Contributions, must be so distributed as to
be accessible to the greatest number of readers, and this will evidently
be to large central libraries.

The volumes of Contributions are presented on the express condition
that, while they are carefully preserved, they shall be accessible at all
times to students and others who may desire to consult them, and be
returned to the Institution in case the establishments to which they are
presented at any time cease to exist. These works, it must be recol-
lected, are not of a popular character, but require profound study to
fully understand them; they are, however, of importance to the pro-
fessional teacher and the popular expounder of science. They contain
materials from which general treatises on special subjects may be elabo-
rated.

12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Full sets of the publications cannot be given to all who apply for them,
since this is impossible with the limited income of the Institution; and,
indeed, if care be not exercised in the distribution, so large a portion of
the income would be annually expended on the production of copies for
distribution of what has already been published, that nothing further
could be donein the way of new publications. It must be recollected that
every addition to the list of distribution not only involves the giving of
publications that have already been made, but also those which are to
be made hereafter.

At the commencement of the operations of the Institution the publi-
cations were not stereotyped, and consequently the earlier volumes have
now become scarce, especially the jirst, of which there are now no copies
for distribution, although it can occasionally be obtained at a second-
hand book-store in one of the larger cities.

No copyright has ever been secured on any of the publications of the
Institution. They are left free to be used by compilers of books, with
the understanding, however, that full credit will be given to the name
of Smithson for any extracts which may be mede from them. This
condition is especially insisted on, because the credit thus required is
important as evidence to the world of the proper management of the
Smithson fund. In many cases credit is given merely to the author
without mentioning the name of the Institution; this is not just, since,
as a general rule, the income of the establishment is applied not only to
the publication of the article but also to assist in its production.

Publications in 1874.—During the past year the nineteenth volume of
the quarto series of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge has
been published. It contains the following papers:

1. Problems of Rotary Motion presented by the Gyroscope, the Pre-
cession of the Equinoxes, and the Pendulum. By Brevet Maj. Gen. J.
G. Barnard. 4to., pp. 74.

2. A Contribution to the History of the Fresh-Water Algz of North
America. By Horatio C. Wood, jr., M. D., professor of botany and
clinical lecturer on diseases of the nervous system in the University of
Pennsylvania. 4to., pp. 274, 21 colored plates.

3. An Investigation of the Orbit of Uranus, with General Tables on its
Motion. By Simon Newcomb, professor of mathematics, United States
Navy. 4to., pp. 296.

This volume, of which the several memoirs have been described in
previous reports, will not only sustain, but increase the reputation of
the Institution for its contributions to the science of the day. The me-
moirs which it contains have been received with manifest interest by
the scientific world, and recognized as positive additions to knowledge
resting on original investigation.

Besides the nineteenth volume of the Contributions to Knowledge,
the eleventh and twelfth volumes of Miscellaneous Collections have been
published during the year.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ahs.

The eleventh volume of Miscellaneous Collections consists of 789
octavo pages, and contains the following articles :

1. Arrangement of the Families of Mammals, with Analytical Tables.
Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by Theodore Gill, M. D., Ph. D.,
pp. 104.

2. Arrangement of the Families of Fishes, or classes Pisces, Marsipo-
branechii, and Leptocardii. Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by
Theodore Gill, M. D., Ph. D., pp. 96.

3. Monographs of the Diptera of North America; Part III, Ortalidze
Family. Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by H. Loew; four
plates, pp. 376. _

4, Directions for collecting and preserving Insects. Prepared for the
use of the Smithsonian Institution by A. S. Packard, jr., M. D., pp. 60.

5. New Species of North American Coleoptera. Prepared for the
Smithsonian Institution by John L. LeConte, M. D.; Part I, pp. 74.

6. Classification of the Coleoptera of North America. Prepared for
the Smithsonian Institution by John L. LeConte, M. D., pp. 72.

The twelfth volume of Miscellaneous Collections consists of 767 octavo
pages, and contains the following articles :

1. Review of American Birds, in the Museum of the Smithsonian
Institution; Part I. By 8S. F. Baird, 1864-1872, pp. 484.

2. The Constants of Nature; Part I. Specific Gravities; Boiling and
Melting Points; and Chemical Formule. Compiled by F. Wigglesworth
Clarke, S. B. December, 1873, pp. 272.

3. Rules for the Telegraphic Announcements of Astronomical Discov-
eries. By Prof. Joseph Henry. April, 1875, pp. 4.

Since the publication of the 19th volume of Smithsonian Contributions,
a memoir, of 32 quarto pages, has been printed and distributed, which
will form part of the 20th volume. This is by Prof. S. Newcomb, of the
National Observatory, Washington, on the “ General Integrals of Plan-
etary Motion”—an abstruse mathematical work, of which the nature is
indicated in its title. It gives a series of suggestions and new investi-
gations relative to the methods of determining the motions of celestial
bodies as affected by interplanetary perturbations. It is in part an ex-
tension and generalization of two former papers by the same author,
the first published in Liouville’s Journal, vol. X VI, 1871, and the second
in the Comptes-Rendus, vol. LX XV. It was submitted to Prof. H. A.
Newton, of Yale College, and Mr. G. W. Hill, of Nyack, N. Y., for criti-
cal examination, and received their unqualified approval for publication
in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.

Another paper, intended for the twentieth volume of Contributions,
which has been printed and distributed during the past year, is by
James G. Swan, on the Haidah Indians of Queen Charlotte Islands.
It consists of 18 quarto pages, and is illustrated with five plain and two
colored plates, to represent the carved posts or pillars raised in front of
the houses of the chiefs, and various tattoo designs copied from the

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

bodies of the Indians. This paper was described in the last report. It
may, however, be here mentioned that it is of special interest in connec-
tion with the large number of ethnological specimens received during
the past year from the northwest coast.

Another work published during the year is the third of the Toner-
lecture series. It is by Dr. J. M. DaCosta, of Philadelphia, on the strain
and over-action of the heart, and forms 32 octavo pages, illustrated by two
wood-cuts. These lectures, as has been stated in previous reports, have
been instituted at Washington by Dr. Joseph M. Toner, and are confined
to such memoirs or essays relative to medical science as contain some
new truth fully established by experiment or observation. It is proper
to remark that of this course of lectures only two have been published,
the first and the third, the author having not yet furnished the manu-
script of the second. To defray, in part at least, the cost of printing
these lectures, it has been thought advisable to charge for them 25 cents
a copy to individuals who have no special claim on the Institution by
having contributed meteorological observations or additions to the col-
lections. .

Another work printed during the year is a list of the publications of
the Institution to July, 1874, exhibiting 297 distinct articles, arranged
first numerically, and secondly in regard to the subjects as given in the
titles. It forms an octavo of 26 pages. An edition of 2,500 copies of
this work was furnished to the “ Publishers’ Trade-List Annual” for
1874, (New York, October, 1874,) and through this medium the list of
publications of the Institution will become known to all booksellers and.
librarians in the United States.

An edition of 250 copies of tables selected from the volume of Physi-
cal and Meteorological Tables, prepared and published some years since
at the expense of the Institution, has been printed for the use of the
Argentine Meteorological Observatory at Cordoba, under the direction
of our distinguished countryman, Dr. B. A. Gould.

Publications in the press: 1. The Antiquities of Tennessee, by Dr.
Joseph Jones, of which an account was given in the last report. Of
this the wood-cuts have been prepared, and it is expected that the
printing will be finished in the course of the present year.

2. A Memoir on the Harmonies of the Solar System, by Prof. Stephen
Alexander, of the College of New Jersey.

In this communication the author divides his subject into three sections.
Section I begins with the statement that Kepler’s third law is ordinarily
expressed by saying that the squares of the periodic times of the sey-
eral planets of the solar system are to one another, respectively, as the
cubes of their distances from the sun; but from this we do not learn
that there are any laws determining the ratios of the distances them-
selves, and it is one of the main objects of the present discussion to
show that such laws exist, and precisely what they are; generality and
precision being characteristics of every law of nature.

™

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

The author discusses anew the expressed values of the distances in
question, in view of the fact that Kepler’s third law is itself slightly
modified by the consideration due to the masses of the revolving bodies.
After an exhibition and discussion of the appropriate formula, the
author arranges the results in the form of a table; in which the results
thus shown are respectively consistent with two values of the solar
parallax, viz, Professor Newcomb’s value, z = 8”.848, and that which
others prefer, z = 8.78.

Section II exhibits the laws of arrangement of the distances, both of
planets and their satellites, from their respective centers of attraction,
without the introduction in the same connection of any physical hy-
pothesis on which those laws seem to be founded or of which they are
the exponents.

From a comparison of the several distances of the planets, taking five-
ninths of the distance of Neptune from the center of attraction and five-
ninths of this product, &c., he finds among the several terms of the
geometrical series thus formed, those which represent the relative dis-
tance of Saturn and Jupiter, also a position among the asteroids and
those which represent the distance of Mars, and of Mercury in aphelion.
There are, however, in the geometrical series just mentioned, terms
which do not find their correspondences in the series of distances of the
planets, but which the author very ingeniously supplies by attributing
to certain of the planets the characteristic of half planets, the term
pertaining to them being indicative of the distance between the two
planets at which their masses would be united.

Section ILL exhibits an explanation of the phenomena founded on the
nebular hypothesis of La Place, which seems to reconcile and account
for the laws in question as well as a number of other phenomena.

Approximation to these laws have, from time to time, been exhibited
by the author of this paper to the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science at several of its meetings, beginning with that at
New Haven, in 1850; but it is only within the past few months that the
entire form and consistency of the results have been quite fully made out.
The principal part of the memoir was read before the National Acad-
emy of Sciences at its meeting in April, 1873, and some additional por-
tions of the same at the meeting in April, 1874. In accordance with
usage in such cases, the work was accepted for publication in the
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.

3. The Winds of the Globe, by the late Prof. J. H. Coffin, prepared at
the expense of the Institution, relative to which further information. will
be given under the head of meteorology. Of this, 250 quarto pages
have been stereotyped, and the whole work, which will form an entire
volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, will be published
during the year 1875.

4, The Temperature-Tables of the North American Continent, prepared

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

at the expense of the Institution, under the direction of Mr. C. A. Schott.
Of this, 100 pages have been stereotyped.

Of the octavo publications there are in press:

i. The monograph on the American Vespide or wasps, by Professor
de Saussure, of Geneva. Of this a full account was given in the last
report. The rapidity of printing in this case is diminished by the neces-
sity of sending the proof-sheets to Switzerland. The work has been
stereotyped as far as the 236th page, and we trust will be completed in
the course of a few months.

The Botanical Index, of which a notice was given in the Report for
1870, has been commenced, and 72 pages printed. This work is a com-
plete index to all the species of plants of North America, with their
synonyms, and all descriptions and important references to them. It is
intended to facilitate the labors of working botanists, especially in the
study of our western plants, the search for what has been written in
regard to them requiring in many cases nearly as much time and labor
as all the rest of their work.

As a further contribution to the “Constants of Nature” mentioned in
the last report, Prof. F. W. Clarke has furnished an additional series of
tables of specific heat and of expansion by heat for solids and liquids.
We have also received from our collaborator, Prof. John L. LeConte, of
the University of California, a series of constants relative to the weight
of air, pressure of the atmosphere, length of seconds, pendulum-velocity
generated by gravity in a mean solar second of time at various places,
velocity of sound, &c. It is the intention of the Institution to continue
this work, and to endeavor to enlist other co-laborers in its prosecution.

RESEARCHES.

Meteorology.—It was stated in the last report that the meteorological
system of records by voluntary observers, which had been in operation
under the direction of the Institution for about twenty-five years, had
been transferred to the signal-ofifice of the War Department, under Gen-
eral A. J. Myer. This transfer was made in accordance with the general
policy of the Institution, namely, that of abandoning any field of enter-
prise as soon as the work could be done as well through other agencies,
thus reserving the energy of the establishment for labors which required
more aid in their accomplishment. We think this transfer has received
the approbation of observers generally; who also, while they are now
co-operating with the Signal-Service, still keep up their correspondence
with the Institution on subjects of general scientific interest. The
labors of the Institution in the line of meteorology are now confined
to working up the material which it has collected during the last
quarter of a century. The materials, however, are not limited to that
period, but embrace everything that could be obtained on the subject
from the records of previous observers.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

The first work of this class which has been published is that of the
the Rain-fall. It included all the material which had been collected
down to 1866. It is now proposed to publish a new edition of this
work, containing the additions since made, with improved maps, on a
larger scale.

The next work of the same class is that on the Winds of the Globe,
comprising the result of the discussion of not only the observations
made under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution in the United
States, but of those of every other part of the world of which the records
were attainable. This work, to which the labors of Prof. J. H. Coffin, of
Lafayette College, were for many years devoted, was nearly completed
at the time of his death, has been continued by his son, Prof. Selden
J. Coffin, and is now in the press. Very little, however, was done by
the elder Coffin in the way of stating, in general propositions, the results
contained in the large number of tables which he had elaborated. To
supply this deficiency the Institution has fortunately been enabled to
avail itself of the assistance of Dr. A. Woeikof, member of the Geo-
graphical Society of Russia, and late secretary of its meteorological
commission, who, visiting this country for the study of its climatology,
cheerfully undertook the required task.

The printing of this work is very expensive. It will occupy an entire
volume of the Smithsonian Contributions, and comprise upward of 600
quarto pages of tabular matter, besides the letter-press. It will, how-
ever, we are confident, form a contribution to knowledge which will
be a lasting monument to the industry of Professor Coffin and to the
policy of the Smithsonian Institution.

The next work of the same class is that on the Temperature of the
United States. It has been in progress at the expense of the Institu-
tion for a number of years. It includes the result of the discussion of
all the observations which have been made in this country from the
earliest times down to the present. It is illustrated by three maps of
isothermal spaces—one exhibiting the annual, another the summer, and
the third the winter distribution of temperature—and a number of
diagrams incorporated in the text. It has been from the first under
the direction of Prof. Charles A. Schott, of the Coast Survey, assisted
by a number of computors, at the expense of the Smithson fund. The
maps have been drawn and are in the hands of the engraver, and the
whole work will be printed and distributed during the present year. It
will form the first trustworthy approximation to an exhibition of the
temperature of the various portions of the United States which has ever
been published. The preparation of it has been more expensive than
any other work ever undertaken by the Institution.

Another work in progress is that relative to the geographical distri-
bution in the United States of thunder-storms, the frequency of their
occurrence in différent seasons, and effects produced by discharges of
lightning, as compiled from all the records of the Institution during

28

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

twenty-five years. The preliminary labor was the collection and arrange-
meut of a full list of stations at which thunder-storms have been recorded,
the number of observations at each place, the time of beginning and
ending of each storm, and the whole number of thunder-storms occur-
ring in each year, and during the whole time at each place. From these
data the relative frequency of thunder-storms in different parts of the
country can be determined; also their relative frequency in different
seasons and years, as well as the extent of the area over which they
occur on the same day. The attending casualties, collected from all the
observations made by several hundred observers during a period of
twenty-five years, when brought together and classified, will strikingly
illustrate the operations of one of the most energetic agents of nature.

For the preliminary arrangement of the materials preparatory to
scientific deductions from them, the Institution has employed Mr. George
H. Boehmer.

Another series of reductions relative to the meteorology of North
America which will occupy the attention of the Institution is that of
the discussion of the observations on the barometer in various parts of
the United States. This will be commenced as soon as the other series
of investigations are completed.

Comets.—The first research relative to these I have to mention is that
relative to a comet of short period or one that returns after a few years.
Of these, there are at present six known, namely, Encke’s, which has a
period of about 33 years; Winnecke’s, of between 5 and 6 years; Biela’s,
of 63 years; Faye’s, of 74 years; Tuttle’s, of 13,4, years; and Halley’s, of
about 76 years.

All the other comets which have entered the solar system have never
been known to return, their orbits having probably, in many cases,
been changed by the perturbations of planets in whose vicinity they
may have passed.

The motion of the periodical comets is an object of great interest to
the astronomer, as well as to the general pbysicist, in its relation to
the question of the existence of a retarding medium filling interplan-
etary spaces, and therefore it is considered an object of much importance,
not only to observe their successive positions at their periodic returns,
but also to calculate with great precision their orbits as affected by
planetary perturbations. At a meeting of European astronomers in
August, 1873, the work of discussing all the observations which have
been made on four of these comets was parceled out among the conti-
nental astronomers, Halley’s comet having previously received great
attention from the English and other astronomers; and the fifth, that
of Tuttle, discovered by an American astronomer, was left to be worked
out in this country. This task has been undertaken at the expense of
the Smithsonian Institution, under the direction of Prof. Ormond Stone,
late of the National Observatory, and now professor of astronomy in the

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

University of Cincinnati. Professor Stone has chosen for this work a
number of assistants, and will proceed with the reduction and discussion
of the observations made on this comet at its several returns as rapidly
as his other labors will permit.

The perturbations of the first order have been calculated, and the zero
stars used in determining the place of the comet at the time of its last
return in 1871 have been re-observed with the Washington meridian
circle. An accurate determination of the orbit traversed by this comet
in 1871, as based on the corrected position of these stars, has been in
part completed.

In this connection it may be interesting to state that of the one hundred
and forty* asteroids discovered during this century, forty-two were first
observed by American astronomers. It is not enough, however, that
these bodies should be noted as planets, and their positions marked in
the heavens for a given epoch; it is also necessary that their orbits
should be accurately determined, and an ephemeris of each of them cal-
culated by which its place can be ascertained at any future time. This
work, however, is one, as it were, of approximation, and mnst be con-
tinued through,a series of revolutions of each planet. In regard to the
asteroids discovered in Europe, the investigation of them is under the
charge of European astronomers; while for the investigation of those
discovered in America, Congress has made an appropriation for the last
three years, to be expended under the direction of Professor Coffin,
director of the American Nautical Almanac.

Efficiency of steam-heaters—Another investigation, at the partial ex-
pense of the Smithsonian Institution, has been undertaken under the
direction of General W. B. Franklin, late of the United States Army,
at the Colt’s Fire-Arms Manufacturing Company, Hartford, Conn., by
Mr. C. B. Richards, of which the following is an account:

The experiments which are proposed will be in continuation of two
series already made, to ascertain the relative efficiency of the different
kinds of steam-heaters used for warming buildings, and to determine
also the laws of their operation. The first series related to what are
known as “ direct radiators,” and in these the heaters were exposed in a
large room whose temperature could be changed and regulated as desired.
In the second series the heaters were of the kind called “ indirect radi-
ators,” and were inclosed in a flue through which currents of air were
passed. The initial and final temperatures, the barometric pressure,
and the moisture of the air were noted, and the quantity passed through
the flue was measured by a Casella meter.

In both series the pressure of the steam was measured by an accurate
mereury column, and its temperature was noted, while the heating effect
of the heater was calculated from data obtained by collecting, cooling,
and weighing the water of condensation obtained from the steam which
was passed through the heater.

*Since the above was written two additional asteroids have been discovered.

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Very satisfactory and consistent results were arrived at from the first
series. But in the second series, the cost of the apparatus, the many
different cireumstanees which it was necessary to take into account,
the consequent greater care and time required in the investigation, and
alack of money with which to pursue the inquiry to the proper point,
prevented the establishment of trustworthy data.

The importance of deciding the questions which it is the specific ob-
ject of these experiments to answer need not be urged. There is, how-
ever, one interesting circumstance which, among others, was observed,
and which may be of importance outside the principal question. This
relates to the determination of the condition of the steam as regards
its dryness when it entered the heating apparatus; and, as a small
quantity of steam was occasionally allowed to escape after it had passed
through the heater, (in order to carry off air,) it was also desirable to
ascertain whether any very considerable amount of water, in the condi-
tion of mist, was carried away by this escaping steam.

Hirn’s method was employed in these determinations. Although the
apparatus for this purpose was crude, and for precise experiments would
require to be much improved, the experiments seemed to indicate clearly
that the steam was nearly if not quite as dry, after passing over the
condensing surface of the heater, as before; that is to say, its ‘ misti-
ness” was not increased by its passage over a large extent of condensing
surface. These results, if fully verified by a longer series of experi-
ments with better apparatus, would indicate that there is a fallacy in
the generally-entertained idea that “wet steam” is supplied to an
engine if the originally dry steam is led through a long pipe.

The records of the experiments are voluminous, and it is intended to
tabulate them, and to represent the results by curves when the whole
are completed. \

Hlevations.—It has been mentioned in previous reports that the In-
stitution has been at considerable expense in collecting the profiles of
canal, railroad, and other surveys, in order to the construction of a to-
pographical map of the United States. The charge of this work was
given to Mr. Nicholson, topographer to the Post-Office Department, but,
owing to the absorbing nature of his official duties, he has been unable
up to this time to complete it. In‘the mean while Mr. Gardner, of the
Hayden expedition, has rendered an important service to this investiga-
tion by settling, through critical comparison of various surveys, the actual
height of several important places in the interior, which will hereafter
serve as points of departure for other surveys.

Natural History and Ethnology.—V arious researches have been made
in natural history and ethnology, the aetual expense of which has
been defrayed by the Institution, without salary, however, to the person
in charge of the work; an account of which will be given in a subse-
quent part of the report.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES.

The Smithsonian system of international exchange still continues to
render an important service to the advance of civilization, and emphat-
ically to carry out the second clause of the will of Smithson for the in-
crease and diffusion of knowledge among men—that is, mankind. It is
the medium of exchange of literary and scientific materials between the
United States and all foreign countries.

The effect of this system on the diffusion of knowledge can scarcely
be too highly estimated. Thousands of works, containing the details of
the latest inventions and discoveries, are through its means annually
brought to this country, while a knowledge through the same medium
is disseminated abroad of everything that is doing in the United States
to promote a higher civilization.

As an evidence of the high estimation in which this part of the opera-
tions of the Institution is regarded, we may again mention that the
Smithsonian packages are passed through all the custom-houses of the
world free of duty and without examination, and, moreover, that they
are transmitted free of cost by the principal transportation companies,
namely :

Pacific Mail Steamship Company.

Panama Railroad Company.

Pacific Steam Navigation Com-
pany.

New York and Mexico Steamship
Company.

New York and Brazil Steamship
Company.

North German Lloyd Steamship
Company.

Hamburg American Packet Com-
pany.

French Transatlantic Company.

North Baltic Lloyd Steamship
Company.

Inman Steamship Company.

Cunard Steamship Company.

Anchor Steamship Company.

The special thanks of the Institution are again due to the above-men-
tioned companies for their enlightened liberality.
The following are the foreign centers of reception and distribution of

the Smithsonian exchanges:

London—Agent, William Wesley, 28 Essex street, Strand.
Paris—G. Bossange, 16 rue du 4 Septembre.

Leipsic—Dr. Felix Fliigel, 12 Sidonien Strasse.

St. Petersburg—L. Watkins & Co., 10 Admiralty Place.

Amsterdam—F, Miller.

Milan—U. Hoepli, 591 Galeria Cristoforia.

Harlem—Prof. Baumhauer.

Christiana—Royal University of Norway.
Stockholm—Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Copenhagen—Royal Danish Society.

The following table exhibits the number of foreign establishments:
with which the Institution is at present in correspondence, or, in other
words, to which it sends publications and from which it receives others
in return :

22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Number of Foreign Corresponding Institutions.

pemedenl | 2iei uct t sc. sees! 86.| Balen. or Soe seems ot <, plo
Ik ANA te eR Serra nals Bask <Deaeo 24 )| rane: sao - salsa saeieee etic ses. = 274
Hceland =o. ..bo-os<setotee ones eee ee 2 | Ttalyi cake esemeeeeaetec emer 169
Wenmaric.- 2. ss2z eosin cee teee eee Wi Sort lals non. 52 se ee Cee eee 20
FROGS Succes ccd seen ce etlaacueces,, GUNS Spallienc tac 4s. - eee eet 12
Holland «ss seas e ee eee oe 65 | Great Britain and Ireland...--. -. S42 1357)
Germany = ss asset bonceto st eceerks 622)\;SouthvAm erica: -- = eeeseeee a 40
Greece Bae eee eee eee eee Go WeStsIRUlOS: sc cnc oe Cee ff
Parkey-csonee eae ee eee es See e eae 1) Mexicosis-ce.2 <=... -saeeteeeeeereee = 10
Adrica sss hse S ee atees fe ee eee ss 23) CenbralvAmenica,.<«. soc foee seer oe oe 1
NEVE gee a Se ee Se See AD ABTItisheAmMerica,....-+--sSee eee ee 27
Australia: oeee soto aces oon eee Q7>|\"Generalts ste ssa 3 coco 5
New Zealand seas. Sose eye Sse es 13
Polynestaiscce -2- 4. Joc ecee nse cae ai 2 DOA ic senjo sce: wie woe eee aO
SwitzéerlandMens) so.. on eoe ones ool 69

The table in itself is interesting as indicating the relative attention
given to literature and science at the present day in the different coun-
tries of the world.

During the past year 4,326 packages, each containing several articles,
have been received from abroad for distribution to institutions and
individuals in this country.

One hundred and forty-one boxes, averaging 7 cubic feet each, with a
total weight of 29,600 pounds, were sent abroad by the Institution dur-
ing the year, viz: To Germany, 40; England, 30; Sweden, 5; Norway,
3; Denmark and Iceland, 4; France, 11; Russia, 7; Holland, 5; Bel-
gium,5; Australia, 11; Italy,3; Cuba,2; Brazil, 3; Liberia,1; Egypt,
1; Canada, 10.

The total number of separate parcels contained in these boxes was
about 10,000.

To facilitate the business of the exchanges, the following rules have
been adopted:

1. Every package, without exception, must be enveloped in strong
paper, and secured so as to bear separate transportation by express or
otherwise. :

2. The address of the institution or individual, for whom the package
is intended, must be written legibly on the cover, and the name of the
sender on one corner of the same.

3. No single package must exceed the half of a cubic foot in bulk.

4, A detailed list of addresses of all the parcels sent, with their con-
tents, must accompany them.

5. No letter or other communication can be allowed in the parcel,
excepting such as relates exclusively to the contents of the package.

6. All packages must be delivered in Washington free of freight and
other expenses.

7. Every parcel should contain a blank acknowledgment, to be signed
and returned, either through the agent of the Institution, or, what is
still better, through the mail, to the sender. Should exchanges be de-
sired for what is sent, the fact should be explicitly stated on the list of
the contents of the package. Much disappointment is frequently ex-
pressed at the absence of any return in kind for transmissions; but un-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 20

less these are specifically asked for they will fail in many instances to
be made. It will facilitate the labors of the Institution very greatly if
the number corresponding to the several addresses in the Smithsonian
printed catalogue* be marked on the face of each parcel; and for this
purpose a copy of the catalogue will be forwarded to all who apply for it.

Specimens of natural history will not be received for transmission un-
less with a previous understanding as to their character and bulk.

8. Unless all these conditions are complied with the parcels will not
be forwarded from the Institution; and, on the failure to comply with
the first and second conditions, will be returned to the sender for cor-
rection.

The operations of the system of exchange have increased from year
to year, aud notwithstanding the liberal assistance received from trans-
portation companies, it now absorbs nearly a seventh part of the entire
income of the establishment. In order to improve its efficiency and the
frequency of transmission of packages, a larger proportion of the income
will be required. In view of these facts, the Secretary at the last session
of the Board of Regents was authorized to receive aid from societies
and individuals in defraying the heavy expense of this part of the oper-
ations of the Institution.

Miss Jane Turner, sister of the late Prof. W. W. Turner, the well-
known philologist, continues to have charge of receiving and cata-
loguing the exchanges intended for the library of the Institution, and of
distributing those for other parties.

The receiving, packing, and shipping of the packages from different
parts of the United States intended for foreign countries, is under the
charge of Mr. H. Diebitsch.

LIBRARY.

In 1866, the library of the Institution was incorporated with that
of Congress. This arrangement is still continued, and is beneficial to
both establishments. The Smithson fund is relieved from the mainte-
nance of a separate library, while at the same time the Institution
has the use not only of its own books but of those of the Library of Con-
gress. On the other hand, the Library of Congress is enriched by an
entire department, that of books relating to modern science.

The following is a statement of the books, maps, and charts received
by exchange in 1874:

Volumes:
OC tA Os OF 1GSS erties siete, oc oi ois c's eye) 2 «5 lapcealats 657
Giartosor larger so. seat. ss ee! thd eretienrapaks HS ee rss es 206

* Miscellaneous Collections, No. 243.

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Parts of volumes:

Getavo, or less. ... 32 seme ot - ee mee ble sealer 1, 607
Quarto, or larger. -7see ae ssa ce oe =e oe eine ee 1, 359
2, 966
Pamphlets:
Mctavo,ior less 22-0 hee tS oe Reem Mote lem eee 1, 962
Wuarto, Or lancer. cette cjeqeieei ae eee on ee 593
1, 555
Maps ang charts. 7: = foo eer pois Be eee eta << 162
Totalreterpts 2.22. sae tes Accietels Aets ee tees Ssle ote 5, 546

Among the principal donations received in 1874, are the following:

From the Company of Public Works of the Mediterranean: “ Bassins
de Kadoub de Marseille. Notice sur ’exécution des travaux,” with an
atlas of 40 plates, (2 copies.)

From the Argentine Confederation: ‘“ Description géographique et
statistique de la Confédération Argentine, par V. de Moussy,” vols. i-iii,
with folio atlas.

From the National Hungarian Museum, Buda-Pesth: “ Monuments
épigraphiques du Musée National Hongrois, dessinés par Ernest Des-
jardins,” 1 vol., folio, Buda-Pesth, 1873.

From the Imperial Archeological Commission, St. Petersburg:
**Compte-rendu de la Commission Impériale Archéologique,” for 1870 and
1871, with folio atlas.

From the Icelandic Literary Society, “Reykjavik Skirnir,” 1874:
“Skyrsla um Forngripasafu Islands i Reykjavik,” vols. i, i1, 1863-1870.
Copenhagen, 1868, 1874. “ Fyettir fra Islandi,” 1873. Reykjavik,
1874, Svo.

From the Universities of Berlin, Bonn, Erlangen, Freiberg, Gottin-
gen, Greifswald, Halle, Jena, Leipzig, Marburg, Rostock, Wiirzburg,
Basel, Bern, and Zurich: Inaugural Dissertations for 1873.

From the Hydrographic Department of the Ministry of Marine, St.
Petersburg; 23 charts, 10 volumes, and 6 pamphlets.

From the Veterinary School, Dorpat, 48 pamphlets.

From the British Museum, London, “ Catalogue of Greek Coins,
_ Italy,” 1873, 8vo.; “ Catalogue of Roman Coins in the British Museum,
Koman Medallions,” 1874, 4to.; “Catalogue of Prints and Drawings,”
Division I. “ Political and Political Satires,” vol. ii., 1869-1873, 8vo.;
“ Wac-similes of Ancient Characters,” 1873, folio ; “* Catalogue of Birds,”
vol. i, 1874, 8vo.; “* Hand-List of Seals, Morses, Sea-Lions, ete.,” 1874, 8vo.;
‘*‘ Hemiptera, Heteroptera,” vol. viii, 1873, 8vo.; and various guide-
books.

From the Board of Admiralty, London, 28 charts published by the
Hydrographic Office, from January, 1873, to January, 1874; ‘‘ The
China Sea Directory,” vol. iv; ‘‘The Mediterranean Pilot,” vol. i;
“*Red Sea Pilot,” 1873; ‘ Tide-Tables,” 1874; ‘“ Nautical Almanac for
1878 ;” and 10 lists of lights.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

From the Overijssel Society for the Promotion of Provincial Welfare,
Zwolle, 8 volumes, 8 parts, and 5 pamphlets.

From the Royal Statistical Bureau, Copenhagen, “ Statistisk Tabel-
voerk,” vols. xx—xxvi, (2 copies ;) “‘ Sammendrug,” ete., 10 parts.

From Messrs. Robert and Alexander Stuart, New York, ‘‘ Anti-Nicene
Christian Library; Translations of the Writings of the Fathers down
to A. D. 325,” 24 volumes.

From the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, Rome,
10 volumes and three pamphlets published by the department.

From the Central Bureau of Statistics, Stockholm, ‘“ Bidrug till sver-
iges officiela Statistik,” 22 parts.

From the Medico-Chirurgical Society of Modena, 27 medical pam-
phlets.

From the Norwegian Government, “ Norges Officiela Statistik,” 1873,
13 parts, 4to; and 4 volumes on Norwegian Statistics.

From the State library of Virginia, 9 volumes of State documents.

In addition to the books which fee been received, we are indebted
to Major-General J. H. Lefroy, governor of Bermuda, a special friend
of the Institution, for a series of manuscripts procured by him during
a late visit to England, and presented through him by his relative, Mrs.
Dundas, of Canon Hall, Larbert, N. B.

The following is a report on these manuscripts by Mr. Spofford, Li-
brarian of Congress:

‘¢ These original records form a collection of the highest interest and
value as materials of personal and political history at a period which
must ever remain the most important era in the annals of the United
States. One of the volumes contains twelve reports submitted to the
lords of Her Majesty’s treasury, by John Wilmot, Colonel Dundas, and
the other commissioners, upon the losses and services of the claimants
who were loyal to the British crown during the revolutionary war, and
who were afterward indemnified by act of Parliament. Six reports in
addition, signed by Colonel Dundas and Mr. J. Pemberton, commission-
ers, and extending from A. D. 1784 to 1789, are also embraced. Thirty-
four of the manuscript volumes containa large amount and variety of facts
and testimony regarding the landed possessions and per sonal property of
hundreds of British subjects in the New England States, as well as in
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, etc. As most of these papers
have never been published, they are the more valuable and original and
unique repositories of information regarding the persons to whom they
relate, the descendants of many of whom still survive among the people
of the United States.”

The edition of the volume of the catalogue of Transactions of Learned
Societies, originally prepared by the Institution, containing a list of the
works of this branch of bibliography, deposited in the Library of Con-
gress, having been exhausted, Mr. Spofford is about to publish a new
edition containing all the late additions which have been mate to the

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

collection. It will also contain, in an appendix, a catalogue of scientific
periodicals, with the date of publication of each volume, compiled under
the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, by Dr. H. Carrington Bolton,
of the Columbia College School of Mines, New York.

TELEGRAPHIC ANNOUNCEMENT OF ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIES.

The important arrangement which was concluded between the Smith-
sonian Institution and the Atlantic cable companies in 1873, by which
free telegraphic transmission of astronomical discoveries was granted
between Europe and America, has been continued during the past year.
The number of announcements, however, has not been as great as during
the previous year.

The following list comprises the asteroids discovered in 1874:

No. Name. Discoverer. Date.

1350) -Herthaleee-)- 5 C. H. F. Peters, at Clinton, N. Y..-..:.....--| February 18, 1874.
136, AmMstriais oo = ooo. M. Palisa. at (Polas sete oe ee sete seer e = ee Lareholsen saan
137 | Meliboea-_-.-.- .-- M. Palisa,yat POM e- sae... ees asses cS) Aprile tone.

1330) Molosajcsa-s22¢ M: Perrotin;/at) Tonlouse!-=----5-5--—- == =|) Mayato eva.

139 J7 (Co Watsons: becstcaseee Hoeo eee eae Oct. 10, 1874.

P40 MN CSIW Saco == si M. Palisa, ab Polassen esas e see eee Obs lon tera.

Eight comets have been detected during the past year.

No. Discoverer. Date.

1 Winnecke, at Strasburg... 52. s522:2 <s05s-eaeveosetonsc oes | HebEuary.c0, 1874.
2 Winnecke, at. Strasburg... . <- <2. 5-=.sc0gos 2255.5 csennoee ee AP bed.

3 Cogpria, at Marseilles. —-. -- 25-22 soo c eos case meen cee aa eee eeys Ol te

A Borelly,.at Marseilles: 232. soot nascent eee eee eee Roliyaco med Ae

5 Cogota; at, Marseillés.....\-. <2 25. <= seman eee ee eee ee eee | PAU PURO. Loud.

6 Borelly, at, Marseilles: 3° .2-22. cn. ses\ne se sete EE ee noe December 6, 1874.

These comets, except No. 3, were strictly telescopic.

The number of amateur astronomers in the United States who are pro-
vided with telescopes of sufficient power to detect minute heavenly
bodies is every year increasing, and the discovery of new comets and
asteroids offers an interesting field for their cultivation. The plan
adopted by Professor Watson, of Ann Arbor, furnishes a definite
means for the discovery of asteroids. It consists in studying with great
minuteness a narrow band in the heavens, of two or three degrees in
width, extending at right angles to the ecliptic, twenty degrees or
more on eacb side. At some time in the revolution of an asteroid
around the sun it must pass through this band, and, if each fixed
star in this circumscribed space be accurately mapped and its relative
place be made familiar to the observer, any new object which presents
itself within this area may be readily detected.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 2H
NATIONAL MUSEUM.

For many years after the Institution took charge of the National
Museum only $4,000 was allowed by Congress for the annual expense on
account of this duty. In 1871 the appropriation for this purpose was
increased to $10,000, and in 1872 to $15,000, and for the last year to
$20,000; the last-mentioned sum being sufficient for the present to
defray the annual expense without encroachment on the income of the
Smithson fund, nothing being charged on account of rent of the build-
ing. In addition to this, $10,000 was appropriated for the completion
of the cases in the large room of the second story, devoted to ethnology.
This money was expended in procuring cases in the form of tables with
glass tops and sides for the exhibition of smaller articles.

The following report from Professor BAIRD gives an account of the
additions to the museum and the various operations connected with it
during the past year:

Increase of the National Museum.

As in previous years, nearly every region in North America, and a
considerable number of localities in Central and South America, as well
as in other parts of the world, have been represented in the collections
of 1874; the following summary showing, in a general way, the more
important of the acquisitions from a geographical point of view:

From Greenland has been received a collection of articles of Esqui-
maux dress and other interesting curiosities, including the skeleton of
a polar bear. :

The arctic main land of North America is represented by perfect
skins, with the skeletons complete, of adult male and female musk-oxen,
forming an acquisition that any museum would consider of great im-
portance.

Alaska has been richly represented during the year by a good series
of ethnological material of the Thlinket tribes of Sitka and the adjoin-
ing region, including a number of the stone implements wuich are now
entirely gone out of use and very rare; also, from the Maglemut Esqui-
maux of the island of Nunivak, Behring Sea, a remarkably full series of
their utensils, weapons, and carvings. This addition, with what had
previously been obtained, gives to the National Museum a finer collec-
tion of Western Esquimaux material than exists in all other ethnological
museums combined.

A series of dredgings has also been received, made in the Northern
Ocean, in the vicinity of Kotzebue Sound, and in other portions of Behring
Sea ; a large collection of birds with their eggs, among them specimens
of the Sterna aleutica and other rare species, and series of skins and
skeletons of the fur-seals, &e.

Queen Charlottes Island and Washington Territory.—From these we

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

have received ethnological objects, consisting principally of elaborate
carvings made by the Haidah Indians, a race excelling any other
aboriginal people on the continentrin the skill and variety of the designs
which they engrave on bone and wood.

Oregon is represented very satisfactorily by a series of prehistoric
remains obtained from shell-heaps. These are of extreme beauty of
finish, and constitute a highly-prized addition to the ethnological col-
lections of the Institution.

California, as usual, occupies a prominent place in the record of addi-
tions to the museum, more particularly in the line of archeology,
including prehistoric remains from the shell-heaps, some of them open-
ing a new page in American archeology in the variety and complexity
of the objects, and in their great beauty of finish. The applications and
uses of many of them constitute puzzling problems in ethnology.

From the Pacific coast we have also received specimens of the ceta-
ceans, and an interesting and valuable collection of eggs.

Arizona, Utah, and Colorado are richly illustrated by the specimens
collected by the various Government exploring expeditions, in all the
departments of natural history and ethnology. These regions may
almost be considered as more fully represented in the National Museum
than any other portion of the continent, with the exception of Alaska.
A collection of eggs from Arizona challenges competition for beauty of
preparation and variety of species; also ethnological objects of much
interest.

From Montana, specimens of the grayling fishes have been received,
among which a new species has been described by Mr. Milner, Thymallus
montaniensis ; a collection of birds, and a fine specimen of mule-deer.

New Mexico is represented principally by specimens of Navajo work-
manship, fossil remains, and minerals in much variety.

Dakota.—As in previous years, large collections, especially in natural
history, have been received from this Territory, particularly from the
officers of the Northern Boundary Survey.

Central portion of the United States.—The collections from this region
have consisted principally of crania, stone implements, pottery, worked
bones, &c., from Tennessee, Indiana, Ilinois, Ohio, Iowa; minerals and
rocks from Tennessee; skins of salmonidee of Lake Superior; specimens
of the Michigan grayling, and of the giant snapping-turtle from Louisi-
ana.

Eastern portion of the United States—We have received specimens of
bone implements and other ethnologica from New York, Pennsylvania,
and Virginia; fresh-water and land shells and Otsego bass from New
York; young California salmon from the Susquehanna River; fossil
ferns and a specimen of the Arkansas fly-catcher from Maryland; and
fishes from Virginia.

Florida is well represented by human crania, shell-heap remains, and
other ethnological objects, living alligators, fishes, shells, and reptiles ;

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

among the latter a specimen of Hlaps distans, a serpent previously un-
known excepting in Arizona.

From Newfoundland we have had a series of stuffed skins of several
species of seals of different ages.

From Mexico a collection of reptiles and fishes.

From Cuba a continuation of the complete series of species of fish,
which the Institution has received from its correspondents on that
island.

Central America, as usual, has furnished very important collections,
among them birds and reptiles from the isthmus of Tehuantepes ; speci-
mens of the musical instruments of the aborigines of Guatemala; poison-
ous serpents of Nicaragua, and, above all, a series of mammals, birds,
reptiles, fishes, shells, insects, and ethnology from Costa Rica.

South America.—The receipts from this part of the western hemi-
sphere have not been very large, consisting principally of some casts of
stone implements from ancient mines in Chili, and ethnological objects,
birds, mammals, and serpents from Brazil, as well as a specimen of sea-
lion from Patagonia.

Europe.—The additions of the year consist of marine shells, cretaceous
fossils from Sweden, and skeleton of the white porpoise from Norway ;
also models of the common form of weir used in Denmark for the capture
of fishes; minerals from Saxony; highly valuable specimens of crania
and pottery belonging to the Anglo-Saxon period of British history;
prehistoric objects from the celebrated locality of Solutré, among them
numerous bones of the horse, the remains of which, to the number of
many thousands of individuals, have been accumulated in a single de-
pository.

Other parts of the world—Among the most noteworthy of the collec-
tions received are those of fishes, crustaceans, seeds, bulbs, shells, &c.,
from the island of Mauritius; models of dwellings, articles of dress,
specimens of fishes, crustaceans, corals, &c., &c., from the Samoan
Islands; and fishes from Kamtschatka.

Not the least interesting and important of the collections of the year
are “squeezes” from Egyptian antiquities, and a perfect copy of the
Tanis or Canopus stone, from the museum at Boulak, of which a much
inferior copy was already in possession of the Institution.

Miscellaneous.—The Navy of the United States has very largely con-
tributed specimens collected during the voyages of the Portsmouth
among the Pacific Islands; of the Narragansett in the Gulf of Califor-
nia and vicinity, embracing shells, fishes, birds, and ethnology; and of
the Tuscarora in the Pacific Ocean, between the United States and the
Sandwich Islands and Japan, consisting of the soundings taken while
selecting a suitable line for a trans-Pacific telegraphic cable.

Systematic summary.—Having described the principal additions to the
National Museum in 1874 in geographical order, it may not be amiss)

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

to refer briefly to them again in their systematic sequence, as likely to
give a better idea of the actual increase in the scientific value of the col-
lections.

Of the various additions received during the year, those which are
most varied and comprehensive in their nature, and of most importance,
have been derived from the labors of Mr. W. H. Dall and Mr. H. W.
Hlliott, in Alaska; of Mr. Archibald Campbell, Major Twining, and Dr.
E. Coues, of the Northern Boundary Survey, in Dakota; of Major Pow-
ell, Lieutenant Wheeler, and Dr. Hayden, in Utah, Arizona, and Colo-
rado; of the United States steamers Portsmouth and Narragansett, in
the Pacific Ocean; of Capt. Nicholas Pike, in the Mauritius; of the
United States Fish-Commission on the eastern coast of the United
States; and of Professor Gabb, in Costa Rica.

Ethnology.—The Smithsonian Institution has been, for several years
past, especially interested in extending the ethnological collections of
the National Museum, desirous that this should embrace as full an illus-
tration of American archeology as possible. The results of its efforts in
this direction have been very satisfactory, few days elapsing without
the receipt of one or more packages of specimens. These collections are
so numerous, indeed, as to render it impossible to mention them all here ;
and we can only specify a few, referring to the list of donations for a
statement in full.

By far the most important of these collections were those received
from Alaska and the west coast of America and from Costa Rica,
already referred to in general terms. The specimens procured by Mr.
Dall furnish a full representation of the prehistoric antiquities of the
islands and the main land of Alaska, as also of many of the objects at
present in use among the Esquimaux, the Aleutians, &c. Mr. Elliott’s
collections relate more especially to Saint Lawrence Island, Behring Sea,
aregion previously unrepresented in any collection.

The collections made in Oregon by Mr. A. W. Chase and Mr. Paul
Schumacher relate to the shell-heap deposits, and are quite unique in
theircharacter. Still more so are the gatherings made by Mr. Dall and
Mr. Schumacher from the islands and main land of Southern California.
The carvings by the Haidah Indians, collected by Mr. J. G. Swan, are of
great interest and beauty.

The collections of Doctor Gabb, of both modern and prehistoric
ethnology in Costa Rica, are of very great extent and of extreme value,
and are supplemented bya collection of aboriginal musical instruments
from Guatemala, furnished by Mr. Henry Hague.

Large numbers of stone implements, pipes, pottery, &c., have been
received from the expeditions of Major Powell, Doctor Hayden, and
Lieutenant Wheeler, from Governor Arny, of New Mexico, and from
many localities in the interior and in the east, all together forming an

aggregate of very great extent. Oonspicuous among these are speci-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31

- mens of bone implements obtained by Mr. Frank H. Cutting in Central
New York. Mr. J. H. Jenkins, of Northumberland, Pa., has increased
the extent of his deposits by numerous additional objects. General
M. C. Meigs, Quartermaster-General United States Army, has furnished
ethnological specimens from Arizona of much interest.

Among the articles obtained from the Mississippi Valley is a remark-
able stone pestle, or muller, from the Rev. Joshua Hailes, senior. This
is stirrup-shaped, and quite unique in North America; although similarly-
shaped objects, with the same function, are known in Central America
and the Sandwich Islands.

A noteworthy article in this department consists of a specimen of
ancient cloth from a rock-dwelling near Montezuma Wells, in Arizona,
presented by Lieut. E. B. Hubbard. Dr. J. F. Snyder, of Illinois, has
furnished a large number of disk-shaped, chipped stones, of great beauty.

Of Old World collections we have mentioned a copy of the Tanis or
Canopus stone, presented by the Khedive of Egypt, and, through General
Charles P. Stone, numerous “squeezes” of Egyptian antiquities, con-
tributed by the latter gentleman; a series of Saxon crania, and other
antiquities, from Professor Rolleston, of Oxford; specimens from the
prehistoric burial-places near Solutré, presented by Professor Lartet,
and valuable collections from the Samoan Islands, by A. B. Steinberger,
esq.

Under the head of Mammals, an important acquisition is that of a
perfect pair of skins and skeletons of musk-oxen, from Mr. Hardisty, of
the Hudson’s Bay service, in arctic North America.

Mr. P. T. Barnum, in pursuance of his liberal offer to place at the dis-
posal of the Institution, for the use of the National Museum, all such
animals from his menagerie as might die on his hands, has furnished
Specimens of the nylghau, the manatee, the dromedary, the sun-bear,
and other species. A specimen of the sea-lion of Patagonia has been
received from Doctor Burmeister, of Buenos Ayres. Henry W. Elliott
has procured for usa series of skins and skeletons of the fur-seals. Doe-
tor Gabb has furnished complete collections of nearly all the known
mammals of Costa Rica, in great number. Professor Pageustecker
presented skins of various European mammals. A series of the seals
of Newfoundland was received from Rev. M. Harvey; and Captain
Scammon has contributed additions to the series of cetaceans of the
Pacific Coast, especially that of California, it being his intention to
render the collection of the National Museum as complete as he can
make it. The objects received illustrate his important work on the
marine mammals of the western coast of the United States.

The Vienna Museum has supplied skins and skeletons of several
species of Old World mammalia. From Doctor Bessels has been received
a skeleton of the polar bear, and from Doctor Yates casts of the teeth of
the fossil elephant of California. Seftor Albuquerque, of Brazil, has

32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

furnished living specimens of the coatimundi; and Doctor Nichols, of
the Washington Insane Asylum, the body of a very large grizzly bear.
Specimens of the black-tailed deer and American panther were ob-
tained for the Institution by Mr. James Stevenson, of Doctor Hayden’s
survey. One of the most important contributions of the year, as far as
the mammalia of North America are concerned, consisted of several speci-
mens of the black-footed ferret, ( Putorius nigripes,) a weasel described
by Mr. Audubon in 1843 from a single specimen, which has not been
since caught until the present year, when specimens were transmitted to
the Institution by Mr. La Munyon, Dr. Law, and Mr. L. H. Kerrick.

Especially noteworthy among the birds received during the year is a
specimen of the dodo pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris) from the Samoan
Islands, presented by Mr. A. B. Steinberger. This species is best known
from having been collected by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, and de-
seribed nearly simultaneously by Sir William Jardine and Mr. Titian R.
Peale. It is confined to these islands, where it is nearly extinct. This
specimen is especially valuable from being presented entire in alcohol,
thus furnishing an opportunity of a thorough anatomical investigation
of its characteristics. A living specimen just received at the Zoological,
Garden in London has attracted great attention.

Mr. Lucien M. Turner, now stationed at Saint Michael’s, in Norton
Sound, as an observer in the Signal-Service, has sent a number of birds,
with their eggs, of much interest, among them specimens of the Sterna
aleutica and other rare species.

A cast of part of the skull of a remarkable fossil bird from the Shep-
pey clay, of England, (the Odontopteryx toliapicus,) has been received
from Mr. Bryce M. Wright. Mr. Barnum has supplied, from the speci-
mens that died in his menagerie, the cassowary, the emu, and the
ostrich. From Dr. Gabb has been received a very large series of the
birds of Costa Rica. Mr. J. EK. Harting, of London, has supplied some
rare specimens of the gralle. Collections of the birds of Colorado have
been furnished by Mr. C. G. Aiken and Mrs. Maxwell; of the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec, by Professor Sumichrast ; of the Prybilov Islands, from
Mr. George R. Adams. Collections of the birds of Brazil were furnished
by Senor Albuquerque, and of Buenos Ayres by Dr. Burmeister; a
series of rare species from Ecuador was also received from the Wesleyan
University, at Middletown, Conn.

A noteworthy fact is the receipt of a specimen of the Arkansas fly-
catcher, killed in Maryland, and presented by Mr. Jouy, this species
being usually confined to the western plains.

The most important of the collections of eggs received are those fur-
nished by Captain Charles Bendire, United States Cavalry, from South-
ern Arizona; those from Dr. William A. Cooper, of Santa Cruz, Cali-
fornia ; foe Florida by Professor Jenks, and from Alaska by Mr. Dall
and Mr. Elliott.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ao

The collections of reptiles received during the year have not been very
extensive, the most important being the series furnished by Mr. Gabb
from Costa Rica, and those brought in by the expedition of Lieutenant
Wheeler. Captain Bendire has furnished a specimen of the rare Helo-
derma horridum, a curious lizard from Arizona; and several living alli-
gators from Florida have been supplied by Messrs. Chandler and Boyd.
Mr. John Potts, a correspondent of many years’ standing, has again
evinced his interest in the Institution by sending a collection of reptiles
and fishes from Mexico. A living sea-turtle from Florida was presented
by the honorable Secretary of the Navy, and a giant snapping-turtle of
the Mississippi, by Mr. Boyd. Dr. Reuss has furnished collections of
reptiles from Illinois, Professor Sumichrast others from the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec, Mr. John Queseda the poisonous serpents of Nicaragua,
and a series gathered during the operations of the Northern Boundary
Survey was brought in by Dr. Coues. Mr. Meek obtained from Florida
a specimen of Hlaps distans, a serpent to which reference has already
been made, as previously known only in Arizona.

The collections of fishes embrace some of the most noteworthy addi.
tions of the year, these having been made with special reference to the
operations of Professor Baird as United States Commissioner of Fish
and Fisheries. The most important of these were gathered by himself
on the coast of New England, especially in the vicinity of Noank,
Conn., where he had his headquarters during the past summer. These
embrace full series of all the kinds known to occur in those waters, sup-
plemented by rare specimens sent by his agents and correspondents at
Wood’s Hole, Portland, and elsewhere. Large numbers, too, of the
fishes of the great lakes and of the Mississippi, &c., have been sup-
plied, among them specimens of the grayling of Michigan and of Mon-
tana, including several new species; and series of white-fish from Maine,
New Hampshire, and elsewhere, have also been received. Mr. E. G.
Blackford, the well-known dealer in fish at Fulton Market, New York,
has been especially serviceable in this connection by keeping a sharp
watch over the rare and curious fish coming into New York, and send-
ing them suitably packed in ice to Washington. By means of the vari-
ous fresh fishes thus obtained, the series of casts of the food-fishes of
the United States, commenced a few years ago, has been greatly ex-
tended during the past season, this now numbering over three hundred
specimens, painted carefully from nature, and representing fishes and
cetaceans, some of them of nearly a thousand pounds weight. This
collection of casts is unique in this country, and is only represented on
a smaller scale by that of Mr. Frank Buckland, in London, and that of
the natural history museum of Trinity College, Dublin.

Other specimens of fishes are those from the coast of Virginia, sup-
plied by Prof. H. E. Webster; skeletons of the fishes of South Carolina,
from Mr. G. E. Manigault; specimens from the Sacramento Bay, sent

38

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

by Mr. L. Stone; from the vicinity of New Bedford, by Mr. John H.
Thomson; from Florida, by Mr. G. B. Goode; from the Susquehanna
River, by Mr. T. H. Bean and Mr. Jas. Creveling ; from Montana, by Dr.
Hart; from Lake Superior, by J. T. Coleman; from Michigan, by D. H.
Fitzhugh, jr, and Fred. Mather; from Cooperstown, N. Y., &c., by
Captain Phinney,

Of fishes from regions outside of the United States, specimens have
been furnished from the fresh waters of Central Europe, by Dr. Middle-
ton Goldsmith ; from the Pacific Ocean, by the United States steamer
Portsmouth; from Kamtschatka, by Col. T. L. Lee; from Cuba, by Pro-
fessor Poey and Professor Shepard ; and from the Mauritius, by Capt,
Nicholas Pike. The last-named collection is in great variety of species
and admirable preservation, constituting one of the most important
contributions ever made in this department to the National Museum.
Professor Poey’s collection is a continuation of a systematic series, which
he has undertaken to supply, and which already embraces over a hun-
dred species.

The Zoological Museum of Copenhagen has supplied models of the
common form of weir used in Denmark for the capture of fishes.

The general collections of marine invertebrates have been from Mr.
William H. Dall, from-Capt. Nicholas Pike, and from the United States
Fish Commission, among other series. In mollusks the collections of
Captain Pike and Mr. Dall are especially rich.

A series of shells from the coast of Norway, by Mr. G. O. Sars, of
Christiania, will ve of much value for comparison with American forms.
Numerous shells of fossil mollusks have also been received from various
donors.

From the fact that the collections of insects have been transferred to
the Agricultural Department, not much can be announced in the way
of receipts in this department, all the specimens that have come to hand
having been, as usual, delivered to that establishment. It may be
worthy of mention, however, that the first collections made by the United
States astronomical expedition for the observation of the transit of
Venus, received at the Institution, consist of a series of butterflies from

Brazil, furnished by Mr. Russell.

Of plants various packages have been received from the different Gov-
ernment expeditions, among them some interesting fossil species from
Mr. Ambler and Dr. Stevens, of Virginia, and Mr. Sternberg, of Kansas.
As heretofore, all the reeent specimens have been transmitted to the
Agricultural Department.

Among the more important contributions to the museum have been
the specimens of soundings made by Commander Belknap, on the Tus-
carora, during his labors in the Pacific Ocean. These are of very great

REPORT. OF THE SECRETARY. 30

extent, and promise to furnish large numbers of new species. They are
now placed in the hands of Prof. Hamiiton L. Smith for identification.

A series of dredgings has been received from the vicinity of Kotzebue
Sound and other portions of Behring Sea, made by Captain Smith, of
the Alaska Commercial Company.

Minerals in considerable number have been received, among them a
series collected by Colonel Abert, of Tennessee, specimens deposited by
Mr. J. H. Jenkins, of Northumberland, specimens from Berlandier as
presented by General D. N. Couch, together with specimens from Saxony,
given by Dr. Endlich; these are in addition to the large gatherings of
the Government expeditions.

Dr. Endlich, in charge of the mineralogical department of the museum,
states that, during the year 1874, 250 minerals have been placed in the
cases, in addition to those mentioned in the last report, as weil as 300
lithological specimens and 150 ores.

The metallurgical collection remains about the same.

The labeling of the minerals has been finished, and exhibits a type
of what the method will be when the whole collection is completed.

A large number of minerals has been examined at the request of
correspondents of the Institution, and their qualitative character deter-
mined. Jor purposes of education the Institution furnishes qualitative
determinations of mineralogical specimens, but in no case does it un-
dertake to furnish percentages of the different components of specimens,
or give certificates, for commercial purposes, of their value.

The fossils are being arranged, and in the course of a year we hope
to have series of duplicates for distribution.

During the past summer, Dr. Endlich was engaged in the southwestern
portion of Colorado, in the San Juan mining region, in connection with
the Hayden expedition, an account of which will be given in the reports
of that establishment.

It is, of course, impossible to enumerate all the collections and speci-
mens, or to give in these cursory notes anything more than a general
idea of the nature of the receipts of: the year. The complete list of
donors, with the objects presented by them, will be found arranged
alphabetically in the appendix to the report.

Work done in connection with the National Museum.

As might reasonably be supposed, the magnitude of the receipts
during 1874 has required much time and labor to reduce them to order,
exceeding as they did by far those of any previous year. The rapid
rate of increase is evinced by a comparison with the data for 1873 and
1872, as follows:

The total number of entries for 1874 is 564, from 337 donors, and em-
braces 712 packages; for 1873 tbe numbers are 441, 241, and 680,
respectively ; and for 1872, 315, 203, and 544.

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

As regards the distribution of duplicate specimens to public estab-
lishments, &e., the records show 320 entries; these include donations of
specimens to 40 foreign museums and zoologists and to 165 home insti-
tutions, and embrace 32 sets of mammals, 18 of birds and eggs, 4 of
reptiles, (living and dead,) 4 of fishes, 3 of crania, 5 of insects, 63 of
shells, 12 of plants, 2 of fossils, 106 of minerals, rocks, and building-
stones, 7 of ethnological specimens, and 5 of diatomaceous earths; in
all, 261 lots.

A table in the appendix shows the total number of specimens dis-
tributed, including also those deposited in the care of the Department
of Agriculture and the Surgeon-General’s Office.

Of specimens submitted to specialists for examination and report
there have been 61 lots: Mammals to H. and J. A. Allen and to Di.
Sclater; birds to Geo. N. Lawrence; reptiles and fishes to EB. D. Cope;
insects to Messrs. Packard, Scudder, Edwards, Ostensacken, Uliler,
Ulke, Stretch, Cresson, Thomas, Glover, Emerton, and Holden; shells
to Messrs. Tryon, Binney, and Sandberger; crustaceans to 8. J. Smith;
marine invertebrates to A. E. Verrill; plants to Messrs. Gray, Rothrock,
Vasey, Englemann, Olney, James, and Carson; microscopic material
to Messrs. Smith and Seaman; mineral waters to Dr. Loew.

Six lots additional to the above have been lent for study.

The number of specimens sent out for investigation is approximately
estimated as follows: Mammals, 2,000; birds, 900; reptiles, 100; fishes,
100; insects, 7,000; shells, 500; marine invertebrates, 400; ethnologica,
10; packages of microscopic material, 500; plants, 9,000; in round num-
bers about 20,000. Some of these are included among the specimens
distributed.

It is no exaggeration to say that 40,000 specimens are represented by
the 320 entries in the distribution-book.

Collecting apparatus has been lent to about fifteen expeditions and
coliectors, principally from the stores of the United States Fish Com-
missioner.

GOVERNMENT EXPLORATIONS AND SURVEYS.

The following is a brief sketch of the surveys made under the au-
thority of the General Government during the year 1874, the specimens
from which are to be finally deposited in the museum under the care of
the Institution.

Explorations and surveys west of the 100th meridian, First Lieutenant
George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, in charge.

Nine separate parties took the field in 1874 for operations in portions
of Nebraska, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona. The point of
departure was Pueblo, Colorado Territory, in the valley of the Arkan-
sas. The whole area entered and occupied lies south of the latitude
of the Spanish Peaks, except that included in special journeys necessary

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37

to complete the triangulation commenced in 1873. This important work
was delegated to Lieut. Wm. L. Marshall, Corps of Engineers, who
brought to this task, besides professional and executive abilities, the
experience gathered in his former labors upon this work. The total area
assigned was a little less than 35,000 square miles.

Out of the nine parties, six were moving field-parties, having special
areas conjoining along latitudinal and other lines, and connecting at cer-
tain triangulation and topographical stations.

A special party, under Doctor J. T. Rothrock, U. S. A., organized
with a view to institute further investigations into the natural history
of certain areas left unfinished in 1871, 1872, and 1873, in New Mexico
and Arizona, departed from Santa Fé early in the season, and returned

‘Jaden with rich and valuable collections of the flora and fauna of that
great region ; having carried on, in connection with their examinations,
observations for altitudes of special points within the drainage area
visited, throwing further light upon the geographical distribution of ani-
mal and vegetable life.

Two main distinct astronomical parties were oceupied in establishing
the co-ordinates of points immediately adjacent to the field of survey
and others along the line of the Union Pacific Railroad, and were
successful in accomplishing all that was laid out for them.

The results in the astronomical branches are, the cenuclusions of the
observations necessary to determine the co-ordinates, and the astronomi-
cal meridian at the stations Las Vegas and Oimarroa, N. Mex., the latitude
of Pueblo, Col., the latitude and longitude of Sidney Barracks, Jules-
burgh, and North Platte Station in Nebraska, on the Union Pacific
Railroad.

At the field astronomical stations sextant observations were carried
on by the following officers in charge of the several parties: First
Lieut. Wm L. Marshall, First Lieut. P. M. Price, Corps of Engineers;
Second Lieut. C. W. Whipple, Third United States Artillery; First Lieut.
R. Birnie, jr., and First Lieut. S. E. Blunt, Thirteenth United States In-
fantry. These stations have been numerous, answering all the require-
ments made upon them for checking special positions by a method in
place of: which nothing else could be made available.

The geodetic work included the establishment of 79 main triangu-
lation stations, extending a net-work over the entire mountain-area
occupied. Base-lines were measured at Trinidad and Pueblo, Colorado;
Cimarron, Las Vegas, and Santa Fé, New Nexico. These bases control
the triangulation which connects the belts of 1873 in Colorado, New
Mexico, and Arizona, as well as those north and south from the line of
the Union Pacifie and Central Pacific Railroads.

In meteorology, except at the astronomical stations at Cimarron and
Las Vegas, N Mex., the observations were conducted solely with a view
to the deternmination of altitudes at prominent physical points within
the area surveyed.

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Though no person was actually assigned as geologist, Doctor H. C.
Yarrow, U. 8. A., and Professor E. D. Cope investigated the geology
and paleontology of the Territory of New Mexico. The results obtained
were highly interesting. The cretaceous beds yielded many fine fossil
shells and teeth of extinct fishes, and the carboniferous limestone was
found to be equally rich in specimens. A unique collection of a large
number of beautifully preserved invertebrate remains was procured from
the same formation. These are the deposits of a lake of a compara-
tively modern age, which abound in the remains of skeletons of the
animals that inhabited the surrounding land. Mastodons of species
quite different from those frequently found in the Eastern States were
in abundance, while camels and horses had evidently existed in droves.
One of the most singular discoveries was that of a deer which did not:
shed its horns; and the fossil remains further indicate that at this time
several species of wild dogs existed to keep in check the herbivorous
animals, while a large vulture, allied to the turkey-buzzard, was prepared
to act as scavenger as occasion offered. In another locality crocodiles
and turtles were very numerous. Among the large remains were those
of the genus Bathmodon, which closely resembles the elephant in the feet
and legs, but the tapir and the bear in the character of the skull. They
were armed with formidable tusks, and their crania were very thick, as
if designed to repel attacks.

In the line of archeology and ethnology were found the remains of
ancient human dwellings which stand in lines on the summits of rocky
crests, and on the more inaccessible and remote points of hills, with
precipices of several hundred feet in depth on one or more sides; from
these and burial places most interesting specimens of pottery, besides
crania and skeletons, were obtained.

The mineralogical specimens colJlected have been carefully analyzed
by Doctor Oscar Loew in the laboratory of the Smithsonian Institution.

Dr. H. C. Yarrow, in charge of the natural-history branch, with his
assistants, have added more largely than ever before to our knowledge
of the living fauna of large interior areas. Their results are soon to be
worked up by themselves and other specialists, and the specimens after-
wards deposited in the National Museum at the Smithsonian Institution.

As usual, a photographer accompanied the expedition, who this year
was successful in obtaining special photographs of ancient ruins, of
various Indian tribes, &e.

While the parties operated in the field, the office-force remained en-
gaged in working up the results for publication.

The publications during the past year of the surveys under the War
Department have been: the Progress Report of 1872, a preliminary cata-
logue of plants gathered in 1871, 1872, and 1873, and a preliminary report
upon the ornithological specimens collected in the same years; the first
in quarto, the two latter in octavo. An advance edition of the Topo-
graphical Atlas and other physical sheets was also published.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

The total working-force taking the field without escorts, for the first
time, was 86, including officers, assistants, and employés. The utmost
harmony existed among all the parties, which largely conduced to cor-
respondingly enhanced results. In regard to these surveys under the
War Department, the following paragraph appears in the Annual Re-
port of the Chief of Engineers to Congress: ‘‘ By experience and im-
provements in methods and instruments, the value of the results is
annually enhanced, and the cost of the work amply repaid.”

It cannot fail to be gratifying to all who are interested in this class of
investigations to be convinced that the proper basis for further syste-
matic endeavor has been reached.

Survey under Professor Hayden.

This survey during the season of 1874 continued the work of 1873 west
ward of the 107th meridian of longitude in Colorado Territory. The en-
tire area explored lies on the west slope of the main range of the Rocky
Mountains, forming the eastern part of the drainage of the great Colorado
River. The topographical and geological work included a carefally-sur-
veyed area of about eighteen thousand square miles, much of it com-
prising some of the most rugged and mountainous scenery on the con-
tinent. The southern portion includes an area of nearly three thousand
square miles, the greater part of which is at an elevation of 12,000 feet
and upward. The first division of the party, under Mr. A. R. Marvin,
operating in Northwestern Colorado, established 86 stations ; the second
division, under Mr. Gannett, which explored the rugged area between
the Gunnison and Grand Rivers, also established 86 stations; while the
third division, surveying the remarkably high country in the southwest,
determined 65 stations, most of them being on peaks ranging from 13,000
feet and upward, the highest being 14,500 feet.

A fourth division, under Mr. G. R. Bechler, performed the important
duty of measuring the roads, trails, passes, and carefully working up
the contiguous topography, besides meandering a distance of about nine
hundred miles. Mr. Bechler established 36 important stations, thus
rendering more accurate and complete the general work of the survey.

A fifth party, under Mr. W. H. Jackson, the photographer, passed over
the greater portion of Western Colorado, obtaining about four hundred
negatives of the most characteristic scenery. These views have proved
of great value in the topographical and geological studies; but the most
interesting result was a series of views of the wonderful ruins in the
cations of the Mancos and Montezuma Rivers. The party found here
remains of arude civilization in the form of buildings, made of hewn
stone laid in mortar. Among the ruins were various kinds of stone
implements and glazed pottery, on some of which were figures of the
sun. On the plains and mesas these ruins occupy considerable areas,
indicating the former existence of anumerous population. Inthe cafions
the stone dwellings are built high up in the caverns or crevices in the

AO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

sides, from 800 to 1,000 feet above the bottom, in almost inaccessible
positions. From all the information that could be obtained from the
present race of Indians, these dwellings were inhabited at least eight
centuries ago by a race of sun-worshippers, which were driven south-
ward, step by step, by a persistent foe from the north.

The sixth division, under Mr. J. T. Gardner, continued the primary tri-
angulation over the mountainous region of the southwest, extending
into Utah, and connecting with some of Professor Powell’s stations.

The seventh division was under the immediate direction of Professor
Hayden, and made special studies of those porsions of Colorado that
presented rather complicated problems in geology.’ A careful survey
was made of the Elk Mountains, of the Morainal deposits in the valley
of the Upper Arkansas, and the coal-beds along the east base of the Col-
orado range of mountains from Cation City to Cheyenne. The season’s
labors were in every respect successful, and a large amount of topo-
graphical, geological, and natural-history material was secured for the
eighth annual report to the Secretary of the Interior.

The prbligabions of the survey during 1874 were the Bulletin No. 1
and No. 2, yi second series, Nos, 1, 2,3; miscellaneous publications,
Nos. 3, 4,5, 6; Cretaceous Flora, by Leo Lesquereux, 7th Annual Report,
mean

Survey under Professor Powell.

bis was the continuation of the geological and geographical explora-
tion of the basin of the Colorado of the West in Utah, prosecuted for sev-
eral yearsprevious. Jor this work two parties were organized, one under
the charge of Prof. A. H. Thompson, and the other under the immediate
direction of Professor Powell himself. Each party had a number of
assistants, and to the latter was added a photographer. The first party
was employed in carrying forward the work in Central Utah, and the
second party in Northeastern Utah.

The valley of the Sevier, near the town of Gunnison, was selected as
the proper position for the base-line from which a series of triangies
could be extended to the north, east, and south, and connected with
those which had been established in former years.

For hypsometric determinations Green River City on the Union Pacific
Railroad, Salt Lake City, Gunnison, and Pangwitch were selected, fiom
their connection with railway surveys, as known points of reference for
altitudes to be ascertained by the barometer.

The geographical determination of latitude and longitude rests pri-
marily on the base-line, the terminations of which were established by
astronomical observations. Tor latitude the zenith-telescope was ¢m-
ployed, and for longitude telegraphic methods were adopted.

The material was collected for mapping and exhibiting the resources
of a section of country heretofore but litthe known, embracing many
ranges of mountains and plateaus, with valleys drained by streams

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al

which in places pass through deep and almost inaccessible gorges. Over
the entire region surveyed the data were collected for determining the
amount and distribution of lands which can be redeemed from sterility
by irrigation, and also that of grass and timber lands. The coal-forma-
tions, which had been discovered in previous surveys in adjoining re-
gions, were traced through the areas of the present survey, and many
new beds discovered. It was found that the coal of Southern and Cen-
tral Utah is distributed through a series of geological formations em-
bracing most of the Tertiary and Cretaceous ages. The supply of coal
of this region is, therefore, abundant, and much of it is said to be of
good quality and widely distributed. The position of many of the more
important mineral-lodes was determined, especially such as have been
worked to a sufficient extent to enable the owners to acquire permanent
titles from the Government, and these will be represented on the general
map.

The geological structure of tne region isexceedingly complex. <A series
of formations, embracing Tertiary, Mesozoic, Paleozoic, and Metamorphic
rocks, are plicated on a grand seale, and displaced by faults of immense
extent. During geological ages, and continued down to later periods,
this region must have been the scene of great voleanic activity. Exten-
sive fields of eruptive matter and large numbers of volcanic cones are
exhibited. In many places there exist great escarpments, forming cafion-
walls and lines of cliffs, exhibiting with great perfection the superposi-
tion and structure of rocks, from which interesting geological deduc-
tions can be made. ;

The great system of monoclinal folds and faults discovered in former
years, crossing the grand canon of the Colorado, was found to be extended
into the region of this year’s survey. The lithological geology wag
studied so far as the opportunities permitted, and large collections of
rocks made, especially of the volcanic formations widely distributed in
geological succession. From the sedimentary rocks fossils were obtained
abundantly sufficient to indicate the ancient flora and fauna of the
region. ‘The Territory is traversed by profound gorges, which conduct off
the small amount of rain-fall not evaporated. Although the amount of
water carried by the streams is small, the great elevation of the country
above the sea gives it the velocity of a torrent, and being mingled with
stones, its erosive action exhibits effects unequalled, perhaps, in any
other part of the globe. On the mountains and plateaus of this region,
wherever an altitude of 9,000 feet, or more, is reached, evidences of
ancient glacial action are found.

Interesting ethnological results were obtained. Two important tribes
of Indians: were again visited, the U-in-tats and Seuv-a-rits, usually
known as the Uinta Utes and She-be-riches, and much additional
knowledge of the words and grammatical construction of their language
was secured, as also a series of facts relating to the naming of tribes
and confederacies, with fresh information as to their political organiza-

42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

tion. It so happened that while the surveyors were among these In-
dians, messengers arrived from the Go-si-Utes, of Western Utah and
Eastern Nevada, bringing information of great rains and of the gradual
rising of the Great Salt Lake, indicating, as they supposed, a great
calamity, and calling upon the tribes we have mentioned to join them
in religious ceremonies to appease the anger of the waters, lest in their
rage and coming power they should destroy all the land and the people
who lived thereon. The state of religious excitement which ensued
enabled Professor Powell to increase his knowledge of their mythology
and religion, in directions which previous to that time had been closed
to him. Onthese subjects the Indians are usually reticent. Believing in
sorcery and that a knowledge of their religion and organization can be
used by their enemies to their disadvantage, they forbear to give any
information on these subjects. But under the excitement above men-
tioned their reserve was neglected, and facts revealed which had pre-
viously been only partially understood. Previous to this no definite in-
formation had been obtained as to their religious worship, or whether
they had any system of appeasing the displeasure of their gods.

A large number of articles to illustrate the various arts among these
people, in addition to those made in previous years, was collected, so
that the specimens in the National Museum for the study of the civili-
zation of these tribes are more extensive, perhaps, than for any other on
the American continent. Attention was also given to the ancient re-
mains in the valley of the Colorado, and interesting additions have
been made to the facts already known. A number of additional ruins
were discovered, and observations made for depicting on a map scores
of ancient towns or hamlets. Copies of picture-writings and stone im-
plements of various kinds were obtained. The ethnological investiga-
tion embraces language, mythology, folk-lore, and the means of obtain-
ing subsistence.

A large number of photographs was taken, which served to assist the
draughtsman in delineating the topographical features of the country;
also another series of the Indians themselves, intended to illustrate
their dress, habits, and other characteristics.

Survey under Hon. Archibald Campbell.

This survey was for the continuation of the boundary-line along the
forty-ninth parallel of latitude, between the United States and the
British possessions. The distance remaining to be surveyed during
1874 was three hundred and fifty-eight miles, from longitude 106° 12/
to longitude 114° 05’. It was divided into two parties, the astronomical
and the topographical.

During the season of 1874 the work was executed in the same manner
as before, under the agreement made between the chief astronomers of
the United States and British commissions, to the effect that the officers
of the United States were to determine astronomical stations at inter-
vals of forty miles, and to survey a belt of territory five miles wide south

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43

of the parallel, the English to determine a similar series of astronomical
stations, and to survey an equal belt of topography north of the line.

The astronomical party, in charge of Maj. W. J. Twining, was organ-
ized in Saint Paul, Minnesota, on the 1st of June, and reached the
point of operation on the 1st of July. The shortness of the season, and
the great distance to be traveled after the work should be completed.
required that it should be finished early in September. The party was.
therefore, pushed to the utmost limit of endurance, and by the Ist of
September the eight astronomical stations assigned to the United States
had been determined, and the line had been connected with the last
previous station of the boundary at the summit of the Rocky Mount-
ains. In four months, this expedition accomplished a journey of 3,700
miles, besides surveying and marking 358 miles of the boundary-line.

The topographical party remained in the field both winter and sum-
mer from the Ist of June, 1873, until the present time, with the ex-
ception of two months in the spring of 1874. They have demonstrated
that instrumental work can be done in that high latitude, even in the
most rigorous part of the winter, where the country is wooded; but on
the open plains the exposure is dangerous. That portion crossed by
the line surveyed during 1874 was found to be an open plain, entirely
destitute of timber, but easily practicable for wagon-trains, except in
the vicinity of Frenchman’s Creek and the crossing of Milk River, where
wide detours had to be made to avoid the bad-lands. From longitude
106° to the crossing of Milk River the country is unattractive, the rain-
fall is small, and water consequently scarce during the summer. The
soil is alkaline, and produces mostly sage-brush and cactus. From the
Sweet-Grass Hills to the Rocky Mountains its character is entirely
changed. The rain-fall appears to be ample. The belt along the foot
of the mountains, in addition to scenery of rare beauty, presents to the
eye of the practical man the more solid advantage of an unsurpassed
fertility. Northwestern Montana is still the range of immense herds of
buffaloes, whose numbers, according to Major Twining, contrary to the
commonly-received opinion, are constantly increasing. This region is
the country of the Blackfoot and Piegan tribes of Indians. It is also
the debatable ground of the North Assinaboines, the Gros Ventres of
the prairie, and the River Crows, while an occasional war-party of the
Sioux may be found as far northwest as the Sweet-Grass Hills. With
the exception of the Sioux, these tribes appear to be peaceably enough
disposed.

Collections and observations in natural history were made at almost
every point along the boundary-line by Dr. Elliott Coues, surgeon and
naturalist of the expedition, although it is to be regretted that he was
not supported by an adequate corps of assistants, particularly in the
departments of geology and botany. Large collections were made and
sent to the Institution, an account of which is given in the report of
Professor Baird. It is to be hoped that ample time may be allowed Dr.
Coues for the preparation of his final report, in order that the results of

‘44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

his field-work may be fully elaborated in illustration of the flora and
fauna of a portion of the United States of which comparatively little is

known.
MISCELLANEOUS.

The Institution, as informer years, has been in harmonious co-operation
with the Department of Agriculture, the Army Medical Museum, and the
Corcoran Art Gallery. With the first it has deposited plants and other
articles relating to agriculture; to the Medical Museum it has transferred
a large number of articles pertaining to comparative anatomy and mate-
ria medica, and has received in return ethnological specimens; in the
third, the Corcoran Art Gallery, it has deposited a number of paintings,
articles of statuary, engravings, &c. <A list of these several deposits
will be found in the appendix.

It may be mentioned that the present Secretary of the Institution
has been chosen one of the trustees of the Corcoran Art Gallery, and
thus the connexion between these two establishments has become more
intimate. The Gallery has been opened during the past year under very
favorable auspices, and bids fair to be an important means of improving
the intellectual and moral condition of the citizens of Washington, as
well as a perpetual monument of the beneficent liberality of its founder.
Since its first opening to the public on the 19th January, 1874, it has been
visited by 75,000 persons. It has an endowment of $900,000, and had
an income last year of upward of $62,000.

Fog-Signals.—During the last summer I devoted a considerable por-
tion of my vacation to investigations in regard to sound in its applica-
tion to fog-signals, the results of which have been published in an ap-
pendix to the Light-House Report for 1874.

These investigations, which were a continuation of those of former
years, tend to establish the fact that sound is susceptible of a kind of
refraction, due to the unequal velocity of the upper and lower current
of the air, by which the sound-ray is in some cases bent upward, and
consequently passes far above the head of the distant auditor, and in
others is refracted downward to the surface of the earth, and is thus
perceived at a much greater distance. This principle explains the pe-
culiar action of the wind on sound, as well as various abnormal phe-
nomena which have been observed from time to time in the operation
of fog signals; also the discharge of cannon during battles, of which
the sound was heard at remote points, though inaudible at those much
nearer the explosion.

Fish inquiry and propagation.—It may be remembered that an act of
Congress was passed in February, 1871, directing an inquiry to be made
into the causes of the decrease of the food-fishes of the United States,
to be prosecuted by a commissioner appointed by the President, from
the civilian employés of the Government, and to serve without salary.
Professor Baird, of this Institution, received this appointment and en-
tered upon his duties.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

In 1872 his sphere of labor was extended by instructions for the
employment of such measures as might increase the food-fishes of the
country; and reports from time to time have been made of the results of,
the work.

The growing interest in this subject, and the belief that the objects to
be accomplished were of great importance to the country ; have induced
larger and larger appropriations from Congress, and the sphere of the
labors of the commissioner has been extended accordingly. His work
is prosecuted under two distinct heads: first, that of an inquiry into
the causes of the decrease of food-fishes; secondly, that of their multi-
plication.

In prosecuting the inquiry referred to he has established himself at
points on the sea-coast where the fisheries it was desirable to investi-
gate are carried on, and, by inquiries on his own part and those of his
assistants, he satisfied himself as to the condition of the fisheries, and
the extent to which they have been diminished, and the steps to be
taken for their restoration.

He has embraced the opportunity thus offered, to carry on a thorough
survey of the natural history and physics of the ocean, thus doing for
the coast portion of the territory of the United States what the explora-
tions of Professor Hayden, Lieutenant Wheeler, and Major Powell are
accomplishing for the Territories of the West.

His operations during the summer of 1874 were carried on at Noank,
Conn., his field of investigation extending from Narragansett Bay on
the east, to the mouth of the Connecticut River on the west, and to the
eastern end of Long Island on the south.

As usual his presence, with the facilities at his command, attracted a
large number of visitors, among them some of the most eminent natur-
alists of the country, who were thus enabled to carry on important re-
searches in natural history, all of them having a more or less direct
bearing upon the objects of the commission. Professor Verrill, of Yale
College, has been associated with Professor Baird from the beginning
of this branch of investigation, and as usual labored indefatigably dur-
ing the season.

The results of the labors of 1871 at Wood’s Hole have already been
published in a volume which constitutes a work of standard excellence.
The report for 1872 is nearly ready for publication, and that for 1873 is
well advanced. The second division of his duties, that of the work of
propagation of food-fishes, was directed more especially to the multi:
plication of the shad and salmon. Owing to the late period at which
the appropriation for this purpose was available, the operations in re-
gard to the hatching of shad were not commenced until June, when
camps were successively established on the Delaware, the Hudson, and
the Connecticut; that on the Hudson in connection with the fish com-
missioners of New York, and that on the Connecticut with the commis-
sioners of that State.

A6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Owing to the death of Dr. Slack, who was in charge of the station
on the Delaware, very little was done on that river. On the Hudson a
very considerable number of shad was obtained and distributed, apart
from those introduced into the river by the State commissioners them-
selves. The greatest amount of the work, however, was done at South
Hadley Falls, on the Connecticut River. The fish here being very
abundant, many young fish were hatched and distributed, mainly under
the direction of Mr. James W. Milner, to various localities in many
States, extending as far west as Minnesota, south to Texas, and east
to Maine, the total number thus supplied amounting to over two millions.

The operations in regard to salmon were still more satisfactory, being
carried on at two establishments; one on the McCloud River, in Cali-
fornia, under the charge of Mr. Livingston Stone, and the other on the
Penobscot River, in Maine, under Mr. Charles G. Atkins. The former
furnished six millions of eggs, of which one million were hatched and
placed in the Sacramento River, the others being transported to hatch-
ing-houses in the East, and the young subsequently placed in the waters
of the New England and Middle States, in addition to those of Mary-
land, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Louisiana, Texas, Ohio,
Indiana, Ilinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and lowa.

The establishment at Bucksport, on the Penobscot, has also yielded
over three million eggs. These have not yet been distributed, as they
are not sufficiently far advanced, but they will be planted principally in
the waters of the New England, Middle, and more northern of the
Western States.

The importance of these measures for the artificial propagation of
fish may be readily understood from the fact that the actual results
from one pair of shad or salmon, treated artificially, fully equal those
from one hundred, and, according to some, one thousand pairs, when
left to perform this function naturally.

Deep-sea sowndings.—Professor Baird has made a series of observations
on temperatures of the sea-water at different depths, the results of which
will be published in his report as United States Fish Commissioner.

The Institution has received, for investigation, from the Bureau of
Navigation, Navy Department, under Commodore Ammen, a large
number of specimens of deep-sea soundings, collected in the Pacitie
Ocean by the officers of the United States steamship Tuscarora, Com-
mander G. E. Belknap. These specimens have been referred for micro-
scopic examination to Prof. Hamilton L. Smith, of Hobart College,
Geneva, N. Y., who has undertaken the investigation, and will report
the resuit as soon as the work is finished.

Polaris Artic Exploration.

During the past year Dr. Emil Bessels has been engaged at the Smith-
sonian Institution in working up that part of the scientific material
which was saved from the collections of the voyage of the Polaris in the
years 1571-73, The results of the investigations will be given in three

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 47

volumes, of which the first is nearly ready to be put in the hands of the
printer. This volume contains—

Part I. Hydrography and meteorological observations at sea.

a. Hydrographical remarks relating to Baffin’s Bay, Smith’s Sound,
and Robeson Channel.

b. Temperature of the sea and its specific gravity at different depths.

c. Ice of Smith’s Sound and its motion.

d. Tidal observations made at Polaris Bay, comprising eight luna-
tions.

Part II. Meteorology.

a. Temperature both at Polaris Bay and Polaris House, the second
winter quarters.

b. Effect of the direct heating power of the sun

ce. Effect of terrestrial radiation.

d. Hygrometrical observations.

e. Atmospheric pressure.

Jf. Winds.

g. Face of the sky.

h. Ozone.

2. Rain and snow.

Part I. Psychrometrical tables, giving the relative humidity, force
of vapor, and dew-point for each tenth of a degree from 32° to —45°,

Part 1V. Astronomical observations.

Part V. Magnetism and aurora.

Part VI. Pendulum experiments.

The second volume will be devoted to natural history, comprising
zoology, botany, geology, paleontology, mineralogy, Xe.

The third volume will comprise the ethnology of the Esquimaux.

The whole will be copiously illustrated by wood-cuts and charts, and
published under the auspices of the Navy Department.*

Chemical Laboratory.—During the past two years the laboratory of the
Institution has been in charge of Dr. Oscar Loew, the chemist and min-
eralogist of the Wheeler survey, and during this time he has made
various analyses for the Institution of minerals, mineral waters, and
other substances referred to the Institution for examination by the
Government and other parties.

In behalf of the Wheeler expedition he has investigated and analyzed
the waters of thirty-four mineral springs of New Mexico and Colorado,
many Soils of the arable lands of Arizona and New Mexico, rocks such
as basalts, rhyolites, trachytes from New Mexico, coals of various local-
ities in Colorado and New Mexico, lake and river deposits, minerals,
such as turquois, garnets, zeolites, plants used for medicinal purposes
by Mexicans, &ce., &e.

Photography.—The photographic laboratory, under the direction of Mr.
T. W. Smillie, has been in continued operation during the past year; a

* For the expense of the illustrations, Congress appropriated $15,000 in March, 1875.

48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

series of photographs having been made of ethnological and natural his-
tory specimens for the use of the Institution, and a Jarge amount of
work done for others, especially for the Government surveys. The
establishment of a photographic laboratory has been of great conveni-
ence to the Institution, and has been attended with but little expense.
It affords at once the facility of photographing specimens and copying
charts and other illustrations, while the support of the artist has been
furnished by work performed for other parties.

Light-House duty—I have been a member of the Light-House Board
since its first organization, and during all this time have discharged the
duties of chairman of the committee on experiments. On the resig-
nation of Admiral Shubrick I was elected chairman of the board. I
was honored with this election not entirely on account of the services I
had rendered in the way of scientific investigations, but principally
because [ belonged neither to the Army nor the Navy, of which it was
desirable that neither should claim predominance. The duty, however,
pertaining to this office has been much more arduous than I anticipated.
Indeed, in order that I might attend to it without interfering too much
with my devotion to the affairs of the Institution, it was necessary that
the board should be recalled to a previous usage, namely, that of meet-
ing every week and transacting the principal business through its com-
mittees, instead of meeting quarterly and intrusting the operations of
the establishment almost entirely to the two secretaries and the chair-
man, under which plan the latter was obliged to be in continual attend-
ance at the Light-House office.

lam gratified to be able to state that, although some dissensions have
occurred on account of the want of definite assignment by the original
law of Congress of the relative duties of the Army and Navy while on
light-house service, yet that the whole system at present is in an effi-
cient state of activity.

It may be proper to remark that, for the labor which I have bestowed
upon the light-house service for upward of twenty years, I have received
no other remuneration than that which results from the conscious feel-
ing of having successfully labored in some degree to advance the efii-
ciency of a service which involves the protection of life and property,
and is one of the benevolent institutions tending to facilitate the rela-
tions of distant countries with our own.

CONCLUSION.

From the foregoing statement it will be evident that the Institution is
successfully prosecuting the plan adopted for realizing the benevolent
intention of its founder in the way of increasing and diffusing knowl-
edge among men; that its funds are again in a prosperous condition,
and that its reputation and usefulness are still on the increase.

Respectfully submitted.

JOSEPH HENRY,

Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
WASHINGTON, January, 1875,

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Table showing the number of entries in the record-books of the United States
National Museum at the close of the years 1873 and 1874, respectively.

Class.

Mammalsi.,. s)2-2 <a VA eyais Seas <1 8 hom alps peat eee

Birds

IRS ys; AHOL Phan OMIDE NOS 5 Seo os6 ce eoes coee ce Soe aed seneor

Fishes
Skeletons and skulls

Mollmsksreoe sees ce tecl aacoetee aseeiactaa ais saan cineca oe
RCI LE Ser ey ee tee IKE ayn fo os Ria ek eycie ste) = Sees ak emotes

Invertebrate fossils

Minerals 2:2. 25: SPE a ey AS Ne etna Pere tea Vere ayn Tel Seen

Ethnological specimens

1873. 1874.

11, 625 12, 294
65, 950 68, 361
8, 222 8, 293
12,514 13, 808
13, 290 14, 408
16,710 17, 062
2,194 2,204
100 100
24,756 24, 757
3,139 3, 142
7,725 7, 727
8,108 9, 178
13, 084 16, 415
187, 417 | 197,749

Increase for 1874, 10,332.

Approximate table of the distribution of duplicate specimens to the end of

Class.
Skeletons and skulls ..----
Miami als) caso) een eee
BTR eset oasecee
We willes Peso ac seer nina
BUSHES 2 se se ae eee hoses «
Nests and eggs of birds-..--
dnsecisve. ae sec Ereemersae s
Crmsiaceaisiese- sass eee
love) eee 4 Sion Rac eeeee
Radu ateSisce coe eee ee nace

Other marine invertebrates
Plants and packages of seeds
Wossilge:: = 25 = '32 52sec
Minerals and rocks-----....
Ethnological specimens - ..

Diatomaceous earths,( pkgs)

1874.
Distribution to the} Distribution Total to the end
end of 1875. during 1874. of 1874.
’ Speci- ; Speci- F Speci-
Species. Species. Species.

mens. mens. mens.
339 1,114 40 116 429 1, 230
1, 038 27990) 1 Olli t ge9 2129 4,779
24,580! 37,885 299 322 24,879 | 38, 207
1,975 3, 220 16 42 ieee 3, 262
2,717 5, 748 54 67 25 val 5, 815
6, 676 16, 770 496 | 1,100 7,172 |, 17,870
2, 748 6, 294 900 | 2,000 3, 648 B, 294
1, 078 2AGS0 a eect te a essa 1,078 2, 650
84,637 | 187,292 | 5,152] 8,000 89, 789 | 195, 292
esata gaaGale te Sane oe se 583 778
1,844 el Oa Echt eral large neg 1, 844 5, 160
23, 370 39,705 | 5,000 | 10,000 28,370) 49,705
4,112 10,141 13 13 4,125 | 10,154
5, 453 11; 152 |. 3,414.) 5,100 | 8, 867 | 16,252
1, 886 1, 969 64 100 1, 950 2, 069
83 812 175 200 258 1,012

163,169 | 333, 680 | 16, 724 | 28,849 | 179, 883 | 362, 52!

50 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTION s OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION (UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM) IN
1874.

Abert, J. T. One box of geological specimens from Nashville, Tenn.

Aiken, C. H. A collection of birds from Colorado ; a mounted specimen
of litile striped skunk, (Mephitis bicolor,) and two bottles containing
contents of the scent-bags of Mephitis americanus and Mephitis bicolor.

Albuquerque, Senor Don Frederico. Skins of humming-birds, fungi, &e.;
two living specimens of coati-mundi, (Nasua, sp.,) from Brazil.

Alden, Mr. One barrel of skulls, from an Indian mound near New
Smyrna, Fla.

Ambler Rk. C. One box of fossil plants from Virginia.

American Sardine Company, New York. Specimen boxes of American
sardines.

Anderson, Thomas C. One package of minerals from Ellison Station, Ky.

Anderson, William. Two boxes of stone implements and shells from
Indian grave, from Perry Co., Ohio.

Andrews, Dr. Robert R. Nine microscopic slides.

Arny, General W. F. M. Seeds of stone-pine and cigarita-shucks from
the Navajo Indians, New Mexico.

Ashton, I. H. One specimen of fossil fish from Green River Station,
Wyo.

Atkins, O. G. See under Washington, U. S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.

Avery, T. OC. One skiu of duck-hawk, (Falco anatum,) from Greens-
borough, Ala.

Bagster, C. B. Specimens of spiders, (prepared.)

Baird, Prof. Spencer F. One specimen of marmoset monkey, (Hapale
jacchus,) in the flesh; a collection of earthen vases, (28 pieces,) from
Peru; a collection of fur garments, miscellaneous ethnologica, and
minerals, from Greenland; a collection of plants, from the collection
of the late Major Rich. See, also, under Washington, U. S. Com-
mission of Fish and Fisheries.

Baker, Capt. John. A collection of shells from Florida.

Banks, T. C., jr. One specimen of salamander, (Notophthalmus virides-
cens,) trom Wallingford, Conn.

Barcena, Mariano. See under Mevico, Sociedad de la Historia Natural.

Barfoot, Joseph L. See under Salt Lake City, Sait Lake Museum.

Barnun, Phineas T. Specimens, in the flesh, of cassowary, (Casuarius
indicus,) nyighau, (Portax tragocamelus,) eae (oanene drome-
darius,) sun-bear, (Helarctos tibetanus,) and skeletons of emu and
ostrich,

Battle, Thomas H. Specimens of abnormal hens’ eggs from Raleigh,
NC,

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 5

Batty, J. H. Two boxes of bird-skins; mounted specimen of great
horned owl, (Bubo virginianus ;) one box of bird-sterna.

Bean, Tarleton H. A collection of fresh-water fishes from Bainbridge,
Pa.; a collection of stone implements from Wyoming, Luzerne, Brad-
ford, and Lancaster Counties, Pa. See, also, under Washington, U.S.
Commission of Fish and Fisheries.

Beardslee, Con’r L. A., U. S. N. Specimens of young of Dorosoma cepe-
dianum from the Potomac River, of Salmo fontinalis and Etheostoma,
sp., from Little Falls, N. Y.; tusk of walrus (osmarus obesus) from the
North Pacific Ocean.

Beatts, James W. Specimens of agates and opals from Lake Superior,
Texas, and Germany.

Beck, Hon. James B. Specimens of minerals from Kentucky.

Beckett, George. A collection of minerals from the vicinity of Wiliiams-
town, Vt.

Beckwith, Capt. N. W. A skeleton of “ devil-fish,” (Lophius america-
nus,) from the Bay of Fundy ; one Chinese stink-pot.

Belknap, Con’r G. E#., U. 8S, N. See under Washington, Navy Depart-
ment, Bureau of Navigation.

Bendire, Capt. Charles, U. S. Cavalry. Two boxes of birds’ eggs from Ari-
zona ; two bottles of Coleoptera from vicinity of Tucson, Ariz.; a speci-
men of Heloderma horridum in alcohol.

Bergen, Norway ; Bergen Museum. Specimen of dolphin, (Delphinus lewco-
pleurus,) from the coast of Norway.

Bessels, Dr. Emil. See under Washington, U. S. Navy Department, Po-
laris Expedition.

Billopp, John S. One specimen of black wood-pecker, (Hylotomus pile-
atus,) in the Hesh.

Binney, W. G. Two specimens of Carinifex Newberryt.

Blackford, E. G. Fresh specimens of fishes: blue-backed trout, (Salino
oquassa ;) striped bass, (Roccus lineatus ;) tautog, (Tautoga onitis ;)
cod, (Morrhua americana ;) salmon, (Salmo salar ;) white perch, (Mo-
rone americana ;) saury pike, (Scomberesox scutellatus ;) Spanish
mackerel, (Cybium maculatum ;) leather-jacket, (Oligoplites occidenta-
lis ;) drum, (Pogonias chromis ;) red snapper, eres aya ;) stux-
geon, (Acipenser brevirostris,) &e., &e.

Boardman, George A. Caudal ene of porcupine (Hrethizon dorsa-
tus) from Milltown, Me.

Boteler, Alexander R. One Indian stone implement from near Front
Royal, Warren Co., Va.

Bowers, Mr. Specimens of muscovite from Ackworth, N. H.

Boyd, OC. H. One specimen of alligator terrapin, (Gypochelys temminckii)
from New Orleans, La.

Bradford, A. A living specimen of red fox ( Vulpes fulvus) from Wash-
ington, D. C.

Breese, W. Z. One skin of crested cormorant, (Graculus dilophus.)

52 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Brewer, James D. See under Washington, U. S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.

Brinsmade, C. E. One bottle of coleoptera from Fort Sully, Dak.

British Museum. See under London.

Brown, M. R., U. 8. Revenue Marine. One specimen of Dana’s coral
(Astrangia Dane) from Lewes Beach, Pa.

Brown University. See under Providence.

Bruhin, Thos. A. Specimens of supposed new species of Vaccinium.

Bruner, C. C. One specimen of hair-worm (Gordius aquaticus) from
Oktibbeha, Miss.

Brush, Prof. G. J. A collection of minerals.

Bryan, O. N. One specimen of fossil Arca from Prince George Co., Md.

Buell, Sarah A. A specimen of asbestus from Maryland.

Buenos Ayres ; Museo Publico de B. A., Prof. H. Burmeister. A-collection
of bird-skins from South America; skull and skin of seal (Otaria
leonina) trom Patagonia.

Buie, D. M. Indian skull and ethnological specimens from Wilmington,
N. C., (on deposit.)

Burmeister, Prof. H. See under Buenos Ayres.

Byers, William N. One specimen of muscovite from Colorado.

Canygicld, K. One specimen of selenite from Kansas.

Carpenter, Capt. W. LZ. Specimens of reptiles’ and birds’ eggs from
Omaha, Nebr. See, also, under Washington, Department of State,
Northern Boundary Survey.

Carroll, Michael. Prepared specimens of the gullets and skin of unborn
cub of the harp-seal from Bonavista, Newfoundland.

Charleston, S. 0.; Mus. of the Med. Col., Dr. G. E. Manigault. Mounted
skeletons of sheepshead, (Stenotomus argyrops,) and dram, (Pogonias
chromis ;) fossils from the phosphate-beds of South Carolina.

Chandler, L. H. <A living alligator, (Alligator mississipiensis,) young,
from Florida.

Chase, A. W. Ethnological specimens from shell-heaps in Oregon;
drawings by a *‘ medicine-man ” of the Ta-ta-tin tribe, Crescent City,
Oreg.

Cheever, D. A. A bottle of orthoptera from Colorado.

Chicago, Academy of Natural Sciences ; Dr.J. W. Velie. Two mounted
skins of birds.

Jhristiania, Norway ; Zoological Museum; Prof. G. O. Sars. A collee-
tion of shells from Norway.

Clarke, Prof. F. W. Specimens of cyprinodonts from Massachusetts.

Clarke, N. W. See under Washington, U. 8S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.

Clitz, Gen. H. B., U. S. A. A shoulder-blade of buffalo, with Indian
paintings.

Cock, George. One specimen of aquacreptite from Chester Co., Pa.

Cockerill, J. H. Two minerals.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 53

Coffin, Charles C. Specimens of iron-ore, with fossil ferns, from Muiv-
kirk, Prince George Co., Md.

Coleman, J. T. Four salmon-skins from Ishpenning, Mich.

Collins, W. H. A mounted specimen of king-eider duck (Somateria
spectabilis) from Detroit, Mich.

Commagére, Frank Y. Ethnological specimens and tooth of narwhal
(Monodon monoceros) trom Greenland.

Cooper, George P. Specimens of insects.

Cooper, W. A. A collection of birds’ eggs and nests from Santa Cruz,
Cal.

Copenhagen; Museum of Zoology. A model of Danish fish-weir.

Cornwall, Prof. H. B. See under Princeton, Museum of the College of
New Jersey.

Oouch, Gen. D. N. The Berlandier Collection of minerals from Mexico,
eleven boxes.

Coues, Dr. Hlliott, U. S. A. See under Weshington, Department of State,
Northern Boundary Survey.

Coulon, Dr. Louis. Specimens of ancient pottery from Central Europe ;
a collection of alcoholic mammals.

Cowen, Gen. B. h., Assistant Secretary of the Interior. An Indian pipe
of peace smoked at the great council of the Grand River agency by

the Umpapa Sioux.

Creveling, J. P. Specimens of California salmon (Salmo quinnat) one
year old from the Susquehanna River.

Cushing, Frank H. A collection of bone implements from an Indian
grave near Medina, N. Y.

Dall, William H., Coast Survey, U. S. A. Thirty- -seven boxes and kegs
of general Peale sical and ethnological collections from Alaska and
California.

Davenport, Iowa; Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences. A collec-
tion of Indian crania from mounds in Lowa.

Davidson, Mr. Specimens of magnetite and of ornamental woods from
Salem, Oreg.

Davis, D. W. Specimen of a root encircling a water-pipe, from Wash-
ington, D. C.

Dererv, J. T. Specimens of minerals from Georgia.

Dickinson, H. Thirteen eggs of the marbled godwit, (Limosa fedoa.)

Dickie, J. A. Specimen of mineral from Independence, Va.

Douglas, Harry. Two steel-tipped Indian arrows from Kansas.

Douglas, James, jr. Plaster-casts of stone hammers from Campana
Serena, Coquimbo, Chili.

Dow, Capt. J. M. A living specimen of burrowing owl (Spheotyto cuni-
cularia, var. floridanus) from the Gulf Stream, 200 miles from the
coast of Georgia; a collection of fishes from Panama; two packages
of Central American minerals.

Dowell, B. F. Specimens of fossil wood from Oregon.

54 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Dury, Charles. Nests of worm-eating warbler (Helminthophaga vermi.
vorus) and Carolina wren, (Thryothorus ludovicianus.)
Dutton, Thomas H. Specimens of quartz arrow-heads from Uniontown,

18 FR OF

Edmunds, Colonel. Specimens of bowlder rocks from White Top Moun-
tain, Grayson Co.,, Va.

Bdwards, Vinal N. See under Washington, U. S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.

Elliott, Henry W., Special Agent Treasury Department U.S. Eight boxes
of general zoological and ethnological collections from the North Pa-
cific ; skins of sea-otter, (Lnhkydra marina,) and skulls of Walrus, (Jos-
marus obesus,) from Alaska; one tank of alcoholic specimens from the
Aleutian Islands; augite crystals from Saint George Island, Alaska.

Endlich, Dr. Frederic M. A collection of minerals from Saxony. See
also under Washington, Interior Department, U. S. Geological Survey.

Farrell, Norman. A skull of large turtle from the Oclocknee River, Flor-
ida.

Fay, Joseph S. A specimen of oyster (Ostrea-virginiana) from Wood's
Hole, Mass.

Ferguson, Maj. T. B., Maryland Commissioner of Fisheries. Two living
specimens of black bass, (Jicropterus salmoides.)

Field, 8S. T. Specimen of fish (Gila, sp.) and fossil fish from Green
River, Wyoming.

Finck, Hugo. An alcoholic specimen of frog (hinostomus dorsalis)
from a lagoon near Cordova, Mexico.

Fish, W. 8S. Asbestos paper and cloth from Scotland.

Fisher, Davenport. A collectiou of minerals from Ackworth, N. H.

Fitzhugh, D. F. Specimens of fishes from Bay City, Mich.

Fletcher, W. W. Specimens of white-fish (Coregonus, sp.) from New
Hampshire.

Fly, Major. Specimens of silver-ores from Chihuahua.

Forsyth, W. A. Manganese-ores from West Virginia.

Fossick, T. L. & Co. Specimen of polished marble from Ingleton, Ala.

Fraine, Thomas W. Mounted specimens of birds from Rochester, N. Y.

Gabb, Prof. William M. Two stone idols from Santo Domingo; eight
boxes of general zoological and ethnological collections from the
Talamanca expedition, Costa Rica.

Gass, A. M. Specimens of vegetable gum and galls from Campo, San
Diego Co., Cal. /

Gidney, Love and Burton, (through U. 8. Department of Agriculture.)
Specimens of minerals from Cleveland Co., N.C.

Golden, H. W., through C. G. Atkins. Specimens of Osmerus, sp., from
Belgrade, Me.

Goldsmith, Dr. Middieton, Vermont Commissioner of Fisheries. Collec-
tions of fishes and crustaceans from Central Germany and from the
river Seine.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 55

Goode, G. Brown. Specimens of menhaden (Brevoortia menhaden) and
parasites (Cymothoa pregustator) from the Potomac River; a collec-
tion of fishes from the lower Saint John’s River, Florida. See, also,
under Middletown; Museum of Wesleyan University; and Washington,
U. 3S. Commission if Fish and Fisierie,.

Gordon, Hon. John B. One specimen of coal from Alabama.

Griggs. Hon. A. S. Specimens of minerals from Washington Territory.

Griswold, C. D. See under Washington, U.S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.

Hague, Henry. Aboriginal musical instruments from Guatemala.

Hailes, J. Bones and pottery from an Indian mound in Tennessee.

Hardenburgh, L. R., U. 8. Surveyor-General for California. Specimens
of borax from California ; minerals from California.

Hardestie, W. L., Hudson Bay Company. Skins and skeletons of male
and female musk-oxen (Ovibos moschatus) from the Barren Grounds
of Aretic America.

Harmer, Miss Helen A. An Indian pipe from Keshena, Wis.

Harris, D. W. Specimen of stag-horn beetle from Louisiana.

Hart, Dr. Charles A., U. S.A. Specimens of Montana grayling, (Thy-
mallus montanensis, n. sp. Milner.)

Hart, James M. Specimens of brown coal from Oswego, N. Y.

Harting, Dr. J. FE. Skins of grallae from various localities.

Harvey, F. 8S. Four specimens of odlite from Des Moines, Iowa; speci-
mens of roots (Psoralea esculenta) used as food by the Indians, from
vicinity of Humboldt, Iowa.

Harvey Rev. M. Arm of squid (Architeuthis monachus) from Newfound-
land; series of mounted skins of Newfoundland seals.

Haskins, Anderson. One malformed hen’s-egg from Washington, D. C.

Hayden, Dr. F. V. See under Washington, Interior Department.

Hayes, Dr. W. W. Two stone implements from San Luis Obispo, Cal.

Haynes, Benjamin. Minerals from Bergen Hill, N. J.

Heidelberg University Museum, Professor Pagenstecher. Skins of mam-
mals from Europe; skeleton, fossil, of Halitherium Schinzi.

Hemphili, Henry. A collection of insects, marine invertebrates, &c.,
from San Diego, Cal.

Henshaw, H. W. See under Washington, War Department; Surveys west
of the one hundredth meridian.

Hereford, Dr. Thomas P. An aboriginal stone pipe from Coalburg,
W. Va.

Herron, J. P. A specimen of muscovite from Atlanta, Ga.

Hessel, Dr. Rudolph. Specimens of the cocoons of the common leech
(Hirudamedicinalis) trom Germany.

Hill, George W. Indian stone implements from Ashland, Ohio.

Hill, J. B. A living specimen of alligator, (Alligator mississippiensis,)
young, from Florida.

56 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Hitchcock, G. N. A skin of bullock’s oriole (Teterus Bullockt) from San
Diego, Cal.; eggs of unknown bird.

Holst, Christian, Secretary of the Royal University of Norway. roe
mens of chalk fossils from Gotland Island, South Sweden.

Hoope & Coit, Port Monmouth Fishery, New York. Sample boxes of sha-
dines (Brevoorta menhaden) in oil.

Homer, Charles F. Indian stone implements, &c., from Phoenix, Ariz.

Hubbard, Lieut. EB. B., U. S. Artillery. Specimens of cloth from Monte-
zuma Wells, Ariz.

Hutchins, W. D. Specimens of minerals. from Lexington, Ind.

Hyer, J. D. Specimens of darter (Pileoma caprodes) trom the Potomae
River.

Jackson, EB. E. One living specimen of soft-shell turtle (Platypeltis
ferox) from the Congaree River, South Carolina.

Jennings, S. kK. Fossil shark’s teeth and sea-urchin spines from Rienzi,
Miss.

Jenkins, J. H. Specimens of azurite from Arizona; agates from Lake
Superior, (on deposit ;) a collection of Indian stone implements from
Central Pennsylvania, (on deposit.)

Jenks, Prof. J. W. P. See under Providence, Musewm of Brown Univer-
sity.

Jenkins, Admiral Thornton N., U.S. N. Specimens of bricks from the
great wall of China.

Jones, John P. A slab with Indian carvings from Keytesville, Mo.

Jones, Dr. William H., U. 8S. N. See under Washington, Navy Depart-
ment.

Jordan, Dr. Franklin. A specimen of Voluta junona and mineral from
Jacksonville, Fla.

Jouy, P. Louis. Skin of Arkansas fly-catcher (Tyrannus verticalis) from
Maryland.

Kapena, Governor. One wooden pipe from the Sandwich Islands.

Kellogg, Dr. A., through U. S. Coast Survey Office. A collection of
mosses and lichens from Alaska.

Keenan, J. R. Mississippi State currency, one one-dollar bill.

Kelly, D. M. Specimens of clay from Little Wolf, Minn.

Kenny, William H. <A living snake (Boa, sp.) from Brazil.

Kercheval, A. W. One specimen of specular hematite from West Vir-
ginia.

Kerrick, L. H. One skin of black-footed weasel (Putorius nigripes) from
Western Kansas.

Ketcham, Dr. Ovaries and stomach of black bass (Mlieropterus sal-
moides) taken in the Potomac.River.

Kinney, Thomas W. <A east of an Indian carving from Ohio.

Krider, John. Specimens of shot.

La Munyon, J. W. One skin of black-footed weasel (Putorius nigripes)

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. Bil

from North Platte, Kansas; head of grebe; shells from the Loup
River, Missouri.

Lamb, George. Specimens of coral from Florida.

Latham, James H. A collection of fishes from Florida.

Latham, Capt. Silas B. A collection of shells from Florida.

Law, Annie E. One box of ethnological specimens from Dalton, Ga.;
ethnological specimens from a mound, Chilhowee Valley, Little Ten-
nessee River.

Law, Dr. One skin of black-footed weasel (Putorius nigripes) from
Cache La Poudre Valley, N. Colo.

Lea Isaac. One specimen of Lioplax cyclostomiformis ; two specimens
of Carinifex Newberry.

Ledyard, IL. W. One specimen of harlequin snake (Hlaps fulvius) and
insects from Orange Bluff, and one pipe-fish (Syngnathus, sp.) from
Saint Augustine, Fla.

Lee, Col. Francis L. Fishes from Kamtchatka.

Lenthall, John. Bas-relief of human head, funeral urn, and lachrymal
urn, from Baii, Italy.

Lewis, Dr. James. A collection of land and fresh-water shells from
New York; a collection of univalve shells from various localities.

Lincecum, Dr. Gideon. A cranium of negro outlaw from Long Point,
Tex.; insects from Texas.

Loew, Dr. Oscar. See under Washington, War Department, Surveys west
of the one hundredth meridian.

London, British Museum. Cast of Assyrian tablet.

Lloyd, H. H. One star-fish and a fish’s tail from Port Townsend, W. 7.

Lartet, Dr. Seeunder Lyons, France; Musée d Histoire Naturelle de Lion.

Lowry, T. W.- One specimen fossil Unio from Elizabeth City Co., Va.

Luce, M. M. Ten specimens of white-fish (Coregonus, sp.) from Indus-
try, Me.

Lynch, Judge. Indian pipe and tomahawk from Weldon, N. C., (on
deposit.) ,

Lyons, France; Musée @ Histoire Naturelle de Lyon, Dr. Lartet. A col-
lection of fossil bones and flint implements from the prehistoric sta-
tion at Solutré, near Macon, (Saone et Loire,) France.

McCook, General A. McD., U. 8S. A. One bill of a saw-fish (Pristis
antiquorum) from Santiago Harbor, Tex.; one Comanché lance, and
scalp of white child, from Fort McKavit, Tex.

Mackenzie, Dr. E. H. R. A box of dried leaves.

McLaughlin, W..B. Specimens of young herring (Clupea elongata) from
spawning-ground, southern head of Grand Manan, N. B.; one egg of
raven (Corvus carnivorus) from Grand Manan.

Mchitchie, Capt., U. 8S. N. One Eskimo dog-trace from Greenland ;
specimens of cryolite from Ivigtot, Greenland.

Manigault, Dr. G. EH. See under Charleston, 8. C., Museum of the Medi-
cal College.

i
58 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Mapes, John 8S. Specimens of mineral (Titanite?) from Warwick, = Ne

Marsh, H. J. A package of pebbles from New Jersey.

Mason, Judge Charles. Specimens of rocks from Mount Vesuvius.

Mason, Prof. O. T. One Comanche tomahawk-pipe from Fort Sill,
Idaho; specimens of betel-auts front Rangon, Burmah.

Mather, Fred. Fins of grayling (Thymallus tricolor) from Honeoye
Falls, N. ¥.; one specimen, in the flesh, of the grison (Galictis vittata ;)
specimens of grayling from Honeoye Falls.

Maxwell, Mrs. M. A. Skins of gray-crowned finch (Leucosticte tephroco-
tis) from Boulder, Colo.; a collection of land-shells from Colorado.
Meek, Prof. F. B. One specimen of harlequin snake, (Hlaps distans,)

other reptiles, and insects, from Florida.

Meigs, General M.C. Specimens of Indian pottery from Arizona; Indian
pipe from the Dog tribe; four pieces of pottery from Pueblos, Tex.; a
fresh skin of wapiti, (Cervus canadensis.)

Middletown, Conn.; Museum of Wesleyan University, G. Brown Goode,
curator. Skins of raptores from New England; skins of birds from
Ecuador.

Mexico ; Sociedad de la Historia Natural, Mariano Barcena. Specimens
of opals from Mexico.

Miller, Dr. C. A. A collection of fossils from the Cincinnati group; a
collection of stone implements from the banks of the Ohio River, be-
tween Meigs Co., Ohio, and Madison, Ind.

Mills, Clark. Casts of the heads of Eskimo Joe and Hannah.

Milner, James W. See under Washington, U. S. Commission of Fish and
Fisheries.

Mitchell, Dr. S. Weir. Specimens of Indian pottery from Michigan and
New Jersey.

Moffatt, Dr., U. S. A. Six Hoopa Indian arrows, (through U.S. Army
Medical Museum.)

Montfort, Rev. J. G. Specimens of land-shells from United States.

Moody, Elisha. Sponges and Indian stone hatchet from Florida.

Moragné, Dr. N. H. Specimens of bones, shells, &c., from a mound near
Pilatka, Fla.

Moore, L. P. Specimens of minerals from Winchester, Va.

Moore, N. B. Fossil bones, bird-skins, and eggs from Manatee, Fla.

Morrison, Ff. L. Specimens of silver-ores from Mexico.

Morrison, J. R. D. Specimens of minerals.

Miller, Prof. Rudolph. Specimens of fungi from Carthagena, Ohio;
stone implements and bones from Carthagena, Ohio.

Murray, Con’r, U. S. N. Teeth of fossil shark, and bill of a saw-fish,
(Pristis antiquorum,) from South Carolina.

Nash, Thomas H. One articulated human skeleton. (Purchased.)

New Albany, Ind. ; Academy of Sciences. Casts of bone implements from
shell-heaps, nee Albany, Ind.

Nichols, Dr. CO. H., Government Asylum for the Insane. Specimens, in

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 59

the flesh, of grizzly bear, (Ursus horribilis,) and bald eagle, (Hitiaetus
leucocephalus.)

Nickerson, George Y. One bird’s egg (Megapodius, sp.?) from the Celebes
Islands.

Ocean Trout Co., Port Monmouth, N.7. Sample boxes of * ocean trout,”
(Brevoortia menhaden,) pickled.

Oldmixon, Dr. George S., U. S. A. Specimens of grayling (Thymallus
montanensis, Milner, n. sp.,) from Montana.

Otis, Col. Harrison G. Petrological and botanical specimens from Gua-
daloupe Island, Lower Cal.

Oxford, England ; Museum of Nat. History ; Prof. George Rolleston. Four
boxes of stone implements and pottery, and crania of ancient Saxons,
from England.

Pagenstecher, Professor. See under Heidelberg, University Museum.

Palmer, Dr. Edward. Two packages of ethnological specimens from
Florida.

Papineau, FE. A. One box of pinned coleoptera from Topeka, Kans.

Parker; W. F. <A tail of black-tailed deer (Cervus macrotis) from Red
Cloud agency.

Peshall, Capt. Charles. One stone knife from Clark Co., Ark.; shells
and quartz erystals from Ouachita Valley, Ark.

Phinney, Captain. Five specimens of Otsego white-fish (Coregonus otse-
go) from Otsego Lake, N. Y.

Pierson, William L., U.S. vice-consul. One specimen of meteoric iron
from Casas Grandos, Chihuahua, Mex. See under Washington, De- -
partment of State.

Pike, Col. Nicholas, U. S. consul. Twelve packages of general zoologi-
cal collections from Mauritius and the Indian Ocean.

Poey, Prof. Felipe, University of Havana. Collections of minerals, skins,
and alcoholic specimens of fishes, from Cuba.

Pohlenz, Franz. Two iron-stone nodules from Washington, D, C.

Poor, C. R. One specimen sponge from Nantucket.

Potts, John. A collection of reptiles and fishes from Mexico.

Powell, Maj. J. W. See under Washington, Interior Department.

Pratt, W. H. Specimens of Helix multilineatus from Iowa.

Princeton, N. J.; Museum of Princeton College ; Prof H. B. Cornwall. A
collection of minerals from various localities.

Prentiss, Dr. C. A. A fresh skin of white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhyn-
chus) from Dade Co., Mo.

Providence, R.I.; Museum of Brown University ; Prof. J. W. P.. Jenks.
Skins and eggs of birds, and Seminole leggings from Central Florida.

Putnam, Joseph Duncan. Skin of Thomomys, sp. from Camp Brown,.
Wyo.

Queredo, John, U. S. N. Specimens of venomous serpents from San
Juan River, Nicaragua.

Reid, J. W. One specimen of fossil crinoid from Urbana, Ohio.

60 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Reuss, Dr. A. Collection of serpents, fishes, and ethnological specimens
from Belleville, Ll. :

Rice, Jos. K. One wiveral from Hackettstown, N. J.

Robeson, Hon. George M. One specimen of sea-turtle from Key West,
Fla.

Roome, James H. One fish-skin.

Russell, Mr., U.S. N., (U.S. Steamer Swatara.) Specimens otf Lepidop-
tera from Brazil and the Cape of Good Hope.

Salt Lake City; Salt Lake Museum; J. L. Barfoot. One bottle of erusta-
cea (Artemia, sp.) from the Great Salt Lake.

Sandberger, Prof. Fridolin. Specimens of Helices from Germany.

Sanford, C. O. A living specimen of great horned owl, (Bubo Virgini-
anus.

Sars, Prof. G. O. See under Christiania, Norway ; Zoological Museum.

Scammon, Capt. C. M., U. S. Revenue Marine. Specimens of baleen from
three species of whales; skull of Orca; skeleton of striped porpoise,
(Lagenorhynchus obliquidens;) embryo of Baird’s porpoise, (Delphinus
Bairdii;) whale’s skeleton, &c., &c.; all from the Pacifie Ocean.

Schneider, A. P. Two specimens of common mole (Scalops aquaticus)
from Falls Church, Va.”

Schoolcraft, Mrs. H. R. A specimen of “ soap-tree” wood from Chill ;
one flint arrow-head and specimen of Indian weaving from Arizona ;
specimen of Indian matting from Durango, Mexico.

Schumacher, Paul, U.S. Coast Survey. A collection of mariue inverte-
brates from California; a collection of ethnological specimens from
San Luis Obispo, Cal.

Seely, Commander H. B., U. S. N. One specimen of poreupine fish
(Paradiodon hystrix) from Fort Jefferson, Fla.; skins of mammals from
Europe.

Seyboth, Robert, U. S. Signal-Service, through U.S. Signal Office. Two
bottles of insects from the summit of Pike’s Peak.

Shaw, James. One box of fossils from Mount Carroll, Il.

Shepard and Weston. Fresh specimen of namaycush (Salmo nemaycush)
from Bay City, Mich.”

Shepard, Prof. C. U. Two jars of fishes from Cuba.

Shepherd Bros. A box of pebbles from Warren Co., Iowa.

Silliman, Prof. Benjamin. Specimens of priceite, gold, and zircon, from
California.

Sipa, George, and Sons. One specimen of peacock-coal from Allegheny
Co., Pennsylvania.

Slack, Dr. J. H., New Jersey Commissioner of Fisheries. Specimens of
young and embryonic California salmon (Salmo quinnat) from Trout-
dale hatching-house.

Slagle, John W. One box of stone implements from Congaree River,
South Carolina.

Smith, J. Lawrence. Specimens of limestone-rock from Louisville, Ky.

.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 61

Smith, R. K. Silver-ores from Arkansas.

Snyder, Dr. J. F. One box of leaf-shaped stone implements from Beards-
town, Cass Co., Il.

Stabill, Joseph, through Tarleton I. Bean. One tortoise-shell ear-ring
from the Fejee Islands.

Stearns, R. HE. C. Seeds of coniferous trees from California.

Steinberger, Col. A. B., Special Agent State Department U. S. Collections
of ethnological and botanical specimens and marine invertebrates,
Didunculus, sp., and other birds from the Samoan Islands.

Sternberg, Charles H. Specimens of ammonites from Ellsworth Co.
Kansas ; fossil plants from Fort Harker, Kans.

Stevens, R. P. Specimens of. Devonian plants from Rockingham Co.,
Virginia; gold-ores from Venezuela; Indian mulling-stone from Vene-
zuela.

Stevenson, Prof. J. J. Two stone chisels from West Virginia and Colo-
rado. .

Stevenson, James. One skin of mule-deer, (Cervus macrotis;) a specimen,
in the flesh, of puma (felis concolor) from Colorado.

Stilwell, H. M., Maine Commissioner of Fisheries. One specimen of cusk
(Lota maculosa) from Moosehead Lake, Maine.

Stone, Gen. C. P. Casts and squeezes of Egyptian antiquities.

Stone, Livingston. A collection of alcoholic fishes from the Sacramento
River, California; specimens of Salmo, sp., from Dublin Pond, Keene,
NE.

Stratton, [. Specimens of marine alge from Cape Flattery, Washing-
ton Territory.

Streets, Dr. T. Hale, U. 8. Steamer Portsmouth. See under Washington,
Navy Department.

Stuart, William Rk. One Indian calumet from Augusta Co., Va., (through
Hon. P. H. Hereford.)

Sumichrast, Prof. F. A collection of birds from Mexico.

Sutherland, John. One specimen of lump-fish (Cyclopterus lumpus) from
New York Harbor; one specimen of Zoarces anguillaris from New
York market.

Swan, James G. <A collection of ethnological specimens, Indian stone
implements, from Washington Territory.

Tegetmeier, W. B. Mounted specimens of poultry-skins and skulls from
England.

Thompson, John A. Vegetable pleistocine remains from Jerseyville, Jer-
sey Co., Ill.

Thomson, J. H. Specimens of fishes from New Bedford, Mass.

Thompson, J. K. Specimens of wood from Iowa.

Tisdale, H. J. One specimen of painted bunting (Cyanospiza ctris) from
Mooreville, Ala.

Turner, Lucien M., U. S. Signal-Service. Collection of birds and eggs
from Oonalashka and Saint Michael’s, Alaska.

62 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Van Fleet, Walter. One specimen of Blackburnian warbler (Dendroica
Blackburnie) and searlet tanager (Pyranga rubra) from Watsontown,
Pa.

Velie, Dr. J. W. See Chicago Academy of Natural Sciences.

Vienna, Austria; Zoological Museum; Dr. L. Reettenbacher. A collection
of skins and skeletons of mammals and birds.

Wahl, Dr. W. H. One specimen of asbestos from Philadelphia, Pa.

Wallbaum, A. One specimen of crystalline limestone from Sagetown,
Til.

Walker, Com’r J. G., U. S. N. One lot of fossil shark’s teeth from
Charleston, S. C.

Wallace, J. One specimen of snowy owl (Nyctea nivea) from New York
market.

Walton, W. F. Specimens of silver-ores from White Pine District, Nev.

Washington, D. C.:

Department of State, U. 8S. A., United States Survey of the Northern
Boundary, (Hon. Archibald Campbell, Commissioner.) Zoological,
botanical, and ethnological collections made by Dr. Elliott Coues,
naturalist of the expedition; skeletons of elk, (Cervus canadensis,)
and beaver, (Castor canadensis,) collected by Capt. W. L. Carpenter,
U. S. A. See elsewhere, under the names of Col. Nicolas Pike,
Charles Weile, and W iam L. Pierson, U. 8. Consuls, and Col. A. B.
Steinberger, Special Agent.

Treasury Department, U. S. A. See under the name of H. W. Elliott.
United States Revenue Marine. See elsewhere, under the names of

Capt. C. M. Scammon and M. R. Brown.
United States Coast Survey. See under the names of A. W. Chase,
William H. Dall, and Paul Schumacher.

War Department, U. 8. A.:

United States Army. See under the names of Gen. M. C. Meigs,
Gen. H. B. Clitz, Gen. A. McD. McCook, Capt. Charles Bendire,
Capt. W. L. Carpenter, and Lieut. G. M. Wheeler.

Surgeon-General’s Office, United States Army Medicat Museum, (Dr.
G. A. Otis in charge.) Ethnological specimens from Pembina,
Dak.; one stone hammer; one Uté necklace of human toes; one
skin bag. See, also, under the names of Drs. Plliott Coues, Peter
Moffatt, H. C. Yarrow, G. 8. Oldmixon, Charles A. Hart, and J. T.
Rothrock, medical officers United States Army.

Surveys west of the one hundredth meridian, Lieut. G. M. Wheeler in
charge. General zoological and botanical collections made by
Dr, H. C. Yarrow, Dr. J. T. Rothrock, Mr. H. W. Henshaw, and
Dr. Oscar Loew.

Signal-Service U. S. Army. See under the names of Sergeants Rob-
ert Seyboth and Lucien M. Turner.

Navy Department, U.S. A.:

U. 8S. Navy. See under the names of Com’r J. G. Walker, Com’r

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS. 63

Murray, Com’r Skerritt, Con’r Seelye, Admiral Jenkins, Com’r L, A.
Beardslee, Com’r George Dewey, Con’r G. EB. Belknap, William Rus-
sell, Mr. Quevedo.

Bureau of Navigation, Commodore Daniel Ammen. Specimens of |
dredgings from the coast of California, United States Steamer
Tuscarora, Commander G. E. Belknap ; zoological and botanical
collections from the coast of Lower California, the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, and the Reviligigedo Islands, United States Steamer Nar-
rangansett, Commander George Dewey, collected by Surgeon William
Hvers; zoological, botanical, and ethnological collections, from
Palmyra and other Polynesian Islands, United States Steamer
Portsmouth, Commander J. S. Skerritt, collected by Surgeons Wil-
liam H. Jones, and T. Hale Streets; nine specimens of bottom-
soundings from the Gulf-coast of Mexico, United States Steamer
Fortune.

Polaris Expedition, Capt. C. F. Hall. One skeleton of polar bear
(Ursus maritimus) from Greenland, collected by Dr. Emil Bessels.

Interior Department, U. 8. A.:

General Land-Office. See under the names of Surveyors-General L.
Hardenburgh and John Wasson.

. United States Geological Survey of the Territories, (Prof. F. V. Hayden

in charge.) Four boxes of minerals from Colorado, collected by
Dr. F. M. Endlich.

United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, (Prof. Spencer F.
Baird, Commissioner.) Sixty boxes general zoological collections
from Noank, Conn., and vicinity, by Prof. A. HE. Verrill, G.
Brown Goode, and Tarleton H. Bean; one barrel of zoological
specimens from Holyoke, Mass., collected by J. W. Milner and C.
D. Griswold; fishes from Waukegan, IIl., collected by J. W. Milner;
three boxes of Salmonide from Sacramento River, Cal., collected
by Livingston Stone; eggs of white-fish (Coregonus albus) from
Michigan, collected by NV. W. Clark; eggs of salmon (Salmo salar)
from Bucksport, Me., collected by C. G. Atkins; fifteen boxes of
zoological specimens from Wood’s Hole, Mass., and Cape Cod,
collected by Vinal N. Edwards ; models of dory used on the coast
of New England, and of drying-flakes, from Portland, Me.; one
model of fish-way from James D. Brewer, Muney, Pa.

Smithsonian Institution; Survey of the Colorado, (Maj. J. W. Powell
in charge.) Four boxes of fossils from Colorado.

Department of Agriculture, (Hon. Frederick Watts, Commissioner.) One
specimen of Menopoma alleghaniensis ; one bottle of reptiles.

Wasson, John, U. S. Surveyor-General for Arizona. One package of
minerals from New Mexico, and silver-ores from Santa Torreas mine ;
minerals from Keystone mine, Arizona.

Waterhouse, Dr. A. A collection of butterflies from Chautauqua Co.,

NY.

64 ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS.

Webb, John 8S. One specimen of white weasel (Putorius noveboracensis)
from Chuekatuck, Va. ;

Webster, Prof. H. 2. A collection of fishes in aleohol from Eastern
Shore of Virginia.

Weile, Charles, U. S. consul. One specimen of boa (‘“ Tigre”) in aleohol
from Guayaquil.

Wesleyan University. See under Middletown.

Whitaker, James C. One Indian vase from Baldwin Co., Georgia.

Wilkinson, A. G. A collection of fishes from British provinces.

Williams, D. H., M. D. A collection of silver-ores from Northern
Mexico.

Williams, Milo G. <A collection of plants from Ohio.

Williamson, Thomas. Specimens of fossil ferns and lepidodendra from
Tennessee.

Wilson, J. K. Collection of minerals, for examination, from Forest City,
Mo.

Wing, Melvin. One stone implement from Mount Vernon, Ohio.

Wood, August H. One skull of the Virginia deer (Cariacus virginianus)
from New York. —

Wright, Bryce M. One cast of a bird’s head (Odontopteryx toliopica) from
the London clay, Sheppey, England.

Wright, D. T. A collection of crania and Indian relies from Clarksville,
Tenn.

Yarrow, Dr. H. 0. Specimen of cod (Gadus morrhua) from New York;
seven bird-skins from the Alps, Switzerland ; Juniperus from Arizona,
and bird-trap from France. See also under Washington, War Depart-
ment, Surveys west of the one hundredth meridian.

Yates, L. G. Casts of teeth of the fossil elephant (Mastodon) from
Solano Co., Cal.

Yeager, F. M. A collection of minerals from Pennsylvania.

Zoological Society of Philadelphia. Fresh specimen of yak, (Poéphagus
grunniens.)

DEPOSITS IN CORCORAN ART—GALLERY. — 65

LIST OF ARTICLES DEPOSITED BY THE SMITHSONIAN IN-
STITUTION IN THE CORCORAN ART-GALLERY, WASH-
INGTON.

1. Portrait of the late Hon. William C. Preston, of South Carolina,
by G. P. A. Healy.

2. Portrait of the late Ex-President John Tyler, of Virginia, by G. P.
A. Healy, 1859.

3. Full-length portrait of M. Guizot, of France, by G. P. A. Healy.

4, Cast of a bas-relief of “‘ Phebus,” from a marble found in the ruins
of ancient Troy, in 1873, by Dr. Schliemann, of Athens, Greece, who
presented it to the Smithsonian Institution.

0. Marble head of Diana, (antique.)

ENGRAVINGS AND ETCHINGS.

. Lioness and Young. Engraving, by J. F. Ridinger.
. Two engravings of deer. Engraving, by J. F. Ridinger.
. Silenus. Line engraving, by Bolsevert.
. Hercules. Line engraving, by Rottsseler.
. A Centaur instructing Achilles. Line engraving, by Bervie, after
Regnault.
6. An Interior. Line engraving, by Vischer, after Ostade.
7. A Family Concert. Line engraving, by J. G. Wille, after G.
Schalken.
8. Holy Family. Line engraving. (Artist unknown.)
9. Holy Family. Line engraving, by B. Desnoyers, after Raphael.
10. Aurora. Line engraving, by Raphael Morghen, after Guido.
11. An Old Beggar. Mezzotint, by Townley, after Dance.
12. Christ Healing the Sick. Etching. (Artist unknown.)
13. Cows. Etching, by Roos.
14. Horses, (two.) Etching, by Paul Potter.
15. Eleven etchings, by Rembrandt.
16. Fireside. Etchings, by Boissieu.
17. Goats, (two.) Etchings, by Berghen.
18. Eleven etchings, by Ostade and others.
19. Twelve etchings, by Clodowiecki.
20. The Nativity and Adoration of the Kings, by Henrich Goltzius.
21. Bruggemann Album of Photographs, illustrating the altar screen
in the cathedral at Schleswig.
22. Photograph of a Memorial Tablet, executed in wood, by P. Claur-
ren, of Satrup, a plain farmer.

~

0S

Poo be

OU

66 INDIAN VOCABULARIES—CHOREA.

LIST OF INDIAN VOCABULARIES RECEIVED FROM THE
WHEELER EXPEDITION.

1. Appendix to vocabularies of} 10. Ar-i-vai-pa.

seven Indian languages. 11. Acoma Pueblo Indians.
2. Shoshone. 12. Gohun, (Tonto-Apaches.)
3. Pi-Ute. ‘13. Shoshone.
4, Pah-Ute. 14. Isletta, (Pueblo.)
5. Pah-Ute. . 15. Tehua, (Pueblo.)
6. Ute and Pah-vauts. 16. Apache.
7. Mojavé. 17. Moguis.
8. Hualapais. 18. Navajo.

9. Ute. 19. Vallatoa, (Gomez, Pueblo.)

CIRCULAR IN REGARD TO. THE DISEASE KNOWN AS
“ CHOREA.”

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, D. C., January 1, 1875.

Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, an eminent physician and physiologist of Phil-
adelphia, asks the assistance of the Smithsonian Institution in obtain-
ing any facts in regard to the disease known as chorea, or Saint Vitus’s
dance, and for this purpose has prepared the accompanying series of
questions.

The special object of the inquiry is to ascertain whether the assertion
that black children are not affected with this disease is correct.

Any data on this subject may be addressed to either the Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, D. C., or Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, 13832 Walnut
street, Philadelphia.

As early information as possible is desired.

Respectfully,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Director Smithsonian Institution.

. To what extent do you see chorea (of childhood) among whites?
. Is it found more in one locality than another?
. At what season do the attacks come?
. How often have you seen chorea in blacks of*pure breed? If pos-
sible, give cases.

5. How common is it in mulattoes?

If you can get answers from other physicians, in addition to your own,
it will be desirable.

Hm Cb

S. WEIR MITCHELL, M. D.

EXCHANGES, 67

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Table showing the statistics of the exchanges in 1874.

eae
= = 2
2 os a
Agent and country. S a a
Og lee =
2 | 4 ie
Ee] S 2
4 =
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm :
Swed eneess ss case + seen ce ee teense s Soa joan colerewiateculs laces 5 39 1, 050
Royal Danish Society of Copenhagen:
Penmarnleandyicelandweseseaersn eee assets «soe aise sae es 4 30 900
Royal University of Norway, Christiania:
IMG@IAT Si" cose Socbolbo seustesses Heecon teccas doepad Socesocesape 3 20 600°
L. Watkins & Co., St. Petersburg:
PO USS ane ae eet a a hana) sara) a eeracehieinies let = caisicciaciaeis a 50 1, 500
Frederic Miiller, Amsterdam
13el YGhhN hts SoA AO Ree DSO ESS SUDO ser eMch a= Boone eae oaaoopeas 5 35 1, 050
Prof. Von Baumhauer, Bureau Scientifique Central Néerlandais,
Harlem :
olan dvamdie ative yee nate t mR lotmciciseyss ae ose) eerie rsesie 5 35 1, 650
Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipzic : :
Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Greece -.-.. ......-.s..-- 40 | 280 8, 400
Gustave Bossange, Paris: ( |
France and Algiers. . Meats wainer ores Bia seteiaisy= Sere wis ete ee es 11 80 2, 400
U. Hoepli, Reale ‘Istituto Lombardi di Scienze e Lettere, “Milan:
ANIA veers tes state seg po) eh a astorisieininmiciaisiavanaiactiiee eee dese o 20 600
William Wesley, London:
Great Britain, British possessions in Asia, Africa, &c.-....-.-. 30 | 220 6, 600
Other parts of the world:
PMUBGLMA aaosco Sachs Sac Mee cee. eee eae o ocise sec cecisce. oa 5- 1 £0 2, 400
@ubatess ss2522 BS Nias = Say eee ene aw bates Sao aa esis lacs 2 14 420
Pera Ze ot eee Sore a nel oe acie sas Meet e ea ese mine cinta ae s Sere aes 3 20 600
IB Oy bie eae ee ee ns oe cise eeatine ai a ncisiai as Dsante clarence if 7 210
ah e@nisige ye aoe ceo aeecees ces StS a cis ceisler mise Bee eeemeaeee 1 a 210
otal Se ee ee Se ses tose ee eeewceeelas Sees moe eons cece iil) SEsy) Ravel

Besides these, smaller packages and live animals were sent to Ger-
many, England, &c. In all, over ten thousand parcels, addressed to
institutions and individuals, were distributed.

Government exchanges.

- Boxes
Ho;GermansEmpirey Berlimcer er tasers. sate ch oe; ceisser se Sele Soe eateic ehatee sees 32
Mos Canad apa = oe 2 eta pe ciece tiatsia 2 aes dee wars also elaptticanrniaa seas bate Se ban 9
POR ADEN = a= see e ashe etapa oh slate tei seni as a Se cralein pee eoni a csite Sees cece face: 5
PR GAC WM es apy ccgure et crea ee foes has castle ree) sclera dtc one staa ees lasiseee

68

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

PACKAGES RECEIVED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION FROM EUROPE,
ETC., IN 1874, FOR DISTRIBUTION IN AMERICA.

ALABAMA.

Mobile :
Barton -AcaAdemiy.-===-t=e ese eee
Tuscaloosa :
Hospital for the Insane--.-.-.-......
WY ers! tye eee ease aa oe = oo aroma

ARKANSAS.

Little Rock :
Institution for Educating the Blind

.
CALIFORNIA.

Sacramento :
California State Agricultural Society
Geological Survey of California.-..--
San Francisco :
Agricultural Society ...-..-----..---
California Academy of Natural Sci-
ONCCRK cece oe Soe] sete eee ee ell
Mayor of the city of San Francisco-.
Mercantile Library Association ...-- =
Stockton :
State Lunatic Asylum. ....-...---.--.

CONNECTICUT.

Hartford :
Connecticut State Agricultural Society
Retreat for the Insane..-.-.-.--....---
lane WADLALY- Sa eee ciate ete eee
Young Men’s Institute............--
* Litchfield :
Spring Hill Institution.........-..--
Middletown :
General Hospital for the Insane..---.
New Haven:
American Journal of Science and Arts
American Oriental Society .--.-.-----
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sci-
BNCES seme Sco ete eect ene ee
Museum of Yale College...-....----.-
Sheffield Scientific School....-..-...-
Nala: COMED Orar = ween an see
Norwich :
WTS OVAL, «5.0 cm nee ere ee ele

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Georgetown :
Georgetown University...-......... -
Washington :
Agriculture, Department of......-.---
Board of Indian Commissioners.----.
Bureau of Navigation .......-.---..-
Bureaw of Ordnance. 22-2 = sfesee ene
Burean of Statistics.... .----..-.<9.-
Census Bnreat=-2. seen e resem ice ne)-seic

CoastaBurveyen a see ee cases e est ‘

Columbia Hospital for Women -.----.
Columbia Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb ee eee eee eee

Columbian University ...--..--.---+.
Commissioner of Education........-

Engineer Department...--- -..--.---

No.

1

WASHINGTON, D. C.—Continued. No.
Geological Survey of the Territories... 5
German Reading and Chess Club-.-..- il
Hospital for the Insane---.------.---- 1
Howard University.-.-..-..---...-- ee
Hydrographic Office...--..--------- 8
Interior Department -.--.--.-------- 2
Mand-Omieeea- =. <= 2. leet ein nim 3
Library of Congress...-----------.--- 35
Light-House Board..-.--------------. 1
Medical Society of the District of Co-

TRINA eect oe ee 2
National Academy of Science-..-...-.. 47
National Deaf-Mute College----.----- 2
Nautical Almanac Office....-.----.--- ra
Navy Department..--.---...--.-------- 4
ODSOIVAIOLY, © oe o-oo ae annie a 68
Patenb-Oll COcceee nein a meee eige tein 185
Rnb WCRSCNOOlS ease sep = ei=eee 2
Signal-Office -....-----.-- Saspisqnaods 22
State Department..---...------..--. 3
Surgeon-General’s Office..---..------ 136
Swedish-Norwegian legation...---.--. 1
Territorial Legislature....-..--- ope Sree
Treasury Department.-----..-.------ 5
War Departiment----.- 2-5. ~~ - nj -ene 11
Young Men’s Christian Association... 1

FLORIDA.
Tallahassee :
ING G thy feeeeiap Onion aos eacecuesacsst il
GEORGIA.
Ih Athens :
Hospital for the Insane ..--.--------- 1
Atlanta:
Atlanta Winiversityese- ser aes =e 1
Milledgeville :
Hospital for the Insane......-.------ 1
Oxford :
Emory College ...-..--------.------- 1
Savannah :
Chatham Academy, -----...---------- 1
ILLINOIS.
Bloomington :
Illinois Natural History Society.....- 3

Carbondale :
Southern Illinois Normal University... 6

Chicago :

Chicago Academy of Sciences.-.----- 82
Chicago Board of Trade..--..------- if
Chicago Public Library --.---..------ 6
Dearborn Observatory ..--...--.--s--- 5
Mayor of the city of Chicago-.-...-.- 1

Young Men’s Association Library.--. 1
Elgin:

Hospital for the Insane....---------- 1
Evanston :

Northwestern University------.----- 1
Jacksonville :

Illinois Hospital for the Insane..-.-... 1

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &c.—Continued.

InLinois—Continued.

Peoria:
Mercantile; Library ----25«2s4s-2 ==
Springfield :
Academy, of Sciences=-2-2--= o22- +. 2 -
SLaberabraly cco miac cae ea

INDIANA.

Bloomington :
Indiana, University.--.25-..2------<

Indianapolis :
Geological Survey of Indiana.-..-.--
Hospital for the Insane.-....-.-.----
Indiana Horticultural Society. ..---.-
Indiana Institution for Deaf-Mutes...
Indiana Institution for Educating the
Blind

New Albany :
Theological Seminary ..---...-...---

IOWA.

Burlington:

Burlington University-.----....-.---
Des Moines :

DUALOMUIDLALY wae c.2- ease Ses eae se eee

~ Dubuque:

German Theological Seminary..-.----
Independence :

Hospital for the Insane.-.-..-......---.
Towa City:

Geological Survey of Iowa....-..---..

Iowa State University...............
Mount Pleasant :

Hospital for the Insane....-.---.----

Wesleyany Universitiyes:-ss-4-2s-e oe

KANSAS.
Lawrence :
University
Ossawatamie :
Hospital for the Insane.----...-----.
Topeka:
Kansas Academy of Science---..-----
Kansas State Library...-.------...--

eee wn e Cee me ete eee eee eww ee

KENTUCKY.
Danville :
Theological Seminary
Frankfort :
State geologist of Kentucky....- ...-.
Stateshibrany: .- eevee oee aa estes
Third Kentucky Hospital for the In-
sane
Hobb’s Station :
Hospital for the Insane.-.-..-.....-..-
Hopkinsville :
Second Kentucky Hospital for the In-
sane
Lebanon :
Saint Mary’s College...-.....--....-

i

No.

1

KENTUCKy—Continued.

Lexington :
First Kentucky Hospital for Insane. -

Kentucky University .-2---sseessec =
Russelville :

Bethel: Collecerc2 2... 22 see
Shelbyville :

Observatory of Shelby College. ...--.

LOUISIANA.
Baton Rouge:
Academy

Clinton :
Louisiana Insane Asylum. ...........
New Orleans :
Eyceummlsibranyssesse seek eee
Mayor of the city of New Orleans:...
New Orleans Academy of Natural
Sciences

Augusta :
Hospital for the Insane-...-......--.
Stateslbibrary= isos aces eee ene ee
Bangor :
Commissioner of Fisheries...-:.-....
Brunswick :
Bowdom_Collegessess- ace seseeeeee
Historical Society of Maine......-.-.

Portland:
Commissioner of Fisheries.....-.-.-.
Portland Society of Natural History.
Waterville :
Wiaterville| College. 2222.)cs--445.2-
MARYLAND.

Annapolis :
Maryland State Library.-.--....-..-

Baltimore :
Loyola College
Maryland Historical Society...---.---
Maryland Institute...-....-...-.-.- x
Mayor of the city of Baltimore--.....
Mercantile oibrary. =o esas eee eee
Newton University... s2-2-sses55-
Odd'Hellows/ibrary~-22-52-24---2=-
Reabodiy Institutes ss. ----seees sees
Saint Mary’s College..--_..........-

Catonsville :

Maryland! Hospitallc-=- 2.2... 2. 224-4

Rockville :

Rockville Academiyja-yeaae tea ee
MASSACHUSETTS.

Amherst :

Amherst; College. -<os5 7.2552 $5. ce

Andovor:

Theological Seminary -.--..-.-----'--.

Boston :

American Academy of Arts and Sci-

GNIGES Sabet s occ 5 Brees
American Sccial Science Association -
American Statistical Association
American Unitarian Association
Board of State Charities

69

1
i

40
$

70

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &c.—Continued.

Bosron, Mass.—Continued. No.
» Boston Athenzum ........--..-..-.. 3
Boston Hospital: oeeess= = eee aban 2
Boston Hospital for the Insane ...--. 2
Boston Society of Natural History -.- 220
Bowditch Library Seen SS Reese aes 1
Bureau of Statistics of Labor.-.-..-. -- 1
Christian PXAMIMer - 2. ansaaceee l= 1
@hristian RePister -- a - aes oasis ~ Sn 2
Gynecological Society .-----.----.-- 1
House of Correction 5----.---=-- ---. 1
McClean Hospital for the Insane -.... 1
Massachusetts Historical Society .-.. 13
Massachusetts State Library ...--..-- 10
Mayor of the city of Boston..---..-.-. 1
MedicaliSo@etye sass.) ae a sae 1
MercanileWilbnar ys ces. oe ee 1
New England Historic Genealogical
SOCIBUYee ena tea eerie sarees 4
Perkins Institution for the Blind .... 3
12g hed Lhe Bee ASS es omcse tess 26
Cambridge :
ANEN SAWN i ea aie(a= claeee ieee ee il
Harvard Colleve 2.25 cae ener an ss 32
Harvard College Herbarium.......-. = 5) wel
Harvard College Observatory ..---. Si)!
Law School Library ee eee ee eteee 1
Museum of Comparative Zoology ..-. 92
Theological School Library.-.--.--.-.- il
Jamaica Plain:
BusseyeNsuitLUblON se ccee= cose eee 16
Newton Centre .
Newjon Theological Institute......-. 1

Northampton :
Clarke Institution for Deaf-Mutes.... 1

Salem:

American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science..--...2--..- 33

American Naturalist -22:-2 5-22 202.=. 2

Bssex Institute. .-2-c.t sees eee 100

Peabody Academy of Science.-....... 78
Taunton :

Hospital for the Insane..-.-.......... 1
Williamstown :

Walliams(Collevoss-/o<.cce< ccc sae 1
Worcester :

American Antiquarian Society....... 24

Free Institute of Technology-.-....-.. 2

Hospital for the Insane ..--2..-....- 1

iy orcester Academy: 22222 5 = Seu sate

MICHIGAN.

Ann Arbor:

ODSenvaOnys- fee eee cham cle cee Uf

(GMILVSrSitivae-- ceo cocks os cce meee i!
Detroit :

Michigan State Agricultural Society. 7

Publiotinhiranyg. ers csc ee ees cook 1

Review of Medicine and Pharmacy -. 3

Saint Philip’s College...-. 5 SSS oe apie!
Kalamazoo :

Hospital for the Insane ..--....2~-. -. 1

Lansing :

Michigan State Library ..........--- 2

MINNESOTA. No.
Minneapolis :
Minnesota Academy of Natural
SClONCeSs- = 2201.2 eee eee teeta eee
Saint Paul:
Chamber of Commerce -.---.--..-... 1
Minnesota Historical Society ..---.-- 10
Minnesota State Library .....-..---.. 1
Saint Peters :
Hospital for the Insane ............- il
MISSISSIPPI.
Clinton : :
Mississippi College....-.--..-2-5-5-. if
Jackson :

Hospital for the Insane...-- eccne sees 2
Oxford : :
WIVOISITY, 2 Saqscse <i 22 o ciet scoot ema i
MISSOURI.

Columbia :
University of Missouri ..-....--.-..- 1
Fulton:
Hospital for the Insane.-....-..-----. 1
Saint Louis :
County Hospital for the Insane...-... 1
Hospital for the Insane, (St. Vincent’s) 1
Haw olaibraty somite tetepisme mal
Mayor of the city of Saint Louis..... 1
Public Schooliisibrary.-s.-=-----—- =k
Saint Louis Academy of Science ---- - 92
State Board of Agriculture ......-..-. 2
State Bureau of Geology and Mines... 1
‘University of Saint Louis ---.--2----. 3
NEBRASKA.

Omaha :
Hospital for the Insane.-.....---.---- 1

NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Concord :

Hospital for the Insane.--...-.----. .- il

New Hampshire Historical Society -- EA

Shate Talbrany 2 sia iche sce eee 1
Exeter :

Phillips’s Exeter Academy... ==: 3-2. 1
Hanover :

Dartmouth College ....--..:--.---.- 2

Dartmouth Observatory...-...:.--.- 1
Manchester :

City Library <.se.-tiseao en cere eek

NEW JERSEY.
Burlington :

Burlington College ..-.-.....--....- 1
Hoboken :

Stevens Institute of Technology..-... 1
New Brunswick :

Geological Survey of New Jersey --.. 7
Princeton :

College of New Jersey --...------. -- 5
Salem :

Salem Academy. 22.2225 soeeaeeee aie 1
Trenton :

State Insane Hospital......-.-.---.- 1

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &c.—Continued.

NEW YORK.

Albany :

Albany. Instutubers.)- ssoseeenas ise
Dudley Observatory .--.-..---..'-----
Insurance Department.----.-.----.--
New York State Agricultural Society -
New York State Library..-.------.---
New York State Medical Society ---.- -
New York State Museum of Natural

History
New York State University......----
State Board of Charities...-......-. r

Auburn :

Criminal Hospital for the Insane. ---.
Theological Seminary-.-...-... .-..

Blackwell’s Island :
City Hospital for the Insane-..---..-

Brooklyn :
Mercantile Library

Buffalo:
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. -
Grosvenor ibranys sss sel- ees =e
Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. --
Medical and Surgical Journal. .----.-
Young Men’s Association.--..-..--.--

Canton :
Saint Lawrence University ..--------

Clinton:
Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton
Wowllesereeaet ees ae arise

Flatbush :
Kings County Hospital for the Insane,

Hamilton :
Madison University
Ithaca:
Cornell College

Jamestown :
Jamestown Microscopical Society .-.-.
Tima:
Wesleyan Seminary <--------5 6-6
Newburgh :
Theological Seminary of the Associate
Reformed Church

New York:

American Bible Society ....-.-...----
American Bureau of Mines..-.--...-.
Americana @hemi stereos see
American Geographical and Statistical

Sociotver meee eo ate oe eaeees
American Institute
American Institute of Architects.-....
American Museum of Natural History
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Anthropological Institute of New York
Apprentices’ Library .---.--<-.---5---
Astor Library
Bavarian consulate......-.--.---+-=-
Bloomingdale Hospital for the Insane
City Hospital for the Insane.........
Columbia College
Engineering and Mining Journal..-.
Episcopal Theological Seminary... --

enw ewes cee eee oe ee wee ee

tee ere - eee eee eee

eee tee ree tee we ee eee

No.

1
1
6

54
34

4
12
20
20

1
16

RR Ree

New York, N. Y.—Continued.

Institution for the Blind........--..-..
Journal of Mining and Engineering- -

Lyceum of Natural History-....-----
Manufacturer and Builder. .---.-...-
Mayor of News VOtk i: 5222 2-- see
Medical Journal
Medical-Recorde 222 22. 20. so eee
Mercantile Library Association ......
Metropolitan Board of Health..---..
New York Academy of Medicine..--.
New York Handel-Zeitung...--.---.
New York Historical Society. -.----.--
Nowe Voronin une =a aaa eee
Observatory
Prison Association
Royal Swedish-Norwegian consulate.
Saniltamlaneyer = eeres< see oleae
Schooltof Minestecc mete sscccs- cee as
Union Theological Seminary.-....---.
United States Sanitary Commission...
University of the city of New York..
Poughkeepsie :
Hudson River Insane Hospital. .-.-.--.
Vassar College
Randalvs Island :
louse of Reta ese sacveeee sete eer
Rochester :
Theological Seminary..---.---.....-
UWimliviersibycececys caine eas ees
Schenectady :
Union College

Troy :

IMemshalllein firm anyeec ae) Sc
Utica:

State Lunatic Asylum....-..---.--.-
Wards Island :

Ward’s Island Emigrant Hospital for

bherinsan Crees eee eee n ee
NORTH CAROLINA.

Chapel Hill :

University
Davidson College :

Collegeniinbranyre conse a= eer ates
Raleigh :

Hospital for the Insane... ....-..-----
Trinity College:

MheolostealSchGOlsey ac 9 tees

ee ee er ey

Athens :
Ohio University

Carthage :
Longview Hospital for the Insane.. -

Cincinnati :
Astronomical Observatory
Hamilton County Lunatic Asylum.. -
Mayor of the city of Cincinnati
Mercantile Library Association
Ohio Mechanics’ Institute-..... .

71

72

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &c.—Continued.

CINCINNATI, OnTIO—Continued. No.
Rublicwibraly.=- sees ee ae 5
Saint Xavier College...-.. ..-.-..--. 1

Cleveland:

Wniversiby 5 2- see eee aleee aes rece =i 1

Columbus :

Geological Survey of Ohio..---.----- 4
Horticultural Society ..-..----------- 1
Hospital for the Insane---.- ---.---- -- 2
Ohio State Board of Agriculture ----.- 60
Ohio State Library .--2---=---.------ 4.

Dayton:

Hospital for the Insane..-.--.-------- 1

Delaware: ;

Ohio Wesleyan University ------..--- 1

Gambier :

Kenyon College...--.--------------- 1

Granville :

Dennison University -..-------.----- 1

New Athens:
ranklin’ Colleve.--2--------1---- >= 1

Newburgh :

North Ohio Lunatic Asylum-...----- 1

North Bend: >
Horticultural Society of Ohio..---..-- i

Oberlin :

Oberlin Collese=-:. 25 -2-- a= =e-i— =I 1

Springfield :

Wittenberg College...--..-..-.-----. 1

Tiffin:

Heidelbere College .----...---- === 1
Theological Seminary of the German
Retormed (Churches---4-----—-1=—— 1
OREGON.

Portland:

Hospital for the Insane .---..---.---- 1
PENNSYLVANIA.

Allegheny :

Allecheny Observatory .--.----------- 2

Western State Penitentiary of Penn-
Syahyeie 085 eseonseasou Ss Ssosoce i

Western Theological Seminary ------. 1

Danville:

State Hospital for the Insane..-----.. 1

Dinmont :

Western Hospital for the Insane. ---. 1

Easton :

Lafayette College.-......... ..------ 1

Gettysburgh ;

Theological Seminary --...--------.- 1

Harrisburgh :

Adjutant General ..--- dimeSceedeEesaa 1
Harrisburgh Academy -.--..----.------ 1

Medical Society of the State of Penn-

AWE eh. a 5 550 Se Sooo a SOA Sere ae
Stato Lacan vee secant setae ten <= 3

Kellyville :
Woodbrook Retreat....-.----.------- 1
Mercersburgh :
Theological Seminary of the German
Reformed Church........-.-.---.- 1

PENNSYLVANIA—Continued. No.

Philadelphia :

Academy of Natural Sciences.-.--.--.-
American Entomological Society ---- - ;
American Journal of Conchology----.
American Philosophical Society ..---.
Board of Public Education. ----...---
Central High School-.-....---. -----.
Franklin institute ..2---eeeee =m ee
American Pharmaceutical Association
Department for the Insane, Alms-

OWRGs-asecies aclsis eae SAA
Friends’ Insane Hospital.-----..----.
German Society Library.----...---..
(Guar eC ON GEO ese ao oe see eae eae
Historical Society of Pennsylvania... -
EousevotRetugesess ents sac oe
inibrary C ompanyeos-2 sae a= eee
Library of Pennsylvania Hospital - ---
Mayor of the city of Philadelphia-....
Medical Dimes 4225255 se ease ea ea
Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane
Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind
Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf

and Dumps. sesso eee
Society for Alleviating the Miseries of

JEM AVEO seas onon cases Soe
University of Pennsylvania. .---- sesiclote
Wagner Free Institute of Science-.- -.

Pittsburgh: :

Germanyinibranyer aes 22 se ie ee
Sharon :

ODSenyalOry j. .cce ode ecko =-o-c Re eee
South Bethlehem :

Lehigh University .-----.------------ 1
Washington :

Washington College.....------.----- 1

ee =
= 02 =
_ one _ We OF WME RWH Re RSwronon

RHODE ISLAND.

Providence :

PAT HONEST MNsee serie ee = cele neta ae aieteterate 2
Brown University 2------.---=-\--=-== 3
Butler Hospital for the Insane....--. 1
Rhode Island Historical Society .. ---- 1

SOUTH CAROLINA.
Charleston :

Charleston*Library Society .----.---- 2

Elliott Society of Natural History.--. 18

South Carolina Historical Society-.-. 1
Columbia :

South Carolina College .--2-2s-.--s--\
Theological Seminary-..-- ---- 56335 pepe =|
TENNESSEE.

Columbia :

Jackson College..------.------------ 1
Knoxville :

East Tennessee University -.---.------ 1
Lebanon :

Cumberland University .-.-.--------- iL
Marysville : ,

Southwest Theological Seminary ---- - 1

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

13

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, de.—Continued.

TENNESSEE—Continued.

Nashville :
Hospital for the Insane...-...----.--
Institution for the Blind..--.....---.
UWinbieritnyéa 6 haeeeeees ccac ocaodoGed

TEXAS.

Austin:
Hospital for the Insane..-....--..-.--.
Chappell Hill:
SoulGsUniversityas-seeese sa eien a

Salt Lake City:
University of Deseret.-.-.....--.---

VERMONT.
Bristol :
Orleans County Society of Natural
NGLONCES).aarsienta ster ereiie et se teiaess
Burlington :
Universityof Vermonts---s2.-- =< ==
Montpelier :
Staterkabrapyeccecs- acess cscleceae
VIRGINIA.

Charlottesville :

University of Virginia..-.-.-..---.--
Emory :

Emory and Henry College...-...-..-<
Fairfax :

‘Theological Seminary. --5 ---.)-22+-
Hampden-Sidney :

Union Theological Seminary.-....-.--
Richmond:

Medical Society of Virginia..-..-.---

highmond Colleges cn 2 sosc anaes

Doser eIDLaLycec aso see a. eee eee

University
Staunton :

Western Insane Hospital.......---.-.
Weston :

West Virginia Hospital for the Insane.
Williamsburgh :

Eastern Insane Hospital...--...---.-

WISCONSIN.

Beloit :
Beloit Collese ses ses252 -- er enciseae= <<
Janesville :
Wisconsin Institution for the Educa-
Hon oh whe Bund sceacseseee eee.
Madison :
Hospital for the Insane..-..........-.
State Historical Society of Wisconsin.
University of Wisconsin..-...-..---.
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,
BNC Wvetters fi 4 2c) eros atone
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society.
Milwaukee :
Catholic Seminary =ss2 2222-2 5e-eoee
Natural History Society........-...-

No.

WISCONSIN—Continued, No.
Neenah :
Scandinavian Library Association... 4
Oshkosh :

Northern Hospital for the Insane.... 2

Ttacine :
College Wibranyoss: 2-3.) -t 2-2 Saae 1

WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

Steilacoom :
Iin'sanrerAlswilmin es c/seretaerscree aie See rae |

BRITISH AMERICA,
Guelph, Ontario:

Ontario School of Agriculture....-..- 2
Kingston, Ontario:

Botanical Society of Canada.....-... 1
Ottawa, Ontario :

Academy of Natural Sciences.---..-.-. 6
Toronto, Ontario :

Board of Aoriculbure ss. - 22 estan 1

Board of Arts and Manufactures..... 1

Canadian Institute. -...---..---..--. 5

Commissioners of Agriculture and Arts 1
Congregational Theological Institute. 1
Houseof Assemblysessescens-e eee 2

Knoxi@ollegessoss- secs eee ee
Literary and Historical Society-.-.-. 1
Observatory. )o tos) sols tacia asi SOO.
orontorGloberre ae 5st eee 2
irimitysC lle gem sascetes oer He:
Wniversity, of Moromtoe.s25-) 25-2 2-1 2
Halifax, Nova Scotia :
Literary and Scientific Society. --.---- 1
Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Sci-
ONGCES 2 S252. 22 42 523s as essen ae 11
Charlottetown, Prince Edward
Island :
Hospital for the Insane...--. Bt ioe ed
Chambly, Quebec:
College rEnibranyesss se ooee ee eee if
Lennoxville, Quebec:
Bishop's: Colleges. acess cctae ate if
Montreal, Quebec :
Board of Agricuiture and Arts. ...--. 1
Board of Agricultureof Lower Canada 1
Canadian Entomologist......-.-..--- it
Collevomnibranye-see ssaee as pbaote 1
Entomological Society. ...--...-----. 1
Geological Survey of Canada....---- 14
Me GalliGiniversityossse casas oe ae Le
Natural History Society-.-.-----...- 48
Numismatic and Antiquarian Society. 1
Saint Mary’s College...........-.---
Quebec, Quebec :
IDE wa! Who Gusiny coaseasecesetooasoa | Lt
Literary and Historical Society ---. -- 9

Seminary on @uebec:-.-c--- osst--osi-ee

74 LITERARY AND

SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, Ge.—Continued.

INDIVIDUALS.

No.
Abbe, .Dr. Cleveland. ss32 445-20 eee 59
Arassiz, Prote Ato eee see =e é 16
Allen, Prof.. J. A.c oe son occeaseteee ek. oA
‘Alpine, Wee st ae e cena. eee 2
Alvord, brie.-Genw Sen) 2-5 sa-—ee— 1
An gverer AW spa enee aes oceee 8
Anthony, JOWU Gites seis os ceie sees. oe 2
Babcock, IProfertes= sa ice ssrcemieca= = 1
Babing tons broi Cesena eee ciate ote 1
Baird erotic Mase yes ee ero 1
Baird eoleSe bee oak ee eee eee 58
Baker Drewoseph 2---csnce-se scene 1
Baneroth bons Georpe) saca= eae ae 1
Bannister sD rblemmy Me ee ere er 1
Barker) Dror ordyceke. ee seas 1
Barlow, Hone Pranciss@rescs.-saceee = 1
Barnard, General J. G 2222.55 222s-- 2
Barnard) Prot, PsA Pice ssrereceac eee 1
Bebb, M.S. AR ee Se eS 2
Bessels, Dr phil oae e ceeseaeaecteese 1
Hetinume device «9 esate eto cet eeaaioe 3
BALM VG Wiel Guess ase oats a emer aiare 5
Blake e role wits ee seca oreo see 2
Bland) NOM AS ee aces cow amie saat 2
LOO Get. Mi See Sos Se even ere ate 1
Boardman. Georee Ave. cess ose tee 1
Bolander, Brot. He ON scat ccormastecetere hres
Borges, A. P. De Carvalho .-...--.-.. 1
IBOW ELS ARE Veo ee ten peer ae eaeese 1
Brendel rsh sce cee se scene seuss 2
Brewer Dry La Ms fac- steeneeee ase 1
Brnsh PLO te Gd soc caser eerie eee 8
Buckland Geqree os aces ee ieee 1
IBUCKOV MUD esc .c oe ac ee eee se renee 1
PUTA erot, is otesewecrace eee. Hl
Campbell, Prof Johnto2----+s-- <2 1
Canby, Wie. 2 2c.ct bccn sane smmces 4
@arey, denny: © sases2 Sooo esse see 2
Carpenter yDrvibsby.--- esas eee 3
Chain, J Aves. 4-32 sarees eeal= i
Chandler; Prof.iC eee see oss setae 2
Ghase, Phinypblarles see pee cacti eee it
Chickerino Protec Wi eae 2 see eee 1
Clarke a) Slice lee a ote aoe ie eee 1
Clarke: /Profib Wess s cen Seen cles 1
CofimyProt. J. Hs Oapenseseeenes see 3
Wonrad. Ts. Aye ee en ees ees 1
Waol.Prof.Georvethsenssee eeeaeeee 5
Cooper yr Wo Gisonsce semen eee eee 1
Copenerot, B.D. sce ee sec 8
@oues,*Dr. Plhott....c0005+-- cess eee LO

(Clap: Oy aera Ae ee ee ene)

Curtis, Dr. Josiah... ane Saree eee 1
CULMS PROVE Avs nin csc cqeecetsoce sone 1
Wuantiss Or. iB). seis ee oc ces. eee eee 1
Cutting, 13 Wife) voll oth ESP eee epee) ul
Cutts, kh DE Sas SSR ene eee 2
Dall, Woe et a eee As Sant) 9G
Dana, Prof. J. D.. ee ask soe ths
Daniels, Drea ee hess abe ae. Sacre 1
Dart; General Wis. .csceeeene -eescous 1
Davids, eos ee etiam Sete te <7 ol

Dawson, Prof. slp Ww SAAS Sencar 5
Dodge, Charles 2 eee eee 1
Draper, Dr. Blaury cette 4

INDI VIDUALS—Continued.

A
°

Hastman, Prof... eae eee ee oe eee
Baton;e ri, Damiel Mites see eee
Bd wards) Els Witesoaccos emcee seas eaten en
ieee aaa SP ss preheat CS. SS 2 ae
Elliott, E. B-.- Beet ces he ort
Ellis, J. Bi. Be cisc cs oe
Emory, Goneral W. El_.a2t) oboe. sel
Mndilvehs Dr,..2. Meee eet ee eos 2
Engelmann, Dr: Geo. 22a esse oe vi
Emiesson;, Capt. John) = sjassaseee see 1
Hisher;.DriGe) 2 3-ccnsceeseeee a eee 2
Horeman OTe se antennae 2
Frémont, General J. C..2.)--2.5 2. Sen 5
Erich, Rev. Jobin -g-\.sncte cee eee 2
Gabb, William... - s(tecoeene 1
Graham Coleetere = sas + so eeiseee 1
Gales Dr Tig eee ane See 1
Gardiner JasVAl ete csca csce eee eee 1
Geelmuyden ROVicec hemes eee 2
Genth,-Dr. iE. A. Sock ease See Sen Bech
Gerard, Wi. JRest a 5 ee eee ee 1
Gilbent#G ie la- soccer eo ees
Gill rof Theos. ose sn sa see ee eee 14
Glover, Profil :.22.552=2 ke eee 1
Goodall, Guo enaecins cote cere 1
Goode, :G: Browns eee ee asoee cease 4
Gould; Droghs Acco ct eee eee eee 1
Grant, Gen. U. 8., President U. S-.--., 2
Gray Prob Asie see sere eee 28°
Greve, (Dee. 3 atten a eeeee age. Se
Griffin, G. WwW. a cmcveeersccle. eee ee
Grinnell, IL@N YY, soe sie nee a co et
Gross, Dr. SSW ia nace eee eee 1
Grote tA WRU ace coren emesis comes 1
Guyot Prot Ato. se. <2 case ese ee eae
Bacen Albert Den .. qa ae eee 1
Haven: Proce asem aie eee een eats a
Haldeman, :Profi Sires seeeecee cee: 1
Halls Brig se case acecioe sees eel osets il
Hal RroterAsapiricc=a0c teeter |
HallsvProtyJass.<---.-o-=.-6ceeoeeees 19
iailivorsen whens eis. 2 2".. seer eeeeeee 2
Harper dé: Brothers... - 2-2-5 seoeceee 1
Hart rot. ohniSaessne sess eee 1
Hayden) Dri BV ssc cece aicisie =. sem oer 61
Hedrick, BuoSetregeeae wees os ee oes 1
Henny Prot 0s=seasee eee nee saci 26
Milvard Prot. MesWrescne soc eee sae
Hilgard, Teale Bi aoeeae ae ae ae walecas
Hill, Boe eee on eee
Hinrichs jProte Ges Seeieebe oeee
HigehcocksProf.-. ceca. se seseoe eee
Hitchcock! Prof, (hi2esincseeean se eeee
db Ds Oe es ie Se Pa

Hort, Rev. Oud societies
Hoar, Judge E. R-
Hodge, Rev. Prof... 5 ae eee
Holden, Prof. Wi Gg eee aoe
Holden, ) William sce pcseh eh ciee scrcetae

Horm yDreG, see eee Shee eta

Howe, Dr. S. G.-.. -- 2
Howell; S'Bs-teteeee ate cece eee

2
AL
1
29
1
1
1
2
J
3
2
1
3
2
1
2
Humphreys, General A.A.-..-...---. 3

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &e.—Continued.

InpivipuaLs—Continued.

z No.
bunt, Ae SuOLnyeecseers =< yore 5
Hlivatte Prot. Are ois nates -e 1
PRACO DSO ROG VecAtes ac b< Sh ene ececie ae Me
ARVs rad vard’s 22 25 Saeee eee 30
ewettnColbiesss so. sc cee eae ee eee 4
KennedyaJduiGs C e224 A naeeeesiens see ek
Kerr /profiw : C.<2%- 2s seats oie «ll
Keine; Clarence.? =). eee eace se sencm o 4
Kinoston, Prot. .Gs Casasaasessam sae 3
Kirchley, ObtO eS eget serosa
iMirchot -lheodoreseeeereeereuo ssce se 1
Klippart, loins eer ee ee it
HOLE; HeVid Vicia Sato ae Sees eciee 2
Korohon ews Jissae eerie eee sce 1
Eancley: Protest acc ases. <s0ceeaece sc 1
arson wieroten lines ss see css cece sera 2
A WRONCOn Gai Nise A ceeciaciciscicis ose ce 3
Mica On USA Chaco So sieisaee oe See 18
Jue Baron, William...-... eee cheese 1
iweuConterDr, Johnelinso.ceonseeces 18
Heid y;,,D rs; JOSeph sec ece ween ie 14
HHCOMAKG Lots Levine cocoate aie eer 1
MesieyeRnOie ky ssc oceans ta seess 2
Wes jmereus, rote Wj ciecis sent ance 3
LHR Dyn eels iis Soe eS Aan ero eecemert 1
Lae as tsyhe Wile See ee eee eos FO SaeCOOe 4
HAO OMNIS S ENOte Hupeeeececcce meee eee ee ne,
MOVETING YP rots Nscaccss oss. sc sss tance 3
iyman: Dheodore.2-sc2.----ssss5ees 2 3
WDB Ye) eA Dr Ge ae eee eee il
Macintyrey tessa jse cece cae se Baila
MacelsenjheveC. Hones ,o5ec2 ssc ss 4
Macelson,, Rev. Chas eae. ss2o=. - 2
Wariony otObsdiectas cer cennnerenoeces 12
MarshyPnoty Ons fe newsoen eaceeceas 7
ViniilenGeeAy. oe ce cae se enee eee i
Mc Chesneyed yp bbivcascucnarc chee wetter 2
MeMasters;, Aimeas).2s2e3-cce6 s2ses 1
MeMuninie DEW) soscehs.sceSneeee oe, OL
DVIS @ ke ES nye oa ss strc ata reise s 29
levis 9 9 D eked [hale Sere eee ee eB ee 2
NIM ERy eeWircese sae ssee eee ae if
Mintel eller Mami ai eaic.c ic erste vestere cows aes 1
Min tart Cham esieets a 3yciaise eaten eee 1
Mion o ami Way Elie cys oaeaeicimiwiel oom isionre 3
MOTSe} roto Sirs cncarasscks oer one iH
Worse shrot.sbiggh 152% Sen seeimascecee
Minn Ep MROVisnd plo temieciimctemce chao aee=) ee
Myer General Alrdi see secccee voces 10
ING WD ORT V5 da asieiareieremeioieferiereiel- oe 8
MenyiCOMD, Ee ROla Sea aeseme scence ees = ‘ai
INGwitOn Erol HARE cece eee nines Po
INGEDISag li: 2). ccocenicwse tee cree ee aes 1
INGUISOs PLO ls dis cctycecceceace citar cre 1
IN VCs OMe SASS. Whatewoncias eee ase 2
Oiicen son) Wino cris saree etae = nee
Olmstead Revs lus scctess cette en ed
OxfongeP rota a= so .c atc sete 1
ORDOLNE se OTM UWi-foom..c cima ees 1
@stenisacken, barons. co s-s-es2e=6 55 8
OmesenrahG vee eAs- 5 crac cee eee 2
CAN DES Aca Sosy [Da . <.qocsincaetn ai 4
Lee ey Dey WY (eS Se eee eee 1
TE eevee 1 Da DY cise Saas ernie aes, SE ei 2
WALKOL gL IECUCE scciclacicerseeecseee cls 2

INDIVIDUALS—Continued.

Peale, Mrs. Franklin
Peirce, Prof. B..
RennockeMErss Gt s2ss..c22 Sse Soe eee
Peters, Dr. C. H. I..
Post, J
Pourtales, Count a F. ‘de.-
Preuss, Rev. H. A
Putnam, IB SWeeee ser ey kee See eas
Ransom C Ole dp sss asme s seec aioe
IVASMMUSSEMWROVa bye Ate as ce cele ae evs craters
Raiys OG eSAaC ea ce sae Saar ee
Raymond Wy rasky) Wee sys ale
Reeque phe visas ascaiseers ==
Md Cena, MODEL bees asm eeeee eee
alleyey Chass Wessee ses
btek, rede.
Robertson, Dr.
Rockwell, A. P
Rockwell, Dr.
Rogers, Prof. W. B bias awe: aoe ak nm
Ross, Dr. Alex. Milton
Rothwell, Dr.
Saltford Mb SE Alaa Se See = isos
Satlord SRrotq dn sssas a eee eee
Salisburyen rors Eivil ss sens eee
Sandton), J Ohm) Hesse tere
Sands, Rear-Admiral B. F
Saunders) Winteel ote see sk acee cence.
Schié¢tieling Hip Me-- ass eeec =
Schott... CArveas sao eres Seats
Schuster Mauricenes 25 eo essa one
Schwarz-Senborn, Baron
Scudder Gublieeece cecene see encase.
Silliman we rotsebese ses soos aeaoe
Smith, Brot. Hamilton) Ives sees see
Smith, Prof. J. Wawrence:.---.--- --'
Smith, Prof. J. J
Snow, Dr.’ E

Se ee |

We sentesrewacte sc ace aneese

Shaler: jProf Ng Scere ssececcssicer
Spinner, Hon. F. E
Squier, E.G
HLCATNG vas Coe Se cen eisai oe
SteindachnerpProten sos so ose see
Stein, F. R.-
Stenersen., Hon, Olak 22 2.2. s-4+ 4-5
Sterling, Clarence ee. = ss —
Stevenson, James’... 2-- sien asnos
Stoney Ormond=.s.a5ssss semen seen
Strecker, Hermann
Stub, Rev. H. @
Swallow, G. C
Thomas, Prof. Cyrus
Thomson, J. H

Drew Dre Nw eae tects cas ecee ccs
Tryon, Dr. G. W., jr
Muickerman weroh@insss<.e5- 5 2-5 555 a
Valdeland, Rev. O
Vandewond, John
Vasey, Prof. George
WernllProtcAlsiiecns ce seecaceeaets
Von Raumbach, Maurice
Wintemeribrotls smears elatalelsclaat ae08

ewe e cee eee - ew ewe we

15

76

LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC EXCHANGES.

Packages received by the Smithsonian Institution, &c.—Continued.

INDIVIDUALS—Continued.

INDIVIDUALS—Continued.

Waterhouse, DrvAveecee cose asians = 1. | Wilkes, Admirali@has-s:-c------<--= 9
Watson; Prot iCessemee eee e ass 1) SWillimeon;serotnelcers sec a= = oe eee 1
Watson; Serenozsse-2 2-0 -scsccn ese i 4) Wanchell> Prot Ass 2 eees oe ee a
WW eimuthy eaters ee alec ee i Winchell (Prof: “Ne Heteacs 7-5. --,-525 1
Wells; HontDavid At e225 ss icoerece = } ) Wanlock, (Prof. \Jisssseewce esos Se 2
Wrells,*W alters ners ett a-seeeeee 1 Wood, Dr: Horatio\@ tert 52. te 1
Wester &iCoseec cases souee ceeniasiee 3) Wioadbridse,) WC 2e-eren sesece 25 eee 1
Wheatley,;@has, Mee. <2 52 222 2 eso a MWoodwards Dr. J. Jeene seeeeers seme 6
Wiheeleriieut.(G. Mos -- cece. 1 | Woodworth, Dr. John M.... .-.-.-. PS ea |
White Wri! Ate. tec Sees Ay Worthen Prof, AC El ceeee sss eas 9
Whitney Pro. Desc ss sss see ase U3) | Waltsbere; Rev. 2222 se se0--e eee 2
Wihitney-Prot. We Dist Sseeet soos. 14" | Narrower, TEL. So. = Jatooee ke oe i
Wihtymper, Wl So. Sscceseescieamaycsee iL) NWounpe Clarence +B... sec eee 9
Williams, Duanes=22 t2sh2-s2 2--e ee | Mount Hons) 25. c 1. oo See ee 1
Williamsony ds Acs So5cccc cc ereeaee 25.) 1 |) Mourte eProfe@ 3A: 2s a5 3sc. soso eee if
RECAPITULATION.

‘Lotal addresses ofinstitubions: == 2 222 Acces soem cocci fees cscs cate ee ceiaeeiosie 462
Motaliaddresses:of individualses: -2.2s-co cere ese ooo aoe wes cose ee nese eee ee 283
750

Total namber of, parcels to institutions=995 222 5-ee ees see ee ee ee ee ee eee
Total number of parcels to individuals...-..--.-..---.-- Oe omereeoa ce susie eiseiees 1, 105
4, 326

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. ral

CLASSIFIED RECORD OF MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOG-
ICAL MATERIAL PRESERVED IN THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION.

[For list of regular monthly reports see report for 1873.]
AURORAS.

Auroral observations made at Ogdensburgh, New York, 185254.

Aurora observed at Bangor, Me., December, 1851.

Aurora observed at Boston August 20, 1851.

Aurora observed at Camden, Me., September 10, 1854.

Auroras observed at Dartmouth College, N. H., July 12, 1853-Mareh
16, 1854.

Auroras observed at sea 1848-53,

Auroral records, 1849-53.

Notices of auroras, 1847-59.

Sketch of aurora observed at Washington July 22, 1868.

Alexander, Prof. S.—Sketch of aurora observed at Princeton, N. J. a

Andrews, Luman.—Account of aurora observed October 14, 1870, at
Southington, Conn.

Ashby, M. V.—Notice of aurora observed August 8, 1872, at Afton,
Iowa.

Astrop, Rk. F.—Aurora observed in Brunswick County, April 7, 1847;
auroral display September 29, 1851.

Averbeck, A.—Aurora observed July 9, 1872, at Saint Louis, Mo.

Babcock, H.—Account of aurora observed August 8, 1872, at Boons-
borough, Iowa.

Bache, Prof—Aurora observed at Bath, Me., September 29, 1852.

Barnard, A. D.—Aurora observed at San Buenaventura, Cal., June
17, 1870.

Bassnet, Thomas.—Auroras seen at Ottawa May 24 and 25, 1853, May
29, 1840.

Bessey, Charles H.— Auroras observed at Ames, Lowa, in June, 1871.

Bidwell, Dr. EH. C_—Auroras observed at Keene, Ohio, February 19,
March 1, 1852.

Birney, J. G.—Auroras observed at Lower Saginaw, Mich., in April,
1849.

Blodgett, Lorin.—Aurora observed at Sugar Grove, Pa., September
29, 1851.

Bowman, John.—Auroras observed at Baldwinsville October 4, 1855.

Brewer, W. H.—Auroras observed at Ovid, N. Y., from December,
1852, to May, 1854.

Brewster, Alfred.—Notice of aurora observed at Tamworth, N. H.,
July 17, 1872.

Brown, H. H.—Aurora observed at Dakota City, Nebr., July 10, 1868.

Buckland, D.—Aurora observed at Brandon, Vt., May 2, 1855.

78 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Campbell, C.—Auroras observed at Moose Factory, June, 1850.

Clarke, John.—Auroras observed at Bowling Green, Ohio, in 1872.

Clift, Henry A—Harbor Grace, N. F., account of February aurora;
auroral notes for July, 1872; aurora observed August 25, 1872.

Cobb, W. H.—Aurora observed at Wellsborough, Pa., April 15, 1869 ;
display of auroras observed in Philadelphia August 3, 1872.

Couch, H. D.—Auroras observed at Newfield, N. J., in 1840.

Curtis, W. W.—Auroras observed at Rocky Run, Wis., in 1872.

Dayton, EH. A.—Auroras observed at Madrid, N. Y., March, 1849.

De Haven, Lieutenant.—Auroras observed during Arctic expedition
1850-51.

Dewey, C.—Auroras observed at Rochester, N. Y., September, 1851,
February, 1852.

Dolan.—Account of aurora observed in New York April 15, 1869.

Edwards, J—Aurora observed at Lima, Pa, March, 1849, September,
1851.

Fairbanks, G. W.—Auroras observed at Washington, D. C., Septem-
ber 29, 1851.

Fairchild, Jno. P—Auroras observed at Seneca Falls, N. Y., Sep-
tember, 1851.

Favel, P. F.—Notes relative 4 la formation des aurore boreales.

Foster, Wm., jr—Aurora observed at Providence, R. I., April 15,
. 1869.

Garland, J. G.—Aurora observed at Biddeford, Me., February 19,
1852.

Gibbes, Lewis R.—Aurora observed at Charleston, 8S. C., September
29, 1851.

Gibbon, Lardner.—Account of aurora of August 7, 1872.

Grant, Benjamin.—Aurora observed at Erie, Pa., August 11, 1869.

Groneweg, L.—Auroras observed at Germantown, Ohio, April, 1852.

Guest, W. 4.—Auroras observed at Ogdensburgh, N. Y., February,
1850-September, 1851.

Haas, Henry.—Register of all the auroras observed at Depauville, N.
Y., from 1866 to 1872.

Hall, Joel S.—Auroras observed at Athens, IIl., September 29, 1851.

Haywood, John.— Westerville, Ohio, auroras seen in August and Octo-
ber, 1872.

Herrick; EF, C.—Aurora observed at New Haven, Conn., June 11, 1852.

Herrick, J.—Auroras observed at Hampden, Me., November 18, 1848,

Hoadley, C. J—Auroras observed at Hartford, Conn., May 12, 1349.

Holcomb, Amasa.—Auroras observed at Southwick, Mass., 1837-1853;
auroras observed at Southwick, Mass., March and April, 1850.

Horr, Asa.—Auroras observed at Dubuque, Iowa, September 29,
1851.

Hotchkiss, J—Auroras observed at Mossy Creek, Va., February 19,
1852.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. ri,

Hough, Dr. F. B.— Auroras observed at Somerville, N. Y., 1837-1851.

Hyde, Thos. C. P.—Aurora observed at East Windsor Hill, Conn.,
June 11, 1852.

Jennings, S. K.—Auroras observed at Erie, Ala., September 29, 1851.

Johnson, H. W.—Aurora observed November 17, 1849, at Grand
Rapids, Mich.

Jones, C. P.—Auroras observed at Valley Forge, Pa., January 19,
1852.

Joslyn, H.—Auroras observed at Waukegan, Il, April 13, 1849.

Kidder, L. D.—Aurora observed at Whitfield, N. H., October 13,
1869.

Lapham, I. A.—Auroras observed at Milwaukee, Wis., February 15,
1852.

Lefferts, John.—Auroras observed at Lodi, N. Y., February 19, 1852.

Lefroy, J. H—Abstracts of auroral observations ; auroral notes ;
auroras observed at Toronto, August, 1849; general register of appear-
ances of auroras borealis, &c., from January 1, 1848, to May 31, 1853.
Second report of auroral observations, 1850~51.

Lewis, B. B.—Theory of auroras.

Loomis, Elias.—The aurora borealis, or polar light, its phenomena
and laws. :

MeClintock.—Auroras observed May 19, 1870.

Major, J.—List of books and ships’ logs examined for auroras,

Marks, Corrydon.—Auroras observed at Manchester, Pa., September
1849-February, 1851.

Marsh, C. C.—Auroras observed at Oswego, N. Y., February 19, 1852,

Mead, S. B.—Auroras observed at Augusta, Ill., February 18 and
September, 1851; January 19, 1852; May 24, 1853.

Mitchell, Hon. W.—Auroras observed at Nantucket, Mass., 1844-1853.

Moss, C. S.—Aurora observed at Amboy, Ill., April 2, 1869.

Mudge, B. F.—Aurora observed at Manhattan, Kans., August 8, 1872,

Newkirk, B. M.—Auroras observed at Laperte, Ind.

Osborne, Capt. Sherard.—Remarks on auroral light in Arctic Zone.

Peelor, David.—Auroras observed at Johnstown, Pa., October 26,
1870.

Phelps, R. H.—Auroras observed at Windsor, Conn., February 19,
1852.

Pinkham, M. S—Aurova observed at Millbridge, Me., February 4,
1872.

Poole, Henry.— Auroras observed at Albion Mines, N.S., in 1850; re-
semblance of reflected light to aurora.

Prescott, W.—Auroras observed at Concord, N. H.

Prince, Geo.—Auroras observed at Thomaston, Me., March, April,
1850.

Redding, Thos. B.—Auroral display at Neweastle, Ind., June 18, 1871.

Rejusar, Thomas.—Aurora observed at Newton, N. J., April 15, 1869.

80 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Rice, H.— Auroras observed at Attleborough, Mass., January, 1551.

Robertson, Thos —Auroras observed April, 1850.

Roulston, Andree —Auroras observed at Freeport, Pa., in 1849, 1850.

Salisbury, O. H.—Auroras observed at Buffalo, N. Y., in 1853.

Shields, Robert.—Auroras observed at Belle Centre, Ohio, September,
1853.

Simmons, G.—Auroras observed at Lachine in September, 1850.

Sisson, Rodman.—Aurora observed at Factoryville, Pa., March 19,
1868 ; auroras observed at Scranton, Pa., October, 1871; show of auro-
ras August 3, 1872.

Smallwood, Doctor.—Auroras observed at Saint Martin’s, February
19, 1852. ;

Steele, G. E.—Aurora observed at Homestead, Mich., August 4, 1865.

Steiner, Dr. Lewis H.—Auroras observed at Frederick, Md., Septem-
ber 29, 1851.

Stevens, Dr. R. P.—Auroras observed at Ceres, Pa., April 6 and 8,
1870. ;

Stewart, A. P.—Aurora observed at Lebanon, Tenn., September 29,
1851.

Swift, Lewis.—Aurora observed at Asean, N. Y., April 16, 1869.

Warne, Geo.—Auroras observed at Fanependents: Iowa, ‘Avena
1872; auroras observed in 1872.

Whitcomb, Thomas M.—Auroral display of July 21, 1871, Union Ridge,

Wes tD:

Winchell, A~—Auroras observed in Eutaw, Ala., sep teniiat 29, 1851.

Wing, M. 2.—Auroras observed January 31 and February 7, 1872.

Withrow, Thomas F.—Auroras observed at Station Horner, Ohio,
February 17, 1852.

Young, J. A.—Account of aurora observed September 29, 1857, at
Camden, 8. C.

INSTRUMENTS.

Apparatus for recording earthquakes.

Comparative value of certain varieties of cloth for covering the wet
bulb of the hygrometer.

Diagram of rain-gauge used at Snowville, Va.

Lippincott’s vapor index, a psychrometrical calculator.

Remarks upon the barometer and rules for its observation.
~ Rules to be observed in management of typo-barograph.

Woodruff’s portable barometer.

Storm rain-gauge designed by G. J. Symons for observing rate of fall.

Beck.—Description of recording barographs, thermographs, and ane-
mograplhs.

Craig, B. F.—Comparison of ten of Green’s barometers.

Fenton, Elisha.—Description of hygrometer.

Hough, G. W.—Deseription of automatic registry and printing ba-
rometer.

a

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 81

’ Roedel, W. D.—Sketch of self-registering thermometer.
Stephenson, W. J.—Account of electro-magnetic indicator.
Sternberg, George M.—Improved anemometer.
Wait, S. H.—Sketch of proposed snow gauge.
Williams, Rk. Gi—Comparison of Mason’s hygrometer with Boehlen

and Staehlon’s.
METEORS.

Alaska.—Account of meteors at Sitka, 1868, Dwight Hurlbut, and J.
J. Blakemore.

Aubier, J. M.—Meteors observed from Saint Xavier’s College, New
York, November 14, 1864. .

Barnard, A. D.—Meteor observed October 20, 1873, at Ventura, Cal.

Beckwith, W.—Meteors observed at Olathe, Kans., November, 1866.

Betts, Henry.—Account of meteors observed at Weston, Conn., 1867.

Boehmer, George H.—August meteors observed in Colorado Springs,
Colo., 1873.

Boerner, Charles G.—Meteors observed at Vevay, Ind., October 24,
November 10, 12, 1870.

Meteoric observations at Vevay, Ind., 1868.

Observations of August shower of meteors, 1871.

Brewer, F. P.—Meteors observed at Raleigh, N. C., November, 1866.

Carleton, General J. H.—Account of meteorites in Mexico.

Chappelsmith, John.—Meteors observed at New Harmony, Ind., No-
vember, 1866-67.

Chase, Milton.—Meteors observed at Kalamazoo, Mich., November,
1866.

Clingman, T. L.—Account of meteor observed at Washington, August
2, 1860.

Coles, Isaac.—Meteors observed at Glen Cove, November, 1866.

Deckner, Fred.—Meteors observed at Atlanta, Ga., November, 1866.

Delaney, John.—Account of meteorite observed at Saint John’s, N. F.

Edi, James.— Meteors observed at Vienna, Wis., November, 1866.

Fendler, A.—Meteors observed at Allenton, Mo., November, 1566.

Fergus, Thomas H.—Meteors observed at West Chester, Pa., Novem-
ber, 1866.

Forshey, C. G.—Meteors observed at Galveston, Tex., November, 1866.

Gantt, Dr. W. H.—Meteors observed at Chapel Hill, Tex,, November,
1866.
Gardiner, J. H.—Meteors observed at Newburgh, N. Y., November,
1866.

Gibbs, George.—Meteors observed at Richfield Springs, N. Y., August
24, 1869.

Grinnan, A. G.— Meteors observed at Orange, Va., November 10, 1866.

Hance, H.—Meteors observed ta Falsington, Pa., November, 1566.

Holmes, HE. D.—Meteors observed at Grand Raipds, Mich., November
13, 1866.

68

82 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Hopkins, A.—Meteors observed at Williamstown, Mass., November 12,
13, 1866.

Horr, Dr. Asa.—Meteors at observed, Dubuque, lowa, November,
1866.

Hudson, A. T.—Meteors observed at Lyons, Iowa, November, 1866.

Hyatt, AA—Meteors observed at Salem, Mass., September 29, 1868.

Ingram, J.—Meteors observed at Vineland, N. J., August 24, 1869.

Johnson, Professor J.—Meteors observed at Middletown, Conn., No-
vember, 1866.

Keenan, T. J. R.—Account of meteors observed at Bahala, Miss.

Knight, R. T.—Account of meteors observed at Philadelphia, August
24, 1869.

Lapham, I. A.—Meteors observed at Milwaukee, Wis., November, 1866,
1867.

McClune, James.—Meteoric shower at Philadelphia, November 14, 1867.

Major, J.—List of books and ship’s logs examined for meteors.

Martin, Samuel D.—Meteors observed in Clarke County, Kentucky,
November, 1866.

Moore, Albert.-—Meteors observed at Grenada, Miss., November, 1866.

Morris, O. W.—Meteors observed in New York, November 13, 1866.

Mudge, B. F.—Meteors observed at Manhattan, Kans., November, 1866.

Nason, Elias.—Meteors observed at North Billerica, Mass., November,
1866.

Newton, Professor.—November meteors.

Parker, J. D—meteorie display at Steuben, Me., November, 1864,
1866, 1867.

Parkhurst, H. M.—Meteors observed at Brooklyn, Mo., 1866.

Pratt, W. H.—Meteors observed November 14, 1868, at Davenport,
Towa.

Raser, John Heyl.—Meteors observed at Reading, Pa., November, 1866.

Redding, Thomas B.—Meteors observed at Neweastle, Ind., November,
1864.

Richards, W. M.—Meteors observed at Berlin, Wis., November, 1866.

Robinson, A.—Meteors observed at Androscoggin, Me., November,
1866.

Rogers, F. M.—Meteors observed at Throg’s Neck, N. Y., November
27, 1864.

Smith, HE. A.—Meteors observed at Moriches, N. Y., November, 1866.

Smith, Hliim—Meteors observed at Emmittsburg, Md., November, 1866.

Snow, I’. H.—Meteoric shower at Lawrence, Kans., November 14, 1867.

Spaulding, A.—-Meteors observed at Aurora, Ill., November, 1866.

Spencer, W. C.—Meteors observed at Dubois, Ill., November, 1566.

Spera, W. H.—Meteors observed at Ephrata, Pa., November, 1567.

Stephenson, Rev. James.—Meteors observed at Saint Inigoes, Md., No-
vember, 1876.

Trembly, J. B.—Meteors observed at Toledo, Ohio, November, 1866.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 83

True, H. A——Meteors observed at Marion, Ohio, November, 1566.

Turner, Hrnest.—Account of meteor observed at Point Pleasant, La.,
June 29, 1872.

Tutwiler, H.—Account of meteoric shower observed at Green Springs,
Ala., November 14, 1868.

Washington, D. C.—Account of meteors observed at the United States
Naval Observatory, 1868.

West, Silas —Meteors observed at Cornish, Me., November, 1866.

Wheeler, John T.—Meteors observed at Concord, N. H., November,
1866.

Wilbur, B. F.—Meteors observed at West Waterville, November, 1866.

Williams, M. G.—Meteors observed at Urbana, Ohio, November,
1866.

Winger, Martin.—Meteors observed at Wooster, Ohio, November,
1866.

RAIN.

Depth of rain collected in several rain-gauges during the storm of
October, 1869.

Extract from the meteorological registers of the Surgeon-General’s
Office from January, 1860, to January, 1867, giving summaries of
amount of rain and melted snow at meteorological stations in the west-
ern part of the United States.

Influence of the weather in the production of rain.

Adams, J. F.—Account of extraordinary rain-storm at Macon, Ga.,
October 2, 1868.

Bache, D.—Account of hail-storm at San Antonio, Tex., May, 1868.

Bartlett, Jefferson.—Snow-fal! in West Lebanon, Ind., winter of 1869.

Berlandier, J. Louis.—-Rain-fall at Matamoras, Mex., 1843-1.

Bermuda.— Quantity of rain-fall at Ireland Island 1860~62.

Blackwell, Thos —Return showing percentage of rain due to winds
bearing rain from surrounding regions. Observations made at Mont-
real 185960.

Branley, HL. H.—Rain-fall at Amesville, Ohio, January, 1869.

Cambridge, Mass.—Rain-fall 1855-67.

Canton, Mo.—Rain-fall in 1870.

Chase, Pliny E.—Cyclical rain-fall at San Francisco. Rain-curves.
Recent monthly rain-fall in the United States. Remarks on the fall of
rain as affected by the moon.

Clark, Dr. Jas. F.—Effect of battles on rain, observed during the war.

Cockburn, S.—Rain-fall in Balize, Honduras, 1862-68.

Cocke, T. k.—Amount of rain-fall October, 1871, in Victoria County,
Texas.

Crosier, Adam.—Mean monthly rain-fall at Laconia, Ind., 1866-69.

Cunningham, Geo. A.—Rain-table 184168, at Lunenburgh, Mass.

Curle, T. J—Observations showing that anvil-shaped clouds indicate
rain.

§4 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Davidson, S—Rain-fall at Sitka, Alaska, May, 1866, April, 1867.

Draper Jos.—Rain-fall at Worcester, 1860.

Ewing, Chas. G.—Quantities of rain that fell in each month, 1855 70.

Foote, H. S—Report of rain-fall, January—June, 1869.

Gibbs, Geo.—Account of deluge in Patapsco and Monocacy.

baie N. H.—Record of snow, rain, &e., 1838-64.

Grant, W. T.—Report of rain-fall at Maning Gan September and Octo-
ber, 1872.

Gregory, J. M.—Heavy rain in Champaign, Ill.

Huntington, T. C. T.—Record of fall of rain in Phillipsburgh, Saint
Martin’s, July-December, 1869.

Hurlin, W. .—Rain-fall at Antrim, N. H., November, 1866.

Jackson, Geo. L.—Account of heavy fall of snow at Vandalia, Til.,
February, 1872.

Lake Village, N. H.—Depth of rain and melted snow collected in rain-
gauges at Laconia and Lake Village, 1865-69.

Langguth, J. G.— Account of hail-storm at Chicago, July, 1871.

Lewisburgh, Va.—Rain-fall in 1859.

Logan, T, M.—Rain-table for Stockton, Cal., 1849-70.

Loomis, H.—Fall of rain at New Haven, Conn., 180429, 6468.

Lupton, N. T.—Rain-fall at Greensborough, 1855-68.

McKinny, John C.—Account of snow-storm at Vincennes, Ind.

Milwaukee.—Table showing amount of rain and melted snow 184159,
measured by Dr. E. S. Marsh, I. A. Lapham, and Dr. Charles Winkler.

Neill, Thos.—Rain in Sandusky, Ohio, 1859~67.

Newark, N. J.—Great rains,

New York.—Rain-fall in North Hammond, Gouverneur, and House-
ville, July, 1866-June, 1867.

Pennsylvania.—Rain, 1859-41.

Pitman, Chas. H.—Amount of rain-fall at West Barnstead, N. H., Au-
gust and September, 1869.

Rogers, O. P.—Rain-fall at Marengo, Ill., 1850-71.

Saint Louis —Monthly amounts of rain at Saint Louis, 1853-57, 6067,

Schott, Chas. AA—Account of proposed rain-gauges.

Seltz, Charles.—Account of heavy rain-storm at De Soto, August, 1871.

Sitka.—Rain-fall, 1857-’64.

Smith, Edward A.—Account of rain and snow registered at the State
lunatic hospital, Worcester, Mass., for fourteen years.

Smith, Patrick H.—Method of determining rain-fall by weight. |

Spera, N. H.—Rain-fall at Ephrata, Pa. |

Steineman, M.—Rain-gauge observations at Eckhart Mine, Md., 1864
~68.

Talbot, R. £.—Account of snow-storm, February 3, 1868, at George-
town, Texas.

Tayloe, #, T.—Nain-fall observed at Powhatan Hill, 1850-66.

Tennent, Thomas.—Rain-fall in San Francisco, Cal., 1849-70.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 85

Valentine, John.—Table showing depth of water which fell at Rich-
mond in each month and year from 1852 to 1865.

Washington, D. C.—Rain measured at the Smithsonian Institution, 1862
~66. Rain-fall at the United States Naval Observatory, 1852-1867.

Whitefield—Curious snow-storm observed at Whitefield, March 19,
1869.

Wilbur, Benjamin F.—Account of heavy rain at Waterville, Maine,
August 18, 1871.

WIND.

Account of tornado from New York to Maine, October 8, 1797. Dia-
gram of veering March and April, 1863.

Babcock, A. J—Charts comprising direction of wind at Aurora, Ill,
with course of clouds September, 1857-January, 1858.

Baddeley, P. F. H.—Dust whirlwinds and cyclones.

Barringer, W.—Account of tornado in Logan county, Ohio, June 7,
1872.

Bierce, R. C.—Account of tornado at Veroquas, Wis., June 25, 1865.

Boehmer, G. H.—Atmospherie currents and their effects upon pres-
sure, temperature and moisture, from observations made in 1871—72.

Brooks, Chas.—Tornado of 1851 in Middlesex county, Mass.

Chappellsmith, John.—Account of tornado, April, 1852.

Chase, Pliny E,—Tidal wave curves.

Connell, D.— Account of tornado at Buckingham, lowa, September
12, 1865.

Henson, Stephen.—Account of tornado at Oxford, Minn., September
12, 1865.

Hill, Thomas.—List of books on tornados in Harvard college library.

Hudson, A. S—Effects of tornado of 1860, at Sterling, Ill.

Keenan, T. J. k.—Account of storm in Mississippi, with photograph
of effect of same.

McLeran, A.—Account of tornado in Hil, June 3, 1860.

Mulford, Anson M.—Account of tornado at New Providence, June 3,
1860.

Nicholson, W. L.—The great tornado of 1860.

Simmons, A. H.—Photograph of efiects of Chinooh wind.

Taylor, M. K.—Observations on the Camanche tornado.

Webb, John G—Notes on two cyclones at Little Oarasta, Fla., August,
1871.

Young, Geo. D.—Account of tornado of June 3, 1860, at Camanche,
Towa.

GENERAL METEOROLOGY.
Account of halo observed in 1630.

Circulars relative to earthquakes by the earthquake committee, San
Francisco, Cal.

86 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Curves of equal annual change of magnetic declination, United Bates
Coast Survey.

Extracts from the regulations in regard to entries to be made and
method of keeping the log-book.

Invitation a VYassemblée des meteorologists d Leipzig pour le 14
Aout 1872

Lists of elevations and distances in that portion of the United States
west of the Mississippi River.

Maritime meteorology.

Meteorological observations in balloon ascents, 1852.

Open polar sea and glacial formations.

Persine’s system of meteorology.

Speculations on cause of cold winters, A. H. Dunlevy.

Statistical nomenclature of causes of death.

Table of magnetic determinations observed in connection with survey
of northwestern lakes.

Telegraphic meteorology.

Ames, Mrs. M. E. P.—Parhelia observed at Big Meadow, California,
April 12, 1872.

Astrop, k. F.—War comet observed at Crichton’s store, Virginia, July,
1861.

Boehmer, George H.—Distribution of heat over the United States, from
official sources, 1825-1872.

Campbell, John IL.—Account of halo observed from Wabash College,
Crawiordsville, Indiana, May 26, 1865.

Capen, F. L.—Circular of American Meteorological Society.

Cobb, W. H.—Account of parhelia observed February 4, 1867.

Doran, G. C.—Profile of route of Yellowstone avpaeines:

Danbury, A. H.— Effect of the moon on the weather.

Hann, T.—Storms and predictions, translated by Dr. Endlich.

Hubana, J.—Map of Mexico and California.

King, Thomas D.—Meteorology and its professors.

Le Verrier.—Memorandum in regard to general meteorological obser-
vations.

Lincoln, T.—Account of severe storm in Maine.

Logan, Dr. Thomas M.—Cireular relative to meteorological observa-
tions.

McAllister, H. Jr.—Sketch of parhelia observ ed at Colorado Springs,
Colorado.

Marey, Capt. R. B.—Map of country upon Upper Red River.

Moss, G. B.—Parhelion observed February 16, 1872, at Belvidere, Ill.

Phitlips, W. H.—Solar phenomena observed at Elmira, N. Y., Febru-
ary 2, 1867.

Poey, A.—Law of the similar evolution of meteorological phenomena.

Smith, J. S—Table of rise and fall of Lake Erie, 1835-1849.

_ MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 87

Stearns, R. LE. C_—Economic value of certain Australian forest-trees
and their cultivation in California.

Steele, Augustus.—Rainbow observed at night at Cedar Keys, Fla.

Turner, Prof. J. B.—Edueation of American farmers.

White, W. £., Tampa, Fla.—Yogs in Florida.

Whitney, H. M.—Eruption of the great summit volcano of Mauna
Loa.

Wilbur, B. F.—Lightning observed during snow-storm.

Wing, M. H.—-Effect of lightning on telegraph wires.

LOCAL METEOROLOGY.
AFRICA.

Meteorological notes of a journey to Musardu, B. Anderson.
ASIA.
CHINA.

Memorandum explanatory of a plan for the eastern seas for recording
meteorological observations and transmitting weather news, Robert
Hart.

INDIA.

Madras.—Mean height of barometer and thermometer for each month
of the years 18434445,

SIBERIA.

Table of thermometric observations during the exploration of the
country between Stikolajefsk and Okhotsk, 1865.
Olhotsk.—Report of thermometric observations in 1866, Richard J.
Bush.
Yakoutsk.—Temperature curves from fifteen years’ observations, 1829
AA,
SINGAPORE.

Annual abstract of meteorological observations for 1870, H. L. Ran-
dell.

Meteorological observations, May—December, 1869, H. L. Randell.

Meteorological observations for April, 1872, (Straits Settlement Gov-
ernment Gazette.)

Meteorological observations, September, 187

Temperature and rain-fall on Quop estate, 1866-70.

Ze

TURKEY.
Jcrusalem.—Thermometric observations, 1851-1854.
Mosul—Temperature and rain-fall, January, 1852- February, 1856;
Rev. W. F. Williams.

88 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

AUSTRALIA.

New South Wales—Summary of meteorological observations at Mor-
peth, 1865, Dr. Thornton.

Queensland, Brisbane—Summary of meteorological observations, April,
1869, J. MacDonnell.

Meteorological observations and summaries of rain-fall, 1872.

CENTRAL AMERICA.
COSTA RICA.

Heredia.—Observaciones meteorologicas hechas en la ciudad de
Heredia durante el ao 1865; do. 1868.

Limon.—Register of meteorological observations, port of Limon, Octo-
ber, 1865— August, 1866, Felipe Valentin.

San José.—Ubservaciones meteorologicas hechas en la ciudad de San
José durante el primer semestre de 1868.

Observaciones meteorologicas hechasen la ciudad de San José durante
el alo de 1868; do. 1869, 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874.

GUATEMALA.

Meteorological diary for the quarter ending June and December,
1859.

Observacicnes meteorologicas, 1857.

Observaciones meteorologicas hechas en el colegio seminario de
Guatemala, 1859.

Observaciones meteorologicas en la mina de las Cirueltas, 1750, de
Paris sobre el mare, durante el primer semestre del afio’ 1865, H. Reck.

Resumen de las observaciones hechas en el colegio seminario 4 cargo
de los PP. de la Compania de Jesus de Guatemala el ano 1857; do.
1858, 1859.

HONDURAS.

Meteorological notes taken on a flying visit to the norcnern district of
British Honduras, 8. Cockburn.

Meteorological phenomena in 1863, 8. Cockburn.

Meteorological scraps, Dr. Berendt.

Report on the river Belize.

PANAMA.

Temperature observations, March—May, 1849.
Aspinwall.—Meteorological report for 1868—69, J. P. Kluge.

SAN JUAN.

Observaciones meteorologicas di Ottubre, 1871, M. M. Chazaro,

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 89

SAN SALVADOR.

Observaciones meteorologicas hechas en el laboratorio de la faculdad
de medecina de San Salvador, 1871.

EUROPE.
ENGLAND.

Greenwich.—Rain-fall observations, 1849-1853.

London.—Anemographic, barographic, and thermographie curves,
April 27, 1868.

Rain-fall observations, 1841-1853, J. Higginbottom.

Macclesfield.—Meteorological observations taken at the Useful Knowl-
edge Society’s rooms, 1860—69.

Newcastle—Neweastle Chronicle, September, 1863.

Tickhill— Meteorological observations in 1863-64,

FRANCE.

Météorologie, (Le Moniteur de la Flotte, Février, 1867.)

Paris.—Carte représentant la mortalité et Pétat météorologique de
Paris en 1865.

GERMANY.

Frankfort—Account of earthquakes in the vicinity of Frankfort,
W. Prentiss Webster.

Meissen.—Zusammenstellung der Monats- und Jahresmittel aus den |
zu Meissen im Jahre 1871 angestellten dreimaligen meteorologischen
Beobachtungen.

IRELAND.

Comparative view of meteorological observations made in Ireland
since 1788, with hints toward forming prognostics of the weather.
Rtichard Kirwan, Dublin, 1794.

ITALY.

Naples.— ‘11 Salvatore,” Anno 1, No. 5, 1868.
Palermo.—Meteorological bulletin of the Royal Observatory of Paler-
mo, January, 1865.
NORWAY.

Bergen.— Meteorological Review for 1864, O. J. Dreutzer.

PORTUGAL.
Insbon.—Diagrams of rain, 1855-1870.
SPAIN.

Cordoba.—Observaciones meteorologicas de Cordoba, aio de 1859.
Valencia.—Estacion meteorologica de la Universidad de Valencia.
Resumen de las observaciones hechas en el mes de Abril de 1872.

‘

90 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

TURKEY.

Constantinople.—Observations météorologiques, A. Coumbary, 1868.

Observations météorologiques représentées par des courbes, 186768.
A. Coumbary.

Meteorological items, (Journal de Constantinople, L’Etoile @Orient.
Levant Herald, 1865-66-67.)

NORTH AMERICA.
BRITISH AMERICA.

Magnetical and meteorological observations at Lake Athabasca and
Tort Simpson, by Capt. J. H. Lefroy, and at Fort Confidence, on Great
Bear Lake, by Sir John Richardson, London, 1855.

Fort Nascopee.—Meteorological observations, October, 1864— June,
1865, H. Connolly.

Fort Simpson.—Meteorological Journal, October, 1849— January, 1850.

Observations at Fort Simpson, Mackenzie River, November 1, 1837-
May 24, 1839; and April, 1545- August, 1859.

Fort Yournon.—Meteorological observations January—July, 1861, R.
Kennicott.

Moose Factory.—W eather notes, September, 1858-September, 1859.

Repulse Bay.—Meteorological observations by Dr. John Rae, from
September, 1853, to July, 1854.

Rigolet.— Meteorological observations, 185759, H. Connolly.

Vancouver's Island.—Meteorological observations, December, 1863-
June, 1564.

CANADA.

Comparison of meteorological observations made at Cape Diamond,
Montreal, and during an expedition for exploring Canada Last, between
rivers Saint Maurice and Ottawa:

NEWFOUNDLAND.

Harbor Grace.—Abstract of meteorological notes, February, 1863, H.
A. Clift. Anomalous gale and rain, H. A. Clift. Atmosphere and leaves,
H. A. Clift. Diagram of the directions of the wind, H. A. Clift. Meteoro-
logical notes, Harbor Grace Standard, December 4, 1872.

Saint Johv’s.—General meteorological register for 1872, J. Delaney.
General meteorological register, December, 1873, J. Delaney. Meteoro-
logical observations, 1859-60, John Delaney. Meteorological register,
January, February, 1857, E. M. Delaney. Meteorological registers, 1848—
00, Royal Artillery. Table showing mean temperature and height of
barometer in each month from 18354 to 1838, Joseph Templeman. _ Ve-
locity of the wintl by anemometer, J. Delaney.

NOVA SCOTIA.

Albion Mines.—Meteorological observations, 1844; meteorological ob-
servations for 1850 and comparison with 1849,

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. bi

Caledonia Mine.—Meteorological registers at the Caledonia Mine, 1867-
1871. Henry Poole.

Halifax.—Account of storm, September 18-19, 1870, Frederick Al-
lison.

Horion.—Thermometric record, 1856, A. P. S. Stuart.

Windsor.—Mean temperatures, 1794-1811.

ONTARIO.

Amherstburgh.—Meteorological observations from January, 1840, to
March, 1852, with continuation by Peter Munzies, from September,
1853, to May, 1856.

Bruce Mines.—Meteorological observations, September, 1850.

Hamilton.—Mean results of meteorological observations for 1854 ; do.
185556, 59. Results of meteorological observations, 1846-1853, W.
Craigie.

Kingston.—Abstract of meteorological register kept at Queen’s Col-
ege University, 1858-69.

Thousand Isles.—Barometrical readings, 1858, J. F. Mayer.

Toronto.—Abstracts of meteorological observations at the magnetical
observatory, 1854~64. Daily curves of temperature at Toronto. General
meteorological registers, 185657, Professor Kingston. General meteoro-
logical registers, 1864~69. Provincial Magnetical Observatory. Mean
meteorological results, 1854, J. B. Cherriman. Mean meteorological re-
sults, 185964, ’70, Professor Kingston. Meteorological observations,
October, 1847-January, 1848. Meteorological summary for November,
1869, derived from tbe records of the Magnetical Observatory, Toronto.
Monthly metecrological register at the Provincial Magnetical Observa-
tory, 1859-1872. Resuits of meteorological observations made at the
Magnetical Observatory, Toronto, during the years 1860-61-62; To-
ronto, 1864. Summary of rain and melted snow for the winter quarter
1870-71, from observations at forty-one stations ; compiled at the Mag-
netic Observatory, Toronto.

v
QUEBEC.

Daily means of observed temperatures at two adjacent.stations, Vic-
toria Bridge and Point Saint Charles, February, 1861.

Montreal.—Meteorological observations at Montreal, September—No-
vember, 1855, Dr. A. Hall. Observations relative to tables prepared
and compiled by 8. A. Huguet. Register of thermometer and babar
eter kept by T. D. King, February—July, 1872.

Saint Martinv’s.—C faite of barometric pressure, humidity, temperature,
and rain-fall, 1856, C. Smallwood. Contributions to meteorology, from
observations at St. Martin’s, 1857, C. Smallwood. Monthly meteorolog-
ical register, October-November, 1858, C. Smallwood.

92 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

MEXICO.

Notes of a voyage to Vera Cruz, Minititlan, &c., R. W. Foster.

Observaciones meteorologicas hechas en la escuela nacional prepara-
toria de México en el mes de Noviembre, 1868, (Diario Oficial.)

Observations at Santa Fé and Nueva Gerona, 1864.

Observations météorologiques, 1840-742, T. Louis Berlandier.

Limonar.—Quantity of rain-fall in 1842.

Matamoras.—Notices of rain, 184047, Berlandier.

Mazatlan.—Account of weather in 1868, Grayson.

Minititlan.—Meteorological observations, April, 1858, to January, 1859,
Charles Laszlo.

Mirador.—Meteorological observations, 185457, January, 1858. Sur-
vey of the meteorological materials made in 1858 and 1868, by C. Sarto-
rius.

Trojes.—Meteorological observations, 1869~70, T. Graef.

Vera Cruz.—Barometrical observations, August, 1856, to September,
1859, Dr. Berendt.

UNITED STATES.

Chart of comparative fluctuations of barometer, February and March,
1845.

Daily charts illustrating weather, 1843.

Diagram showing extraordinary barometrical movements, January
21-28, 1853.

Espy’s weather charts, 1845.

Meteorological correspondence of the Smithsonian Institution, thirty-
five bound volumes of letters from observers, &e.

Meteorological notes during march of Colonel Morrison’s command
from Fort Gibson, Creek Nation, to Big Timber, Upper Arkansas, June
22 to October 25, Capt. Henry Little.

Meteorological observations, northwestern boundary survey.

Meteorology on Central Pacific Railroad, 1867, J. R. Gilliss.

Robertson’s diaries, Mississippi, Virginia, &e.

Serap-books containing newspaper items on weather, &c., prepared at
the Smithsonian Institution.

Telegraphic reports of weather at various points in the United States,
September and October, 1858.

Weather bulletins and maps from the chief signal officer, 187173.

ALABAMA.

Erie.—Meteorological observations in 1824, Dr. 8. K. Jennings.

Greensborough.—Abstract from meteorological register for 1868, N. T.
Lupton. Account of hail-storm, May, 1857, Thomas M. Fitz.

Green Springs.—Meteorological tables, 1867, J. W. A. Wright.

Mobile.—Barometrical and thermometrical curves at Fort Morgan,

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 93

Mobile Point, July-December, 1850. Meteorological curves, June, 1848,
Meteorological observations at Fort Morgan, 1848-1850.
Selma.—Account of rain, March 17, 1872, G. H. Lenoir.
Union Springs.—Rain-fall, 186874, J. S. Moultrie.

ALASKA.

Observations at Fort Saint Michael, 1842; Ikogmint Depot, Nulato,
and Fort Kolmakon, 1843, W. H. Dall. Fort Saint Michael meteor-
olegical observations, 1865—66, H. M. Bannister.

Nulato.—Meteorological observations, 1866-67, F. Westdahl.

Sitka.—Meteorological statement for 1868. Record of temperature
observations, (Reaumur,) 1847-1864. Extracted from the Annales de
Yobservatoire physique central de Russie.

Unalakleet—Meteorological observations, 186667, F. Westdahl.

Unalaska Island.—Mean monthly temperature observed at Hlolook,
1867-68.

ARIZONA.

Saint Thomas.—Thermometric record, 1865.
ARKANSAS.

Meteorological observations for February and March, 1861, and Feb-
ruary, 1871, at Micco Creek Nation, H. F. Buckner.

Little Rock.—Meteorological observations, 1851-56, 186470.

Mount Ida.—Abstract of meteorelogical observations, May, Novem-
ber, 1874, G. Whittington. .

Washington.—Meteorological observations, 1840-59, N. D. Smith,
Meteorological returns, January. February, 185¢

CALIFORNIA.

Curves of horary variations of atmospheric pressure.

Benicia Barracks.—Ozone observations, W. W. Hays.

El Monte.—Rain-fall in December, 1873, George H. Peck.

fort Yuma.—Meteorological observations, 186667.

Los Angeles—Meteorological notes, April, 1851, and May, 1854, Sher-
burne.

Nevada City.—Thermometric observations, July, August, 1865, Charles
F. Dunz.

Sacramento.—Hourly observations, June 21, 1856, T. M. Logan.
Monthly means barometer and thermometer, 1854, Doctor Hatch.
Rain-fall, 1850-73. Report of the curator of the Agassiz Institute on
Meteorology.

San Diego.—Observations made on a trip to the mountains, G. W.
Barnes.

San Francisco.—Blank forms for meteorological observations, Colonel
Williamson. Monthly meteorological observations, 1870-73, C. G.

94 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Ewing. Rain-fall table, October, 1849-April, 1850, 1861~68, Thomas
Tennent. The climate of San Bramcisess R. M. Bacnel

San Joaquin Valley—Rain-table and remarks on climate, J. W. A.
Wright.

Santa Barbara.—Range of the thermometer from July 1, 1872, to June
30, 1873. Santa Barbara as a sanitarium, Santa Barbara Press.

Santa Crus.—Meteorological observations for 1873, J. H. Hoadley.

Santa Yues Valley.—Meteorological observations, 1572.

Vacaville—Meteorological report, February—April, 1869, J. C. Sim-
mons. Observations, January 22-lebruary 1, 1869, J. C. Simmons.

-COLORADO.

A Year’s Progress; Colorado in 1872, W. N. Byers. Climate of
Colorado, (circular by W. N. Byers.) Colorado; published by the
Denver Board of Trade, 1868. Geology, description, and resources of
Central and Southern Colorado, Pueblo, 1869.

Fort Collins.—Meteorological reports, March-September, 1872, Rh. Q.
Tenney.

Fort Garland.—Temperature-table, 1855~69, C. Thomas.

Golden City.—Register of periodical phenomena, 1867, EK. L. Berthoud.

CONNECTICUT

Columbia.—Account of storm July, 1857, W. H. Yeomans. Weather
reports January, December, 1857, June, 1859, W. H. Yeomans.

Hartford.—Meteorological observations 1816-1852.

New Haven.—Meteorological observations, EX. Loomis.

Norwalk.—Account of storm January, 1856, M. Scholfield.

Pomfret.—Account of storm October 24, 1853, D. Hunt.

Salisbury.—Meteorological Journal, 184440, Dr. Ovid Plumb.

Stamford.—F all of water at the Stillwater Rolling-mill January 1,
1869, to January 1, 1874, J. N. Ayers.

DAKOTA.

Meteorological table 1869~70, A. Barnaud.

Ponka Agency.—Atmospherical phenomena November 22, 1871.

Yankton.—Meteorological record for the summer quarter of 1865, M.
K. Armstrong.

DELAWARE.

Georgetown.—Meteorological observations during part of 1852. Rain-
fall, July, 1857-December, 1859. D. W. Maull.

Milford.—Sums and means for 1873; RK. H. Gilman.

DISTRICT. OF COLUMBIA.

Washington.—Account of thunder-storm June 27,1869, W. Q. Force.
Memorandum of storm of November 4, 1856. Meteorological observa-

ol

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL, 95

tions 1828~29, Jonathan Elliott. Meteorological observations at the
observatory, Capitol Hill, April-June, 1872. Meteorological observa-
tions at the Patent-Office 184657. Meteorological observations A pril-
June, 1855, W. J. Rhees. Meteorological observations September-—
December, 1854. Meteorological register, 1821, Jonathan Meigs.
Monthly means of dry thermometer; monthly mean of maximum and
minimum thermometer; maximum and minimum temperature for 1870,
at the Naval Observatory. Monthly means of the bi-hourly observations
of the barometer and thermometer made at the Naval Observatory dur-
ing 1841. Notes on vegetation, 186264, James Watts. Observations
in the observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, April 18, 1860-—No-
vember 29, 1863. Projection showing the regular increase and decrease
of atmospherie heat in the city of Washington for the year 1826, Rob-
ert Little. Psychrometric observations, July, 1854. Registers trom Re-
cording Barograph. Snow-fall observed at the Smithsonian Institution
April 1858-1874.
FLORIDA.

Comparison of the winds on the coast of Florida. Minutes of gale
September 8, 1854, A. S. Baldwin.

Jacksonville—Range of the thermometer at Jacksonville, 184546, A.
S. Baldwin. Table showing the temperature of February for sixteen
years, A. 8. Baldwin.

Key West.—Barometrical and thermometrical curves June, August,
and October, 1851. Details of storm August 27, 28, 1856, W.C. Dennis.
Meteorological observations for 1844-45, Adain Gordon. Mceteorologi- .
cal observations at the garrison, 1843. Meteorological register kept at
Key West barracks, March-April, 1845. Barometrical variations, 1853.

Newport.—Account of storm, Charles Beecher.

New Smyrna.—Report of rain-fall, 1873, George J. Alden.

Saint Augustine.—W eather Meeor 186970

Saint John River—Temperature observations, January-April, 1869,
G. A. Boardman.

Tallahassec.—Observations with rain-gauge, Truman 8. Betts.

GEORGTA.

Berne.—Weather report, April, 1869, H. L. Hillyer.

Cabaniss.—Estimate of rain, May, 1872, A. Colvard.

Gainesville—Diagram of thermometric observations, February and
March, 1872, Dr. W. T. Grant. Rain-fall for August, 1872. Meteoro-
logical ee October, 1872, M. IF. Stephenson. Weather notes, No-
vember, 1872, M. F. Stephenson.

Milledgeville.—List of plants observed in the vicinity, N. G. McAdoo.

Savannah.—Meteorological observations, May, 1858, September, 1559,
John F. Posey.

Trader's Hill.—Meteorological report, September, 1871, F. M. Smith.

Waldo.—Meteorological record, March, 1866, Dr. R. C. Garvin.

96 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Warrington.—Meteorological register at United States naval ss
tal, January, 1859.

Wilsonville.— Meteorological observations, October, 1873, W. B.
Somerville.

ILLINOIS.

Account of tornado in Northern Illinois, 1855, John Wentworth.

Meteorology of Illinois, B. Whitaker.

Athens.—Meteorological record, 1851, and errata, J. Hall.

Augusta.—Mean temperature, 1833-1852.

Aurora.—Meteorological observations for 1859, George Sutton.
Thermometric record, 1859, A. J. Babcock. Chart of temperature,
1859, A. J. Babcock. ,

Batavia.—Meteorological report, March and April, 1857, Thompson
Mead.

Belvidere.—Abstract of registers, 1868-71, G. B. Moss. Comparison
of monthly temperatures, 1867-1870, G. B. Moss. Record of thermome-
ter, March—October, 1867. Summaries of meteorological records, 1868-
Aee

Brighton.—Meteorological abstracts, 1869, W. V. Eldredge. Meteor-
ological table, April, 1855-April, 1856, W. V. Eldredge.

Carthage.— Register of meteorological observations, August, 1858-
September, 1859, Mrs. E. M. A. Bell.

Charleston.—Temperature report, March, 1870, Charles Gramesly.

Chicago.—Diagrams showing effect of meteorological influences on
mortality, 1867~69. Meteorological record, January—September, 1844,
Silas Meacham.

Coopersville—Temperature notes, January, 1869, S. Hazleton.

Danvers.—Meteorological report, May to December, 1872, Ira Rowell.

Decatur.—Double parhelia, February, 1870, Timothy Dudley.

LE ffingham.—W eather notes, March, 1869, H. Gruenewald.

Ligin.—Kesults of meteorological observations, 1858-59, J. B. New-
comb.

Galesburg.—Maximum and minimum temperature, February—Decem-
ber, 1873, B. F. Kemp.

Hennepin.—A bstracts of thermometric record, 1865-72, Smiley Shep-
herd.

Weather notes, 1870, Smiley Shepherd.

Highland.—Record of temperature, 1841-52, Ryhiner.

Hopedale.-—Meteorological items for 1871, A. G. Crispé.

Marengo.—W eather notes, July, 1854—May, 1855, January, 1856, O. P.
Rogers.

Northfield.—Account of tornado, 1855, John A. Kennicott.. Account
of tornado, 1855, Allen W. Phillips.

Pekin.—Summary of meteorological observations, 1855-56, 1859, J. H.
Riblet.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 97

Peoria.—Meteorological observations, December, 1855-February, 1865,
Fred. Brendel.

Phenixville—Meteorological report, May, 1869, Isaac Coffman.

Ridge Farm.—Reports of the weather, December, 1867, January-April,
1868, B. C. Williams.

Riley—Summary of meteorological observations, 1872. Summaries
of meteorological observations, 1861-73, J. W. James.

Sadonis.—Weather notes, June, 1866, A. Catron.

Sandwich.—Annual abstract for 1871, and conditions for July, 1871,
N. E. Ballou.

South Pass—Meteorological reports, December, 1862-October, 1865,
S. C. Spaulding.

Vandalia.—Weather notes, February, 1872, Geo. L. Jackson.

Warsaw.—Account of tornado, June, 1858, B. Whitaker. Account
of storms of August 18, 28, 29; B. Whitaker. Mean temperature and
rain-fall, May, 1872, B. Whitaker. Meteorological observations, 1840-
55, B. Whitaker. Weather reports, September—December, 1856, B. Whi-
taker. York Neck meteorological record, 1864-65, V. P. Gray.

INDIANA.

Bloomington.—Report of Robinson’s anemometer, November, 1869,
C. M. Dodd.

Cannelton.—Abstract of meteorological journal, November 26-Decem-
ber 3, 1856, Hamilton Smith.

Fort Gibson.—Re port of temperature October, 1854—April, 1857, Hen-
ry Little.
_ _Indianapolis.—Meteorological report of Indianapolis Academy of Medi-
cine. Summary of observations for the quarter ending November 30,
1870, Dr. KX. Hadley. Monthly mean range of thermometer, 1861-63,
Royal Mayhew. Temperature report and account of hail-storm, W. J.
Elstun.

Knightstown.—Condensed maps of atmosphere, 1869-70, D. Deems.

Logansport.—Abstract of meteorological tables, 1856-67, January and
February, 1868, Chas. B. Lasselle.

Manchester.—November, 1871 compared with November, 1872, Peter
Murray.

Mount Hope.—Diagram of rain-fall, November, 1869, D. Deem.

hichmond.—Meteorological observations, March, 1856, Joseph Moore.

Rockville—Mean temperature, 186266, W. H. Anderson.

Peru.— Weather report, September, 1869, W. W. Austin. Weather
report, June, 1870, William Daniells.

Saint Peter’s—Weather notes, January, 1869, Francis A. Bauer.

Vevay.—W eather notes, November, 1868—November 1873, C. G. Boerner.

INDIAN TERRITORY.
Meteorological notes obtained from conversations with Creek chiets.
Fort Washita.—Comparison of Julys, 1844749.
7s

oe ot MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.
IOWA.

Bellevue.—Synopsis of meteorological register, November, 1855-No-
vember, 1856, John C. Forg.

Bloomington.—Meteorological table, 1848, T. S. Parvin.

Boonsborough.—Account of storm, April 25, 1872, E. Babcock.

Border Plains.—Meteorological observations, March, 1855-March,
1866, George C. Goss.

Cannelton.—Rain-fall, May 1-November 8, 1857, H. Smith.

Cresco.—Meteorological notes, December, 1571, H. D. Noble.

Dubuque.—Humidity, June, 1853, Asa Horr.

Fairfield.—Meteorological notes, June—November, 1856, J. M. Shaffer.
Meteorological notes, 1857-58.

Fontanelle.—Weather report, December, 1868.

Fort Madison.—Temperature and precipitation, 1848~’52, Daniel Mc-
Cready. Weather notes, June-December, 1873, Miss L. A. McCready.
Guttenberg.—Meteorological report, March, 1865, Philip Dorweiler.

Lowa City.—Meteorological observations, 1866, Theo. S. Parvin.

Maqueta.—Meteorological observations, February, 1857, E. F. Hobart.

Marble Rock.—Weather report, March, 1867.

Mount Vernon.—Thermometrical observations, September, 1856-
March, 1857, B. W. Smith.

Muscatine—Condensed report for 1871, J.P. Walton. Range of ther-.
mometer, 1871, J. P. Walton. Meteorological journal, 1853, ’55, ’56.

Pacquettes Ferry.—Table of meteorological observations, by A. L.
Barraud, March, April, 1871.

Pella.—Abstract of meteorological observations, 1855, E. H. A.
Scheerer.

Poulteney.— Meteorological journal, 1853, Benjamin F. O'Neill.

Ked Oak.—Report for August, 1872, E. A. Harris.

West Union.—List of corrections in meteorological record, F. Me-
Clintock.

Woodbine.— Weather notes, July, 1868, March, 1869, August, 1870,
DK Witter.

KANSAS.

Abstracts of the meteorology of 1874, condensed from the records of
the Kansas State Agricultural College by William K. Kedzil.

Highest and lowest temperatures observed in Kansas, George H.
Boehmer. Weather notes, April, 1873, George Wigg.

Baxter Springs.—Report for April, 1871, W. Hyland.

Belleville——Meteorological report, August, 1872, J. W. Raynolds.

Weather notes, 1873, J. W. Raynolds.

Beloit.—Rain-fall in February, 1872, T. McGrath.

Burlington.—Chart of appearance of sky, February 5, 1870, Allen
Crocker.

Crarw/fordsville.—Meteorological observations, May, 1867.

"MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 8,

Emporia.—Rain-fall in October, 1872, G. W. Cass.

Holton.—Account of earthquake, April 24, 1867, Dr. James Watters.

Lawrence.— Account of earthquake, April 24, 1867, E. J. Rice. Amount
of rain and melted snow, January, 1861—December, 1867, A. N. Fuller.
Meteorological notes, February, 1867, George W. Hollingworth. Mete-
orological summary for 1873, F. H. Snow. Temperature observations,
1861~67, Arthur N. Fuller.

Leaveneorth.—Account of earthquake, April 24, 1867, H. D. Me-
Carty.

Neosho Falls—Meteorological observations, March, 1859, B. F. Goss.

Olatha.—Account of weather, 1868, W. Beckwith.

Osawatomie.—Meteorological report, March, 1868, W. H. Berkey.

Sycamore Springs.—Rain-fall, May—December, 1873.

Topeka.—Account of earthquake, April 24, 1867, J. D. Parker.

Tashington County.—Temperature report, April, 1873, George Wigg.
Williamsburgh.—Meteorological report, April, 1871, D. Fogle.

KENTUCKY.

Arcadia.—Meteorological observations, July, 1840-February, 1841.

Ashland.—Meteorological observations, November, 1872, J. B. Bow-
man.

Clinton.—Report of rain-fall for April, 1868, Rev. T. H. Cleland.

Danvilie.—Meteorological register, July, 1843.

Temperature and rain observations, 1860, O. Beatty.

Harodsburgh.—Meteorological register, March, 1871-January, 1872, ©
J. KE. Letton.

Lebanon.—Meteorological observations at Saint Mary’s College, April-
November, 1843.

Lexington.—Range of temperature, January, 1868—March, 1869, at the
Sayre Institute, 8S. K. Williams. Register of thermometer and barome-
ter at Sayre Institute, 1867, 8S. K. Williams.

Moscow.—W eather report, September—October, 1872; J. B. Morris.

Pine Grove.—Meteorological notes, May, 1874, Samuel D. Martin.

Salem.—Memorandum of the weather, May, 1868, Randolph Noe. °

Springdale-—Meteorological reports, April-December, 1843. Means
for 1860, Mrs. Lawrence Young. ;

Winchester—Hourly observations of s,ermometer, June-September,
1872, James M. Ogden.

LOUISIANA.

Alexandria.—Thermometric record, October, 1868—March, 1869, John
P. McAuley.

Baton Rouge.—Meteorological reports, July-September, 1872, May,
1873, R. H. Day. Rain-fall notes, November—December, 1872, Richard
H. Day.

Delhi.—Rain-fall table, 1867-72, Lewis Campbell.

100 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Fort Jesup —Thermometric register, 182345.

Franklin.—Meteorological observations, June, 1843.

Greenville—Meteorological notes, November, 1869, RK. W. Foster.
Meteorological reports, 1869, R. W. Foster.

New Orleans.—Hourly meteorological observations, 180910, Lafour.
Meteorological and mortuary chart, 1849, Dr. E. H. Barton. Meteoroilogi-
cal journal, 184144, D. T. Lillie. Meteorological notes in annual report
of board of health, 1849. Meteorological register, July, 1853, N. B.

3enedict. Report of self-registering thermometer at the office of the
board of health, September, 1872, March—December, 1873. I. Stathem.
Thermometric observations, 1820-1548, E. H. Barton.

Petite Coquille.—Topographical, geological, and medical report, June,
1820, with chart, Dr. E. H. Bell.

Point Pleasant.—Meteorological report February, 1869, March, April,
1872, Ernest Turner.

MAINE.

Ice in Kennebec River, Rev. Francis Gardiner.

Belfast—Summary of meteorological observations made at Belfast,
July-September, 1872, January, 1873, Geo. E. Brackett.

Brunswick.—Meteorological observations, 1807-1852, Parker Cleve-
land.

Castine.—Abstract of meteorological register, showing maximum and ~
minimum temperature of every month, 1810-1850, Judge Nelson.

Cornish.—Effects of lightning in storm of July, 1867, Silas West.

Gardiner.—Amount of rain and melted snow, 1837-1852. Meteorologi-
cal notes, 1837-1852, R. H. Gardiner. Weather notes, April, May, 1866,
R. H. Gardiner. Weather report, November, 1873, BR. H. Gardiner.
Weather report, winter, 1853-54, R. H. Gardiner.

Hiram.—Table and diagram of mean temperature for 35 years, 1831-
1864, Geo. Wadsworth.

Lisbon Lactory.—Meteorological observations, August, September,
1867.

Mitltown.—Notes on the great storm of October 4, Geo. A. Boardman.

Portland.—Hourly meteorological report, August 2, 1572, W. H.
Ohler. Maximum temperature, 1816-1852. Meteorological register,
February, 1851, and June, 1852, Chas. B. Merrill. Meteorological sum-
maries for May, October, December, 1860, January, 1861. Meteorologi-
cal tables for the year ending December 31, 1860, Henry Willis.

Prospect.—Periodical phenomena, 1864-65, V. G. Eaton.

Saco.—Rain-fall, 184446.

Siandish.—Periodical phenomena, May, June, 1867, J. P. Moulton.

Union.—W eather notes, July, 1871, Wm. Gleason.

Vinal Haven.—Weather record, October, 1869; W. Irving Vinal.

West Watcrville—Weather report, June, 1871.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL 101
MARYLAND.

Annapolis—Maximum and minimum temperature, 1856, W. R. Good-
man. Record of maximum and minimum thermometer, December,
1858, Wm. R. Goodman.

Baltimore.—Meteorological observations, 1829, ’36,’37. Meteorological
observations made in the vicinity of Baltimore, 181819, ’22~23, Lewis
Brantz.

Chantiily— Account of storm, June 21, 1857, 8. T. Stuart.

Cumberland.—Temperature observations, January, 1859-May, 1871.
Meteorological observations for December, 1873, (Cumberland Daily
News, January 5, 1874.)

Emmittsburgh.—Motion of clouds and force of wind, 1868, 1872, C. H.
Jourdan.

Newcastle—Weather notes, August, 1871, Lewis H. Smith.

Pikesville—Temperature and rain-fall observations, 1871.

Saint Inigoes.—Notes for June, 1866, James Stephenson.

Sam’s Oreek.—Account of snow-storm, January 11, 1857. Weather
notes, February, 1855, D. W. Naill.

Schellman Hall.—Meteorological tables, 1846-49,

MASSACHUSETTS.

Amherst College—Mean temperature observations, 1839, Professor
Snell.

Birds Island Lighthouse.—Meteorological observations, August, 1543-
November, 1844, John Clark.

Lawrence.—Summary of meteorological report, 1856, John Fallon.

Lunenburgh.—Means of the thermometer, 1858-1868, George A. Cun-
ningham.

New Bedford.—Barometrical means and extremes, 1812-1848, Samuel
Rodman. Meteorological summaries, 1818-1833, Samuel Rodman.
Rain-fall observations, August, 1871, Samuel Rodman.

North Billerica.—W eather notes, Elias Nason.

Piainfield—Thermometrie observations, January-March, 1857, S. F.
Shaw.

Salem.—Temperature observations, 1814-1816, Dr. W. Bentley.

Somerset.—Meteorological observatious and quarterly sammaries,
1871—72,. Elisha Slade. Meteorological report, March, April, 1872,
Elisha Slade. Mean temperature, 1871-72, Elisha Slade. Weather
notes, February, 1871, Elisha Slade.

Springfield.—Meteorological observations, 1865-66, J. Weatherhead.
Meteorological tables, 1848-53, Lucius C. Allen. Amount of rain, and
maximum and minumum temperatures, for summers of 18575859, F.
A. Brewer.

Williamstown.—Plants found in the vicinity of Williams College, P.
O. Chadbourne. Results of meteorological observations for the year

102 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

ending July, 1856, L. Wilson. Thermometric tables deduced from
observations from 1816-1838, reduced and arranged by E. W. Morley.
Woods Hole.—Observed temperature of the water in June, 1873, J.
Edwards. Rain-fall during summer 1855; B. R. Gifford.
Worcester.—F lowering seasons on Hospital Hill, 1839-1855. Meteor-
ological observations at the State Lunatic Asylum, 1855, 1859-61.

MICHIGAN.

Plants of Michigan, Dr. Dennis Cooley.

Adrian.—Maximum and minimum temperature and rain, February,
1869, Lemay Heline.

Alpena.—Mean temperature in 1872, J. W. Paxton.

Ann Arbor.—Abstract of meteorological observations, January—March,
1855, A. Winchell. Abstract of meteorological observations, 1849-
02, L. Woodruff. Meteorological table for 1849, L. Woodraff.

Cold Water.—Rain-fall in April and May, 1872, Harvey Haynes.

Copper Falls.—Abstract of meteorological observations, December,
1855-October, 1856, Charles S. Whittlesey. Meteorological register,
winter 1855~56, Charles S. Whittlesey.

Detroit.—Meteorological observations December, 1848, W. A. Ray-
mond. Climate of Detroit, Bela Hubbard.

Eagle River.—Transcript of meteorological register, November, 1855-
April, 1856, James 8. Morgan. Transcript of meteorological register, |
December, 1854—-October, 1855, Charles Whittlesey.

Flint.—Abstract of meteorological record Flint Scientific Institute,
1855, Dr. D. Clark.

Fort Wilkins.—Monthly means, 184446.

Kalamazoo.—Weather notes, January-April, 1873, Henry H. Mapes.
Weather report, May-June, 1868, Frank Little.

Lake Superior.—Transcript of readings of detached thermometer, sum-
mer of 1849, C. Whittlesey.

. Muskegon.—Meteorological observations, August 7-13, H. A. Pat-
tison.

Ontonagon.—Transcript of meteorological register, November, De-
cember, 1854, Dr. H. S. Taft. Transcript of meteorological register,
December, 1853-January, 1854, A. Stockley.

Oshtemo.—Weather notes, 186671, Henry H. Mapes.

Port Huron.—Weather report, February, 1868.

Portage Lake——Transcript of meteorological reports, December, 1853
—June, 1854, C. H. Palmer.

Saint James.—Beaver Island meteorological dhieiebiGonet September,
1852-August, 1853, James J. Strong.

Saugatuck.—Meteorological observations, February, 1855, L. H,
Streng.

Sault Ste. Marie.—Diary of the weather, September, 1823- June 1825,
Colonel Cutter.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 103

Sugar Isle-—Weather notes, August, 1865, J. W. Paxton.

Thunder Bay Island.—Weather report, March-May, 1866, J. W.
Paxton.

Traverse City.—Quarterly meteorological register for 1873, S. E. Wait.

Upper Peninsula.—Transcript of meteorological register, July—Sep-
tember, 1850, A. Merry weather.

MINNESOTA.

Afton.—Meteorological report, January, 1865, B. F. Babcock.

Beower Bay.—Description of instruments, method of observing, &c.,
Thomas Clark.

Burlington.—Meteorological observations, 1857, 58, A. A. Hibbard.

Chippewa Agency.—Thermometric record, January, 1871, Dr. H. Me-
Mahon.

Enterprise.—W eather report, March, 1871, John Greethurst.

Hennepin.—Profile of barometric curves, December, 1874—January,
1856, J. B. Clough.

Itasca.—Weather record, March, 1865.

Latchfield.—Diagram of halo around moon, H. L. Wadsworth.

New Ulm.—Report for October, 1867, John Kauba.

Waterville—Meteorological reports, April-August, 1866, Lewis Sane

/ MISSISSIPPI.

Brookhaven.—Weather notes, 1867, T. J. R. Keenan.

Columbus.—Meteorological observations, 1855, 5859, James S. Lull. -

Fayette.—List of early and late frosts, 1834-1863, G. C. Armstrong.
Appearance of birds, 1873.

Mount Carmel.—Range of thermometer, January, February, 1870, BE.
H. Newton.

Natchez.—Meteorological notes, 1871, Thomas J. Cockrell. Remarks
on the weather, March, 1868, Robert McCary.

Pass Christian.— Meteorological observations, May—July, 1860,S. Shep-
herd.

MISSOURI.

Charleston.—Meteorological observations, 1868.

Corning.—Weather notes, November, 1872, Horace Martin.

Hast Prairie-—Meteorological report for 1869, A. Miller.

Edina.—Tabular statement of fall of rain, May, 1859-January, 1867,
J. C. Agnew.

Enterprise.—W eather notes, June, 1871, J. Greethurst.

Hannibal.—Meteorological report, April.

High Hill_—Thermometric record, December, 1872, W. S. Chapin.

Lexington.—Memorandum of weather, 1855, W. T. Davis.

Richland.—Records of thermometer, 1869-72, Spencer S. Goodwin.

Rolla.—Registry of periodical phenomena, 1868, Homer Ruggles.

104 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Table showing range of thermometer, April, 1866-March, 1867, H. Rug-
gles.
‘Saint Louis —Maxinum, minimum, and mean temperatures, 1849-1852,
Dr. Engelmann. Mean temperature of every month 1836-1853, G.
Engelmann. Meteorological condition and mortality of Saint Louis,
1855, Dr. Geo. Engelman. Meteorological observations, 184144, Dr.
B. B. Brown. Meteorological observations, 1856, ’70. Meteorological
observations, 1861, ’69, Dr. A. Wislizenus. Meteorology for 1867, Dr.
Geo. Engelmann. Weekly meteorological records, 1872~73, B. D. Krib-
ben. Chart, November, Decernber, 1872; daily means, October, 1872.
Stoutville—Weather report, December, 1871, A. Y. Carlton.
Washburn.—Weather record, spring season of 1871, J. W. Hannah.

MONTANA.
Meteorology for 1859, W. W. Johnson.
NEBRASKA.

Barometrical observations at Fort Kearney, South Pass, and Honey
Lake Wagon-Road, 1857-58, W. H. Wagner. Meteorological observa-
tions at Fort Kearney, Laramie, &c., 1860—64.

De Soto.—Temperature observations, January-March, 1867, Charles
Seltz.

Fontanelle-—Range of thermometer, July, 1868, H. Gibson.

Peru.—Account of earthquake April 24, 1867; J. W. McKenzie.

Plattsmouth—Meteorological observations, January, 1872—January,
1873, A. L. Child.

Santee-Sioux Agency.—Statement of weather, December, 1870-April,
1871, Geo. S. Truman. View of parhelia, November 22, 1871. Account
of dust-storm.

NEVADA.

Aurora.—W eather report for September, 1868, Samuel Young.
NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Depth of rain and melted snow collected in rain-gauges kept by the
W. iL. C. and W. M. Company, in 1870.

Claremont.—Report of rain-fall November, 1867, and April, 1863,
Lewis Stevens.

Concord.— Weather notes, January—March, 1856, W. Prescott.
Hanover.—Barometric and thermometric monthly curves, Dartmouth
Coilege. List of plants growing in vicinity. .

Manchester.—Meteorological observations, 1845-51, S. N. Bell.

New Ipswich.—Weather notes for August, 1865, W. D. Locke.

North Barnstead.—Meteorological abstract, September, 1866, C. H.
Pitman.

Pitts field.—Meteorology of 1872, Geo. R. Drake.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 105

Portsmouth.—Meteorological observations made at the navy-yard,
183942.

Shelburne.—Selected memorandums, relative to the weather, from
1868~72, John Collin.

Whitefield Meteorological observations for the last twenty-two days
of May, 1869, L. D. Kidder.

NEW JERSEY.

Atco.—Register of temperature, 1869-71, H. A. Green. Weather
record, 1870, H. A. Green.

Bloomfield.—Diagram of wind’s variation, January-June, 1855, R. L.
Cooke. ;

Burlington.—Meteorological register, 1819~58.

Freehold.—Register of thermometer in the open air for the year 1860.

Jersey City.——Monthly means of temperature observations, 1871-
73, Thomas T. Howard, jr. Quarterly reports, 1871, Thomas T. How-
ard, jr. Record of observations with maximum thermometers, the bulb
of one touching painted tin and the other bright tin, simultaneously ex-
posed to the direct rays of the sun, Thomas T. Howard, jr. Thermo-
metric record, December, 1870; Thomas T. Howard, jr.

Lambertville—Monthly mean temperatures, 1857~59.

Moorestown.—Summary for August 1868, T. J. Eeans.

Newark.—Maxinun, minimum, and mean temperatures, 1854, 6062,
W. A. Whitehead.

New Germantown.—Monthly reports of range of barometer, 187172,
A.B. Noll. Height of barometer, July, August, 1869-October 1870,
A. B. Noll. Temperature curves, May, July, 1869.

NEW MEXICO.

History, Wealth, and Resources of New Mexico, Hon. S. B. Elkins.
Observations made by James M. Reade, during Pope’s expedition.

Bosque Redondo Reservation.—Climate at Indian farm in 1867.

Hl Paso.—Curve of daily temperature.

Fort Union.—Thermometrie record, 185354.

NEW YORK.

Account of weather at New York Fort, winter of 1746~47. Flow of
the west branch of the Croton River, J. J. R. Croes.

Babylon.—Thermometer observations, May, June, 1872, F. Miller.

Brooklyn.—Diagrams of cycles of cold during winter 184849, E. Mer-
riam.

Buffalo.—Climatology of Buffalo, 1867, W. Ives. Meteorological
memoranda for March, 1865, W. Ives.

Canandaigua.—Taylor’s weather table, 1869.

Chatham.—Meteorological observations, November, 1839-November,
1845, William EH. Oliver.

106 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Depauville—Register of thermometer for January, 1865, Henry Haas.

Hast Henrietta.—Diagram of meteorological monthly means, 1859,
A. S. Wadsworth. Meteorological tables, 1859, A. S. Wadsworth.

Farmingdale—Wind record January-July, 1866, 1867, January—Feb-
ruary, 1868, John C. Merritt, jr.

Fishkill Landing.—Abstract of meteorological register, 1854, W. Hark-
ness.

Flatbush.—Book of meteorological remarks, 1850, Erasmus Hall.

Geneva.—Meteorological observations, 1850-65, Prof. W. D. Wilson.

Glasco.—Weather notes, April, 1873, D. B. Hindricks.

Gouverneur. sre ele OTe ate observations at high-school, 1837-49,
Stephen Allen.

Lake.—Extremes of tomneeesnire observed December, 1856, January,

1857, Peter Reid.

ameaegbureh. —Rain-fall, May, 1827-67, J. W. Heimstreet.

Leyden.—Meteorological report, sean and PEPE ie 1869, C. C.
Merriam.

Little Genessee.—Weather notes, February.

Lockport.—Meteorological observations, 1849-50, J. G. Trevor.

Locust Grove.—Meteorological report, 1868, C. C. Merriam.

Lowville.—Direction of the wind for each hour, day and night, from
October, 1850-June, 1851, David P. Mayhew. Synopsis of meteorolog-
ical register, 1857, J. Carroll House.

Madrid.— Meteorological observations, 185253.

Mohawk—Diagram of relative temperature for each month of 1867,
Dr. James Lewis. Diagram hourly mean temperature, 1867, Dr. James
Lewis. Meteorological record, Dr. James Lewis. Register of self-re-
cording instruments, Dr. James Lewis. Temperature observations,
1867, Dr. James Lewis.

Newburgh.—Thunder-showers, periodical phenomena, &c., in 1866,
George Kimball.

New York.—Abstracts of New York Academy Register, 1852. Account
of solar phenomena and sketch of same, H. P. Smith. Chart showing
influence of impure air and overcrowding, on health of New York, Dr.
W. F. Thoms. Comparative view of temperature of July, 1854~65, and
of weather for first six months of 185565. Course of the epidemic
in New York, 1866. Diagram of thermometrie and barometric observa-
tions at Cooper Union, May, June, 1870, Oran W. Morris. Map show-
ing localities of cholera in New York, May, 1866-December, 1867, Dr.
I’. J. Randall. Mean temperature of seasons, 186970; O. W. Morris.
Meteorological Journal at College Place, May 24, 185 7-June 4, 1862,
A.K.Thatcher. Meteorological remarks to accompany register fe 1875,
O. W. Morris. Notes on the meteorology of penitentiary hospital,
Blackwell’s Island, 1856, Dr. W. Sanger. Probabilities for each moon,
1871. Summary of meteorological observations, 1868, Oran W. Mor-
ris. Weather chart showing effects of meteorological influences on mor-

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 107

tality in New York, Dr. W.F. Thoms. Weather notes, January, 1856,
J.S. Gibbons. Weekly reports of meteorological observations at Cen-
tral Park Observatory, 1867~’73.

Nichols—Weather notes, periodical phenomena, &c., 1857, 1858, R.
Howell.

North Hammond.—Account of earthquake December 18, 1868, C.
A. Wooster. Observations of the weather, January-April, 1866, C. A.
Wooster.

North Volney.—Meteorological report February, 1868, February, 1869,
June, 1869, J. M. Partrick.

Ogdensburgh.—Daily weather observations, January, March, 1855, W.
E. Guest. Measurements of Saint Lawrence, W. E. Guest. Meteorologi-
cal remarks October, 1849-September, 1850.

Ovid.—Register of rain-fall April-July, 1856, J. W. Chickering.

Palisades.—Observations of weather for the year 1868, W.S. Gil-
man, jr.

Penn Yan.—Diagram of daily mean temperature, February, 1855, H.
P. Sartwell. Diagram of fluctuations of barometer December, 1855,
Dr. H. P.Sartwell. Meteorological registers, January, 1857—A pril, 1858,
Dr. H. P. Sartwell. Meteorological registers, 1853 and 1859, Dr. H. P.
Sartwell. Summary of observations for 1873, George R. Youngs.

Rochester.—Meteorology of Rochester, 1829~33. Meteorological ob-
servations 183133, Doctor Main. Meteorological observations, 1856,
W.C. Pratt. Rise of water in Lake Ontario, 1845-1852, C. Dewey.

touse’s Point.—Meteorological journal, 1845-1853, John Bratt.

Saugerties.—Thermometric observations by Rev. R. G. Williams, Jan-
uary, 1863-June, 1865.

Sing Sing.—Rain-fall observations June, 1873-January, 1875, and
comparison of same with records of Croton Aqueduct.

South Hartford.—Periodical phenomena, 1860-65, G. M. Ingalsbe.

Spencertown.—Meteorological abstracts, 1855, C. A. W. Morehoase.

Staten Island.—Meteorological report, 1871, 73, C. Keutgen, jr.

Troy.— Weather notes, 1868-72. Meteorological report January-
February, 1873, J. W. Heimstreet.

Waterford.—Thermometric record, 1856, J. C. House.

West Day.—Weather notes, 1858, Jude M. Young.

Willet’s Point.—Results of hourly observations by the battalion of
engineers, 1868-1872.

NORTH CAROLINA.

Western North Carolina, its agricultural resources, mineral wealth,
climate, salubrity, and scenery, Dr. H. P. Gatchell, Milwaukee, 1870.
Extract from letter to Raleigh Standard, T. L. Clingman.

Clinton.— Meteorological observations, B. F. Grady, jr.

Lenoir.—Meteorological report from the Davenport female college,
May-September, 1869; July-September, 1870. Meteorological report,
October, 1869-June 1870, Lenoir female college.

108 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

Murfreesborough.—Record of meteorological observations, A. MeDow-
ell, 185661.

Scuppernong.—List of trees growing in and near Scuppernong, J.
Avery Shepherd.

Westminster.— Meteorological diary June-August 1843, Joel Watkins.

Wilson.—Meteorological observations, 154344, Rev. A. A. Benton.

OHIO.

Amesville.—W eather report, December, 1872, E. H. Branly.

Austinburgh.—Meteorological observations, June—December, 1857,
James D. Herrick.

Belle Centre.—List of flowering plants in the vicinity of Geneva Hall,
Robert Shields.

Bowling Green.—Current weather, February, December, 1866, John
Clarke. Barometrical and thermometrical observations, July—Decet-
ber, 1857, January-March, 1858, W. R. Peck.

Carthagena.— Appendix to meteorological register, casual phenomena,
September, 1870-December, 1873, R. Miiller. Barometric and _ ther-
mometric charts, 1870~73, R. Miiller. Meteorological curves, 1870-73,
R. Miiller.

Cheviot.—Miscellaneous data, winter 185556, E. Hannaford. Reg-
ister of meteorological observations, January-July, 1856; Edward
Kohler.

Cincinnati—Account of weather for April, J. H. Shields. Maximum
and minimum temperature, 1835-1853, Dr. Joseph Ray. Meteorolog-
ical observations, 1860, at Woodward High School, George W. Harper.
Meteorological observations at College Hill, 1814-1848, Jackson.

Cleveland.—Meteorological journal, 1857, G. A. Hyde. Meteorolog-
ical register, 1866,G. A. Hyde. Meteorological report for 1867. Mete-
orological summary, 1858, Edward Colburn.

Dayton.—Report of deaths, June—November, 1873.

Haton.—Summary of observations, January, 1865, Miss O. Larsh.

Hilisborough.—Rain-fall in 1857, J. McD. Matthews. Temperature
and rain-fall observations, 1860, J. McD. Matthews.

Island Creek.—Thermometric record, 1868, Robert Mackey.

Keene.—Account of snow-storm, March 24, 1852.

Kelly’s Island.—Meteorological observations, 1860, George C. Hunt-
ington. Meteorological tables, 1859-1866, George C. Huntington.

Lancaster.—Range of thermometer, May, 1866, J. W. Towson.

Lima.—Weather notes, 1862-1870, Timothy Shroyer.

Mariettaa—Mean temperature of each month from 1868 to 1871, Dr.
George O. Hildreth.

Mount Avburn.—Summary of meteorological observations at the Mount
Auburn Young Ladies’ Institute for 1871.

New Lisbon.—Meteorological reports, 1855, 1856, J. F. Benner.

Newton Falls—Thermometric observations, March, 1871, with dia-
gram, W. King.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROGICALAL MATERIAL. 109

North Lewisburgh.—Meteorological record, 1868.

Portsmouth.—Abstract of thermometric observations, 1824-1831, Dr.
G. B. Hempstead.

Saint Clairsville—Geometrical exemplification of weather, 1819, 1820,
compared with Cincinnati and Washington.

Steubenville-—Meteorological observations for 1865, Joseph B. Doyle,
Thermometric report, 1868, Roswell Marsh. Weather notes, 1563-
1869, Roswell Marsh.

JYoledo.—Annual meteorological synopses for 1865-1569, Dr. J. B.
Trembly.

Urbana.—Meteorological summary for 1859, 1864, M. G. Williams,

OREGON.

Climate of Western Oregon, comparison of differences between
meteorological observations taken at 6 a. m., 12 m., 6, 7, 2 and 9 p. m.,
Louis Wilson.

Astoria.—Monthly means of meteorological observations, 1856-1869,
Louis Wilson.

Columbia River.—Meteorological register, 1851, A. M. Harrison.

Corvallis.—W eather report for the winter of 1865, A. D. Barnard.

Hola.—W eather record, September, 1869, T. Pearce.

Hood River.—Meteorological observ Wins: 186568, 187273, Chas. ©.
Coe. Weather notes September, 1872, Thomas M. Whitcomb.

Mount Hood Station.—Yemperature observations, December, 1872,
Thomas M. Whitcomb.

Oregon City.—Diagram of weather, December, 1851, Rev. George M.
Atkinson. Meteorological observations, 1849, 1850; Rev. George M.
Atkinson. |

Portland.—Meteorological observations, December, 1858—April, 1859,
G. H. Stebbins.

Salem.—Meteorological report, July, 1857, W. Hamilton.

PENNSYLVANIA.
.

Abington.—Mean temperature observations, 1864-1870, Rodman Sis-
son.

Ashland.—Thermometrie record, 1869, A. Custis.

Blooming Grove.—Weather report, March, 1865, J. Grathwohl.

Carlisle-—Meteorological table, 184649.

Ceres.—Meteorological observations, 1835-1852, Mrs. King.

Chester.—Report of a committee of the Delaware County Institute of
Sciences on the great rain storm and flood of August 5, 1843.

Delaware County.—Plants growing in Delaware County, Geo. Smith.

Ephrata.—Periodical phenomena, 1871, 1873, W. H. Spera.

Factoryville—Mean temperature of seasons, 1864—66, R. Sisson.

Fleming.—Abstract of meteorological registers, 1856, E. Brugger.

Germantown.—Abstract from journal, January 8- Ventas 11, 1856,
Chas. J. Wister.

110 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL,

Harvisburgh.—Mean temperature, 1842-1849.

Johnstown.—Registers from self-recording barometer, D. Peelor.

Lancaster Colliery — Annual meteorological reports, 1856, 1858, 1859,
P. Friel.

Lansford.—Height of barometer, December, 1872, C. B. Burch.

Lima.—Meteorological observations, 1857, Marshall Painter.

Manchester.—W eather report, March, 1850, E. Marks.

Meadville—Meteorology for April, 1872,C. M. Burkhalter.

Morrisville—Minimum temperature, 1790-1852.

Nazareth.—Meteorological journal, 1787-1792.

Philadelphia.—Abstract of Girard College observations, 1842~45. An-
nual report on meteorology and epidemics for 1858, Dr. Wilson Jewell.
Barometric and thermometric curves, 1844. Barometical curves from
three and a half years’ hourly observations, 1842-45, at Girard College.
Weather log, 1870-72, F. Horner.

Pittsburgh.—Weather signs, G- Albree.

Reading.—Meteorological observations, 185763, John Heyl Raser.

Shamokin.—Condensed meteorological report, 1855-59, P. Friel.

Shirleysburgh.—Meteorological report, December 25-February 2, James
Caruthers.

Somerset.—Mean temperature at Somerset, Pa., 1844-1859.

Tamaqua.—Barometrical record, January, 1875.

Wellsborough.—Notes of storm of September, 1869, W. H. Cobb.

Westchester.—Meteorological observations, 1855-1873, J. C. Green.

Whitehouse-—Meteorological observations, July, 1856, Edward Kohler.

Williamsport.— Weather notes, April, 1873, J. Emery.

Worthington.—Meteorological observations, January—June, 1859.

York.—Temperature report, July, 1866.

RHODE ISLAND.

Table showing amountof rain and melted snow for each month, 187073.

Providence.—Mean height of the barometrical column at Providence,
A. Caswell. Meteorological diary, July, 1854. Meteorological observa-
tions, 1850, 1852, 1855, 1858, A. Caswell.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Camden.—Account of the meteorology of the great storm, January
18, 1857, Dr. Young.

Charleston.—Abstract of meteorological report, 1855~58, Dr. J. L.
Dawson. Extreme and mean monthly temperature within doors, 1842-
06. Rain-fall, 1738-1759.

Evergreen.—Meteorological report, September, 1858, BH. J. Earle.

Fulton.—Precipitation and cloudiness, 1818-1824, J. Dyson.

CGreenville—Meteorological observations, 1839-1845, Elias Earle.

Pendleton.— Account of mountainous region of South Carolina, Thomas
G. Clemson.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 111

-Pomaria.—Meteorological report, November, 1871—-Janvary, 1872, D.
Benjamin Busby.

Saint Helena Island.—A daily journal of the temperature and changes
of the weather, January 6—April 6, 1826, found by Dr. Walker.

Saint John.—A meteorological journal for the year 1860, (Black Oak
Agricultural Society, T. P. Ravenel, secretary, Charleston, 186i.) Meteor-
ological journal, 1851, 1852, 1855, 1857, kept for Black Oak Agricultural
Society, by H. W. Ravenel, secretary.

Waccaman.—Diagrams of mean meteorological elements, 1856, Alex.
Glennie. Meteorological notes, 1855.

Wilkinsville—W eather report, March, April, 1867, Cearles Petty.

TENNESSEE.

Beech Grove.—Weather notes, February and March, 1867.

Dover.— Meteorological observations, 184649, Dr. Farel.

Hlizabethton.—Temperature observations, February, 1868, Charles H.
Lewis. .

Glenwood.—Diagram of annual quantity of rain, 185168, William
Stewart.

Knoxville.—Curves of horary variations of atmospheric presstre,
June, 1854. Meteorological observations at East Tennessee University,
184345.

Memphis.—Abstract of meteorological observations, July, 1869, Id-
ward Goldsmith. Meteorological and nosological report for the tirst six
months of 1857, Dr. Daniel F. Wright.

TEXAS.

Climate of Texas, (Texas the Home for the Emigrant, Austin, 1873.)
Total monthly rain-fall in Victoria County, October, 1872-October, 1873.
Thomas B. Cocke.

Austin.— Meteorological observations, 1857-’70, J. Van Nostrand.

Belmont Farm—Temperature tables, March, April, 1872, T. M. Scott.

Burkeville—TYable of the weather, August, 1850-December, 1859,

N. P. West.

_ Boerne.—Meteorological register, January, February, 1872, J. G.
O’Grady.

Clarksville—Temperatare notes, Cctober and December, 1869, John
Anderson.

Clear Lake——Meteorological observations, July, 1871, George N.
Leoni.

Columbia.—Meteorological observations, Cedar Grove plantation, Jan-
uary, 1867.

Dallas.—Meteorological report, June, 1851-August, 1852, W. A. Ferris.

Galvesion.—Curves of barometer and thermometer, October-Decem-
ber, 1851, February, 1853.

Houston.—Meteorological observations, December, 1869, April-Octo-

112 MISCKLLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

ber, 1870, J. H. Stanley. Meteorological observations, 186266, Dr. A.
M. Potter. Meteorological reports, May, 1869-March, 1870, J. H. Stan-
ley. Meteorological tables, September, 1862—January, 1863. Weather
notes, March, 1867, Miss E. Baxter. .

Kaufman.—Meteorological report, September, November, 1866, James
Brown.

Lavaca.—Meteorological report, December, 1868, January, 1869, L. D.
Heaton.

New Ulm.—Meteorological reports, July, 1872-July, 1873, C. Runge.

Oakland.—W eather notes, February, March, 1871, F. Simpson.

Pin Oak.—Meteorological table, 1856, W. H. Gantt.

Red River County.—Meteorological observations, July, 1871, Allen
Martin.

Reoundtop.—Meteorological table, 1859. .

San Antonio.—Chart showing rate of mortality, mean temperature,
and relative humidity of air, 1873, F. Pettersen. Mean temperature and
rain, 1868S~71, F. Pettersen. Mean temperature, humidity, and rain,’
1873. Table of mean temperature, humidity, and rain-fall, 1873, Dr. F.
Pettersen. Table showing number of times wind blew from each direc-
tion in 1873, F. Pettersen. Temperature, humidity, and rain-fall, 186869,
Frederick Pettersen. Wind’s progress represented by a polygon, Dr.
I. Pettersen.

Washington—Memorandum for 1856.

UTAH.

Meteorological journal of a journey from Fort Leavenworth to Salt
Lake City, 1855, David A. Burr.

Coalville—Meteorological observations, 1865, 1870, Thomas Bullock.
Register of maximum and minimum temperature, 1869 , september, Ae
January, 1872, T. Bullock.

ore —Weather report, February, March, 1872, James Lewis.

Mount Carmel.Weather report, December, Ios SR 1872, C.
Ei. Bolton. Weather report, October, 1873, W. J. Earl. Weather report,
February, 1873, D. B. Fackrell.

Saint Mary’s—Register of maximum and minimum temperature, June,
1865-August, 1867, Thomas Bullock.

Salt Lake City——Meteorological observations, 1850, Captain Stans-
bury. Weather report, 1868, William Fuller.

VERMONT.

Brandon.—W eather notes for January, 1865, R. V. Marsh.

Burlington.—Meteorological observations, 1828-1855.

Bast Montpelier steorologweal observations, 1855, B. I. Wheeler.

Fayetteville—Record of meteorological observations by Gen. Martin
Field, 1826-1834.

Avillington.—Sketch of mountains around Killington, Hosea Doten.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. Bd ae

Lunenburgh.—Meteorological table, observations from 1848-1872, H.
A. Cutting.

Middlebury.—Account of earthquake, December 18, 1867, H. A. Shel-
don. .

Norwich.—Meteorological report, April-May, 1856, A. Jackman,
Weather notes, January, 1872, S. B. Phelps.

Stanstead.—Account of storm, December, 1856, January, 1857, Moses
S. Field.

West Charlotte——Observations on clouds, March, 1870, M. E. Wing.
Periodical phenomena, record of snow-storms, phenomena of dew, &c.,
M. E. Wing. Weather notes and meteorological phenomena, 1869-71,
M. KE. Wing.

Woodstock.—Meteorological observations, December, 1873, Hosea
Doten. Record of maximum and minimum temperature for November,
1867, L. A. Miller. Measurements of rain and melted snow, 1857, Charles
Marsh.

VIRGINIA.

Account of destructive storm, September 6, 1769.

Animals found in Madison County.

Diaries, 1844-1860.

Capeville.—Statement of temperature, 1870, Emma C. Townsend.

Culpepper.—Temperature, 1869-1872, A. Taliaferro.

Fort Monroe.—Yemperature observations, 1825-1554,

Garysville—Meteorological table, 1856, Dr. T. I’. Beckwith.

Glade Creek.—Account of storm of January, 1857, Dr. Henry M. Price.

Glasgow Station Temperature observations, 1866~68, R. J. Davis.

Gosport.—Meteorological table kept at navy-yard dispensary, 1846.

Piedmont.—Notes of observations, August, 1871, Franklin Williams.

Portsmouth. Wind diagrams, February, 1852, N. B. Webster.

Powhatan Hill.—KRains of 1867, E. T. Tayloe. Weather notes, August,
1866, May, 1867, May, October, December, 1868, 1869-1873, E, T.
Tayloe.

Rose Hill.—Meteorological statement, 1859, Geo. W. Upshaw.

Rougemont.—Account of snow-storm January 18, 1857, thermome-
tric observations, December, 1855-December, 1856, Geo. C. Dickinson.

Salem.—W eather-log, 186871, 'T. Horner, jr.

Smithfield.—Meteorological journal, 1855, Dr. John R. Purdie.

Surry.—Tabular view of meteorological phenomena in the winter of
1867, B. W. Jones.

Tribrook Farm.—Weather notes, 186768, W. H. Ruffner.

Washington College—Barometrical observations, March, 1869, W. H.
Rufiner ; temperature reports, April-May, 1869, Professor Campbell.

Wytheville—Meteorological observations, October 31, 1872, J. A.
Brown.

Barometer and thermometer curves 1868-1872.

88

114 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL..MATERIAL.

WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

Cape Disappointment.—Meteorological observations, 1864~68.
Cathlamet.—Notes for December, 1873, Chas. McCall. Weather notes,
September, 1868-September, 1869, December, 1873, Chas. McCall.
Union Ridge.—Weather notes, January-March, 1871, Thos. M. Whit-
comb.
WEST VIRGINIA.

Temperature observations, January-July, 1868, 8. J. Stump.

Weather notes, March, April, 1866, W. H. McDowell.

Kanawha Salines.—Depths of rain, April, 1857—April, 1858, W. C.
Reynolds. Meteorological observations, 1828-1842, 1856 L. D. S. Ruff-
ner.

Sheets’ Mills —Table showing highest and lowest range of thermome-
ter, 1856-1865, Hendricks Clark.

Weston.—Meteorological reports, 1869-73, Benjamin Owen. Meteor-
ological report, December, 1873. Temperature observations, May, June,
1870,

WISCONSIN. ;

Map of Wisconsin, with lines showing effect of Lake Michigan on
temperature, I. A. Lapham.

On the climate of the country bordering on the great North American
lakes, with map, I. A. Lapham.

Baysfield.—Meteorological observations, March, 1866, Andrew Tate.

Beaver Dam.—Account of hail-storm, May, 1855, Reuben Smith.

Beloit—Abstract of meteorological observations, 1873, A. A. Blais-
dell.

Detroit—Annual summary of weather record for 1873, F.W. Higgins.

Hartford. gical observations, 185962, Hopewell Cox. .

Hingham.— Meteorological reports, 1867, John de Lyser.

La Pointe—Thermometric record, July-September, 1856, Edwin Ellis.

Le Roy.—Remarks on the weather, August, 1873, E. H. Benton.

Manitowoc.—Amount of rain and melted snow, 1863-72, Jacob Liips.
Das Gedeihen der Pflanzen, Jacob Lups. Meteorological table showing
the temperature from 1852-1871 inclusive, Jacob Lups. Meteorological
observations, October, 1851-December, 1856, Jacob Lups. Meteorologi-
cal tables, 1852-1866, Jacob Lups.

Milwaukee. bate Sentence tide deduced from hourly observations i in
October, November, and December, 1868, and January and February,
1869, I. A. Lapham. Table showing mean temperature, 1537-1864, I. A.
Lapham.

New Danemora.—Meteorological observations, 1858, Emil Haenser.

Odanah.—Register of thermometric observations, November, 1855-
March, 1856, Dr. Myron ‘Tompkins.

Platteville— Meteorological abstracts, January and June, 1855, J. L.
Pickard.

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 115

Racine.—Meteorological observations, November, 1855-August, 1856,
HE. Seymour.

Summit.—Meteorological observations, Tease Sentenhien 1850, E.
Spencer.

Wautoma.—Meteorological notes, April, 1870, Jonathan Spaulding.
Statement of weather, April, 1866-March, 1870, J. Spaulding.

WYOMING TERRITORY.

Meteorological notes, January, February, 1871.

Atlantic City——Meteorological observations, 187172, Geo. H. Lewis.

Fort Laranie-—Hourly observations of thermometer, January 4—Jan-
uary 7, 1864, Colonel Collins.

Laramie City.—Account of climate, Dr. H. L. Latham.

POLYNESIA.
SANDWICH ISLANDS.

Meteorological observations, 1846~47, Dr. W. Hildebrand. Account
of voleanic disturbances, Dr. W. Hildebrand.

Hilo.—Thermometrie record, June, 1852-1853, Dr. H. M. Lyman.

Honolulu.—Meteorological observations, 1868-72, apt. Daniel Smith.
Meteorological observations, 186972, Mrs. Dr. E. Hofman.

Lahainaluna.—Meteorological observations, April-June, 1844.

SOUTH AMERICA.
BOLIVIA.

San Luis Potosi.—Diagram of temperature observations at 6 a. m. and

2 and 10 p. m.
ECUADOR.

Guayaquil_—Meteorological observations, October, 1868, A. Destruze.

GUIANA.
British Guiana.
Georgetown.—Daily mean of meteorological elements at Georgetown
observatory, January—June, 1854, February, 1864, P. Sandeman.
Dutch Guiana.

Paramaribo.—Maximum and minimum temperature, August, 1859, C.
J. Hering. Temperature and rain-fall observations, June 6-December
15, 1867, January-July, 1869. Werkundige warmemingen te Paramaribo,
1868—69.

PARAGUAY.

Asuncion.—Meteorologieal observations, November, December, 1833,
Klem. E. Hopkins.

116 MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL.

PERU.

Arica.—Meteorological observations, 1854-’55, W. W. Evans.
Yquitos—Meteorological records, 1871-74, V. Galt. Summary of ob-
servations, 1871-72,
VENEZUELA.

Caracas.—Register of meteorological observations.

Colonia Tovar.—Diagrams and tables of meteorological observations,
1854-1856.

La Guayra.—Temperature at the port of La Guayra, October, 1872.
Meteorology and statistics, September 16-30, November 1-16, 1869, C. H.
Loehr.

Barometrical observations taken on journey to interior, Dr. A. Ernst.

WEST INDIES, ETC.
AZORES.
Meteorological observations at Saint Michael in 1874, Thos. Hickling.
BAHAMAS.
Meteorological tables, January, 1841—-August, 1845, J. C. Lee.
Meteorological journal at public library, Bahamas, 1858-59.
Turl’s Island.—Meteorological observations taken in January, 1865,

at United States consulate. Meteorological observations, July—October,
1867. Observations taken at Turk’s Island, 1860.

BARBADOS.

Meteorological observations taken at Little Island, Saint Joseph, 1873.

Rain-fall in Barbados, 1872~73.

Rain-fall and meteorological observations, 1873.

BERMUDA.

Abstract of the Royal Engineers’ meteorological observations at Ber-
muda, 1859.

Extract from the meteorological report of observations taken at Cen-
tral Signal-Station, 1860-64.

CUBA.

Havana.—Observaciones meteorologicas, 1842, L. R. Gibbes.

HAY TI.

Port au Prince.—Extrait des registres de la station météorologique
sur la quantité de pluie annuelle qui tombe au Port au Prince, 1867,
(Moniteur, 15 aotitt, 1868.) Sur la pluie tombée au Port au Prince en
1868, et sur la temperature, (Le Moniteur, février, 1869.) Sur la tem-
pérature du Port au Prince, (Moniteur, samedi, 14 novembre, 1865.)

MISCELLANEOUS METEOROLOGICAL MATERIAL. 11%

JAMAICA.

Up Paak Camp, meteorological observations, January—March, 1856.
ST. CROIx.

Notice of earthquake, March 19, 1868, E. H. Perkins.

ST. MARTIN.
Notice of earthquakes, January, 1869.
MISCELLANEOUS AND UNKNOWN LOCALITIES.

Abstract of logs and observations taken at sea.

Account of meteorological observations in New Granada, Central
America, Mexico, and Alabama, A. Cornette.

Curvas correspondientes, de Abril de 1866.

Map of Polar Sea, illustrative of acquired facts, M.S. Fields.

Maximum, minimum, and mean temperature, 1871.

Meteorological observations, 1829.

Meteorological observations, 1870, G. C. Doane.

Meteorological observations, April, 1855-March, 1857.

Meteorological observations at sea, 1807-1812.

Meteorological observations, June, 1847-April, 1849.

Meteorological observations, registered on board yacht Fox, June,
1857-September, 1859, F. L. McClintock.

Meteorological observations, October, 1867.

Meteorological record, July-September, 1822.

Meteorological record, December.

Meteorological report of United States frigate United States, April-
July, 1844.

Meteorological report of United States revenue steamer Wyanda,
May-October, 1868.

Periodical phenomena, 1866.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. :

The executive committee of the Board of Regents respectfully sub-
mit the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the
receipts and expenditures for the year 1874, and the estimates for the
year 1875:

Statement of the fund at the beginning of the year 1875.

The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the

United States, in accordance with the act of Congress of

Areust LOOT BE6 2 es 2 Se eR ee eee eee $515, 169 00
The residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, depos-

ited in the Treasury of the United States, in accordance

with the act of Congress of February 8, 1867.......... 26, 210 63
Total bequestor Smmihsow F424 eee ee ee 541,379 63

Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States, as
authorized by act of Congress of February 8, 1567, de-
rived from savings of income and increase in value of

INVESHMENTS:-- 425 <1s ese te ee eee eae cee ee ane 108, 620 37
Amount received as the bequest of James Hamilton, of
Garlisles Pas 5 fF tte i ee ese eos eee ee eee 1,000 00

Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of the
United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent., payable
semi-annually inveold .- 32242 een eee see pe sciseee 651, 000 00
In addition to the above there remains of the extra fund
from savings, &¢., in Virginia bonds and certificates,
viz: Consolidated bonds, $58,700 ; deferred certificates,
$29,575.07; fractional certificate, $50.13: total, $88,125.20;

TAM AOC EG << ss stk Ve Hie eee re oe Rie 39, 000 60
Cash balance in the United States Treasury at the begin-

ing of the year 1875, for current expenses .......--...- 15,909 99
Amount due from First National Bank, Washington,

$4,112.43, (present value. unknown)... 2. 2-. 2.04 {26 6% eee eee

Total Smithson funds 15th January, 1875 ......-.. $701, 909 99

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 119

The coupons on the Virginia bonds held by the Institution were sold
on the 19th May, 1874, by Riggs & Co., with the following result :

Pe ZOO) Vir ointar COUPONS, At, hie tacet- 2 siaisielere' 2 22 so ee ose ae $925 50
$2,322 Virginia coupons, at 77 ..-.-.-.---. mee: Sse, 1,787 94

2,713 44
Mess char @es anc sk oxiccs os sakes sees = ch we 17 G1

ee

$2, 695. 83

This amount was deposited with the Treasurer of the United States
on account of the current expenses of the Institution for the year.

The value of the Virginia bonds held by the Institution has increased
during the year about $2,000.

Coupons due July 1, 1874, and January 1, 1875, are still uncollected,
and will form part of the income for the year 1875.

It was stated in the last report that at the time of the suspension of
the First National Bank of Washington, (19th September, 1873,) where
the current funds of the Smithsonian had been deposited, there were
$8, 224.87 to the credit of the Institution; and that on the 11th of No-
vember, 1873, a dividend of 30 per cent., or $2,467.46, had been received,
leaving a balance of $5,757.41 due. A second dividend on this deposit
was made on the 7th of April, of 1874, of $1,644.97, still leaving
$4,112.43 due the Institution, which it is hoped will be received at least
in part during the coming year.

Statement of the receipts and expenditures in 1874:

RECEIPTS.

Interest on $650,000 from the United States, 6 per cent.,

C6) UR a a a Fea ee tog Sars $39, 000 60
Interest on $1,000 from the Hamilton bequest, from 24th

February, 1874, to 3lst December, 1874 .......---..--- 50 88
Premium on gold 30th June, 1874, 110j,; and 3lst Decem-

ber, 1874, 1124, (less commission) ......:-.-----.------ 4,308 30
Interest on Virginia stock, coupons sold, (9th May, 1874). 2,695 83

Twenty per cent. dividend from First National Bank, (7th.

JEN ga Wie) mae gc anaes ae a ay eS, Crip eae 1, 644 97

Metalerecerpyisiit ats see ee oe aot Nea 2s Ss « 47, 700 03
EXPENDITURE.

Total expenditure from the Smithson income in 1874...... 44, 016 72

Balance unexpended of the annual income which is includ-
ed in the cash balance in the Treasury, ($15,909.99) ..-. 3,683 31

120 REPORT OF THE EXECUL{VE COsMIITEE.

Statement of expenditure in detail from the Smitison income, 1874.

Building.
epairsof the building ~~ essec: ste se $3, 507 66

Barniture and fimhires as ise w=) ae hs
—-—-—— $4, 225 39
General expenses.

Meetings of the dboard e256 be ge oes ee ee 312 87
Lighting thé balding»... -5 2 6 nce sees a eho 523 15
Heating the! Duulding ....<..6--2.-- inopineeotee 305 47
POStaS Gee yee anata eels pals set SL 07
NlahlOBenyedies weet cca bag See sine) AR 492 64
ANCIGENGUS as wise. =e te sa eon ae meee 817 17
palanies and Clerlkehire: 2. e2 seiseu = =e hinrs se eee 12,730 00
PUTCHASE OF DOOKS 5 ..> sieictae'm <jsne 25 spe steer 457 43

——-——-— 15,719 80
Publications and researches.

SMipisonian Oontribevions,....-.- >.<. 5 tam eieel- 7, 022 98

Miscellaneous collections .... .-...:........-. 7, 363 67

BepULts oc en. ERs ee ee sae 664 92

Other publications........ Peas ee) ea Sea a 93 40

Meteorology and researches ......-....-.....<- 881. 97

AD PATAUUG sn < - o<.-/<0 <i op poe ee resis Sti as teat) py Ly kt BO

DaMOPAbOLry, W..\~ .:- << +a 2 Fey or ye 9 10

PCCD EIDE SP tons 5 REZ arete otons, Aeroes Rie Marne aie 600 00

——-——-— 17,778 64

Exchanges.

Literary and scientific exchanges, & .........--- Rael eae 5, 589 89
Museum.

Incidentals in addition to Government appropriation... .--. 703 00

$44, 016 72

As usual, the Institution has during the past year made temporary

advances for the payment of freight on Government collections, pur-

chase of instruments for exploring parties, &e., the repayments of

which, together with the amount received from sales of publications,

have been deducted from the several items of the foregoing expendi-
tures, as follows:

Repayments.
From exchanges, repayments for freight, &c.............-. $1,205 14
Pio apesnase, PEDAVINGIGS 2.2 neces wipe ete esl o pe iw ae eee 45 45
WTON TESEATCUCS, TEP Ay MICUUS). 5 occ foes hen ok « aoe pie ae 95 76
From Smithsonian Contributions, sales..................-. 115 60
From miscellaneous collections, sales...... ...-.. .-2s---.+, 157 67
From salaries, repayment of advance...........-..---..--- 40 00
From incidentals, sales of old material...............0-.--- 7 27

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Lt

The following are the estimates of receipts and appropriations of the
Smithson fund for the year 1875:

Estimated receipts.

Interest on the permanent fund, receivable 30th

IE LS TOs IN, POM. so. Aehatevars Seas ehs si « $19, 500
Interest on the permanent fund, receivable 31st De-
eComber, S707 10) Olds. 4. 6/5 se Salasyeinsae ee ee: 19, 500
Interest on the Hamilton fund.............-.-...- 60
Probable premium on gold, tO per cent...-..-...--- 3, 906
IMGeEresl OnMViLeMiayPONGS- ~ ./ 2s =~ - = -i- oe ot - = - 2, 000
——_—— $44,966
Provisional appropriations.
OCR TeR LUV CHIT Cats yack o, Pore ty nis. c/s?» aise = epee =) 16S 2, 000
For general expenses. .....- Sha Set UAE SERS LNG eS 14, 000
For publications and researches ...........-.---- 20, 000
DEA OXCHAD SES tarp sac eas Sor tiatcreraconasign see eo as J Bee 7, 000
Bor bOOkSs ANG apparatus... s22<1- 2. ects se cee 1, 000
oe CCOMtIMPONCIOS(S |. scjomin $a vei. Adie aes eho tata 966
—-—— _ $44, 966

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The annual appropriation of Congress for the preservation of the
Government collections intrusted to the care of the Institution has
been continued during the past year, and an additional sum of
810,000 has been granted for the fitting up and completing the cases in
the new halls required for these collections.

The latter appropriation has been expended in the construction of wal-
nut table-cases with glass tops and sides, for the exhibition of the smaller
ethnological specimens in the upper hall, and for large cases for mam-
mals and fishes in the lower hall. The latter cases have also been so
constructed as to serve as bases or platforms for restorations of the
megatherium, hadrosaurus, glyptodon, &c., thus utilizing a large space,
and forming a very striking and imposing feature of the collections.

The following is a tabular statement of the condition of the Museum
funds:

For preservation of the Government collections.
Balance unexpended of appropriation for the

fiscal year ending June 30, 1874. (Statutes at
Large, vol. 17, p. 518) See Report for 1873,

PEA MUD) or Slope OSE SA SACS Soe $7, 500 00
Amount expended to December 31, 1874. (See
MI SCUEIs OUTTA: Al, Ps) ete) m2 ans aye x5 <= 52 7,500 00

reer nee eeeee Fake ests 9 eT RLC SI eM FU SA ls OG oe ess Nothing.

122 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTE2.

Appropriation for fiscal year ending June 30,

1875:': (Statutes, 1874, sp "216) Ve SOF $20, 000 00
Expenditure from July 1, 1874, to January 11,
1875. (See Museum Journal A, p.106)...... 12,011 38
Balancesnempentied es. Hea eee ea ase ee ene $7, 983 62

For fitting up halls for Government collections.

Balance unexpended of appropriation for fiscal
year ending June 30, 1874. (Museum Journal

ADs OLD) pets. amas ose oe nese oe ee eee $5, 550 92
Expenditure on this account in 1874. (Museum
Jeurnal eA, ADA) cscs Reka «oes eens 5, 500 92
Biatbances.t: 8 cei et Se Se ee Sree renee ea oie eee Nothing.

For steam-heating apparatus for Museum.

Balance unexpended of appropriation for fiscal
year ending June 30, 1874. (Museum Journal

VINEE VE Ti3 701) ge ee ees Aaa os OOo 3, 462 03
Expenditure on this account in 1874. (Museum
ou pe nee eae eA SP Rees een ease esa. 3, 462 03
WS RIANCE) ae ence ae DOE cect Ree Se tees fetter cre ohcts ae Nothing.

For fitting up and completing cases for collections.

Appropriation for fiscal year ending June 30,

187. (Statutes, 1874, p. 216)... Gases 10, 000 00
Expended on this account in 1874. (Museum
JournaleAs p- 106) 2-2 -:13g 21k eo see sees 10, 000 00
BSlanCe cose meee 2 eet chaps gover the ih ois ede eee ‘. Nathing.

Fram the above statement it appears that of the congressional appro-
priations for the National Museum, the only amount unexpended and
now available for the collections is $7,982.62. The estimates submitted
by the Iustitution to Congress for the fiscal year ending 30th June,
1876, were as follows:

For the preservation of the collections......-. $25, 000 00
For fitting up and completing the cases.....-. 10,000 00
Total amount required 7-02-62 ei wise.ncett woRepee: $35, 000 00

We have no reason to doubt that this sum, or the greater part of it,
will be appropriated by Congress during the present session.
All the payments on account of the National Museum have been made

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 123

bud

during the past year, directly by the disbursing officer of the Depart-
ment of the Interior, on the presentation of vouchers approved by the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

The executive committee have examined five hundred and seventeen
receipted vouchers for payments made from the Smithson income
during the year 1874, and four hundred and seventy similar vouchers
for payments made from the congressional appropriations for the Na-
tional Museum, making a total number of vouchers of nine hundied and
eighty-seven.

All of the vouchers have the approval of the Seeretary of the Institu-
tion, and a certificate setting forth that the materials and property and
services rendered were for the institution, and to be applied to the pur-
poses specified.

As authorized by a resolution of the board 26th May, 1874, the com-
mittee have also examined the account-books of the National Museum
and find the balance of $7,988.62 to the credit of the appropriation for
the “preservation of the collections” remaining on the 11th January,
1875, to correspond with the certificate of the disbursing clerk of the
Department of the Interior.

The quarterly accounts current, bank-book, check-book, and ledger,
have also been examined and found to be correct, showing a balance in
the care of the Treasurer of the United States 15th January, 1875, of
$15,909.99.

Respectfully submitted.

PETER PARKER,
GEO. BANCROFT,

Executive Committee.
WA*HINGTON, January 23, 1875.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS
OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

WASHINGTON, D. C., January 20, 1875.

In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents, fixing the
third Wednesday of January as the time for the commencement of the
annual session, a meeting of the Board of Regents was held on Wedunes-
day, 20th of January, 1875, at 7 o’clock p. m., at the Smithsonian Insti-
tution. /

Present, the Chancellor, Chief-Justice Waite; Hon. Henry- Wilson,
Vice-President of the United States; Senators H. Hamlin and A. A.
Sargent; Representive Hon. E. R. Hoar; Hon. Peter Parker, Prof.
Asa Gray, L. L. D., Prof. H. Coppée, L. L. D., Hon. George Bancroft,
and Professor Henry, the Secretary.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Excuses for non-attendance were received from Prof. Dana, Doctor
Maclean, Hon. Mr. Stevenson, and Hon. Mr. Cox.

The Secretary presented the following letter from General Sherman,
which was read:

HEADQUARTERS ARMY OF THE UNITED SPATES,
Saint Louis, Mo., November 12, 1874.

My DEAR PROFESSOR: Having removed my headquarters and resi-
dence from Washington to Saint Louis, it is proper that I should resign
the post I have held for a few years as a Regent of your most honored
Institution. I beg, therefore, that you will construe this letter as a
tender of my resignation to the Board of Regents, or to such official as
can accept the same.

In thus severing my official connection with the Smithsonian, I beg
leave to express to you and your associates my sense of the noble task in
which you are engaged, and of my earnest prayer that the Institution
under your management will continue to fulfil its magnificent design.

A knowledge of science, that is of the laws of nature, is so intimately
connected with the advance of higher civilization, that Mr. Smithson
displayed unusual wisdom in so endowing his institution that it should
give its principal labor to the increase of knowledge, to accumulating
and securing new knowledge to be added to the old, which should be
a special province of the universities of the whole earth. I therefore
coincide with you perfectly in your special construction of the will, and
hope that the Regents will continue to construe it literally, as a legacy
sacred in its nature and beneficial in the highest degree.

I beg you will assure your associates that among the many causes of

eS es ee

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 125

regret at leaving Washington, none impresses me more than that which
forces me to sever my relations with the Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution.
With great respect, your friend and servant,
W. T. SHERMAN,

General.
Prof. JOSEPH HENRY,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

On motion of Dr. Parker, it was

Resolved, That the Secretary or the Institution acknowledge the
receipt of the letter from General Sherman, and express to him the
high appreciation of the members of the board of his services as a
Regent, and their regret at the termination of his official connection
with the Institution.

The Secretary stated that Congress had passed a joint resolution
electing Hon. George Bancroft, who had recently become a permanent
resident of Washington, as Regent to fill the vacancy occasioned by the
resignation of General Sherman.

On motion of Mr. Wilson, it was

Resolved, That the vacancy in the EXECUTIVE COMMITTER, occasivaed
by the resignation of General Sherman, be filled by the appointment of
Hon. GEORGE BANCROFT.

The Secretary presented his annual report of the operations and con-
dition of the Institution, which was read in part. He also presented
exhibits of the finances, which were referred to the Executive Com-
mittee.

The Secretary stated that the annual accounts had been made up to
the 15th of January, the date at which the semi-annual interest was
received from the Treasury Department.

Dr. Parker, from the Hxecutive Committee, presented a preliminary
report on the condition of the Smithson fund, and the receipts and
expenditures for the past year, and stated that all the vouchers for pay-
ments had been carefully examined by the committee, who would sub-
mit a full report at the next meeting.

The Secretary explained several features of the appropriations and
expenditures of the year, the deposits made with the Corcoran Art
Gallery, Army Museum, Department of Agriculture, Se.

A statement of the circumstances attending a theft of $154.50 from
the office of the Secretary of the Institution, was made by Prof. Henry,
and, on motion of Mr. Sargent, it was

Resolved, That the amount of the loss ($154.50) be charged in the
account to “ incidental expenses.”

The reading of the report of the Secretary was then resumed.

At the suggestion of the Secretary, it was

Kesolved, That a committee, consisting of Professors Gray and

126 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

Coppée, be appointed to examine and. report on the present condition
of the museum, especially the ethnological department.

The board then adjourned to meet on Saturday evening, January 23,
at 7 o’clock.

WASHINGTON, January 23, 1875.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day, at 7 o’clock
p.m.

Present, the Chancellor, Chief-Justice Waite. Senators H. Hanlin, J.
W. Stevenson, and A. A. Sargent; Representatives 8S. 8S. Cox, E. R.
Hoar, G. W. Hazelton; Hon. Peter Parker, Prof. Asa Gray, Prof. H.
Coppée, Hon. George Bancroft, and the Secretary, Professor Henry.

The minutes of the last meeting were approved.

Dr. Parker presented the annual report of the Executive Committee,
which was read and, on motion of Mr. Hamlin, adopted.

Dr. Gray, from the special committee to examine the museum, pre-
sented the following report, which, on motion of Mr. Sargent, was ac-
cepted and ordered to be printed in the proceedings of the board:

REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON THE MUSEUM.

Your committee appointed to examine the museum has devoted as
much time to the examination as the members of it could secure during
the past two or three days, and would respectfully offer a few remarks
upon its condition. It is not supposed that any full or detailed report
is expected. We will confine our observations to the ethnological
museum, the only one we have found time to inspect with any care.

At the previous session of the board, about nine months ago, the
large upper hall had barely been made ready to receive the ethnological
and archeological collections, and a portion of the wall-cases only were
in place. The progress that has been made in the interval is very grati-
fying. The hall, although not filled, bas been well supplied with glazed
cases, for the most part excellent in plan and construction ; and the very
large and varied collection of objects is arranged in them and dis-
played to public view. There is still much to be done in perfecting the
the arrangement and the labeling, and there are recent accessions to be
added. But even now, it is a great pleasure to see how well cared for
and how important this museum is, and how much it interests a numer-
ous throng of visitors. In this respect it seems likely to be even
more attractive than the museum of natural history underneath. It is
only when an ethnological collection is brought together upon a com-
prehensive scale, and is well arranged upon some intelligible principle,
that any one realizes its interest and importance.

The arrangement which is, as we may say, technological rather than
geographical, appears to be the one best adapted for such a museum —
most useful to the serious student as well as most instructive and
curious to the general visitor. Objects of the same class or subservient

JOULNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. a yar

to the same purpose are brought together from whatever country, and
of whatever age. Articles of dress, ornament, or food, implements for
their preparation, utensils for domestic use, nets, weapons, and the like
thus illustrate each other.

Among the special collections, newly put together, we were much in-

terested in the very full one of the food, especially the vegetable food
of the different tribes of the North American Indians; in the collection
of their cradles or analogous appliances for the care of infants; in the
collection of musical instruments, or what was intended to answer the
purpose of music; and in the fine pottery of the Arizonian and other
tribes.
- The museum is especially rich in stone implements of the North
American continent, mainly prehistoric; also in specimens of the sur-
vival of the art of working stone weapons of the finest kind, in some of
our native tribes.

In the further development of the museum it may be thought best to
arrange the archeological specimens in a separate series, but, as to
America, it is not easy to draw a line between what is prehistoric, and
' what belongs essentially to the present era.

A great number of duplicates will soon be ready for exchange. Be-
sides proper duplicates, freely available for exchange, there is, wherever
the materials and the subject admit of it, a selected series carefully
packed away in the lower part of the cases, or directly underneath the
typical specimens or specimens selected for exhibition. For publie in-
spection in very large museums it is now a recognized principle that -
the half is better than the whole; that typical specimens, those that
best exemplify the leading forms or plans, should be exhibited in prefer-
ence to full series of gradations and modifications. But the serious in-
vestigator needs all the forms, and this selected students’ series, which
is mostly out of sight, is carefully preserved for, and is accessible to,
his use.

A great deal of important ethnological matter has of late years been
collected in the form of photographs, and it seems obviously important
that such collections should be systematically made and preserved, is
not on the large scale, yet in the compact and effective form of stereo-
scopic views. If the figures, the costumes, and the dwellings of our
various tribes still remaining are not perpetuated in this way very
_ promptly, much which is now easy to preserve will be irretrievably lost
to the future.

In this connection we would suggest that it might be well to provide
a series of figures characteristic of the races of men, and especially of
the North American races and tribes. This would require considerable
room for exhibition and a great deal of judgment as to the mode of
getting up the material to be employed, and the extent to which this
kind of illustration should be introduced.

This museum is very rapidly increasing, and it is remarkable that the

128 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

accessions are made almost without pecuniary cost. Hardly any have
been purchased. They came from scientific or curious explorers, whom
the Smithsonian Institution is everywhere exciting and furthering, and
from Government expeditions commissioned mainly for other important
objects; and the facilities in the way of transportation controlled by
the Institution are such that even the cost of their delivery in Wash-
ington is trifling.

It will be interesting to know to what extent the museums which
the Smithsonian Institution has in charge are visited by the public.
The committee would suggest the use of a recording turnstile at the
entrance, by which the number of visitors might be indicated and pre-
served with very little trouble.

Respectfully submitted.

ASA GRAY.
HENRY COPPEE.

Doctor Parker, in behalf of the Executive Committee, stated that the
heating-apparatus now employed was found insufficient in extremely cold
weather to warm the building, particularly the new ethnological hall,
and suggested the propriety of asking Congress to appropriate $2,500
to increase the means for heating the building.

Mr. Bancroft remarked that this was not asking anything for the
benefit of the Smithsonian Institution, but for the comfort of the people
of the United States who come here to see the great collections of the
Government, and who should certainly be provided with the means of
doing this without the danger of taking cold.

On motion of Mr. Bancroft it was—

Resolved, That Congress be requested to make an appropriation of
$2,500 to increase the heating capacity of the apparatus used to warm
the rooms occupied by the Government collections.

The reading of the report of the Secretary was then continued.

On motion of Mr. Cox, it was—

Resolved, That the report of the Secretary be accepted and transmitted
to Congress as usual.

The board then adjourned sine die.

LAPLACE.

EULOGY BY ARAGO BEFORE THE FRENCH ACADEMY.
TRANSLATED BY PROF. BADEN POWELL.

Having been appointed to draw up the report of a committee of the
Chamber of Deputies, which was nominated in 1842, for the purpose of
taking into consideration the expediency of a proposal submitted to the
chamber by the minister of public instruction, relative to the publica-
tion of a new edition of the works of Laplace at the public expense, I
deemed it to be my duty to embody in the report a concise analysis of
the works of our illustrious countryman. Several persons, influenced,
perhaps, by too indulgent a feeling toward me, having expressed a wish
that this analysis should not remain buried amid a heap of legislative
documents, but that it should be published in the Annuaire du Bureau
des Longitudes, I took advantage of this circumstance to develop it
more fully, so as to render it less unworthy of public attention. The
scientific part of the report presented to the Chamber of Deputies will
be found here entire. It has been considered desirable to suppress the
remainder. I shall merely retain a few sentences containing an expla-
nation of the object of the proposed law, and an announcement of the
resolutions which were adopted by the three powers of the state.

Laplace has endowed France, Europe, the scientific world, with three
magnificent compositions, the Traité de Mécanique Céleste, the Exposi-
tion du Systeme du Monde, and the Théorie Analytique des Probabili-
tés. In the present day (1842) there is no longer to be found a single
copy of this last work at any book-seller’s establishment in Paris. The
edition of the Mécanique Céleste itself will soon be exhausted. It was
painful, then, to reflect that the time was close at hand when persons
engaged in the study of the higher mathematics would be compelled,
for want of the original work, to inquire at Philadelphia, at New York,
or at Boston for the English translation of the chef Wevre of our coun-
tryman by the excellent geometer, Bowditch. These fears, let us hasten
to state, were not well founded. To republish the Mécanique Céleste
was, on the part of the family of the illustrious geometer, to perform a
pious duty. Accordingly, Madame de Laplace, who is so justly, so pro-
eee nitive to every circumstance calculated to enhance the re-

130 LAPLACE.

nown of the name which she bears, did not hesitate about pecuniary
considerations. A small property near Pont PEvéque was about to
change hands, and the proceeds were to have been applied so that
Frenchmen should not be deprived of the satisfaction of exploring the
treasures of the Mécanique Céleste through the medium of the vernaca-
lar tongue.

‘¢The republication of the complete works of Laplace rested upon an
equally sure guarantee. Yielding at once to filial affection, to a noble
feeling of patriotism, and to the enthusiasm for brilliant discoveries
which a course of severe study inspired, General Laplace had long since
qualified himself for becoming the editor of the seven volumes which
are destined to immortalize his father.

‘There are glorious achievements of a character too elevated, of a
luster too splendid, that they should continue to exist as objects of pri-
vate property. Upon the state devolves the duty of preserving them
from indifference and oblivion, of continually holding them up to atten-
tion, of diffusing a knowledge of them through a thousand channels ;
in a word, of rendering them subservient to the public interests.

‘ Doubtless the minister of public instruction was influenced by these
considerations when, upon the occasion of a new edition of the works of
Laplace having become necessary, he demanded of you to substitute the
great French family for the personal family of the illustrious geometer.
We give our full and unreserved adhesion to this proposition. It springs
from a feeling of patriotism, which will not be gainsaid by any one in
this assembly.”

In fact, the Chamber of Deputies had only to examine and solve this
single question : ‘Are the works of Laplace of such transcendent, such
exceptional merit that their republication ought to form the subject of
deliberation of the great powers of the state? An opinion prevailed
that if was not enough merely to appeal to public notoriety, but that it
was necessary to give an exact analysis of the brilliant discoveries of
Laplace in order to exhibit more fully the importance of the resolution
about to be adopted. Whocould hereafter propose on any similar occa-
sion that the chamber should declare itself without discussion when a
desire was felt, previous to voting in favor of a resolution so honorable
to the memory of a great man, to fathom, to measure, to examine mi-
nutely and from every point of view monuments such as the Mécanique

Céleste and the Exposition du Systeme du Monde? It has appeared to -

me that the report drawn up in the name of a committee of one of the
three great powers of the state might worthily close this series of bio-
graphical notices of eminent astronomers.”*

The Marquis de Laplace, peer of France, one of the forty of the French
Academy, member of the Academy of Sciences and of the Bureau des
Longitudes, an associate of all the great academies or scientifie societies

* The author here refers to the series of biographies contained in tome III of the Notices
Biographiques.—TRANSLATOR,

LAPLACE. ia

of Europe, was born at Beaumonten-Ange, of parents belonging to the
class of small farmers, on the 28th day of March, 1749. He died on the
5th of March, 1827.

The first and second volumes of the Mécanique Céleste were pub-
lished in 1799; the third volume appeared in 1502; the fourth volume
in 1805. As regards the fifth volume, books XI and XII were pub-
lished in 1823; books XII, XIV, and XV in 1824, and book XVI in
1825. The Théorie des Probabilités was published in 1812. We shall
now present the reader with the history of the principal astronomical
discoveries contained in these immortal works.

Astronomy is the science of which the human mind may most justly
boast. It owes this indisputable pre-eminence to the elevated nature of
its object, to the grandeur of its means of investigation, to the certainty,
the utility, and the unparalleled magnificence of its results.

From the earliest period of the social existence of mankind, the study
of the movements of the heavenly bodies has attracted the attention of
governments and peoples. To several great captains, illustrious states-
men, philosophers, and eminent orators of Greece and Rome it formed
a subject of delight. Yet, let us be permitted to state, astronomy truly
worthy of the name is quite a modern science. It dates only from the
sixteenth century. Three great, three brilliant phases have marked its
progress. In 1543, Copernicus overthrew, with a firm and bold hand,
the greater part of the antique and venerable scaffolding with which
the illusions of the senses and the pride of successive generations had
filled the universe. The earth ceased to be the center, the pivot of the —
celestial movements. It henceforward modestly ranged itself among
the planets; its material importance, amid the totality of the bodies of
which our solar system is composed, found itself reduced almost to that
of a grain of sand.

Twenty-eight years had elapsed from the day when the Canon of
Thorn expired, while holding in his faltering hands the first copy of the
work which was to diffuse so bright and pure a flood of glory upon
Poland, when Wiirtemberg witnessed the birth of a man who was des-
tined to achieve a revolution in science not less fertile in consequences,
and still more difficult of execution, This man was Kepler. Endowed
with two qualities which seemed incompatible with each other, a vol-
canic imagination and a pertinacity of intellect which the most tedious
numerical calculations could not daunt, Kepler conjectured that the
movements of the celestial bodies must be connected together by simple
laws, or, to use his own expression, by harmonic laws. These laws he
undertook to discover. A thousand fruitless attempts, errors of calcu-
lation inseparable from a colossal undertaking, did not prevent him a
single instant from advancing resolutely toward the goal of which he
imagined he had obtained a glimpse. Twenty-two years were employed
by him in this investigation, and still he was not weary of it! What,

132 LAPLACE.

in reality, are twenty-two years of labor to him who is about to become
the legislator of worlds; who shall inscribe his name in ineffaceable
characters upon the frontispiece of an immortal code; who shall be
able to exclaim in dithyrambie language, and without incurring the
reproach of any one, *‘ The die is cast; I have written my book; it will
be read either in the present age or by posterity, if matters not which ;
it may well await a reader, since God has waited six thousand years for
an interpreter of his works!”* To investigate a physical cause capable
of making the planets revolve in closed curves; to place the principle
of the stability of the universe in mechanical forces, and not in solid
supports, such as the spheres of crystal which our ancestors had dreamed
of; to extend to the revolutions of the heavenly bodies the general
principles of the mechanics of terrestrial bodies, such were the ques-
tions which remained to be solved after Kepler had announced his dis-
coveries to the world.

Very distinct traces of these great problems are perceived here and
there among the ancients as well as the moderns, from Lucretius and
Plutarch down to Kepler, Bouillaud, and Borelli. It is to Newton,
however, that we must award the merit of their solution. This great
man, like several of his predecessors, conceived the celestial bodies to
have a tendency to approach toward each other in virtue of an attract-
ive force, deduced the mathematical characteristics of this force from
the laws of Kepler, extended it to all the material molecules of the solar
system, and developed his brilliant discovery in a work which, even in
the present day, is regarded as the most eminent production of the
human intellect.

The heart aches when, studying the history of the sciences, we per-
ceive so magnificent an intellectual movement effected without the
co-operation of France. Practical astronomy increased our inferiority
The means of investigation were at first inconsiderately intrusted to
foreigners, to the prejudice of Frenchmen abounding in intelligence and
zeal. Subsequently intellects of a superior order struggled with courage,
but in vain, against the unskillfulness of our artists. During this period
Bradley, more fortunate, on the other side of the Channel, immortalized
himself by the discovery of aberration and nutation.

The contribution of France to these admirable revolutions in astro-
nomical science consisted, in 1740, of the experimental determination of

* These celebrated laws, known in astronomy as the laws of Kepler, are three in number.
The first law is, that the planets describe ellipses around the sun in their common focus;
the second, that a line joining the planet and the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal times;
the third, that the squares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the cubes
of their mean distances from the sun. ‘The first two laws were discovered by Kepler in the
course of a laborious examination of the theory of the planet Mars; a full account of this
inquiry is contained in his famous work De Stella Martis, published in 1609. The discovery
of the third law was not effected until several years afterward. Kepler announced it to the
world in his treatise on Harmonies, (1628.) The passage quoted below is extracted from
that work.—TRANSLATOR,

LAPLACE. Bie

the spheroidal figure of the earth, and of the discovery of the variation
of gravity upon the surface of our planet. These were two great results;
our country, however, had a right to demand more: when France is not
in the first rank she has lost her place.*

This rank, which was lost for a moment, was brilliantly regained, an
achievement for which we are indebted to four geometers. When
Newton, giving to his discoveries a generality which the laws of Kepler
did not imply, imagined that the different planets were not only at-
tracted by the sun, but that they also attract each other, he introduced
into the heavens a cause of universal disturbance. Astronomers could
then see at the first glance that in no part of the universe, whether near
or distant, would the Keplerian laws suflice for the exact representation
of the phenomena; that the simple, regular movements with which the
imaginations of the ancients were pleased to endue the heavenly bodies
would experience numerous, considerable, perpetually changing pertur-
bations. .

To discover several of these perturbations, to assign their nature, and
in a few rare cases their numerical values, such was the object which
Newton proposed to himself in writing the Principia Mathematica Phi-
losophiz Naturalis.

Notwithstanding the incomparable sagacity of its author, the Prin-
cipia contained merely a rough outline of the planetary perturbations.
If this sublime sketch did not become a complete portrait, we must not
attribute the circumstance to any want of ardor or perseverance ; the
efforts of the great philosopher were always superhuman; the questions
which he did not solve were incapable of solution in his time. When
the mathematicians of the Continent entered upon the same career,
when they wished to establish the Newtonian system upon an incon-
trovertible basis, and to improve the tables of astronomy, they actually
found in their way difficulties which the genius of Newton had failed to
surmount.

Five geometers, Clairaut, Euler, D’Alembert, Lagrange, and Laplace,
shared between them the world of which Newton had disclosed the
existence. They explored it in all directions, penetrated into regions
which had been supposed inaccessible, pointed out there a multitude of

* The spheroidal figure of the earth was established by the comparison of an arc of the
meridian that had been measured, in France, with a similar are measured in Lapland, from
which it appeared that the length of a degrce of the meridian increases from the equator
toward the poles, conformably to what ought to result upon the supposition of the earth
having the figure of an oblate spheroid. The length of the Lapland are was determined
by means of an expedition which the French government had dispatched to the north of
Europe for that purpose. A similar expedition had been dispatched from France about the
same time to Peru, in South America, for the purpose of measuring an arc of the meridian
under the equator, but the results had not been ascertained at the time to which the author
alludes in the text. The variation of gravity at the surface of the earth was established by
Richer’s experiments with the pendulum at Cayenne, in South America, (1673-’74,) from
which it appeared that the pendulum oscillates more slowly, and consequently the force of
gravity is less intense, under the equator than in the latitude of Paris.—TRANSLATOR,

134 LAPLACE.

phenomena which observation had not yet detected—finally—and it is
this which constitutes their imperishable glory—they reduced under
the domain of a single principle, a single law, everything that was most
refined and mysterious in the celestial movements. Geometry had thus
the boldness to dispose of the future. The evolutions of ages are
scrupulously ratifying the decisions of science.

We shall not occupy our attention with the magnificent labors of
Euler. We shall, on the contrary, present the reader with a rapid
analysis of the discoveries of his four rivals, our countrymen.* Ifa
celestial body—the moon, for example—gravitated solely toward the
center of the earth, it would describe a mathematical ellipse. It would
Strictly obey the laws of Kepler, or, which is the same thing, the
principles of mechanics expounded by Newton in the first sections of
his immortal work.

Let us now consider the action of a second force. Let us take into
account the attraction which the sun exercises upon the moon. In other
words, instead of two bodies, let us suppose three to operate on each
other. The Keplerian ellipse will now furnish merely a rough indication
of the motion of our satellite. In some parts the attraction of the sun
will tend to enlarge the orbit, and will in reality do so. In other parts,
the effect will be the reverse of this. In a word, by the introduction of
a third attractive body, the greatest complication will succeed to a simple,
regular movement upon which the mind reposed with complacency.

If Newton gave a complete solution of the question of the celestial
movements in the case wherein two bodies attract each other, he did
not even attempt an analytical investigation of the infinitely more
difficult problem of three bodies. The problem of three bodies, (this is
the name by which it has become celebrated,) the problem for deter-
mining the movement of a body subjected to the attractive influence of
two other bodies, was solved for the first time by our countryman
Clairaut.t From this solution we may date the important improve-
ments of the lunar tables effected in the last century.

The most beautiful astronomical discovery of antiquity is that of the
precession of, the equinoxes. Hipparchus, to whom the honor of it is
due, gave a complete and precise statement of all the consequences

*Tt may, perhaps, be asked why we place Lagrange among the French geometers. This
is our reply: It appears to us that the individual who was named Lagrange Tournier—two
of the most characteristic French names which it is possible to imagine—whose maternal grand-
father was M. Gros; whose paternal great grandfather was a French officer, a native of Paris,
who never wrote except in French, and who was invested in our country with high honors
during a period of nearly thirty years, ought to be regarded as a Frenchman, although born at
Turin.—AUTHOR,

+The problem of three bodies was solved independently about the same time by Euler,
D’Alembert, and Clairaut. The two last-mentioned geometers communicated their solutions
to the Academy of Sciences on the same day—November 15, 1747. Euler had already, in
1746, published tables of the moon, founded on his solution of the same problem, the details
of which h subsequently published, in 1753.—TRaNSLATOR.

LAPLACE. 135

which flow from this movement. Two of these have more especially
attracted attention.

By reason of the precession of the equinoxes, it is not always the same
groups of stars, the same constellations, which are perceived in the
heavens at the same season of the year. In the lapse of ages the con-
stellations of winter will become those of summer, and reciprocally.

By reason of the precession of the equinoxes, the pole does not always
occupy the same place in the starry vault. The moderately bright star
which is very justly named in the present day the pole star, was far
removed from the pole in the time of Hipparchus; in the course of a
few centuries it will again appear removed from it. The designation
of pole-star has been and will be applied to stars very distant from
each other.

When the inquirer, in attempting to explain natural phenomena, has
the misfortune to enter upon a wrong path, each precise observation
throws him into new complications. Seven spheres of crystal did not
suffice for representing the phenomena as soon as the illustrious astron-
omer of Rhodes discovered precession. An eighth sphere was then
wanted to account for a movement in which all the stars participated
at the same time.

Copernicus having deprived the earth of its alleged immobility, gave
a very simple explanation of the most minute circumstances of preces-
sion. He supposed that the axis of rotation does not remain exactly
parallel to itself; that in the course of each complete revolution of the
earth around the sun the axis deviates from its position by a small
quantity ; in a word, instead of supposing the circumpolar stars to ad-
vance in a certain way toward the pole, he makes the pole advance
toward the stars. his hypothesis divested the mechanism of the
universe of the greatest complication which the love of theorizing had
introduced into it. A new Alphonse would have then wanted a pre-
text to address to his astronomical synod the profound remark, so
erroneously interpreted, which history ascribes to the King of Castile.

If the conception of Copernicus improved by Kepler had, as we have
just seen, introduced a striking improvement into the mechanism of the
heavens, it still remained to discover the motive force which, by alter-
ing the position of the terrestrial axis during each successive year,
would cause it to describe an entire circle, of nearly 50° in diameter, in
a period of about 26,000 years.

Newton conjectured that this force arose from the action of the sun
and moon upon the redundant matter accumulated in the equatorial

‘regions of the earth; thus he made the precession of the equinoxes
depend upon the spheroidal figure of the earth ; he declared that upon
a round planet no precession would exist.

All this was quite true, but Newton did not succeed in establishing it
by a mathematical process. Now this great man had introduced into
philosophy the severe and just rule: Consider as certain only what has

136 LAPLACE.

been demonstrated. The demonstration of the Newtonian conception
of the precession of the equinoxes was, then, a great discovery, and it
is to D’Alembert that the glory of it is due.* The illustrious geometer
gave a complete explanation of the general movement in virtue of
which the terrestrial axis returns to the same stars in a period of about
26,000 years. He also connected with the theory of gravitation the
perturbation of precession discovered by Bradley, that remarkable
oscillation which the earth’s axis experiences continually during its
movement of progression, and the period of which, amounting to about
eighteen years, is exactly equal to the time which the intersection of the
moon’s orbit with the ecliptic employs in describing the 360° of the
entire circumference.

Geometers and astronomers are justly occupied as much with the
figure and physical constitution which the earth might have had in
remote ages as with its present figure and constitution.

As soon as our countryman Richer discovered that a body, whatever
be its nature, weighs less when it is transported nearer the equatorial
regions, everybody perceived that the earth, if it was originally fluid,
ought to bulge out at the equator. Huyghens and Newton did more;
they calculated the difference between the greatest and least axes, the
excess of the equatorial diameter over the line of the poles.t

The calculation of Huyghens was founded upon hypothetic properties
of the attractive force which were wholly inadmissible; that of Newton
upon a theorem which he ought to have demonstrated. The theory of

* Tt must be admitted that M. Arago has here imperfectly represented Newton’s labors
on the great problem of the precession of the equinoxes. The immortal author of the
Principia did not merely conjecture that the conical motion of the earth’s axis is due to the
disturbing action of the sun and moon upon the matter accumulated around the earth’s
equator; he demonstrated by a very beautiful and satisfactory process that the movement
must necessarily arise from that cause; and although the meaus of investigation, in his
time, were inadequate to a rigorous computation of the quantitative effect, still his researches
on the subject have been always regarded as affording one of the most striking proofs of
sagacity which is to be found in all his works.—TRANSLATOR.

+ It would appear that Hooke had conjectured that the figure of the earth might be spher-
oidal before Newton or Huyghens turned their attention to the subject. Ata meeting of the
Royal Society on the 28th of February, 1673, a discussion arose respecting the figure of Mer-
eury, which M. Gallet, of Avignon, had remarked to be oval on the occasion of the planet’s
transit across the sun's disk on the 7ta of November, 1677. Hooke was inclined to suppose
that the phenomenon was real, and that it was due to the whirling of the planet on an axis
‘‘which made it somewhat of the shape of a turnip, or of a solid made by an ellipsis turned
round upon its shorter diameter.” At the meeting of the society on the 7th of March, the
subject was again discussed. In reply to the objection offered to his hypothesis on the ground
of the planet being a solid body, Hooke remarked that ‘‘ although it might now be solid, yet
that at the beginning it might have been fluid enough to receive that shape; and that al-
though this supposition should not be granted, it would be probable enough that it would
really run into that shape and make the same appearance ; and that it is not improbable but
that the water here upon the earth might do it in some measure by the influence of the diur-
nal motion, which, compounded with that of the moon, he conceived to be the cause of the
tides.” (Journal Book of the Royal Society, vol. vi, p. 60.) Richer returned from Cayenne

LAPLACE. La

the latter was characterized by a defect of a still more serious nature; it
supposed the density of the earth, during the original state of fluidity,
to be homogeneous.*

When in attempting the solution of great problems we have recourse
to such simplifications; when in order to elude difficulties of calculation
we depart so widely from natural and physical conditions, the results
relate to an ideal world, they are in reality nothing more than flights of
the imagination. In order to apply mathematical analysis usefully to
the determination of the figure of the earth, it was necessary to aban-
don all idea of homogeneity, all constrained resemblance between the
forms of the superposed and unequally dense strata; it was necessary
also to examine the case of a central solid nucleus. This generality in-
creased tenfold the difficulties of the problem; neither Clairaut nor
D’Alembert was, however, arrested by them. Thanks to the efforts of
these two eminent geometers, thanks to some essential developments
due to their immediate successors, and especially to the illustrious Le-
gendre, the theoretical determination of the figure of the earth has
attained all desirable perfection. There now reigns the most satisfae-
tory accordance between the results of calculation and those of direct
measurement. The earth, then, was originally fluid; analysis has
enabled us to ascend to the earliest ages of our planet.t

In the time of Alexander, comets were supposed by the majority of
the Greek philosophers to be merely meteors generated in our atmos-
phere. During the Middle Ages, persons, without giving themselves much
concern about the nature of those bodies, supposed them to prognosti-

in the year 1674, but the account of his observations with the pendulum during his residence
there was not published until 1679, nor is there to be found any allusion to them during the
intermediate interval, either in the volumes of the Academy of Sciences or any other pub-
lication. We have no means of ascertaining how Newton was first induced to suppose that
the figure of the earth is spheroidal, but we know, upon his own authority, that as early as
the year 1667 or 1668, he was led to consider the effects of the centrifugal force in diminish-
ing the weight of bodies at the equator. With respect to Huyghens, he appears to have
formed a conjecture respecting the spheroidal figure of the earth independently of Newton;
but his method for computing the ellipticity is founded upon that given in the Principia.—
TRANSLATOR,

*Newton assumed that a homogeneous fluid mass of a spheroidal form would be in
equilibrium if it were endued with an adequate rotatory motion and its constituent par-
ticles attracted each other in the inverse proportion of the square of the distance. Maclaurin
first demonstrated the truth of this theorem by a rigorous application of the ancient geome-
try.—TRANSLATOR.

t The results of Clairaut’s researches on the figure of the earth are mainly embodied in a
remarkable theorem discovered by that geometer, and which may be enunciated thus: The
sum of the fractions expressing the ellipticity and the increase of gravity at the pole is
equal to two and a half times the fraction expressing the centrifugal force at the equator,
the unit of force being represented by the force of gravity at the equator. This theorem is
independent of any hypothesis with respect to the law of the densities of the successive
strata of the earth. Now the increase of gravity at ‘he pole may be ascertained by means
of observations with the pendulum in different latitudes. Hence it is plain that Clairaut’s
theorem furnishes a practical method for determining the value of the earth’s ellipticity.—
TRANSLATOR,

138 LAPLACE.

cate sinister events. Regiomontanus and Tycho Brahé proved by their
observations that they are situate beyond the moon; Hevelius, Dorfel,
&c., made them revolve around the sun; Newton established that they
move under the immediate influence of the attractive force of that body ;
that they do not describe right lines ; that, in fact, they obey the laws of
Kepler. It was necessary, then, to prove that the orbits of comets are
curves which return into themselves, or that the same comet has been
seen on several distinct occasions. This discovery was reserved for
Halley ; by a minute investigation of the circumstances connected with
the apparitions of all the comets to be met with in the records of history,
in ancient chronicles, and in astronomical annals, this eminent philoso-
pher was enabled to prove that the comets of 1682, of 1607, and of 1531
were in reality so many successive apparitions of one and the same body.

This identity involved a conclusion before which more than one as-
tronomer shrank. It was necessary to admit that the time of a complete
revolution of the comet was subject to a great variation, amounting to
as much as two years in seventy-six.

Were such great discordances due to the disturbing action of the plan-
ets ?

The answer to this question would introduce comets into the category
of ordinary planets, or would exclude them forever. The calculation
was difficult ; Clairaut discovered the means of effecting it. While success
was still uncertain, the illustrious geometer gave proof of the greatest
boldness, for, in the course of the year 1758, he undertook to determine
the time of the following year when the comet of 1682 would re-appear.
He designated the constellations, nay, the stars, which it would encoun-
ter in its progress.

This was not one of those remote predictions which astrologers and
others formerly combined very skillfully with the tables of mortality, so
that they might not be falsified during their life-time: the event was
close at hand. The question at issue was nothing less than the creation
of a new erain cometary astronomy, or the casting of a reproach upon
science, the consequences of which it would long continue to feel.

Clairaut found by a long process of calculation, conducted with great
skill, that the action of Jupiter and Saturn ought to have retarded the
movement of the comet ; that the time of revolution, compared with that
immediately preceding, would be increased 518 days by the disturbing
action of Jupiter, and 100 days by the action of Saturn, forming a total
of 618 days, or more than a year and eight months.

Never did aquestion of astronomy excite a more intense, a more legit-
imate curiosity. All classes of society awaited with equal interest the
announced apparition. A Saxon peasant, Palitzch, first perceived the
comet. Henceforward, from one extremity of Europe to the other, a
thousand telescopes traced each night the path of the body through the
constellations. The route was always, within the limits of precision of
the calculations, that which Clairaut had indicated beforehand. The

LAPLACE. 139

prediction of the illustrious geometer was verified, in regard both to time
and space. Astronomy had just achieved a great and important triumph,
and, as usual, had destroyed at one blow a disgraceful and inveterate pre-
judice. As soon as it was established that the returns of comets might
be calculated beforehand, those bodies lost forever their ancient prestige.
The most timid minds troubled themselves quite as little about them as
about eclipses of the sun and moon, which are equally subject to caleu-
lation. In fine, the labors of Clairaut had produced a deeper impres-
sion on the public mind than the learned, ingenious, and acute reasoning
of Bayle. The heavens offer to reflecting minds nothing more curious
or more strange than the equality which subsists between the movements
of rotation and revolution of our satellite. By reason of this perfect
equality the moon always presents the same side to the earth. The hem-
isphere which we see in the present day is precisely that which our an-
cestors saw in the most remote ages; it isexactly the hemisphere which
future generations will perceive.

The doctrine of final causes which certain philosophers have so abun-
dantly made use of in endeavoring to account for a great number of
natural phenomena was in this particular case totally inapplicable. In
fact, how could it be pretended that mankind could have any interest in
perceiving incessantly the same hemisphere of the moon, in never ob-
taining a glimpse of the opposite hemisphere? On the other hand, the
existence ofa perfect, mathematical equality between elements having
no necessary connection—such as the movements of translation and ro-
tation of a given celestial body—was not less repugnant to all ideas of
probability. There were, besides, two other numerical coincidences quite
as extraordinary: an identity of direction, relative to the stars, of the
equator and orbit of the moon ; exactly the same precessional movements
of these two planes. This group of singular phenomena, discovered by
J. D. Cassini, constituted the mathematical code of what is called the
libration of the moon. The libration of the moon formed a very imper-
fect part of physical astronomy when Lagrange made it depend on a eir-
cumstance connected with the figure of our satellite which was not
observable from the earth, and thereby connected it completely with the
principles of universal gravitation.

At the time when the moon was converted into a solid body, the ac-
tion of the earth compelled it to assume a less regular figure than if no
attracting body had been situated in its vicinity. The action of our
globe rendered elliptical an equator which otherwise would have been
circular. This disturbing action did not prevent the lunar equator from
bulging out in every direction, but the prominence of the equatorial
diameter directed toward the earth became four times greater than that
of the diameter which we see perpendicularly.

The moon would appear then, to an observer situate in space and ex-
amining it transversely, to be elongated toward the earth, to be a sort of
pendulum without a point of suspension. When a pendulum deviates

140 LAPLACE.

from the vertical, the action of gravity brings it back; when the princi-
pal axis of the moon recedes from its usual direction, the earth in
like manner compels it to return.

We have here, then, a complete explanation of a singular phenome-
non, without the necessity of having recourse to the existence of an al-
most miraculous equality between two movements of translation and
rotation, entirely independent of each other. Mankind will never see
but one face ofthe moon. Observation had informed us of this fact;
now we know further that this is due to aphysical cause which may be
calculated, and which is visible only to the mind’s eye; that it is attrib-
utable to the elongation which the diameter of the moon experienced
when it passed from the liquid to the solid state under the attractive
influence of the earth.

If there had existed originally a slight difference between the move-
ments of rotation and revolution of the moon, the attraction of the earth
would have reduced these movements to a rigorous equality. This at-
traction would have even sufliced to cause the disappearance of a slight
want of coincidence in the intersections of the equator and orbit of the
moon with the plane of the ecliptic.

The memoir in which Lagrange has so successfully connected the laws
of libration with the principles of gravitation, is no less remarkable for
intrinsic excellence than style of execution. After having perused this
production, the reader will have no difficulty in admitting that the word
“elegance” may be appropriately applied to mathematical researches.

In this analysis we have merely glanced at the astronomical discov-
eries of Clairaut, D’Alembert, and Lagrange. We shall be somewhat
less concise in noticing the labors of Laplace.

After having enumerated the various forces which must result from
the mutual action of the planets and satellites of our system, even the
great Newton did not venture to investigate the general nature of the
effects produced by them. In the midst of the labyrinth formed by in-
creases and diminutions of velocity, variations in the forms of the
orbits, changes of distances and inclinations, which these forces must
evidently produce, the most learned geometer would fail to discover a
trustworthy guide. This extreme complication gave birth to a dis-
couraging reflection. Forces so numerous, so variable in position, so
different in intensity, seemed to be incapable of maintaining a condition
of equilibrium except by a sort of miracle. Newton even went so far as
to suppose that the planetary system did not contain within itself the
elements of indefinite stability ; he was of opinion that a powerful hand
must intervene from time to time to repair the derangements occasioned
by the mutual action of the various bodies. Euler, although farther
advanced than Newton in a knowledge of the planetary perturbations,
refused also to admit that the solar system was constituted so as to
endure forever. Never did a greater philosophical question offer itself
to the inquiries of mankind. Laplace attacked it with boldness, perse-

LAPLACE. 141

verance, and success. The profound and long-continued researches of
the illustrious geometer established with complete evidence that the
planetary ellipses are perpetually variable ; that the extremities of their
mnajor axes make the tour of the heavens; that, independently of an
oscillatory motion, the planes of their orbits experience a displacement
in virtue of which their intersections with the plane of the terrestrial
orbit are each year directed toward different stars. In the midst of
this apparent chaos there is one element which remains constant, or is
merely subject to small periodic changes, namely, the major axis of each
orbit, and consequently the time of revolution of each planet. This is
the element which ought to have chiefly varied according to the learned
speculations of Newton and Euler.

The principle of universal gravitation suffices for preserving the
stability of the solar system. It maintains the forms and inclinations
of the orbits in a mean condition which is subject to slight oscillations ;
variety does not entail disorder; the universe offers the example of
harmonious relations, of a state of perfection which Newton himself
doubted. This depends on circumstances which calculation disclosed
to Laplace, and which, upon a superficial view of the subject, would
not seem to be capable of exercising so great an influence. Instead of
planets revolving all in the same direction, in slightly eccentrie orbits,
and in planes inclined at small angles toward each other, substitute
different conditions, and the stability of the universe will again be put
in jeopardy, and, according to all probability, there will result a fright-
ful chaos.*

* The researches on the secular variations of the eccentricities and inclinations of the
planetary orbits depend upon the solution of an algebraic equation equal in degree to the
number of planets whose mutual action is considered, and the co-efficients of which involve
the values of the masses of those bodies. It may be shown that if the roots of this equa-
tion be equal or imaginary, tle corresponding element, whether the eccentricity or the in-
clination, will increase indefinitely with the time in the case of each planet; but that if the
roots, on the other hand, be real and unequal, the value of the element will oscillate in
every instance within fixed limits. Laplace proved by a general analysis that the roots of
the equation are real and unequal; whence it followed that neither the eccentricity nor the
inclination will vary in any case to an indefinite extent. But it still remained uncertain
whether the limits of oscillation were not in any instance so far apart that the variation of
the element (whether the eccentricity or the inclination) might lead to a complete destruc-
tion of the existing physical condition of the planet. Laplace, indeed, attempted to prove,
by means of two well-known theorems relative to the eccentricities and inclinations of the
planetary: orbits, that if those elements were once small they would always remain so, pro-
vided the planets all revolved around the sun in one common direction, and their masses
were inconsiderable. It is to these theorems that M. Arago manifestly alludes in the text.
Le Verrier and others have, however, remarked that they are inadequate to assure the per-
manence of the existing physical condition of several of the planets. In order to arrive at
a definite conclusion on this subject, it is indispensable to have recourse to the actual solu-
tion of the algebraic question above referred to. This was the course adopted by the illus-
trious Lagrange in his researches on the secular variations of the planetary orbits. (Mem.
Acad. Berlin, 1783-’84.) Having investigated the values of the masses of the planets, he
then determined, by an approximate solution, the values of the several roots of the algebraic
equation upon which the variations of the eccentricities and inclinations cif the orbits de-

142 LAPLACE.

Although the invariability of the mean distances of the planetary
orbits has been more completely demonstrated since the appearance of
the memoir above referred to, that is to say, by pushing the analytical
approximations to a greater extent, it will, notwithstanding, always
constitute one of the admirable discoveries of the author of the Méca-
nique Céleste. Dates, in the case of such subjects, are no luxury of eru-
dition. The memoir in which Laplace communicated his results on the
invariability of the mean motions or mean distances is dated 1773.* It
was in 1784 only that he established the stability of the other elements
of the system from the smallness of the planetary masses, the incon-
siderable eccentricity of the orbits, and the revolution of the planets
in one common direction around the sun.

The discovery of which I have just given an account to the reader
excluded, at least from the solar system, the idea of the Newtonian
attraction being a cause of disorder; but might not other forces, by
combining with attraction, produce gradually-increasing perturbations,
as Newton and Euler dreaded? Facts of a positive nature seemed to
justify these fears.

A comparison of ancient with modern observations revealed the ex-
istence of a continued acceleration of the mean motions of the moon
and the planet Jupiter, and an equally striking diminution of the mean
motion of Saturn. These variations led to conclusions of the most
singular nature.

In accordance with the presumed cause of these perturbations, to say
that the velocity of a body increased from century to century, was equiv-
alent to asserting that the body continually approached the center of _
motion. On the other hand, when the velocity diminished the body
must be receding from the center.

Thus, by a strange arrangement of nature, our planetary system
seemed destined to lose Saturn, its most mysterious ornament, to see
the planet, accompanied by its ring and seven satellites, plunge gradually

pended. In this way he found the limiting values of the eccentricity and inclination for
the orbit of each of the principal planets of the system. The results obtained by that great
geometer have been mainly confirmed by the recent researches of Le Verrier on the same
subject. (Connaissance des Temps, 1843.)—TRANSLATOR.

* Laplace was originally led to consider the subject of the perturbations of the mean mo-
tions of the planets by his researches on the theory of Jupiter andSaturn. Having computed
the numerical value of the secular inequality affecting the mean motion of each of those
plants, neglecting the terms of the fourth and higher orders relative to the eccentricities and
inclinations, he found it to be so small that it might be regarded as totally insensible.
Justly suspecting that this circumstance was not attributable to the particular values of the
elements of Jupiter and Saturn, he investigated the expression for the secular perturbation
of the mean motion by a general analysis, neglecting, as before, the fourth and higher .
powers of the eccentricities and inclinations, and he found in this case that the terms which
were retained in the investigation absolutely destroyed each other, so that the expression
was reduced to zero. In a memoir which he communicated to the Berlin Academy of Sci-
ences, in 1776, Lagrange first showed that the mean distance (and consequently the mean
motion) was not affected by any secular inequalities, no matter what were the eccentricities
or inclinations of the disturbing and disturbed planets. TRANSLATOR.

LAPLACE. 143

into unknown regions, whither the eye; armed with the most powerful
telescope, has never penetrated. Jupiter, on the other hand, the planet
compared with which the earth is so insignificant, appeared to be mov-
ing in the opposite direction, so as to be ultimately absorbed in the in-
candescent matter of the sun. Finally, the moon seemed asif it would
one day precipitate itself upon the earth.

There was nothing doubtful or speculative in these sinister fore-
bodings. The precise dates of the approaching catastrophes were alone
uncertain. It was known, however, that they were very distant. Ac-
cordingly, neither the learned dissertations of men of science nor the
animated descriptions of certain poets produced any impression upon the
public mind.

It was not so with our scientific societies, the members of which re-
garded with regret the approaching destruction of our planetary system.
The Academy of Sciences called the attention of geometers of all coun-
tries to these menacing perturbations. Euler and Lagrange descended
into the arena. Never did their mathematical genius shine with a
brighter luster. Still the question remained undecided. The inutility of
such efforts seemed to suggest only a feeling of resignation on the sub-
ject, when from two disdained corners of the theories of analysis the
author of the Mécanique Céleste caused the laws of these great phenom-
ena clearly to emerge. The variations of velocity of Jupiter, Saturn,
and the moon flowed, then, from evident physical causes, and entered
into the category of ordinary periodic perturbations, depending upon
the principle of attraction.

The variations in the dimensions of the orbits, which were so much
dreaded, resolved themselves into simple oscillations, included within
narrow limits. Finally, by the powerful instrumentality of mathemati-
cal analysis, the physical universe was again established on a firm foun-
dation.

Teannot quit this subject without at least alluding to the circumstances
in the solar system upon which depend the so long unexplained varia-
tions of velocity of the moon, Jupiter, and Saturn.

The motion of the earth around the sun is mainly effected in an ellipse,
the form of which is liable to vary from the effects of planetary pertur-
bation. These alterations of form are periodic ; sometimes the curve,
without ceasing to be elliptic, approaches the form of a circle, while at
other times it deviates more and more from that form. From the epoch
of the earliest recorded observations, the eccentricity of the terrestrial
orbit has been diminishing from year to year; at some future epoch the
orbit, on the contrary, will begin to deviate from the form of a circle, and
the eccentricity will increase to the same extent as it previously dimin-
ished, and according to the same laws.

Now Laplace has shown that the mean motion of the moon around
the earth is connected with the form of the ellipse which the earth de-

144 LAPLACE.

seribes around the sun; that a diminution of the eccentricity of the
ellipse inevitably induces an increase in the velocity of our satellite, and
vice versa; finally, that this cause suffices to explain the numerical value
of the acceleration which the mean motion of the moon has experienced
from the earliest ages down to the present time.*

The origin of the inequalities in the mean motions of Jupiter and
Saturn will be, I hope, as easy to conceive.

Mathematical analysis has not served to represent in finite terms the
values of the derangements which each planet experiences in its move-
ment from the action of all the other planets. In the present state of
science, this value is exhibited in the form of an indefinite series of terms
diminishing rapidly in magnitude. In calculation it is usual to neglect
such of those terms as correspond in the order of magnitude to quantities
beneath the errors of observation. But there are cases in which the
order of the term in the series does not decide whether it be small or
great. Certain numerical relations between the primitive elements of
the disturbing and disturbed planets may impart sensible values to terms
which usually admit of being neglected. This case occurs in the per-
turbations of Saturn produced by Jupiter, and in those of Jupiter pro-
duced by Saturn. There exists between the mean motions of these two
great planets a simple relation of commensurability, five times the mean
motion of Saturn being, in fact, very nearly equal to twice the mean
motion of Jupiter. It happens in consequence that certain terms, which
would otherwise be very small, acquire from this circumstance consider-
able values. Hence arise, in the movements of these two planets, ine-
qualities of long duration, which require more than 900 years for their
complete development, and which represent with marvelous accuracy all
the irregularities disclosed by observation. Is it not astonishing to find
in the commensurability of the mean motions of two planets a cause of
perturbation of so influential a nature; to discover that the definitive
solution of an immense difficulty, which baffled the genius of Euler, and
which even led persons to doubt whether the theory of gravitation was
capable of accounting for all the phenomena of the heavens, should de-
pend upon the fortuitous circumstance of five times the mean motion of
Saturn being equal to twice the mean motion of Jupiter? The beauty

* Mr. Adams has recently detected a remarkable oversight committed by Laplace and his
successors in the analytical investigation of the expression for this inequality. The effect of
the rectification rendered necessary by the researches of Mr. Adams will be to diminish by
about one-sixth the co-efficient of the principal term of the secular inequality. This co-effi-
cient has for its multiplier the square of the number of centuries which have elapsed from a
given epoch; its value was found by Laplace to be 10’’.18. Mr. Adams has ascertained
that it must be diminished by 1/’.66. This result has recently been verified by the researches
of M. Plana. Its effect will be to alter in some degree the calculations of ancient eclipses.
The astronomer royal has stated, in his last annual report to the board of visitors of the
Royal Observatory, (June, 1856,) that steps have recently been taken at the observatory for
calculating the various circumstances of those phenomena, upon the basis of the more correct
data furnished by the researches of Mr. Adams.—TRANSLATOR,.

LAPLACE.- 145

of the conception and the ultimate result are here equally worthy of
admiration. *

* The origin of this famous inequality may be best understood by reference to the mode
in which the disturbing forces operate. Let P Q R, P’ Q’ R’ represent the orbits of Jupiter
and Saturn and let us suppose, for the sake of illus-
tration, that they are both situate in the same plane.
Let the planets be in conjunction at P, P’, and let
them both be revolving around the sun S, in the
direction represented by the arrows. Assuming that
the mean motion of Jupiter is to that of Saturn ex-
actly in the proportion of five to two, it follows that
when Jupiter has completed one revolution, Saturn
will have advanced through two-fifths of a revolu-
tion. Similarly, when Jupiter has completed a revo-
lution anda half, Saturn will have effected three-
fifths of a revolution. Hence, when Jupiter arrives
at T, Saturn will be a little in advance of T’. Let
us suppose that the two planets come again into con-
junction at Q,Q’. It is plain that while Jupiter has completed one revolution, and advanced
through the angle PS Q, (measured in the direction of the arrow, ) Saturn has simply described
around § the angle P’ S’ Q’. Hence the excess of the angle described around §, by Jupiter,
over the angle similarly described by Saturn, will amount to one complete revolution, or
360°. But since the mean motions of the two planets are in the proportion of five to two,
the angles described by them around S in any given time will be in the same proportion, and
therefore the excess of the angle described by Jupiter over that described by Saturn will be
to the angle described by Saturn in the proportion of three to two. But we have just found
that the excess of these two angles in the present case amounts to 360°, and the angle de-.
scribed by Saturn is represented by P’ S’ Q’; consequently 360° is to the angle P’ S/ Q’ in.
the proportion of three to two ; in other words, P’ S’ Q’ is equal to two-thirds of the cireum
ference, or 240°. Inu the same way it may be shown that the two planets will come into con:
junction again at R, when Saturn has described another are of 240°. Finally, when Saturn
has advanced through a third are of 240°, the two planets will come into conjunction at P, P’,
the points whence they originally set out; and tke two succeeding conjunctions will also mani-
festly occur at Q, Q’and R, R’. Thus we see that the conjunctions will always oceur in three
given points of the orbit of each planet situate at angular distances of 120° from each other.
It is also obvious that, during the interval which elapses between the occurrence of two con-
junctions in the same points of the orbits, and which includes three synodic revolutions of the:
planets, Jupiter will have accomplished five revolutions around the sun, and Saturn will have
accomplished two revolutions. Now, if the orbits of both planets were perfectly circular, the:
retarding and accelerating effects of the disturbing force of either planet would neutralize each
other in the course of asynodic revolution, and therefore both planets would return to the same:
condition at each successive conjunction. But in consequence of the ellipticity of the orbits, the
retarding effect of the disturbing force is manifestly no longer exactly compensated by the
accelerative effect, and hence, at the close of each synodic revolution, there remains a min-
ute outstanding alteration in the movement of each planet. A similar effect will be pro-
duced at each of the three points of conjunction, and as the perturbations which thus ensue:
do not generally compensate each other, there will remain a minute outstanding perturbation
as the result of every three conjunctions. The effect produced being of the same kind (whether
tending to accelerate or retard the movement of the planet) for every such triple conjunction, it
is plain that the action of the disturbing forces would ultimately lead toa serious derangement
of the movements of both planets. All this is founded on the supposition that the mean
motions of the two planets are to each other as two to five, but in reality this relation does
not exactly hold. In fact while Jupiter requires 21,663 days to accomplish five revolutions,
Saturn effects two revolutions:in 21,518 days. Hence when Jupiter after completing his
fifth revolution arrives at P, Saturn will have advanced a little beyond P’, and the con-

108

146 LAPLACE. —

We have just explained how Laplace demonstrated that the solar sys-
tem can experience only small periodic oscillations around a certain
mean state. Let us now see in what way he succeeded in determining
the absolute dimensions of the orbits.

What is the distance of the sun from the earth? No scientific ques-
tion has occupied, in a greater degree, the attention of mankind ; mathe-
matically speaking, nothing is more simple. It suffices, as in common
operations of surveying, to draw visual lines from the two extremities of
a known base to an inaccessible object. The remainder is a process of
elementary caleulation. Unfortunately, in the case of the sun, the dis-
tance is great, and the bases which can be measured upon the earth are
comparatively very small. In such a case the slightest errors in the di-
rection of the visual lines exercise an enormous influence upon the
results.

In the beginning of the last century, Halley remarked that certain in-
terpositions of Venus between the earth and the sun, or, to use an ex-
pression applied to such conjunctions, that the transits of the planet
across the sun’s disk, would furnish at each observatory an indirect
means of fixing the position of the visual ray very superior in accuracy
to the most perfect direct methods.*

Such was the object of the scientific expeditions undertaken in 1761

junction of the two planets will occur at P, P’ when they have both described around S an
additional are of about 8°. In the same way it may be shown that the two succeeding con-
junctions will take place at the points q, q' 7, r’ respectively 8° in advance of Q, Q’, R, R’.
Thus we see that the points of conjunction will travel with extreme slowness in the same
direction as that in which the planets revolve. Now,since the angular distance between P
and R is 120°, and since in a period of three synodic revolutions, or 21,758 days, the line
of conjunction travels through an arc of 8°, it follows that in 892 years the conjunction of
the two planets will have advanced from P, P’ to R, R’. In reality the time of traveling
from P, P’ to R, R’ is somewhat longer from the indirect effects of planetary perturbation,
amcunting to 920 years. In an equal period of time, the coniunction of the two planets
will advance from Q, Q’ to R, R’ and from R, R’ to P, P’.. During the half of this period
the perturbative effect resulting from every triple conjunction will lie constantly in one di-
rection, and during the other half it will lie in the contrary directicn; that is to say,
during a period of 460 years, the mean motion of the disturbed planet will be con-
tinually accelerated, and,in like manner, during an equal period it will be continually
retarded. In the case of Jupiter disturbed by Saturn, the inequality in longitude
amounts at its maximum to 21’; in the converse case of Saturn disturbed by Jupiter, the
inequality is more considerable in consequence of the greater mass of the disturbing planet,
amounting at its maximum to 49’. In accordance with the mechanical principle of the
equality of action and reaction, it happens that while the mean motion of one planet is in-
creasing, that of the other is diminishing, and vice versa. We have supposed that the or-
bits of both planets are situate in the same plane. In reality, however, they are inclined
to each other, and this circumstance will produce an effect exactly analogous to that de-
pending on the eccentricities of the orbits. It is plain that the more nearly the mean motions
of the two planets approach a relation of commensurability, the smaller will be the displace-
ment of every third conjunction, and consequently the longer will be the duration, and the
rreater the ultimate accumulation, of the inequality. —TRANSLATOR.

* The utility of observations of the transits of the inferior planets for determining the
rolay parallax was first pointed out by James Gregery. (Optica Promota, 1663.)—TRans-
LATOR,

LAPLACE. TAT

and 1769, on which occasions France—not to speak of stations in Eu-
rope—was represented at the isle of Rodrigo by Pingré; at the isle of
San Domingo by Fleurin; at California by the Abbé Chappe; at Pon-
dicherry by Legentil. At the same epochs England sent Maskelyne to
St. Helena; Wales to Hudson’s Bay; Mason to the Cape of Good
Hope; Captain Cooke to Otaheite, &c. The observations of the south-
ern hemisphere, compared with those of Europe, and especially with the
observations made by an Austrian astronomer, Father Hell, at Ward-
hus, in Lapland, gave, for the distance of the sun, the result which has
since figured in all treatises on astronomy and navigation.

No government hesitated in furnishing academies with the means,
however expensive they might be, of conveniently establishing their ob-
servers in the most distant regions. We have already remarked that
the determination of the contemplated distance appeared to demand
imperiously an extensive base; for small bases would have been totally
inadequate to the purpose. Well, Laplace has solved the problem nu-
merically, without a base of any kind whatever. He has deduced the
distance of the sun from observations of the moon made in one and the
same place!

The sun is, with respect to our satellite, the cause of perturbations which
evidently depend on the distance of the immense luminous globe from the
earth. Who does not see that these perturbations would diminish if the
distance increased; that they would increase, on the contrary, if the dis-
tance diminished ; that the distance finally determines the magnitude
of the perturbations ?

Observation assigns the numerical value of these perturbations ,
theory, on the other hand, unfolds the general mathematical relation,
which connects them with the solar parallax, and with other known ele-
ments. The determination of the mean radius of the terrestrial orbit
then becomes one of the most simple operations of algebra. Such is the
happy combination by the aid of which Laplace has solved the great, the
celebrated problem of parallax. It is thus that the illustrious geometer
found for the mean distance of the sun from the earth, expressed in
radii of the terrestrial orbit, a value differing only in a slight degree from
that which was the fruit of so many troublesome and expensive voyages.
According to the opinion of very competent judges, the result of the in-
direct method might not impossibly merit the preference.*

The movements of the moon proved a fertile mine of research to our
great geometer. His penetrating intellect discovered in them unknown
treasures. Ie disentangled them from everything which concealed them
from vulgar eyes with an ability and a perseverance equally worthy of

*Mayer, from the principles of gravitation, (Theoria Lune, 1767,) computed the value of

| the solar parallax tobe 7’’.8. He remarked that the error of this determination did not

/ amount to one-twentieth of the whole, whence it followed that the true value of the parallax

)

could not exceed 8.2. Laplace, by an analogous process, determined the parallax to be

) 8.45. Encke, by a profound discussion of the observations of the transits of Venus in 1761

and 1769, found the value of the same element to be 8’’.5776.— TRANSLATOR.

148 LAPLACE.

admiration. The reader will excuse me for citing another of such ex-—
amples.

The earth governs the movements of the moon. The earth is flattened;
jn other words, its figure is spheroidal. A spheroidal body does not at- —
tract like a sphere. There ought, then, to exist in the movement, I had
almost said in the countenance, of the moon a sort of impression of the
spheroidal figure of the earth. Such was the idea as it originally oe-
curred to Laplace.

It still remained to ascertain (and here consisted the chief difficulty)
whether the effects attributable to the spheroidal figure of the earth
were sufliciently sensible not to be confounded with the errors of obser-
vation. It was accordingly necessary to find the general formula of per-
turbations of this nature, in order to be able, as in the case of the solar
parallax, to eliminate the unknown quantity.

The ardor of Laplace, combined with his power of analytical research,
surmounted all obstacles. By means of an investigation which de-
manded the most minute attention, the great geometer discovered in
the theory of the moon’s movements two well-defined perturbations de-—
pending on the spheroidal figure of the earth. The first affected the —
resolved element of the motion of our satellite, which is chiefly measured
with the instrument known in observatories by the name of the transit
instrument; the second, which operated in the direction north and south,
could only be effected by observations with a second instrument, termed —
the mural circle. These two inequalities, of very different magnitudes,
connected with the cause which produces them, by analytical combina-
tions of totally different kinds, have, however, both conducted to the
same value of the ellipticity. It must be borne in mind, however, that
the ellipticity, thus deduced from the movements of the moon, is not .
the ellipticity corresponding to such or such a country, the ellipticity
observed in France, in England, in Italy, in Lapland, in North America, —
jn India, or in the region of the Cape of Good Hope, for the earth’s ma- _
terials having undergone considerable upheavings at different times,
and in different places, the primitive regularity of its curvature has been
sensibly disturbed by this cause. The moon—and it is this circumstance
which renders the result of such inestimable value—ought to assign,
and has in reality assigned, the general ellipticity of the earth ; in other
words, it has indicated a sort of mean value of the various determina-
tions obtained at enormous expense, and with infinite labor, as the
result of long voyages undertaken by astronomers of all the countries
of Europe.

I shall add a few brief remarks, for which I am mainly indebted to
the author of the Mécanique Céleste. They seem to be eminently
adapted for illustrating the profound, the unexpected, and almost par-
adoxical character of the methods which I have just attempted to-
sketch.

What are the elements which it has been found necessary to confront

LAPLACE. 149

with each other in order to arrive at results expressed even to the pre-
cision of the smallest decimals ?

On the one hand, mathematical formulz deduced from the principle
of universal attraction; on the other hand, certain irregularities ob-
served in the returns of the moon to the meridian.

An observing geometer who, from his infancy, had never quitted his
chamber of study, and who had never viewed the heavens except
through a narrow aperture directed north and south, in the vertica
plane of which the principal astronomical instruments are made to move—
to whom nothing had ever been revealed respecting the bodies revolving
above his head, except that they attract each other according to the
Newtonian law of gravitation—would, however, be enabled to ascertain
that his narrow abode was situated upon the surface of a spheroidal
‘body, the equatorial axis of which surpassed the polar axis by a three
hundred and sixth part; he would have also found, in his isolated, im.
movable position, his true distance from the sun.

I have stated at the commencement of this notice that it is to
D’Alembert we owe the first satisfactory mathematical explanation of
the phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes. But our illustrious
countryman, as well as Euler, whose solution appeared subsequently to
that of D’Alembert, omitted all consideration of certain physical cir-
cumstances, which, however, did not seem to be of a nature to be neg-
lected without examination. Laplace has supplied this deficiency. He
has shown that the sea, notwithstanding its fluidity, and that the at-
mosphere, notwithstanding its currents, exercise the same influence on
the movements of the terrestrial axis as if they formed solid masses ad-
hering to the terrestrial spheroid.

Do the extremities of the axis around which the earth performs an
entire revolution once in every twenty-four hours correspond always to
the same material points of the terrestrial spheroid? in other words,
do the poles of rotation, which from year to year correspond to different
stars, undergo also a displacement at the surface of the earth ?

In the case of the affirmative, the equator is movable as well as the
poles; the terrestrial latitudes are variable ; no country during the lapse
of ages will evjoy, even on an average, a constant climate; regious the
most different will, in their turn, become circumpolar. Adopt the con-
trary supposition, and everything assumes the character of an admi-
rable permanence.
| The question which I have just suggested, one of the most important
in astronomy, cannot be solved by the aid of mere observation, on ac-
count of the uncertainty of the early determinations of terrestrial lati-
tude. Laplace has supplied this defect by analysis. The great geome-
ter has demonstrated that no circumstance depending on universal gravi-
tation can sensibly displace the poles of the earth’s axis relatively to
the surface of the terrestrial spheroid. The sea, far from being an ob-
Stacle to the invariable rotation of the earth upon its axis, would, on the

150 LAPLACE.

contrary, reduce the axis to a permanent condition in cceisequence of
the mobility of the waters and the resistance which their oscillations
experience.

The remarks which I have just made with respect to the position of
the terrestrial axis are equally applicable to the time of the earth’s ro-
tation, which is the unit, the true standard of time. The importance of
this element induced Laplace to exatiine whether its numerical value
might not be lable to vary from internal causes, such as earthquakes
and volcanoes. It is hardly necessary for me to state that the result
obtained was negative.

The admirable memoir of Lagrange upon the libration of the moon
seemed to have exhausted the subject. This, however, was not the
case.

The motion of revolution of our satellite around the earth is subject
to perturbations, technically termed secular, which were either unknown
to Lagrange or which he negiected. These inequalities eventually place
qhe body, not to speak of entire circumlerences, at angular distances of
a semicircle, a circle and a half, &e., from the position which it would
otherwise occupy. if the movement of rotation did not participate in
such perturbations, the moon in the lapse of ages would preseut in suc-
cession all the parts of its surface to the earth.

This event will not occur. The hemisphere of the moon which is
actually invisible will remain invisible forever. Laplace, in fact, has
shown that the attraction of the earth introduces into the rotatory mo-
tion of the lunar spheroid the secular inequalities which exist in the
movement of revolution.

nesearches of this nature exhibit in full relief the power of inathemat-
ical analysis. It would have been very diflicult to have discovered by
synthesis truths so profoundly enveloped in the complex action of a
wultitude of forces.

We should be inexcusable if we omitted to notice the high impor-
tance of the labors of Laplace on the improvement of the lunar tables.
The immediate object of this improvement was, in effect, the promo
tion of maritime intercourse between distant countries; and, what was
indeed far superior to all considerations of mercantile interest, the pres-
ervation of the lives of mariners.

Thanks to a sagacity without parallel, to a perseverance which knew
no limits, to an ardor always youthful, and which communicated itself
to able co-adjutors, Laplace solved the celebrated problem of the longi-
tude more completely than could have been hoped for in a scientilic
point of view, with greater precision than the art of navigation, in its
utmost refinement, demanded. The ship, the sport of the winds and
tempests, has no occasion, in the present day, to be afraid of losing
itself in the immensity of the ocean. An intelligent glance at the starry
vault indicates to the pilot, in every place and at every time, his dis-
tance trom the meridian of Paris. The extreme perfection of the ex-

LAPLACE, 151

isting tables of the moon entitles Laplace to be ranked among the bene-
factors of humanity.*

In the beginning of the year 1611, Galileo supposed that he found in
the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites a simple and rigorous solution of the
famous problem of the longitude, and active negotiations were imme-
diately commenced with the view of introducing the new method on
board the numerous vessels of Spain and Holland. These negotiations
failed. From the discussion, it plainly appeared that the accurate ob-
servation of the eclipses of the satellites would requise powerful tele-
scopes; but such telescopes could not be employed on board a ship
tossed about by the waves.

The method of Galileo seemed, at any rate, to retain all its advan-
tages when applied on land, and to promise immense improvements to
geography. These expectations were found to be premature. The
movements of the satellites of Jupiter are not by any means so simple
as the immortal inventor of the method of longitudes supposed them to
be. It was necessary that three generations of astronomers and mathe-
maticians should labor with perseverance in unfolding their most con-
siderable perturbations. It was necessary, in fine, that the tables of
those bodies should acquire all desirable and necessary precision, that
Laplace should introduce into the midst of them the torch of mathemati-
cal analysis.

In the present day, the nautical ephemerides contain, several years in
advance, the indication of the times of the eclipses and re-appearances
of Jupiter’s satellites. Calculation does not yield in precision to direct
observation. In this group of satellites, considered as an independent
system of bodies, Laplace found a series of perturbations analogous to
those which the planets experience. The rapidity of the revolutions un-
folds, in a sufliciently short space of time, changes in this system which
require centuries for their complete development in the solar system.

Although the satellites exhibit hardly au appreciable diameter even
when viewed in the best telescopes, our illustrious countryman was en-
abled to determine their masses. Finally, he discovered certain simple
relations of an extremely remarkable character between the movements
of those bodies, which have been called the laws of Laplace. Posterity
will not obliterate this designation ; it will acknowledge the propriety
of inscribing in the heavens the name of so great an astronomer beside
that of Kepler. .

* The theoretical researches of Laplace formed the basis of Burekhardt’s Lunar Tables,
which are chiefly employed in computing the places of the moon for the Nautical Almanac
and other ephemerides. These tables were defaced by an empiric equation, suggested for
the purpose of representing an inequality of long pericd which seemed to affect the mean
longitude of the moon. No satisfactory explanation of the origin of this inequality could
be discovered by any geometer, although it formed the subject of much toilsome investiga--
tion throughout the present century, until at length M. Hanson found it to arise from a
combination of two inequalities due to the disturbing action of Venus. The peiiod of one
of these inequalities is 273 years, and that of the other is 239 years. The maximum value of

the former is 27.4, and that of the latter is 23/’.2,—--TRANSLATOR.

152 LAPLACE.

Let us cite two or three of the laws of Laplace:

If we add to the mean longitude of the first satellite twice that of the
third, and subtract from the sum three times the mean longitude of the
second, the result will be exactly equal to 180°. Would it not be very
extraordinary if the three satellites had been placed originally at the
distances from Jupiter, and in the positions, with respect to each other,
adapted for constantly and rigorously maintaining the foregoing rela-
tion? Laplace has replied to this question by showing that it is not
necessary that this relation should have been rigorously true at the ori-
gin. The mutual action of the satellites would necessarily have reduced
it to its present mathematical condition, if once the distances and the
positions satisfied the law approximately.

This first law is equally true when we employ the synodical elements.
It hence plainly results that the three first satellites of Jupiter can never
be all eclipsed at the same time. Bearing this in mind, we shall bave
no difiiculty in apprehending the import of a celebrated observation of
recent times, during which certain astronomers perceived the planet for
a short time without any of his four satellites. This would not by any
mneans authorize us in supposing the satellites to be eclipsed. A satel-
lite disappears when it is projected upon the central part of the lumi-
nous disk of Jupiter, and also when it passes behind the opaque body
of the planet.

The following is another very simple law to which the mean motions
of the same satellites of Jupiter are subject:

If we add to the mean motion of the first satellite twice the mean
motion of the third, the sum is exactly equal to three times the mean
motion of the second. *

This numerical co-incidence, which is perfectly accurate, would be one
of the most mysterious phenomena in the system of the universe if

* This law is necessarily included in the law already enunciated by the author relative to
the mean longitudes. The following is the most usual mode of expressing these curious rela-
tions : Ist, the mean motion of the first satellite, plus twice the mean motion of the third,
minus three times the mean motion of the second, is rigorously equal to zero; 2d, the mean
longitude of the first satellite, plus twice the mean longitude of the third, minus three times
the mean longitude of the second, is equal to J80°. It is plain that if we only consider
the mean longitude here to refer to a given epoch, the combination of the two laws will as-
sure the existence of an analogous relation between the mean longitudes for any instant of
time whatever, whether past or future. Laplace has shown, as the author has stated in the
text, that if these relations had only been approximately true at the origin, the mutual
attraction of the three satellites would have ultimately rendered them rigorously so: under
such circumstances the mean longitude of the first satellite, plus twice the mean longitude
of the third, minus three times the mean longitude of the second, would ecntinually oscil-
late about 180° as a mean value. The three satellites would participate in this libratory
movement, the extent of oscillation depending in each case on the mass of the satellite and
its distance from the primary, but the period of libration is the same for all the satellites,
amounting to 2,270 days 18 hours, or rather more than six years. Observations of the
eclipses of the satellites have not afforded any indications of the actual existence of such a
libratory motion, so that the relations between the mean motions and mean longitudes may
‘be presumed to be always rigorously true. —TRANSLATOR,

LAPLACE. 153

Laplace had not proved that the law need only have been approximate
at the origin, and that the mutual action of the satellites has sufficed
to render it rigorous.

The illustrious geometer who always pursued his researches to their
most remote ramifications arrived at the following result: The action
of Jupiter regulates the movements of rotation of the satellites, so
that, without taking into account the secular perturbations, the time of
rotation of the first satellite, plus twice the time of rotation of the third,
forms a sum which is constantly equal to three times the time of rota-
tion of the second. Influenced by a deference, a modesty, a timidity,
without any plausible motive, our artists in the last century surren-
dered to the English the exclusive privilege of constructing instrnments
of astronomy. Thus, let us frankly acknowledge the fact, at the time
when Herschel was prosecuting his beautiful observations on the other
side of the Channel, there existed in France no instruments adapted
for developing them; we had not even the means of verifying them.
Fortunately for the scientific honor of our country, mathematical analy-
sis is also a powerful instrument. Laplace gave ampie proof of this
on a memorable occasion when, from the retirement of bis chamber, he
predicted, he minutely announced, what the excellent astronomer of
Windsor would see with the largest telescopes which were ever con-
structed by the hand of man.

When Galileo, in the beginning of the year 1610, directed toward
Saturn a telescope of very low power, which he had just executed with
his own hands, he perceived that the planet was not an ordinary globe,,
without, however, being able to ascertain its real form. The expression
“‘tri-corporate,” by which the illustrious Florentine designated the appear-
ance of the planet, implied even a totally erroneous idea of its strue-
ture. Our countryman Roberval entertained much sounder views on
the subject, but from not having instituted a detailed comparison be-
tween his hypothesis and the results of observation, he abandoned to
Huyghens the honor of being regarded as the author of the true theory
of the phenomena presented by the wonderful planet. Every person
knows in the present day that Saturn consists of a globe about 900
times greater than the earth, and aring. This ring does not touch
the ball of the planet, being everywhere removed from it at a distance
of 20,000 (English) miles. Observation indicates the breadth of the
ring to be 54,000. miles. The thickness certainly does not exceed 250
miles. With the exception of a black streak, which divides the ring
throughout its whole contour into two parts of unequal breadth and
of different brightness, this strange, colossal bridge without piles had
never offered to the most experienced or skillful observer either spot
or protuberance adapted for deciding whether it was immovable or
endued with a movement of rotation.

Laplace considered it to be very improbable, if the ring was immov-
able, that its constituent parts should be capable of resisting by their

154 LAPLACE.

mere cohesion the continual attraction of the planet. A movement of
rotation occurred to his mind as constituting the principle of stability,
and he hence deduced the necessary velocity. The velocity thas found
Was exactly equal to that which Herschel subsequently deduced from
a course of extremely delicate observations.

The two parts of the ring being placed at different distances from the
planet, could not fail to experience, from the action of the sun, different
movements ef rotation. It would hence seem that the planes of both
rings ought to be generally inclined toward each other, whereas they
appear from observation always to coincide. It was necessary, then,
that some physical cause should exist which would be capable of neutral-
izing the action of the sun. In a memoir published in February, 1789,
Laplace found that this cause must reside in the ellipticity of Saturn,
produced by a rapid movement of rotation of the planet, a movement
the existence of which Herschel announced in November, 1789.

The reader cannot fail to remark how, on certain occasions, the eyes
of the mind can supply the want of the most powerful telescopes, and
lead to astronomical discoveries of the highest importance. Let us de-
scend from the heavens upon the earth. The discoveries of Laplace will
appear not less important, not less worthy of his genius.

The phenomena of the tides, which an ancient philosopher designated
in despair the tomb of human curiosity, were connected by Laplace
with an analytical theory in which the physical conditions of the ques-
tion figure for the first time. Accordingly calculators, to the immense
advantage of the navigation of our maritine coasts, venture in the
present day to predict several years in advance the details of the time
and height of the full tides without more anxiety respecting the result
than if the question related to the phases of an eclipse.

There exists between the different phenomena of the ebb and flow of
the tides and the attractive forces which the sun and moon exercise
upon the fluid sheet which covers three-fourths of the globe, an intimate
and necessary connection, from which Laplace, by the aid of a series of
twenty years of observations, executed at Brest, deduced the value of
the mass of our satellite. Science knows in the present day that seventy-
five moons would be necessary to form a weight equivalent to that of
the terrestrial globe, and it is indebted for this result to an attentive
and minute study of the oscillations of the ocean. We know only one
means of enhancing the admiration which every thoughtiul mind will
entertain for theories capable of leading to such conclusions. An his-
torical statement will supply it. In the year 1631, the illustrious Gali-
leo, as appears from his Dialogues, was so far from perceiving the mathe-
matical relations from which Laplace deduced results so beautiful, so
unequivocal, and so useful, that he taxed with frivolousness the vague
idea which Kepler entertained of attributing to the moon’s attraction a
certain share in the production of the diurnal and periodical movements
of the waters of the ocean. —

LAPLACE. 155

Lapiace did not confine himself to extending so considerably, and im-
proving so essentially, the mathematical theory of the tides ; he consid-
ered the phenomenon from an entirely new point of view; it was he who
first treated of the stability of the ocean. Systems of bodies, whether
solid or fluid, are subject to two kinds of equilibrium, which we must
caretully distinguish from each other. In the case of stable equilibrium,
the system, when slightly disturbed, tends always to return to its origi-
nal condition. Ontbe other hand, when the system isin unstable equilib-
lium, a very insignificant derangement might occasion an enormous
dislocation in the relative positious of its constituent parts.

If the equlibriam of waves is of the latter kind, the waves engendered
by the action of winds, by earthquakes, and by sudden movements
from the bottom of the ocean, have perhaps risen in past times, and
nay rise in the future, to the height of the highest mountains. The
geologist wili have the satisfaction of deducing from these prodigious
oscillations a rational explanation of a great multitude of phenomena,
but the public will thereby be exposed to new and terrible catastro-
phes.

Mankind may rest assured ; Laplace has proved, that the equilibrium
of the ocean is stable, but upon the express condition (which, however,
has been amply verified by established facts) that the mean density of
the fluid mass is less than the mean density of the earth. Everything
else remaining the same, let us substitute an ocean of mercury for the
actual ocean, and the stability will disappear, and the fluid will fre-
quently surpass its boundaries, to ravage continents even to the height.
ot the snowy regions which lose themselves in the clouds.

Does not the reader remark how each of the analytical investigations
ot Laplace serves to disclose the harmony and duraticen of the universe
and of our globe?

It was impossible that the great geometer, who had succeeded so
well in the study of the tides of the ocean, should not have occupied
his attention with the tides of the atmosphere; that he should net have
submitted to the delicate and definitive tests of a rigorous calculus the
generally-diflused opinions respecting the influence of the moon upon the
height of the barometer and other meteorological phengmena.

Laplace, in effect, has devoted a chapter of his splendid work to an
examination of the oscillations which the attractive force of the moon
is capable of producing in our atmosphere. It results from these re-
Searches that, at Paris, the lunar tide produces no sensible effect upon
the barometer. The height of the tide, obtained by the discussion of a
long series of observations, has not exceeded two-hundredths of a milli-
meter, a quantity which, in the present state of meteorological science,
is Jess than the probable error of observation.

The calculation to which I have just alluded may be cited in support
of considerations to which [ had recourse when I wished to establish,
that if the moon alters more or less the height of the barometer, accord-
ing to its different phases, the ettect is not attributable to attraction.

156 LAPLACE.

No person was more sagacious than Laplace in discovering intimate
relations between phenomena apparently very dissimilar; no person
showed himself more skillful in deducing important conclusions from
those unexpected affinities.

Toward the close of his days, for example, he overthrew with a stroke
of the pen, by the aid of certain observations of the moon, the cosmo-
gonic theories of Buffon and Bailly, which were so long in favor. <Ac-
cording to these theories, the earth was inevitably advancing to astate
of congelation which was close at hand. Laplace, who never contented
himself with a vague statement, sought to determine in numbers the
rapid cooling of our globe which Buffon had so eloquently but so gra-
tuitously announced. Nothing could be more simple, better connected,
or more demonstrative than the chain of deductions of the celebrated
geometer.

A body diminishes in volume when it cools. According to the most
elementary principles of mechanics, a rotating body which contracts in
dimensions ought inevitably to turn upon its axis with greater and
greater rapidity. The Jength of the day has been determined in all
ages by the time of the earth’s rotation; if the earth is cooling, the
length of the day must be continually shortening. Now, there exists a
means of ascertaining whether the length of the day has undergone any
variation ; this consists in examining, for each century, the are of the
celestial sphere described by the moon during the interval of time which
the astronomers of the existing epoch called a day; in other words, the
time required by the earth to effect a complete rotation on its axis, the
velocity of the moon being, in fact, independent of the time of the earth’s
rotation.

Let usnow, after theexample of Laplace, take from the standard tables
the least considerable values, if you choose, of the expansions or con-
tractions which solid bodies experience from changes of temperature ;
search then the annals of Grecian, Arabian, and modern astronomy for
the purpose of finding in them the angular velocity of the moon, and
the great geometer will prove, by incontrovertible evidence, founded
upon these data, that during a period of 2,000 years the mean tempera-
ture of the earth has not varied to the extent of the hundredth part of
a degree of the centigrade thermometer. No eloquent declamation is
rapable of resisting such a process of reasoning, or withstanding the
force of such numbers. The mathematics have been in all ages the im-
placabie adversaries of scientific romances.

The fall of bodies, if it was not a phenomenon of perpetual occurrence,
would justly excite in the highest degree the astonishment of mankind.
What, in effect, is more extraordinary than to see an inert mass—that is
to say, a mass deprived of will, a mass which ought not to have any
propensity to advance in one direction more than in another, precipitate
itself toward the earth as soon as it ceased to be supported ?

Nature engenders the gravity of bodies by a process so recondite, so

LAPLACE. 157

completely beyond the reach of our senses and the ordinary resources
of human intelligence, that the philosophers of antiquity, who supposed
that they could explain everything mechanically according to the simple
evolutions of atoms, excepted gravity from their speculations.

Descartes attempted what Leucippus, Democritus, Epicurus, and their
followers thought to be impossible. He made the fall of terrestrial
bodies depend upon the action of a vortex of very subtle matter circu-
lating around the earth. The real improvements which the illustrious
Huyghens applied to the ingenious conception of our countryman were
far, however, from imparting to it clearness and precision, those charac-
teristic attributes of truth.

Those persons form a very imperfect estimate of the meaning of one
of the greatest questions which have occupied the attention of modern
inquirers, who regard Newton as having issued victorious from a strug-
gle in which his two immortal predecessors had failed. Newton did not
discover the cause of gravity any more than Galileo did. Two bodies
placed in juxtaposition approach each other. Newton does not inquire
into the nature of the force which produces this effect. The force ex-
ists. He designates it by the term attraction; but, at the same time,
he warns the reader that the term, as thus used by him, does not imply
any definite idea of the physical process by which gravity is brought
into existence and operates.

The force of attraction being once admitted as a fact, Newton studies
it in all terrestrial phenomena, :4 the revolutions of the moon, the plan-
ets, satellites, and comets ; and, as we have already stated, he deduced.
from this incomparable study the simple, universal, mathematical char-
acteristics of the forces which preside over the movements of all the
bodies of which our solar system is composed.

The applause of the scientific world did not prevent the immortal au-
thor of the Principia from hearing some persons refer the principle of
gravitation to the class of occult qualities. This circumstance induced
Newton and his most devoted followers to abandon the reserve which
they had hitherto considered it their duty to maintain. Those persons
were then charged with ignorance who regarded attraction as an essen-
tial property of matter, as the mysterious indication of a sort of charm ;
who supposed that two bodies may act upon each other without the in-
tervention of a third body. This force was then either the result of the
tendency of an ethereal fluid to move from the free regions of space,
where its density is a maximum, toward the planetary bodies, around
which there exists a greater degree of rarefaction, or the consequence
ot the impulsive force of some fluid medium.

Newton never expressed a definitive opinion respecting the origin of
the impulse which occasioned the attractive force of matter—at least in
our solar system. But we have strong reasons for supposing, in the
present day, that, in using the word impulse the great geometer was
thinking of the systematic ideas of Varignon and Fatio de Duillier, sub-

158 LAPLACE,

sequently re-invented and perfected by Lesage. These ideas, in effect,
had been communicated to him before they were published to the world.

According to Lesage, there are in the regions of space bodies moving
in every possible direction, and with excessive rapidity. The author
applied to these the name of ultramundane corpuscules. Their totality
constituted the gravitative fluid, if indeed the designation of a fluid be
applicable to an assemblage of particles having no mutual connection.

A single body placed in the midst of such an ocean of movable par-
ticles would remain at rest althongh it were impelled equally in every
direction. On the other hand, two bodies ought to advance toward each
other, since they would serve the purpose of mutual screens, since the
surfaces facing each other would no longer be hit in the direction of their
line of junction by the ultra-mundane particles, since there would then
exist currents, the effect of which would no longer be neutralized by
opposite currents. It will be easily seen, besides, that two bodies
plunged into the gravitative fluid would tend to approach each other
with an intensity which would vary in the inverse proportion of the
square of the distance.

If attraction is the result of the impulse of a fluid, its action ought
to employ a finite time in traversing the immense spaces which separate
the celestial bodies. If the sun, then, were suddenly extinguished, the
earth, after the catastrophe, would, mathematically speaking, still con-
tinue for some time to experience its attractive influence. The contrary
would happen on the occasion of the sudden birth of a planet: a cer-
tain time would elapse before the attractive force of the new body would
make itself felt on the earth.

Several geometers of the last century were of opinion that the force
of attraction is not transmitted instantaneously from one body to
another; they even assigned to it a comparatively inconsiderable veloce-
ity of propagation. Daniel Bernoulli, for example, in attempting to
explain how the spring-tide arrives upon our coasts a day and a half
after the syzygies, that is to say, a day and a half after the epochs when
the sun and moon are most favorably situated for the production of this
magnificent phenomenon, assumed that the disturbing force required all
this time (a day and a half) for its propagation from the moon to the
ocean. So feeble a velocity was inconsistent with the mechanical ex-
planation of attraction, of which we have just spoken. The explanation,
In effect, necessarily supposes that the proper motions of the celestial
bodies are insensible, compared with the motion of the gravitative fluid.
After having discovered that the diminution of the eccentricity of the
terrestrial orbit is the real cause of the observed acceleration of the
motion of the moon, Laplace, on his part, endeavored to ascertain
whether this mysterious acceleration did not depend on the gradual
propagation of attraction.

The result of calculation was at first favorable to the plausibility of
the hypothesis. It showed that the gradual propagation of the attract-

LAPLACE. 159

ive force would introduce into the movement of our satellite a pertur-
bation proportional to the square of the time which elapsed from the
commencement of any epoch ; that in order to represent numerically the
results of astronomical observations, it would not be necessary to assign
a feeble velocity to attraction; that a propagation eight millions of
times more rapid than that of light would satisfy all the phenomena.

Although the true cause of the acceleration of the moon is now well
known, the ingenious calculation of which I have just spoken does not
the less on that account maintain its place in scienee. In a mathe-
matical point of view, the perturbation depending on the gradual propa-
gation of the attractive force which this caleulation indicates has a cer-
tain existence. The connection between the velocity of perturbation
and the resulting inequality is such that one of the two quantities leads
to a knowledge of the numerical value of the other. Now, upon assign-
ing to the inequality the greatest value which is consistent with the
observations after they have been corrected for the effect due to the
variation of the eccentricity of the terrestrial orbit, we find the velocity
of the attractive force to be fifty millions of times the velocity of light.

If it be borne in mind that this number is an inferior limit, and that
the velocity of the rays of light amounts to 77,000 leagues (192,000
English miles) per second, the philosophers who profess to explain the
force of attraction by the impulsive energy of a fluid, will see what pro-
digious velocities they must satisfy.

The reader cannot fail again to remark the sagacity with which La-
place singled out the phenomena which were best adapted for throwing
light upon the most obscure points of celestial physics ; nor the success”
with which he explored their various parts. and deduced from them
numerical conclusions in presence of which the mind remains con-
founded.

The author of the Mécanique Céleste supposed, like Newton, that
light consists of material molecules of excessive tenuity and endued in
empty space with a velocity of 77,000 leagues ina second. However,
it is right to warn those who would be inclined to avail themselves of
this imposing authority that the principal argument of Laplace in favor
of the system of emission consisted in the advantage which it afforded
of submitting every question to a process of simple and rigorous calcu-
lation; whereas, on the other hand, the theory of undulations has always
offered immense difficulties to analysts. It was natural that a geometer
who had so elegantly connected the laws of simple refraction which light
uudergoes in its passage through the atmosphere, and the laws of double
refraction which it is subject to in the course of its passage through
certain crystals, with the action of attractive and repulsive forces, should
not have abandoned this route, before he recognized the impossibility of
arriving by the same path at plausible explanations of the phenomena
of diffraction and polarization. In other respects, the care which Laplace
always employed in pursuing his researches, as far as possible, to their

160 LAPLACE.

numerical results will enable those who are disposed to institute a com-
plete comparison between the two rival theories of light to derive from
the Mécanique Céleste the materials of several interesting relations.

Is light an emanation from the sun? Does this body launch out ineces-
santly in every direction a part of its own substance? Is it gradually
diminishing in volume and mass? The attraction exercised by the sun
upon the earth will, in that case, gradually become less and less consid-
erable. The radius of the terrestrial orbit, on the other hand, cannot
fail to increase, and a corresponding effect will be produced on the length
of the year.

This is the conclusion which suggests itself to every person upon a
first glance at the subject. By applying analysis to the question, and
then proceeding to numerical computations, founded upon the most trust-
worthy results of observation relative to the length of the year in dif-
ferent ages, Laplace has proved that an incessant emission of light, go-
ing on for a period of two thousand years, has not diminished the mass
of the sun by the two-millionth part of its original value.

Our illustrious countryman never proposed to himself anything vague
or indefinite. His constant object was the explanation of the great
phenomena of nature, according to the inflexible principles of mathemat-
ical analysis. No philosopher, no mathematician, could have main-
tained himself more cautiously on his guard against a propensity to

hasty speculation. No person dreaded more the scientific errors which.

the imagination gives birth to, when it ceases to remain within the limits
of facts, of calculation, and of analogy. Once, and once only, did
Laplace launch forward, like Kepler, like Descartes, like Leibnitz, like
Buffon, into the region of conjectures. His conception was not then less
than a cosmogony.

All the planets revolve around the sun, from west to east, and in planes
which inelude angles of inconsiderable magnitude. The satellites revolve
around their respective primaries in the same direction as that in which
the planets revolve around the sun, that is to say, from west to east.

The planets and satellites which have been found to have a rotatory
motion, turn also upon their axes from west to east. Finally, the rota-
tion of the sun is also directed from west to east. We have here, then,
an assemblage of forty-three movements, all operating in the same di-
rection. By the calculus of probabilities, the odds are four thousand
millions to one that this co-incidence in the direction of so many move-
ments is not the effect of accident.

It was Buffon, I think, who first attempted to explain this singular
feature of our solar system. Having wished in the explanation of phe-
nomena to avoid all recourse to causes which were not warranted by na-
ture, the celebrated academician investigated a physical origin of the
system in what was common to the movements of so many bodies differ-
ing in magnitude, in form, and in distance from the principal center of
attraction. He imagined that he discovered such an origin by making

LAPLACE. Lét

this triple supposition: A comet fell obliquely upon the sun ; it pushed
before it a torrent of fluid matter; this substance transported to a
greater or less distance from the sun, according to its mass, formed by
concentration all the known planets.

The bold hypothesis of Buffon is liab!e to unsurmountable difficulties.
I proceed to indicate, in a few words, the cosmogonic system which
Laplace substituted for that of the illustrious author of the Histoire
Naturelle.

According to Laplace, the sun was at a remote epoch the central
nucleus of an immense nebula, which possessed a very high temperature,
and extended far beyond the region in which Uranus revelves in the
present day. No planet was then in existence.

The solar nebula was endued with a general movement of revolution
directed from west to east. At it cooled it could not fail to experienze
a gradual condensation, and, in consequence, to rotate with greater and
greater rapidity. If the nebulous matter extended originally in the
plane of the equator as far as the limit at which the centrifugal force
exactly counterbalanced the attraction of the nucleus, the molecules
situate at this limit ought, during the process of condensation, to sepa-
rate from the rest of the atmospheric matter, and form an equatorial
zone, a ring revolving separately and with its primitive velocity.

We may conceive that analogous separations were effected in the
higher strata of the nebula at different epochs, that is to say, at differ-
ent distances from the nucleus, and that they give rise to a succession
of distinct rings, included almost in the same plane and endued with dif-
ferent velocities.

This being once admitted, it is easy to see that the indefinite stability
of the rings would have required a regularity of structure throughout
their whole contour which is very improbable. Each of them accord-
ingly broke in its turn into several masses, which were piainly endued
with a movement of rotation, coinciding in direction with the common
movement of revolution, and which in consequence of their fluidity as-
sumed spheroidal forms.

In order, then, that one of those spheroids might absorb all the others
belonging to the same ring, it will be sufficient to assign to it a mass
greater than that of any other spheroid.

Each of the planets, while in the vaporous condition to which we have
just alluded, would manifestly have a central nucleus gradually increas-
ing in magnitude and mass, and an atmosphere offering, at its succes-
Sive limits, phenomena entirely similar to those which the solar atmos-
phere, properly so called, had exhibited. We here witness the birth of
Satellites, and that of the ring of Saturn.

The system of which I have just given an imperfect sketch has for
| its object to show how a nebula endued with a general movement of
| rotation must eventually transform itself into a very luminous central

nueleus (a sun) and into a series of distinct spheroidal planets, situate
| lls

)
(

162 LAPLACE.

at considerable distances from each other, revolving all around the cen-
tral sun in the direction of the original movement of the nebula; how
these planets ought also to have movements of rotation operating in
similar directions ; how, finally, the satellites, when any of such are
formed, cannot fail to revolve upon their axes and around their respect-
ive primaries, in the direction of rotation of the planets and of their
movement of revolution around the sun.

We have just found, conformably to the principles of mechanies, the
forces with which the particles of the nebula were originally endued, in
the movements of rotation and revolution of the compact and distinet
masses which these particles have brought into existence by their con-
densation. But we have thereby achieved only a single step. The
primitive movement of rotation of the nebula is not connected with the
simple attraction of the particles. This movement seems to imply the
action of a primordial impulsive force.

Laplace is far from adopting, in this respect, the almost universal
opinion of philosophers and mathematicians. He does not suppose that
the mutual attractions of originally immovable bodies must ultimately
reduce all the bodies to a state of rest around their common center of
gravity. He maintains, on the contrary, that three bodies, in a state of
rest, two of which have a much greater mass than the third, would con-
centrate into a single mass only in certain exceptional cases. In gen-
eral, the two most considerable bodies would unite together, while the
third would revolve around their common center of gravity. Attraction
would thus become the cause of a sort of movement which would seem
to be explicable solely by an impulsive force.

It might be supposed, indeed, that in explaining this part ef his sys-
tem Laplace had before his eyes the words which Rousseau has placed
in the mouth of the Vicar of Savoy, and tbat he wished to refute them.
‘‘ Newton has discovered the law of attraction,” says the author of
Emile; “ but attraction alone would soon reduce the universe to an im-
movable mass. With this law we must combine a projectile force in
order to make the celestial bodies describe curve-lines. Let Descartes
reveal to us the physical law which causes his vortices to revolve; and
let Newton show us the hand which launched the planets along the
tangents of their orbits.”

According to the cosmogonic ideas of Laplace, comets did not origi-
nally form part of the solar system. They are not formed at the expense
of the matter of the immense solar nebula. We must consider them as
small wandering nebula, which the attractive force of the sun has
caused to deviate from their original route. Such of those comets as
penetrated into the great nebula at the epoch of condensation and of
the formation of planets fell into the sun, describing spiral curves, and
must by their action have caused the planetary orbits to deviate more
or less from the plane of the solar equator, with which they would
otherwise have exactly coincided.

LAPLACE. SEGS

With respect to the zodiacal light, that rock against which so many
reveries have been wrecked, it consists of the most volatile parts of the
primitive nebula. These molecules, not baving united with the equa-
torial zones, successively abandoned in the plane of the solar equator,
continue to revolve at their original distances, and with their original
velocities. The circumstance of this extremely rare substance being
included wholly within the earth’s orbit, and even within that of Venus,
seemed irreconcilable with the principles of mechanics; but this diffi-
culty occurred only when the zodiacal substance being conceived to be
in a state of direct and intimate dependence on the solar photosphere,
properly so called, an angular movement of rotation was impressed on
it equal to that of the photosphere, a movement in virtue of which it
effected an entire revolution in twenty-five days and a half. Laplace
presented his conjectures on the formation of the solar system with the
diffidence inspired by a result which was not founded upon calculation
and observation.*

Perhaps it is to be regretted that they did not receive a more complete
development, especially in so far as it concerns the division of the mat-
ter into distinct rings; perhaps it would have been desirable if the illus-
trious author had expressed himself more fully respecting the primitive
physical condition, the molecular condition of the nebula at the expense
of which the sun, planets, and satellites of our system were formed. It
is perhaps especially to be regretted that Laplace should have only
briefly alluded to what he considered the obvious possibility of move-
ments of revolution having their origin in the action of simple attractive
forces, and to other questions of a similar nature.

Notwithstanding these defects, the ideas of the author of the JJéca-
nique Céleste are still the only speculations of the kind which, by their
magnitude, their coherence, and their mathematical character, may be
justly considered as forming a physical cosmogony ; those alone which
in the present day derive a powerful support from the results of the re-
cent researches of astronomers on the nebule of every form and magni-
tude which are scattered throughout the celestial vault.

In this analysis, we have deemed it right to concentrate all our atten-
tion upon the Mécanique Céleste. The Systeme du Monde and the
Théorie Analytique des Probabilités would also require detailed notices.

The Exposition du Systéme du Monde is the Mécanique Céleste divested
of the great apparatus of analytical formula which ought to be atten-
tively perused by every astronomer who, to use an expression of Plato,
is desirous of knowing the numbers which govern the physical universe.
It is in the Exposition du Systéme du Monde that persons unacquainted
with mathematical studies will obtain an exact and competent knowl-
edge of the methods to which physical astronomy is indebted for its as-
tonishing progress. This work, written with a noble simplicity of style,

*Laplace has explained this theory in his Exposition du Systéme du Monde, (liv. 4, note
7.)—TRANSLATOR,

164 LAPLACE.

an exquisite propriety of expression, and a scrupulous accuracy, is termi-
nated by a sketch of the history of astronomy, universally ranked in the
present day among the finest monuments of the French language. —

A regret has been often expressed that Caesar, in his immortal Com-
mentaries, should have confined himself to a narration of his own cam-
paigns; the astronomical commentaries of Laplace ascend to the origin
of communities. The labors undertaken in all ages for the purpose of
extracting new truths from the heavens are there justly, clearly, and
profoundly analyzed; it is genius presiding as the impartial judge of
genius. Laplace has always remained at the height of his great mis-
sion; his work will be read with respect so long as the torch of science
shall continue to throw any light.
~ The caleulus of probabilities, when confined within just limits, ought
to interest, in an equal degree, the mathematician, the experimentalist,
and the statesman. Trom the time when Pascal and Fermat established
its first principles, it has rendered, and continues daily to render, services
of the most eminent kind. It is the caleulus of probabilities, which,
after having suggested the best arrangements of the tables of popula-
tion and mortality, teaches us todeduce from those numbers, in general
so erroneously interpreted, conclusions of a precise and useful character ;
it is the calculus of probabilities which alone ean regulate justly the
premiums to be paid for assurances; the reserve fands for the disburse-
ment of pensions, annuities, discounts, &c. Itis under its influence that
lotteries and other shameful snares cunningly laid for avarice and igno-
rance have definitively disappeared. Laplace has treated these questions,
and others of a much more complicated nature, with his accustomed
superiority. In short, the Théorie Analytique des Probabilités is worthy
of the author of the Mécanique Céleste.

A philosopher, whose name is associated with immortal discoveries,
said to his audience, who had allowed themselves to be influenced by
ancient and consecrated anthorities, ‘* Bear in mind, gentlemen, that in
questions of science the authority of a thousand is not worth the humble
reasoning of a singleindividual.” Two centuries have passed over their
words of Galileo, without depreciating their value or obliterating these
truthful character. Thus, instead of displaying a long list of illustrious
admirers of the three beautiful works of Laplace, we have preferred
glancing briefly at some of the sublime truths which geometry has there
deposited. Let us not, however, apply this principle in its utmost rigor,
and since chance has put into our hands some unpublished letters of one
of those men of genius, whom nature has endowed with the rare faculty
of seizing at a glance the salient points of an object, we may be permitted
to extract from them two or three brief and characteristic appreciations
of the Mécanique Céleste and the Traité des Probabitités.

On the 27th Vendémiaire, in the year X, General Bonaparte, after
having received a volume of the Mécanique Céleste, wrote to Laplace
in the following terms: ‘*The first siz months which I shall have at my

LAPLACE. 165

disposal will be employed in reading your beautiful work.” It would
appear that the words, * the first six months,” deprive the phrase of the
character of a common-place expression of thanks, and convey a just
appreciation of the importance and difficulty of the subject-matter.

On the 5th Frimaire, in the year XI, the reading of some chapters of
the volume which Laplace had dedicated to him was to the general * a
new ocvasion for regretting that the force of circumstances had directed
him into a career which removed him from the pursuit of science.”

“ At all events,” added he, “I have a strong desire that future gen-
erations, upon reading the Mécanique Céleste, shall not forget the es-
teem and friendship which I have entertained toward its author.”

On the 17th Prairial, in the year XIII, the general, now become Em-
peror, wrote from Milan: “The IMécanique Céleste appears to me des-
tined to shed new luster on the age in which we live.”

Finally, on the 12th of August, 1812, Napoleon, who had juct received
the Traité du Calcul des Probabilités wrote from Witepask the letter
which we transcribe textually :

‘There was a time when I would have read with interest your Traité

du Calcul des Probabilités. For the present, I must confine myself to
expressing to you the satisfaction which I experience every time that I
see you give to the world new works which serve to improve and ex-
tend the most important of the sciences and contribute to the glory
of the nation. The advancement and the improvement of mathemati-
ical science are connected with the prosperity of the state.”

I bave now arrived at the conclusion of the task which I had im-
posed upon myself. I shall be pardoned for having given so detailed
an exposition of the principal discoveries for which philosophy, astron-
omy, and navigation are indebted to our geometers.

It has appeared to me that in thus tracing the glorious past, I have
shown our contemporaries the full extent of their duty towards the
country. In fact,it is for nations especially to bear in remembrance
the ancient adage, noblesse oblige.

APPENDIX A.

The following is a brief notice of some other interesting results of the
researches of Laplace which have not been mentioned in the text:

Method for determining the orbits of comets —Since comets are gen-
erally visible only during a few days or weeks at the utmost, the
determination of their orbits is attended with peculiar difficulties.
The method devised by Newton for effecting this object was in every
respect worthy of his genius. Its practical value was illustrated by the
brilliant researches of Halley on cometary orbits. It necessitated, how-
ever, a long train of tedious calculations, and, in consequence, was not
much used, astronomers generally preferring to attain the’same end by
a tentative process. In the year 1780, Laplace communicated to the

166 LAPLACE. 4

,
Academy of Sciences an analytical method for determining the elements
of a comet’s orbit. This method has been extensively employed in
France. Indeed, previously to the appearance of Olbers’s method, about
the close of the last century, it furnished the easiest and most expedi-
tious process hitherto devised for calculating the parabolic elements of
a comet’s orbit. ;

Invariable plane of the solar system.—In consequence of the mutual
perturbations of the different bodies of the planetary system, the planes —
of the orbits in which they revolve are perpetually varying in position.
It becomes, therefore, desirable to ascertain some fixed plane to which
the movements of the planets in all ages may be referred, so that the
observations of one epoch might be rendered readily comparable with
those of another. This object was accomplished by Laplace, who dis-
covered that notwithstanding the perpetual fluctuations of the planetary
orbits, there exists a fixed plane, to which the positions of the various
bodies may at any instant be easily referred. This plane passes through
the center of gravity of the solar system, and its position is such that
if the movements of the planets be projected upon it, and if the mass of -
each planet be multiplied by the area which it describes in a given time,
the sum of such products will be amaximum. The position of the plane
for the year 1750 has been calculated by referring it to the ecliptic of
that year. In this way it has been found that the inclination of the
plane is 1° 35’ 31”, and that the longitude of the ascending node is 102°
57/ 30”. The position of the plane when calculated for the year 1950,
with respect to the ecliptic of 1759, gives 1° 35/ 31” for the inelination,
and 102° 57/ 15” for the longitude of the ascending node. It will be
seen that a very satisfactory accordance exists between the elements of —
the position of the invariable plane for the two epochs. |

Diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic.—The astronomers of the —
eighteenth century had found, by a comparison of ancient with modern |
observations, that the obliquity of the ecliptic is slowly diminishing from
century to century. The researches of geometers on the theory of gravi-
tation had shown that an effect of this kind must be produced by the
disturbing action of the planets on the earth. Laplace determined the —
secular displacement of the plane of the earth’s orbit due to each of the —
planets, and in this way ascertained the whole effect of perturbation upon —
the obliquity of the ecliptic. A comparison which he instituted between —
the results of his formula and an ancient observation recorded in the
Chinese Annals exhibited a most satisfactory accordance. The obser-
vation in question indicated the obliquity of the ecliptic for the year 1100
before the Christian era to be 23° 54/2/-5. According tothe principles
of the theory of gravitation, the obliquity for the same epoch would be
23° 51’ 30".

Limits of the obliquity of the ecliptic modified by the action of the sun—
and moon upon the terrestrial spheroid.—The ecliptic will not continue .
indefinitely to approach the equator. After attaining a certain limit, it

LAPLACE. 167

will then vary in the opposite direction, and the obliquity will continually
increase in like manner as it previously diminished. Finally, the in.
clination of the equator and the ecliptic will attain a certain maximum
value, and then the obliquity will again diminish. Thus the angle con-
tained between the two planes will perpetually oscillate within certain
limits. The extent of variation is inconsiderable. Laplace found that,
in consequence of the spheroidal figure of the earth, it is even less than
it would otherwise have been. This will be readily understood, when
we state that the disturbing action of the sun and moon upon the ter-
restrial spheroid produces an oscillation of the earth’s axis which ocea-
sions a periodic variation of the obliquity of the ecliptic. Now, as the
plane of the ecliptic approaches the equator, the mean disturbing action
of the sum and moon upon the redundant matter accumulated around
the latter will undergo a corresponding variation, and hence will arise
an inconceivably slow movement of the plane of the equator, which will
necessarily affect the obliquity of the ecliptic. Laplace found that if it
were not for this cause, the obliquity of the ecliptic would oscillate to
the extent of 4° 53/ 33” on each side of a mean value, but that when the
movements of both planes are taken into acccunt, the extent of oscilla-
tion is reduced to 1° 33/ 45”, ‘

Variation of the length of the tropical year.—The disturbing action
of the sun and moon upon the terrestrial spheroid occasions a continual
regression of the equinoctial points, and hence arises the distinction
between the sidereal and tropical year. The effect is modified in a small
degree by the variation of the plane of the ecliptic, which tends to produce .
a progression of the equinoxes. Ifthe movement of the equinoctial points
arising from these combined causes was uniform, the length of the tropi-
eal year would be manifestly invariable. Theory, however, indicates
' that for ages past the rate of regression has been slowly increasing, and
consequently the length of the tropical year has been gradually dimin-
ishing. The rate of diminution is exceedingly small. Laplace found
that it amounts to somewhat less than half a second in a century. Con-
sequently the length of the tropical year is now about ten seconds less
than it was in the time of Hipparchus.

_ Limits of variation of the tropical year modified by the dissurbing
action of the sun and moon upon the terrestrial spheroid.—The tropical
year will not continue indefinitely to diminish in length. When it has
once attained a certain minimum value, it will then increase, until finally
having attained an extreme value in the opposite direction, it will again
begin to diminish, and thus it will perpetually oscillate between certain
fixed limits. Laplace found that the extent to which the tropical year
is liable to vary from this cause amounts to 38 seconds. If it were not
for the effect produced upon the inclination of the equator to the eclip-
tic by the mean disturbing action of the sun and moon upon the ter-
restrial spheroid, the extent of variation would amount to 162 seconds.
Motion of the perihelion of the terrestrial orbit—The major axis of

168 LLAPLACE.

the orbit of each planet is in a state of continual movement from the
disturbing action of the other planets. In some cases it makes the com-
plete tour of the heavens; in others it merely oscillates around a mean
position. In the case of the earth’s orbit, the perihelion is slowly ad-
vancing in the same direction as that in which all the planets are re-
volving around the sun. The alteration of its position with respect to
the stars amounts to about 11” in a year, but since the equinox is re-
eressing in the opposite direction at the rate of 50” in a year, the whole
annual variation of the longitude of the terrestrial perihelion amounts
to 61’. Laplace has considered two remarkable epochs in connection
with this fact, viz, the epoch at which the major axis of the earth’s orbit
co-incided with the line of the equinoxes, and the epoch at which it stood
perpendicular to that line. By calculation he found the former of these
epochs to be referable to the year 4107 B. C., and the latter to the
year 1245 A. D. He accordingly suggested that the latter should be
nsed as a universal epoch for the regulation of chronological oceurrences.

EULOGY ON QUETELET.

ABSTRACT OF AN ESSAY UPON HIS LIFE AND WorkKS, BY ED. Matni.y.

{Translated for the Smithsonian Institution from the Annuaire del’ Academie royale of Belgium for 1875.]

Lambert Adolphe Quetelet was born at Ghent on the 22d of February,
1796. He was educated at the lyceum of his native town, and early
showed that nature had endowed him, not only with a vivid imagina-
tion and a mind of power, but also with the precious gift of indomitable
perseverance. He carried away all the prizes of his school, and at the
same time wrote poetry which attracted considerable attention. He
also manifested a talent for art, and a drawing of his gained the first
prize at the lyceum of Ghent in 1812.

Having lost his father when only seven years of age, and his family
not being able to support him, he was obliged, as soon as he had com-
pleted his course at the lyceum, to enter, as a teacher, the institution
for public instruction at Audenarde. Here he remained a year, teach-
ing mathematics, drawing, and grammar; he was then given a master-
ship in his native town. In 1815 the lyceum at Ghent, by order of the
municipal council, was converted into a university, and Quetelet was ap-
pointed professor of mathematics. He received his nomination on his
nineteenth birthday. There was nothing brilliant in the lot which had
thus far fallen to him, but it secured the means of existence, and left
him at liberty to devote himself to art, literature, and science.

His most intimate companion, with whom he shared all Fis tastes,
was G. Dandelin, who had been his fellow-pupil at the lyceum. The
two friends at one time appear to have been seized with a dramatic
furor, and, with the assistance of a distinguished musician, composed a
grand prose opera in one act, called “John the Second, or Charles the
Fifth, in the walls of Ghent.” It was represented in the theater of Ghent,
on the 18th of December, 1816. Its success appears to have been moder-
ate, since it was only played twice, and was withdrawn on the plea that it
excited the galleries too much. Be this as it may, with it ended the
dramatic career of the authors. They had, however, in preparation,
two other pieces, The Two Troubadours and The Jester, but before the com-
pletion of these Dandelin was appointed second lieutenant of engineers,
and ordered to Namur, while Quetelet was won back to the pursuit of
science through the influence of his associate, Professor Garnier.

In 1819 he passed his examination and received the degree of Doctor
of Science, the first conferred by the new university. In honor of the
event he gave a banquet, which was attended by many of the public
functionaries, as well as the professors and pupils of the university.

170 EULOGY ON QUETELET.

His inaugural address gave brilliant promise of his future success. It
was divided into two parts: In the first he showed that the locus of the
centers of a series of circles, tangents to two given circles of position,
is always a conic section; in the second he exhibited a new curve
of the third degree, the focale, the locus of the foci of all the conic sec-
tions, determined by a transversal plane, revolving around a certain
point, upon the surface of a vertical cone. The discovery of this curve
was an important addition to mathematics, and the term /ocale is as
inseparably connected with the name of Quetelet, as cycloid with that of
his favorite author Pascal. Among the themes he submitted to the
university in addition to his address, was a Latin essay upon the ques-
tion whether aerolites are projected from the moon. |
On the occasion of the laying of the corner-stone of the aniversity
buildings, a banquet was given, preceded by a literary meeting, at —
which was read a poem by Quetelet upon the death of Grétry. This
production, fall of beautifui versification and expressions of exquisite
sensibility, procured for him an introduction to M. Falk, minister of —
public instruction, who, with the interest excited by a young man at
once a poet and a geometer, a man of letters and of science, caused him —
to be nominated to a professorship at the Athenzeum of Brussels. |
His first act on arriving at Brussels was to pay his respects to Com- |
mandant Nieuport, then in his seventy-third year, and who might be —
said to be the only representative of the exact sciences in Belgium. He |
had read the inaugural address of the young doctor, and appreciated, —
as it deserved, the discovery of the focale. Stimulated by the encour- |
agement he received, Quetelet continued his labors in this direction, —
aud published in 1819, in the Annales Belgique, an article under the |
title of Some new properties of the focale and of some other curves. This
was favorably noticed by Garnier, his former preceptor at Ghent, and |
procured his election as a member of .the Belgian Academy oun the Ist |
of February, 1520. He was then twenty-four years of age.
He soon won the high regard of his associates in the academy, among

|
|
|

whom were the talented Cornelissen and the renowned chemist Van
Mons, whose niece he afterward married. The first use he made of his
influence was to procure the cleetion of his friend Dandelin and of
Baron Reiffenberg, third regent of the athenzum, afterward professor
of philosophy at the university of Louvain. The latter lodged in the
same house with Quetelet, and soon became aide :tly attached to him.
He was in intimate intercourse and a great fivevite with the French
refugees then in Brussels, and introduced to them his new friend.
Among them were such men as David, Arnault, Bory de Saint Vincent,
Berlier, Merlin, &c., who, if they had been won by the ready and bril-
liant wit of Reiffeuberg, were equally attracted by the more solid quali-
ties of Quetelet. His relations with the refugees did not, however, pre-
vent him from forming other associations; he sought out and made
friends of the artists of the city, joined a literary society which had just

.

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EULOGY ON QUETELET. 171

been formed, and became a member of the reading committee for the
royal theaters. In the latter capacity he had free access to a stage
which was favored each year by Talma, Mile. Mars, and the principal

French comedians of the day.

The literary society published annually a poetical almanac, the twen-
tieth and last volume of which appeared in 1825, when the society quietly
ceased to exist. Quetelet was a contributor, and, as his poetical life
seems also to have ended about this time, it may be well to notice here
some of the pieces published by him since the Eulogy on Gréiry. The
article entitled **The last moments” resembles somewhat, but is inferior
to, the *“‘Farevell of the poet to his lamp,” one of his best pieces. “Zhe 19th
of January, or the night-iratch of the ladies,” contains some charming
lines. An ode to Tollens is in the style of Horace, the favorite poet
of Quetelet. An ode to Odevare, a painter, greatly admired in 1821,
although now but little known, is much more elevated in character. The
investiture of the principality ef Orange, given by Charlemagne to William
the Cornet, was also ably treated in verse by ourassociate. Works of the
imagination, whether in prose or verse, greatly interested Quetelet. His
“Essay upon Romance,” published in 1823 in Belgic Annals, has lost none
of its interest, and, with bis poetry, ought to be reprinted. He studied
the romances of different nations, translated into verse Schiiler’s tale
ealled “ The Knight of Toggenburg,” and into prose various Spanish
and English ballads.

He had no predilection for the classical, in literature or art, and says,
of modern painting, ‘“‘ The pictures of antiquity, full of life and genius
as they are, can never produce in our minds the illusive effect they had

upon the Greeks and the Romans. Flora, Zephyr, Venus, so charming

in their pictures, are seldom so in ours. It is no doubt good to be the
echo of antiquity, but only those can understand the sounds repeated
who can go back to past ages and assume for the moment their religion
and national character. Let us imitate the Greeks in their simplicity
and in their admirable portraiture of nature, but let us have, as they did,
our own heroes, our groves, and our religion. What would the age of
Pericles have said if Euripides and Sophocles had represented only
Osirus or the mysterious fétes of the Egyptians ?”

‘The Lords of the Castle” and **The Gountess Ida,” (fables) **My Lii-
tle Boat,” an allegorical ballad, dedicated to M. Falk, an elegy upon the
death of Adolph Delemer, an ode to Orion, translated from the Dutch
of Nieuland, a translation of a portion of Byron’s “Siege of Corinth,”
and the “Scald and Lysis,” a romance, are among others of his poetical

pieces worthy of mention. The latter was commended by the classie

Raoul in the **Belgie Mercury.” He says, in reference to it, * Quetelet,
with whom poetry is only a relaxation, writes verse with great facility.
He is of the number of those who illustrate the truth that the muses are

sisters.”

We have endeavored to give some idea of Quetelet as a poet, a man

4

172 EULOGY ON QUETELET.

of letters, and a geometer, and before proceeding to consider him as a
physicist, astronomer, and statistician we shall see how he filled the
office of professor. When first appointed to the Athenzeum of Brussels,
he occupied only a very subordinate position, as professor of elementary
mathematics, but he was soon promoted, and his duties much extended.
In 1824 we find him teaching at the athenzum the descriptive geometry
of Menge, the theory of shades and perspective, the calculation of prob-
abilities of La Croix, higher algebra, and analytical geometry ; while he
was also giving a public course of lectures at the museum upon experi-
mental physics, the elements of astronomy, and of differential and
integral calculus.

He was very highly esteemed by his pupils. There was something
about him at once imposing and amiable, while there was a complete
absence of anything like pedantry or haughtiness. Although marked
with small-pox, his physiognomy was refined and impressive ; it was only
necessary to fix his large dark eyes, surmounted with heavy black brows,
upon the refractory, to insure at once silence and submission. On ae-
count of the inefficiency of his assistants, he was obliged each year to
commence arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. He separated his pupils,
according to their ability, into two classes, occupying adjoining rooms,
and he would pass from one to the other apartment, experiencing no
difficulty in preserving silence in both. He was as simple and natural
in his teaching as in everything else. He reduced arithmetic to a few
general principles, and, as soon as he had initiated his pupils in the
notation of algebra, showed how this admirable instrument could be
used to resolve all ordinary questions relating to numbers. His talent
for drawing was displayed by the geometrical figures he formed with
chalk upon the blackboard to illustrate his teachings. At the Athe-
neum his courses attracted numerous auditors from all classes of so-
ciety. He had a special talent for exposition, and knew how to use to
advantage the few instruments he had at command. He disliked to
make experiments with complicated apparatus, which he said was apt
to divert the attention from the results exhibited; he considered that
only indispensable articles, such as the scales, an electric machine, a
voltaic pile, and a few other simple imstruments need be provided.

For the use of his public courses he published several elementary
works. The first, upon astronomy, appeared in Paris in 1826. It has
been reprinted many times in France and Belgivm and translated into
several languages. It was followed by one upon natural philosophy,
which was intended to enable his pupils at the museum to correct the
notes hurriedly taken at the time of the lecture and often erroneous. We
have said that he disliked complicated apparatus in teaching the ele-
ments of physics, and he accordingly prepared a small volume, the object
of which was to describe observations and experiments which could be
easily made by any one. This was published in 1832, and the author
intended to follow it with other works of the same kind upon magne-

EULOGY ON QUETELET. Mie

tism, electricity, light, &c. In 1828 he published a review of the lectures
given at the museum upon the calculus of probabilities, as an introduc-
tion to his course of physics and astronomy.

The public lectures of Quetelet were such a success that the govern-
ment considered it advisable to institute other courses of the same kind,
and on the third of March, 1827, was installed the Museum of Science
and Letters, with a corps of efficient professors in the various branches
of science and literature. In the review of the lecture with which, three
days later, Quetelet opened his course, we find one of his favorite ideas:
“The more progress physical sciences make, the more they tend to
enter the domain of mathematics, which is a kind of centre to which
they all converge. We may even judge of the degree of perfection to
which a science has arrived by the facility with which it may be sub-

‘mitted to calculation.” The museum continued to exist for eight years.
After suffering with all the other educational establishments of the
country from the effects of the revolution, it was absorbed into the free
university in 1834, and Quetelet ceased his public instruction after
twenty years of service. He soon commenced again, however, having
been appointed professor of astronomy and geodesy to the. military
school, by a royal decree, on the 6th of January, 1856. Among his pu-
pils at the Atheneum were the Duke of Saxe Coburg Gotha and the
late Prince Consort of England, who always retained a warm affection
for his preceptor.

We have said that Quetelet was only twenty-four years of age when
made a member of the Brussels Academy. His first contribution,
“4 memoir upon a general formula for determining the surface of a polygon,
formed on a sphere, by the ares of great or little circles, disposed in any man-
ner whatever,” was an admirable production. Garnier said of it, that
its elegant simplicity and the symmetry of the formula lent interest to
a subject which would otherwise have appeared very dry. His second
memoir, ‘‘A new theory of conic sections considered in the solid,” did him
great honor. His third paper was upon the paths followed by light
and elastic bodies. We have now come to a subject which occupied much
of his attention, to which he devoted ‘three memoirs presented to the
academy, and numerous articles in the Correspondance Mathématique et
Physique—that is, caustic curves. In one of those articles he gives the
following theorem, which in importance is worthy to be ranked with the
discovery of the focale: ‘The caustic by reflexion, or by refraction for
any curve whatever, illuminated by a radiant point, is the development
of another curve, which has the property of being the envelope of all
the circles, which have their centers upon the reflecting or directing
curve, and of which the radii are equal to the distances of the centers
from the radiant point in the first case, and proportional to these same
distances in the second case; the constant relation being that of the
Sine of incidence to the sine of refraction.” It was easy to extend this
theorem to surfaces, considering spheres enveloped instead of circles,

174 EULOGY ON QUETELET.

The memoirs presented to the academy were, February 3, 1823, “Upon
circular conchoids;” November 3, 1825, “Review of a new theory of. caus-
tics followed by different applications to the theory of stereographic projec-
tions.” These researches attracted the attention of Gergonne and other
distinguished geometers, and were particularly noticed by the illustrious
French mathematician, Chasles, after the Correspondence Mat. and Phys.
had given them notoriety. We mention two other papers read before
the Academy. One, “A memoir upon some graphical constructions of the
planetary orbits,” and the other ‘upon different subjects of geometry of
three dimensions,” presented October 28, 1826.

In 1823 commenced the efforts to found ar observatory in Belgium.
The especial aptitudes of Quetelet pointed him out as the best person
to complete the enterprise, and, thanks to M. Falk, then minister of the
interior, he was commissioned to go to Paris to study the practice of
astronomy. His own account of his first visit to the observatory may
not be uninteresting: ‘I arrived at Paris near the close of the year
1823, with the prospect of founding an observatory in Belgium, but at
the same time with a thorough conviction of my want of knowledge of
practical astronomy. I went immediately to the royal observatory, but
on entering this building, distinguished by historical associations, I was
more than ever oppressed with a sense of my deficiencies. I had not
even a letter of introduction to relieve the embarrassment of a first visit.
I mounted with sufficient assurance the grand staircase, but when |
found myself before the doors of Arago and Bouvard I stood for some
time irresolute. I was about to knock at the first, when Bouvard
opened his and came out, on his way to the observing-halls. He asked
me what I wanted. I at once told him my history, to which the excel-
lent man seemed to listen with interest. He then introduced me to the
observing-rooms, into the presence of the great astronomical instruments,
to me a novel and wonderful sight. With great kindness he explained
their purpose and use, and gave me permission to observe whenever I
chose to do so. I availed myself of this permission that very evening,
and to my surprise was allowed access, freely and alone, to the instru-
ments and records of the observatory. I came day after day, and always
with the same confidence accorded! From time to time the kind Bouvard
examined my observations and always with encouraging words. He
gradually manifested more and more affection for me, offered to initiate
me into the practical calculus of astronomy, and from that time directed
all my studies, with a care truly paternal. Not content with these man-
ifestations of kindness, he invited me to his house, presented me to his
friends, among others to La Place and Poisson, admitted me to his
Friday dinners, and I became in some sort a member of his household.”
Quetelet remained in Paris several months, and had the honor of being
presented to the institute by Alexander von Humboldt. He returned to
Brussels on the first of March, 1824.

To fit himself still further for the office of director of the new obser-

[
a

EULOGY ON QUETELET. 175

_ vatory, he was sent to the principal establishments of the kind in Europe,
and on this tour he was accompanied by his- wife. He had marvied on
the 20th of September, 1825, the daughter of a French physician, and
the niece of the chemist Van Mons. To an intimate acquaintance with
the usages of polite society this lady united a ready wit and not in-
considerable literary attainments. She was also an excellent musician.
Obliged at an early age to preside in the house of her father, where
was congregated the best society of Brussels, she acquired ease and
grace of manner, and was well prepared to assist her husband when, in
after years, he had arrived at distinction, and exercised a generous hos-
pitality toward the distinguished strangers of every country who visited
the observatory. During his journey, Quetelet made the acquaintance
ot some of the most distinguished men of the age, of Herschel, Schu-
macher, Grauss, Olders, and others, and at Weimar he had the pleasure
of assisting in the celebration of the eightieth birthday of Goethe, with
whom he remained eight days. The great poet showed him his experi-
ments in optics, and entertained him with his theory of colors. He was
also present at the conference of German naturalists, held at Heidel-
berg on the 18th of September. !

While waiting the completion of his plansin regard to the observa-
tory, he, in conjunction with M. Garnier, established the periodical La
Correspondance Mathématique et Physique, to which the most eminent
men of the age were willing contributors. This publication continued
without intermission till 1839, when Quetelet was obliged to resign its
Supervision on account of the pressing nature of his engagements as
permanent secretary to the academy, to which office he had been elected
in 1834.

The erection of the observatory was decided upon on the 8th of June,
1826. It was constructed according to the plans of Quetelet, but was
not finished till after many vicissitudes, occasioned principally by the
political events of 1830. He had been appointed to the directorship in
1818, but the observatory was not completed until 1832. He then im-
mediately commenced his labors, of which it would occupy too much
Space to give evenalist. They included meteorology, terrestrial physics,
astronomy, the collection of materials for the Annales Annuaires of the
observatory, and the other special works in which he has brought together
the results of his researches. In the early days of the observatory, all
the attention of Quetelet was directed toward meteorology and terres-
trial physics. The elements of these two sciences had been almost totally
neglected in Belgium, and his first desire was to correct this grave error,
a task in which he perfectly succeeded. He has given the vesults of his
persevering observations in his works Upon the climate of Belgium, and
Upon the physics of the Globe, and thus the basis of the meteorology of
Belgium was established. The meteorological observations were com-
menced in 1833, and also the observations for the determination of the
latitude and longitude of the establishment. At that time Quetelet pos-

176 . EULOGY ON QUETELET.

sessed only very few and very inferior astronomical instruments. In the
month of July, 1835, the meridian telescope and the mural circle were
putin position, but the equatorial was not mounted until June of the fol-
lowing year. Quetelet was anxious to have the turning-dome for the
equatorial ready in time to observe Halley’s comet, the return of which
was looked for with great interest by all Europe, but in spite of all his
efforts, and the good-will of the government, he was. disappointed, and
was obliged to follow the course of this eccentric wanderer with only his
telescope.

_ The determination of the difference of longitude between the observato-
ries of Brussels and Greenwich was later a source of great anxiety as well
as interest to him, when, in 1853, a trial was made of the new electrical
telegraph for this purpose. Two successful attempts of the kind had
been made in America, but the distance between the two places, the in-
tervention of the sea, the great reputation of the director of the obser-
vatory of Greenwich, and the responsibility assumed before the world,
rendered Queteiet very solicitous as to the result of his co-operation, and
his anxiety did not cease until the two sealed packets, containing the ob-
servations made simultaneously at Greenwich and Brussels, which were
by common consent opened on the same day in both places, proved the
result to be entirely satisfactory. A similar attempt was made in 1868
between Brussels and Leyden.

At the time the observatory was erected, clocks and watches through-
out the country were regulated only by sun-dials, and as these were often
defective and liable to get out of order, it frequently happened that there
would be a difference in time of from 20 to 25 minutes between the
clocks of different towns, and even between those of the same city. The
establishment of railroads necessitated more precision, and on the 22d
of February, 1836, a royal decree enacted thata meridian should be traced
and an instrument of observation be established in forty-one of the prin-
cipal cities of the kingdom. The execution of this work was intrusted
to Quetelet.

From 1841 to 1845 the observatory of Brussels was the center of a
vast meteorological net-work, which comprised more than eighty stations
in Europe and in the north of Asia. Its director published the results
of this great enterprise, with a large number of plates, showing the
course and rapidity of the movements of the atmospheric waves. He also
made many observations upon the temperature of the earth, and an un-
interrupted series of observations of the elements of terrestrial magnet-
ism. But, perhaps, the most remarkable works of Quetelet were the
papers he published on his observations of the periodical phenomena of
plants and animals. These gave an impulse to similar studies through-
out the whole of Europe, and he may on this account be considered as
the founder of a new science.

As a class for the study of the fine arts had been added to the
academy, and other changes made, it was deemed advisable to form a

EULOGY ON QUETELET. Nee

new institution, and on the 16th of December, 1845, was established The
Royal Academy of Scicice, Letters, and Fine Arts of Brussels. The first com-
munication made by Quetelet to the new establishment was upon the
history of art in Belgium; the manners and customs of the people at
different ages; their habitations, ornaments, furniture, the instruments
they used to supply the needs of life, &c. He recommended the forma-
tion of an ethnological museum to assist in the study of various types
of the human race as well as of their habits, and in 1847, through his
instrumentality, was formed the Museum of Antiquities of Belgium.

In 1853 Quetelet was appointed president of the maritime conference
held at Brussels on the suggestions of Lieutenant (afterward Captain)
Maury. Its purpose was to establish a system of uniform observations
at sea.

The regular astronomical observations of the Brussels Observatory
commenced in 1836, although the small corps of the establishment, and
the attention given to meteorological observations, did not permit of a
great field of work. The observations made from 1837 to 1839 furnish
in the Annals of the Observatory a catalogue of 666 stars. From 1548
these observations were carried on with renewed ardor; but all the
regularity Quetelet desired could not be secured until 1857. T'rom this
year a great work has been continued up to the present day. We refer
to the catalogue of 10,000 stars, still in preparation, but which will soon
be published, completing the monument raised to astronomical science
by Adolphe Quetelet, and his son M. Earnest Quetelet, who during
nearly eighteen years has shared the work of the observatory, and whose
labors have not been interrupted by his father’s death.

Adolphe Quetelet contributed greatly to the progress of the study of
shooting-stars, about the nature of which little was then known. His
attention was first turned to them in 1819, when he wrote his thesis upon
the orign of uerolites, and a few years later, he gave, in the first number
of the Correspondance, a method for determining the height of a meteor
from two observations in different places. In 1826 simultaneous obser-
vatious were organized by his efforts at Brussels, Gand, and Liege. He
then abandoned the subject, and did not take if up again until ten years
later, when he resumed his observations, and continued them for the
rest of his life. He first called attention to the periodicity of the star-
showers of the 10th of August, and stimulated astronomers of his own and
other countries to make numerous observations, which, taken together,
have prepared the way for the remarkable theories now formed as to
the character of these interesting meteors. We are indebted to him for
very valuable catalogues of their appearances, and also for conscientious
and precise researches on their frequency and on the several peculiari-
ties they present.

The direction of the establishment confided to his care did not hinder
him from devoting himself to studies of another order, which show the
variety of his powers and the habitual industry of his life. We refer
to the statistical works, which obtained for him a high place in the world

12s

178 EULOGY ON QUETELET.

of science. His first memoir upon this sebject, The laws of birth and
mortality in Brussels, was read before the academy on the 4th of June,
1825. “The establishment of life-insurance companies in our prov-
inces,” says the author, “and the desire to see these laudable and, if
well conducted, benevolent institutions continued among us has induced
me to make some researches into the laws of birth and of mortality.”
After showing that during the preceding year the births and the
deaths had followed almost exactly in the same proportion the varia-
tions of the thermometer, only in contrary directions, he gives some
tables of mortality and population, with distinction of sex, and shows
how they might be made of use in the speculations of the life-insurance
companies. Two important remarks appear ia the memoir. One, that
the annual number of births and of deaths corresponds to a sinusoid, of
which the abscissas represent the different times of the year, and the
ordinates the number of births or of deaths at these seasons. The
other verifies the observation of Malthus, that the number of births
increases when through any accidental cause an unusual loss of life has
been sustained by a population. Another memoir, in 1827, upon the
births, deaths, prisons, and poor-houses of the Pays-Bas, was intended
to complete and develop the preceding. It contained another table of
mortality for the lower provinces, but without distinction of sex.
Researches upon population next appeared, and in 1828 Statistical re-
searches in the kingdom of the Netherlands. In the importance of the facts
given, in breadth of view and novelty of deduction, this memoir is
superior to the two preceding. <A short introduction gives the origin,
aim, resources, and use of statistics, the degree of probability which
may be obtained in deductions from them, the uncertainty, which can
never be entirely overcome, and the objections of ignorance and false
knowledge. The author divides the subject as follows: Extent of the
kingdom of the Netherlands; population; imposts and commerce;
libraries and daily papers; educational and benevolent institutions ;
crimes and delinquencies; comparative examination of the different

parts of the kingdom. Some of the results obtained are very striking. |

Thus, in comparing the fecundity of marriage with us and with the
English, he says: ‘Great Britain produces less than our country, but
her fruit is more durable. She gives birth to fewer citizens, but she pre-
serves them better. If her fecundity is less, her useful men are more
numerous, and generations are not as often renewed to the detriment of
the nation. Man during his early years lives at the expense of society.
He contracts a debt which he ought some time to pay, and if he fails to do
so, his existence has been a loss instead of a gain to his fellow-citizens.”

Speaking of criminals and delinquents, he says: ‘‘The proportion
condemned to the number accused in the criminal and police courts is
the same in Belgium and in France; but in the courts of assize the
proportion of the condemned to the accused in Belgium is 84 to 100,
while in France and England it is only 65; a fact due to the want of

the jury in Belgium at the time the observations were made. When that

: EULOGY ON QUETELET. 179

institution was restored, the number of the condemned was reduced to
that of France. The author then gives a table indicating the number
of crimes committed at different ages, and also giving the amount of
what he calls the tendency to crime.

‘¢ What is very remarkable,” he observes, ‘is the frightful regularity
with which crimes are repeated. Year after year are recorded the same
crimes, in the same order, with the same punishments; in the same pro-
portions. Sorrowful condition of the human race! The number con-
demned to the prison, irons, and the scaffold is as certain as the revenue
of the state. We can tell in advance how many individuals will poison
their fellows, how many will stain their hands with human blood, how
many will be forgers, as surely as we can predict the number of births
and of deaths.

During the years 1831 and 1832 Quetelet devoted most of his time to
statistical researches, and the five following memoirs were the fruit of.
his labors: Upon the law of the growth of man; Upon the tendency to-
crime at different ages; Upon the weight of man at different ages; Upon
reproduction and mortality; and Statistics of the courts of justice of Belgium
from the years 1826 to 1831. The researches in regard to the size and.
weight of man were new at the time. Quetelet found that the law of’
growth, at least from birth until the thirteenth year, could be repre-.
sented by a hyperbola. Twenty years later MM. Bravais and Martins
adopted a hyperbola as the curve of the diametrical increase of the.
Norway pine, which is at least a singular coincidence. In the memoir:
upon the tendency to crime, be enlarges upon the ideas already given,
passes in review the different causes which lead to the development or
suppression of this tendency, and denies the favorable influence ordi-
narily attributed to education. ‘*We too often,” he says, ‘‘ confound
moral instruction with the merely learning to read and write, which in
mInany instances only provides new instruments tor the commission of’ ~
crime. On the other hand, as to the injurious moral effects of poverty,
some of the provinces of France reputed to be poorest are also the
most virtuous.

In connection with these two memoirs he says: ‘‘ Man, without know-.
ing it, and supposing that he acts of his own free will, is governed by
certain laws from which he cannot escape. We may say that the human
species, considered as a whole, belongs to the order of physical phenom-
ena. The greater the number, the more the individual will is subordi-
nated to the series of general results which. proceed from general causes.
that control the social condition. These-causes ought to be sought out,.

‘and only observation can discover them.” Man, as the author considers
him, is analogous to the center of gravity in a body. ‘If the average.
nan were determined for a nation, he would represent the type of that;
‘Ration ; if he could be determined for an assembly of all men, he would
‘Tepresent the type of an entire human species. Although his will is
‘Testrained within very narrow limits, man contains within him moral
forces which distinguish him from the animal, and by. which he can, to

180 EULOGY ON QUETELET. :

some extent, modify the laws of nature. These perturbing forces act so
slowly that the modifications they produce may be called secular per-
turbations, since they are analogous to those astronomical variations in
the systems of the world which require centuries for their investiga-
tion. The study of the natural and perturbing forces of man, in other
words, social mechanics, would develop laws as admirable as those which
govern celestial and inanimate bodies. As to the accusation of materi-
alism, to which these results are said to lead, it has been made so often
whenever science has essayed a new step into the unknown regions of
nature, that it is not worth while to answer it; especially at the pres-
ent day, when it can no longer be followed by the rack or imprison-
ment. Who can justly accuse us of insulting the Divinity, when we
exercise the most noble faculties He has given us in meditating upon
the sublime laws of the universe, or in endeavoring to make manifest
the admirable economy and infinite wisdom which presided over their
formation? Or who can regard with indifference the sciences which
have substituted for the narrow, insignificant world of the ancients, our
magnificent solar system, and so extended our starry vault that we can-
not attempt to fathom its depths without a feeling of religious awe?
Certainly a knowledge of the marvelous laws which govern the universe |
gives a much grander idea of the power of the Divinity than that which
blind superstition would impose upon us. Ifthe material pride of man —
is humbled by the thought of the small space he occupies even upon
the grain of dust he calls his world, how much he should rejoice in his
intelligence, which allows him to penetrate so far into the secrets of the
heavens. If science has advanced thus in the study of worlds, may we
not look for equal progress in the study of man? Is it not absurd to
suppose that, while all else is controlled by admirable laws, the human —
race alone is abandoned to blind chance, and possesses no principle of
conservation? Such a belief is surely more injurious to the Divinity
than the research we propose.

In 1832~33 appeared an article “Upon the possibility of measuring the
influence of the causes which modify social elements,” and one ‘Upon the
influence of the seasons upon the faculties of man.” As soon as Quetelet
obtained a new result he hastened to make it known, often betore his
idea was sufficiently matured or the fact at all certain, which accounts
for the repetition in his articles. This mode of working has some ad-
vantages ; it excites interest and parallel efforts, but it occasions loss of
time, and renders the co-ordination of the researches more difficult. In
1835 appeared the admirable work, “Man and the developmeit of .his
faculties;” or, “An essay upon social physics.” It is a review of all his
previous works on statistics; ‘‘a sketch,” he calls it, “‘ of a vast picture,
the details of which can only be supplied by patient investigation.” It
is divided into four volumes: the first two are devoted to the physical
qualities of man, the third to his moral and intellectual qualities, and
the fourth treats of the properties of the average man, and of the social
system. The author considers, first, the determination of the average

EULOGY ON QUETELET. 181

man in general; second, with respect to physical qualities. He then
proceeds to examine all that relates to the life of man; his birth, death,
strength, height, agility, &c. We give some extracts: ‘The apprecia-
tion of the physical qualities of the average man is by no means difficult,
either when measured directly or through their effects ; it is quite other-
wise with the moral and intellectual qualities, though they also, to some
extent, may be judged of through the effects they produce.” ‘‘ Man pos-
sesses at his birth the germ of all the qualities which are successively
developed, to a greater or less degree; prudence predominates in one,
imagination in another, avarice in a third. Wesometimes observe great
Size in proportion to age, or a precocious imagination, or unusual vigor in
old age, and the fact alone that we notice these exceptional cases proves
that we are conscious of a general law of development, and even make
use of it to form our judgment.” The author successively considers the
average man, first, with reference to letters and the fine arts; second, in
relation to the medical or natural sciences. ‘‘The consideration of the
average man,” he says, “issoimportant in medical science that it is almost
impossible to judge of the condition of an individual without comparing
it with that of a fictitious being, supposed to be in the normal state;
in fact, the average man we have been considering.” Third, in relation to
philosophy and morals; and, fourth, in relation to politics. It is quite
curious to see how he regards political systems. He is opposed to
the system which consists, when there are two dominant ideas in a
country, in taking a kind of mean between the two, but would found
a system upon the elements common to all parties ; or, where there was
divergence, upon the ideas held by the largest number. ‘ Govern-
ments,” he says, ‘ have their states of equilibrium, which may be either
stable or unstable. The stable equilibrium exists when, after action
and reaction of every kind, a government constantly returns to its nor-
mal condition. If, on the contrary, from any cause whatever, a govern-
ment tends to diverge more and more from its normal condition, chang-
ing constantly, without sufficient motive, its form and institutions, its
end is near. Revolutions are only the reactions of the people, or a
party, against abuses, real or supposed, and would not take place if the
provocation did not exist. The liberty of the press, singularly enough,
by facilitating these reactions, renders great revolutions almost impos-
sible, for it does not allow forces to accumulate. The reaction is mani-
_ fested immediately after the action, sometimes almost before the action
has time to propagate itself.” This essay gave its author a high place
in the scientific world. It was translated into both English and German.
We have not space to notice other papers upon statistics, which appeared
in 1845-46-48. He was happy in his application of mathematics to sta-
tistical questions. He formulated the now well-known binomial theorem,
and insisted, more especially in his last years, on its remarkable gener-
ality. He organized the first statistical congress, which was held in Brus-
Sels in 1853, and was appointed its president. He was also president of
the commission of statistics of the kingdom of Belgium. On account

182 EULOGY ON QUETELET.

of his works on social statistics he was made, in 1872, an associate of the
section of moral and political sciences of the Institute of France. He
had long been a corresponding member of this academy.

He was a member of the Royal Academy of Belgium, as we have said,
from 1820, and held the presidency of this learned body from 1832 to
1835, and then succeeded M. Dewez as perpetual secretary of its three
divisions, science, literature, and the fine arts. We have been able to
notice only a few of the memoirs inserted in the publications of the
academy. The bulletins of each séance are, so to speak, crowded with his
articles. One can see, by their inspection, with what care he registered
all the remarkable phenomena which presented themselves during his

jong career. Thanks especially to him, they, as wellas the Annuaires and ~

Annales of the Observatory, will always be consulted with profit by those
who wish closely to study the aurora borealis, shooting-stars, bolides,
storms, earthquakes, and such phenomena, upon which attention is
drawn so strongly at the present time, and of which, for the most part,
a complete theory has not yet been formed. The correspondence which
Quetelet had with the official heads of science in different countries
contributed greatly to extend the relations of the academy, and to enrich
its bulletins.

The revolution of 1848 was not asurprise to Quetelet; he foresaw that
the opposition of Louis Philippe to reforms, not in themselves to be feared,
would cause some such catastrophe, but he did not anticipate the effect
it would produce all over Europe. His attention, of course, at such a
time was turned to politics, and in the month of March he presented to
the academy a paper upon the nature of constitutional states, and some
principles which may be derived from the consideration of them. Sey-
eral other articles were also written by him on political subjects. We
know that while other governments were falling, Belgium remained
intact, and while distress and terror were reigning elsewhere, she pre-
pared to celebrate the anniversary of her independence. The féte in
honor of the occasion was organized by Quetelet as head of the artistic
and literary circle, and never was a more brilliant entertainment given
in Brussels. It evinced not only the good taste of Quetelet, but the
extent of his influence.

As to the private life of Quetelet, we have said that in 1825 he mar-
ried Mademoiselle Crulet, niece of Professor Van Mons. Two children,
a boy and a girl, were the fruit of this union. His mother and a young
half-sister, who married an artist, M. Madou, formed the rest of his
household. The children were educated at home. Madame Quetelet
herself taught them to read, and they had a master for writing. Every
Sunday a few friends were invited to dinner, and in the evening the
house was open to visitors. There were conversation, music, and cha-
rades. The latter were in great favor, and Quetelet himself often took
part in them. Those who knew Quetelet only through his works, or
when enfeebled by age and disease, can have no idea of his gayety,
wit, and cordiality. He thoroughly enjoyed a laugh, and Rabelais was

EULOGY ON QUETELET. 183

almost as much of a favorite with him as Pascal. His conversation was
admirable, bright, merry, witty, condescending to the most trivial as
_ well as embracing the most extended subjects in letters, science, and
art. It was marked occasionally by a vein of severity, which, however,
never wounded any one, and only served to bring into stronger relief
the amiable traits of his character. He possessed the very rare faculty
of knowing when to listen, and always managed to make his guests feel
at ease. <As the years passed, he attained more and more a position of
distinction. The husband of his sister became a painter of eminence ;
his daughter married a promising young artist, and his son, one of the
best pupils of the military school, quitted the engineer corps of the
army, when he had attained the rank of lieutenant, to enter the observ-
atory. Death soon deprived him of his mother, whom he loved tenderly,
but his wife remained his companion for thirty years.

In the last years of his life, when his age warned him in vain to take
repose, he undertook a series of works which he intended to be an
epitome of the labor of his life. In 1864 appeared “The History of
Mathematical and Physical Science in Belgium ;” in 1866, ‘Mathematical
and Physical Science in Belgium, from the Commencement of the Nineteenth
Century ;” in 1867, ** The Meteorology of Belgium, compared with that of
the World ; ” in 1869, ** Social Physics, or an Essay upon the Development of
the Faculties of Man ;” in 1870, “Anthropometry, or Measure of the Fac-
ulties of Man.” If death had not overtaken him he would have com-
pleted the series by a new edition of his “Physics of the Globe,” pub-
lished in 1861, and by a treatise on astronomy.

We will not attempt to enumerate the learned societies of which
Quetelet was a member; the list would be too long. He was elected
an associate of the Royal Astronomical Society on January 11, 1828.

Notwithstanding the numerous occupations which claimed every mo-
ment of his time, Quetelet always gave the kindest reception to those
who wished to speak with him on subjects connected with his studies.
He could discern and would encourage merit, and many learned men
will remember the support they received from him, in the commence-
ment of their career, with feelings of profound gratitude.

Eighteen months before his death he undertook the fatiguing journey
to St. Petersburg, at the pressing invitation of the Grand Duke Constan-
tine, under whose auspices the statistical congress had been called.
Neither the fear of cholera nor the entreaties of his friends deterred
him. He was much gratified by the reception given him, and appeared
to have been benefited in health by the journey. On Monday, the 2d of
February, he fulfilled exactly his duties as seeretary of the academy,
although sufiering from the disease of the lungs of which he died fifteen
days later. And he also assisted at the session of the class of letters.
He died on the 17th of February, 1874, and Belgium deplored her great-
est scientific luminary. The “academy” was the last word on his lips as
he sank into unconsciousness.

RULOGY. ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

By M. Dumas, Permanent Secretary.

Pronounced before the Academy of Sciences of the French Institute on the 28th of
December, 1874.

GENTLEMEN: One year ago the Academy of Sciences received with
profound sorrow the unexpected announcement of the death of one of
its eight foreign associates, M. Auguste De La Rive. The rare talents
of this eminent physicist, his warm heart, and high moral character,
won for him in his native city universal affection. Geneva mourned for
him with deep and sincere regret, for she lost in him an eminent philoso-
pher and professor, who added to the renown of her justly-celebrated
academy ; a citizen whose loyalty had frequently been tested in times
of trouble; and a useful member of society, whose generous hospitality
delighted in gathering around his fireside representatives of the science,
art, letters, and politics of all nations.

But Geneva was not alone in her grief. The services of M. Auguste
De La Rive were such as the whole world recognizes, and of which
posterity cherishes the memory. France, at least, cannot forget that
if in time of prosperity she found in him always a faithful and provident
friend, whose solicitude for her reputation seemed sometimes almost chi-
merical, she was none the less sure of his active sympathy in days of
misfortune. When Switzerland opened her heart to our soldiers, who,
betrayed by fortune and decimated by the sword, cold and hunger, had
retreated to the snows of the Jura, Auguste De La Rive and his associates
brought to them succorand consolation ; not unmindful that our two races,
united by an old friendship, had often mingled their blood under the
same flag.

It was not only to the illustrious physicist that his native city rendered
the homage in which we this day unite. To the happy gifts bestowed by
nature was added the prestige of an ancient and honorable name. . The
family of De La Rive may be traced back to Ripa de Mondovi, and is, in
fact, one of those in which is personified the history of Geneva. From
the twelfth century, for more than four hundred years, it is found in the
first rank of the government archives of the city; from the fourteenth
century, it includes a judge of Piedmont; a lieutenant of police, op-
posed to the Reformation, and exiled from Geneva for having advocated
in secret the Catholic religion; a plenipotentiary, charged with demand-
ing of Henry IV, in favor of the Genevese, certain privileges which were
only granted by royal patents; an envoy of the canton, sent to Louis
XIV, when asylum was given by the small republic to the refugees who

—

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 185

had been driven out of France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes;
and, in the last century, three generals, one in the service of the Turks,
another in Holland, and a third in Sardinia. Up to this time there is
no appearance of a scientific tendency among the members of this fam-
ily, so rich in every other line of personal distinction, probably because
the public mind was not turned in that direction ; but toward the end of
the last century, we see them attaining in science the same high po-
sition they held in public affairs. The mother of the illustrious historian
of the Alps, De Saussure, belonged to the family of La Rive, and also
the wife of the learned philosopher, Charles Bonnet; both of whom,
tradition says, exercised great influence, the one over her son, the other
over her husband. In fact, the history of the family from the beginning
of the present century would give not only that of the country, but
also the most interesting chapters in contemporary science.

Charles Gaspard De La Rive, father of our lamented associate, was
the first savant of the name. His works form, with those of his son, an
indivisible whole. Destined for the magistracy, he pursued his law-
studies until, in 1794, Geneva suffered a deplorable repetition of the
French revolution. He took an active part in resisting the insurgents,
and was imprisoned and condemned to death by the revolutionary
tribunal. Thanks to the exertions of his friends, he escaped, took refuge
in England, and went to Edinburgh to study medicine. His mother was
very much opposed to his adopting this profession, as she considered it
beneath the dignity of the family. She refused to pardon him for pur-
suing a course contrary to her wishes, and, as she forbade his return to -
his native land, he remained in exile long after the decree of amnesty
allowed his appearance in Geneva. That he should have regarded such
an unjust prohibition, caused by what seems to us a strange and unrea-
sonable prejudice against an honorable profession, is very remarkable ;
but it must be remembered that in Geneva, at that time, aristocratic
feelings largely prevailed, and public and private education, in spite of
Rousseau, was based upon the inculcation of entire submission on the
part of a child to the absolute authority of the parent.

On his return to his country, Gaspard De La Rive devoted himself
with diligence to such studies as were necessary to fit him for the chair
of chemistry, and through the liberal character of his mind, which was
open to the widest generalizations cf science, was led to the investiga-
tion of the electrical forces, to take part in the grand reform in natural
philosophy then occupying the attention of France, and to lay the
foundation for the future course of his illustrious son. If, in the history
of science, the De La Rives may not be placed in exactly the same rank
as Oersted, Ampere, Arago, and Faraday, whose labors they shared,
certainly they cannot be widely separated from them. The united
efforts of this brilliant pleiad of physicists, which includes M. Becquerel
as a later and none the less distinguished representative, have added
to civilization a knowledge of forces which are now indispensable to

186 EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

industry and commerce, and of which, alas, the fury of war has
increased the importance. How the applications of these agents, the
discoveries of peace-loving men, have been perverted! How the rapid
telegram from the cabinet of the statesman inflames at will the passions
of the people! How electricity, at the command of a distant engineer,
explodes the torpedo which violently disturbs the sea, or fires the mine
which rends the earth like a volcano, extending on every side devasta-
tion and death!

Gaspard De La Rive was a successful expounder of chemistry, and
taught its principles with clearness and simplicity. His numerous and
choice experiments rendered his instruction interesting and valuable
not only to the students who desired merely a theoretical knowledge of
the subject, but also to the industrial classes, who sought to make prac-
tical application of the information obtained. He proposed to make
chemistry a part of the curriculum of a liberal education, and he suce-
ceeded in attracting, by the eclat of his experiments, students of all
classes, whom he afterward retained by directing their minds from
these lower objects to the beauty and precision of the higher concep-
tions of natural philosophy. No one contributed more to popularizing
the atomic theory of Dalton, which he considered a most happy hypoth-
esis. Having studied in England, he retained a taste for large appara-
tus, in which his fortune allowed him to indulge; his voltaic batteries
were without a rival on the continent. But while his laboratory was
English, the constitution of his mind, on the contrary, led him to adopt
the ideas of Lavoisier and the doctrines of the French Academy.

His countryman and friend, Dr. Marcet, a chemist of distinction, liv-
ing in London, came to pass a winter in Switzerland. He could not
endure this preference for the school of Paris, and endeavored to cor-
vert the select audience Gaspard De La Rive collected about him to the
ideas of the London scliool, especially to those of Davy, whose renown
at that time was world-wide. The pupils of the chemical course had,
therefore, the singular good fortune of having two professors, each of
whom discoursed in turn upon the same subject, explaining the views to
which he gavethe preference. Thetwo teachers, stimulated by opposition,
gradually advanced from the ordinary conventional and classic grounds
of instruction to heights where definite thought commences to waver
into nebulous speculation. These lectures, which amounted to academic
sessions, awakened the curiosity and excited the enthusiasm of the audi-
ence, who, while divided in opinion, were always united in praise of the
ardor and mental activity of the two friends.

Gaspard De La Rive was affable, benevolent, paternal, and good-
humored. His joy in the success of a well-conducted experiment, his
satisfaction when he felt himself understood, was indicated in every
lineament of his expressive countenance; and, after listening to the good
man, his auditors were surprised to find that, although his discourse
had been entirely of chemistry, they felt themselves better, as well as

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 187

knew themselves wiser, from the sympathy awakened by the glow of his
lecture. Besides, no one could be indifferent to the moral example dis-
played by this, the first syndic, the chief of state, the possessor of a
large patrimonial fortune, who was thus laborious in the discharge of a
daily duty, without other motive than the love of science—for no other
recompense than the respect accorded to noble and unselfish conduct.
Those favorites of fortune who pass their days in the pursuit of idle
pleasure, have no idea of the rational enjoyment to be derived from the
pursuit of knowledge or the disinterested instruction of youth. Were
an entire aristocracy similarly disposed, leading its followers through
the learning of ancient times and the science of the present, what con-
quests would be made in the domains of intelligence; conquests which
would necessitate no violation of right nor infliction of wrong, would
bring loss or distress to none, but benefit to all.

During the long wars of the revolution and of the empire, Geneva
rendered great service to the scientific world by the publication of a
review which her extended commercial relations and the cosmopolitan
habits of her people supplied with abundant information upon all sub-
jects, and which was edited by a distinguished physicist, M. Pictet,
under the title Bibliotheque Britannique. It was by means of this period-
ical that the works of the English scientists became known over the
continent; and through the personal influence of the eminent men who
assisted in its compilation, it retained long after peace was established
the monopoly of the earliest foreign intelligence. In its pages Arago,
who was on a visit to Geneva, in 1829, first learned of the great discovery
of Oersted, the action exerted by the electric current of the voltaic pile
upon the magnetic needle. At that time it was known that two sub-
Stances could act upon each other, combining and producing changes in
their properties, exhibiting phenomena which constitute an essential part
of chemistry, but no one had ever seen what was then called an impon-
derable fluid act upon another. Light produced no effect upon heat, and
neither acted upon electricity. Oersted, however, announced that elec-
tricity could be made to act upon magnetism. A new science, with the
most remarkable practical applications, of which the electric telegraph
is only one example, was developed from this fruitful germ. <All who
assisted in establishing the genuineness of this wonderful discovery
were greatly impressed by it, and no one felt inclined to contradict the
grave comment of Pierre Prévost, the author of the theory of the un-
stable equilibrium of radiant heat : Novus rerum nascitur ordo.

Arago, on his return to Paris, thus speaks of the event: ‘“ Professor
De La Rive, of Geneva, who has himself diseovered many curious phe-
nomena with the powerful battery in his possession, allowed me to wit-
ness his verification of the experiments of M. Oersted before MM.
Prévost, Pictet, Th. de Saussure, Marcet, de Candolle, &¢., and I was
entirely convinced of the accuracy of the principal facts stated by the
Danish philosopher.” Iam, I believe, the sole survivor of this histor-

188 EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

ical scene, in which I took part as one of the et cetera of Arago, and I
shall never forget the powerful impression produced upon those who
were present. Nearly all came with the conviction that Oersted was
the dupe of some illusion; but they saw the magnetic needle obey the
action of the electric current, move in one direction when the conduct-
ing-wire of the battery was placed above it, and in the contrary direc-
tion when placed below it, and were convinced that these effects could
be attributed to no external agitation, since they were produced in the
vacuum of the air-pump, as well as in the open air, and ceased when a
Slip of wood was substituted for the magnetic needle.

Ampere, in Paris, entered upon the investigation of this phenomenon
with great enthusiasm, and having, by dint of earnest and persevering
thought, arrived at general conceptions, he deduced from these infer-
ences, which he immediately proceeded to verify by actual experiments,
employing for the purpose all the resources of practical mechanics. The
discoveries that followed week after week in rapid succession excited
the unbounded admiration of Gaspard De La Rive, and no sooner had
the Academy of Sciences of Paris announced some new inference of
Ampere than the watch-making establishments of Geneva, under the
direction of De La Rive, constructed the delicate apparatus conceived
by the illustrious French physicist to verify his deductions, and varied
the form so as to bring it within the means of the smallest laboratory.

If in this De La Rive was animated solely by a love of science, he was
amply rewarded.

Auguste De La Rive, excited first by sympathy with his father, and
afterward by individual interest in the new facts brought to light, deter-
mined to devote his life to the study of electricity. Born on the 9th of
October, 1501, he was at the time of these researches a student in the uni-
versity, but shortly after prepared resolutely and with success to compete
for the chair of general physics left vacant by Pierre Prévost. Only twen-
ty-one years of age, and aspiring to take the place of a professor well known
throughout Europe, he was obliged to face a jury composed of sixty-six
judges, that is to say, of all the professors of theacademy, and all the mem-
bers of the venerable company intrusted with the direction of the ecclesias-
tical affairs of Geneva. The academy was at that time a powerful cor-
poration. Closely united with the church, it was considered the first
educational establishment, and held control over-all the other schools
of the canton. It constituted a state within tlie state, and extended
its jurisdiction even to politics and the affairs of the republic. The
authority with which it was invested was founded upon traditional laws,
and its functions were highly respected. Its professors, select men,
vere all capable of serious work and prolonged application. Very
poorly remunerated for their services, their expenses far exceeded their
emoluments, but they valued the prestige of a professorship, a truly
magisterial office, much more than its material profits. The high
character of the political instruction attracted to the academy the rich

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 189

and noble families of the country, and the taste for letters and science
it promoted, with the habit of devotion to their culture, was transmitted
from generation to generation, enabling the school of Geneva to main-
tain a high position amorg the most renowned universities of Europe.
It was a source of intellectual activity, and a center of light, such as
is supported only by great effort in countries of much larger extent than
Switzerland.

As soon as the discovery of Oersted was announced, Ampere offered
the following explanation: The frictional electricity, or that developed
by rubbing glass, long known, is a fluid in repose, and constitutes stat-
ical electricity. The electricity of the voltaic pile is this same fluid in
motion in the direction of the axis of the conductors, and this is dynam-
ical electricity. Again, this same fluid circulating around the molecules
of a bar of iron or steel, in a plane perpendicular to the axis which
united the two extremities, is magnetism. To give a material illustration
of these forces, the water which moistens the surface of a solid body
may represent statical electricity, the water which flows through an
aqueduct dynamical electricity, and that which passes in the turns of
an Archimedian screw, magnetism.

On the 4th of September, 1820, Arago announced to the French
Academy the facts whose confirmation he had witnessed at Geneva,
and on the 25th of the same month Ampere read his valuable memoir,
which alone would have given his name one of the highest places in the
history of science. His theory of the principles of electro-magnetism
was founded upon his fundamental experiment that two voltaic currents:
in the same Girection attract each other, and, on the contrary, repel each
other when they are in opposite directions—a phenomenon he had fore-
seen and predicted as a result of hisa priori conception. To this strik
ing proof of the truth of his theory he soon added another. He imitated
a magnet by passing a voltaic current through a metal wire coiled into
© spiral, and suspended freely in a vertical plane. This spiral was
affected by the action of the earth like the magnetic needle, which
Ampere explained by supposing that the lower parts of the wire, that
is, those nearest the earth, controlled the whole. This experiment was
also exhibited in its simplest form by suspending a rectangular wire so
that it could move freely. When a voltaic current was passed through
this, it arranged itself at right angles to the direction of the magnetic
needle. Now Gaspard De La Rive removed the lower horizontal part,
and the remainder of the wire was as much affected by the terrestria
influence as when the rectangle was complete.

The explanation of Ampére was thus shown to be incorrect, and his
theory for a time lost its best support. His state of mind under the
influence of this disappointment bordered on derangement. When alone,
he passed hour after hour in profound meditation ; and when with his
family, pursued the avocations of life in a sort of somnambulism, obliv-
ious of everything around him. At length, however, in a moment of

190 EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

inspiration, the truth dawned upon him, and delivered him from this state
of distraction. He caught sight of the proper solution of the problem,
and in the experimental verification of this, Auguste De La Rive came to
his aid, and by his ready invention reduced the phenomenon to its
simplest elements. He removed one by one the sides of the rectangle,
and reduced it at last to a single vertical wire, freely suspended, which,
when the voltaic current passed through it, was as sensible to the action
of the earth as the entire rectangle. ‘hese delicate experiments so in-
terested Ampére that he came from Paris to Présinge, the country res-
idence of De La Rive, to witness them, and to perfect the explanation to
which he had given so much thought.

The memoir of the young physicist on the subject contains not only
the new results he had obtained, but also the learned and decisive
formula by which Ampere connected them with his theory, now com-
plete and triumphant.

Thus in the very commencement of his career the name of Auguste
De La Rive was associated with one of the most interesting episodes in
the developmentofthetheory of Ampere, and his firstinvestigations placed
him at once in the focus to which all the intelligence of the age was
directed. They not only brought him into relation with Ampére, but
prepared the way for the life-long friendship which afterward united
him with Faraday, who already, grateful to his father for early recog-
nition and encouragement under peculiar circumstances, was predis-
posed to regard him with favor. When Davy was making his admirable
investigations in regard to the voltaic battery, Great Britain and
France were engaged in a desperate contest. The first class of the
Institute, however, considering the field of science and the pursuit of
truth above the prejudices occasioned by national quarrels, awarded to
the English philosopher the prize offered in the department of electricity
by Napoleon. Although the countries were then at open war, Davy
shortly after received permission to visit Auvergne, in order to study
the extinct volcanoes of that province, and was also allowed to go to
Italy and continue his researches on volcanoes in action. In this court-
eous exception, France set an example eminently worthy to be followed
by all civilized nations. The passport Davy received included himself,
his wife, and one servant. Faraday, eager to acquire knowledge, did
not hesitate to accept the latter position. The young savant was unob-
served in his new capacity while in Paris, as he did not speak a word
of French, but it was quite otherwise at Présinge, where Davy remained
some time. Gaspard De La Rive, observing his isolation, addressed
some kind words to him during a hunting excursion. Discovering
immediately that he was by no means an ordinary servant, an explana-
tion followed, and he was’ requested to take the place in the family, at
the table of his host, which his true position and talent deserved.
Davy, however, while he did not object to this arrangement when he
was absent, insisted that in his presence the subordinate position

aan

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 191

assumed should be maintained. This simple incident might have
made but little impression upon Faraday, had it not brought into strong
contrast the pride of Davy and the affable cordiality of Gaspard De
La Rive.

Even genius does not excuse pride or pardon exclusiveness. Davy,
satiated with praise and loaded with honors, but lacking the sympathy
of his countrymen, passed the last years of his life on the continent,
and came to Geneva, to terminate sorrowfully, in a foreign country, his
days of lassitude and ennwi ; while, on the other hand, when Faraday,
endowed with the modesty which charms and the kindness which
attracts, approached his end, the savants of the entire world evinced
their affection for him; the most eminent personages of England testi-
fied their respect; his death was a source of universal regret, and his
memory, cherished in all hearts, is still honored at the Royal Institution
of London, in the amphitheater, the scene of iis triumphs, by an annual
and imposing ceremony presided over by the Prince of Wales. What
a contrast is this!

As the scientific career of Gaspard De La Rive ended and that of his
son commenced, a new era commenced, fraught with ideas to enlighten,
agitate, and even trouble the world. The father had witnessed only
the prelude to the great changes which were to take place, but wel-
comed with joy the new dawn. The son, after laboring with ardor and
success in the unveiling of truth, at the close of his life contemplated,
with sadness as well as pleasure, the unexpected consequences of the
discoveries in which he had taken an active part.

A half a century ago science, although full of promise to those who
sought to penetrate its mysteries, did not appeal to the common mind.
Its language was little understood even by those who held the destinies
of nations in their hands. Its demonstrations and discoveries were
regarded by the public with a careless eye and considered of no impor-
tance. Soon, however, under its influence, rapid vessels, impelled by
steam, traversed the sea; railroads crossed the continents ; thought cir-
culated from one hemisphere to another through the electric telegraph ;
the beet-root of the frozen regions rivaled the sugar-cane of the south;
gas lighted the streets; fossil remains fertilized arid ground, and the
colors from coal-oil vied with the fresh tints of the flowers ; while the sail-
ing-vessels lying idle in the ports, the forsaken stage-coach, the deserted
roads, the laborer deprived of employment, were other but equally forci-
ble witnesses to the irresistible power of the practical application of the
principles which govern the universe. At the same time iron and steel
were perfected and produced in abundance; powder and other fulmi-
nating substances were rendered manageable; rude and inefficient
weapons of’ war were converted into large and powerful engines of
destruction ; and in view of houses in ruins, crops destroyed, and the
multiplied graves of the dead, it was impossible longer to question the

192 EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

importance of those investigations and discoveries which had once been
despised.

Again, a new conception of the universe, based upon the existence of
atoms, the latest representatives of matter, and upon the vibrations of
the ethereal medium, the latest symbols of force, induced a certain
school to revive doctrines which, originating in Greece, were translated
by Lucretius into harmonious verse in order to convert the voluptuous
aristocracy of Rome to the philosophy of Epicurus. The Latin poet ex-
claims in his antique materialism, ‘‘ He wakes not again who sleeps
with the dead ; we are only the temporary proprietors of life and not its
owners. When the body perishes, the soul also is decomposed ; it dis-
solves as the limbs crumble into dust. The soul dies entirely with the
body, and in vain might the earth be mingled with the sea, and the sea
with the sky, in one frightful tumult—nothing can ever awaken it.”

Modern materialism, content with reviving the doctrines of Epicurus
and Lucretius, considers the world as the fortuitous production of the
arrangement of atoms; man as the highest development of the natural
evolution of organic forms; life as a spontaneous modification of force ;
birth as the commencement of a phenomenon, death asitsend. When,
in the light of this philosophy, justice is only a social convention, con-
science the fruit of education; charity, friendship, love, only varied
forms of selfishness, those intrasted with the care of human souls should
acknowledge the terrible power of this contemned science.

The scientific conceptions of the human mind, of great importance as
expressions of generalizations, are the result of ideas derived from our
present understanding of the phenomena of matter and force, but cannot
be considered as absolute truths. Lavoisier, studying chemical actions,
the balance in hand, proved, it is true, that in each of these, the weight of
the substances produced is equal to that of the substances employed. Let
us accept, then, this discovery as a philosophical truth: that matter has
weight; that man has never created nor destroyed anything that has
weight ; in nature, since the universe received its present form, noth-
ing has been lost, nothing created that has weight; matter changes its
place, its aspect, and condition, but it does not perish. Is it the same in
regard to force?) While always remaining imponderable, will it also be
variable in its manifestations, perpetual in its activity ? Man powerless
to create matter, is he equally unable to produce force? Auguste De La
Rive has largely assisted in proving that this is the case, and, in so doing,
has traced to its highest philosophical consequences one of the most huin-
ble experiments of the laboratory, that of Galvani. Two plates, one of
zine the other of copper, produce a sensation when an organ is touched
with their two free extremities ; the tongue is sensible of a taste; the eye
perceives a light; the ear is conscious of sound. By inereasing the
number of these metallic couples, extending their surface, and plunging
them into a saline or acid liquid, Volta constructed his celebrated bat-
tery, by which be produced light and heat comparable with those of the

eT

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 193:
sun, a chemical power superior to that of the voleano, a magnetism
equal to that of the earth, and physiological phenomena previously con-
sidered as belonging only to manifestations of life. Can it be supposed
that all these forces spring from nothing, and that the two metals which

' produce them remain unchanged in their nature, weight, and other

qualities ?

German science, still involved in the obscurities of the philosophy of
nature, was of this opinion, notwithstanding the experiments of M.
Becquerel, sr. -Auguste De La Rive thought otherwise; he did not so
readily accord to man the faculty of deriving, from nothing, either mat-
ter or motion. His mind revolted against such an assumption. He
proved, in fact, that no electricity was manifested if one of the two
metals was not oxidized; that is to say,if it had not undergone chemi-
cal change. The electric current is slight when the chemical action is
feeble ; intense when it is powerful. The electric circuit starts from
the metal attacked and passes over to the other. If both metals are
affected at once, the electric circuit begins in the one in which the

- chemical action is strongest. Change the nature of the medium, and

you may reverse at will the action and consequently the direction of
the current. The latter experiment is decisive. If the contact of two
different metals is sufficient to create the electric current, this ought
always to proceed in the same direction. If this current is the result of
chemical action, it should, on the contrary, move sometimes in one
direction, sometimes in the other, starting from the metal attacked and
proceeding toward the one not affected, as was proved by Auguste De’
La Rive. If we measure the electricity obtained, we ought also to note
the chemical force expended. We create nothing; we only transform.
Such is the theory of the pile. Faraday devoted much time to the con-
sideration of these truths, but we can do honor to the Genevese physi-
cist while acknowledging our indebtedness to the great English phil-
philosopher.

If the burning of the coal develops the force of the steam-engine,
the zinc consumed produces the power of the Voltaic pile. The battery
no more creates the electricity that it utilizes than Watt’s engine pro-
duces the heat that it employs; that electricity comes entirely from the
metal burned by the acids. Pursuing this idea, Auguste De La Rive
measured the heat which was manifested in the different elements of a
battery, in full activity, and found that it did not exceed that produced
by the chemical action exerted upon the metal attacked—a conclusion
confirmed by the learned dean of the faculty of Marseilles. It is, then,
evident that man creates neither electricity, magnetism, heat, nor light ;
he draws these forces from the reservoirs in which they are hidden and
in which they were stored without his aid.

We insist that in nature, as she appears to us, nothing is lost, and
nothing is created of that which has weight; we dispose of matter as
we choose in order to produce chemical combinations ad infinitum ;

138

194 EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

forces are only the causes of movements, which we transform, one into
the other at will. Well, is this to say that the world has no other soy-
ereign than man, and that he rules as master? Let us see if this is so.

Newton considered light, heat, electricity, and magnetism as so many

distinct imponderable fluids. This opinion served as a guide to all the ©

investigations of the eighteenth century and of the commencement of
the nineteenth. It was the expression of the truth of the time—was, so
to say, the fashion—and it had its fanatical followers, in the first rank of
whom was Voltaire. It is now superseded by a theory indicated by
Descartes and Huyghens, and which Newton undertook to develop, but
abandoned, perhaps because of the difficulties it offered to calculation.
This supposes the existence throughout the universe of an elastic,
ethereal medium, that is to say, an exceedingly subtile substance, in
which float the atoms of ponderable matter. Acting one upon the other,
or through internal agitation, these atoms determine, in the ether by
which they are surrounded and penetrated, undulations more or Jess
extended, more or less rapid. These vibrations of the ethereal medium
constitute light and heat, while electricity and magnetism are the man-
ifestations of the medium itself. Ponderable atoms, an elastic ethereal
medium, aud the vibrations produced in the latter by the atoms; such
is the present conception of the universe. It is simple, true, perhaps,
said Auguste De La Rive, but who knows what will be thought of it a
hundred years from now? How is it possible to believe that afier
remaining in ignorance and error in regard to these great subjects from
the commencement of the world, man, in less than a century, could
acquire complete knowledge of all that concerns them and leave noth-
ing to be discovered by future ages? It behooves us to be more modest,
lest our descendants laugh at our audacity.

Among all the different manifestations of the ethereal medium, elec-
tricity is the most constant, not only in the reactions of inanimate
bodies, but also in the material phenomena we observe in Jiving organ-
isms. It was hastily inferred by some that electricity was life, but
Auguste De La Rive would not admit that life could result from this
unconscious action of atoms upon ether. He had never seen it mani-
fested spontaneously, and believed that since its first appearance upon
earth it had constantly been transmitted from parent to offspring.
He considered, moreover, that human personality does not exist in the
dust of which our bodies are composed. Is matter that obeys eternal,
and the spirit which commands perishable? I would rather, he says,
believe that the intelligent soul is immortal and brute matter perishable.
He believed the world to have been created and demonstrated as a fact
of a scientific order, and, by arguments that M. Clausius afterward
developed, that it had not always existed; that it had a beginning, and
would have an end.

Ampere, Faraday, and Auguste De La Rive made electricity the sub-
ject of profound study, and it was the instrument of their greatest dis-

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 195-

coveries. They were all three very religious, and delighted in meditat-
ing upon subjects of a metaphysical character. The first sought to
explain universal attraction by magnetism ; the second denied even the
existence of matter, and considered each atom as a center of force
whose vibrations are felt throughout the universe; they endeavored to
defend, against the encroachments of the partisans of physical forces
the domain of the spirit, that something which thinks, affirms, denies,
wills, imagines, feels, and which, free to follow its inclinations, should
render an account of its liberty. They were convinced that by such
meditations the soul approached the supreme power, whose direct
intervention appears like a continued creation.

Belonging to the same school of philosophy, they enjoyed discussing
together such questions as the following: Attraction, which sustains
the stars in space, who knows its nature? Affinity, which connects
the molecules of bodies, is it not a word whose sense escapes us?
We represent matter as composed of atoms; are we sure that these
atoms exist? The physiologist describes the phenomena of life; does
he know in what life consists? The geologist, who writes the history
of the globe of which he has only penetrated the epidermis, does he
know its origin and end? If man is proud of the knowledge he has
acquired, should he not be humble in view of what he has yet to learn ?

The publications of our associate are numerous, and attest the activity
of his mind as well as the extent and accuracy of his information. But
an eminent physicist, M. Soret, is preparing a complete history of
them in his native land, and in this article I can only notice a few of
their principal features, and, in particular, his beautiful theory of the
aurora borealis.

The chronicle of Louis XI reperts that, en the 23d of July, 1461, a
meteor appeared ‘“‘ of such color and brilliancy that it seemed as if all
Paris was in flames ;” it adds, in consternation, ‘‘May God preserve us!”
On the 18th of November, 1465, a similar appearance produced like
terror. Theking, Louis XI, mounted his horse and rushed to the walls,
and the city guard were assembled and posted. The country at that
time was in revolt against the government, and it was supposed that
the enemy before Paris were attempting to fire the city.

We ourselves witnessed a similar excitement, caused by the appearance
of the aurora, during the siege of Paris by the Prussian army. From
the beginning of the night until the first actual appearance of the phe-
nomenon, a glow was observed in the north, which gradually deepened
into a rose-tint, and spread over half the sky. From time to time col-
ored rays shot forth, of a deep bleod-red, while spots of the same
Sanguinary hue appeared here and there above the city. When the
phenomenon had reached its height, and the sky commenced to darken,
suddenly the red color shone out again with frightful brilliancy. The
next evening the appearance was repeated with somewhat less intensity,
but accompanied by luminous white radiations toward a center near the

196 EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

constellation Pegasus. The inhabitants of Paris were greatly alarmed.
They supposed that some great incendiary machine bad been put in
play, to force the walls or demoralize their defenders. A few of them,
seeing that it was a remarkable example of the aurora borealis, sought
in it such omens, happy or otherwise, as their excited patriotism sug-
gested.

The Aurora of the North, as Gregory of Tours ealled it thirteen hun-
dred years ago, varies somewhat in aspect with the latitude. In the
polar regions it is so common that it ceases to excite remark, and is
often confounded with the twilight. In the center of Europe it is less
frequent, and almost always characterized by the deep bloody hue of
the sky, and the rays that dart like lances across it. Its appearance
justifies the description that it seems as if two great armies, enveloped
in fiery vapor, were engaged in mortal combat. In Calabria, where it is
still more rare, the imagination finds in it areades and porticoes, while
Greece, always poetical, and very seldom honored by this celestial vis-
itation, sees in the illuminated sky the assembly of the gods in council
upon Olympus in the presence of Jupiter.

How are we to account for these appearances? Auguste De La Rive
considered that they were produced by electrical conflicts, silent and
Inysterious, converging toward the magnetic pole of the earth. Every
one is familiar with the electric light, whose power is exhibited in the
light-house, on the stage, and in public illuminations. This brilliant
phenomenon, discovered by Davy, was especially noticed by Arago,
who declared, a priori, that it would offer the then strange spectacle of a
flame obeying the action of a magnetic bar. Experiment confirmed his
prediction. When this luminous arch is approached by the poles of a
strong magnet, it is attracted or repulsed ; its curvature increases, the
brilliancy of the flame diminishes; it is varied by jerks and by flashes
of colored light when silk is rubbed near it, and the arch at last breaks,
when the curvature is so great that it extends too much the surface
passed over by the electrical discharge. A magnetic needle placed in
the vicinity manifests, by its incessant agitation, that it is affected by a
strong magnetic influence. Is not this the image of the aurora polaris ?

Arago devoted many years to the study of the influence of the aurora
borealis upon the magnetic needle; and often announced the appear-
ance of the phenomenon in the north of Europe, even before it was
manifested in France. He was too cautious, however, to hazard an
opinion in regard to its nature. Auguste De La Rive took up the sub-
ject—we should rather say, devoted himself to it—and among the many
reasons for regretting the death of this illustrious savant is the loss to
science of a work he was preparing upon the polar lights, the materials
for which he had spared no pains in collecting. The apparatus is well
known, at least in the lecture-room, by means of which he reproduced
the fundamental conditions of the phenomenon, which he considered
due to the formation of 2 luminous ring in the upper regions of the

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. ESF

atmosphere, having for center the magnetic pole. By transmitting
through a rarified gas an electrical discharge around the pole of a
strong magnet, he caused a luminous ring to appear, animated with a
movement of rotation around this same pole. This experiment is so
beautiful that it must be admired even by those physicists, now few in
number, who consider that the aurora is derived from a source far beyond
the terrestrial atmosphere, and attribute to it a cosmical origin. He
writes thus to me, only a short time before the attack of illness which
caused his death: ‘Assist me in defending a theory, which I believe to
be founded upon incontestable facts, and which was advocated by Frank-
lin and Arago when there was less evidence in its favor. The investi-
gators who study only the brilliant and occasional auroras of our lati-
tudes, should also take into consideration those less radiant that appear
almost every day in the polar regions. I do not know a single observer,
placed in our extreme northern countries, who does not support the
views I have adopted. Surely it is much in their favor that they are
advocated by men who live in the midst of the phenomena; and shall
we abandon them because they are opposed by those who witness these
remarkable appearances only occasionally, and under the influence of
surprise and astonishment which must more or less affect the judgment
concerning them?”

At the equator, the silent magnetic agitations are replaced by electri-
eal storms, accompanied by thunder and rain, marking, so to say, the
course of the sun; and if there is a constant manifestation of auroral
phenomena, more or less distinct at each pole, there is always an orange —
tint, of greater or less intensity, at some point of the equator. What
purpose do they serve, these electric manifestations, continually exhib-
ited throughout the atmosphere of the earth? We are not yet in a con-
dition to say, but De La Rive has thrown much light upon the question.

When, a hundred years ago, Priestley discovered oxygen, the agent
of combustion and respiration, medicine found a valuable auxiliary, and
enthusiasts saw in it a means of prolonging life. The experiments of
M. Bert, however, proved that this vital air, if inhaled into the lungs in
a pure state, was a mortal poison. This same oxygen, as soon as it is
electrized, shows that it is accompanied by a very odorous substance,
blackening colored bodies, irritating violently the respiratory organs,
and converting animal products into saltpeter. This is the ozone M
Schonbein, the celebrated professor of Basle, found at times in the
atmosphere, particularly when the latter was electrized by thunder-
clouds. Auguste De La Rive and his learned friend M. de Marignac
maintainéd that ozone is a modification of oxygen, a conclusion ren-
dered incontestable by our two eminent associates, MM. Frémy and
Becquerel, jr.

If pure oxygen is deadly in its effects, mingled with the air that sur-
rounds us, it supports life; and if oxygen, ozenized, is a poison, in mod-

198 EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

erate doses, it purifies the air and fertilizes the soil broken by the plow,
giving to its products their agricultural significance.

If itis chance that provides the atmosphere with only just enough
of this useful yet dangerous oxygen to support respiration; that brings
into being ozone to destroy the deleterious influences which threaten our
lives, and to prepare the nourishment necessary for the plants which
supply us with food ; if it is this same chance which fixes the limits to
the concentration of oxygen, rendéring almost immutable the quantity
of inert gas mingled in the air that we breathe; which renders possible
and durable for centuries the existence of man upon the earth, then we
must conclude, with Auguste De La Rive, that chance is very intelligent;
indeed, so intelligent as to deserve another name.

A flourishing industry, which was commenced about thirty-five years
ago, under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences—that is, electro-
plating—originated in the experiments and practical applications of our
respected associate. Up to that time the only mode known of gilding
bronze was by the use of mercury. This process produced a good and
solid surface, but was fatal to the workmen, as their hands were brought
in contact with the dangerous metal, and their lungs exposed to the
action of the mercurial vapors during the heating of the articles to be
gilded. The old academy offered a prize to any one who would obviate
the danger attached to this industry, but it was unclaimed. The pres-
ent academy was more fortunate. But, if the industry is indebted for
its stimulation to the galvanic process, we should not forget that the
first pieces gilded by electricity came from the hands of the sagacious
and disinterested physicist whose labors we are contemplating. Thanks
especially to him, we are spared the distressing spectacle formerly pre-
sented by hundreds of unfortunate workmen, involuntary witnesses of
the deleterious effects of mercury, who, trembling in every limb, were
diseased alike in mind and body.

Auguste De La Rive was a lover and patron of the fine arts, and it was
in some sort under his direction that the celebrated painter of Alpine
scenery, Calame, executed his chef-d’ceuvre, Mount Rose, the most beauti-
ful ornament of the parlor of the scientist. It represents a rugged, lonely
scene, a high plateau in the mountains, without verdure or any trace of
the presence of man. In the background is the Alps, in the foreground
a small, dark lake and some rocks; that is all. But it is nature in her
majesty, flooded with the light and enveloped in the pure transparent
atmosphere of the mountains—an unadorned exhibition of her grandeur,
affecting powerfully the imagination.

Our philosopher was never tired of the beautiful spectacle presented
by the effect of the setting sun upon Mont Blanc, and was led to some
interesting scientific observations of the phenomenon through his ad-
miration of its picturesque aspect. At the moment when the sun dis-
appears from the horizon, the valley is covered with shade, and the
mountain is gradually obscured from the base to near the summit. This

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 199

alone, for some time, remains illuminated, and, suddenly, while the rest
of earth sinks into deeper shadow, takes a bright orange tint, sometimes
a bloody or fiery red, and appears like an immense meteor, fixed, incandes-
cent, not belonging to earth, but suspended in the sky. Soon the ever-
increasing Shade invades even this icy pinnacle. Its outlines grow indis-
tinct, and its color fades to a cadaverous hue. Like the change from
life to death in the human face is this rapid transformation from the
brilliant tints of departing day to the livid tone which follows upon the
forehead of this giant of rock and snow. No one can witness the
solemn spectacle for the first time without profound emotion; and the
instinctive silence that falls upon the spectator is like the prelude to a
prayer. As heturns sorrowfully away, and asks if allis over, suddenly,
as if in answer, the mountain is colored anew with a pale rose tint,
the reflection of its former splendor. Is the colossus about to revive?
No; this fugitive tint is soon effaced, and darkness covers the scene.

The rosy glow, the day’s farewell to the snow-clad peaks of these high
mountains, is only the reproduction in a particular form of the general
effects of the setting sun upon clouds. But what is the cause of the second
coloration ? Our associate, aftermany observations of the summit of Mont
Blanc, most frequently subjected to the phenomenon, attributed it to the
reflection of the last red rays from vaporous strata accumulated in the up-
per regions of the atmosphere. He studied the nature of these vapors, and
invented an apparatus for measuring the variations in the transparency
of the atmosphere, which are closely observed by the mountaineers, as they
judge from them what weather to expect. Ifthe air is perfectly clear, and °
distant objects plainly visible,the mountains seeming close to the observer,
and the sky of a deep-blue color, they will tell you that rain is near,
though there may be no other sign of its approach. If the weather is
decidedly fine, the airis not perfectly clear, but is pervaded by a bluish
vapor, the sky is moderately blue, and mountains seem far away.

Auguste De La Rive supposed that these vapors, characteristic of
fine weather, were composed of mineral and organic particles, which
float in the air as long as they are dry, but fall to the ground when sur-
charged with moisture. They are so abundant, that they take from the
air its transparency, which is restored when they disappear. The in-
sects which buzz about us are governed by the same law. If the swal-
lows fly close to the ground at the approach of rain, and high up in the
air in fine weather, it is because in the first case the insects upon which
they feed are weighed down by moisture, while, in the second, relieved
of this burden, they mount higher into space.

The ardor of Auguste De La Rive for the study of electricity could not
be satisfied with only the labors of the laboratory. He conceived the plan
of a work which would make known all the results obtained in every
branch of this department of physics. Familiar with every science,
and speaking all languages, he hoped, by uniting and tracing to their
source the materials scattered through the periodicals of different coun-

200 — EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

tries, to furnish geometers the means for the basis for a new and better
theory of electricity. The three volumes of his Treatise upon Theoretical
and Practical Electricity contain a statement of all the facts observed,
with the comment of savans and his own opinion in regard to each one
of them. There never was a more impartial compiler nor disinterested
narrator. The work shows throughout with what perseverance each
individual question was examined, and the care with which they were
all subordinated to a general and high order of ideas. “I construct,”
said he, ‘¢a ladder to the top of which I shall never climb, but, as a con-
scientious workman, I wish those who shall mount it to find every round
of good material, solid, and without defect.”

The Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve numbered Auguste De La Rive
among its most faithful contributors for nearly half a century. He for
a long time directed with indefatigable zeal not only the scientific divis-
ion considered as his natural domain, but also the literary department, in
which he was at first regarded as a usurper. The public acknowledged
that, in assuming the control of the periodical, he insured for it an impor-
tant scientific value, but questioned the wisdom of intrusting the literary
part to the direction of a savant, considering that the study of science
tends to lessened sensibility to the delicate charm of letters. But never
had this portion of the review been as replete with matter of an inter-
esting and entertaining character. Many of the charming productions
ot TOppfer first saw in it the light of day, and if this amiable artist man-
ifested great vigor in his humorous sketches, Auguste De La Rive also
showed his good taste in selecting and appreciating the merit of these
effusions.

It was not without reflection that Auguste De La Rive partially aban-
dened hislaboratory and favorite studies, to devote aportion of his time,
talents, and fortune to the support of a scientific and literary publica-
tion which, from the beginning of the century, sustained the moral and
intellectual authority of Geneva. He was convinced that the Biblio-
théeque Universelle exercised, like the Edinburgh Review, a salutary infir-
ence. The articles selected gave full information on all the important
questions of the day, although regarding them from a national point of
view, and thus, whileimparting knowledge, kept patriotism alive. His
comments upon literature and art, full of elevated sentiment and respect
for human understanding, left a very pleasing impression upon the mind
of the reader. Nothing was admitted into the journal which could not be
read aloud in the parlor, or could cause uneasiness to the mother of a fam-
ily. Somewhat of puritanism in ideas, and a certain austerity in conduct,
was not displeasing to De La Rive. He admitted that, ifcarried to excess,
these qualities became ridiculous; but their absence he thought led to dis-
order. A small country, he said, can exist only under the double condition
of having a fixed faith in certain principles, and in conforming the life to
them; it must havea physiognomy of its own, and keep it intact; must be
itself, and not everybody else; must preserve its own identity, a very diffi-

—_

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 201

cult matter when reilroads tend to mingle all the world into one commu-
nity—im possible, unless from time to time some voice of authority brings
into harmony the discordant elements of society.

In 1815, when Switzerland regained her ancient liberty, Geneva be-
came the temporary abode of many illustrious persons politically dis-
tinguished. Some came to enjoy the natural beauty of the shores of Lake
Léman, or to rest for a few days in this celebrated city, placed at the
confluence of the routes from the north of Europe, from France, and
from Italy; others, banished from their native land, sought an asylum
among its hospitable inhabitants. Never was there a more singular ming-
ling of the people of every nation, of the representatives of all the conti-
neutal countries, many of whom had met before on the field of battle,
and of England, which had been separated from the rest of Europe for
more than thirty years, with the sons of the East, unmistakable in
their peculiar type of humanity. In the streets every kind of costume
appeared, every language was spoken; in the social assemblies every
nationality fraternized.

Meanwhile the Genevese legislators, intrusted with the formation of
a constitution for the canton, and anxious to obliterate all traces of the
long alliance with the forms of the French administration, found, in the
Parliament ef England and its controlling aristocracy, the beau-ideal of
government. Political party-spirit soon attained as great a degree of
intensity in this as in countries of much larger extent. Everybody was
in favor of a constitutional government; but while with some, veritable —
tories, the principle of authority was supreme, with others, true whigs,
the idea of liberty was uppermost, and, as usual in such cases, neither
side was willing to make concessions. Gaspard De La Rive, first syndic
of the republic, was at the head of the conservative division, while his
son, in common with most of the young men, belenged to the liberal
party, prominent among whom was a former member of the French
Academy, Simond de Sismondi.

Auguste De La Rive was too ardent in temperament and too truly pa-
triotic in feeling to be indifferent to the political events which later
threatened the tranquillity of his country. Still professing liberal prin-
_ ciples, as in the days of his youth, he determined to resist the eneroach-
ments of a turbulent and oppressive democracy, and became in his turn
the leader of a new conservative party.

After the revolution in Geneva, and at the time of the Sondeibund
war, he resigned his professorship and retired from public life. Still,
when, on the annexation of Savoy to France, some uneasiness was feit
by the Helvetic government, he was sent to London, as minister pleni-
potentiary and envoy extraordinary, to guard the interests of the Con-
federation. He was treated by the Queen with the highest distinction,
and on his return to his native land received a new mark of confidence ;
he was made a member of the select assembly for the revision of the

202 EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

constitution of Geneva. And when his term of office was completed,
he resigned entirely all share in the government of his country.

He could not forgive a revolution which could tempt from the culture
of intelligence the vigorous offspring of noble and opulent families, to
immerse them in business affairs. The recognized superiority of his
native city over many others greater in extent and population, he ex-
plained, not by its position upon the shores of Lake Léman, nor by the
beauty of its surroundings, nor yet by its great trade in watches. He
attributed all its importance to the brilliant assembly of thinkers, phi-
losophers, writers, and savants who had rendered it illustrious. Vol-
taire, Rousseau, Madame de Staél, for instance, would never be forgot-
ten; and the beautiful investigations of Charles Bonnet in natural phi-
losophy; the discoveries of Tremblay in regard to polyps; of the blind
Huber concerning bees, and his son in respect to the habits of the ant;
the Alpine journeys of Horace Benedict de Saussure, one of the found-
ers of geological science; the works of Senebier and of Theodore de
Saussure upon the physiology of plants, could not be effaced from the
great book of human knowledge without injuring the intellectual pros-
pects of future ages. The academy and the venerable ecclesiastic com-
pany had been the soul of Geneva, and he could not see without un-
easiness their influence diminish. He wasright. Alexander victorious
did not save Macedonia from forgetfulness ; Athens, so often invaded,
has survived her misfortunes, and will always live in the memory of
man. War may make slaves and reduce to impotency the limbs of the
vanquished, but she cannot touch the human mind nor the imprint it
leaves upon the religion, philosophy, letters, science, and art of its
masters.

Geneva, like Florence, considered that her real existence lay in the
noble minds that made her famous, but the fears of De La Rive for her
future were without foundation. To the wise generation of the last
century and the commencement of the present, to which he belonged,
has succeeded a people full of vigor and worthy to occupy the palace
raised by the provident city in honor of science. In this privileged
country, thanks to the example of our associate and of his assistant
laborers, as well as to the liberal institutions inspired by him, the youth-
ful representatives of noble and ancient families are more ready to look
upon fortune as a means of advancing knowledge than to value learning
as an assistance in the acquirement of material prosperity.

The interests of Auguste De La Rive were not all centered in Geneva.
A large share of his thoughts and affections were reserved for Présinge,
an estate of considerable extent, ancient tenure of the dukes of Savoy.
The family of La Rive had been in possession of this patriarchal domain
for several centuries, and for generations the surrounding agricultural
population were benefited by the influence of its amiable representa-
tives. Gaspard De La Rive and his son no doubt did much to foster the

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 203

hatred of display, the active benevolence, absence of pride, and aversion
to pedantry, which are characteristic in Savoy of the habits and manners
of the gentleman.

His quiet life in this peaceful retreat was troubled by the material
speculations of the age, which he regarded with more solicitude than
most of his countrymen. Attached to the truths of the Christian reli-
gion, he was a member of the Protestant Church of Geneva, but his
respect was great for the Roman Catholic faith, which was professed by
many of his relations and friends, and by the larger part of the resi-
dent population in the neighborhood of Présinge, among whom he lived,
loving and beloved, sharing all their interests, moral and religious, even
to the building of their church. In what times of religious disorder we
live, he said, and how science is implicated. In our youth, full of enthu-
siasm for her, we little thought a day would come when she would deny
the assertion of Bossuet, ‘‘Were man openly to declare himself God,
his pride would revolt at such presumption; but to call himself God,
and yet feel himself to be mortal, is to shame even the blindest arro-
gance.”

The spirit of tolerance, so natural to our associate, led him to avoid
everything that would wound the convictions of others; but there came
a time when to keep silent was to deny his faith, and he did not wish
the world to think that those who advocated materialism in the name of
science were sure of the approbation and complicity of all savants. It
is by no means the case, he said, with decision, and it is our duty to say .
so. Science is great; her role is glorious; but her domain is circum-
scribed. She commands matter, but has no control over mind. Wecan
better explain the course of the stars than the astronomers of the time of
Homer, but have added nothing to our knowledge of the human pas-
sions he so vividly portrayed. Our ideas in regard to heat are more
certain than those of Eschylus, but concerning oppression and wrong
they have not changed since the protestations against tyranny and brutal
force of the author of Prometheus Bound. We are better acquainted
than Virgil with the action of the heart in the circulation of the blood,
but Lave discovered no new sentiment of pity or tenderness. Man does
‘not need science to sound the depths of the human soul, and the study
of the physical forces shows that between them and the moral attributes
there is nothing in common.

Many associations connected De La Rive with England, formed during
his residence as minister in that country, and with France he was united
by friendship with many of its distinguished men, among whom were M.
de Tocqueville and M.de Montalembert. With Savoy and Italy ancient
family relations had been revived and strengthened by an affectionate
and close intimacy with his relative, the count of Cavour, who was,
from his earliest infancy, accustomed to spend every year several weeks
at Présinge. In early life the young savant and the future statesman

204 EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE.

who was to exercise so great an influence upon the destimes of Italy,
were for a long time in perfect accord upon the ground of liberal ideas.
Surrounded by influences unfavorable to their convictions, they enjoyed
together the forbidden fruit; and sometimes in the evening, in the par- —
lor of Présinge, while their elders slept by the fireside, would scandalize
the feminine portion of the family circle by exaggerated expression of
their opinions, which their troubled audience dared not oppose for fear
of awakening those in whom these views would have excited the utmost
consternation. In later years this union of sentiment was gradually
dissolved, Cavour, through struggling with absolute governments, be-
came more and more a partisan of liberty, while De La Rive, disgusted
with the unreasonable demands of democracy, united himself more and
more closely with the conservative party. Their friendship, however,
was never disturbed, and if the bust of the statesman occupied in the
parlor of our associate a place of distinction opposite that of the cele-
brated Rossi, on the other hand Cavour never could speak of the savant
except in terms of tender affection and profound respect.

M. Auguste De La Rive was, to an unusual degree, favored in the cir-
cumstances of his life. The scion of an illustrious family, of a spotless
name, educated by a father of large heart and noble understanding, mas-
ter of a fortune which allowed free pursuit of his studies, and residing
in a country where he was appreciated at his proper value, he passed
his days in unbroken prosperity and in the quiet enjoyment of the pleas-
ures derived from a love for letters and the fine arts, the culture of
science, the practice of benevolence, devotion to his country, and the
joys of domestic life. When, after having long been a correspondent of
the French Academy, he was made a member, he wrote to me, ‘‘I have
nothing now to wish for ; my desires are more than satistied.” A portion
of the year he passed in his city residence, the remainder of the time in
the country at Présinge, and in both places he exercised a generous
hospitality. Favorable as destiny had been to him in life, his death
was followed by a series of distressing events. In one short month, his
brother, who was united to him by ties of the tenderest affection, his
relative and friend M. Jules Francois Pictet, one of the most eminent
naturalists of the day, two of his sons-in-law, and Madame Quetelet, who
in her sorrow survived him only a few days, had also passed away. As
we visit his deserted laboratories, the scene of so many interesting discov-
eries, and wander, in imagination, through his two abodes, so full of
happy memories; through the silent halls whose echoes might repeat
the noble words of one of the greatest philosophers of the century, the
heart is oppressed with grief. But we remember that the eminently
good man, the illustrious and venerated savant, whose presence we
seek in vain in these now melancholy abodes of sorrow, will live forever
in the ineffaceable record of the past. Auguste De La Rive, far from
the belief that, on leaving this world, he would sink into nothing, as the -

EULOGY ON ARTHUR AUGUSTE DE LA RIVE. 205

ephemeral vapor is dissipated in the rays of the sun, placed full confi-
dence in a future reserved for man, in the hope of another and higher
state of existence. There is consolation in the thought that he leaves
behind him two sons worthy to be his successors, as well as a son-in-
law, and three daughters, whom he regarded with great tenderness, and
who will cherish with veneration and transmit to his descendants his
noble example of patriotism, benevolence, and respect for labor. But
the homage we render him is not confined to this world; it mounts to
the happy regions where he dwells an immortal soul, and worthy of
his immortality.

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ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.*

°

By Proressor J. E. HILGARD, OF THE U. 8. Coast SURVEY, WASHINGTON, D. C.

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: I propose to engage your attention this
evening with the subject of the tides of the ocean and the influence ex-
erted by tidal currents on our harbors. I shall first briefly describe the
phenomena of the tides as they present themselves to an observer, then
consider the physical causes to which these phenomena are due, next
examine more in detail the phases of the tide on our own coasts, and
finally describe the tidal hydraulics of the magnificent harbor of New
York.

The most obvious change in the surface of the ocean to be noticed
upon our shores is the alternate rising and falling regularly twice in
every day. Closer attention will show that the tides of each day occur
somewhat later than those of the-preceding day, the average time of re-
tardation being fifty-two minutes, and that this retardation corresponds
to that of the moon. It will pass as a fair approximation to say, that it
is high water at New York with a southeast moon, or similarly for New
Castle, on the Delaware, that high water occurs when the moon is south
In fact, so closely is the time of tide connected with the position of the
moon, that in order to give the time of high water upon any day ap-
proximately it is customary to state the time of high water on the days
of the new and full moon, when the moon passes the meridian at twelve
o'clock, nearly. This time is called the ‘establishment of the port.”
Then, to find the time of high water on any other day, it is only neces-
sary to add the “establishment” to the time of the moon’s meridian
passage on that day. On closer examination, it will be found that the
interval between the time of the moon’s passage’ over the meridian and
the time of high water, called the luni-tidal interval, varies with the
moon’s age very sensibly. Moreover, the elevation at high water and
depression at low water will not always be the same, but will be great-
est about the times of new moon and full moon, and least about the first
and third quarters. The details of these variations will be best traced
out in connection with the explanation of their causes, to which we will
now proceed.

The popular explanation of the tides, as depending on the law of gravi-
tation, is sufficiently simple, although the complete mathematical inves-
tigation of the subject, by which we should be enabled to predict their

* Delivered before the American Institute, January 27, 1871, with revision.

208 ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.

occurrence and magnitude for any place, is encompassed with difficul-
ties, from causes to which we shall hereafter revert.

If we conceive the earth to be wholly, or for the greater part, covered
with water and subject to the attraction of the sun, the force of which
varies inversely as the square of the distance, it will be obvious, that
while the whole earth will fall toward the sun with a velocity proportioned
to the aggregate attraction upon its solid portions, (which is the same as
if all the matter were collected at its center,) the water nearest to the
sun being accelerated by a greater force, and being fluid, will approach
the sun more rapidly than the solid core. It will thus run from all sides
into a protuberance beyond the form of equilibrium of the earth’s attrac-
tion and rotation, until the pressure of the elevated mass equals the dif-
ference in the attraction of the sun. Moreover, a similar protuberance
will be formed on the side opposite to the sun, since the particles of
water, being solicited by a less force than the solid core, will fall more
slowly toward the sun, and as it were remain bebind. Nor does the fact -
that on the average the earth does not lessen its distance from the sun, in
the least invalidate the force of this reasoning ; for the deviations from
the tangential motion of the earth in its orbit are precisely those which
the earth would move through if falling toward the sun unaffected by
any other impulse.

The same considerations hold good in regard to the attraction of the
moon upon the earth and the waters surrounding it; for although we are
in the habit of considering the moon as simply revolving about the earth,
it must be remembered that the attraction is mutual, that both bodies
describe orbits about their common center of gravity, and that while the
moon obeys the attractive force of the earth, the latter equally follows
that of the former, by which itis at every instant of time drawn from the
path which it would pursue if that influence did not exist by an amount
precisely equal to the fall corresponding to the moon’s attractive force.

As a necessary consequence of the elevation of the water in the
regions nearest to and most remote from the attracting body, there
must be a corresponding depression below the mean level of the sea
at points distant ninety degrees from the vertices of the protuberances,
or at the sides of the earth, as seen from the sun or moon. If the latter
bodies maintained a constant position with respect to the earth, the
effect would therefore be to produce a distortion of figare in the ocean-
surface, (assumed to cover the whole earth,) having the ‘orm ofa slightly
e.ongated ellipsoid, the two vertices of which would be the one pre-
cisely under, the other precisely opposite to, the points at which the
disturbing body is vertical. This, however, is not the case; for by the
rotation of the earth, and the motion of earth and moon in their orbits,
the direction of the disturbing forces is constantly changing with respect
to any point on the earth’s surface. New points arrive at every instant.
under the zenith and nadir of either luminary, and thus it is that waves

e produced which follow them round the globe. The highest points

_—

ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. 209

of these waves will remain far behind the verticals of the disturbing
bodies, hecause the inertia and friction of the water prevent the rapid
change of form required, and because, although the elevating force is
greatest under the vertical, it still continues to act in the same direction
for some hours after the passage of the luminary, with but little
diminished force.

This retardation, which would be sensible under the simple supposi-
tion of an uninterrupted ocean covering the earth’s surface, becomes
very considerable under the actual circumstances of the case. The
depth of the sea varies so much, and the form of its basin, taken as a
whole, is so interrupted by the land, that no regular progressive move-
ment of the tide-wave can take place, except in the great Southern
Ocean. At all points on the coast the phases of the tide will follow
the periodicity of the forces causing them, but at each point, at a greater
or less interval from the culmination of the sun or moon, according to
its local position, and the more or less circuitous course taken by the
tide-wave to reach it. This interval and the actual rise and fall of the
tide must be determined for each place by special observation.

LUNI-SOLAR PHASES OF THE TIDES.

The close relations which the times of high water bear to the times
of the moon’s passage show that the moon’s influence in raising the
tides must be much greater than the sun’s. In fact, while the whole
attraction of the sun upon the earth far exceeds that of the moon, yet
owing to the greater proximity of the latter, the difference between
its attraction at the center of the earth and at the nearest or most
remote point of its surface, which difference alone produces the tides,
is about two and a half times as great as the difference of the sun’s
attraction at the same points.

SEMI-MONTHLY INEQUALITY.

We will now consider the particular phases resulting from the com-
bination of the lunar and solar tides, and from the varying positions of
those bodies. There will be two complete lunar tides in every lunar
day of twenty-four hours fifty-two minutes, and also two complete
Solar tides in every mean solar day of twenty-four hours. These are
known as the semi-diurnal tides, and constitute the principal variations
of the sea-level. The combined effect of these two fluctuations will be
most readily understood by reference to the annexed diagram, in which
the lunar tide is represented by dashes, the solar by dots, and the com-
bined or actual tide by a full line. At the time of syzygies, or full and
change of the moon, the effects of both sun and moon combine together
to produce the spring-tides, when high water is higher and low water is
lower than at mean tides by the amount of the solar tide. At quad-
ratures the high water of the sun will combine with the low water of

148

210 ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. ;

the moon to produce a less fall, and the low water of the sun with the .
high water of the moon to produce a less rise than at mean tides; and
we have the neap-tides, the range of which is less than the mean range
by the amount of the solar tide. Thus, at New York, the rise and fall
at syzygies is 5.4 feet, at quadrature 3.4 feet, the former being the sum,

SEMI-MONTHLY INEQUALITY

M00 N

SPRING TIDES

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the latter the difference of the lunar and solar tides, whence we obtain
for the effect of the moon 4.4 feet and for that of the sun one foot, or a |
ratio of forty-four to ten. This proportion does not prove fo be the |
same in all parts of the world, and even varies considerably in places

ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. 211

not far distant from each other. At Boston the heights are 11.3 and
8.5 feet, respectively, giving a proportion of seven to one. On the
Atlantic coast of the United States it averages about five to one, while
on the east side of the Atlantic Ocean, on the coasts of France and
England, it is in many parts as three to one. These differences are to
be ascribed to the fact that the shore and harbor tides which we observe
have in every instance acquired a greater magnitude than the ocean
tides, in consequence of the wave having passed over a sloping bottom
and having been greatly retarded by the effect of friction. A comparison
of the range of spring and neap-tides, therefore, will not serve as a
correct measure of the relative effect of the sun and moon, unless the
effect of friction were taken into consideration, which we are at present
unable to do for want of a complete knowledge of the configuration of
the bottom. .

The interval between the moon’s meridian passage and the time of
high water is subject to a variation similar to that of the height. On
the day after the spring-tides, the top of the solar tide-wave will be
nearly an hour in advance of the lunar tide-wave, and the two waves
will combine to make high water earlier than the moon’s alone would
bring it. It will continue to be earlier until the moon’s transit is
later by three hours, or in the first octant. It then falls back until it
is latest in the third octant, and again advances, until, at the next
spring-tides, it reaches its mean period. The mean of all the luni-tidal
intervals for half a month at a port its called its mean establishment,
which is used for finding the time of high water on any given day; and ~
tables are constructed from observations at the principal ports for find-
ing the correction for semi-monthly inequality due to the moou’s age.
Thus, for New York, the mean luni-tidal interval is 8h. 13m., and its
least and greatest values are 7h. 52m. and 8h. 35m. On the Atlantic
coast of the United States the range of this inequality is about three-
quarters of an hour; on the coasts of France and Great Britain it often
exceeds one and a half hours.

DIURNAL INEQUALITY.

The next variation of the tides to be considered is that dependent on
the moon’s declination. Were that body constantly in the plane of the
equator, the highest points of the tide-waves would also be in that plane,
and would consequently produce a series of equal tides at any place
either north or south of the equator. But it is evident that, when the
moon ascends to the north, the vertex of the tide-wave will tend to fol-
low it, giving the highest point of one tide in the northern, and the
’ highest point of the opposite tide in the southern, hemisphere. Conse-
quently, when the moon has a northern declination, the tide at any place
in the northern hemisphere caused by its upper transit will be higher
than that caused by its lower transit. (See diagram of diurnal inequal-
ity.) This variation in the heights has a period of one lunar day, and

ie ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.

is called the diurnal inequality ; it reaches its maximum when the moon
is at its greatest northern or southern declination, and disappears when
it is on the equator, and consequently has a half-monthly period. The
variations of height from this cause produce a corresponding inequality
in the times of high water. The sun’s declination affects the tides in a
Similar manner, but the amount of the disturbance is very small, and its
period extends over half a year. In long series of observations its effect
is nevertheless well marked, both in height and time. The diurnal in-
equality, depending upon the moon’s declination, is, on the other hand,

E
{
4

quite sensible, and in many places constitutes a prominent feature of —

the tides, as on the Pacific coast of North America.

DIURNAL INEQUALITY >)

PARALLACTIC INEQUALITY.

A further cause in the variation of the height of the tides is the varia-
tion of the distances of the sun and the moon by reason of the ellipticity

|

ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. PRS

of their orbits. The efficacy of a heavenly body in raising tides is shown
by theory to be inversely proportional to the’ cube of the distance.
Hence the efficacy of the sun will fluctuate between the extremes nine-
teen and twenty-one, taking twenty for its mean value, and that of the
moon between forty-three and fifty-nine. Taking into account this
cause of difference, the highest spring-tide will be to the lowest neap as
59+ 21 to 43—19, or as eighty to twenty-four, or ten to three; leaving
out of consideration the local circumstances of access and depth, which,
as we have stated, modify those proportions in a marked degree.

TYPE CURVES.

~The three principal forms of tides are illustrated in the annexed dia-
gram, which exhibits the tides at New York, San Francisco, and Galves-
ton for two days from actual observation. Of these, that for San Fran-
cisco may be taken as the normal type, showing the diurnal inequality,
while that at New York, as at other ports on the Atlantic coast, is not
sensibly affected by it. The explanation of this feature is probably to
be found in the supposition that the tide-wave which advances up into
the Atlantic Ocean from the continuous tide in the Southern Ocean ar-
rives on our shores twelve hours later than the direct tide-wave which
crosses the Atlantic from east to west. In this way the diurnal inequal-
ity will be eliminated by the superposition of the two tides, the greater
high water of the former coinciding with the lesser of the latter, and
vice versa, leaving the semi-diurnal tides of equal height.

TIDE REGISTERS

SOVERNORS |.
NY 4

aS

The tide at Galveston, on the other hand, furnishes a case of the elim- *
ination of the semi-diurnal tide, leaving as a residual only the diurnal

BOLIVAR PT.
TEXAS

214 ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.

inequality. It is to be presumed in this instance that the tides reaching
Galveston through the straits of Florida and through the passage be-
tween Cuba and Yucatan differ by six hours in their periods, causing
the low water of one to coincide with the high water of the other, thus
sensibly destroying the semi-diurnal tides, except in so far as they are
unequal. This leaves a small tide outstanding, having substantially
the form of the diurnal inequality, and producing the appearance of the
‘“¢ single-day tide,” or one high and one low water in every twenty-four
hours. This residual fluctuation is well marked at times when the
moon’s declination is considerable on either side of the equator, but dis-
appears almost entirely when the moon is near the equator, since, at
such times, the diurnal inequality disappears. Tides of this class have
always a small range; inthe Gulf of Mexico they rarely exceed two and
a half feet, and the average rise and fall is but one and a half foot.

The tides on the coasts of the United States have been specially in-
vestigated by Professor Bache, the late Superintendent of the American
Coast Survey. In connection with that work he organized an extensive
system of exact tidal observations, for the purpose of ascertaining the
complicated laws which govern the tides of the seas that wash our
shores. It will be readily understood that in order to separate the
effects of the different causes which modify the phenomena, it is not
sufficient to observe merely the heights and times of high and low
water, but that a continuous record of the tides is necessary, as the
inequalities are constantly shifting their place and magnitude.

TIDE-GAUGES.

For this pyrpose a self-registering tide-gauge is used, by which a
continuous curve, representing the successive changes in the height of
water, is traced on paper, moved by clock-work, by a pencil actuated by
the rising and falling of a float in a vertical box, to which the tide has
free access. The time-scale is such that every hour is represented by
one inch, and is pricked into the paper by points on the cylinder which
moves the paper forward. The scale of heights is so adapted to the
‘range of the tide at the place of observation that the extreme range of
the curve will not exceed the width of the sheet—twelve inches. A con-
tinuous sheet, sufficient for the record of a whole month, is put on the
tide-gauge at one time. A complete description of this instrument will
be found in the United States Coast Survey Report for 1853. [The
lecturer illustrated the construction of several tide-gauges by means of
diagrams. |

In northern ports interruptions are experienced in winter from the
float-box becoming clogged with ice, and various devices have been
resorted to for overcoming this difficulty. One of the most effective has
been that of maintaining a temperature above freezing within the float-
box by means of a simple heating-‘apparatus. An arrangement of this
kind has actually been used on the Fox Islands, in Penobscot Bay. A

ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. 215

stream of water flows slowly from an elevated hogshead through a coil
in a large stove, passes down to the bottom of the float-box and up
again into another hogshead, from which it is pumped up every day by
the observer into the first one. As but a small elevation of temperature
is necessary, this arrangement has proved quite sufficient.

Another arrangement, devised by Mr. Batchelder, of Boston, and
called by him an “Arctic tide-gauge,” is in use at Boston, and has com-
pared well with the ordinary float-gauge. It consists of a strong iron
tube, about four inches in diameter, firmly bolted to a wharf or pile. It
is open at the top, and has at the lower end a nipple, to which an India-
rubber bag is fastened; the length of the tube being sufficient to allow
the elastic bag to be always submerged at the lowest stage of the tide.
The bag is supported by a suitable shelf or cage, and is filled with
glycerine, which is poured in at the top of the tube. When in this con-
dition the glycerine rises and falls within the iron tube in proportion to
the varying height and pressure of the column of water above the rub-
ber bag, the difference in the height of the two columns being in pro-
portion to the difference of the specific gravity of the water and the
glycerine. The parts above described insure protection against floating
ice, and prevent congelation within the iron tube.

A copper tube about three inches in diameter, closed at the bottom
and open at the top, is placed within the iron tube, and floats in the
glycerine; if left free, it would rise and fall with the changing level of
thisiliquid. The length of the central tube is a little greater than the
whole range of the tide.

Near the upper end of the outer tube there are three spiral springs,
fixed at the top and united at the bottom by a plate or disk, from which
the central copper tube is suspended. From a stem fixed to the central
tube or float, and moving with it, a string or chain leads over a single
pulley, and gives horizontal motion to the pencil-carriage of the record-
ing-apparatus.

The distance that the central tube is to move vertically is adjusted to
agree with the required range of the pencil upon the record-paper by
placing within it suitable weights.

As the glycerine rises or falls in the annular space between the iron
tube and the central float, the spiral spring at the top is more or less
extended, the extension being uniform on account of the cylindrical form
of the float.

It is not necessary that the India-rubber bag be inclosed in a perfo-
rated box, for the purpose of preventing oscillation, as it is always sub-
merged, and the pressure upon it is equal to the weight of the column
of water, having its base at the bag, and its summit at the mean level of
the surface-waves.

A tide-gauge, for observations on an open coast, has been devised by
Mr. Henry Mitchell, of the Coast Survey. The graduated scale on the
float is read from the shore by means of a spy-glass, the top of the tube
serving as index-mark.

216 ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.
PREDICTION OF TIDES.

Self-registering tide-gauges have been kept in operation for a number
of years at different points on both coasts of the United States, in order
to obtain from them the data for predicting the tides; and as a result,
tide-tables have been published by the Coast Survey for some years
past, giving in advance the times and heights of high and low water for
all the principal ports in the United States for every day in the year.
In addition to this, the differences are given by which to find the same
for intermediate ports.

A very elaborate discussion of the tides observed at Boston during
nineteen years, a full lunar cycle, has been made by Mr. William Ferrel,
of the Coast Survey, and has resulted in representing the actual tides
with unlooked-for precision. By the introduction of the consideration of
friction Mr. Ferrel has also succeeded in deriving a value for the mass
of the moon, which appears to compete in exactness with the values
obtained by astronomical methods. It is one seventy-seventh part of
that of the earth.

HARTHQUAKE-WAVES.

The tide-gauges being in continuous operation, all other fluctuations
of the ocean-level besides those produced by the tides are likewise reg-
istered. The tide-curves of the western coast are frequently found in-
dented by fluctuations arising from earthquakes. A remarkable instance
of thiskind is given in the aunexed diagram of earthquake-waves, which

EARTHQUAKE WAVES AT FORT PT, AS RECORDED ON THE SELF-REGISTERING TIDE GAUGE.
h h h
le eee ee PETC ADE sates 228 12 orytnle

recorded the earthquake that destroyed the city of Simoda, in Japan,
in December, 1854. The upper curve is a reduction from the tide-gauge
tegister, while the lower shows the earthquake-waves separated from

ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. FAT

the tidal wave. The time required for the transmission of the sea-waves
from Simoda to San Francisco was twelve hours and thirty-six minutes.
The distance being 4,500 miles, the transmission of the wave wasat an aver-
agerate of 360 miles per hour. The theory of wave-motion teaches us that
this velocity will be attained by a free-moving wave in a depth of 1,440
fathoms, which may be taken as the average depth of the Pacific Ocean
between Japan and California. It will be observed that the crests of
the waves occur at intervals of about twenty-three minutes, correspond-
ing to a length, from crest to crest, of 150 miles. The height when
the waves arrived at San Francisco was about eighteen inches from
hollow to crest, the high waves caused by the original impulse having
gradually flattened out to that form in their transmission across the
ocean.

The great earthquake which occurred in Peru, in August, 1868, was
likewise recorded on the tide-gauges at San Diego, San Francisco, and
Astoria. The fluctuation of the ocean was so great in this instance as
to be very sensible to casual observation, and was noted in Australia,
at the Sandwich Islands, and at Kodiak, in Alaska. The data obtained
from these observations, combined with the result before mentioned,
indicate that the average depth of the Pacific Ocean is about 1,800

fathoms.
MOVEMENT OF TIDAL WAVES.

The waves above described, originating with an impulse at one definite
point, and propagated freely through the ocean in every direction, with
a velocity depending upon the square root of the depth of the sea, may
serve as good illustrations of the manner m which tides are propagated
through sounds, bays, and rivers. The following table gives the rate of
motion for different depths:

Mepth im feet....--.-2s-06 10; Miles pet hour. 2 .23.4:.225- 12.2
be Op RRS Ca ite ds fi 60 6 SO) Rapa se ye LE 30. O
-: Od ect Saini ete 100 x So AC ee eek 38. 7
«“ eg SE GN 1,000 « ee ee Seat 122.3
6 Se a Aen 6, 000 GO TIES eel fee 299. 5

That movement of the ocean, however, which we have designated by
the name of tide-wave, does not partake of the nature of a wave in the
common acceptation of the term, but it is rather to be conceived as a
general movement of the water toward a point under the attracting body,
and again away from it. Its periodicity is strictly dependent upon that
of the attracting body. The velocity of the movement is about 1,000
miles per hour on the equator; it extends to the bottom of the ocean,
the depth of which is inconsiderable compared with the radius of the
earth. It is not attended by a sensible elevation of the water in mid-
ocean; and in this respect the characteristic of what we call a wave is
absent. The movement may be likened to that of an impulse given to
a very long rigid bar, as of iron. In this case, a sensible time will be

218 ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.

required for the transmission of the impulse from one end to the other,
and during its transmission the particles will successively approach to
each other, by which an infinitesimal elevation and subsidence, after
the manner of a wave, will be produced. In the same way the trans-

TIMES AND HEIGHTS OF TIDES ON ATLANTIC COAST OF UNITED STATES

5
<<

my,
pe
~s.
~

u i

mission of the movement through the incompressible water of the sea
is attended with an infinitesimal elevation and recession; but when the
movement reaches shallow water, in approaching the shores, the hori-
zontal motion is partly translated into vertical motion upon the sloping
bottom; and it is thus that the tides attain sensible vertical height.

ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. 219

Now, where a bay or indentation of the coast presents itself, opening
favorably to the tide-wave thus developed, and decreases in width from
its entrance toward its head, the tide rises higher and higher from the
mouth upward. This is due to the concentration of the wave by the
approach of the shores and to the gradual shoaling of the.bottom.

This effect is strikingly illustrated by a generalization of the heights
of the tides on the Atlantic coast of the United States. That coast
presents, in its general outline, as represented in the annexed diagram,
three large bays: the great southern, from Cape Florida to Cape Hat-
teras; the great middle, from Cape Hatteras to Nantucket; and the
great eastern, from Nantucket to Cape Sable, now known as the Gulf
of Maine. It will be seen that the tide-wave arrives at about the same
time at the headlands, Cape Florida, Cape Hatteras, Nantucket, and
Cape Sable, and that at those points the height is inconsiderable com-
pared with the rise at the head of the several bays. Thus, at Cape
Florida the mean rise and fall is only one and one-half of a foot; at
Hatteras, but two feet; while at the intermediate entrance to Savannah
it reaches seven feet, declining in height toward both capes. Again, at
the head of the middle bay, in New York Harbor, it reaches five feet,
while on the southeast side of Nantucket Island it is little over one
foot. The configuration of the eastern bay is less regular, and the cor-
respondence of heights is not so obvious. The recess of Massachusetts
Bay is well marked, the increase in height reaching ten feet at Boston
and Plymouth. Rolling on eastward along the coast of Maine, it con-
stantly increases; but the most striking effect of the convergence of
shores is exhibited in the Bay of Fundy. AtSt. John’s the mean height
of tide is nineteen feet, and at Sackville, in Cumberland Basin, thirty-
six feet, attaining to fifty feet and more at spring-tides.

When the wave leaves the open sea, its front slope and rear slope are
equal in length and similar in form, but as it advances into a narrow
channel, bay, or river, its front slope becomes short and steep, and its
rear slope becomes long and less inclined. Hence arises the fact that
at a station near the sea, the time occupied by the rise is equal to that
occupied by the descent; but at a station more removed from the sea,
the rise occupies a shorter time than the descent. Thus, in Delaware
Bay and River we have the following relations of the duration and
height of rise and fall:

Mean duration of—
Mean rise |Luni-tidal

Station. and fall. | interval.
Flood-tide.| Ebb-tide,
Feet. h.m. h. m, hem.
Welaware breakwater........-.-----. <<<. - 3:5 8 0 6 18 6 8
Sey Taland light.......... 1-2. --ce cess. 6.0 9 4 5 56 6 30
i (Cine ey oes ee a pei eet Wats ee? 5.5 11 53 5 24 7
Philadelphia io 2 ee pee els ents Se 6.0 13 44 4 52 7 34

220 ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.

An examination of this table will show, besides the marked increase
in the height of the tide due to the contraction of the shores from the
capes up to New Castle, a subsequent loss from friction in a narrow
channel of nearly uniform character, and correspondingly a rapid propa-
gation of the tide-wave through the deep water of the bay, and a com-
paratively slow movement along the narrower channel of the river. At
the mouth of the bay the duration of rise exceeds that of fall by ten
minutes, while at Philadelphia it is less by two hours forty-two min-
utes. When the tide is very large compared with the depth of water,
this inequality becomes very great; thus, in the Severn River, at Newn-
ham, above Bristol, England, the whole rise of eighteen feet takes place
in one and a half hours, while the fall occupies ten hours.

TIDAL CURRENTS.

The agency of tidal currents in producing changes in the entrances
of bays and harbors is a subject of the first importance to commerce
and navigation, and has received full attention in the prosecution of the
American coast survey. The laws according to which the changes
take place require to be studied by long-continued observation, and
when the change is for the worse, the means of counteracting it must
be pointed out.

As on the average the same amount of water moves inward and out-
ward with the flood and ebb tides, we might readily suppose that the
same amount of material is transported either way, and that no impor-
tant change would take place in the configuration of the bottom. But
the operation of the flood-stream is very different from that of the ebb-
stream. We have, as a general feature, an interior basin of some ex-
tent, communicating with the sea by a comparatively narrow passage.
The flood-stream, therefore, running with considerable velocity through
this channel, will, as it enters the basin, spread out and become slow,
depositing the sand and mud it is charged with, and making extensive
flats or shoals opposite the entrance. The ebb-stream runs slowly over
the flats from all directions toward the opening without removing much
of the deposit, and gradually concentrates in definite narrow channels,
which it scoops out, and the depth of which will depend in a great de-
gree on the proportion of the area of the basin to the outlet, or, in other
terms, on the difference of level which will be reached during the ebb
between the basin and the ocean, which determines the greatest veloe-
ity and transporting power reached by the ebb-stream.

On the bars of most of the sand-barred harbors on our southern coast,
the place and direction of the channel are frequently changed during
violent storms; when the direction of the waves happens to be oblique to
that of the channel, or when the searuns directly upon the channel, the
depth of water may be considerably diminished for the time being by the
sand rolled up by the waves. But in all these cases it is found that
the normal depth is speedily restored by the scour of the ebb-tide, which

ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. Do

depends upon the unchanged factors of area and form of basin, height
of tide, and character of the material forming the bar.

EFFECT OF SINKING STONE-FLEET ON CHARLESTON BAR

An interesting instance of this mamtenance of the depth of channels
from a determinate tidal basin is furnished by the effects of the ob-
structions placed in the channel over Charleston Bar during the war of
the rebellion. On the accompanying diagram is seen the “ stone fleet ”
sunk in the main channel, which at that time had twelve feet of water
at low tide where the figure 7 indicates the present depth. There was,
moreover, another channel, making out more to the southward, with

22, ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.

nine feet of water, where the figure 3 indicates the present depth. The
vessels were placed checker-wise, in such a manner as to impede naviga-
tion, while interfering least with the discharge of the water. The effect,
nevertheless, was the formation of a shoal in a short time, and the
scouring out of two channeis, ope on each side of the obstructions,
through which twelve and fourteen feet can now be carried at low water.

The increased water-way thus given to the ebb-tide caused it to aban-_

don the old nine-foot channel on the less direct course to deep water.
We have here the total obstruction of a channel which was of consider-
able importance to the southward trade by new conditions introduced
at a point four miles distant from where the effect was produced, and
we are warned how carefully all the conditions of the hydraulic system
of a harbor must be investigated before undertaking to make any
change in its natural conditions, lest totally unlooked-for results be pro-
duced at points not taken into consideration.

NEW YORK HARBOR.

Approaching now more closely to the consideration of the tidal con-
ditions in New York Harbor, we will examine the progress of the tide-
wave through Long Island Sound from the eastward to its meeting with
that entering New York Bay at Sandy Hook.

&
TIMES AND HEIGHTS OF TIDES IN LONG ISD. SOUND AND NEW YORK HARBOR,

ees } -
ix“ Su Bock
Hlaams 2 I.

sie

&
on real
oo \ :
y YL GS aa
vil

We see from the annexed diagram that about seven and a half hours
after the transit of the moon high water has advanced just within Block
Island with an elevation of two feet, and at the same time has just
passed Sandy Hook with an elevation of four and a half feet. Travers-

ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. 223

ing the sound at a rate indicated by the Roman figures, with increasing
heights indicated by the Arabic numerals, it reaches Sand’s Point
eleven and a half hours after the transit of the moon with a height of
seven and seven-tenths feet. The observed time of transmission from
the Race to Sand’s Point is two hours one minute, and the time com-
puted from the depths, according tothe law developed by Airy, is two
hours fourteen minutes—a very good approximation, when we consider
the irregularities in the configuration of the sound, which could not be
taken into account. Advancing still farther, the height somewhat de-
clines in consequence of the changes of direction in the channel and
its shallowness. At Hell Gate this tide-wave is met by that which had
entered at Sandy Hook, and advanced more slowly, owing to the nar-
rowness and intricacies of the channel, especially in the East River.

These two tides, which meet and overlap each other at Hell Gate, dif-
fering from each other in times and heights, cause contrasts of water-
elevations between the sound and harbor which call into existence the
violent currents that traverse the East River. The conditions of the
tidal circulation through Hell Gate are such, that if there were a parti-
tion across it, the water would sometimes stand nearly five feet higher,
and at other times five feet lower, on one side than on the other. In the
actual case of the superposition or compounding of the two tides the
difference of level existing at any time is of course much less; but
‘tthe difference of one foot is often observed within the space of 100
feet in the most contracted portion of Hell Gate, off Hallett’s Point
Referring now more particularly to the diagram representing New —
York Bay and Harbor, it isimportant to observe that the e1itrance from
Long Island Sound is a natural depression or arm of the sea, which is
not changed by the forces now in operation. The tidal currents which
flow through it do not change the channel, but are obliged to follow it
in its tortuous course. The Sandy Hook entrance, on the contrary, is
characterized by a cordon of sands, extending from Sandy Hook to
Coney Island, intersected by channels, which are maintained against
the action of the sea, that tends to fill them up, by the scour of the ebb-

‘tide from the tidal basin of New York Harbor.

Unlike Hell Gate passage, where permanence is the leading charac-
teristic, the bar and channels of Sandy Hook have undergone continual
changes within the brief period of our history. The advance of Sandy
Hook upon the main ship-channel is among the notable and important
jnstances of the effect of tidal currents. Within a century it has in-
creased a mile anda quarter. In the place where the beacon on the
end of the Hook vow stands were forty feet of water fifteen years before
it was built. The cause of this growth is a remarkably northwardly
current along both shores of the Hook, running both during the flood
and the ebb tides with varying rates, and resulting from those tides
directly and indirectly.

The best water over the bar is about two miles east of Sandy Hook

224 ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.

light, in a direct line with the swash channel, which is the second open-
ing—shown on the sketch—above the Hook; the shoal lying between
the main or Hook channel and the swash channel being known as
Flynn’s Knoll. The greatest depth over the bar is twenty-two feet at
mean low water; and very nearly the same depth can now be carried
through the swash channel, which formerly was three feet shallower,

ENTRANCE TO NEW YORK HARBOR

NEWARK

st ay
Seen, OP cy
A .

G£p
. Sess NEv0
* (SANDY: HOOK

wits OF

but has deepened since the cross-section between the Hook and Flynn’s
Knoll has been diminished by one-third its area by the growth of the
Hook. This relative change in the capacity of the channels has not,
however, affected the depth on the outer bar, which, according to the
principles above laid down, is dependent mainly upon the area of the
tidal basin within.

The depth of twenty-two feet at mean low water, which is now main-
tained at the entrance through the sands constantly thrown up by the

ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS. 225

waves of the sea, may be considered as depending upon the following
elements:

1st. The large basin between Sandy Hook ard Staten Island, inelud-
ing Raritan Bay, which furnishes more than one-half of the whole ebb-
scour ;

2d. What is called the Upper Bay, including the Jersey flats and
Newark Bay;

3d. The North River, perhaps as far as Dobbs’ Ferry, maintaining
the head of the ebb-current, although not directly taking part in the
outflow ; and,

4th. A portion of the sound tide, which flows in through Hell Gate.

The proportion of the three first divisions in producing the depth of
channel may be approximately estimated by a comparison of the areas
and distances from the bar. In order to maintain the depth which we
now have, it is important that the area of the tidal basin should not be
encroached upon. In proportion as that is diminished the depth of the
channels will decrease.

The flats, just bare at low water, but covered at high tide, form as
important a part as any other portion, for it is obvious that it is only
the volume of water contained between the planes of low and high
water—the “ tide-prism ”—that does the work in scouring the channels.
The water on the flats is especially useful by retarding the outflow,
thus allowing a greater difference of level to be reached between the
basin and the ocean.

When we yield to the demands of commerce any portion of the tidal
territory to be used for its wharves and docks, we must do so with full
cognizance of the sacrifice we are about to make in the depth of water
over the bar; and in order to form any well-founded judgment in re-

_ gard to the effect of such encroachments, it is necessary to be in pos-

session of the fullest knowledge of all the physical facts involved in

_ the problem, and no measure of encroachment should be determined

| ae

upon except in pursuance of the advice of scientific experts.

A proposition frequently mooted by men of enterprise, and resisted
by those interested in the welfare of the city of New York, is the occu-
pation of the Jersey flats from Paulus Hook to Robbins Reef for docks
and wharves. Without expressing any opinion as to the relative value
of the gain of accommodation for shipping and the loss of depth in
the channel, I venture to say that the withdrawal of that area from the
domain of the tide would occasion a loss of not less than one foot in
the depth of the bar off Sandy Hook, and certainly not more than two
fest.

The part which the fourth division in our classification of the basin
of New York, that of the East River and Hell Gate passage, plays in
the outflow of the ebb-tide through the Sandy Hook channels, depends
less upon the area involved than upon the difference in point of time
and height of tide in Hell Gate, already adverted to. The westerly

158

226 ON TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HARBORS.

current, usually called the ebb-stream, since it falls in with the ebb-
stream of New York Harbor, taking place when the sound-tide is
highest, starts from a level of three and a half feet higher than the
easterly, and thus a much larger amount of water flows out through
the Sandy Hook channels than through the narrows at Throg’s Neck.
It is apparent, then, that this portion of the ebb-stream, re-enforcing as
it does the ebb-stream of the harbor proper at the most favorable
times, performs a most important part in maintaining the channels
through the Sandy Hook bar. It may be estimated that the closing of
Hell Gate would cause the loss of certainly not less than three feet in
the depth of those channels.

From what has been said with regard to the meeting of the tides in
Hell Gate, it will be seen that the violent currents experienced in that
locality are due to causes beyond our coutrol. The dangers to naviga-
tion arising from these currents, however, by their setting vessels upon
the rocks and reefs, may, in a great measure, be done away with by the
removal of the obstructions, in which work considerable progress has
already been-made. The removal of the reef at Hallett’s Point, the
work upon which is now in progress, will doubtless, in a great degree,
do away with the eddies and under-currents produced by the sharp turn —
which the channel now takes at that point. It is not improbable that
the successful removal of those obstructions will yet cause the sound
entrance to be used in preference to the other by the fleets plying
between European ports and the great commercial metropolis of America.

Novre.—The reader who wishes to enter upon the mathematical treatment of the subject
of tides is referred to Airy’s treatise on tides and waves, and to the memoirs of Whewell
and Lubbock, in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society ; and for investiga-
tions of the laws of the tides on our own coasts, to the papers on that subject by Bache
and others in the annual reports of the Coast Survey. Among the latter, the lecturer. is
particularly indebte} to the ‘* Report on the tides and currents of Hell Gate,’’ by Henry
Mitchell, 1867, in which the complicated problem of the tidal circulation of New York Har-
bor is treated with great ability and success.

OBSERVATIONS UPON THE ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
AND THE AURORA BOREALIS, MADE DURING THE SWEDISH
EXPEDITION OF 1868 TO THE NORTH POLE.

By Prof. Setim LEMSTROM, of the University of Helsingfors, Finland.

There can be no savant now living who is not convinced that polar
light is a phenomenon due to electric action in the upper regions of the
atmosphere. Of the two theories which have been advanced to explain
the phenomenon, one of whieh seeks its origin exclusively in variations m
the intensity of terrestrial magnetism, the other in the electricity of the
air, the former must give place to the latter, since there are very many
convincing proofs in its favor. Unhappily, our knowledge of the electric
state of the atmosphere in high polar regions is very limited; could it
be extended, all doubts which now exist in regard to the subject would
_ probably disappear. The attempts made to discover the nature of
atmospheric electricity in the regions of the extreme north, have in gen-
eral given only negative results, with the exception, however, of the re-
searches made in the neighborhood of Bossekop by French savants, who,
by sending up a kite or an arrow, attached by a conducting wire to an
electroscope, to a vertical height of from 30 to 40 yards, have proved
the constant presence of positive electricity ; but, these observations are
too few in number, and were made in a latitude not sufficiently high to
be conclusive.

I. One of the most important of my objects in the physical researches
of the expedition of 1868 was the study of the phenomena relating to the
electricity of the atmosphere; but notwithstanding all my care, I ob-
tained only negative results. As I am convinced that in every case I
could account for my want of success, I will briefly describe the experi-
ments I attempted, in order to pass to the observations I had occasion to
make in regard to the aurora borealis.

The first experiment, made on the 26th and 28th of August, 1868, on
a narrow tongue of land at Kobbe Bay, by means of the electrometer,
gave no result, although the observations were made several times a
day, and even at night, at the same time that I observed the magnetic
instruments. Expecting to find the cause of these negative results
either in the insensibility of the instrument or in the nature of the lo-
eality, which, closed on three sides by mountains, was open only on the
side toward the sea, I determined to modify my instrument, and to look
fora more open place for my observations. It was not until the 28th

2°28 ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS.

of September, while the Sophie was anchored at Southgatt, that [ could
carry this project into execution.

Having made my electrometer more sensitive, I went, on the day
above mentioned, between 11 o’clock and noon, to an ene situated at
the mouth of the Saree and established my instrument on the high-
est point of the island, 600 feet above the level of the sea. Notwith-
standing these precautions I still obtained no certain result. This was
possibly on account of the violence of the wind, which produced oscilla-
tions in the electrometer, but other observations made on the 7th of
October at King’s Bay were equally unsuccessful.

Although these experiments were too few in number, and too incom-
plete to draw from them any positive conclusion whatever, I am con-
vineed that this absence of electric manifestation was due to the peculiar
constitution of the air in these regions. A glance over the hygrometrie
observations shows that the air was almost constantly saturated with
moisture, and this moisture did not exist merely in the form of insensible
vapor, but also asfog. This circumstance rendered it almost impossible to
isolate the instrument, and consequently to obtain the xffects of the
electricity of tension. We may at least conclude that there is_no elec-
tricity of tension in northern aerial regions which approximate to a plain,
but that the electricity rises through damp air into the higher regions
of the atmosphere. I am inclined to believe that observations of the
electricity of the air made on level ground will aiways give negative
results. Elevated ground should be chosen, and an instrument which
may be sent up into the higher strata of the atmosphere, such as the
kite used by Franklin.

Setting aside these incomplete experiments, whieh can only be of use
as guides for future efforts, i pass to the observations upon the aurora
borealis.

During the last days of September the Sophie was anchored at South-
gate, a strait lying between the island called Danes Island and the
continent of Spitzbergen, at 79° 59’ 7” of latitude and 11° 7’ of longitude
west of Greenwich. The gulf.of which this strait is an outlet is sur-
rounded on the north and south by mountains, those on the south about
300 meters in height. At the mouth of this gulf lies the island above
mentioned; to the east the view is limited by other mountains varying
in height. The Sophie was anchored close to the shore of Danskow, a
little to the northwest of the island, at the mouth of the strait. On
returning from the island, where the instruments for the magnetic obser:
vations had been deposited, I perceived upon the ridge of the mountain,
to the south, a brilliant polar light rising from 10° to 15° above
the mountain in undulating rays, distinctly defined, at their base ap-
pearing as a diffuse yellowish light, but higher up as vertical orange
beams, while at the top they formed a series of sharp points. |The rays
had an undulating motion, and the crest of the mountain was covered
with a light fog, which the wind was moving from east-northeast to

ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS. 229

west-southwest. In afew moments the cloud of mist passed the mount.
ain and the rays disappeared, but the crest of the mountain continued
to be illuminated by a pale wandering light, which floated along the
mountain, and of which it was not-easy to determine the character; still
I was in no doubt, for the spectral analysis very clearly displayed the
yellow ray discovered in polar light by M. Angstrém. I continued to
observe the crest of the mountain, over which foggy vapors were pass-
ing, allowing to appear from time to time the pale light I have described.

At 11 o’clock 30 minutes the upper part of the fog, which presented
very much the appearance of a cloud with serrated edges, became illu-
minated with a yellowish white light, in the course of a moment con.
verted into yellowish and reddish rays, which extended with an undula-
tory motion along the edges of the fog, following the irregularities in
their minutest detail. The fog rose in the form of an arch about 10°
above the mountain, and the rays attained a height of from 10° to 159,
which gives for the whole phenomenon an elevation of from 20° to 259°
above the borizon. At the same time there began to appear at the
north an indistinct combination of the brilliant edges of clouds, among
which I clearly distinguished one, from which proceeded a distinctly-
marked yellow ray, seeming in appearance to connect this cloud with
another. The rest of the sky was covered with fillets or bands of light
clouds, passing over the zenith from the east to the west and allowing
the stars to appear at intervals.

The day following, the 26th of September, having observed the crest
of the mountain with attention, | found it was almost entirely covered —
with snow, except at one or two places, which seemed to be those at
which the night before the light had appeared with least intensity.
The evening of the same day the phenomenon was again manifested,
but with some modifications. <A little below the horizon to the south-
west, almost opposite the promontory or headland which terminates the
mountain, appeared a series of clouds whose upper edges were strongly illu-
minated with a diffuse yellow and white light, which was very intense
on the edge of the cloud at the extreme western end of the series, but di-
minished in brillianey along the edges of the clouds until at the eastern
end, where the last cloud seemed to melt into the headland, it was
hardly perceptible. Very soon rays appeared, similar to those observed
the night before, which seemed to proceed from a mist lying along the
crest of the mountain, but somewhat back of it. This time the phe-
nomenon seemed to take place at a much greater distance than during
the preceding observations, but the form and color of the rays were the
same; and I again, with the spectroscope, obtained the yellow ray as
well from the light emanating from the edge of the clouds as from that
proceeding from the rays themselves.

On the 27th of September, after having observed in the morning a
radiation of yellowish-white light proceeding from’ one edge of a cloud
which stood out prominently from a wall of clouds, I perceived in the

930 ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA. BOREALIS,

evening, at 11 o’clock 30 minutes, a pale, wandering light moving dis-
tinetly along the ridge of the mountain. The light appeared for a few

moments in the form of rays of a clear and brilliant yellow, following —

every detail of the sinuosities of the mountain. The pale glimmer of
light seemed to follow the ridge of the mountain, and I was convinced,
from the movement of the mists, that the luminous phenomenon was
formed upon the ridge itself.

On the 30th of September, at 9h. 30 m., I witnessed on the island of —

Amsterdam a very intense luminous phenomenon, during which every
peak and ridge, the most elevated, was illuminated with a pale light, par-
ticularly when covered witha vail of mist. We could clearly distinguish

the contour of the mountains, and above them an effect of light, which —

frequently rose to a great height, and ended by gradually diminishing in
intensity until lost in the upper strata of the mist. This light appeared
during the whole of the harvest season, while we were stationed at
Spitzbergen. Upon some peaks, overlooking a glacier which descends to
the very bottom of Smeerenburg Bay, the light was still stronger. We

even perceived upon one point reddish rays resembling flames, in which —

the spectroscope evidently ,indicated the presence of the yellow ray. —

On the days when this phenomenon was observed the wind was very
strong, with a variable direction difficult to determine. We were, how-
ever, sure that there were two contending currentsof air—the one from
the north or east, the other from the south or west.

While the Sophie remained at Kingsbay, during the first fifteen
days of October, every night fog-like mist covered the summits and ridges
of the mountains, and their brilliancy seemed to increase as the season
advanced. Besides this general phenomenon, we observed on the 9th
of October, at 5h. in the morning, a brilliant polar light in the south, about
1,000 feet above the chain of mountains, which gradually faded away
toward the north. A similar light appeared on the 11th of October and
on the 12th, beneath a cloud upon the mountains, ready to be dissolved
into snow, appeared a pale-yellow light with points at its edge. This
luminous phenomenon had an undulatory movement, in addition to the
forward motion given to it by the course of the clouds toward the west.
Soon the light disappeared, and was replaced by a light fall of fine snow.
On the 14th and 15th of October, in the evening, a cloud appeared, (on
the 14th in the west-southwest, and on the 15th in the southeast, from
the upper edge of which, when at a sufficient height above the horizon,
emanated an intense yellow light, soon transformed into rays of genuine
polar light, yellow at their base and red at the top. These rays, which
moved with the cloud, rose with it nearly to the zenith, where they
tended to form a crown.

On the entrance of the Sophie into the Norwegian archipelago, on the
evening of the 18th of October, we saw some patches of polar light seat-
tered here and there over the sky, in the north and east, which after-_
ward formed a continuous ring around the horizon. The rays of this

|

ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS. 231

ring gradually elongated, and suddenly meeting around the. zenith,
formed for a few moments a boreal crown of perfect regularity and the
most brilliant colors.

On our arrival at Tromsé, I examined with the spectroscope a beauti-
ful pelar light, which appeared on the 21st of October, commencing at
the north. The first rays clearly displayed the yellow ray in question.
The phenomenon becoming more brilliant, a variegated band was formed
toward thesouth, of yellow, red, and green, which gave, Ist, the yellow ray;
2d, in the blue part, a very distinct and very clear ray ; 3d, two lines of
the breadth of a hair, showing very decided horizontal stripes by the
side of the yellow. I ought to say that the yellow ray in every case
seemed to me peculiar in being variable in intensity ; sometimes more,
sometimes less vivid. On the 27th of October, we were enabled to de-
termine more accurately the position of the rays, and we found that the
yellow line furnished by the yellow light of chloride of sodium was
61.0 ; in the auroral light, the yellow line was at 79.9; the blue at 65.90.
The first of the shaded lines at 125.0; and the second shaded line at
about 105.0.

If. Admitting, in general, the most of theopinions advanced in the work
of M. Loomis, in regard to the aurora borealis,* which, in many respects,
accord with the theory given by M. de la Rive, and supported by experi-
ment, I have still, after the observations described, some doubts in re-
gard to certain parts of this work, especially those which relate to the
particular nature of the phenomenon.

The fact that polar light is an electric phenomenon, taking place in -
the atmosphere, is well established by the analogy which exists between
its effects and those of electric currents. It produces, as they do, per-
turbations of the magnetic needle and currents in a good conductor.
The luminous phenomenon itself exacily resembles the light produced
by electric discharges in a damp‘atmosphere, or between two electrodes
placed in rarified air. The results of spectral analysis, as well as those
discovered by M. Angstrém, and the new rays I have described, give
further proof of the electric origin of polar light; for, in order to obtain
a spectrum with a gas, the latter must be incandescent, and electricity
is the only source of heat which can produce this incandescence in the
aerial molecules and other particles which constitute the atmosphere.

The question as to the height at which polar light is manifested has
been the subject of much controversy. From observations made in
America with great care and in several separate localities, M. Loomis
caleulated the height of the beautiful aurora borealis of the 2d of Sep-
tember to be at its lower limit 45 to 50 English miles, and at its upper
limit from 400 to 500, Mr. Potter, in England, in 1833, gave, as height
of the aurora, 63 miles, and Dalton, in 1826, estimated it at 100. Dur-
ing the French expedition, from 1838, 1839, observations made simulta-
neously at two stations—Bossekop and Jupwig—gave 60 to 160 miles

* Smithsonian Report for 1865,

932 ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS.

as the height of the aurora. Polar light, however, has been often ob-
served at much less height. Farquharson, by means of observations
made at two distinct places, a mile apart, found a height of 2,481 Eng-
lish feet ; and Captain Parry saw, on one occasion, polar light produced
between the place where he was stationed and a mountain only about
3,000 yards distant. The French observations made at Bossekop equally
proved the existence of polar light between the place of observation and
a neighboring mountain.*

Although M. Loomis and M. Bravais himself believe that observa-
tions which give so low a height to polar light are erroneous, and the
result of an illusion, I cannot agree with them, and I can offer in sup-
port of my opinion the phenomenon I observed on the 18th of October,
1868, at the entrance of the Norwegian archipelago, when the whole
horizou was covered with rays, which were soon united around the
magnetic pole, forming a regular crown. All the phenomena I have
observed and described in regard to the illuminated edges of clouds,
show very plainly that in these cases the polar ight was produced in
the region of clouds, and even lower. Moreover, we know by numerous
observations that the number of storms accompanied by lightning and
thunder diminishes considerably in proportion as we approach the polar
regions, so that at 70° they no longer occur. Must we then conclude ,
that in these regions the clouds are completely deprived of electricity ?
Certainly not, but only that the electrical discharges are made in some
other way. I have on several occasions observed discharges, accom-
panied with electric light, proceeding from scattered clouds or banks of
clouds such as produced true polar rays, and still more frequently I have
seen the edges of clouds illuminated with a yellow light. But, however,
in these high latitudes electricity is discharged not only by clouds, but
also directly by damp air, as takes place in winter in the temperate
zones. A great many direct observations prove the existence of slow
discharges of this nature, and very remarkable confirmation is given of
it by M. Angstrém, who on one occasion proved the presence of the
yeliow ray of polar light over almost the entire sky.

If it is well established that the phenomenon of polar light has its
source in the electricity of the air, it follows that its appearance depends
less upon terrestrial magnetism than has been hitherto supposed. This
may exercise a direct action upon the discharge already produced, but
cannot contribute to its production, which must depend upon certain
conditions of the different strata of air. Although terrestrial magnetism
has an influence upon the position of the luminous bow of polar light,

*M. A. W. Malin, intendant of the Museum of Gottenburg, relates, ina description of a
journey made in 1842in the Laplands of Sweden and Norway, that, during an excursion
from Maunu to Lyngen on the night of the 16th of March, he observed, at a height of 2,000
feet, with the temperature at 40 degrees below zero, a polar light between himself and the
neighboring mountains, and heard a crackling sound which accompanied it.

ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS.233

it is difficult to believe, with Hansteen and Bravais, that the position of
this bow is determined solely by the magnetic pole.

The apex of the polar bow is rarely in the exact direction of the needle
of declination. Of two hundred and twenty-six observations of the posi-
tion of the azimuth of the luminous polar bow, 36 out of 100 placed it 30°
more to the west, 32, 10° to 20°, 7,0° to 10°, and 4, 0° to 26° to the east 5
from which it is evident that the position of the bow varies over a space
ot from 25 to 30° and more. These variations are very great to be
explained by accidental perturbations in terrestrial magnetism, particu-
larly as the greatest deviation in magnetic declination—that is, from 6°
to about 7°-—observed occasionally in polar regions is due to polar light
itself.

We may then consider it certain that terrestrial magnetism relatively
plays but a secondary part in the phenomenon of polar light; that this
part essentially consists in a directive action upon the rays of this
light, and in a rotary movement imparted to these rays—facts positively
demonstrated by the experiments of M. de la Rive.

The formation of the auroral crown, which takes place when polar
light is very intense and its rays are united around the magnetic zenith,
is generally supposed to be an effect of perspective. When a certain
number of polar rays, parallel to the direction of the needle of inclina-
tion, are projected to a considerable height, they ought to appear to
unite around the magnetic zenith; but the aspect they present should
be rather that of a lengthened point or a funnel, according as the ob-
server is placed on one side or in the middle of the phenomenon. In
polar regions it often happens that the polar rays start from all parts
of the horizon, which is the case when the observer is within the ring.
If then the crown was a phenomenon of perspective, the rays should
appear to unite at a rather sharp angle. Now, this is by no means the
case, for they form a vault, resembling very much the cupola of a church.
Although my experience is not sufficient for me to make a positive
assertion, I am strongly inclined to believe that, under the influeuce of
terrestrial magnetism, and perhaps also through the effect of the con-
ducting power of the medium, the rays of light undergo a flexion, the
result of which is to unite them really, not merely in appearance, in the
upper parts of the atmosphere. In proof I may cite the polar light I
observed on the 18th of October, under the 17th degree of latitude.
The rays starting from all parts of the horizon formed an immense
ring, and united around the magnetic zenith, where the crown was
formed in a perfectly regular manner, presenting the appearance of a
flattened cupola. However, the experiments of M. de la Rive, which
have demonstrated the influence of magnetism upon electric light, un-
der circumstances almost identical with those presented by polar light,
furnish no proof that the rays of this light are really united under this
influence.

234 ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS.

Polar light, considered as an electric discharge, produces the follow-
ing results :*

1. An electric current, produced by the discharge itself, which takes
“eon slowly.

2. Rays of light consisting of an infinite number of sparks, each spark
giving rise to two currents of induction, proceeding in opposite di-
rections.

3. An electric current, proceeding in an opposite direction from that
of the charge, and originating in the electro-motive force, discovered by
M. Edlund in the electric spark.

In order to develop these currents, a closed circuit is necessary. it
is true that in the phenomenon of polar light this does not properly
exist, but in that case the earth on one hand, and the rarefied air of the
upper regions of the atmosphere on the other, are immense reservoirs
of electricity, which produce the same effect as if the circuit was closede

According to the theory of M. dela Rive, the positive electricity of the
air, discharging itself into the ground, produces a current I will call
principal; this currentis re-enforced by one of the currents of induetion,
which M. Edlund has shown accompany the production of the electrie¢
spark; that is to say, the one which, going in the opposite direction from
the chargé, can alone acquire a certain degree of intensity. But this
principal current thus re-enforced is counterbalanced in part by the one
which has the contrary direction, and which produces the electro-motive
force of the spark. We see by the observations made with telegraph
wires during the appearance of polar light that it is sometimes the one,
sometimes the other of these two currents which gains possession of the
wire, the first being generally predominant, since it has been observed
that the current given by telegraphic wires is more frequently directed
from the north to the south than from the south to the north.

Under the circumstances which accompany the production of polar —
light, the latter contains in itself all the conditions necessary in order
that magnetism may act upon it; for a ray of this light constitutes a
current, flexible throughout, and consequently obedient to the law dis-
covered by Plucker, according to which such a current necessarily takes
the form of a magnetic curve. It is here we should look for the cause
of the formation of the crown, taking at the same time into considera-
tion the variations in conductibility of the rarefied air of the upper
regions of the atmosphere.

When an arch of polar light appears, we consider that it forms part
of a radiant ring, whose center coincides very nearly with the mag-
netic pole. The rays of this ring are paraliel to the direction of the

* The author precedes this part of his work with the description of an experiment, in which
he tried, but unsuccessfully, the action of a magnet upon a series of discharges produced
by Holtz’s machine under certain conditions. We omit this description, as it would be un-
intelligible without a figure to illustrate it, and it is not of great qe po rane since the results
of the experiment were negative.

Ax.

ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS. 235

needle of inclination, and ought consequently to diverge from all
sides ; a circumstance unfavorable to their union in perspective at the
magnetic zenith. But it is not proved that the radiation has always for
center the magnetic pole ; it may very well have another central point,
as was the case during the observation I made on the 18th of October.
On that occasion, in fact, the ring could not have been completely visible
if it had had for center the magnetic pole. Besides, this variation of posi-
tion is more in conformity with the manner in which the electric charges
operate, and with the peculiarities observed in the local appearances of
polar light.*

Returning to the lights observed around the elevated peaks of the
Spitzbergen, I ought to say that this phenomenon has been noticed be-
fore. The learned philologist of Finland, Cashen, witnessed it in his
journeys to Siberia, and his description of it exactly accords with what
I have myself observed. Similar light has been seen in South America
above the peaks of the Cordilleras, and in several other localities men-
tioned by M. Delleman. The Archives des Sciences physiques et natu-
relles (tome xxxi, p. 15) contain an article by M. H. de Saussure, in
which are described a great number of phenomena, belonging, without
doubt, to the same category. But it is in the arctic regions, above all
others, that we find circumstances most favorable to observations of
this kind, and it is much to be desired that future expeditions will un-
dertake them.

If we seek for the reason es the clouds of the upper latitudes dis-
charge themselves under the form of polar light, and not that of thun- —
der and lightning, we find it in the permanent humidity of the air. The
hygrometric observations, made during the expedition of the Sophie,
show that the air is constantly saturated with aqueous vapors, which
condense frequently into clouds, more rarely into rain. It is clear that
this stratum of humidity, a good conductor of electricity, determines
a slow discharge. If between the poles of an electrical machine, not
sufficiently near together to produce a discharge, we project, by means
of an atomizer, Some water in spray, we see the discharge under the
form of brilliant rays. It is the same in a glass cylinder in which the
air has been rarified by several strokes of a piston, a rarefaction suf-
ficient to produce a mist. The discharge, which at first appears as a

*The author remarks here that the appearance of polar light is always accompanied by a
dark seement, through which the stars are visible. He mentions in this connection the ex-
periment of M. de la Rive, who, in transmitting the discharge of an induction coil through
very rarefied air, proved the existence of a very remarkable dark band near the negative
electrode. The author cites an experiment made by himself in the presence of M. Edlund,
during which he obtained by meaos of an electrophorus, in a tube of very rarefied air, a
bluish light, followed by a dark band strongly marked around the negative electrode, and a
kind of crown of rays around the positive electrode. In the phenomenon of polar light, the
earth constitutes the negative electrode, the rarefied air of the higher regions of the atmo-
sphere the positive electrode, and the dark segment bears a strong resemblance to the dark
band of the preceding experiment.

236 ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS. ,

spark, is gradually transformed into a luminous current, exhibiting the
ordinary colors observed in polar light. .
The more the relative degree of the humidity of the air increases an
augmentation, which at the surface of the earth proceeds from the
- equator to the poles, the more easily the electric discharge acts under
the form of polar light. But there may be a limit beyond which the
humidity is so great that the discharge takes place without the accom-
paniment of light. Such would seem to be indicated by the table prepared
by M. Loomis, of the geographical extension of polar light ; according to
which there must be a zone, comprised between the 65th and 76th de-
gree of latitude in Europe, and between the 50th and 64th in America,
in which the greatest number of phenomena of polar light are produced.
This very interesting peculiarity has been proved by observations made
during our expedition; at Spitzbergen the polar light always appeared
to the south, while at a lower latitude, the 69th degree, it appeared at
the zenith or to the north.

I now return to the question of spectral analysis; and for the moment
notice only the mobility, so marked, of the light of the yellow ray,
which seems to indicate 4 discontinuous luminous souree which is evi-
dently formed by an infinite number of sparks, succeeding each other
in rapid succession.

As to the crackling or rattling noise whieh accompanies the appear-
ance of polar light, I cannot say anything positively, since, on the oc-
easions when I made my observations, the combined noise of the sea
and the wind was of such a nature as to drown the faint crepitation of
an electric discharge. _Itis very probable that such a noise can be heard
under certain circumstances, for instance when the discharge takes place
at a minimum height, and also when it is made between small particles
of ice, which produce longer, and consequently stronger, sparks than
those formed between particles of water. As these circumstances which
are necessary for the production of this sound rarely occur, we can un-
derstand why observers do not agree in regard to the fact of its exist-
ence.

Some remarks upon the memoir of M. Lemstrém, by Professor De la Rive.

I find in the observations made by M. Lemstrém, in the polar regions,
such a complete confirmation of the views I have expressed on several
occasions in regard to the cause and explanation of polar auroras, that
T cannot retrain from noticing very briefly some of the points upon which
observation and theory completely agree. I have generally found myself
in accord with observers, whether such as Parry, Franklin and Ross, or
Bravais and Martins; it is rather between the theorists and myself that
there has been occasionally some difference. I ought to thank M. Lem-
strém for the pains he has taken, on every occasion, to mention my ex-
periments, and the consequences I have deduced from them, the accu-
racy of which he has confirmed.

{ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS. 237

M. Lemstrém proves by a great number of facts, supported by incon-
testable reasoning, that polar light is due to atmospheric electricity, of
which he has proved the presence in the polar regions, often in the
region of clouds, and sometimes even nearer the earth. He shows, as
Ihave done, that this light is the consequence of electric discharges.
which in these regions, constantly pervaded with humidity, operate in a
slow, continuous manner, instead of instantaneously by shocks producing
lightning, as takes piace in equatorial regions and middle latitudes.

He shows, with truth, that terrestrial magnetism, to which an exag-
gerated importance has been attributed, in the production of polar light,
has only a very secondary part in this phenomenon. This part consists
simply in giving to the luminous electric jets a certain direction they can
follow because of their flexibility, which depends upon whether the
medium through which they pass is gaseous. In support of his views in

- this respect, he refers to my experiments, by which I have demonstrated

this influence, and the law by which, according to Plucker, it is governed.

One very essential point upon which M. Lemstrém insists, and which
has been noticed by several observers, particularly by Bravais, is that
the crown formed in some cases by the rays of polar light is very far
from having always for center the magnetic zenith; that is to say, the
vertical line passing through the magnetic pole of the earth. In fact,
although the formation of this crown depends upon the directing influ-
ence of the magnetism upon the electric currents which form the lumin-
ous jets, and is not, as M. Lemstrém very well proves, a simple effect
of perspective, it must also depend upon the direction of the passage
of the electric discharges through the atmosphere, a direction which
itself changes with the conductibility more or less variable ofthe ditter-
ent atmospheric strata, so that the united effect of these two influences
ought to give to the raysa curvature and a position which cannot always
be the same.

In short, the electric discharges which take place in the polar regions

between the positive electricity of the atmosphere and the negative

electricity of the terrestrial globe are the essential and only causes of
the formation of polar light—light, whose existence is independent of
that of terrestrial magnetism, which only imparts to it a certain direc-
tion, and in some cases a movement, These views I have always main-
tained in opposition to those who think they find in terrestrial magnet-
ism, or rather, in the currents of induction which it can develop, the
origin of polar light.

I will not dwell upon various interesting circumstances, such as the
presence of a dark segment at the base of the luminous ares of the
aurora borealis, in which M. Lemstrém sees, as I do, an analogous effect
to the dark band produced at the negative-electrode, in electric dis-
charges through rarified air; or such as the influence of particles of ice
suspended in the atmosphere, which I have also noticed. I will confine
myself to one point which, I confess, had completely escaped me, and

a

238 ELECTRICILY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AURORA BOREALIS.

which is of great importance. Although, in my theory, the terrestrial
currents which result from the electric discharges, the cause of polar
light, ought to be directed from the north to the south, some are ob-
served, either in the telegraph-wires or in their action upon the needle
of the compass, which have a contrary direction, that is from the south
to the north. The former, it is true, are much the more numerous and
the more intense; but still the latter are apparent from time to time,
M. Lemstrém attributes them to the currents of induction, and the elec-
tro-motive force which accompanies always the production of an electric
spark, as M. Edlund discovered. He considers in fact, and with reason,
the electric discharges which constitute polar light, as a series of an in-
finite number of sparks, and in this fact found a satisfactory explanation
of the existence of currents in an opposite direction from that of the
principal current, which is from north to south.

The perusal of M. Lemstr6om’s article, while confirming me in the theo-
retical views I have advanced in regard to polar auroras, has shown me
that there still remain many points to be explained of this interesting
subject, especially in what concerns the propagation of electricity in
air more or less damp, and reduced to a very low temperature and the
influence of a very strong magnetism upon the electric discharges taking
place under these conditions. I intend to pursue the subject with dili-
gence.

ON A DOMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE,

By ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE,
Of Geneva, Switzerland.*

At the period of the Renaissance, Latin was the language employed
by all the learned men of Europe. It had been carefully preserved by
the Romish Church ; and not one of the modern languages presented, at
that time, a sufficiently rich literature to become its rival. But at a later
period the Reformation disturbed the unity of the Romish influence.
Italian, Spanish, French, and English gained successively regular idi-
oms, and became rich in literary productions of every kind ; and at last,
eighty or one hundred years ago at most, the progress of science caused
the inconvenience of the use of Latin to be felt. It was a dead language,
and, in addition to that, was wanting in clearness, owing to its inver-
sions, to its abbreviated words, and to the absence of articles. There
existed at that time a general desire to describe the numerous discover-
ies that were being made, and to explain and discuss them without the
necessity of seeking for words. The almost universal pressure of these
causes was the reason for the adoption of modern languages in most
sciences, natural history being the only exception. Tor this, Latin is
still employed, but only in descriptions—a special and technical part,
where the number of words is limited and the construction very regular.
Speaking truly, what naturalists have preserved is the Latin of Linnzeus,
a language in which every word is precise in meaning, every sentence

arranged logically, clearly, and ina way employed by no Roman author.
Linnzeus was not a linguist. He knew but little even of modern lan-
guages, and it is evident that he struggled against many difficulties
when he wrote in Latin. With a very limited vocabulary and a turn of
mind which revolted equally from the periods of Cicero and the reticence
of Tacitus, he knew how to create a language precise in its terms, ap-
propriate to the deseription of forms, and intelligible to students. He
never made use of a term without first defining it. To renounce this
special language of the learned Swede would be to render descriptions
less clear and less.accessible to the savants of all nations. If we attempt
to translate into the Latin of Linnzus certain sentences in modern
floras, written in English or German, we quickly perceive a want of
clearness. In English, the word smooth applies equally to glaber and

** The fifth chapter of the Histoire des sciences et des savants depuis deux siécles, 8vo,
| Genéye, 1873. London, Dulan. Translated by Miss Miers, by permission of the author.
Ann. & Mag. N. Hist., ser. 4, vol. xi.
|

f fd
|

240 ON A DOMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE.

levis.* In German, the construction of sentences indicating generic or —
other characters is sometimes so obscure that I have found it impossi-
ble, in certain cases, to have them put into Latin by a German, a good
botanist, who was better acquainted than myself with both languages.
It would be still worse if authors had not introduced many words purely
Latin into their language. But, exclusive of paragraphs relative to
characters, aud wherever successive phenomena or theories are in ques-
tion, the superiority of modern languages is unquestionable. It is on
this account that, even in natural history, Latin 1s every day less em-
ployed.

The loss, however, of the link formerly established between scientific
men of all countries has made itself felt. From this has arisen a very
chimerical proposal to form some artificial language which should be
to all nations what writing is to the Chinese. It was to be based on
ideas—not words. The problem has remained quite devoid of solution ;
and even were it possible, it would be so complicated an affair—so im-
practicable and inflexible—that it would quickly drop into disuse.

The wants and the circumstances of each epoch have brought abent,
a preference for one or other of the principal European languages as a —
means of communication between enlightened men of all countries.
French rendered this service during two centuries. At present varicus
causes have modified the use of this language in other countries, and
the habit has been almost everywhere introduced that each nation
should employ its own tongue. We have, therefore, entered upon a
period of confusion. What is thought to be new in one country is not
so to those who read books in other languages. It is vain to study liv-
ing languages more and more; you are always behindhand in the com-
plete knowledge of what is being published in other countries. Few
persons are acquainted with more than two languages; and if we try
to pass beyond a certain limit in this respect, we rob ourselves of time
for other things; for there is a point at which the study of the means
of knowledge hinders our learning. Polyglot discussions and conver-
sations do not answer the intentions of those who attempt them. I am
persuaded that the inconvenience of such a state of things will be more
and more felt. I also believe, judging by the example of Greek as used
by the Romans and French in modern times, that the need of a pre-
vailing language is almost always recognized; it is returned to from
necessity after each period of anarchy. To understand this we must
consider the causes which make a language preferable, and those which
spread its employment in spite of any defects it may possess.

Thus, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, motives existed for
the employment of French in preference to Latin throughout Europe.
It was a language spoken by the greater part of the educated men of

*The word glaber, in botany, means bald or not hairy, which is applied to other parts
as well as the head; and levis, smooth, not rough; but I know they have both been care-
Jessly translated ‘‘ smooth,” as M. de Candolle. implies.—J. E. G.

ON A DOMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE. QA1

the period—a language tolerably simple and very clear. It had an ad-
vantage in its resemblance to Latin, which was then widely known.
An Englishman, a German, was already half acquainted with French
through his knowledge of Latin ; a Spaniard, an Italian, was three parts
advanced in his study of the language. If a discussion were sustained
in French, if books were written or translations made in this language,
all the world understood.

Inthe present century, civilization has much extended north of France,
and population has inereased there more than to the south. The use of
the English tongue has been doubled by its extension into America. The
sciences are more and more cultivated in Germany, in England, in the
Scandinavian countries, and Russia. The scientific center of gravity
has advanced from the south toward the north.

Under the influence of these new conditions, a language can only be-
come predominant by presenting two characters: first, it must possess
sufficient German and Latin words or forms to be within reach at once
of the Germans and of the people who make use of Latin tongues ;
secondly, it must be spoken by a considerable majority of civilized people.
In addition to these two essential conditions, it would be well for the
definitive success of a language that it should also possess the qualities
of grammatical simplicity, of conciseness, and clearness.

English is the only language which may, in fifty or a hundred years
offer all these conditions united.

The language is half German and half Latin. It possesses German,
words, German forms, and also French words, and a French method of ©
constructing sentences. It is a transition between the principal lan-
guages used at present in science, as French was formerly between
Latin and several of the modern languages.

The future extension of the Anglo-American tongue is evident. It
will be rendered inevitable by the movement of the populations in the
two hemispheres. Here is the proof, which it is easy to give in a few
words and a few figures.

At the present time the population stands thus, (Almanach de Gotha,
rSTl:*)

English-speaking peoples in England, 31,000,000; in the United States,
40,000,000 ; in Canada, &e., 4,000,000; in Australia and New Zealand,
2,000,000; total, 77,000,000.

German-speaking peoples in Germany and a portion of Austria,
60,000,000; in Switzerland, (German cantons,) 2,000,000; total, 62,000,000.

French-speaking peoples in France, 36,500,000; in Belgium, (French
portion,) 2,500,000; in Switzerland, (French cantons,) 500,000; in Alge-
ria and the colonies, 1,000,006; total 40,500,000.

Now, judging by the increase that has taken place in the present cen-
tury, we may estimate the probable growth of population as follows: ¢

*No notice is here taken of the English-speaking people in India and the East.—J. E. G.

t Almanach de Gotha, 1870, p. 1039.
16s

2A2 ON A DOMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE.

In England it doubles in fifty years; therefore, in a century (in 1970)
it will be 124,000,000. In the United States, in Canada, in Australia, it
doubles in twenty-five; therefore it will be 736,000,000. Probable total
of the English-speaking race in 1970, 860,000,000.

In Germany the northern population doubles in fifty-six to sixty years;
that of the south in one hundred and sixty-seven years. Let us sup-
pose one hundred years for the average. It will probably be, in 1970,
for the countries of German speech, about 124,000,000.

In the French-speaking countries the population doubles in about
one hundred and forty years. In 1970, therefore, it will probably
amount to 69,500,000.

Thus the three principal languages spoken at the present time will be
spoken a century hence with the following progression :

The English tongue will have increased from 77 to 860 millions.

The German tongue will have increased from 62 to 124 millions.

The French tongue will have increased from 403 to 693 millions.

The individuals speaking German will form a seventh part, and those
speaking French a twelfth or thirteenth part of those of English tongue;
and both together will not form a quarter of the individuals speaking
English. The German or French countries will then stand toward
those of English speech as Holland or Sweden do at present with re-
gard to themselves. I am far from having exaggerated the growth of
the Anglo-Australian-American populations. Judging by the surface
of the countries they occupy, they will long continue to multiply in large
proportion. The English language is, besides, more diffused than any
other throughout Africa and Southern Asia. America and Australia
are not, I confess, countries in which the culture of letters and sciences
is so much advanced as in Europe; and it is probable that, for a length
of time, agriculture, commerce, and industry will absorb all the most
active energies. I acknowledge this. But it is no less a fact that so
considerable a mass of intelligent and educated men will weigh de-
cisively on the world in general. These new peoples, English in origin,
are mingled with a German element, which, in regard to intellectual in-
clinations, counterbalances the Irish. They have generally a great
eagerness for learning and for the application of discoveries. They read
much. Works written in English or translated into that tongue would,
in a vast population, have a very large sale. This would be an encour-
agement for authors and translators that is offered by neither the French
nor the German language. We know in Europe to what degree diffi-
culties exist in the publication of books on serious subjects; but open
an immense mart to publishers, and works on the most special subjects
will have a sale. When translations are read by ten times as many
people as at present, it is evident that a greater number of books will
be translated; and this will contribute in no small degree toward the
preponderance of the English language. Many French people already
buy English translations of German books, just as Italians bay transla-

ON A DOMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE. 243

tions in French. If English or American publishers would adopt the
idea of having translations made into their language of the best works
that appear in Russian, Swedish, Danish, Dutch, &c., they would satisfy
a public dispersed over the whole world, and particuiarly the numerous
Germans who understand English. Yet we are but at the beginning of
the numerical preponderance of the English-speaking populations.

The nature of a language does not, at first sight, appear to have very
great influence on its diffusion. French was preferred for two centu-
ries; and yet Italian was quite as clear, more elegant, more harmonious,
had more affinity with Latin, and, for a length of time, had possessed a
remarkable literature. The number, the activity of the French, and the
geographical position of their country were the causes of their prepon-
derance. Yet the qualities of a language, especially those preferred by
the moderns, are not without their influence. Atthe present time brief.
ness, clearness, grammatical simplicity are admired. Nations, at least
those of our Indo-European race, began by speaking in an obscure,
complicated manner; in advancing they have simplified and made their
language more precise. Sanscrit and Basque, two very ancient lan-
guages, are exceedingly complicated. Greek and Latin are so in less
degree. The languages derived from Latin are clothed in clearer and
simpler forms. I do not know how philosophers explain the phenomenon
of the complication of language at an ancient period; but it is un-
questionable. It is more easy to understand the subsequent simplifica-
tions. When a more easy and convenient method of acting or speaking
has been arrived at, it is naturally preferred. Besides, civilization en-
courages individual activity ; and this necessitates short words and short
sentences. The progress of the sciences, the frequent contact of per-
sons speaking different languages, and who find a difficulty in under-
standing each other, lead to a more and more imperious need for clear-
ness. You must have received a classical education to avoid the per-
ception of absurdity in the construction of an ode of Horace. Translate
it literally to an uneducated workman, keeping each word in its place,
and it will have to him the effect of a building the entrance-door of
which is on the third story. It is no longer a possible language, even
in poetry.

Modern languages have not all, to the same degree, the advantages
now demanded, of clearness, simplicity, and briefness.

The French language has shorter words and less complicated verbs
than the Italian; this in all probability has contributed to its success.
The German has not undergone the modern revolution by which each
sentence or portion of a sentence begins with the principal word. Words
are also cut in two, and the fragments dispersed. It has three genders,
whereas French and Italian have but two. The conjugations of many
verbs are rather complicated. Nevertheless, modern tendencies weigh
with the Germans, and it is evident that their language is becoming a
little modified. Scientific authors especially exert themselves to attempt

244 ON A DUMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE.

the direct modes of expression and the short phrases of other countries
in the same way that they have abandoned the Gothic printed letters.
Should they correspond with strangers, they often have the politeness
to write in Latin characters. They willingly introduce in their publica-
tions terms taken from foreign languages, modifications sometimes
merely of form, occasionally fundamental. These attest the modern
spirit and the enlightened judgment of the learned men so numerous
in Germany. Unhappily, the modifications of form have no great im-
portance, and the fundamental changes take place very slowly.

The more practical English language shortens sentences and words.
It willingly takes possession of foreign words, as German does; but of
cabriolet it makes cab; of memorandum it makes mem. It makes use
only of indispensable and natural tenses—the present, the past, the
future, and the conditional. There is no arbitrary distinction of gen-
ders ; animated objects are masculine or feminine; the others are neu-
ter. The ordinary construction is so sure to begin with the principal
idea, that in conversation you may often dispense with the necessity of
finishing your sentences. The chief fault of the English language, its
inferiority in comparison with German or Italian, consists in an orthog-
raphy absolutely irregular, and so absurd that children take a whole
year in learning to read.* The pronunciation is not well articulated,
not well defined. I shall not go as far as Madame Sand in her amusing
imprecations on this point; but there is truth in what she says. The
vowels are not distinct enough. But, in spite of these faults, English,
according to the same clever writer, is a well-expressed language, quite
as clear as any other, at least when English people choose to revise
their MMS., which they will not always do, they are in such a hurry!

English terms are adapted to modern wants. Do you wish to hail a
vessel, to ery “stop” to a train, to explain a machine, to demonstrate
an experiment in physics, to speak in few words to busy and practical
people, it is the language par excellence. In comparison with Italian,
with French, and, above all, with German, English has the effect, to
those who speak several languages, of offering the shortest cut from
one point to another. I have observed this in families where two lan-
guages are equally well known, which often occurs in Switzerland.
When the two languages are German and French, the latter almost
always carries the day. ‘‘Why?” I asked of a German-Swiss estab-
lished in Geneva. “I can scarcely tell you,” he replied; “at home we
speak German to exercise my son in the languages, but he always falls
back into the French of his comrades. French is shorter—more con-
venient.” Before the events of 1870, a great Alsatian manufacturer
sent his son to study at Ziirich. I was curious to know the reason why.
“We cannot,” he said, “induce our children to speak German, with

* Surprised, on one occasion, by the slowness with which intelligent English children
learned reading, I inquired the reason. Each letter has several sounds, or you may say
that each sound is written in several ways. It is therefore necessary to learn reading word
for word. It is an affair of memory.

ON A DOMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE. 245

which they are quite as familiar as with French. I have sent my son
to a town where nothing but German is spoken, in order that he may
be forced to speak it.” In such preferences you must not look for the
causes in sentiment or fancy. When a man has choice of two roads—
one straight and open, the other crooked and difficult to find—he is sure
to take, almost without reflection, the shorter and more convenient one.
I have also observed families where the two languages known in the
same degree were English and French. In this case the English main-
tained supremacy, even in a French-speaking land. It is handed down
from one generation to another. It is employed by those who are in
haste, or who want to say something in as few words as possible. The
tenacity of French or English families established in Germany in speak-
ing their own language, and the rapid disappearance of German in the
German families established in French or English countries, may be ex-
plained by the nature of the languages rather than by the influence of
fashion or education.

The general rule is this: In the conflict of two languages, everything
else being equal, it is the most concise and the most simple that con-
quers. French beats Italian and German. English beats the other
languages. In short, it need only be said that the more simple a lan-
guage is, the more easy it is to be learned, and the more quickly can it be
made available for profitable employment.

The English language has another advantage in family use—its litera-
ture is the one most suitable to feminine tastes; and every one knows how
great is the influence of mothers on the language of children. Not only ~
do they teach what is called “ the mother tongue,” but often, when well
educated, they feel pleasure in speaking a foreign language to their
children. They do so gayly, gracefully. The young lad who finds his
language-master heavy, his grammar tiresome, thinks very differently
when his mother, his sister, or his sister’s friend addresses lerseli to
him in some foreign tongue. This will often be English, and for the best
of reasons: there is no language so rich in works (written in a spirit of
true morality) upon subjects which are interesting to women—religion,
education, fiction, biography, poetry, &e.

The future preponderance of the language spoken by English, Aus-
tralians, and Americans thus appears to me assured. The force of cir-
cumstances leads to this result; and the nature of the language itself
must accelerate the movement.

The nations who speak the English tongue are thus burdened with a
responsibility which it is well they should recognize at once. Itisa
moral responsibility toward the civilized world of the coming centuries.
Their duty, as it is also their interest, is to maintain the present unity
of the language, at the same time admitting the necessary or couve-
nient modifications which may arise under the influence of eminent
writers, or be arranged by common consent. The danger to be feared
is that the English language may, before another century has passed,

*.

246 ON A DOMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE,

be broken up into three languages, which would be in the same rela-
tion to each other as are Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, or as Swed-
ish and Danish.

Some Hnglish authors have a mania for making new words. Dickens
has invented several. Yet the English language already possesses many
more words than the Freneh, and the history of its literature shows
that there is greater need to suppress than to add to the vocabulary. No
writer for three centuries past has employed nearly so many different
words as Shakespeare ; therefore there must have been many unneces-
sury ones. Probably every idea and every object had formerly a term
of Saxon origin, and one of Latin or French origin, without counting
Celtic or Danish words. The very logical operation of time has been to
suppress the double or triple words. Why re-establish them? A people
so economical in its use of words does not require more than one term
for each thing.*

The Americans, on the other hand, make innovations of accent or
orthography, (they almost always spell labow: “labor,” and harbour
*harbor.”) The Australians will do the same if they do not take care.
Why should not all possess the noble ambition of giving to the world
one uniform concise language, supported by an immense literature, and
spoken in the next century by eight hundred or one thousand millions
of civilized men? To other languages it would be as a vast mirror, in
which each would beeome reflected, thanks to newspapers and translations,
and all the friends of intellectual culture would have a convenient
medium for the interchange of ideas. It would be rendering an immense
service to future races, and at the same time the authors and men of
science of English-speaking race would give a strong impulsion to their
own ideas. The Americans, above all, are interested in this stability,
since their country is to be the most important of those of English
tongue. How can they acquire a greater influence over Old England
than by speaking her language with exactness ?

The liberty of action permitted among people of English race adds
to the danger of a division in the language. Happily, however, certain
causes which broke up the Latin language do not exist for English na-
tions. The Romans conquered nations the idioms of which were main-
tained or re-appeared here and there in spite of administrative unity.
The Americans and Australians, on the contrary, have before them only
savages, Who disappear without leaving any trace. The Romans were
conquered and dismembered in their turn by the barbarians. Of their
ancient civilization no evidence of unity remained, unless it was in the

Jhureh, which has itself felt the influence of the universal decline. The
Americans and Australians possess many flourishing schools; they
have the literature of England as well as their own. If they choose,

*A clover English writer has just published a volume on the institutions of the people
called Swiss in English, Ho names them Stoitzers, For what reason? Will there soon be
Deutschers ?

’
,

ON A DOMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE. QAT

they can wield their influence by means of maintaining the unity of the
language. Certain circumstances make it possible for them to do so;
thus the teachers and professors mostly come from the States of New
England. If these influential men truly comprehend the destiny of
their country, they will use every effort to transmit the language in its
purity; they will follow classic authors, and discard local innovations
and expressions. In this question of language, real patriotism (or, if
you will, the patriotism of Americans really ambitious for their country)
ought to be, to speak the English of Old England, to imitate the pro-
nunciation of the English, aud to follow their whimsical orthography
until changed by themselves. Should they obtain this of their country-
men, they would render to all nations and to their own an unquestiona-
ble benefit for futurity.

The example of England proves the influence of education upon the
unity of a language. It is the habitual contact of educated people and
the perusal of the same books which, little by little, is causing the dis-
appearance of Scotch words and accent. A few years more, and the
language will be uniform throughout Great Britain. The principal
newspapers, edited by able men, also exercise a happy influence in pre-
serving unity. Whole columns of the ‘‘Times” are written in the lan.
guage of Macaulay and Bulwer, and are read by millions of people.
The result is an impression which maintains the public mind in a proper
literary attitude.

In America the newspaper articles are not so well written; but the
schools are accessible to all classes, and the universities count among
their professors men especially accomplished in their use of the English
tongue. If ever there should arise a doubt in the opinions of the two
countries as to the advisability of modifying the orthography, or even
making changes in the language, it would be an excellent plan to organ-
ize a meeting of delegates from the principal universities of the Three
Kingdoms, of America, and Australia, to propose and discuss such
changes. Doubtless they would have the good sense to make as few
innovations as possible; and, thanks to common consent, the advice
would probably be followed. A few modifications in the orthography
alone would render the English language more easy to strangers, and
would contribute toward the maintenance of unity in pronunciation
throughout Anglo-American countries.

NOTES BY DR. JOHN EDWARD GRAY, OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM.

It may be observed, in addition, that the people who use the English
language in different parts of the world area reading and a book-buying
people, and especially given to the study of quasi-scientific books, as is
proved by the fact of the extensive sale which they command.

In support of this assertion, I may quote the Baron Iérussae’s re-
view of Wood’s “ Index Testaceologicus,” in the Bull. Sci. Nat., Paris,
1829, p. 375. He remarks: ’

¢

248 ON A DOMINANT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE.

‘‘ We observe with interest the number of subscribers that exist in
England for an octavo volume on shells, costing 186 franes. It isa
curious fact, which booksellers and authors will appreciate, as it will
afford them the means of seeing how a return is obtained for their out-
lay on such works in England, compared with other countries. The
number of subscribers is 280, of which 34 are females and 6 foreigners.
Certainly all the rest of Kurope could not produce as many, nor per-
haps even the half of that number.”

How much more astonished would M. Férussac have been, if in-
formed that these were only the subscribers before publication, and that
1,000 copies were sold! Since 1829 the sale of scientific books has
much increased, as is shown, for example, by the many editions of the
works of Lyell and other naturalists, each edition being of 1,000 copies.

Most scientific books in France and other continental countries can
only be published when the government furnishes the cost; cand they
are chiefly published in an expensive form as a national display, and
are almost confined to their public libraries, except the sale of copies
that are bought by English collectors.

In England such works are generally published by individual enter-
prise, and depend on the general public for their support, and are pub-
lished in a style to suit the different classes. Thus there are works of
luxury for the rich, often published by individuals who confine them-
selves to the production of that class of books; very cheap works for
the student and mechanic; and books of all intermediate grades, pro-
duced by the regular publishers. The females of all grades are ex-
tensive readers of this class of books, which, I believe, is chiefly the
case with English-speaking races.

Some of the scientific Swedes and Russians have published their
papers in the English language, or appended an abstract in English to
them, as Thorell on European Spiders; Professor Lilljeborg on Lysi--
anassa, and Professor Wackerbarth on the Planet Leda, &c. The
Danes and Dutch often publish their scientific papers in French, as
Temminck, Reinhardt, and the late Professor Van der Hoeven, who
themselves read and write English; but it appears they regard French
as the polite language of courts, and forget that courtiers, generally,
have a contempt for science, and that they should look among the
people for their readers.

It is to be observed that Professor de Candolle himself uses the
French language with a very English construction ; but we believe that
his work woald have commanded the greatest number of readers if
written in the English language, which he reads and writes so fluently.

See, also, Mr. Galton’s interesting article on the Causes which create
Scientific Men, in the “‘ Fortnightly Review” for March, 1873, p. 346,
which contains some interesting observations on M. de Candolle’s work.

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.

Prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by CHARLES A. SCHOTT, of the U. S. Coast
Survey.

The earth’s solid crust being hotter than the mean temperature of the
lower atmosphere resting on its surface, heat is constantly and very
slowly passing outward, and strata of equal depth would have very |
nearly uniform temperatures but for the influence of the daily, the annual,
and the irregular variations of the atmospheric temperature, received by
conduction. The solar heat then acts as a disturbance of the thermal
equilibrium, and the depth of the stratum of the so-called ‘“ invariable
temperature,” 7. e., when the changes escape ordinary observation or
become less than 0°. 01 C., as generally defined, is found about 6 meters
below the surface in the tropics, and about 50 meters below the surface
in the middle latitudes. The corresponding depths at which the daily
variations become imperceptible are 0.3 meter and 1.3 meter very nearly.
These numbers, however, depend greatly on the kind of soil or rock,
and will differ considerably for loose soil of greater or less porosity
and for solid rock. Our records of observations are very scanty and
deficient in range, and barely afford the necessary data to form a basis
of calculation, on account of the many conditions which enter into the
problem.

It would appear from experience that the mean temperature of the
air, as ordinarily observed, say at an elevation of 1 or 2 meters above
ground, is slightly higher than the mean temperature of the surface of
the soil. The mean temperature of the earth’s crust increases from the
surface, with increasing depth, and with a nearly uniform rate for
moderate depths, with an average amount of about 28 meters for each
degree of the centigrade scale, and the temperature at the depth of in-
variable heat nearly equals the mean annual atmospheric temperature
of the place, but slightly exceeds itin amount. For greater depths the
descent to produce an increase of 1° C. is greater than the amount given
above. With increase of depth the amplitude of change is rapidly
diminishing, and for a depth increasing arithmetically the amplitudes
diminish in geometrical ratio; also the depth at which the daily and
annual variations, respectively, disappear is in proportion of the square
root of the length of these periods, or about 1 to 19. The amplitude 4 p
has been represented in the form, log 4 p= A— Bp, where A and B are
constants to be determined at the place, and p the depth. Observa-
tions by Quetelet at Brussels, for instance, give the following result:
log 4p = 1.15108 —0.04149 p, (amplitude in degrees centigrade and p in

250 ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.

feet.) At this place the following mean temperatures and eae of
maxima have been obtained :

|
Depth in feet. Mean tempera- \Epochs of maxima.|| Depth in feet. Moan empere Epochs of maxima,

ture.
ONO: o.¢.
07007 7 ealla Meee July 20. 3. 08 11.03 August 10.
G. 58 9. 82 July 25. 6. 00 11. 61 September 6.
1. 38 \ 10.17 August 2. 12. 00 12, 05 October 9.
2. 31 10. 56 August 7. 24. 00 12. 06 December 12.

At Edinburgh the following results were obtained :

Mean tempera- Mean tempera-

Depth in meters. ae Amplitude. ||Depth in meters. tH. Amplitude.
ot ONG: HE ONC:
0. 91 7.93 8.3 3. 66 8. 30 2.8
1. 83 8. 08 5. 6 7. 32 8. 47 0. 6

For the ereatest depth, the time required for the heat-wave to reach
it is nearly six months, making the surface maximum temperature co-
incident with the minimum temperature of the stratum, 7.32 meters
below.

In the case of Chicago, we may take the mean annual temperature of
the atmosphere just above the surface=8°.17 C.; that of the surface of
the soil—8°.0C. The increase for a depth of 12.2 meters {or the lowest
stratum of clay and to the rock-surface will be 09.44 C., making 8°.44 ©.
for this depth. The invariable temperature may be estimated about 9 or
10 C., and may be found at a depth between 30 and 40 meters, the
variations being transmitted to a greater depth in rock than in clay.
At the surface of the rock the variations of temperature will probably.
yet amount to 09.1, (according to the Edinburgh observations.) For a
depth of 229 meters, corresponding to the depth from which the well-
water flows, the increase of heat should amount to 8°.2 C., according to
the mean given above; hence the computed temperature 16°.2C. But
the observed temperature is only 12°.8 C., showing either a much slower
rate of increase (1° C. in 48 meters) or a local deviation, probably due
to infiltration of water from a higher level. Whether the lake-water,
which is colder at the same depth than solid matter would be, can
exert an influence by conduction, I do not know.

Prof. J. D. Everett, chairman of the committee of the British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science, on the subject of underground
temperature has published a number of valuable reports The follow-
ing is an extract from a recent communication of his to the Belfast
Natural History and Philosophical Society :

‘The phenomena of underground temperature may conveniently be
classed under two heads, according as attention is directed to the first
forty or fifty feet, or to such depths as are attained in mines and artesian
wells,

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 251

The annual wave of temperature is propagated downward from the
surface, at a rate which depends on the nature of the soil, and is on the
average rather greater than a foot per week; while at the same time the
amplitude (or magnitude) of the wave diminishes in a ratio also de-
pendent on the soil, and amounting on the average to a halving of the
amplitude for every five or six feet of descent.

‘« Supposing the soil to be uniform, the surface to be plane, and the
propagation of heat to be effected solely by conduction, a simple har-
monic variation of temperature at the surface (which we may call in
popular language a simple wave of temperature) will be propagated
downward with a uniform velocity, and with amplitude diminishing in
geometrical progression. There will, moreover, be a definite relation
between the ratio of this progression and the velocity of propagation,
so that if the one is given the other can be computed. In fact, we shall
have—

time of propagation from one depth to another
period of variation
amplitude at 1st depth

bo
a
x

= Napierian logarithm of

amplitude at 2d depth
difference of depths”

ze

V period of era kk

where z denotes 3.1416; c, thermal capacity per unit-volume; aud, k, con-
ductivity.*

“Tf the variation of temperature at the surface, instead of being simple
harmonic, be any periodic variation whatever, it can be reduced by
Fourier’s method to the sum of a number of simple harmonic variations,
and each of these variations will be propagated according to the above
law, unaffected by the rest.

‘* As the square root of the number of days in the year is almost exactly
19, the above formula shows that the annual wave is propagated 19 times
as fast as the diurnal wave, and that the falling-off in amplitude is the
same in one foot for the diurnal wave asin 19 feet for the annual wave.

‘“Of the different simple harmonic components which make up the
whole variation at the surface, those of longest period are propagated
downward most quickly, and die away most slowly. For this reason,

. . Tw . . .
*The numerical value of the co-efficient 7 , as given in Professor Everett’s Discus-

sion of the Observations at the Greenwich Observatory, 1860, is as follows:

From the Greenwich observations............--..--- 0.0918
From’ (Calton Hill} trap-rock 222s 20.0.20. 5. 6052 222% 0.1156
From Experimental Garden, sand.......--.-..-.--- 0.1098
From Craigleith Quarry, sandstone .-......---..--- 0.0674

fhe diminution of, 7 indicates either a decrease in capacity for heat or an increase

in conductivity.

Aap ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE.

as well as from its greater original magnitude, the annual simple har-
monic wave becomes more and more predominant as we descend, and
the curve of temperature for the year approaches more and more nearly
to the form of a simple harmonic curve, or curve of sines.
‘‘Observations taken at three stations in or near Edinburgh, and at
Greenwich Observatory, have been reduced in accordance with the above
principles, the result being in every case to show a satisfactory agree-
ment between theory and practice ; and the values of the thermal co-

efficient s thus obtained for these four stations, have furnished the basis

of the most reliable calculations yet made regarding the earth’s age as
a habitable globe. For the three Edinburgh stations the value of ¢
(which is the product of specific heat by specific gravity) was also de-
termined by laboratory experiments conducted by Regnault, and hence
the conductivity, k, was found by computation.

‘¢ The following isa sample of the temperatures observed at Greenwich
at the depths of 1 inch, 12.8 feet, and 25.6 feet. The warmest and coldest
calendar months had the following mean temperatures :

Warmest. Mean temp. Coldest. Mean temp.
1 inch July 65. 9 January 40.5
3 feet August 62.5 February 41.1
12.8 feet September 55. 5 April 46.1
25. 6 feet November 52. 0 June 48.6

“The mean temperature at a depth of 10, 20, or 30 feet does not differ
much from the mean temperature at the surface. A slight increase is,
however, usually observable even at these small depths; and, when we
penetrate to the depth of several hundred feet, we find the temperature
higher by several degrees than the mean temperature of the surface.
In fact, the deeper we go the higher is the temperature which we find.

“Attempts were formerly made to explain away this phenomenon, the
high temperatures observed in deep mines being aseribed to the pres-
ence of the men working in them, assisted in some cases by the slow
combustion of pyrites; but the fact of a steady increase downward, at
a rate which is not exactly uniform, but varies from about 1° Fahr. in
100 feet to 1° Fahr. in 40 feet, has now been placed beyond all question.”

Theoretical investigations will be found in Fourier’s Théorie ana-
lytique de la chaleur, Paris, 1822; in Poisson’s Traité mathématique de
la chaleur, Paris, 1835. See also various papers by Quetelet in the Mém.
de l Acad. roy. de Bruxelles; also, Piazzi Smyth in Astronomical Ob-
servations at the Royal Observatory at Edinburgh; Forbes and his
own Observations, vol. xi, for 184954, and vol. xiii, for 1860-70. A fair
statement of the subject is found in Schmid’s Meteorology, Leipsic,
1860. See, also, J. D. Forbes’s “ Experiments on the Temperature of the
Earth,” in Trans. R. 8S. E., 1846; Sir W. Thomson “On the Reduction of
Observations of Underground Temperature,” in Trans. R. S. E., 1860; “On
the Age of the Sun’s Heat,” in Maemillan’s Magazine, March, 1862; “On

ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 253

the Secular Cooling of the Earth,” in Trans. R.S. E., 1862, (reprinted at
the end of Thomson and Tait’s “‘ Treatise on Natural Philosophy ;”) ‘The
Doctrine of Uniformity in Geology Briefly Refuted,”in Proce. R. 8S. E., De-
cember, 1865; ‘On Geological Time,” in Trans. Geol. Soc., Glasgow, vol.
III, part 1; ‘“‘ Of Geological Dynamics,” in Trans. Geol. Soc., Glasgow, vol.
IU, part If; J. D. Everett ‘‘On a Method of Reducing Observations of
Underground Temperature,” in Trans. R.S. E., 1860; ‘“ On the Mean Tem-
perature of a Stratum of Soil,” in Trans. R. 8. E., 1862; “‘ Reduction of
the Observations of the Deep-sunk Thermometers,” in Greenwich Ob-
servations, 1860; ‘“‘Reports of Committee on Rate of Increase of Under-
ground Temperature,” in B. A. Reports, from 1868 onward.

ON A SERIES OF EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH CAROLINA, COM-
MENCING ON THE 10TH OF FEBRUARY, 1874.

By PROFESSOR WARREN DU PRE,
Of Wofford College, Spartanburgh, S.C.

The following is an extract from a letter of the 24th April, 1874, from
Professor Du Pré to General Benjamin Alvord, U.S. Army:

“My visit to the mountains of North Carolina was undertaken to
satisfy myself with respect to the numerous rumors which had reached
us of the volcanic disturbances in that section of the country. I could ©
spend but two days (19th and 20th March) in the investigation, but
was quite diligent in collecting facts and in extending my explorations
on horse and on foot so as to cover a distance of eighteen or twenty
miles. I was soon convinced that the physical disturbances were real,
but many of the rumors were false, and that the truth had been much
exaggerated by the fears of the people. The explosive noises accom-
panyipg the shocks and the limited area of the disturbances are peculi-
arities worthy the attention of scientists, and demand a more thorough
exploration. The inclosed is a hasty report of my trip, which I drew
up to allay, if possible, the fears of the inhabitants of the district.

Stone Mountain, the site of the disturbances, like all the neighboring
peaks, is composed chiefly of gneiss and granitic slates, and covered
with a dense forest growth. In a direct line, it is about fourteen miles
from Black Mountain, or *‘ Mount Mitchell,” the highest point in the
United States east of the Rocky Mountains. It lies between Broad
and Catawba Rivers, both of which point to Black Mountain, while
on the northwest side of the Blue Ridge, the Swannanoah and Green
Rivers, tributaries of the French Broad, have their sources near the
Black Mountain. So many large rivers, on both sides of the Blue Ridge,
heading up in this section, would indicate Black Mountain as the cen-
ter of the volcanic force which lifted up these mountain-ridges. I ex-
pect to visit these mountains again in July, when I shall have more
time to investigate this matter.*”

Extracts from report above referred to, dated Spartanburgh, S. C., March 28,
1874.

On Wednesday, the 18th: of March, in company with Rev. R. C.
Oliver, editor of The Orphans’ Friend, Mr. MeKenn Johnstone, civil

* Professor Du Pré has been requested to communicate a reportof this projected trip.
Further data remain to be gleaned, as the phenomena appear to have continued, at least,
up to April.

EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 255

engineer, and the senior class of Wofford College, I started for Hickory
Nut Gap, for the purpose of making such personal observations as my
limited time would permit, and of collecting and sifting all the testi-
mony that I could gather from the inhabitants of the affected region.
At Rutherfordton, we were joined by Capt. William Twitty, an edu-
cated gentleman, who gave us much assistance in our explorations.

To understand the bearing of the facts and testimony upon the question
whether these disturbances threaten a volcanic eruption, as a prelimi-
nary, I shall describe, as clearly as I can, the situation of this mount-
ain. Five miles east of Hickory Nut Gap, lies this high mountain-
ridge, bearing upon its back several peaks, the highest of which are called
Bald, Stone, and Round Mountains, and extending from southwest to
northeast, a distance of ten miles, in the order in which they are named.
They constitute one mountain-ridge from 3,000 to 3,500 feet high, flanking
the Blue Ridge, nearly parallel with it, bounded on the east by Crooked
Creek, and on the west by Broad River, which, with its narrow valley,
separates them from the high ridge of mountains that border the east-

_ ern side of Hickory Nut Gap.

Directing our course along the eastern slope, we came first to the
house of Rey. Mr. Logan, a Baptist minister, from whom we learned
that the noises and shocks were first heard and felt in Stone Mountain,
on Tuesday, the 10th of February; that they were repeated on the fol-
lowing Sunday, with increased severity, so much so that the people sent
for him, a distance of ten miles, to hold religious meetings with them;
that he and his wife heard the explosions, and felt the shocks repeatedly
day and night, once causing the lightning-rods attached to his chimneys
to rattle considerably, the sky being clear, and no wind blowing; that
the sounds came from the direction of Stone and Bald Mountains, were
at first explosive, followed by a slight rumbling lasting for a few seconds,
similar to a blast from a stone-quarry; that the shocks were almost in-
stantaneous with the explosions, very rapid, making the ground trem-
ble for a few seconds, In response to an inquiry, whether any one was
blasting rock about the mountains, he replied that none could be found,
and there was but one quarry, thirty-three miles distant in an opposite
direction, and that had not been worked for several months past.

After going two or three miles further, we turned to the left, and
were ascending Fork Knob, over which the road leads to the top of
Stone Mountain, when a loud explosion in the direction of Stone Mount-
ain startled us all. It was instantly followed by a low reverberatory
sound, as if descending the slope of the mountain. We felt no shocks,
which was due, no doubt, to the steep and stony road over which our
buggies were passing at the time. This was on the 19th, at 5. p.m. Two
of our company who had preceded us a mile, and were about a half
mile from the top of Stone Mountain, heard the report, and also felt the
ground tremble under them. The sound resembled the suppressed but
sudden report of a quarry-blast, and seemed to come through the mount-

256 EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH CAROLINA.

ain. We arrived about sunset at Mr. Elliott’s, whose house is situated
in a depression between Round and Stone Peaks, about a half mile from
the top of the latter. From Elliott’s house, Round Mountain bears north
37° west, Stone Mountain south 73° west, and are about a half or three-
quarters of a mile distant from each other. This house being about the
center of the greatest agitation, and whence most of the exaggerated
rumors had their origin, we determined to remain all night, and I
kept watch until about two o’clock. * . 2 = = i
The next morning I gathered from Mr. and Mrs. Elliott, in answer to
many inquiries, the following statement: ‘ The first noise and shakes (as
the shocks are very expressively denominated by the mountain people)
were heard and felt on Tuesday, 10th February—some of them were
felt as far as White House, on Cove Creek, eight miles distant. Sunday
morning these sounds and shakes were repeated with increased severity,
one a little after sunrise, another at 10, and another at 2 o’clock in the
night; noises continued, some with shakes, and some without, until
Thursday following, with intervals of about an hour or two. The
house—a stout log building—shook so violently that the children be-
came very much alarmed, all thinking it would fall. A ladder resting
upon a support in the yard rattled frequently, and the ground seemed
to tremble under their feet. The noise began like explosions of a quarry-
blast, in the northwest, and west off to the southeast, with a rumbling
sound under ground. The weather was quite variable, sometimes cloudy
and rainy, at other times clear and cool. The people about the mount-
ain were very much alarmed; had preaching and prayer-meetings
daily for a week or more, and forty-five new members were added to
the Baptist church.”
About 9 o’clock in the morning of the 20th we began the exploration
of Stone Mountain. From the base to the summit it is covered with a
dark rich soil, about a foot deep, partly cleared and cultivated, but
mostly clothed with a growth of heavy timber, consisting of chestnut and
oak. The granite slates, about the thickness of flag-stones, scattered
over the surface, indicate that the formation does not differ from most
of the surrounding peaks. Near its highest point several large blocks
of coarse granite protrude through the soil to the height of about 10 feet
above the surface. Owing to the depth of the soil and the slight ex-
posure of the rocky formations, I could not ascertain the direction or
angle of the dip. No specimens were found which resembled what are
usually called voleanic rocks. The mountain appeared as calm and
peaceful as if it had never been disturbed since the morning of its up-
heaval. It presented no cavernous depths or rugged prominences to ex-
cite the fears of the dwellers upon its slopes. A dozen or more of the
mountaineers had followed us everywhere in the exploration, and,
although much alarmed at the frequent agitations of this hitherto stable
mountain, yet they unanimously contradicted the many rumors of gap-
ing rocks, smoking peaks, sinking caverns, melting snows, &c., with

“EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 257

which our newspapers have been teeming for many weeks pasi. We
remained on the summit for some time, hoping for an opportunity to
determine whether the explosions came from the east or west side of
the mountain, or from the ground under our feet. As nothing occurred
to settle this question, we descended the western slope to Mrs. Murphy’s
saw-mill, about eight miles from the head of Broad River. <A portion
of our party, who had passed two miles around the base of the moun-
tain, heard three loud explosions, and felt two distinct shocks proceedin g
directly from the peak which we had left but one hour before. This I
did not hear or feel, as I was engaged at the time in taking notes of the
testimony of Mr. T. J. Dalton, amid the rumbling of machinery and the
roar of the mill-dam.

Itis unnecessary to give, in detail, all the testimony which we col-
lected from the people while passing along the eastern and western
side of this mountain, including a Gistance of eighteen miles. They all
concurred in the followingsummary: That there were certain days marked
by loud reports and severe shakes; that from fifty to seventy-five shocks
have been felt since the 10th of February; that the noise begins with
an explosion like a quarry-blast, followed by a rumbling sound, lasting
only a few seconds; that the shocks are simultaneous, or almost so, with
the reports, and seem to follow the direction of the rumbling sound,
with this exception, that those near the top of the mountain assert they
appear to be under and all around them ; that the reports all came from
the Stone and Bald Mountain Ridge, those living on the east side point-
ing to the west, and those on the west pointing to the east for the di-
rection of sounds; that these reports occur as often during the night as
the day, in fair weather as in foul; that the effects are felt five miles on
each side of the mountain-ridge, and extend from Broad River on the
southwest to Catawba on the north, a distance of twenty-five miles;
that houses shake, trees with their dead leaves tremble, glasses and
crockery rattle, shavings in their workshops shake and ‘“ quaver,” as
one expressed it.

This testimony was collected from thirty or forty men and women of
different degrees of intelligence, and their remarkable concurrence in
the above statement places the facts beyond the possibility of doubt.

Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain these facts. One
is, that the blasting of rock about the mountains will account for all of
them. Upon this point we made particular inquiry. There is certainly
no operation going on about Stone Mountain, and as the work upon the
tunnels in Swannanoah Gap has ceased for more than twelve months,
there is no occasion for blasting anywhere else, as fine stones for build-
ing purposes, of every form and size, are scattered over all these regions.
Besides, any one acquainted with the law of sound knows that the vibra-
tory motion communicated to the matter in the crust of the earth by a
blast (supposing it capable of extending to a great distance) will be felt
much oe than the undulations of the atmosphere, which transmit

S

258 EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH CAROLINA.

sounds. A person, therefore, standing a thousand yards from a quarry
feels tke trembling of the earth some time before he hears the sound of
the blast. But in all these convulsions of the mountain the concurrent
testimony is that the sounds and shocks are either simultaneous or
nearly so. The blasting of rock, therefore, cannot account for this im-
portant fact.

Another hypothesis is, that these effects may be the result of elee-
tricity escaping from the mountain to the cloud, or descending from the
cloud to the mountain. There is nothing in the known operations of
electricity to produce effects of this kind. Furthermore, these sounds
and shocks occur as often in fair as foul weather; and the sounds are
altogether different, as we had an opportunity of comparing them during
our first night’s stay upon the mountain. Electricity never explodes
unless it meets with a bad conductor, and as the mountain affords it
an easy transit, the explosion must take place somewhere between the
summit and the cloud, or along the line of its pathway. The explo-
sion, therefore, being in the air, must be subject to the same laws of
sound as the blast of the quarry, and the same method of reasoning
will apply in this ease as in the other.

The simultaneousness of the shocks and explosions proves that the
sound has not far to travel through the air to reach the observer; and
while the primary cause of the explosions may be deeply seated in the
earth, yet the immediate cause of the sounds may be at or near the sur-
face. It is known that the loudness and intensity of sounds depend
upon the amplitude of the sound-wave. Suppose, then, that the cause
of these explosions be deeply seated in the crust of the earth, the force
acting and reacting upon the superincumbent strata will impart its
vibrations to them and transmit through them its impulsions to the
atmosphere above.* I am inclined, therefore, to the opinion that most
of the noises accompanying earthquakes are the results of vibratory
movements in the earth’s crust, or are the secondary effects of a force
acting at great depths beneath. This opinion seems to be sustained by
the evidence of the witnesses upon the summit as well as five miles
from the base of Stone Mountain, all of whom concur as to the simul-
taneousness of the shocks and explosions. To this it may be objected
that earthquake-shocks are often unaccompanied with noises, or that
the former may precede the latter by several minutes. In reply, I will
state that the crust of the earth is composed of different strata, some
capable of transmitting vibrations that are audible and others that are
not, as a string may be made to vibrate and yet produce no audible
sound. Now, suppose our observer to be standing upon a section of the
earth’s crust which is incapable of receiving or imparting sound-vibra-

* This explanation is undoubtedly correct; the velocity of the sound-wave in the earth is
the same as that of the wave of percussion; or, in other words, the two are identical. An
ear, therefore, placed at the surface of the ground would at any point hear a sound simul-
taneously with the shock. J. H.

—

ho

EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH CAROLINA. 259

tions, he may feel the earthquake-shocks and yet hear no noise; or, if
sounds should reach him after an interval of time, they may come from
a distant section capable of producing them, but which must be trans-
mitted to his ear through the intervening atmosphere.

This discussion leads me to the conclusion that the phenomena con-
nected with the agitation of Stone Mountain must be referred to that
general volcanic or earthquake force, which seems as necessary to the
economy of nature as light, heat, or electricity. Iam not bold enough
to venture a theory sufficiently broad to explain these peculiar phenom-
ena. I cannot penetrate the earth to examine the configuration of its
inner surface. There may be broad and high arches under which the
earthquake-wave may move without disturbing the crust above; or
there may be deep depressions presenting walls, against which the mol-
ten tide may beat and break and send up its thundering vibrations to
the summit of the loftiest mountain. All this is hypothetical and un-
satisfactory. But although we are not sufticiently acquainted with the
nature of this force, its modes of action and the laws which govern it,
to suggest a theory capable of explaining all the phenomena, yet we
may examine the facts with reference to the probability of Stone Moun-
tain becoming an eruptive volcano. While the explosive character of
the sounds, simultaneousness of sounds and shocks, and the limited
area of agitation seem to indicate some local cause, yet the general rule
which regulates the distribution of volcanoes on continents seems to
militate against such a conclusion. Volcanoes are arranged along the
border regions of continents, as between the Pacific and Rocky Moun-
tains, on islands of the coast, or oceanic islands. They are generally
confined to the borders of larger oceans and are seldom found in the
interior of continents. There are none in America east of the Andes
and Rocky Mountains, and no remains of voleanic action have ever been
found along the Appalachian range. These are important facts, indi-
cating no chance results, but pointing to a natural law which regulated
their geographical distribution. And when we consider, too, that vol-
canoes, with but few exceptions, are only a few miles from the sea or
lake; that the Blue Ridge, of which Stone Mountain is only an append-
age, is two hundred and fifty mites from the Atlantic, and presents no
marks of former eruptive action, we cannot believe thatin these latter days
it will behave itself unseemly and do violence to that natural law which
planted it in the garden-spot of the South, and gave to the Carolinas
the grandest, loveliest scenery on the Appalachian range.

[The following suggestions may be considered as a possible solution
of the phenomena in question: It is a well-established fact in geology
that the surface of the earth has undergone and is undergoing changes.
The highest mountain-chains have been in past’ geological periods be-
neath the surface of the sea, as is evident from the marine shells which
are found in their strata. It is also well established that some portions
of the earth’s surface are at present gradually rising and others slowly

260 EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH CAROLINA.

falling. Now, if we assume that the region around Stone Mountain is
undergoing a very gradual elevation or depression, then it will follow
that the rocky strata will be brought into a cendition of stretching or
tension which will go on until the limit of elastic cohesion is reached,
when arupture or crack will suddenly take place which must be at-
tended with a jar, and, in some cases, with an audible sound. If the
rocky strata is of the same material from the surface down into the inte-
rior; for example, granite, and the mountain being in the process of
depression, the crack will take place deep in the interior. If, on the
other hand, the mountain is being elevated, the crack will be at the
surface. If, however, the upper strata are more extensible than the
deeper seated, the crack may be in the interior in the case of an eleva-
tion as well as in that of a depression.

It has of late years been suspected, from the discrepancy in later
and older measurements of points on the Andes, that this mountain
system is in a state of very slow subsidence.

If the foregoing views are correct there is no indication of a voleanie
outburst; and whatever moral effect the disturbances may have on
the character of the inhabitants of the region, there is little danger as
to any physical changes taking place of sufficient intensity to endanger
life—J. H.]

REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF PHYSICS
AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA, FROM JUNE, 1872, TO
JUNE, 1873.

By Pror. A. De La RIVE, PRESIDENT.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution. ]

GENTLEMEN: Called a second time, through your kindness, to preside
over you, again I have the honor to present the annual report of such of
your transactions as your president has considered it desirable to register.
Happily, this year, that part of the report appropriated to biographical
notices is extremely brief. The society, after the great losses it sustained
during last year, has not this year been called to mourn a single one of
its ordinary regular members. But of its honorary members two have
been taken away, Madame Somerville and Arnold Escher de la Linth.

I have little to say of Madame Somerville, who has made for herself
a brilliant reputation, during the last fifty years, by her mathematical
works, and especially by her translation into English of the Mécanique
céleste of Laplace. She wasin full sympathy with the different brancues
of science, and well informed as to their progress. She had for several
years resided in Florence, where she died at an advanced age. }

Arnold Escher de la Linth wasa son of the celebrated Conrad Escher,
surnamed de la Linth on account of the great service he rendered to
the valley of that name, by directing the river Linth into Lake Wallen-
stadt, in order to protect the valley from inundations; an admirable
work, managed with great talent and perseverance.

Arnold Escher acquired at an early age, under his father’s tuition, a
love for the natural sciences. Conrad Escher was in fact one of the
most eminent naturalists of his time; his observations in regard to the
dispersion of erratic bowlders, and their distribution over the Swiss
plains, are especially remarkable.

The son, during the frequent excursions made with his father into the
mountains of Glaris, formed the conception of a geological map of Switz-
erland, which he afterward executed and published, in concert with M.
Studer, the eminent geologist of Berne, after twenty years of labor and
innumerable journeys. He examined the Alps in every detail, and the
precision and justice of his judgment, the accuracy of his observations,
and the quickness of his comprehension permitted him to accumulate
more abundant material for study than unfortunately he could make
use of.

The desirable qualities we have mentioned inspired confidence, and
he was frequently consulted ; his answers were always characterized by

262 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF

a straightforward integrity, and a scientific accuracy quite exceptional,
as well as a liberality rarely met with, which rendered him indifferent
as to whether or not his ideas were appropriated by others. The perfect
honesty and great conscientiousness with which he pursued his researches
often prevented him from publishing them. He was always afraid of
not having sufficiently investigated the ground gone over, and would
go again to places he perhaps had previously visited many times.

He belonged to the geological commission of Switzerland, and was one
of its most influential members. This commission assigned to him the
preparation of the part of the Federal Atlas which contained the Sentis.
Hehad devoted more than twenty years to the study of this mountain,
and as early as in 1848 the cuts furnished to Murchison, which were pub-
lished inthe memoir of the English savan, prove that he was master of
the subject. When death prevented Escher from making the publication
which had been intrusted to iim by the commission, the latter found
among his papers, with many inestimable scientific treasures, enough
documents to prepare a large special map of Sentis, on a scale of fifty
thousands, (the ordinary maps of the commission were of one hundred
thousands,) with text, both almost entirely from the hand of Escher,
a work which reflects much honor on his memory.

I should also add that Escher joined MM. Martins and Desor in an
expedition to the desert of Sahara, the results of which, especially those
which relate to the meteorological influence of the simoon, or wind of
the desert, upon the meteorological condition of the Alpine regions, were
given in the account of the expedition published by M. Desor, under the
form of letters addressed to M. Liebig and M. Ch. Vogt.

A description of Arnold Escher would be very incomplete were it con-
fined to an account of his scientific life. The integrity and love of truth
which distinguished him in his researches, he carried into his private re-
lations, where they were associated with great simplicity of manner, and,
we may say, perfect amiability, accompanied by a slight diffidence, which
only rendered him the more attractive. It was a real pleasure to see
him enter our reunions of the Helvetic Society of Natural History, into
which he brought a warm and cheerful kindliness it is impossible to
forget. The void made by his death has been deeply felt, and in the
month of August last, at the Fribourg meeting, every one deplored his
absence, with that of our excellent colleague Pictet de la Rive. It was
a great sorrow not to meet again the two friends, lately so full of life,
and with nothing about them to indicate premature death.

If the society lost none of its ordinary members during the year that
is passed, it added several to its number. MM. Emile Ador, Edmond
Sarasin, and William Barbey were elected as ordinary members, on ac-
count of interesting communications made by these young savans in
regard to organic chemistry, geology, and botany. M. Casin, professor
of the lyceum of Charlemagne, well known for important researches
in physics, of which he in person made an exposition, in part, at

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 263

a session of the society, was elected an honorary member. The society
has chosen as president, for the year commencing to-day, Professor de
Candolle, and has re-elected as treasurer, for three years dating from the
month of January, M. Philippe Plantamour. Finally, it has acquired
two new free associate members, MM. Edouard Des Gouttes and Henri
Hentsch. ;

The second part of volume xxi of our memoirs appeared at the end
of 1872; it contained, besides the report of the president, an article
upon the Lepidoptera of the Museum of Geneva, by M. Guénée, whom
the society elected last year as honorary member; the fourth series of
a work by M. Duby on new, or not well known, cryptogams; some
observations upon a primordial group of plants (appendiculaires) of the
Strait of Messina, by M. Hermann Fol; and, lastly, an important me-
moir upon the effects of lightning upon trees and ligneous plants, and
the employment of them as conductors or lightning-rods, by M. Daniel
Colladon.

Independently of the first part of volume xxiii, which will appear
in the course of the year, the society, thanks to the generosity of M.
Claparéde, sen., and of his daughter, Madame Flournois, has added to
its memoirs, as volume xxii, the last work of M. Edouard Claparede,
prefaced by a biographical notice of our lamented colleague, by M.
Henri de Saussure. This volume, which is already printed, will soon be
given to the public.

The society is still occupied with investigations in regard to the lake
of Geneva, and has received several reports of the commission from |
M. Alphonse Favre. After allotting a sum of 500 franes from its funds
to commence this work, in order to defray the subsequent expense
the society has opened a special subscription, which has brought in
1,800 franes net. The first soundings undertaken by M. Favre, assisted
by M. Henri Hentsch, cost 336 franes 75 centimes, which sum was taken
from a donation to the commission of 700 francs—400 from the Geneva
society and 300 from the Vaudois society. In the following account of
the labors of the society will be found some of the scientific results
obtained.

I mention, merely to recall the fact, the examination made by the society
of the changes proposed by the central committee of the Helvetic Society
of Natural Science in the existing constitution and title of the society.
It has given an opinion unfavorable to their adoption, especially that
which relates to a diminution in the number of days of a session, which
the committee proposed to reduce to two. The society has always ad-
tnitted that the local committee could, when desirable, make this reduc,

tion. ;
SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC LABORS.

1. Physical science.—The mathematical sciences which, without a strict
regard to the laws of classification, I enter under the head of physical
Science, have been well represented in our sessions.

264 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF

M. Galopin has given us a method of determining the maxima and
the minima of a function. It consists in reducing to 0 the derivative of
the function, and then arrangin g the roots in the order of their powers.
In this order they correspond aiternately to a maximum and a mini-
mum, so that it is only necessary to determine the derivative of one of
them.

M. de la Harpe has exhibited a property of numbers by which it results
that the cube of one number is always equal to the difference of the
squares of two other numbers.

We commence the enumeration of the works of the society in physical
science proper, with meteorology.

M. Plantamour has given a summary of the udometric observations
for the meteorological year 1872. From the commencement of our
regular observations, that is to say, from the year 1826, there has never
been as much rain in one year as in that of 1872. The ann ual mean at
Geneva is 8247". In 1872 there fell 1,086™™ ; that is to say, over a third
more than the mean.

M. Plantamour has kept the society informed in regard to the geodetic
operations carried on in Switzerland. The purpose of the geodetic cam-
paign of 1872 has been to determine the co-ordinates of the Gebris,
in the canton of Appenzell, the Gebris being one of the points of the
new international triangulation, intended to connect this mountain with
the Austrian triangulation. An error in the closing of a large polygon
passing through the Simplon and the Gothard necessitated a new set of
operations, for there was an error in taking the level of about 1”, which
was inadmissible. The cause of this error has not yet been discovered.
The errors which are found out by the closing of a polygon have also
been the subject of a communication from General Dufour, who has
mentioned the deviation of the plumb-line, on account of the neigh-
borhood of the mountains, as a possible cause of the want of accord-
ance between the two levelings.

Our society, in concert with the Vaudois Society of Natural Sciences,
has decided, as you know, to undertake an examination of the bottom
of the lake. In view of this work, MM. A. Favre and H. Hentsch have
made some preparatory soundings, which have been the subject of a
communication to the society. The process of determining a profile by
soundings, which consists in causing an experienced rower to give the
same number of strokes of the oar between two consecutive soundings,
js not sufficiently precise; at least it did not prove to be so under the
conditions in which the observations were made. Under other circum-
stances it might be useful. If, on the contrary, the profile is obtained by
means of a rope supported by corks, results may be corrected by a
second operation. The depth of the little lake isin some parts much
greater than is indicated in the map of the canton.

I am constrained to mention in this connection the communication by
M. Chaix of a hydrographic map, published by the federal bureau, to

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 265

which M. Chaix has added his experiments upon the proportion of solid
matter contained in the water of the Arve.

On the 27th of November of last year occurred that remarkable rain
of meteors, which seemed to confirm the hypothesis that shooting stars
are produced by the disintegration of comets. M. Plantamour gave to
the society the data for the solution of the question, to which the attention
of the society was again directed by M. E. Gautier, in the course of a
notice of the presumed discovery of the comet of Biela by an astronomer
of Madras.

I complete the notice of astronomical researches by mentioning the
remarkable instance communicated by M. Thury of astronomical visibility.
He observed, by means of his small refractor, with great clearness, on
the night of the 15th to 16th of June, the star Antares and the small
blue star near it.

Want of space permits me merely to recall to your memory, without
analyzing it, the communication of M. Soret in regard to his compara-
tive researches between thermal solar radiation and that of a body
heated in the oxyhydrie flame. These researches, which modify the
assertions of P. Secchi in regard to the temperature of the sun, have
been published. I would say bere, that it is our custom, in our annual
account of the proceedings of the society, to confine ourselves almost
exclusively to communications which have not been laid before the
public. I give, once for all, this explanation, to account for the more or
less brief notice of some of the subjects which have been discussed at
our sessions.

M. Wartmann discussed the theory of the perception of color, which
admits three systems of nerves, corresponding to the three fundamental
colors, and opposed to this theory certain observed facts; in particular,
the fact that certain Daltonians do not perceive color, but only a con-
trast of light and shade of different intensities.

Information in regard to the aurora borealis has, from time to time,
been sent to me by observers of this phenomenon and by savans
interested in the subject. I have communicated to the society the
principal inferences drawn from a work of M. Boué, upon the concord-
ance of austral and boreal auroras which he sent me ina letter, and
also those from the researches of M. Lovering, who has united in a
catalogue more than 12,000 observations of auroras.

M. Marignac has given us the result of his experiments upon the
identity of the heat of fusion and the heat of solution. The tem-
perature of solution of a body whose point of fusion is very low was
observed during the cooling, and particularly as it passed the point of
fusion. There was no sudden change, nothing anomalous, as it passed
this point; and M. Marignac therefore concluded that the heat of fusion
is identical with that of solution. For this experiment a solution of
spermaceti in alcohol was used; the point of fusion was at 48° C. The

266 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF

substances which meet the conditions required by these researches are
few in number.

M. E. Ador has presented to the society a summary of his researches
in regard to the radical of phtalic acid.

I close the account of our labors in physical science by mentioning
the oral summary given by M. Casin of some of his researches, already
printed, which he has presented to the society.

T also recall that Professor Gautier in numerous reports, several of
which have been published in the archives, has informed us of various
astronomical investigations, and in particular of those of M. Huggins
of stellar spectra in regard to the direction of the movement of stars in
relation to the earth.

2. The natural sciences.—Geology and paleontology have so much in
common, that it seems to me quite natural to mention in connection what
relates to these two sciences.

I would remind you that M. A. Favre presented an article upon phos.
phates, and their beds, and that M. E. Favre made the society acquainted
with the recent works upon the structure of ammonites.

The boring of the Gothard cannot fail to interest geologists. Specimens
of the different rocks encountered will be preserved in their order of
succession. M. A. Favre, in making a communication to the society
upon this subject, suggested the request for a set of these specimens for
the Museum of Geneva.

M. Ed. Sarasin presented an article, prepared with the assistance of
M. Fuchs, upon the sources of the petroleum of Campina, in Wallachia.
This article assigns to petroleum an eruptive origin, and assimilates it to
the hydrocarbons disengaged during voleanic phenomena. This hy-
pothesis led the authors to expect that they would find in beds of petro-
leum a distribution analogous to that of metalliferous strata; their
anticipations were confirmed by the discovery of an orientation, following
two parallel lines, in the petroleum-emanations of the plateau of Cam-
pina.

M. de Saussure, on his return from a visit to Naples, gave us a descrip-
tion of the crater of Vesuvius, then in eruption, (see the Journal of
Geneva,) and also presented the society with several other communi-
‘ations, upon various subjects, which have already been published.

M. Dor exhibited to us three skulls of the lacustrian period, recently
discovered. Two of these skulls belong to the stone age, and are there-
fore very valuable, on account of the rarity of such specimens, a rarity
probably due to the custom of burning bodies. They are skulls of the
ancient Helvetians, a Celtic race. The large size of one of them shows
that the stature of the man of the stone age was greater than has been
supposed. The third is the skuli of a child of the bronze age.

Under the head of “animal physiology” should be recorded the re-
searches of M. Prevost upon the section of the cord of the tympanum.
Contrary to the opinion first announced by M. Vulpian, and afterward

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 267

modified by this scientist’s own observations, M. Prevost found that the
cord of the tympanum is not entirely lost in the lower maxillary gland,
but sends threads to the tongue. Employing the Waller method, he
divided the tympanum-cord of dogs, cats, &c., and a few days after
found wasted nervous tubes in the terminal branches of the lingual.

M. Prevost has given us the results of some experiments upon the
nerves of taste. These are opposed to the hypothesis that the fibers,
of the lingual nerve which transmits the gustatory impressions, pass
through the spheno-palatine ganglion. In fact, the amputation of two
spheno-palatine ganglions, accompanied by the section of the two glosso-
pharyngeal nerves, does not alter the transmission of the gustatory sen-
sations in the parts moved by the lingual nerve.

Under the head of physiology should also be mentioned a communi-
cation concerning the investigations of the congress of medical men at
Lyons, in regard to the supposed cause of the fevers which justly give
to the climate of the Dombes a character for insalubrity. In this com-
munication the intermittent fever of these regions is attributed to the
spores of .a conferva, very abundant in the marshes of that neighbor-
hood, which rise in the air, with the water evaporated.

M. Lombard, in regard to a subject upon which he had before ad-
dressed the society, presented the fact that pulmonary consumption or
phthisis decreases with altitude, and mentioned Davos station, at an
elevation of 1,556 meters, as having been found particularly favorable
to persons affected with this disease.

In natural history proper, M. V. Fatio has given an account of his .
researches in regard to the development of the black salamander, which
differs greatly from that of the spotted variety. The black salamander
produces only two living progeny, although at the same time the ovary
contains a large number of eggs. Four of these eggs are developed
at the expense of the others, which are decomposed and serve them as
nourishment; after a time the development of two of the four embryos
is arrested, and they in turn serve as nutrition for the last two, which
alone survive, and are born after undergoing various metamorphoses.

M. Lombard exhibited to the society a blind fish from the Mammoth
Cave of Kentucky, sent to the Museum of Geneva by M. V. Lombard.

Vegetable physiology has been represented, first, by a communication
from M. Rissler, upon the nutrition of plants. M. Rissler reminded the
society that he had before presented some researches upon the double
part played by the humus, which assists the dissolution of the mineral
substances useful to the plant, and also furnishes a portion of the car-
bon it contains. His views were opposed to a subsequent memoir upon
the same subject, to which he drew attention, by M. Grandeau, in which
M. Rissler’s researches are not mentioned, and according to which the
part played by the humus consists only in dissolving the nutritive sub-
stances.

M. de Candolle, in noticing the appearance, recently observed, of Al-

268 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF

gerine plants in France, expressed his doubts as to their definite estab-
lishment, and gave some examples of exceptional and temporary devel-
opment of plants.

While exhibiting to the society a flower of the orchid order, the An-
grecum sesquipedale, a plant which is a native of Madagascar and only
very recently introduced into Europe, M. E. Boissier gave us the views
of Darwin in regard to the mode of fecundation of this flower. It is re-
markable for a spur of extraordinary length, the elongation of which
Darwin considers must be the consequence of the length of the proboscis
of a certain butterfly which is still unknown, and which would be the
only insect which could determine the fecundation of this orchid. In
fact, in all the flowers provided with short spurs, as this butterfly touches
the nectar with the end of its proboscis, and does not introduce the lat-
ter entirely, it does not carry off pollen with its head. Such flowers, in
consequence, do not participate in the fecundation of the others, and
tend to disappear. M. Boissier made some objections to this theory,
which he considers insufficiently founded upon observation and even
logical deduction.

M. Miiller claimed to have proved in a striking manner the intimate
mingling of the two distinct forms of the ordinary cowslip or primrose,
and gave this fact as a remarkable example of dimorphism. He recalled
to mind that if feeundation takes place under the most favorable condi-
tions, it must be between flowers of opposite form.

A communication was made to us by M. Lichtenstein, of Montpellier,
upon the ravages caused in vineyards by the Phylloxera vastatrix. In
the same family of plants certain species seem to be spared by this dis-
ease. Thus, although the European vine transported to America may
be affected by it, it does not attack the vine indigenous to America.
M. Lichtenstein has not observed in Switzerland the injurious species of
Phylloxera.

Lichens, and the theory of M. Schwandener, according to which they
have been assimilated to a combination of mushrooms and sea-weeds,
have been the subject of a communication from M. Miiller. It is true
that the anatomic structure of lichens exhibits the superposition of
green cells called gonidés, and this is analogous to that of sea-weeds,
also a telty tissue containing no chlorophyl, in which if resembles the or-
ganization of mushrooms; but still we never find among the lichens the
effects produced by the parasitism of the mushrooms, and there exist
among them forms of fruitand spores never found among the mushrooms.
M. Miiller does not accept this theory, and sees in lichens a dimorphism
of which the two termsare: 1. A complete state, known under the name
lichen. 2. An incomplete state, never producing fruit, and which cor-
responds to the lichen which grows in an isolated condition.

M. Duby informed the society that an anomalous moss had been sent
to him from New Caledonia. He described two characteristics found in
no other known moss, which establishes a new genus. The name Mr.

——

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 269

Duby has given to this genus is Swnodontea, and the species has been
called Spathoidea.

M. de Candolle has stated to the society that a plant, the Linnea
borealis, whose existence in our vicinity has been unkuown since De
Saussure found it growing upon the Voirons, had been discovered by
M. P. Privat, upon the pass of Oche.

M. W. Barbey presented to the society an article upon plants of the
genus Epilobium. In this genus there are some especial difficulties in
_ the determination of species, concerning which there is great uncer-
tainty, notwithstanding numerous investigations. The seed ought to
furnish the best characteristics for determination, but the Hpilobia mul-
tiply readily by suckers, which favors the permanence of the hybrid
specimens which abound in this genus. These plants are found in
great abundance in New Zealand.

M. Humbert has presented several very interesting communications
upon some publications relative to natural history, particularly upon
the work of Heckel on calcareous sponges.

I ought also to mention several reviews, presented by different mem-
bers, of published works; among others, that of M. Ernest Favre, of
the work of M. Barrande upon the silurian formation of Bohemia, and
those of M. Micheli, of the new edition of the treatise on botany of M.
Sachs, and of a work of M. Krauss, professor of botany at Erlangen,
upon the coloring matter of chlorophyl.

If I do not dwell upon communications of this kind, it is because, in
the reports of the president, as I have said before, it is customary to
confine attention principally to original papers; but I cannot terminate
this report without special notice of the communication, so full of in-
terest, made by M. Alphonse de Candolle to the society, in its session of
June, 1873, the last at which I had the honor to preside. In announc-
ing the publication of the seventeenth and last volume of the Prodromus
systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis, he gave an historical summary of
this great and important work. I willingly extend this detailed account
of what I consider one of the most glorious memorials of the science of
Geneva.

The idea of making a complete revision of the vegetable kingdom
_was conceived by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle, during the last years
of his residence in Montpellier, about 1813 or 1814.

The end he proposed to himself then, especially, was to improve and
diffuse the knowledge of the natural system he was the first to make
use ef, in an important flora, (Flore frangaise, 1805,) and the principles
of which he unfolded in his elementary treatise, (1813.) He began
with some monographs of families, very carefully elaborated, which he
published in two volumes called Regni vegetabilis systema naturale, (1818

and 1821.) He soon saw that to treat every family in this way would be
beyond the powers of one man, and would require a great deal too much
time, even supposing, as was then believed, that the number of species

270 TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF

did not exceed 25,000 or 30,000. De Candolle modified his plan, and
took up the series of families under a very much abridged form in his
work which he called the Prodromus. The title indicates that he at some
future time hoped to take up again the Systema, but the enormous 1i-
crease in the number of species discovered, after the peace of 1815, soon
convinced him that this was impossible, and as the articles in the Pro-
dromus were considered too brief, he lengthened the descriptions, after
the third volume, and continued to do so until the middle of the seventh
volume. There he came to the end of the great family of compound
flowers, the elaboration of which was his last and greatest effort.

He was attacked by a serious illness just as he attained his sixtieth
year, and was obliged to accept of assistance in the work of continuing
the Prodromus, which he had never before done, except with articles of
very little consequence. MM. Bentham, Dunal, Decaisne, Grisebach,
Choisy, Duby, Boissier, Moquin, Meissner, and Alphonse de Candolle
contributed their aid, and gradually furnished extended articles. De
Candolle expired on the 9th of September, 1541, and his son continued
to direct the Prodromus, preparing himself certain articles. With the
aid of other assistants, at the end of thirty-two years he had added ten
volumes to the seven that his father had published. The seventeenth —
volume completed the principal class of the vegetable kingdom, the
Dicotyledons, with the exception of one family (Artocarpeis) which the
author could not prepare in time, notwithstanding the delay accorded
him. The whole forms a series of unparalleled monographs, including
214 families, 5,134 genera, and 58,975 species.

The Prodromus has been, we may say, the great authority of descriptive
botany for half a century. Its order for families has generally been
adopted, its form of compilation imitated, and what it proposes or sane-
tions admitted. It has been of great service in doing away with a num-
ber of genera and species for which there was no foundation. As the
work was published when most of the new plants were discovered, it con-
tributed greatly to making them known. It includes 657 new genera
and 11,790 new species; that is to say, more than Linnzeus knew of for
the whole vegetable kingdom. M. de Candolle shows, by comparing
the volumes three by three from the commencement of the work, that
tbe proportion of new genera in relation to the old constantly dimin:
ishes, while the proportion of new species remains the same; that is
always about 25 per cent. We may, therefore, conclude that by the
end of the present century we shall have discovered very nearly all the
genera which exist, while with species this is still far from being the
case.

One of the causes of the influence of the Prodromus has been its
entire impartiality with respect to the botanists of all countries. The
authors have been chosen without reference to nationality. They are
thirty-three in number, including MM. Candolle, and of these thirty-
three contributors twelve are Swiss, nine French, seven German, three

PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, OF GENEVA. 201

English, one Italian, one Swedish, one from Holland, and one a Bel-

gian.

Augustin Pyramus de Candolle has written almost a third of the
work, 4,303 pages; Alph. de Candolle, 1,387 pages; J. Miiller, of Ar-
govie, 1,144; Bentham, 1,133; Meissner, 835; Dunal, 732; the twenty-
nine other assistants, articles less extended. De Candolle, his son, and
his grandson (Casimir) have compiled 5,947 pages out of the whole
13,194. The contributors residing at Geneva have furnished six-tenths.

‘The mere correction of proof in such an especial work has been a
great labor for the two directors, who have done it all themselves. They
have also greatly assisted their colaborers, by taking notes for sixty
years, without interruption, of all new descriptions and plates which
have appeared in botanical books and journals. These notes, classed
by families, form the most complete repertory of descriptive botanical
literature ever compiled.

Several motives induced M. de Candolle not to extend the Prodro-
mus beyond the Dicotyledons. ‘The principal one was the great increase
in the difficulty of the work, on account of the continually-increasing
number of specimens to be examined and of species and characteristics
to be determined by the aid of the magnifying-glass. When A. P. de
Candolle commenced, an active botanist could describe, according to
the custom of the time, 1,590 or 1,809 species a year. Now, with the
work prepared as in the last volumes of the Prodromus, and in ae-
cordance with the existing state of science, an industrious botanist could
describe not more than 300 or 400 species ayear. The difficulty of ob--
taining the manuscripts at the time promised by the authors was
another great obstacle. To this cause must be attributed the delay iu
the publication of the Prodromus, the volumes having appeared more
and more slowly in proportion as the number of writers was increased.

The execution of this magnificent work has required fifty years,
indeed sixty, if we go back to its origin. It has employed three gen-
erations of the same family, which is au unusual circumstance in the
history of science, and will forever associate the name of Candolle with
the most remarkable scientific achievements of Geneva.

WARMING AND VENTILATION.

By ARTHUR Morin,
Director of the Conservatory of Arts and Tyad-3, Paris.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by Clarence B. Young. ]
[ Continued from the Smithsonian Report for 1873, p. 318. ]

APPLICATIONS.

55. Ventilating by means of common fire-places.—Fire-places, though not
economical forms of heating-apparatus, produce a very pleasant temper-
ature, and also serve as efficient means of changing the air of occupied
apartments.

Natural draught produced simply by the difference between the temper-
ature of the air within the chimney and that without, in many cases,
carries off as much as 14,000 cubic feet of air an hour, even when no
fire is burning in the fire-place.

With a coal or wood fire of moderate intensity, the amount of air carried
off may be as much as 42,000 cubic feet an hour, or 2,200 cubie feet to
each pound of wood burned, and 3,200 cubic feet to each pound of coal
burned.

But, with this advantage, common fire-places have the serious defect
of drawing in, through the joints of doors and windows, currents of cold
air, which run to the fire and chill the backs of those sitting there, an
effect which is particularly unpleasant when the face is very much warmed
by the fire.

The various forms of apparatus in use, which are designed to warm
the apartment, and, at the same time, draw in external air to increase
the draft and promote combustion, usually have too small flues, and heat
the air to 176°, 212°, or more, which, issuing horizontally at about the
height of the occupants of the room, becomes at times unendurable.
These forms of apparatus have besides the defect of obstructing the
lower portion of the smoke-flue, and of reducing the volume of air casried
off. . Fire-places made on Douglas Galton’s system, with the dimensions
given in § 13, do not have these objections, and are unexceptionable
means of warming and ventilating during the winter.

56. Use of chimneys for summer-ventilation by means of gas-jets —Chim-
neys may easily be made to serve as ventilators during the summer, or
on special occasions, by placing in them an iron or copper pipe furnished
with several gas-burners. In the chimney of an ordinary apartment,

WARMING AND VENTILATION. pa (i

having an earthen-ware flue 11 inches square and 66 feet high, the amount
of air drawn up the chimney to each foot of gas burned will be greater
the less gas is burned and the less the temperature in the flue, following
pretty nearly the following decreasing series:

Amount of air drawn up
Amount of gas consumed the chimney every

an hour. hour to each cubic foot
of gas burned.
Cubic feet. Cubic feet.
7 1, 900
14 1, 400
28 700
35 : 600
42 500
49 450

These approximate figures may serve to determine the number of 34
feet burners that will berequired to produce any desired rate of change of
air in an apartment.

When the chimney is much lower than that just mentioned, it will be
necessary to correct the calculated volume of air in the proportion of
the square roots of the heights of the flues.

The pipe which conveys the gas to the flue may be easily taken away
when not in use, and closed by a blind socket.

This mode of ventilation may be employed to advantage in drawing-
rooms on reception-days, provided that registers be placed at conven-
ient points for the introduction of moderately warm fresh air. |

During the summer, the system of ventilating by means of gas-jets
will also allow the room to be maintained at a lower temperature than
that of the external air, by drawing in the air from clean cellars to
replace that carried off.

EHxample.—The directors’ room at the Conservatory of Arts and Trades
is ventilated in this way during the summer; and, although the air from
the basement is admitted through but a single opening, entirely too small
for the purpose, and the doors of the room are constantly being opened,
yet the temperature is always 4° lower than the room of the subdirector,
which has a precisely similar exposure, but is unventilated, and it is 7°
lower than the temperature of the external air in the shade.

57. Auxiliary ventilating-flues—Yor unusually large gatherings, in
addition to the chimneys, additional flues may be cut in the thickness
of the front or party walls, in which gas-jets may be used to produce a
strong draught. This method has been tried with success ina house in
the Champs Elysées, Paris.

INFANT-ASYLUMS.

58. In these charitable institutions, in addition to securing space and
cleanliness, provision should also be made for obtaining an abundant
18 s

244 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

and regular supply of fresh air, without depending upon the irregular
opening of windows.

In this respect, all establishments of this kind, even the model one at .
the International Exhibition, fall far short. They ure warmed by cast-
iron stoves, the imperfections of which were shown in §16.

As an example of what appears proper to be done in such cases,

Figr.an. 1 will describe the plan ear-

MALL eaeoddddddnndunnpmuuuunya §ried out in the new asylum

in the parish of Saint Am-

Re Eee brose in Paris, the construe
ee eee ee Zod, Jj tion of which was intrusted
a i ig vie ie fi Aa | to M. Picq, the architect,
Emo weta tr ee eeel) ! g (Wig. 14.)
Te ee as ee 7 2 ) Thisasylum isintended to

‘mma receive fifty babies. There
will also often be twenty-
five mothers there at a time, while the attendants and patronesses present
will usually add ten persons more.

With these data, the maximum volume of air to be carried off and
replaced by fresh may reach the following figures, (§ 40 :)

Cubic feet.

For 50 babies, (530 cubic feet each per hour)..--...-- sanstaiac - sj. 20, 000
25 visiting mothers, (1,060 cubic feet each per hour)....... 26,500

10 attendants, (1,060 cubic feet each per hour).....--....- 10, 600
Total amount of air to be changed every hour.....-.. 63, 600

or 18 cubie feet in a second.

This amount greatly exceeds the actual requirement, because the regu-
lations of the asylum forbid the presence of the mothers in the main
hall. They are received and nurse their children in a special apartment.

The main room is 61 feet long, 24 feet wide, and 15 feet high,
having, therefore, a content of about 22,000 cubic feet. With the
amount of air mentioned above, the complete change would take place

63600
22000
in a healthful condition.

The room is warmed by a hot-air heater, with vertical cast-iron tubes,
having altogether about one hundred square feet of heating-surface,
communicating with a cold-air duet, which will be described hereafter.

It was intended that this heater should have two chambers: the
exterior one, for drying damp linen, carrying the vapor to the chimney;
the interior one, opening into the room, for warming dry linen. On
account of the expense, these chambers were not made.

There might easily have been placed around the fire-chamber in this
heater hot-water pipes connected with a receiver, in order to fur nish a
supply of water for domestic use.

In summer, the receiver, which, indeed, might have been placed in

2.8 times an hour, which is quite sufficient to keep the room

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 275

the chimney-flae, could have been heated by a special fire. This useful
appendage was given up for the same reason as the other.

The foul air is carried off through ten flues, a, a, a, (Fig. 14,) made in
the thickness of the wal!s. The required velocity of the current being
2.3 feet a second, (§ 50,) the clear sectional area of each flue has been
fixed at ions =.78 square feet.

The size of the openings might then be 1 foot by 9 inches; but, their
area being reduced by a register which cuts off about one-third, they
have been made 1 foot square.

These flues open into collecting-flues arranged under the floor on each
long side of the building; each of these collectors being able to carry off
at a maximum 9 cubic feet a second, with a mean velocity of 3 feet a
second, (§ 50.) They have at their mouths a sectional area of 2.7 square
feet, being about 19 inches square; but, at the first part, up to where
the third down-flue enters, their areas have been reduced each to 1.6
square feet, they being 1 foot by 20 inches,

The transverse collectors, ¢, ¢, in which the air should have a velocity
of 4 feet a second, (§ 50,) have each a sectional area of only 2 square
feet in their transverse portion, being 1 foot four inches by 1 foot
7 inches, and they are but 2 feet 7 inches by 1 foot 7 inches where
they enter the chimney, while there they should carry off 18 cubic feet a
second.

The chimney, which should carry off 18 cubic feet a second at the
; 18 5 ,
velocity of 7 feet a second, (§ 50,) should have the area = 2.97 square

feet, or be 1 foot 7 inches by 1 foot 7 inches. It really has a sec-
tional area of 5 square feet, which is larger than necessary. It contains
the smoke-flue, and it has, near the bottom, a little grate 10 inches by
10 inches, forming a heater, in which a littie coal-fire may be made in
mild weather in order to keep up the circulation of air.

The introduction of fresh air is made in accordance with the rules
given in §§ 51, 52.

The fresh-air supply for the heater A is obtained by means of a pipe,
B, carried from the garden and passing under the floor. At its outer
end, this pipe is connected with a sort of chimney connected with a grat-
ing to prevent the introduction of foreign bodies.

The air to maintain the draught of the fire is taken from the little
room C.

The warm air supplied by the heater passes to the upper room by
pipes, ddd, eee, placed under the floor of the attic-room in the line of the
building. The construction of the roof did not permit of using only a
single pipe, which would have been sufficient. The cold air to be mixed
with the warm air is taken in the upper room, where it is deflected

toward the pipes by means of slats, so as to be delivered above the warm-
air pipe ddd.

276 WARMING AND VENTILATION. a

A shelf fastened to each side-wall at half the height of the longitud-
inal pipe e ee secures the separate admission of hot air below and cold
air above. It is sufficient that these shelves be 10 or 12 feet long, but
they should be made of earthen ware, in order that they may not be too
much heated by the action of the air from the heater, which might pre-
vent the entrance of the cold air.

The two pipes for warm and fresh air are 12 inches by 20 inches.
Four openings, 9,9,9,9, placed in the ceiling in the center line of the room,
admit the mixture of warm and fresh air with a velocity of about 20
inches a second, (§§ 51, 52,) and in order to allow for the obstruction of
the grating they are made 28 inches by 35 inches. Registers are placed
at the lower part of the chimney to regulate the amount carried off, and
they are also placed in the warm-air and fresh-air pipes so as to obtain
the proper mixture.

Such are the simple and inexpensive arrangements which serve to
maintain in this asylum a degree of healthfulness superior to that of
other establishments of the kind.

59. Results of excperiment.—The plan just described was carried out,
with a few modifications in details rendered necessary by local condi-
tions and by work previously done. The asylum was opened January
27, 1868, and experiments made there in the first part of February,
which gave the following results:

Results of experiments made in Saint Ambrose Infant-Asylum.— The
inside work of this asylum was not finished till the latter part of Janu-
ary, and the hall was opened on Monday the 27th to the first children
that were presented. After three or four days of heating to bring the
interior to the proper temperature, the experiments were begun on the
31st January. ;

In the first visit to the hall, it was noticed that the foul air was car-
ried off very well by all the openings, although the velocity appeared
considerably greater at those nearest the chimney, as is natural. It
would be easy to render the amounts carried off through the openings
more uniform, if deemed necessary, by placing a register at each opening
and regulating it once for all.

The admission of fresh air is provided for by means of openings in
the ceiling, and its velocity does not exceed 18 or 20 inches a second. It
can be rendered entirely uniform by partially closing the openings far-
thest from the heater, but this is not necessary.

The amount of air admitted into the heater to be warmed may vary
greatly according to the intensity of the fire, but, with the very moder-
ate consumption of 57 pounds a day, it was found to be, on the 6th of Feb-
ruary, 62,000 cubic feet; and on the 7th of February, 59,000 cubic feet,
raised from the external température 42°, the usual mean temperature
of the winter, to 88°, at which it was admitted into the room. The
heater, on account of the large dimensions of its chambers, was more
than sufficient alone to supply the room in winter with fresh air heated

=~]

WARMING AND VENTILATION. a

to a comfortable degree. The additional fresh-air ducts would then be
often found unnecessary, and might be closed.

The amount of air brought into the room through the openings in the
ceiling was found the same day, February 7, to be equal to 60,000 cubic
feet an hour, confirming the previous opinion.

The amount of foul air carried off by the ventilating-chimney was as
much as 65,000 cubic feet the same day and under the same cireum-
stances. The mean temperature in the chimney was—

February 6 ....... 2 ee A ae Sint ae 8 eka ea PR ee 849°
Shiaiol the external air beims 81422. Sse aeie As 2 GE A 449
PP IRERETNC Cr pce gay siacen = cestatety oye cpa ae ae a roles as packs eee sea 409

Thus, with this mean winter-temperature, that of 61° was maintained
in the room, and, with an excess of 40° in the chimney over that of the
air, almost 63,000 cubic feet of foul air was carried off, as has been
stated.

The consumption of fuel an hour was—

Pounds.

1 SES OCEAN TC IC RSI SS es ee ec En PR ee Shp Rt a
BOLUM Rem Ue G LIN: CMDMIOY, «r= a.cieta ois aes ala ~ Scie 2 eresic aialey al daresay cha = ote ge 3
10

The babies being left in the morning and taken away by their mothers
in the evening, it will be sufficient, in ordinary weather, if the fires be
kept up at most eight hoursa day. The daily consumption will then be
on a mean 10x 8=80 pounds a day.

The fuel used is composed of 75 per cent. of coke and 25 per cent. of
coal, and it will be estimating it above its value to charge it at $10 a
ton. The expense of fuel during the winter would then be at most
es cents a day, or $36 for 100 days, to obtain a change of air at
the rate of 63,000 cubic feet an hour.

During the season when artificial heatis notrequired, the ventilating-fire
alone should be used, and will usually burn not more than about 54 pounds
of coal an hour, or 27 lbs. a day, for the period when the opening of windows

‘ : : 200 x 27 x 10
will not be sufficient, or during 200 days, ote = $24. The total

annual expense would then be at most $60 for an asylum which, though
intended for but 50 children, might easily receive 100 in the large well-
ventilated apartment, which has a content of 23,000 cubie feet, giving,
in that case, 230 cubic feet for each child; while in the primary schools
of Paris there is allowed, on an average, but about 155 cubic feet to each
child of from 6 to 12 years of age.

Under these conditions, the ventilation of 63,000 cubic feet for 109
beds, or 230 feet a bed, an hour would be almost double what is neces-
sary, and could easily be reduced to 42,000 cubie feet an hour. But even
supposing that it be kept as it is, the mean expense for each child would
be at most 60 cents a year.

oe

278 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

It should be added that, without urging the ventilating-fire, it is easy,
with the proportions adopted, to increase the amount of air removed to
more than 88,000 cubic feet an hour.

In conclusion, we see from these experiments that the dimensions
adopted in this first application to infant-asylums are much larger than
necessary, and that the results intended have been more than realized.
It may then be considered certain that in making similar arrangements,
even with smaller dimensions, all requirements for good and complete
ventilation will be satisfied at an expense much less than that incurred
in the asylum which the parish of Saint Ambrose owes to its venerable
curate, M. Langenieux.

60. Proportions for an asylum of fifty cradles—According to the
results of the experiments which have just been mentioned, and the
conditions of service imposed by the regulations, the arrangements
adopted by the Saint Ambrose Asylum greatly exceeding the necessities
of the ease, the following data may be assumed for a similar asylum:
Amount of air to be carried off and repiaced for 50

children, at 530 cubic feet each per hour.......-. 26, 500 cubic feet.
Hon attendantssanGsvisSitOrs s..26i. sec eel eee 8, 800 cubic feet.

39, 300 cubic feet.

Floor room, 164 feet to each cradle....-....-.---.. $12 square feet.
Interior height....:. 5... OT AEC STEPTOE 13 feet.
HotalteubiealPecontents ee 2-2 = oer yer aa - ee ee 10, 600 cubic feet.

Equivalent to 212 cubic feet to each cradle.

: D30 ;

The air of the room should be changed se 34 times an hour.

The volume of air to be carried off and replaced in a second would be
BOBUUEZ OFS cubie feet. .
3000

From these data, following the preceding rules in the calculation of
the dimensions of openings and flues, all the expenses of founding and
carrying on the establishment will be kept within narrower limits than
those which have attended its first application.

PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

61. The plans adopted should be designed to carry off and replace a
volume of 409 to 500 cubic feet an hour for each child.

The ventilating-openings should be placed in or against the vertical
walls of the two long sides of the room. It is only in case of great con-
structive difficulties that they may be confined to a single side. There
should be as many of them as possible, and they should have a clear
cross-sectional area that will give to the air carried off a velocity of more
than 28 inches a second. They should connect with descending flues
leading in the cellar or under the floor to a collecting-pipe, which, in

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 2709

most cases, should be carried directly to the foot of the ventilating-
shaft.

The latter should be placed for its whole length beside the smoke-pipe
of the heater, the heat from which will assist the draught. But this heat
will not usually be sufficient to give proper activity to the draught even
when the external temperature is very low, and it will be necessary to
keep up a little coal-fire at the bottom of the ventilating-shaft in a grate
detached from the walls.

If local arrangements prevent making the fire at the bottom, it may
be made at the floor-level or at the top, keeping the ventilating-open-
ings, however, in the vertical walls and near the floor.

The fresh air, warm or cold, should be admitted near the ceiling, and
preferably parallel to its surface. In the season for fires, the air sup-
plied by the heater should be mixed with the external cold air. The
proportion of each may be regulated by means of registers easily con-
trolled from the interior of the room, so that the mixture may have only
the temperature of 85°. to 95° at most.

The fresh-air openings should be arranged, if possible, along the
whole length of the room, or at least be very numerous, and their see-
tion calculated so that the entering air should have a velocity of 49
inches a second, if it is directed horizontally parallel to the ceiling, or
20 inches, if it has a vertical direction.

62. Example. School in the Rue des
Petits-Hotels, Paris, (Fig. 15.)—This
school-building is intended for two
perfectly distinct uses. The ground
floor is used for the children’s play-
room. It is unnecessary to ventilate
jt, and a single stove is sufficient to
warm it.

Tie second floor is occupied by the
primary school kept by the Christian
Brothers, and is divided into four
rooms, intended for 400 children.
The capacity of these rooms corre-
sponds to a mean of 155 cubie feet for
each child, which is about the pro-
portion adopted by the city govern-
ment, and seems to us totally insufii-
. cient; 250 to 280 cubic feet for each
~ child appears the proper amount, es-
pecially as many schools for children
are used in the evening as schools for
adults.

The third floor is devoted to a drawing-school under the charge of a
private professor, and contains 270 desks, of which 200 are in the main

280 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

room, which, in the evening, is lighted by 90 gas-burners. The capac-
ity of this room corresponds to 200 cubic feet to each person.

Ventilation in the two rooms during the day is limited to 350 cubic
feet to each person, which necessitates the renewal of 140,000 cubic feet
an hour in the second story and 70,000 cubic feet an hour in the third
story.

The rooms are warmed by two heaters found by direct experiment to
have a heating-capacity equal to 81 per cent. of the heat generated by
the fuel,* and having proportions corresponding to 44 square feet of
heating-surface for every 1,000 cubic feet of room-area, supposed to be
ventilated by a complete change of air twice an hour.

The warm air is carried to each floor by three vertical flues leading
into a large and long pipe extending throughout the whole length of
the rooms, which receives fresh air from without in order to regulate the
temperature of the air admitted into the room. This air enters hori-
zontally near the ceiling.

The volume of warm air, at a temperature of from 140° to 150° aseend-
ing in the flues before being mixed with cold air, was found to be, in
the second story, 106,000 cubic feet an hour; in the third story, 73,000
cubic feet an hour; aud this has been found sufficient to maintain in
the rooms a temperature of from 60° to 70°, when that of the exterior
air was 35° or 40°.

According to the instructions given to the builder, the foul air should
have been carried away from the second story by thirteen flues, the pro-
portions of which had been determined by applying the rule adopted
in § 51, which fixes 28 inches a second as the velocity which the foul air
should have in the first series of ventilating-flues, as indicated in the

following table:
SCHOOL-ROOMS, (SECOND FLOOR,)

@ 3am Ah
FI $ S 2) 2 q
: Ese 28
. ° ~
E Volumes of air to be carried off— q 3
° son =
a Speies Key =
5 Sec Number of flues and prescribed dimen- |5 =
S $e55 sions. 2S
2 | He
5 KGS) ac
E HSS 3
g In an hour. Inasecond.| -ackGa as
~~ =F ~
= SOPS og
Al A aH?

j —)

1 90 | 32,000 cubic feet.| 9 cubic feet.| 4 square ft ; ae : Hoek d inehes* I footer ae Ay , 3.7
2 60 | 21,000 eubie feet.| Geubicfeet.| 3 square ft.) 3o0f 1footlinch x1 foot—1.1sq. ft...) 3.3
3] 110] 39,000 cubic feet.| 11 cubic feet. | 5 square ft | 4o0f 1 footlinch x1 foot=1.1 sq. ft...| 4.4

4| 140 | 49,000 cubic feet.| 14 cubicfeet.| 6 square ft.| 4 of 1 foot 5 inches~x1 foot=1.5 sq. ft...| 6
400 | 141, 000 cubic feet.| 40 cubic feet.| 18 square ft. 17.4

ART-SCHOOL, (THIRD FLOOR.)

1 | 200] 71,000 cubic feet.| 20 cubic feet.| 9 square ft. ; of ] pont 2 es ke eae ae. a - s 3
9.3

* Annales du Conservatoire des arts et métiers, 6 vol., p. 325.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 281

Note.—The builder actually gave smaller sectional areas to the flues ;
still the intended results have been secured.
In the first series of collecting-flues in each story, where the velocity

is to be 39 inches a second, the sectional area shou!d be—
Square feet.

For the second story, amount to be renewed in 1 second

=A CLOG feeb y SEChlONal ATGA lc scien cio: a ces ood side celle el aedere 12
For the third story, amount to be renewed in 1 second
== 20 cubie feeb; SeChIOnal ALEA. - ice) e's eh-sto's oe = sya's dic pee 6

In the two collecting-flues terminating at the bottom of the general
ventilating-chimney, the required velocity being 4 feet a second, their

total sectional area was fixed at—
Square feet.

For the second story..... adie tats Spas fate Basie es eisiteee ae shen ae anaes 10
For the third story......-.. ee eeisrciats BS 8 (alla eh hepa sb eas sis mS ieaNe claraa tye 5
15

The latter flues carry the foul air to the bottem of the chimney, which
is 56 feet high, and has a sectional area of 11 square feet. The two
smoke-pipes being each 8 inches in diameter, or 2 feet in circumference,
and having consequently 56 x 2=112 square feet of surface exposed to
cooling, were not able, even in ordinary weather, to sustain the draught
of the chimney, and a small auxiliary fire was deemed necessary. To this
was given a surface of about 100 square inches, which, when burning 3$
pounds of coal an hour, carried off, on an average, 140,000 cubic feet of
air an hour in the second story, and 70,000 in the third story. If the
dimensions of the ventilating-flues given to the builder had been followed
instead of being reduced to 16 square feet in the second story and 8 in
the third, it is evident that the amount of air carried off would greatly
exceed the prescribed amount, which shows that the rules which have
been given allow for even serious defects in construction.

The observations made in this building in regard to the results of
warming and ventilation lead to this important conclusion, that with
well-made heaters and a properly-arranged system of ventilation, school-
rooms with 350 eubie feet of air to each pupil may be comfortably
warmed and ventilated by the use of no more fuel than is required for
the injurious heat obtained from the cast-iron stoves used in most schools.

ADULT-SCHOOLS.

63. Similar plans should be adopted for adult-schools ; the only change
to be made consists in increasing to 500 or 700 cubic feet the amount of
air to be carried off every hour for each person; or, in other words, to
increase the size of the foul and fresh air flues.

NIGHT-SCHOOLS OF DESIGN.

64. These present a peculiar difficulty in changing the air and mod-
erating the temperature, in consequence of the large number of lights

282 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

or gas-burners which they contain, which often produce a degree of
heat in excess of that necessary to warm the room.

The general rule, which requires that the foul air should be drawn off
near the floor, cannot be exclusively followed without causing currents
of air heated from 85° to 95° to fall upon the students. It is, then,
necessary to carry away the hot gases, the products of combustion,
through the ceiling. But at the same time it is necessary to admit the
fresh air, which in that case must be cool, at a certain height as far as
possible from the floor.

But if the same room should also be occupied during the day as a
study or drawing-room, and if it were then ventilated according to the
usual rule by drawing the foul air off near the floor, it would be well at
night to maintain that ventilation in order to assist the circulation and
the descent toward the floor of a part of the fresh air brought in, of
which to make up for the heating-effect of the lights, there should be
a much greater amount than during the day.

Observations made in a school of design in Paris attended every
evening by 200 to 240 scholars, and lighted by 90 gas-jets, consuming
together 320 to 350 cubic.feet of gas an hour, led for this special case to
the following rules:

1. During the day, regulate the amount of foul air drawn off at the
floor-level to about 530 cubic feet for each adult scholar and admit the
fresh air near the ceiling.

2. For night-sessions, make escape-openings in the ceiling, the clear
area of which should be calculated at about 88 square inches for every
1,000 cubic feet capacity of the room.

If there is no loft above the room in which the ventilating-pipes can
be carried, special pipes may be placed at convenient points, removed
as far as possible from those at which the fresh air is introduced. These
pipes should be supplied with convenient valves, in order that they
may be closed during the day, and the amount of the hot gases removed
at night regulated.

3. Place in the two opposite walls of the room, or at least in one of
them, at the height of 10, 13 feet, or higher, if possible, as many fresh-
air openings as convenient, each supplied with a regulator to direct the
air horizontally near the ceiling, the dimensions of these openings
being calculated so that the volume of air admitted may be increased
to six or eight times the total cubical capacity of the room, with an en-
tering velocity of but 2 or 3 feet a second.

By means of these arrangements, drawing-schools may be made com-
fortable at night, which at present are almost like furnaces, and in
which it becomes necessary to open some of the windows even in winter,
notwithstanding the discomfort which may be experienced in, conse-
quence by the scholars nearest to them.

In the drawing-school just mentioned, the total amount of air carried
off every hour was:

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 285

Cubic feet.

Pei Ase SUG: 2 oie ars wre eh aayns rae epee sete sys Sel tole = chelas sommes 367, 600
April 6, 1866..... adhe. haya e Mees aetets eeVereisiayelsiaicite et ajelbja’siet erates 450, 000
IMIG AT paree sie wrest a Seth 66 able SS Oe Been ee See 398, 800

which corresponds to a total renewal almost eight times an hour.

By means of this active ventilation, the temperature in the room has
been maintained till 10 o’clock at night at 67° to 70° at 5 feet above the
floor, and at 75° on an average at the ceiling, while, before the introduce-
tion of the means of ventilation mentioned above, it was, respectively,
at the same heights, 80° and 909°.

65. Plans to be adopted in schools already built.—It too often happens
that no plan has been provided in schools, and especially in night-schools,
to produce even a partial change of air or to regulate the temperature,
so that a stay in them is as unhealthful as it is unpleasant. There is,
then, as we have said, no resource but to open the windows, and this is
both uncomfortable and injurious to the scholars seated near them.
These defects may, however, be removed, at least in part, in most cases
by adopting the arrangements described in § 64 in the case of a drawing-
school.

In order to carry off the hot gases arising from the lights, and pre-
vent them from affecting the scholars, ventilating-openings should be
placed near the ceiling. A number of ventilating-flues should be cut,
the size of which may be calculated by the preceding rules; if possi-
ble, making them so large that the air may be renewed four or five |
times an hour. If, however, it is only possible to make one flue, it
should be connected by means of a horizontal pipe, with a series of ori-
fices in one of the long sides of the room. At the bottom of this flue
should be placed either a little grate or three or four gas-burners, each
consuming about four cubic feet an hour, in order to keep up the draught
when the external temperature is too high for natural ventilation to be
effective. The use of gas is in most cases of this kind more convenient
than a coal-fire.

On the side opposite to that by which the foul air is carried off, a num-
ber of ventilators should be put in place of the upper panes of the win-
dows, and arranged so as to be opened more or less as needed, in order
to admit the fresh air as near as possible to the ceiling. By increasing
and suitably arranging these openings, the injurious effects from the
entrance of cold air will be avoided.

Arrangements of this kind have been recently adopted in the school
at Saint Martin’s Market, kept by the Christian Brothers, where there
are about 100 scholars in the drawing-room every evening, light being
furnished by a great many gas-burners. Simple wooden pipes carried
up to the roof, and the employment of a few gas-burners, prove sufii-
cient tu carry off the foul air and gas, and indirectly to draw in fresh air

284 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

through the ventilators placed on the opposite side to that by which the
foul air is removed.

These means are far from being perfect, but their employment in
school-buildings already built is almost always easy and inexpensive.

LYCEUMS AND COLLEGES.

66. In these institutions, where it is of the greatest importance to
secure the change and purity of the air so as to promote the physical
development of the youth, it is well to provide for this renewal at the
rate of 500 cubic feet of air an hour for every child under 12 or 14 years,
and 900 cubic feet for every person 15 years old or older.

The class and study rooms having to be warmed and ventilated con-
stantly during the day, and the sleeping-rooms during the night, it is
best to make use of such forms of heating and ventilating apparatus as
include all the rooms of the same building. Those employing hot water
should always be preferred, notwithstanding their greater first cost, be-
cause that is largely compensated for by their regularity of operation,
and also by their economy of fuel.

Cast-iren stoves, too often used in these establishments, are extremely
injurious, not only because they heat too irregularly, and often to ex-
cess, but also because the iron, a porous metal, produces a noticeable and
dangerous alteration of the air.

67. Application made at the Toulon Lyceum.—M. Laval, one of the
most skillful of French architects, and one who has for several years
past been specially occupied with questions relating to the healthfulness
of habitations, has made a very happy application of the principles just
mentioned in the new lyceum at Toulon, which he designed. Some de-
tails in regard to it will prove of interest, since they will serve both as
an exemplification of the rules and as a model to be followed in similar
circumstances.

In this establishment, there is a main court-yard, giving access to
all the rooms, (Fig. 16.) This com- Tig. 16.
municates right and left, by means
of passages, with the halls, studies,
and class-rooms of the first and
second divisions. At the rear, in
a separate building, are placed
the natural-history collections and
the physical apparatus. Behind
this building is the hospital-court,
around which are, on the ground-floor, the dining-rooms and the kitchen,
and, on the second floor, the infirmary with its bed-rooms.

The lyceum will accommodate 300 boarding-scholars, occupying during
the day six study-rooms and at night ten bed-rooms. There are also
twenty-two class-rooms, each intended for forty scholars on an average,
which should be ventilated at the same time as the study-rooms. All

WARMING AND VENTILATION, 285

the class-rooms and studies on one side of the staircase have together
a content of 42,000 cubic feet, which is to be ventilated by one
apparatus; and the two sleeping-apartments placed above these
rooms have each a capacity of 37,000 cubic feet, or together 74,000 cubic
feet. The chimney and the ventilating-apparatus, which will be de-
scribed hereafter, then serve during the day to ventilate the recitation-
rooms, containing 42,000 cubic feet of air, and during the night the bed-
rooms, containing 74,000 cubic feet.

The class-rooms and study-rooms in each division are placed on the
ground-floor of large buildings, of which the second floor contains the
corresponding bed-chambers. A fine staircase, placed near the middle
of each wing, gives access to the rooms. Fig. 17 shows the general

arrangement of the ground-floor of one of the four similar buildings.

The climate of Toulon is so mild that no arrangements for heating
had to be provided, but ventilation appeared still more necessary under
the southern sun than almost anywhere else.

M. Laval took as a basis for the calculations and the dimensions he
adopted the renewal of a volume of air of 900 cubic feet .an hour to
each person, which seems amply sufficient.

The ventilating-flues were made in the thickness of the walls of the

rooms on the ground-floor and the sleeping-rooms; their number as

well as their areas were calculated by allowing a velocity of about 28

_ inches a second to the air passing into them, (Fig. 18.)

The general system adopted is that of a descending draught, and the
ventilation is confined during the day to the lower rooms and at night
to the sleeping-rooms.

The descending pipes, which receive the foul air at each side of the
front rooms, unite under the floor in two central collecting-pipes, placed
right and left of the staircase, each terminating in a ventilating-chimney,
of which there is one on each side of the staircase.

286 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

Each story has its ventilating-pipes and its special collecting-pipes,
and the two collectors on one
side are placed one over the
other, as seen on the plan of the
basement, (Fig. 19.) As the
ventilation of the two stories
alternates day and night, a valve
placed in the chimney at the
mouth of the collectors allows
that for the sleeping-rooms to
be closed during the day, and
that for the class-rooms at night.

A coke-stove, only filled every twelve hours, the draught of which can
be regulated at will, is placed at the bottom of each chimney, to con-
rol the ventilating-current.

Such are the simple and inexpensive arrangements adopted for the
four buildings containing the study-rooms, class-rooms, and dormito-
ries.

The building containing the dining-rooms and the infirmary is venti-
lated in a similar way; but for them M. Laval has skillfully made use of
the waste heat from the cooking-range, in which fire is kept most of the
day.

In the dining-rooms, the tables are arranged on the side opposite to
an outer wall, pierced with many windows, which admit light and air
from the infirmary-court. The ventilating-openings are arranged in the
face of the opposite wall in the space between the tables. The vertical
flues lead into collecting-pipes, which carry the foul air to the bottom of
the kitchen-chimney; and this is always warm enough to produce a
sufficiently powerful draught.

For the infirmary, situated on the second floor, the arrangements are
similar; and as the dining-rooms only need to be ventilated at certain
hours, the heat of the kitchen-range and that of the fires used in pre-
paring decoctions and poultices, not only serve without expense to carry
off the foul air, but also to heat the baths required in the establishment.

Introduction of fresh air.—The mildness of the climate of Toulon
allowing, as has been said, artificial heat to be dispensed with, the in-
troduction of fresh air does not present any difficulty, and no precaution
is necessary, except to prevent the draught from becoming unpleasant.
M. Laval has provided for that by placing ventilators in place of the
upper panes in the window to throw the air toward the ceiling. A
valve allows the amount of opening to be regulated when the force of
the draught renders it necessary.

In the sleeping-rooms, he has added convenient arrangements for the
renewal of the air during the night; the opening of little doors placed
under the window-ledge allowing the air to flow out at the floor-level
and under the beds in order better to purify the room.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 287

All these arrangements, carefully planned in advance by M. Laval,
and carried out as the building progressed, have cost but $5,000 for the
complete purification of all the occupied parts of a school of three hun-
dred scholars, which, estimating the interest on the cost and the wear
and tear at 10 per cent., amounts to but $500 a year, or $1.67 a scholar.

There can be no doubt that in such an establishment the health and
the vigor of the youth, by reducing the number of sick days, would
compensate largely, even in an economic consideration, for expendi-
tures so well made.

It is, however, proper to remark that in winter the temperature may
fall unusually low at Toulon, and that ventilation without heating may
prove unpleasant. It would be easy to complete the beginning thus
made by adding a few heaters. .

WORKSHOPS.

68. During the day, it is usually sufficient to change the air two or
three times an hour, according to the general rules given in § 38 and
following.

If substances producing disagreeable or unhealthful odors are pre-
pared or used, it will be advisable, if possible, to separate the sources
of infection by partitioning off compartments almost as tight as drying-
chambers, and carrying off the emanations by a strong local draught,
carrying them under the floor and thence into a main ventilating-chim-
ney, (Fig. 20.)

The fresh air brought in near the ceiling, and which should be hot or
cold, according to the season, de-
scends in the rooms, and con-
stantly renews that of the com-
partment, which is drawn off
without being able to spread
into the room itself.

If there are many places where
the unhealthful materials are
used, and they are scattered over
almost the whole surface of the
workshop, it would be advisable
to place near each workman a ventilating-opening, communicating with
collecting-pipes terminating in a common ventilating-chimney.

The amount.of air carried off in this way should be greater the more
dangerous the materiais are to breathe. It is then necessary that the
air of the shop be changed at least three or four times an hour, and in
some cases, such as in match-factories and other unhealthful works, it
should be done eight or ten times.

In shops lighted by gas, and where every workman has a separate
gas-burner, the products of combustion may often be readily removed

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288 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

by placing above each burner a little iron or copper pipe, ? inch in
diameter, leading to the outside of the building.

This simple and cheap method would suffice to render healthful a
large number of workshops where unfortunate tailors, seamstresses, and
others now live in an infected and unhealthful atmosphere.

Since the combustion of gas produces a great amount of vapor, the
pipes which carry off the gaseous products should be short and =— to
avoid condensation.

In addition to the disagreeable alteration of the condition of the air,
there is often an excessive elevation of temperature in shops placed
directly under the roof. We will mention further on the means for
remedying this by the inexpensive plan of sprinkling the roof.

69. Glue and soap manufactories.—In the preparation of these materials,
and of many others of the same kind, there arise disagreeable odors during
the boiling-operations. Themost successful method adoptedin England*
appears to be to cover the vat and to make two openings in the cover,
one of which admits the air, while the other, connected with the main
ventilating-chimney, or with the grate of the vat itself, draws down
the vapors and the air entering through the other hole, and carries
them outside the building.

When there are many vats near each other, their ventilating-pipes are
usually connected with a single pipe leading to the chimney.

If the odors to be carried off are merely unpleasant and not danger-
ous, and are not produced in great quantity, it will be sufficient to
make a sufficient number of openings in the ceiling, provided with short

sheet-iron pipes to produce the draft, and to make suitable provision
for the admission of fresh air.

70. Manufactories of chloride of lime and similar substances giving off
acid vapors.—The doors of the room into which the workmen have to
enter are opened, and the rooms connected with a powerful ventilating-
chimney. The workmen do not enter until all the vapors have been
carried off by the fresh air introduced.

71. Match-factories.—The manutacture of matches, which produces
the most distressing complaints, and to which boards of health do not
pay sufficient attention, requires special details, into which it will be
well to enter.

For this purpose, I quote from a very valuable report, made by M.
Freycinet, mining-engineer, the following description of the plans
adopted with success in a large establishment lately erected at Hemix-
eim near Antwerp, at which the builder, M. Genis, a talented Belgian
officer, has made a remarkable application of ventilation by a downcast
draught.

Five separate buildings, used for storage of raw materials, for cover-
ing with sulphur, for preparing the phosphorus-tips, for pipes g, tor
drying and boxing, and for shipping constitute the manufactory proper.

* Extract from the report of M. Freycinet Sur la salubrité des fabriques.

WARMING. AND VENTILATION. 289

These are all ventilated by means of a large central chimney, 7 feet
in inside diameter and 118 feet high, which receives the hot air from the
furnaces of the steam-boilers, and, when needed, additional heat from
a separate fire. Along the outer face of the side-walls of each building
extends a subterranean passage-way of masonry, (cc, Figs. 21, 22,) 2
feet square, leading a the
base of the chimney. Wher-
ever the phosphorus is
placed, an opening is made
either in the walls or in the
floor, communicating by a
small pipe with the under-
ground passage so as to
earry off the injurious va-
pors without allowing them
to spread in the shop.

Special arrangements differ according to the nature of the work.
Thus, where the tips are prepared, a wide and shallow funnel is used, in

which the draught is increased

i di Ley
N WV
Wale as ii. aaa)
é

| ae ie by the flames of the melting-fire.

ie =a 7 Tea TE “| The shop for the dipping and

a " i drying operations, which are the

ide” a0) most dangerous, is particularly

pk “(|| well ventilated. The general

im Ay arrangement is shown in the

lo” én two figures, (21, 22.) The build-

Wi i 7 ing is 66 feet by 49 feet. Along

Y iC iO) the two sides are placed the dry-

| ee patil ing-chambers E E E, 18 in) nu

, Ht Hi | ber, each being 6 feet wide, 16

j ete feet deep, and 7 feet high to the

j ne spring of the ceiling-arch, and 9
‘Cle" i

> i Hall? =) I feet tothecrown. They are con-

Hey oeaia. nected with the ventilating-tun-

= nel ¢ ¢ by a triple row of open-

ings, 0, 0,0, 10 inches by 5 inches,
at the floor-level, and receive
the external air either by chimneys extending above the roof or by
openings, 9 inches by 6 inches, placed at the bottom of the iron doors of
the drying-rooms, and taking air from the main hall. The doors are 6
feet high and nearly 3 feet wide. The drying-rooms are heated by three
rows of 2-inch steam-pipes placed under the floor. The channels in
which these pipes are placed should receive cold air to be carried
directly into the drying-chambers. Valves worked from the outside
of the chambers control the admission and removal of air, which should
enter with a temperature of about 140°, that of the chamber not exceed-
ing 95°.
19 s

290 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

In front of each range of drying-chambers there is a small railroad,
extending from the melting-room to the warehouse. An iron car takes
the prepared composition, and carries it to the drying-chambers in suc-
cession. Before each door or station, an orifice, 0’ o’, made in the floor,
exerts a powerful draught, which draws the vapors into the exterior lateral
tunnel. The dipping is quickly done, and the frames are immediately
placed in the drying-chambers, the iron doors of which are carefully
closed.

The middle portion of the building is reserved for boxing. Under
the tables are also placed ventilating-openings, 0” 0’. The filled boxes
are finally put in the car and carried to the warehouse.

The main passage-ways ¢ c and c’ ec’ enter separately into the base of
the chimney, and are kept apart there by small vertical walls, in order
to prevent contrary currents and to allow them to be regulated at will.

By means of these arrangements, all smell of phosphorus in the main
factory is prevented, and the men who work there are no longer exposed
to necrosis. By taking the additional precaution of having them fre-
quently visited by physicians, and of maintaining proper rotation in
the hands employed in the different shops, they will be completely freed
from this terrible disease.

MANUFACTORIKES.

72. In some manufactories, it is essential for the quality of the pro-
ducts that the internal temperature be not allowed to fall below a cer-
tain limit; or, in other words, that the manufactory be heated even in
spring and fall, and that the windows be kept closed. From this it fol-
lows that the air, not being changed, becomes gradually saturated with
vapors and cutaneous emanations, and becomes at last unhealthfal.

The workmen being thus kept continually perspiring, although they
take off part of their clothing, go out afterward into the cold air, and
often contract serious affections of the respiratory organs.

The conditions of the manufacture may be secured at the same time
with those of hygiene by a strong ventilation, which shail constantly
furnish fresh air of the necessary degree of temperature and even of
moisture while regularly carrying off the foul air. With this change of
air, a temperature of 75° or 77° will be found comfortable, and the work-
men no longer be continually perspiring in an atmosphere constantly
becoming more impure.

The rules to be observed are the same as those mentioned before, and
a complete change three or four times an hour will usually be sufficient.

The escape-steam from the engines is in such cases usually employed
for heating, and it may be so regulated as to give the desired tempera-
ture to the fresh air, and the smoke-stack of the steam-engine will, with-
out additionalexpense, maintain the draught required for carrying off the
foul air. |

In cases where the smoke-stack would be otherwise too small, the

WARMING AND. VENTILATION. 291

draught may be increased or entirely produced init by heating it by steam,
or by placing a steam-jet in it as in a locomotive.

73. Workshops in which dust more or less dangerous to breathe is pro-
duced.—In a large number of occupations, the division of the raw ma-
terials produces dust, which may be fine or coarse, heavy or light,
harmless or injurious, and which it is important to remove from the
workman and carry out of the building.

In most of these cases, ventilation, by means of a draught produced by
heat, would be insufficient, at least unless it were madeextremely power-
ful by an intense heat. It would be sufficient for light dust of very
finely-divided materials, but for heavier dust, such as that produced by
grindstones, it becomes necessary to use mechanical apparatus to force,
through suitably-arranged pipes, currents of air at a proper velocity,
which trial alone can determine.

In winter, when artificial heat may be required, as well as in summer,
when it is unnecessary, it is essential that the discharge-openings should
be placed as near as possible to the machines which produce the dust or
emanations, and that the openings for admission of fresh air should, in
general, be far off, in order that the velocity should gradually increase
from the point of admission to that of exit.

But if the shop contain few workmen, if it is naturally sufficiently
well aired, and if it is only required to carry off the dust as directly and
quickly as possible, it would be better that the air be admitted under the
cover which should completely surround the apparatus or the machine
above the point where the dust is produced, while the draught is applied
below the same point and the dust is carried directly out of the building.

The preceding remarks apply especially to those shops in which but
a few detached instruments are used.

74. Cutlery-works.—One of the most dangerous occupations is that of
the cutler. When proper precautions are not taken, the dust arising
from the grindstones, which are used dry, enters into the respiratory
passages.

These dangers are reduced and almost removed by the following ar-
rangements:

75. Grindstones used wet, (Figs. 23, 24.)—The stones should be sur-
rounded as completely as possible
by a movable covering of wood or
sheet-iron, which should have no
opening in front but what is abso-
lutely necessary for the work.

In order to avoid the choking-up
of the ventilating-pipes, it will be
necessary to provide special dis-
charge-pipes for the water, some-
what as aveatea in the aaniie according as the stones are partly
below or entirely above the floor.

292 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

The passage intended for carrying off the dust should be placed un-
derneath the stone, and beyond the point where the work is applied,
regarding the direction of the mo-
tion. It should have a breadth a
little greater than that of the stone,
— alice and a depth of eight inches, at

: =| most, for the largest stones. A

N sliding door serves to close it when-
a. ever dry dust is not produced.
GY)

yy, The water-discharge pipe should

Yr XG also have a valve, which may be
<> SG closed when water is not used, and
<> ‘ when it is desired to carry off the
Y/ dust produced when the stone is
“Uy
’ trued.

The separate air-tubes from each
stone lead to a collecting-pipe 16 inches by 12 inches, to which they are
united by couplings.

If there are only four or five stones in the works, a single collecting-
pipe will be sufficient, and the blower should be placed at the end. But
if there are eight or ten stones in one line, it will be better to place a
second collector, 16 inches by 12 inches, in the middle of the length of
the first, and perpendicular to its direction. The blowing-apparatus
should be placed in the extremity of the second pipe.

Finally, if there are two long parallel rows, with eight or ten stones
in each, they should also be connected with the second collector, or with
a third, 16 inches by 20 inches, communicating with the ventilator.

In all these arrangements, movable valves should be placed at the
junction of each of the pipes, to prevent the circulation of air in those
which are not used at any time for carrying off the dust, since it is not
intended to ventilate at the same time all the stones of the same mill.
The valves placed at the head of each pipe should also be closed when
it is not being ventilated.

But the greatest difficulty in rendering these places.healthful, as in
most other cases, arises from the carelessness of the workmen, and in
the negligence of the foremen, who do not insist on the strict observance
of the regulations.

76. Application.—At Chatellerault’s armory, the results obtained by
Peugeot & Bros., of Valentigney, (Doubs,) in their hardware manufac-
tory, were made use of, blowing-machines having been placed in two
shops containing each—

FIC.24-

Main stones, Stinches in diameter’: 1.53.27 2aetee ae eee ee ee 2
Grooving-stones, 4 feet in diameter.....-.........- ar ok RS 16
18

A fan-blower, 31 inches in diameter and 16 inches wide, parallel te the
axis, and having a central opening 11 inches in diameter, making 900

al ee

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 293

to 1,000 revolutions a second, and requiring at most 8 to 10 hhorse-power
to run it, easily removes all the dust produced during the truing of the
two main stones and twelve of the grooving-stones, the other passages
being closed.

The axis of the fan-blower is placed in the line of the last collecting-
pipe, and is closed on the side opposite that pipe; the air carrying the
dust is expelled at the outer circumference, which is entirely free.

Notwithstanding the success obtained in large works by the arrange-
ments mentioned above, it would be better in all cases to separate the
workmen into small shops of two stones each, each furnished with spe-
cial ventilating-apparatus similar to that which we have described.
Recent triais seem to show that ventilation obtained by forcing in air
would in this case prove very satisfactory.

DRYING-CHAMBERS.

77. The general arrangements which should be adopted for drying-
chambers are in conformity with the rules previously given. The air
should flow in at the top ; and, as in this case, it is always very hot, it
enters of its own accord, but itis necessary that it should be introduced
uniformly. The openings for the escape of the air saturated with moist- .
ure should be placed near the floor and on the whole circumference of
the room. It issufficient to connect the ventilating-pipes with the base
of the chimney of the heating-apparatus.

The temperature which it is necessary to keep up in the drying-
chambers depends upon the nature of the articles to be dried. For
vegetable substances and flour, it need not exceed 105° or 110°; for
linen and cloth, 1589.

The particular conditions in each application may lead to some modi-
fications of the general rules. Linen-drying rooms present a case which
it is well to specify.

LINEN-DRYING CHAMBERS.

78. The arrangements for these useful accessories (Figs. 25, 26) to
large bleaching-establishments have been carefully studied by Bouillon,
Muller & Co. The linen is carried to the wringing-machine, which re-
moves from it a great part of the water which it contains after having
been washed; but it still retains about one-third of the total weight
when it reaches the drying-room. When it is hung vertically, this water
accumulates principally at the lower part, which therefore becomes hard
todry. Again, when the air enters through a single opening at the up-
per part of the chamber, the interruption to the circulation of hot air
caused by the linen which hangs in vertical bands and the force of the
draught which tends to draw the air directly toward the ventilating-open-
ings prevents the drying from proceeding uniformly, especially in large
dry ing-houses. The observation of these irregular effects has led Bouil-

294 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

lon, Muller & Co. to adopt, for their latest linen- eid chambers, the
follo wing arrangements:

The Ghamber of which a drying-room is composed (Figs. 25, 26) are
very small, and are at most 10 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 5 feet high, or
200 cubic feet in area.

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The floor is composed. of two pieces of ened sheet-iron, forming at
the same time the top of the warm-air chamber of the neater below.
‘These two pieces of sheet-iron leave an opening o between them, which
extends the whole length of the drying-room, and through which the
hot air is introduced, which, after having dried the bottom and dampest
part, rises with the vapor it produces toward the ceiling, and descends
again to the ventilating-openings, arranged near the floor along the
whole length of the side-walls, the latter being made hollow and pro-
vided with pipes leading to the chimney, which also contains the smoke-
pipe, as shown in the figures.

The linen is arranged outside of the drying-chamber on brass tubes
sliding on iron rods extending the whole length of the chamber. These
rods and the tubes which they carry are placed at the middle of a nar-
row door of the same height as the drying-chamber, which is only
opened when the wet linen is put in, or the dry taken out.

Each chamber contains 8 rods. They receive, in two charges, 106

i Se eee a a ews

a

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 295

pounds of damp linen, in which 385 pounds of water remain after they
have been wrung.

The evaporation of these 35 pounds of water is effected in an hour
by the consumption of about 11 pounds of coal.

The temperature of the chamber is kept at 158°, and the amount of
air passing into the chamber varies from 35,000 to 42,000 cubic feet an
hour.

Four chambers, with their 32 rods, are attended to by one woman,
who fills and empties them.

According to the rules previously given, the 35 pounds of water
evaporated, requiring 35 x 1170 = 40950 units of heat, and the 11
pounds of coal giving 159,000, the calorific effect of the apparatus is
equal to ara == 0 :

The same result was also obtained from some experiments made for
seven years at La Saltpetriere, in which, with a consumption of 6,415
pounds of coal, 18,940 pounds of water were evaporated, the calorific
effect in these experiments was found to be .24.

POWDER-DRYING ROOMS.

79. In the case of powdered materials spread out to a certain thick-
ness, it is often necessary to use blowers which drive the air under a
table, closed on all sides, the top of which is formed of wire-gauze, on
which the substances to be dried are placed.

Thus, in powder-mills, the air driven under the gauze has ordinarily
a pressure measured by a column of water ,%, or 4 inch high, and a tem-
perature of 112° to 140°. The thickness of the layer of powder varies
from 4 to 3 inches, according to its nature. The air is heated to the
proper temperature by means of water or steam pipes.

Although, in such cases, blowers are most frequently used, the same
result may often be obtained by means of a well-regulated draught
alone. At the powder-mill of St. Chamas, a drying-room, warmed by
hot-water pipes placed under the table, and supplied with a chimney
containing a hot-water vessel to produce a draught, has worked satis-
factorily even in the case of blasting-powder containing 8 or 9 per cent.

of water.
BARRACKS.

80. The volume of air to be renewed every hour for each individual
being given at 1,000 cubic feet during the day, and 1,400 to 1,800 dur-
ing the night, the proportions and arrangements of the openings will be
determined by the preceding rules.

But it is principally, and it may be said solely, during the night that
the ventilation of the barrack-rooms is necessary, since, during the day,
the soldiers are almost always out of it.

The heating of these rooms during the day is intended only to enable

296 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

those who return from duty, after getting wet, to dry their clothes and
shoes; for this purpose, ventilating fire-places are preferable to sheet-iron
stoves, because, in addition to the radiant heat they give out, they have
in this case the advantage of carrying off the vapor arising from the
damp clothing, which would make the room unhealthy and disagreeable.
The fire never needs to be kept up long, and it cannot be counted upon
to produce a constant change of air.

If natural ventilation alone be employed, it is necessary, according to
observations made at the Bonaparte barracks in Paris, that the open-
ings for the admission and discharge should be proportioned as follows:

Area of openings and flues to each bed in summer: discharge, 31
square inches; admission, 62 square inches.

In winter, spring, and autumn, these proportions would be excessive,
and means should be provided for closing part of the openings, so as to
confine the circulation of air within proper limits. But the regulation
of the registers or valves should not be left to the discretion of the
soldiers.

The necessity of preventing the soldiers, in their ignorance, from stop-
ping up the escape-openings requires that in this case the rule should
be violated which prescribes that these should be placed near the beds
and the floor, as it will be necessary to place them near the ceiling, as

well as those for the admission of fresh air.

Fhe first should open above the space between the beds, al the fines
should be placed near the smolk2-flue or should receive the stove-pipe
when stoves are used. The second, intended for the introduction of
fresh air, are also placed near the ceiling, and made in the face of the
opposite wall.

This arrangement presents the advantage that if, as often happens in’
ventilation due simply to the action of natural temperatures, the direc-
tion of motion changes so that the escape-pipe becomes that of admis-
sion, no discomfort is experienced by the men, who in both cases are
removed as far as possible from the openings.

These precautions will be completed by placing horizontal or inclined
shelves under the openings, which will force the air always to remain
nearly or quite horizontal in entering or passing out.

There is no reason to fear that the air flowing in will immediately rush
to the escape-openings before circulating through the rooms; the differ-
ence of internal and external temperature will always enable the circu-
lation to be maintained.

81. Utilization of the lost heat of cooking-stoves.—In most barracks, the
cooking-arrangements of the companies which occupy that part of the
building reached by one stairease, and often also all those used for a
whole wing, are collected in a single room on the ground-floor, devoted
to this purpose. There, separate stoves are used, in cooking, for each
company, squadron, or battery. Beside these stoves, strongly heated
twice a day, or even in their chimneys, it would be very easy and inex-

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 297

pensive to place hot-water receivers in the form of a drum, or of pipes
such as are orten used in heaters, into which hot-water pipes should be
tapped, and then carried vertically in the foul-air flue leading from the
rooms, thus securing a change of air at all times and without expense.

In this way, also, baths might be supplied, which would be of great
service for soldiers’ hospitals. Ventilation being, as has been said, much
more important at night, when all the men of one mess are together,
than during the day, when most of them are out of doors, the registers
—the regulation of which should only be made by the order and under
the direction of the adjutant of the week—will serve to check or prevent
escape of air during the day, so as to accumulate heat in the flues for
the night.

HOSPITALS.

82. General plans and dimensions to be adopted for the ventilation of
hospitals—It is only proposed in what follows to give the propor-
tions of the principal parts of the flues and pipes which it is necessary
to use for the ventilation of hospital-wards, in order to secure the re-
moval of vitiated air and the introduction of fresh air.

These proportions apply also to the different plans which local condi-
tions may cause the architect to adopt.

The amount of air to be renewed in the sick-rooms may vary, accord-
ing to circumstances, from 2,000 to more than 3,500 cubic feet an hour
for each bed; 2,800 will here be taken as a basis for the calculations.

‘ When local conditions permit, the foul air should be drawn off through
descending passages; openings into them being made behind the head
of the beds, at the floor-level, but in the vertical walls, to be in number
at least equal to one for every two beds in ordinary hospitals, and one
to each bed in lying-in hospitals.

When a hot-water heating-apparatus is used, and when the plans
adopted as well as the proximity of chimneys permit, the waste heat
from the small heaters and hot-water tanks used in the hospital should
be made use of to assist the draught.

But it is not necessary that the use of these little reservoirs, which
have but a small capacity, should lead to the exclusive adoption of the
up-cast draught, as L. Duvoir has done, and which is less advantageous.

83. Advantages of the down-cast draught.—It will be remembered that
the arrangements required by the down-cast draught Tessen very much
the weakening of the walls by the passage of ventilating-flues.

Thus, for a building with rooms on three floors, as in the case of Lari-
boisiére Hospital, the piers of the third story are not pierced for any
flue, because their own commences at the floor; those of the second
story are only pierced by a single flue coming from the third floor; and
those of the ground-floor only contain the two flues belonging to the
second and third stories.

The thickness of the walls being greater at the lower stories, the flues
would always be proportionally less injurious with descending draughts

298 WARMING AND VENTILATION,

than with ascending draughts, the latter requiring the largest number
of flues to be made in the upper stories, where the walls are thinnest.
Figs. 27, 28, which represent only the general features, show the ad-

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SET ESS SEWER ASRS \\
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vantages presented by down-cast draughts over up-cast draughts as re-
- gards the weakening of the walls by the ventilating-flues. The down-
draught, besides, as we have said, renders it easy, in order to give due
force to the draught, to make use of the entire height of the main ventilat-
ing-chimney, to the bottom of which the flues are connected. It forms
a very economical means of utilizing the heat expended in producing it.

For a building of a construction similar to that of Lariboisiére Hospi-
tal, where the piers at the ground-floor have a mean width of 10 feet
and a thickness of 2 feet 7 inches, or 26 square feet of sectional area, if
the two flues are carried from the second and third stories to the base-
ment, they require, at most, in the walls—including the partition between
them and even the interior brick lining—a space 2X 1/+-1’ =2' 1” broad,
and 9/’4-2/—11” deep, or a total sectional area of 1.9 square feet; that
is to say, one-fourteenth of the total sectional area of the pier, which could

=

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 299

not have any effect on the stability of a well-constracted building with
a good foundation.

On the contrary, if the ventilating-flues be carried upward, the piers
of the third floor, which are only 10 feet. by 2 feet—20 square feet in sec-
tional area, would be pierced by three flues, making a channel 3 x 1/+3”
=3! 3” broad, by 11” deep, or 2’ 9” sectional area, equal to one-seventh
that of the masonry. This would not be admissible.

In cases where the flues for the introduction of fresh air have also to
be provided for in the piers, though this can sometimes be avoided in
hospitals the wards of which contain only twelve or fourteen beds, it
will be seen, then, that the enfeebling of the walls by the passage of all
the flues will not endanger the solidity of properly-built walls.

84. Cases where the walls have not sufficient thickness.— W hen the nature
of the materials used or local circumstances do not permit of giving the
walls sufficient thickness to allow of cutting flues in them with safety,
ventilating-shafts may be made projecting from the walls in the interior
of the rooms, making them of light brick work. Then, to diminish as
little as possible the available breadth of these rooms, and to prevent
hurting their appearance, the depth of these flues should be restricted
by making them occupy almost the entire breadth of the piers.

85. Arrangement of the ventilating shafts.—The necessary arrangements
should be made to prevent ventilating shafts or flues from being crossed
by the beams or joists of the floor, which can easily be avoided by the
use of trimmers.

If there are no cellars under the buildings, which is not vie eS.
sufficiently large vaults should be made to give the necessary area of
passage-ways, and these should be covered on top, as well as the floor of
the first story, with a coating of tar-concrete, to protect it from moisture.
Ifany difficulty be encountered in carrying the ventilating-flues below the
floor of the first story, they may stop at this floor. It is only in excep-
tional cases, or in buildings already constructed presenting peculiar ob-
stacles, that the flues should be carried from below upward in the upper
floors or in the roof.

In every case, the discharge-flues corresponding to beds placed on dif-
ferent floors one above another, should be kept separate in their verti-
cal course and not united in groups in partial horizontal conductors, unless
separated by partitions for an extent of 10 or 12 feet beyond the outlet
of those which are the nearest to the main ventilating-chimney, in order
to prevent as far as possible the establishment of communications from
one story to another.

86. Dimensions of ventilating-fiues and collecting-pipes.—The sectional

area to be given to the first ventilating-passages should be calculated on

the basis of the renewal of 2,800 cubic feet of air an hour, or ae = .78

cubic foot a second for each bed, and at a mean velocity of 2.3 feet a
= .34 square foot, or 49 square inches of

2.3

300 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

sectional area for each bed; and as it is admitted that in common hos-
pitals it will be sufficient to have one flue to every two beds, it will be
necessary to have 98 square inches sectional area, or to make the flues,
say, 9 inches deep by 11 inches broad.

For lying-in hospitals the volume of air to be renewed being 3,500
cubic feet an hour to each bed, or 98 cubic feet a second, the sectional
area ofthe flues should be .43 square foot, or 62 square inches.

In the first collecting-pipes, which unite the flues by groups, a mean
velocity of from 3 to 4 feet a second is allowed, and the sectional area
may be ecaleulated on this basis and according to the number of beds
which it is necessary to ventilate.

The second collecting-pipes, if any are formed to receive the vitiated
air from the preceding, sbould be proportioned by supposing a mean
velocity of from 44 to 5 feet a second.

87. Ventilating-chimney.—Finally, in the main ventilating-chimney, it
is granted that the mean velocity should be about 6 feet a second, and
that in the upper part it should be at least 64 feet a second, in order
not to be checked by gales.

At the bottom of the chimney there should be an iron grate, sur-
rounded by a brick rim, completely isolated from the walls, in order that
the air coming in from the collecting-pipes may partly circulate around
it, and only become warmed to a moderate though sufficiently high tem-
perature.

In every case, there should be arranged a direct passage opening to
the outside at the base of the chimney, through which the fireman may
feed the fire.

If obliged to perform the work in the foul-air gallery, he would run
the risk of being suffocated, or at least of experiencing much discomfort.

The mean interior temperature of the chimney should in all cases ex-
ceed that of the external air by a constant difference of 36° to 45°, in
order to give to the draught the same force at all times. The ventilat-
ing-fire should be much more energetic in summer than in winter.

Similar methods proportioned upon the same data should be adopted
in cases where the arrangement of the different wards leads to the use
of a single ventilating-chimney for a large number of buildings.

Means for maintaining the regularity of the fire will be given further
on.

88. Cases where the foul air may be drawn off at the floor-level.—_ When
the general plan adopted for the building includes a veranda on one side,
the foul air may be drawn off at each story, to avoid the necessity of
making vertical flues in the walls, by placing the ventilating-chimney
at some point in the veranda, and carrying the ventilating-pipes into it,
placing them between the floor-beams. (Fig. 29.)

A similar arrangement will render it easy to improve the ventilation
by using a part of the heat from the kitchen and bath boilers, the hos-
pital-stoves, smoke-flues, kitchen-ranges, &c.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 301

In such a case, each ward would have a main ventilating-chimney
carrying off the foul air from each story in flues separated from each
other as far as to the top of the upper
story. At the bottom of each of the col-
lecting-flues may be kept a little auxil-
iary heater, to be used only when neces-
sary in order to obtain a sufficiently
powerful draught.

It should also be understood that in
every case the interior surface of the
flues should be covered with as smooth
a coating as possible, to diminish the
resistance to the motion of the air, and
that the openings should be arranged so
as to permit of cleaning the flues at least
twice a year, in order to remove the cob-
webs and other obstacles which would
interfere with the circulation of air.

In general, it would be well to place on
top of the ventilating-chimney a cowl,
which the wind would keep with its
mouth away from the wind, so that
strong winds would assist the draught,
instead of checking it, as they would do
without this precaution:

The proportions and the general ar-
rangements which have been indicated
\\ should also be observed when it becomes
«\ necessary to draw off the foul air either
at the level of the floors, as just men-
tioned, or at the top of the buildings, as
will often occur, especially in the case

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of existing buildings.

Whenever local conditions permit, the smoke-flues of the heating-ap-
paratus should be carried up in the main ventilating-chimney, in order
to use the heat they give out. They should be made of castiron and
kept separate.

89. Utilization of the waste heat of laundries and kitchens.—The furnaces
of the laundry-boilers should, if possible, be placed at the base of the
ventilating-chimney, in order to assist the ventilation by means of the
heat given out in the furnaces by the gaseous products of combustion.

90. Application of the preceding rules.—Let us take the case of a hospital
of 100 beds, containing two wards, with but one ventilating-chimney, hav-
ing two stories, containing together 50 beds in each ward there being
four halls with 12 beds, and two rooms with one bed each.

Under these conditions, each hall will contain six beds on each side,

SZ WARMING AND VENTILATION.

and there will be three ventilating-flues, 100 square inches in sectional
area, or 85x 12 inches.

The vertical flues should be carried under the floor of the ground-
story, and joined to the first horizontal collectors intended to furnish
passage to the air brought by the first, and each should carry off 12 x .78=

9.36 cubic feet a we with a velocity of 3.28 a second. They should
9.36

35 oats square feet, or be 1 foot 8 inches

then have a section of

square, for example.

One of these flues, which would also ventilate the two single- bed bed-
rooms, or 14x.78=10.92 cubic feet, should have a sectional area of
10.92

nr:

If these pipes do not lead directly to the foot of the chimney, and if
the general arrangements adopted render it necessary to carry the first
collecting-pipes into a second collector, the volume of air which the lat-

ter will be obliged to pass will be 50x .78=39 cubic feet, with a velocity
of 4.6 feet a second. Its transverse section will then be equal to =
8.50 square feet, and it may have the dimensions 2 feet 10 inches by 2
feet 10 inches.

If the main ventilating-chimney should have to carry off the foul air
of both wards, or that from 100 beds = 280,000 cubic feet an hour, or 78

cubic feet a second, with a mean velocity of 6 feet a second, its internal

~*~ —3.34 square feet, or should be 1 foot 8 inches by 2 feet.

F 78 : é
sectional area should be= =13 square feet, and its mean internal diam-

eter 4 feet. At the upper part, this diameter should be reduced to 3 feet
10 inches to make the velocity there 6} feet a second.

91. Introduction of fresh air.—The openings for the introduction of
warm or cold air should always be placed near the ceiling, and distrib-
uted as uniformly as possible throughout the whole extent of the halls
in the proportion of one to every two beds if possible, or at least one to
every four beds.

When they are made in the walls, they should be furnished with regis-
ters in the form of slats inclined 20° or 25° to the horizon in order to
force the air in that direction toward the ceiling.

The transverse section of the vertical or other flues should be caleu-
lated so that the air will traverse them with a velocity not exceeding 3
or 4 feet a second. That of those through which the air flows immedi-
ately into the room should be determined by the condition that the
entering velocity should not exceed 3 or 4 feet a second.

In the case where the air flows from above vertically downward,
through openings in the ceiling itself, which may take place where
double floors are used or where a loft serves as an air-chamber, the sum
of the clear sectional area of the passages should be ealeulated on the
condition that the velocity should not exceed 18 inches or 2 feet a
second.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 303

When ordinary heaters are used for heating, the warm air which
they supply should be introduced before its admission into the halls
into a mixing-chamber, where a sufficient quantity of external air is
also admitted, in order to moderate as required the temperature of the
air supplied to the rooms.

To secure the proper mixture of external air with the warm air from
the heating-apparatus, it will be necessary to keep the fresh air above
the current of warm air by means of more or less wide partitions. It
will then happen that, as the first or denser stratum tends to fall while
the second or lighter stratum rises, the mingling will necessarily take
place. This applies as well to separate and direct openings for the ad-
mission of warm and fresh air in halls as to those for the admission of
air into the mixing-chambers. The partitions should be made of brick
laid flat, and be at least two inches thick.

During the period of fires, the temperature of the inflowing air should,
for healthful ventilation, differ as little as possible from that intended
to be kept up in the halls, which should be uniformly about 60°.

The mixing-chambers should be formed either in the floor above the
the heaters or in the corridors or small rooms.

Registers should be placed in the mixing-chambers, to permit the
temperature of the air supplied by them to be regulated at will.

Similar arrangements should be made when hot-water or steam heat-
ing-apparatus is used.

If the hospital stands by itself and is in a healthfal location, the
external-air supply may be taken either at the ground-level from the
middle of a lawn or flower-bed, as at Vincennes and the lying-in hospital
at St. Petersburg, or at the level of each floor.

Descending currents will not be required to carry the air from a cer-
tain height, except in cases where the proximity of more or less un-
healthful buildings would lead to the fear of infection in the air at the
ground-level.

In that case, the chimney for bringing in air should be placed as far
as possible from that for carrying it off. The sectional area of the
former, and in general that of all external openings for the admission
of air, should be calculated so that the velocity of admission should
not exceed 2 feet a second, in order that the draught produced in the
vicinity of the openings may only extend a small distance.

The openings for the admission of air entering at a considerable height
Should be provided with valves or doors, which may close them if re-
quired.

In summer, when the action of the draught in drawing in fresh air is
not assisted by the increase of temperature which the heating-apparatus
gives to the fresh air in winter, there should be made in the walls, espe-
cially on the faces exposed to the north or the east, auxiliary openings
Similar to those previously mentioned, and capable of being opened or

304 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

closed at will by means of internal valves furnished with self-closing
springs.

_ As the air thus introduced may be too cool at night, it is necessary
- that it should be directed from the lower part of the room toward the
ceiling, and that its velocity at entrance should be about 2 feet a second,
in order that it may be rapidly diminished before it arrives at the
escape-openings.

The regulating-apparatus connected with the registers should be so
arranged as to be exclusively under the control of those in charge of
this service.

When any arrangement for ventilation on the exhaust-system has
been carried out, it may easily be determined by direct experiments
easily made in the main ventilating-chimney, or, if desired, in the sepa-
rate flues, whether the prescribed amount of air is really drawn off,
and what is the corresponding excess of temperature in the chimney
over that of the external air; and if with this excess, which usually
will not vary, as has been previously stated, much from 35° to 459°, the
ventilation be found sufficient, it will then only be necessary to regulate
the heat in the chimney so that its temperature will always exceed by
the same amount that of the external air.

92. Arrangements for ventilation in summer.— When the main halls of
the hospital are warmed at the same time by general heaters and by
fire-places—of which latter the ventilating fire-places described in § 13
should be preferred, as they at the same time carry off foul air and
introduce a considerable amount of fresh air properly warmed—open-
ings for the admission of fresh air should be made in addition to those
of the ventilating-chimney, and arranged, as has been described, for
summer-ventilation.

Stairways, waiting-rooms, and other places giving access to the halls
should be heated to a temperature which, especially for the latter,
should be at least equal to that of the halls. In this way, their effect in
producing draughts of air will be diminished. It would be well, then,
to put up heaters in these places even when fire-places are used in the
main rooms.

93. Use of the heat given out by the lights.—In hospitals lighted by gas,
it will be well to assist the draught by means of the heat given out by
the burners, which plan will have the double advantage of rendering the
ventilation more energetic, and of removing the unhealthful products
of combustion. This should especially be applied in the case of water-
closets, which should have double doors opening from without inward
in the direction of the draught.

The kitchens and the privies of hospitals should be removed from the
hospital proper, and ventilated by a powerful current similar to those
which will be described hereafter for such places.

94, Dispositions to be made in case of crowding or epidemics.—W hen the
draught is produced by a circulation of warm water or steam, the energy

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 305

of which cannot be increased much beyond its normal rate, it will be
advisable to place gas-burners in the main ventilating-chimney, to be
lighted only when a temporary overcrowding or the fear of epidemics
renders their use necessary.

The number of burners and their consumption of gas will be calcu-
lated on the approximate basis of 500 cubic feet of air removed to each
cubic feet of gas burned.

This auxiliary means is not economical, and should only be employed
in exceptional circumstances.

ASYLUMS.

95. Asylums, designed for the old, insane, or infirm, do not require,
for salubrity, as much ventilation as hospitals.

A renewal of air at the rate of 1,000 cubie feet of air an hour for
each individual during the day and 1,400 cubie feet at night will be
sufficient. It will then only be necessary to adopt the plans and the
dimensions which have been given in detail for hospitals.

For heating during the winter, if the rooms are not very large, venti-
lating fire-places should be used, which will also secure the renewal of
air. But for spring, summer, and autumn, it will be necessary to have
recourse, for the removal of foul air, to the use of a ventilating-chimney
and the arrangements before mentioned.

CHURCHES.

96. The great size of churches, the constant opening of their doors,
the extent of glazed windows—always imperfectly closed—the openings
in the vaults for the suspension of lamps or draperies and for the pass-
age of bell-ropes, seem in general to render unnecessary the adoption
of special arrangements for the admission and the removal of air, and
reduce for the winter the question to that of warming.

For the churches of large cities, frequented at many hours of the day,
it seems economical to keep up an active fire, constantly, day and night.
Either hot-air heaters, with chambers for the admission of cold air, or
hot-water heaters, may be used. The first suit more particularly the
small churches, where a single heater, placed about the middle of the
building, will suffice. The second, which carry heat to great distances,
and give, besides, a more equable temperature, should be preferred for
large churches. They have, in addition, the advantage of being readily
adapted to ventilate certain attached places, such as catechising-rooms,
where the air is constantly vitiated by the presence of many children.

What is most necessary to warm in churches is the floor itself. For
this purpose it would be well to make the hot-water pipes branch out
under many parts of the floor, and limit the number of fresh-air openings.
This arrangement is similar to that of which traces. are found in Roman

constructions.
20 8

306 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

The air to be warmed by the heaters is taken from outside. A suffi-
cient number of pipes in the aisles and passages admit the air through
numerous openings placed in the vertical faces of the walls, or in the
bases of the columns, a little above the floor, and not at the floor-level,
as is often wrongly done.

During the summer season, the interior of churches, Stronely heated
during the day by the action at the sun on the roof and through the
large windows, is often uncomfortable to stay in, especially in the morn-
ing. It would be easy to avoid this trouble by arranging a number of
windows to be opened at night, in order to admit the fresh air, and
to be shut in the morning. The interior, thus cooled during the night,
would be less warmed during the day.

These precautions, much neglected in France, where the heat of sum-
mer seldom proves unpleasant, are regularly carried out in Rome, where
it lasts along time. A rule of the custodians of St. Peter’s requires
that the windows of the upper galleries be opened every evening in
summer and closed every morning.

What precedes only applies to ordinary churches; but in the case of
chapels or subterranean churches, the interior height of which is very
limited and which are often occupied by a large number of worshippers
and fully lighted up, it becomes necessary to secure the renewal of air
and the removal of the hot gases arising from the lights. The plans
proposed in § 64 for night drawing-schools should then be adopted,
producing a renewal of air at least five or six times an hour.

In churches where great ceremonies require the use of large canopies,
preventing the circulation of the air, and in which a great number of
candles occasion often an extraordinary elevation of temperature,* it is
very important that the construction should allow of forming, in the
upper or lateral portion, as many openings as possible in order to allow
the external air to flow in with a velocity which will be less the greater
the number of these openings and the more uniformly they are distrib-
uted. In this way will be avoided the at times unendurable currents of
air produced by the doors and the elevation of temperature.

In winter, at the time of thaws after great cold, especially in the
north, there is produced on the walls, and still more on the ceiling, a
condensation of vapor, which often produces a sort of rain that affects
the paintings. In such cases, it would be well to carry the warm air
supplied: by the heaters at about from 140° to 175° directly to the up-
per part of these edifices at the springing of the arches, in order to
keep the vapor arising from the people in the lower portions of the
church from condensing.

RAILROAD-STATIONS.

97. As an example of cases where it is proper to act contrary to the
general rules given before, we will specify the methods to be adopted for

*In a great funeral-ceremony at Notre-Dame, Paris, the heat was such that the wax-
tapers began to melt.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 307

railroad-stations, for markets, and for large buildings such as those for
exhibitions.

These immense buildings, covered in most cases with glass roofs,
which often leave only a very small space for the escape of the smoke and
steam ot the locomotives and of the hot air in summer, sometimes be-
come unendurable for the employés. One end of the building is almost
entirely shut in by the gable-wall containing the main entrance; the
other usually has an opening only high enough for the passage of the
locomotive; the sides occupied on the ground-level by waiting-rooms, &c.,
and on the second and third floors by offices, do not allow the air to
have access to the building, and in the hot season the temperature rises
near the ground-level to 104°, 115° and even 122°, as has been observed
at the stations of the Lyons, Eastern, and Strasburg railroads.

In order to remedy this state of things, it is necessary to raise the sky-
lights on the roof, not only because they are too low, but because in
winter they cool the smoke and partially condense the escape-steam of
the engine, and thus interfere with its removal. |

Instead of placing the sky-lights at the ridge of the roof, it would
seem better to place them near the eaves, making them, as at present,
equal to one-fourth or one-third the total surface.

The ventilating-opening should be formed by two vertical walls of
sheet-iron about 10 feet high, leaving between them a passage extend-
ing the whole length of the roof, the breadth of which should be caleu-
lated so as to renew the air of the siation at least twice or three times
an hour, on the supposition that the heat of the sun in summer is suffi-
cient to produce, in a sheet-iron chimney 10 feet high, a velocity of from
14 to 2 feet a second.

To replace regularly the air removed without producing unpleasant
currents at the end-openings of the station, it is necessary to increase the
number of openings for admission of air, and place them as uniformly as
possible throughout the extent of the station, and also to make large
doorways in the two ends of the building. The total area of the fresh-
air openings should be such that, with a velocity of at most 16 to 20
inches a second, a volume of aiz may enter into the station equal to
twice or three times its cubical capacity.

98. Sprinkling of roofs.—In addition to the preceding arrangements,
proper for all seasons, it would be well, in hot weather, to keep up a
constant sprinkling of the roof, commencing at seven or eight o’clock
in the morning and lasting till five o’clock in the evening, using about
44 cubic feet of water an hour to every 100 square feet of roof-surface.

This sprinkling, which will be sufficient to prevent the heating of the
roof by the action of the solar rays, added to the continued aeration,
will maintain the temperature within convenient limits during the hot
season.

99. Example.-—The Orleans station is 348 feet long, 92 feet wide, 26
feet high at the springing-line, and 44 feet to the ridge. Its cubical con-
tent is about 1,150,000 cubic feet.

308 WARMING AND VENTILATION,

: i : . 3X 11300
To renew the air three times an hour, it should carry oe

=942 cubic feet a second. The velocity which the solar heat may give to
the escaping air being estimated at but 13 feet a second, the sectional are
of the ventilating-space should be 574 square feet ; and if the ventilating-
passage is carried the whole length of the roof, which is 328 feet, it
would suffice to make it 1 foot 9 inches wide. But as the part where there
is most smoke and steam is usually near the end at which the trains leave,
instead of making the ventilating-opening extend the whole length of
the station, it would be better to give it greater breadth and less length,
still retaining the same sectional area.

COURTS AND COVERED MARKETS.

100. Similar arrangements should be adopted in the case of courts
and for all covered markets.

In the latter, where blinds are usually placed in the windows, the
introduction of air is easily provided for, and it is particularly the
removal of foul air that requires attention.

GLASS ROOFS AND CEILINGS.

101. Influence of glazed roofs and ceilings during the winter.—If in the
summer season the glazed roofs of stations and covered courts present
the inconvenience of producing a heating effect, which it is necessary
to overcome, in winter they have the contrary defect, which often leads
to very disagreeable results.

The conductibility of thin glass then leads to a considerable cooling
of the interior layers of air in contact with the glass ; this air, becoming
denser than that below, descends, and is constantly replaced by more,
which is likewise cooled, and by this continued movement the rooms
thus covered become very difficult to warm.

To these troubles is added that of the motion of the cold air, which
naturally flows toward the chimneys, or the discharge-openings, if there
are any, so that the occupants feel a descending current of cold air, the
more unpleasant the nearer they are to the chimney or the discharge-
openings.

If the glass roof is simple, and has, as is almost inevitably the case,
joints, through which the external air—much colder than that in con-
tact with the internal surface—penetrates into the room, the effects
which have been mentioned become more sensible and disagreeable.
There is also the danger that water will enter during rain-storms.

It is, then, necessary in occupied buildings, when similar plans are
adopted for lighting, to place under the roof a glass ceiling with as few
joints as possible, and in the loft thus formed and limited above and
below, to provide heating arrangements which will prevent the cooling
of the ceiling, and thus to avoid the cold-air currents which have just
been referred to.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 309

102. Observations at Chateau de Ferriéres—The most striking example
of these effects which I have had occasion to observe is presented by
the great reception-hall of the Chateau de Ferriéres, and it has furnished
me with some facts which enable me to determine the amount of heat
which such glass roofs may transmit, and, consequently, to determine
approximately the methods of heating to be employed to prevent this
cooling.

The main reception-room of the Chateau de Ferriéres, called the Hall,
is 70 feet long and 40 feet wide, or 3,000 square feet in area.

It is completely surrounded by other reception-rooms, corridors, ves-
tibules, &c. By means of heaters, all these are comfortably warmed, as
well as the reception-room, which has no side-windows, but is lighted
by a glass ceiling with a surface of 1,635 square feet, covered by a glass
roof in seven sections, having together 2,459 squarefeet of cooling sur-
face.

A large fire-place, in the form of a monument, placed on one of the
long sides of the room, completes its system of heating.

When in winter the space between the glass roof and ceiling is not
warmed during the day, the effects previously mentioned become the
most unpleasant. The considerable draught of air produced by the fire-
place draws to it the air cooled by contact with the ceiling; and the
vicinity of thisfire-place, to which persons are naturally drawn by a bright
fire, becomes unendurable.

At night, the room is lighted up by 1,000 gas-burners above the ceil-
ing, which consume 3,500 cubic feet of gas an hour; there being then
about one burner to every three square feet of floor-surface in the room.
The heat given out by this abundant combustion more than snffices to
prevent the cooling of the air of the room and the unpleasant effects
which would result from it.

To obtain at least to a certain degree the same result during the day,
it has been found necessary to keep up coke-fires in four cast-iron stoves,
placed in the roof-space, in order to maintain there a temperature higher
than that of the room.

Observations made on the consumption of coke during the day and
of gas at night, as well as upon the internal and external temperatures,
enable us to calculate at least approximately the amount of heat re-
quired in the space between the glass roof and ceiling in order to pre-
vent the unpleasant cooling effect.

For this purpose, calling—

C the number of units of heat which can pass in an hour through
a pane of glass having the surface S ;

T the temperature of the air on the warmer side ;

T’ that of the air on the colder side ;

K a constant co-efficient, representing the number of units of heat
to a square foot of glass surface, and to a degree of ditterence
of temperature between the two faces :

310 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

The amount of heat passing in an hour through a glass ceiling or roof
will be given by the formula—
C=KS(T—T’)

Engineers only admit for the co-efficient K the value K =1, while
the data obtained at Ferrieres seem to show that for a double glass cov-
ering—that is to say, a glass roof and a glass ceiling—it should have the
value K = 3, and for a single covering K = 4, especially as in the latter
case cold air might penetrate into the interior through the joints of the
glass.

According to these values, allowing that the developed surface S’ of
the roof is one and a half times that of the glass ceiling 8, the amount
ot coal to be burned in the coldest weather may be calculated as follows:

Let—

S = 1,000 square feet;

S’ = 1,500 square feet ;

The temperature of the external air be 14°;

The temperature to be maintained within the roof be 113° ;

The temperature of the room, 59°:
The amount of heat passing off through the glass roof will be—

© =3 x 1000 (113 — 14) =........ woeete --- 445,500 units.

The amount of heat passing off aa gh ae ees ceiling

will be—

C=3 < 1000145 = 50 te 7 eee ieee 162, 000 units.

The amount of heat to be developed within the double

ROOD os pS 5 She ao fea oe ea gaia = oes. San by eae aa ene ee 607, 500 units.

Admitting that the coke-stoves employed utilize, as isalmost always the
case under similar circumstances, 90 per cent. of the heat given out by the
fuel, and that a pound of coke produces 12,600 units of heat, it is necessary

607500
IV x 12600
under these almost extreme conditions of cold in Paris, the glass from
cooling the room beyond 59°. At evening-receptions, the lighting-up of
the room requiring a burner consuming 34 cubic feet of gas an hour to
every three square feet of floor-area, the heat produced will always be
more than sufficient to prevent the cooling of the interior.

The preceding figures show why most makers of heating-apparatus
who have undertaken to warm halls or courts covered by sky-lights have
only very imperfectly succeeded.

to burn every hour = 53.57 pounds of coke an hour to prevent,

DWELLING-HOUSES.

103. Among the appendages of dwelling-houses which most often give
out disagreeable smells should be placed, in the first rank, yards, kitch-
ens, and privies. In consequence of the draught exerted by the chimneys
of rooms near these places, it often happens that at certain times more
or less infectious air is drawn into the apartments.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 311

To avoid this serious trouble, it is necessary, by means of proper
arrangements, which should also be simple, to produce a regular and
almost constant motion of air from the apartments or the halls toward
these places, discharging from them to the exterior. This may be
accomplished in several ways.

104. Court-yards of dwelling-houses.—Apartment-houses, especially in
Paris, very often contain little yards, belonging to the stores on the
ground-floor, which seriously affect the healthfulness of the upper stories.
Provision-stores, restaurants, dye-houses, drug-stores, &c., give rise to
disagreeable or injurious smells, which rise and annoy the occupants of
the house and injure the property.

These disagreeable effects may easily be overcome in the following
way: The yard should be covered, in whole or in part, with a glass roof,
forming a single inclined plane between the ground-floor and the second
story. In an angle, and at the upper part of this roof,should be placed
a chimney, extending above the upper cornice, the -section of which
should be calculated so that with a velocity of about three feet a second
the air of the court-yard will be renewed once, or, better, twice an hour.

At the lower part of this chimney should be placed a gas-burner, con-
suming only 34 cubie feet an hour. The velocity being small and the
chimney high, about 1,800 or 2,000 cubic feet of air may be carried oft
in an hour by this chimney to every cubic foot of gas burned, and thus
a constant purification of the yards be secured.

When local arrangements favor, it will only be necessary, in order to
keep up the draught, to carry a smoke-pipe up the chimney, or to start a
fire in a coke-stove placed in it.

105. Kitchens—When ranges with hot-air passages, such as are now
in general use, are employed, it will be easy when they are put up to
place hot-water pipes around the grate, and carry them a certain distance
up the chimney and back to the range, as in the boilers of hot-water
heating-apparatus, which would secure a sufficient draught.

106. Use of gas-burners for the ventilation of kitchens —In kitchens
jighted by gas, when the ranges are already put up in the usual way,
lighting one or two gas-burners at the bottom of the chimney, to be
kept burning only while cooking is going on, would in most cases suffice
to produce a draught sufficient to carry off all smell.

Example.—The kitchen for a single flat in Paris is considered quite
large if 10 feet long, 13 feet wide, and 114 feet high; that is, with a con-
tent of 1,490 cubic feet.

It follows from direct experiment that, with the aid of a single gas-
burner, consuming 15 feet an hour, and kept burning only while the
meals are being prepared, that is to say, at most six hours a day, there
may be produced every hour, with sheet-iron ventilating-pipes 94 inches
in diameter, and

52 39 33 26 feet high,
the renewal of 1,780 1,475 1,407 1,257 cubic feet,

bo

cay by WARMING AND VENTILATION.

which, added to the natural ventilation produced by the kitchen fire,
will fully suffice to change the air of such a kitchen more than once an
hour.

The expense for a whole year for one small gas-burner, consuming 14
feet of gas an hour, and burning six hours a day, would be 84 cubic
feet a day, or 3,100 cubic feet a year, which, at the rate of $1.70 a thou-
sand feet, would cost $5.27, a very moderate expenditure for getting
rid of a nauseous smell, which would otherwise be experienced twice a
day.

It may be added that the preceding results relate to metal pipes
placed on the outside and exposed to cooling, while, in general, similar
ventilating-pipes may be, and ought to be, made of earthen ware, and
placed in the thickness of the walls or in the interior of buildings,
which, exposing them less to cooling, would increase the effect ob-
tained. In the case of large kitchens with wide fire-places, when the
ranges are kept very hot, and are used almost all the time, it would be
more economical to place a coal-grate in the lower part of the chimney,
at about the top of the fire-place, and this would also be the most simple
and direct method for country-houses.

107. Use of the lost heat from kitchen-ranges for ventilating and for
heating baths.—Besides the advantage of securing a change of air and
the removal of bad odors from the kitchen, the hot-water pipes men-
tioned in §105 serve to supply baths, which may be established with
success, as mentioned in § 81 in barracks, as well as in those establish-
ments where provisions are cooked for the poor, to be distributed to
them gratuitously or sold to them at a low price. The addition of
hot-water baths to these useful establishments might thus be made at
very little expense.

An arrangement of this kind is adopted with success in the new lying-
in house established by the administration of public assistance, rue du
Faubourg St. Jacques, to utilize the lost heat from the stoves used for
making plasters. .

108. The baths may be heated also by means of ordinary hot-air
kitchen-ranges without recourse to the use of hot-water circulatioa, or,
what is better, by combining the two means of utilizing the heat lost
from the range during the time the meals are being prepared.

109. Privies—The necessary arrangements to be made in order to
prevent the infection which these attachments to buildings often pro-
duce vary with the mode of construction adopted and the nature of the |
building.

The regulations for the construction of privy-wells are as follows:
The down-pipes should dip at their lower end into the contents of the
well, or better into a fixed or movable copper basin, into which it is well
when it can be done to force water from time to time in order to wash it.

It follows from these arrangements that the only gases which can

WARMING AND VENTILATION. Pad bes!

ascend in these pipes arise from their internal surface or at the bottom
of the pipes, and will not-be very abundant, (Fig. 30.) :

To prevent the gases from spreading to
the interior of the rooms, water-closets
called English closets are usually employed
within dwellings. In less particular houses
and in public establishments, there is
simply placed under the opening a basin
called Roger Mothe’s apparatus, which tips
and empties itself by the weight of the con-
tents alone, and then returns and closes the

TZ, opening.

These convenient means are not always
sufficient to prevent the introduction of bad
smells on account of small cracks in the

joints of the apparatus.
In all cases it is better to keep the seat 14 or 2 inches above the upper
edge of the bowl, letting the front and the two sides reach to the seat
and to connect this space with a ventilating-pipe extending above the
roof.

If this pipe can be placed near a source of regular heat, such as the
kitchen-flue, or if hot-water pipes can be carried into it, as in the case
of mansions heated by hot water, it would be easy to obtain a sufficiently
powertul draught in this pipe.

But if this method is not available, as often is the case in small dwell-
ings, the same effect may be secured by placing in the pipe a small gas-
burner, burning at most 1 or 14 cubic feet an hour, and which, by the
aid of a transom, will illuminate the closet at the same time that it puri-
fies it. A common lamp might even be made use of, burning $ or 3
ounce of oil an hour, (about 5, to =, of a pint.)

The ventilating-pipe should be about from 46 to 62 square inches in
area, and the small burner, burning 14 cabic feet an hour, would, in
most cases, secure the renewal of 1,000 cubic feet of air an hour, which
would suffice not only to expel all the gases coming from the seat and
its descending-pipe, but even to renew the air of the room several times
ai hour by drawing in that of the surrounding corridors and also pre-
vent the infection of the interior of the house.

110. Hxrample.—Offce of the Northern Railroad Company, (Fig. 31.)—If,
instead of English water-closets, only open seats are used, or even those
called Turkish seats, similar arrangements would produce the same
results.

Fig. 31 shows the plan adopted with success in the office of the
Northern Railway Company, where there are in the five stories twenty-
seven water-closets. The down-pipes serve for all the pairs of seats in
each story, and are only three in number. They are 9 inches in diame-

SSS TX

SN ow

314 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

ter, and terminate in the movable copper water-basins, which form
Siphon:traps and prevent the rising of the gas from the well,
. FIG.GI.

WSS

SSX

BCDG

WS

WN
WS

AM. Go

All the ventilating-pipes from the seats
are 4 inches by 16 inches inside. They ter-
minate in a large vertical collecting-pipe,
about 10 square feet in sectional area, serv-
ing as a ventilating-chimney, in which are
placed vertical hot-water pipes, which in
winter produce a general draught. In sum-
mer, when the heating is interrupted, the
draught is produced by gas-burners kept
burning in each closet.

Ventilation by means of hot-water circu-
lation can evidently be kept up in summer
by means of a separate fire for this special
purpose, which would be more economical than the use of gas.

The result of experiments made in February, 1863, was that the
amount of air removed for each seat under the action of the draught, pro-
duced simply by an excess of 7° to 13° of temperature in the chimney
over that of the external air, was more than 2,200 cubic feet an hour.

Although much greater than is generally necessary, this amount would
not seem excessive in similar cases where, in addition to the seats, uri-
nals, often imperfectly rinsed, are used.

ill. Arrangement adopted at Lariboisiére Hospital, (Fig. 32.)—In this
establishment, the closets on each floor contain three seats, with bowls,

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 315

R, of enameled cast iron, which empty into another bowl, 8, forming the
top of a down-pipe, U, of which there is one for each seat, but which,
by a simple arrangement, might have been more economically made
common to the three floors. These down-pipes carry the contents to a
large hemispherical basin, O, of cast iron, always filled with water, in
which their ends dip so as to prevent the gas from the well at the bot-
tom from rising through the pipes. The contents run off from the basin
O through the space X in the well, which is closed air-tight, and which,
according to the regulations, should be provided with a pipe for the es-
cape of gas to the top of the building.

It follows from this arrangement that the only gases which can rise
to the top of the down-pipes in the closets are those which are formed
in the pipes. To prevent them from entering into the closets, and at
the same time to renew the air in the latter, M. L. Duvoir has connected
each of the under-bowls S with a pipe, T, leading to a ventilating-chim-
ney common to all the closets.

The draught exerted by this pipe V, increased by the use of hot-water
pipes or by other means, not only removes the gas developed in the
down-pipe, but it carries off from the closets, through the hole in the
seat, an amount of air equal to 1,200 cubic feet or more an hour to each
seat.

Arrangements similar to the preceding have been applied with suc-
cess in privies with Turkish seats in building b of the Vincennes Hos-
pital.

SINKS.

112. When sinks, intended to receive kitchen-slops, give out a bad
smell in spite of the precautionary measures prescribed by the sewer-
regulations, or when these regulations are not or cannot be observed,
this unpleasantness may be removed by means similar to those just
mentioned.

DINING-ROOMS.

113. In these rooms, where the steam from the dishes and the heat
from numerous lights, added to that produced by the people present,
cause a temperature often insupportable, it is easy to apply the rules
previously given.

It will usually suffice if the air be renewed four or five times an hour,
producing the draught near the floor, and making use, as will often be very
easy, of the heat from the wall-brackets to give it the required force.

If the room is brilliantly lighted by many chandeliers placed over the
tables, an escape should be provided for the hot gases arising from the
combustion by openings in or near the ceiling.

The openings for the admission of fresh air should be placed below the
former, but removed as far as possible from the people.

It will then be found, as in the ease of night drawing-schools, that
the general rules will have to be modified.

316 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

As examples, chosen among those which apparently offer the greatest
difficulties, I select the dining-rooms of the Hotel de Ville, Paris.

114. State dining-room.—This immense room has the following dimen-
sions: length, 156 feet; breadth, 34 feet; height, 38 feet; cubical con-
tent, 200,000 cubic feet; floor-surface, 5,300 square feet. There are
usually at dinner there 180 persons at one table 152 feet long by 13 feet
wide, which gives a contour of 2 x (152 + 13) = 330 feet, and allows
each guest but 1.8 feet of space.

At dinners, the number of waiters cannot be less than 60. There are
therefore 240 persons in the room.

The cubical space to each person is then—

a 833 cubic feet.

The amount of floor-surface to each person is—
5300
240°

Under these conditions, it is illuminated by—

= 22 square feet.

26 chandeliers, each containing 100 candles.................-- 2, 600
Table-candelabra of 6 or 7 candles each-...-...--..-+-0--5---- 592

Total number of candles ........... oom mieceie weiehee SN eeaeperoine 3, 192

At the dinner given by the city to the Emperor on the occasion of his
marriage, there were 420 persons at table. The number of waiters was
at least 100; the cubical space for each person was then—

D)
ce ae = 384 cubic feet,
and the floor-surface to each person—
5300
320 = 10 square feet.
The room was lighted, on this occasion, by 26 chandeliers of 100
Candles Cacho. secs wie wis sc anereta he ous ae ne reget ie re aera ce 2, 600
Table-candelabrai: wi.'-,.) i. sr stetonieel Sete eh eee ae eee ee 592
Total se. aciartalate nayt a ails spebkecica wees let cre Ee eeate pee 3, 192

Admitting that each candie develops 476 units of heat, the same as
a person, the total number of units of heat developed in an hour, on
that occasion, would be—

(520 + 3192) x 476 = 1,766,912 units.

Supposing that air, at a temperature of 59°, had been admitted at a
height of 20 or 26 feet, and that this air, after its temperature had been
raised to 95°, had escaped through openings in the ceiling, every cubic
foot of air introduced would have carried off—

0766 x 36 x .237 = .6536 unit.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. ove

It would then have been necessary to admit into and withdraw from
the room every hour the enormous amount of—
1766912
£6936
or 751 cubic feet a second, which corresponds to a complete renewal of
the air of the room effected—
2703000
200000

By means of chimneys extending to the roof, a velocity of discharge
equal to at least 7 feet a second could have been obtained, and their
sectional area and that of the openings into them would have to be 114
square feet. Supposing five of the latter to be placed in the ceiling,
each would require to be 23 square feet in area.

However great the amount of air to be removed and the areas of flues
may seem, there need be no serious difficulty in obtaining them.

115. Throne-room.—This room has the following dimensions: length,
94 feet; breadth, 36 feet; height, 26 feet; cubical capacity, 88,000 cubic
feet ; floor-surface, 3,380 square feet. It accommodates 95 guests at a
table 77 feet long by 13 feet wide, having, therefore, a circumference of
180 feet, which gives each guest but 1.9 feet of space.

The number of servants is about 25. There are then 120 persons iu
the room.

The cubical space to each person is—

= 2,703,000 cubic feet of air,

= 13.52 times an hour.

88000,
bo = 733 cubic feet.
The floor-surface to each person is—
3380
it = 28 square fect.
Under these circumstances, it is lighted up by—
Pe haAnaelvers: Ot: GO Candledee. sae 6 lors etetelela dolce siaie os ielah=ala = 1,152
MEAN UTA Of s20 <CANGICS totes ou oc sin's oye som ale. ciate ce ee ieee 100
Wire thew alk c stiz'a as ccicae w eas ee poled se Sivan Regie Hank bs * 370
MG aati ste eee oe cps, aussaye > ahd Sd oa ore Sais ort aaa Seen ers 1,622

or, 17 candles to a guest.

Allowing, as before, that.a candle gives out 476 units of heat an hour,
the same as a person, the total number of units of heat given out an
hour would be—

(1204-1622) x 476 = 829, 192 units.

Supposing that the air had been introduced at a height of 20 feet, and
at a temperature of 59°, and that this air, after having become heated
to 95°, had escaped through openings in the ceiling, every cubic foot of
air introduced would have carried away, as in the preceding case, .6536
unit.

318 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

It would then be necessary to admit into, and discharge from, the

room every hour the amount oi—

Seems =1,268,000 cubic feet

U1) a :
or 352 cubic feet a second, which corresponds to a complete renewal of
the air of the room effected 14.27 times an hour. If the velocity of dis-
charge reaches 64 feet a second, the total sectional area of the openings
should be 54 square feet.

The amount, 1,268,000 cubic feet,is about that which can easily be
withdrawn from the lecture-rooms of the Conservatory, and introduced
there at a mean height of less than 20 feet without inconvenience to
the audience.

116. Dining-room.—This room has the following dimensions: length,
49 feet ; breadth, 23 feet; height, 25 feet; cubical capacity, 28,000 cubic
feet; floor-surface, 1,120 square feet.

It accommodates 54 guests at a table 42 feet long by 10 feet wide, hav-
ing therefore a circumference of 104 feet, and giving to each guest but 2
feet of table-space.

The number of servants is about 14. There are then 68 persons in
the room.

The cubical space for each person is—

HQ
ae W =410 cubic feet.
The floor-surface to each person is—
1120
G5 —16 square feet.
It is lit up by—
Tehandelier $22 2s fas igis eee nee orale eo eerie eae 60 candles,
14 chandeliers of 20 candles each..---.2.---2=-2----.25- 280 candles,
Portable /candelabrasy ss. se. seed: he He eee ce oe cies 170 candles,
TP OtALT eo cciclecieiswiajeet seis aie Laie EO ee aie ee epee 510 candles,

or 9.44 candles to a guest.

Admitting the same bases of calculation as before, the total number of
units of heat developed in an hour by the people and the candles will be
(68+510) x 476=275,128 units,
and the amount of air to be admitted and withdrawn every hour would

be—
275128
6536
or 117 cubic feet a second, which corresponds to a complete renewal of
the air of the room effected 15.23 times an hour.

The amount, 421,000 cubic feet, is less than that which is constantly
admitted into and withdrawn from the small lecture-room at the Con-
servatory.

Under the arrangements at present in use, it is not uncommon to find
at the close of a meal a temperature of 86° without any change of air,

=421,000 cubic feet,

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 319

which is very unpleasant, and the supposition that it will be 95° near
the ceiling is probably below the truth.

The three preceding examples present extreme difficulties ; and it is
besides evident that if the proportions referred to be adopted, it would
be necessary to reserve means of regulating and of moderating, accord-
ing to circumstances, the amounts of air to be admitted and carried off.
For the winter season, the latter should be taken from places near the
rooms where a suitable temperature can be maintained.

RECEPTION-ROOMS.

117. What has already been said in regard to dining-rooms applies
equally to large reception-rooms, where many lights serve to a great
extent to heat and vitiate the air.

There, as in evening drawing-schools, it will not be sufficient merely
to produce a change of air proportioned to the number of persons pres-
ent; it is necessary at the same time to carry off the hot gases of com-
bustion through the ceiling under the influence of the draught which
they produce, and to establish at the same time if possible an outward
draught near the floor, which will draw to ita part of the fresh air. The
fresh air should be introduced at a considerable height, and as far as
possible from the people in the room.

In such cases, it will be advisable to secure the complete renewal of
the air six or eight times an hour.

Observations made at the school in the Rue des Petits-H6tels having
shown that, with an external temperature of 50° and an internal tem-
perature of 79°, there will be produced from free openings, disconnected
from any chimney, a velocity of about 3 feet a second, the surfaces of
the openings to be made above may be calculated by assuming that
75 per cent. of the amount of air to be removed escapes through these
openings; and that the balance, or 25 per cent., will be drawn off at
the bottom, with a velocity also equal to at least 3 feet a second.

118. Application to the Hall of Marshals in the Tuileries.—This recep-
tion-room is 63 feet long, 53 feet wide, having therefore 3,340 square
feet of floor-surface, and 48 feet in mean height, the cubic content
being about 160,000 cubic feet. It accommodates at most six hundred
people at balls, or about one person to every 5 square feet.

It is lit up on reception-days by 548 candles and by 166 lamps,
(equivalent to 498 candles,) which would develop together about 500,000
units of heat an hour.*

The illumination corresponds then to—

a = 1.74 candles to an individual.

If it is desired that the air be renewed in this hall six times, it will be
necessary to admit and discharge—

6 x 160,000 = 960,000 cubic feet an hour,

* Etudes sur la ventilation, 2° vol., pp. 301-302.

320 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

of which .75x 960,000 = 720,000 cubic feet an hour, or 200 cubic feet
a second, will be carried off at the ceiling, and .25 x 960,000 = 240,000
cubic feet an hour, or 67 cubic feet a second, by the openings near the
floor. As the velocity of discharge near the ceiling may be as high as 3
feet a second, the openings to be made there—as far as possible directly
above the main chandelier—should have—
ae = 67 square feet of clear passageway,
deduction being made for solid parts; and the velocity of draught near
the floor being also 3 feet a second, the corresponding openings should
have a clear area of—
a = 22 square feet.

The grating in use has an area of but 116 square feet of total sur-
face, including solid portions, and scarcely presents 43 square feet of
clear passage.

Above the openings in the ceiling should be placed external ventilators,
having together the same clear area, which will increase the velocity of
discharge.

In regard to the ventilating openings at the floor-level, they may easily
be made around the contour of the rooms under the steps on which the
seats are placed; and their pipes should be carried in the piers of the
vaults of the lower vestibule to the cellar, where they should join the col-
lecting passages terminating in a general ventilating-chimney, at the
bottom of which a coal fire or a number of gas-burners should be kept
burning.

The dimensions of these pipes should be ealeulated by the general
rules previously given. If there are serious difficulties in the way of
producing this down-draught, an up-draught may be used, produced by the
aid of gas-burners placed in vertical flues made in the thickness of the
walls.

119. Introduction of air.—But it is not sufficient merely to secure the
discharge of the foul air; it is necessary to provide for the admission of
an equal amount of fresh air at a proper temperature.

This air, which in winter should be warmed to a temperature of about
68°, may be admitted through an interjoist in the baleony, which is 20
feet above the floor. It should flow horizontally below the chandeliers,
above and away from the occupants, and its horizontal velocity of ad-
mission may, without inconvenience, be 3 feet a second. Its volume
being 954,000 cubic feet an hour, or 265 cubic feet a second, the total
sectional area of the interjoist and of the conducting passages should
be 81 square feet.

The length around the inner edge of the balcony being about 200 feet,
it will suffice to give the openings—

81

500 = 4 foot of clear height,

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 321

but on account of the ornaments which break up the passage it will be
necessary to make them 10 inches either in height or in developed profile,

These arrangements will insure the renewal of 954,000 cubic feet of
air an hour, or 1,590 cubic feet to each person, if there are 600 present,
sufficient in all seasons to secure the healthful condition of the room
and to moderate its temperature ; but it is not necessary that they be
isolated and confined to one of the reception-rooms of the palace. It
will be equally necessary to adopt similar arrangements for the two
adjoining rooms, which often contain many persons, and also for the large
gallery, frequently used as a ballroom. It may not be unnecessary to .
add that for evening parties the two large fire-places which are in the
grand gallery may, by means of gas-burners placed within them, serve
as ventilating-chimneys ; and if there is any difficulty in cutting in the
side-walls descending flues leading to the basement, ascending flues may
be made, separate, or communicating with a single ventilator placed in
the roof over each room.

The fresh air should enter above the cornice, and in a horizontal direc-
tion.

Each of the principal saloons in the palace should thus have its own
ventilators provided with regulating-valves ; they should be independent
of the others, and this will prevent the unpleasant currents which would
otherwise arise as the guests take their departure.

HALLS OF ASSEMBLY AND LECTURE-ROOMS.

120. These places of temporary resort, where there is often more than
one person to every square foot of floor-surface, should be ventilated
at the rate of 1,000 cubic feet of air an hour to each person.

The arrangements which I have adopted for the main lecture-hall of
the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, and of which the satisfactory re-
sults have been seen every day for five years, appear to me worthy of
imitation.

The foul air is drawn off through openings in the risers behind the
feet of the auditors, and their total clear area tor the passage of the air
—deduction being made for the solid portions of the grating, if there
are any—should be calculated so that the air will only attain a velocity
_ of 28 or 30 inches a second. This surface also should be distributed as
uniformly as possible among the steps.

The basement under the lecture-room, kept as clear as possible, should
communicate with a ventilating-gallery, placed underground or at the
-ground-floor level if possible, the sectional area of which should be
calculated so that the velocity of the air shay not be greater than 4
feet a second.

This gallery should terminate in a ventilating-chimney, the mean sec-
tion of which should be determined on the condition that the velocity
of the air shall reach 5 or 7 feet a second in order to secure the perma-
nence of the current.

21s

322 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

At the foot of this chimney,a grate, separated from the walls and
placed about 35 feet above the ground, should contain a coal-fire, which
will give tothe draught the necessary strength. Experiments show
that with proportions about equal to those that have been mentioned;
140,000 to 160,000 cubic feet of air an hour can be carried off from a
well-filled lecture-room to every pound of coal burned. On the preced-
ing data, the number of pounds of coal to be burned may be calculated
from the number of persons in attendance, allowing to each 1,000 cubic
feet of air an hour, and the surface of the grate may be determined on
_ the condition that each square foot is to consume 4 pounds an hour,
which corresponds to a slow fire.

Doors and valves should be placed in this gallery to check the motion
of the air as required.

If in the lecture-room substances that give off bad smells are produced,
ventilating-pipes should be arranged under the furnaces, or under the
table, which should be 24 or 3 square feet in sectional area, and pro-
longed, if desired, directly to the chimney instead of terminating in the
gallery. The openings of these pipes in the furnace or in the table should
be closed whenever it is not necessary to use them.

121. Admission of fresh air.—Generally it will be well, when the con-
struction permits, to make the air flow in through the roof over the lec- _
ture-room, which should in that case be close and ceiled, or in an inter-
joist, whence it will descend into the room through openings uniformly
spread over the surface of the ceiling.

When this arrangement can be adopted, the clear surface of the open-
ings should be calculated on the condition that the air should pass
through them with a velocity of about 20 inches a second.

In the main lecture-room of the Conservatory, where the amount of
air admitted rarely exceeds 636,000 cubic feet an hour, or 177 cubic feet
a second, this condition would require a clear area for the fresh-air
openings of 108 square feet. They actually have an area of 129 square
feet.

If it becomes necessary to admit the fresh air through one or more of -
the walls of the room, opposite walls should be preferred, and the open-
ings should be placed as far as possible from the audience, fitting guides
to them to force the air to follow the flat or curved surface of the ceiling,
so that its entering velocity, which may then be as great as 40 inches a
second, may’ be gradually reduced before it reaches the audience. The
air brought in should have in winter a temperature lower by 4 degrees
than that which is to be maintained in the room, which should be about
68°.

For this purpose, the warm air from the heating-apparatus should be
mixed in a separate chamber with the cold air taken from outside
through a convenient opening. The action of the draught will serve to
draw in this cold air, which should be made to flow into the mixing-
chamber above the warm air.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 323

Valves should be arranged to regulate the amounts of hot and cold
air so as to give a proper temperature to the mixture.

When the lecture-room is not occupied, it will be well to close all the
communications with the ventilating-chimney, the mixing-chamber, and
the fresh-air openings, in order to avoid reversed draughts which would
cool the interior.

The intermittent use and heating of lecture-rooms causes a much
greater expense for fuel than if they were constantly occupied.

These places also being only ventilated when they are in use, it is
well to reserve means of warming through special openings different
from those which are used in connection with ventilation, the openings
to be afterward closed.

The mean) results for heating and ventilating lecture-rooms arranged
similarly to those in the conservatory will be as follows:

For heating—to 1,000 cubie feet con-

Consumption of coal (LEI LT Siete ieee eee tress Oe abe nom 2-24 Ibs.
in 12 hours. For ventilation—to 1,000 cubic feet
Ol alr LENEWEU. J isis er dee eee 3-1. Ib.

Large reception-rooms, such as those of legislative halls, should be
warmed and ventilated upon the same principles.

In all cases, it should be remembered that staircases, vestibules, &e.,
which give access to these places with strong ventilating-draughts, should
be warmed without being ventilated, and kept at a temperature a little
above that of the main room, so that the occasional opening of doors
will only admit warm air, which would not be unpleasant.

Experiment has shown at the Conservatory that, when these places
are thus heated and kept closed, they form a sort of air-lock, and the
velocity with which the air enters through the doors, which being
opened put them in communication with the interior of the lecture-
room, is barely one foot a second, and consequently almost insensible,
especially if the temperature of the air is at least equal to that in the

main room.
THEATERS.

122. A theater is composed of three principal parts—

1. The stage and its accessories.

2. The auditorium, waiting-rooms, and dependencies.

3. The vestibules, staircases, and business-oflices.

The stage, the flies, and the corridors which lead to the dressing-rooms
and green room should be kept at a temperature of 64° to 68° in winter.
| Generally, the latter places will not require to be ventilated, as they con-
tain but a small number of people, occupying a large space. Still, as
_ the green-room and the rooms in which the chorus rehearses often con-
_ tain a large number of artists, it may be necessary in certain cases to
ventilate them. The upper portions of the stage are often raised to a
_ high temperature on account of the heat produced by the lights, by the

324 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

fire in spectacles, &c., which requires that special precautions be taken
to air them and to remove the hot gases.

The auditorium and the waiting-rooms are the parts in which it is especi-
ally desirable to maintain salubrity, change of air, and a moderate tem-
perature. The amount of air to be changed an hour to each spectator
should be 1,400 cubic feet, and it is well to reserve means of increasing
it to 2,100 cubie feet during the summer.

The heating may be effected either by means of hot-air heaters with
sufficiently large mixing-chambers, as has been previously mentioned, or
by hot-water apparatus, of which the first cost need not be greater than
the preceding, while it will be very easy to regulate.

123. Air-supply.—The fresh air should be taken, if possible, from the
neighboring gardens, far from dwelling-houses, or from court-yards, or
by special chimneys, drawing it from the top of the edifice. Care should
be taken that these chimneys should be as far as possible from the
ventilating-chimneys, and that their tops be not as high as the ventilat-
ing chimneys, in order that they may not reverse the draught.

If fresh air be introduced by subterranean passages, the walls, the
vaults, and the floor of these passages should be made of hydraulic
masonry, perfectly tight, and nothing should be done to them by the
custodians of the building, except to examine their state of cleanliness.

124. Admission of air.—The air should be carried into the auditorium :

1. By interjoists, formed between the floor of one gallery and the
ceiling of that below; the air should issue horizontally from the whole
circumference of the interjoists, which should be at least 5 or 6 inches
in clear height. ;

It may be assumed that the horizontal velocity with which it flows
out will be 3 feet a second; but it is necessary to take care that the
openings through the gratings which terminate the interjoist-spaces
have at least a surface corresponding to this velocity, and that none of
these openings be placed horizontally above the spectators of the lower
tier of seats.

2. By openings arranged at the height of about 10 feet in the walls
separating the stage from the auditorium ; and there may also be formed
there a chamber for mixing the warm air from the heaters with the cold
air from outdoors.

3. By auxiliary pipes, intended especially for summer-ventilation,
arranged, if possible, under the floors of the corridors of each gallery.
They should take air from outdoors, and their section should be cal-
culated, so that the velocity of passage shall not exceed 2 feet or 28
inches a second. All these pipes should be supplied with valves to
close them when required in cold weather.

125. Necessary precautions.— Ventilation, by drawing out the foul air,
necessarily causing the entrance of fresh air, it is necessary to see that
the opening of doors does not occasion unpleasant currents. For
this purpose, corridors, passage-ways, and staircases should be heated in

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 325

winter to a temperature of about 68°. The doors of adjoining boxes
being usually contiguous, it will be well to place a hot-air opening in
the corridors before each pair of doors, so that during the momentary
opening of one of these doors warm air may enter into the correspond-
ing box. The same plan may be carried out by each door in the pas-
sage-way ; but it is necessary that these hot-air openings be placed in
vertical planes, and not at the floor-level. The passage-ways should
have two doors opening outward and inward, and between them should
be a hot-air opening.

126. Removal of foul air.—This air should be drawn out of the room
by ventilating-openings at the back of the boxes or galleries, or in the
risers of the amphitheater. The clear surface of these openings should
be calculated on the condition that the air shall enter with a velocity of
28 or 30 inches a second.

Each box or each pair of adjoining boxes of the same tier should have
a special ventilating-pipe. The section of these pipes should be calcu-
lated on the condition that the air drawn out should have a velocity of
3 feet a second. For the first, second, and third galleries, these pipes
should be carried to the ventilator above the chandelier.

For the parquet, the orchestra, and the lower boxes, and, if possible, for
the first gallery, the foul-air pipes should descend. In the parquet and
the orchestra, gratings arranged around the whole lower circumference
of the partitions, together with other openings placed on top or on the
sides of pipes carried along by the feet of the seats, will serve to direct
the foul air in an interjoist placed under the floor. This interjoist, made
high enough to be cleaned, should be divided in large theaters into two
parts by a longitudinal division in the mean plane of the edifice.

Each of these parts should communicate with a separate ventilating-
chimney, of which the opening should be either in the basement or at
the height of the floor of the passage-ways in the parquet.

In no case should the ventilating-openings be placed at the floor-level,
as has nevertheless been done at the Lyric Theater.

The foul air drawn off from the lower boxes and the first gallery
should likewise be carried underneath by means of special pipes, after-
ward united in collecting-pipes terminating at the base of the chimneys
just referred to.

The dimensions of these pipes should be determined on the condition
that the velocity in them should be from 3 to 4 feet a second.

In small theaters, a single chimney will usually suffice for all the gal-
leries. The calculation of the dimensions to be given to the foul-air
openings should be made for each gallery separately, from the corre-
sponding number of spectators.

The cast-iron smoke-pipes of the heaters should be carried into the
ventilating-chimneys, keeping them separate throughout their whole
height; and at the lower part of the chimney a grate should be placed,
to be used whenever required, to increase the draught, especially in sum-

396 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

mer. It would not be prudent, even in winter, to count upon the heat
transmitted by the smoke-pipe to produce a sufficiently powerful draught.

The sectional area of the chimney should be ealculated so that the
mean velocity in it may be 53 or 6 feet a second.

They should open, when possibie, in a cupola placed above the center
of the hall, which should also receive all the ventilating-pipes of the
upper stories.

A main ventilating-chimney should be constructed of brick and not
of metal, above this cupola, the latter to be as low as possible, while
the chimney should be made as high as the nature of the building will
permit, but at least 20 or 25 feet.

The sectional area of this chimney should be ealculated on the con-
dition that the mean velocity of the draught in it should be about 63
feet a second.

127. Utilization of the heat given out by the lights.—In addition to the
pipes for carrying off foul air, the gases produced by the burners of the
main chandelier or the other chandeliers suspended from the ceiling
should also be carried into the cupola. The pipes intended to carry the
gases there should be made as small as possible in order not to change
the direction of the main draught in the vicinity of these places.

The diameter of the ventilating-pipe above a chandelier placed near
the ceiling and supplied with a metal or glass reflector should be caleu-
lated under the condition that it shall only remove 150 cubic feet of air
an hour with the velocity of 13 feet a second to a cubic foot of gas con-
sumed by the chandelier.

The single burners in the boxes and corridors should take the air
necessary to support the combustion in the interior of the boxes or
from the adjoining ventilating-pipes. It will sufiice to make their ven-
tilating-pipes 4 or 3 inch in diameter.

If, as is most probable, the plan of lighting through a glass ceiling,
tried at the Théatre du Cirque and the Lyric Theater, be not adopted,
it will be advisable to place a circle of gas-jets at the base of the venti-
lating-chimney, to be used only to increase the draught in summer,
when the elevation of the temperature of the external air tends to
reduce it. It may be assumed that under similar conditions each cubic
foot of gas consumed will carry off about 800 cubie feet of air.

A valve should be placed at the foot of the chimney to moderate its
draught, and particularly to stop the draught after the close of the play,
to prevent useless loss of heat and the entrance of cold air during the
night.

128. Ventilation of the stage.—For theaters where great quantities of
smoke are frequently produced during sham fights, grand illuminations,
displays of fire-works, &c., it is well to keep up a strong draught in the
upper part of the stage, in order to prevent the gases from being drawn
into the auditorium by the draught kept up there, as happened at the
Chatelet Theater, where these precautions were not taken. Further-

WARMING AND VENTILATION. Ona

more, in order that this stage-ventilation may not interfere with that of
the body of the house, it is necessary to connect the two systems with
each other.

For this purpose, a chimney or an auxiliary ventilating-flue should be
made above the stage and joined with the main chimney, the draught
of which should be increased by means of gas-jets lighted at the prope1
time, a little while before the smoke is produced.

129. Precautions to be taken to prevent re-entry of the external air on the
stage.—The introduction of external cold air on the stage should also be
avoided, in order that currents from the stage to the hall may not be
produced, which would be disagreeable both to the actors and to the
audience. This result has taken place at the Théatre du Cirque, where
large openings in direct communication with a court and public way
have not been closed.

130. Lighting-apparatus for the auditorium.—W ithout wishing to spec-
ify here the arrangements to be adopted for lighting theaters, we will
confine ourselves to stating that glass ceilings, which require to
be ornamented with colored designs, occasion a considerable loss of
light, while they produce in the room an amount of heat very unpleasant
for the spectators in the upper tiers, and which is also very expensive
for the directors, who are naturally led unduly to restrict the number
of gas-jets, thus rendering useless the expense gone to in introducing
this method of illumination. Although this consumption, even when
thus restricted, assists the removal of foul air, the amount carried off
is seldom more than 450 cubic feet to a cubic foot of gas burned, while
with suitable arrangements the amount of 600 to 800 cubic feet of air might
be carried off to every cubic foot of gas.

131. Arrangements to bemade to secure and regulate the amount of warmth
and ventilation—Warmth and ventilation can only be properly secured
by an attentive observation of atmospheric conditions and of the num-
ber of spectators, and by prompt application of the proper means. There
is, in fact, no difficulty in the arrangement or the management of the
apparatus; but itis necessary to take care, and not to trust to ordinary
firemen, nor even to the managers of theaters, always interested in
using as little coal and gas as possible.

It is then indispensable to confide this trust to special agents, respon-
sible directly for the authority and the regularity of the service, and
obliged to make daily reports. Without such control, independent of
theatrical managers, the best apparatus may give imperfect results or
even fail entirely.

132. Application.—The preceding rules have been adopted, after long
discussion and many experiments,* to serve as bases for the plans to
be adopted at the Lyric Theater and the Chatelet Theater. The city

* The commission charged with the investigation of the question and the examina-
tion of projects was composed of Dumas, member of the Institute, president ; Chaix-
d’Est-Ange, Pelouse, Rayer, Gilbert, Caristie, Baltard, General Morin, members of the
Institute; Grassi, chemist.

398 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

government has scarcely any control over the latter, and but little over
the former. Still, as the results obtained at the Lyric Theater have, in
the main, been somewhat satisfactory when the apparatus has been
properly managed, I will describe this first application, in spite of its
imperfections.

The auditorium, intended to accommodate 1,700 spectators, has really
but 1,472 seats, distributed as follows:

Orchestra, parquet; and lower DOXeS <=... 5. ses nee soos 440

MUITSG WCE". wr. eo ee hate ones hice on wea i ee ee 256

DCCONUBICE. < es eee ee eg eae ae Sete Ore em nee Se 302

PING OSHGE Aes tae cst es Se ee eo ee ee ot eee 178

OUT UE UTE ss ok cates ON sae an eee ot ee eines a ener 296 1,032
1, 472

The amount of air to be renewed for each spectator had been limited
to 1,060 feet an hour, which, with the above number of places, corre-
sponded to a total volume of 1,560,000 cubic feet an hour. The condi-
tions imposed upon the contractor, based on the hypothesis of 1,700
spectators, would require a renewal of 1,800,000 cubic feet of air an hour.

133. External-air supply.—The air-supply was taken in St. Jacques
Square from a circular well 12 feet in diameter, which, by a subterranean
passage, at first circular, 11 feet in diameter, and afterward of variable
form, but of the same sectional area, carried it to the subbasement of
the building, aud spread it over the whole extent occupied by the heat-
ers and the air-chambers. The sectional area of the passage-way was
therefore but 98 square feet; and experiment (December 9, 1862*) hav-
ing shown that the velocity in it was as much as 6 feet a second, the
volume of fresh air introduced by this gallery was that day 1,090,000
cubic feet. It was only deemed necessary to introduce 1,060,000 cubic
feet, since the unavoidable admission of air through the doors, the pas-
sages, and the stage would easily and without inconvenience furnish the
balance, as has been found to be the case. It would, nevertheless, be.
more prudent in such cases to calculate the dimensions of the fresh-air
trunk to furnish the entire amount.

134. Alteration of the adopted plans.—But a little while after the open-
‘ing or the lease of the theater to the manager, the external fresh-air pas-
sage was closed, and even the pit in St. Jacques Square covered with ivy.
Thus the introduction of air by these passages, as well as by the pipes
leading to the interjoists of the boxes, is almost entirely prevented,
while the outward draughtis as strong asever. It therefore follows that,
to replace the air carried off, cold air enters through the halls, passages,
&c., which is very unpleasant. for the spectators, and which the public
attribute to the general arrangements adopted, while they are only the
result of want of care and of the exercise of authority.

* Etudes sur la ventilation, vol. 2.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 329

In spite of the influence which these changes, and others equally seri-
ous, in part of the apparatus have had on their operation, I will describe
the results which have been obtained by continuous service when the
ventilation has been regularly kept up.

135. Ground-floor.—Part of the air supplied by the air-trunks passes
into two heaters placed under the main hall ; the rest flows into two mix-
ing-chambers, having together a capacity of 6,500 cubic feet. The two
heaters have a sectional area of 97 square feet, and the amount of warm
air which they can supply to the mixing-chamber being at a maximum
883,000 cubic feet an hour, or 245 feet a second, this corresponds to a
velocity of 24 feet a second.

From the air-chamber, and from each of its compartments, branch off
six pipes, of which—

Two are intended to supply fresh air to the different galleries.

Two were to supply air entering the room by the floor of the stage,
concentric with the foot-lights. This method of introduction had to be
abandoned, as it was unpleasant to the musicians.

Two were to carry air in vertical pipes placed by the stage-opening
against the wall which separates it from the auditorium.

There are, in addition, four heaters for warming the vestibules, the
staircases, waiting-rooms, dressing-rooms, ce.

136. Removal of foul air.—In the orchestra and parquet, the air is
drawn off under the floor by 101 openings, having altogether a clear
area of about 65 square feet. The passage under the floor, which should
have had a clear area of 118 square feet, has been reduced to 40 square
feet.

The air drawn off at this height, carried by two pipes to the right and
left, is drawn to two ventilating-chimneys, which contain the smoke-
pipes of the heaters of the hall, and may also, when necessary, be heated
by a small special fire.

Direct experiments, made during five consecutive evenings in May,
1863, with external temperatures comprised between 56° and 73°, have
shown that a mean consumption of 441 pounds of coal, costing about
$2 for each performance, effects the removal of about 600,000 cubic feet
of air an hour, which corresponds to about 1,400 cubic feet to a seat.
By means of this abundant ventilation, the temperature of the orchestra,
and parquet may be maintained within proper limits.

But the managers of the theater do not use the two ventilating-chim-
neys; andif they have not been closed, instead of promoting the removal
of foul air, they may cause the entrance of cold air, in consequence of a
reversal of the direction of the motion of the air caused by the greater
power of the upper draught.

For the first, second, third, and fourth galleries, the foul air is carried
out at the floor of the galleries or through the steps of the amphitheater,
as was remarked in § 126; and the observations made in May, 1863,
have shown that the amount of foul air extracted at the base of the

300 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

cupola was as much as 1,361,000 cubic feet for 736 places, equal to 1,848
cubie feet toa place. For the whole audience-room, containing 1,472
places, the total amount of air removed on an average during the five
evenings in May, 1863, when the observations were made, was as much
as 1,970,000 cubic feet, or 1,338 cubie feet instead of 1,060, which was
all demanded. The total amount was even raised on December 3, 1562,
to 2,121,000 cubic feet an hour.

137. Maintenance of equality of temperature in the different galleries.—
I have given in my investigations in regard to ventilation* the results
of experiments which have been made under very different temperatures,
and which have shown that the results obtained have exceeded what
was required as to the amount of air removed from the room at the
different galleries. The results relative to keeping up the temperature
have not been less satisfactory. In fact, by means of this regular ven-
tilation, the temperature at the different galleries has been maintained
at a very remarkable state of uniformity, as shown by the following
results for the first and fourth galleries, which alone will be cited here:

iS eles = 2 5
~ a lamel
Date. % 5 es b08
SO oe iia ees
eg | se2| 538
aad Qe!
= ae aed ae
erjae Ooh. Ons
Manyiedrel Gao styssceee cee. snotecee On eee ere See 52.25 | 69.10 69. 80
May Ob SECO Leis SOEUR Ss SEG es eae hee Renee 55.85 | 71.60 74. 66
Maiy206) 1665s o8 soe ceo cok haa bee seen ce eiore raee eee 55.85 | 71.60 72. 05
May OTAL SOS sae. ecto ie 2 hy mise che cea eee ee Reet eee 59.90 | 75,02 75. 02
May 28). 1863 te 35. nbes second pis aN PEE SISA 2 62.60 | 75.92 76. 64
Miaya20" 1863. fist: si Nadas Of PAT ae a ee ee ee 67.10 | 76.10 77. 36
May SUS 1003 ocescre oc pe cates ooetee ieee ree en meee 69.80 | 78.26 80. 06

It is well to repeat that in a place strongly ventilated a temperature
of 75° does not feel unpleasant, and that if the direct external air-
openings required for the summer season have been made it will be easy,
if required, to obtain a still smaller difference between the external and
internal temperatures.

At the old Opera, the Italian Theater, and most of the unventiiated
theaters, it is not unusual to observe temperatures of 95° and 105°.

138. Temperature on the stage—W hen the heaters designed to warm the
stage are well managed, a proper degree of temperature may always be
maintained there. Thus, in November, 1863, with an external temper-
ature of 39°, was obtained—

OnE
On the'stace ye seceye = sae "6 a adc courage bon ei diac Seep eRe La ot ee ome 66. 02
dn the worehestra-stalls}). ee ucla hae See leaie stele ee ions 70. 88
In the gallery-boxes, (average) ......50....2--20 550602 --- 22 12. 32
In the amphitheater, (fourth gallery) ....--.......-.+.-----.- 735. 94

* Etudes sur la Ventilation, vol. 2.

WARMING AND VENTILATION. ook

In May, with external temperatures of from 64° to 68° at7 o’clock, and
from 55° to 579 at midnight, the temperature on the stage was on an
average 71° to 73°.

139. Volume of air carried off at the cupola to acubic foot of gas burned.—
During the experiments of May, 1863, the volume of gas burned an hour
in the main room was on an average 2,940 cubic feet, and the volume of
air was 1,361,000 cubic feet, which corresponds to 462.5 cubic feet of air
carried off by a cubic foot of gas consumed. But in the above-men-
tioned consumption 1s included that of a large number of burners which
had no direct influence on the ventilation. A removal of 600 to 800
cubic feet of air to a cubic foot of gas directly consumed to produce it
may be calculated upon when proper arrangements are made. J

140. Consequences of the preceding facts.—The results of direct experi-
ment made in different seasons show that the arrangements adopted
for warming and ventilating the Lyric Theater are capable of producing
satisfactory results. The same is true of the Gaités.

It is a pity to see the public, in consequence of the senseless parsi-
mony of the manager of a theater, deprived of the advantages which
the administration of the city of Paris has, at considerable expense,
undertaken to secure them.

STABLES AND COW-HOUSES.

141. The capacity of stables should be 1,800 cubic feet to each animal ;
this was the proportion adopted in 1841 by the war-minister for cavalry-
stables. In all constructed since that time for the army-service, the
width allowed for each horse is about 43 feet.

This increase of space produced from 1835 to 1858 a reduction in the
number of horses lost in 1,000, from 51 deaths by glanders in the period
from 1835 to 1845 to 10 only during that from 1845 to 1858, and from 94
deaths from all diseases in 1835 to 1845 to 22 only from 1848 to 1858.

Large corporations, such as the General Omnibus Company and the
railroad-companies, are then wrong in restricting the capacity of their
stables to 700 or 900 cubic feet of air to a head.

142. Permanent opening of doors and windows.—Experiments carried on
for several years in cavalry-regiments in garrison in the north, center, or
south of France, have proved that horses have better health and greater
strength when kept in stables where the doors and windows are con-
stantly kept open night and day in all seasons than where they are kept
shut. Similar observations have been made in stables containing a
great many cattle, which are thus relieved from epidemic aftections of
the respiratory organs.

145. Amount of air to be allowed.—When stables are not arranged so
as to admit air throughout their whole length and by two opposite walls,
it is proper to make in the roof at the middle of the alleys, if they are
double or above the passage behind the horses, ventilating-chimneys of
brick sufficiently large to secure a ventilation of 6,400 to 7,000 cubic feet

aon WARMING AND VENTILATION.

of air an hour to a horse, with a velocity of 28 inches a second, which
may be produced by a difference of temperature of 11° to 18° between the
external air and that of the stable. This requires that the chimneys
have a sectional area of 108 to 124 square inches to a horse.

By means of this ventilation, the hygrometrical condition of the air in
the stable will be maintained within convenient limits.

144. Use of gas-burners.—The ventilation of stables may be increased
by making use of the heat given out by gas-burners used to light them
up at night, which then allows of reducing the sectional area of the
ventilating-pipes.

145. Cow-houses—What precedes relates to work-animals. In the
case of milch-cows, it appears that a certain drowsy laziness is favorable
to the production of milk ; and in such cases it is necessary to limit the
ventilation to what is absolutely necessary for health.

MEANS OF CONTROL.

146. Means to be used to determine the condition and the results of a
system of ventilation—It has been shown by the numerous examples
that precede that the establishment of a complete and regular renewal
of air in occupied places in reality presents no difficulty, and that the
rules to be followed are very simple. Their application will be equally
so, and will involve but little expense if architects take care to devise
plans of ventilation at the same time that they make the plans for con-
struction, instead of waiting till the building is almost finished.

But when all the arrangements have been made to secure the renewal
of air, the first thing to do is to examine whether the desired results
have been obtained, and the second is to regulate the operation of the
apparatas.

To determine what are the amounts of air carried off and drawn in, a
small portable instrument is used, called an anemometer, consisting of
a wind-mill with light and easily-moved vanes, connected with gear- *
wheels and pointers, which indicate the number of turns made by the
vanes in a given time.

Experiments show that with an apparatus of this kind the velocity
of the air may be deduced from the number of turns of the wings by
means of an equation of the form :

V=a+0N
V being the velocity in a second;
a, a constant term, expressing the velocity of the air at which the in-
strument commences to move;

b, a constant number ;
N, the number of turns indicated in a second.

Thus, one of the anemometers of the Conservatory has the formula:

V (in inches) = 8.66 + 7N

This instrument should be placed, as far as possible, in a part of the

flue traversed by the air, where the velocity is uniform and well regu-

WARMING AND VENTILATION. 333

lated. It should be kept in operation at least two minutes, if a watch in-
dicating seconds be used ; and four or five, if a watch indicating minutes
only is employed. From the number of turns made in this interval of
time may be deduced that corresponding to a second, whence the ve-
locity, V, may be obtained. This velocity, multiplied by the sectional
area of the flue, will give the amount of air passing through in a second,
and from this the amount passing through in 3,600 seconds, or an hour,
can be obtained.

If it be feared that the velocity in the flue is variable, on account of
its large size or other circumstances, it will be necessary to try the
instrument at different places, which will then give with sufficient exact-
ness the mean velocity of the air.

When it is desired to determine the volume of air which is carried
out or drawn in through an opening covered with a grating, the ane-
mometer should not be placed above or in front of this opening, as is
done by many observers, and the velocity resulting from the number of
turns observed taken as the mean velocity of the air passing through.
Serious errors will result from this method. The proper way is to place
before the opening, and fitting to it as closely as possible, a pipe having
at one end the form of the opening, and joining at the other end a cylin-
drical pipe at least 2 feet long, in which the anemometer should be
placed, which would then indicate the velocity of passage in this part
of the auxiliary pipe. The velocity of the air introduced or withdrawn
in a second or an hour may easily be deduced afterward.

147. Means of insuring the regularity of the ventilation —While the use
of portable anemometers serves for experimental investigations and for
the determination of the results obtained by the ventilation, if is not
sufficient to secure the necessary regularity of ventilation in large estab-
lishments.

In such cases it is necessary to introduce much larger anemometers,
connected with an electrical recording-apparatus placed in the oflice of
the superintendent, or in a conspicuous place where it can be seen every
hour, or every morning and evening, whether the renewal of air is pro-
ceeding with regularity and with the prescribed energy.

This is not the place to describe the apparatus.* I confine myself to
stating that an anemometer of the kind has been employed with suc-
cess for several years at the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, to insure
regularity in the ventilation of the lecture-rooms; and that every year
it works for about five consecutive months without derangement, and
without requiring any care but the renewal of the solutions in the bat-
tery two or tbree times a season.

A similar anemometer has been in constant operation for several
months in the ventilating-chimney at Lariboisiére Hospital, and has
served to show, every morning, the amount of foul air removed from a

* See the Annales du Conservatoire, vol. 5, 1864, p. 341.

334 WARMING AND VENTILATION.

wing containing 106 beds, during the night, and, every evening, the
amount during the day.

Methods of observation of this kind, automatic and independent of
the personal action of the employés, are the indispensable adjuncts of
great ventilating systems, if it be desired that the service be performed
in a regular manner. They also serve to render the work of inspection
by the heads of the establishment more easy and efficient.

Errata in previous portion of this article contained in the report for 1873:

In § 31, pp. 308, 309, for 1,000 cubic feet weigh, read one cubic foot weighs ; and for
weight of 1,000 cubie feet, read weight of one cubic foot.

In § 35, pp. 310, 311, for 0.0000756, 0.000081, 0.000005, 0.000077, 0.000074, 0.000003, read
0.0756, 0.081, 0.005, 0.077, 0.074, 0.003 respectively.

HTEEN OLGGY.:

_ {[Itis considered important to collect all possible information as to the
location and character of ancient earth-works, which exist in various
parts of the United States, with a view to classify them and determine
their distribution in relation to special topographical features of the
country as well as to different regions. For this purpose the correspond-
ents of the Institution are respectfully requested to furnish information
-as to any ancient remains of this character existing in their neighbor-
-hoods.—J. H.]

ANCIENT GRAVES AND SHESI-HEAPS OF CALIFORNIA.
By PauL SCHUMACHER.

! During my visit to that part of the California coast between Point
‘San Luis and Point Sal, (Map A,) in the months of April, May, and
June, of 1874, I often had occasion to observe extensive shell-heaps, like
those I had found about a year previously so numerous along the shores
of Oregon. These deposits of shells and bones are the kitchen refuse of
‘the earlier inhabitants of the coast regions, where they are now found,
and, though differing from each other in their respective species of shells
and bones of vertebrates, according to the localities and the ages to
which they belong, they have still, together with the stone implements
found in them, a remarkable similarity in all parts of the North Ameri-
ean Pacific coast that I have explored—a similarity that extends further
to the shell-heaps or “ Ajékken-moddings” of distant Denmark, as investi-
gated and described by European scientists.
: In Oregon, from Chetko to Rogue River,* I found that these deposits
contained the following species of shells: Mytilus Californianus, Tapes
-staminea, Cardium Nuttallii, Purpura lactuca, &c.; eight-tenths of the
whole being of the species first mentioned. =
In California, on the extensive downs between the Arroyo Grande and
the Rio de Ja Santa Maria, the mouth of which latter is a few miles north
of Point Sal, I found that the shells, on what appear to have been tem-
‘porary camping-places, consist nearly altogether of small specimens of
the family Zucina; so much so that not only can searcely any other sort

Oe ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee
: * Of the collections made by the writer at that place, the complete and illustrated
description will be found in the Smithsonian Report for the year 1873, p. 354.

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SCHUMACHER—ANCIENT GRAVES IN CALIFOANIA. Sout

be found, but hardly even any bones. My reason for supposing these
heaps to be the remains of merely temporary camps, is the small num-
ber of flint knives, spear-heads, and other implements found therein, and
the total absence of any chips that might indicate the occasional pres-
ence of a workshop where domestic tools and weapons of war were man-
ufactured—a something that immediately strikes the accustomed eye in
viewing regularly well-established settlements. On further examining
this class of heaps by a vertical section, we find layers of sand recur-
ring at short intervals, which seem to indicate that they were visited at
fixed seasons; those mdddings exposed toward the northwest being
vacated while the wind from southwest was blowing sand over them,
and, mutatis mutandis, the same happening with regard to camps with
a southwest aspect while the northwest wind prevailed. It is fair, then,
to suppose that these places were only the temporary residences of the
Savages to whom they appertained; that they were tenanted during
favorable times and seasons for the gathering of mollusks, which,
having been extracted from their shells, were dried in the sun for trans-
portation to the distant permanent villages. The comparatively small
quantities of shell-remains now found at these regular settlements going
also to support this theory. No graves have been found near these tem-
porary camps. Idiscovered, however, one skeleton of an Indian, in con-
nection with which were thirteen arrow-heads, but it was plainly to be
seen that the death of this person had happened during some short sojourn
of a tribe at this place, as the burial had been effected in a hasty and
imperfect manner, and the grave was without the usual lining which,
as we shall see, is found in all the other tombs of this region.

On the extremity of Point Sal, the northern projection of which is
covered by large sand-drifts, we find, down to the very brink of the
steep and rocky shore, other extensive shell-deposits, which, with few
exceptions, consist of the Mytilus Californianus and of bones; flint chips
being also found, though very sparsely in comparison with the mass of
other remains. The sea having washed out the base of this declivity,
and the top-soil having, as a consequence, slid down, we see on the edge
of the cliff shell-layers amounting in all to a thickness of four or five
feet ; that part closest to the underlying rock appearing dark and ash-
like, while the deposit becomes better preserved as the surface is neared.
At other places, for example, on the extreme outer spur of this Point
Sal, the shell-remains have been so conglomerated or cemented together
by extreme antiquity as to overhang and beetle over the rocks for
quite a distance.

Leaving the temporary camps, we shall visit the regular settlements
of the ancient aborigines. Traces of these are found near the southern
Point Sal, at a place where it turns eastward at an angle of something
less than 90°, behind the first small hill of the steep ridge which trends
easterly into the country, and which, up to this spot, is, on its northern
slope, covered with drift-sand and partially grown over with stunted her-

228

338 ETHNOLOGY.

x
j

Lage, (Fig. 2.) Further traces of alike kind are to be seen on the high |
bluff between North and South Point Sal, (Fig. 3.) Here the shells are

piled up in shapeless, irregular heaps, as they are met in all localities on
the coast where there were the fixed dwelling-places of people whose prin-
cipal food consisted of fresh shell-fish ; for in the neighborhood of these .
permanent homes the shell-remains were always put away in fixed
places, while in temporary camps they were carelessly distributed over
the whole surface of the ground. Very vividly did these bleached
mounds recall to my mind the immense remains of such heaps as I
had seen in Oregon, on the right bank of the Chetko, as also near Nat-é-
nét, and near Crook’s Point, Chétl-é-shin, close to Pistol River. I re-

SCHUMACHER—ANCIENT GRAVES IN CALIFORNIA. 339

membered, also, how I had observed the Indians in various places; for
example, near Crescent City, on the Klamath, and on the Big Lagoon,
forming just such shell-heaps; two or three families always depositing
their refuse on the same beap.

Fig. 3.

To return to Southern California. A deposit similar to that of Point
‘Sal, although much smaller, is found on the left bank of the Santa
Maria River, near its mouth. Both at the first-deseribed fixed camps
and at this place there are to be found tons of flint-chips, scattered
about in ali directions, as also knives, arrow-heads, and spear-heads in
large numbers. I was somewhat disappointed, however, in being un-
able to find any graves; such numerous heaps indicating the existence —
of important settlements, that should have been accompanied by bury-
ing-places. I therefore moved farther inland, seeking a locality where
the soil could be easily workéd, where a good view of the surrounding
country could be had, and where, above all, there was fresh water, all
of which requirements appear to have been regarded as necessary for

340 ETHNOLOGY.

the location of an important village. I soon recognized at a distance
shell-heaps and bones, the former of which become scarcer as we leave
the shore. Approaching these, on a spur of Point Sal, upon which a .
pass opens through the coast-hills, and on both sides of which are
springs of fresh water, though I did not succeed, after a careful exami-
nation, in distinguishing the remains of a single house, I think I found
the traces of a large settlement on a kind of saddle on the low ridge,
where flint-chips, bones, and shells lie in great numbers. At length —
search revealed to me in the thick chaparral a few scattered sandstone
slabs, such as in that region were used for lining graves. Digging near
these spots, I at last found the graves of this settlement, called by the
old Spanish residents call Kus-ia-Li. (Fig. 4.)

* Distance from Bendof Road
to Graves about 34 M.
Curves 20 ft. app.

SCHUMACHER—ANCIENT GRAVES IN CALIFORNIA. 341

Here were brought to light about one hundred and fifty skeletons and
various kinds of implements. The graves were constructed in the fol-
lowing manner: A large hole was made in the sandy soil to a depth of
about five feet ; then a fire was kept in it until a hard brick-like crust was
burned to a depth of four or five inches into the surrounding earth.
The whole excavation was then partitioned off into smaller spaces by
sandstone slabs, about one and a half inches thick, one foot broad, and
three feet long; in which smaller partitions the skeletons were found.
One of these slabs generally lay horizontally over the head of the corpse,
as a kind of protecting roof for.the skull, justas I found them at Chetko
River, although in the latter place the graves were lined with split
redwood boards instead of stones. Such careful burial is not, however,
always met with, and must evidently be taken as a sign of the rank
or the wealth of the deceased; the more so, as in such graves I usu-
ally found many utensils, which is not the case with the more care-
lessly formed tombs, which were covered with a piece of rough stone or
half a mortar. The slabs above mentioned were generally painted, and
a piece which I carried off with me was divided lengthwise by a single
straight, dark line, from which radiated, on either side, at an angle of
about 60°, thirty-two other parallel red lines, sixteen on each side, like
the bones of a fish from the vertebra. In most cases the inner side of
the slab was painted red. Unluckily the specimen I took with me be-
came wet, by rain, before I was able to convey it to a place of safety,
and the previously-well-preserved design was blurred.

In these graves the skeletons lay on their backs, with the knees drawn
up, and the arms, in most cases, stretched out. No definite direction
was observed in the position of the bodies, which frequently lay in
ereat disorder, the saving of room having been apparently the prime
consideration. Some skeletons, for example, lay opposite to each other,
foot to foot, while adjoining ones, again, were placed crosswise. The
skeletons of females have, instead of the protecting head-slab, a stone
mortar or a stone pot placed on its edge, so as to admit the skull, which
latter, if too narrow in the neck to admit the skull, is simply buried
underneath it. Cups and ornaments, both in the case of men and wo-
men, lie principally about the head, while shell-beads are found in the
mouth, the eye-sockets, and in the cavity of the skull, which latter is
almost always filled with sand, pressed in through the foramen magnum.
The skeletons were, in some cases, packed in quite closely, one over
another, so that the uppermost were only about three feet below the
surface of the ground. The indications of poverty are very evident in
regard to these, in the scarcity of ornaments, except, perhaps, when
they are females, as they are in the majority of cases. I cannot accept
the hypothesis that these were the slaves of some rich man and buried
with their master; for the lower skeletons were generally found to have
been disturbed in a very singular manner, such as could only have been
occasioned by a re-opening of the grave after the decomposition of the

342 ETHNOLOGY.

bodies. I found, for example, a lower jaw lying near its right place,
but upside down, so that both the upper and the lower teeth pointed down-
ward; in another case the thigh-bones lay the wrong way, the knee-
pans being turned toward the basin; and, in other instances, the bones
were totally separated and mixed up ; all tending to show that the graves
had been repeatedly opened for the burial of bodies at different times.
Once I even found, upon piercing the bottom-crust of a sepulchre,
another lying deeper, which, perhaps, had been forgotten, as the bones
therein were somewhat damaged by fire. Plenty of charcoal is found in
these tombs, usually of redwoed, rarely .of pine, and I could not deter-
mine any third variety. Sometimes there were also discovered the re-
mains of posts from three to six inches in diameter, and of split boards
about two inches in thickness. These are probably the remains of the
burned dwelling of the deceased, placed in his grave with all his other
property, after the fashion I observed in Chetko last year.

I examined other graves resembling those described at Point Sal.
These others are known by the name of Té-mé-té-ti, They lie about
fourteeu miles north of the Point Sal graves, and are situated on the
right bank of the Arroyo de los Berros, opposite to the traces of former
settlements about seven miles inland. These tombs only differed from
those of K&s-mit-ti in not being lined with the thick burned brick-like
crust mentioned above, but with a thin light-colored crust, slightly
burned, and not more than a quarter of an inch thick.

To these graves I paid a second visit, hoping to obtain more material,
having been there only a very short time at my first visit. But the
proprietor of the land disappointed my desires, for he appeared, in spite
of my scientific explanations, to be inclined, according to squatter-
fashion, to prevent, with his rifle, my visit to the land, to which he pos-
sessed no title. These were the graves where I found the bronze cup,
and a buckle of the same material, which later, I am sorry to say, was
unaccountably lost. I had hopes to discover more of such articles,
enabling me to trace the connections of these people. The location of
this village is rather hidden; it is situated on a small plain between a
bluffy elevation on the left bank, and the rather high and wooded right
banks of the Los Berros Creek. I could plainly notice the excavations
where houses had formerly stood, and particularly the large sweat-
house.

In company with the well-informed and industrious antiquarian, Dr.
W. W. Hays, and Judge Venabel, of San Luis Obispo, I explored
another aboriginal settlement known by the name of Ni-po-mo. It is
situated on the large rancho of like name, about eight miles inland, and
distant about a mile and a half from the Nipomo Ranch House, occu-
pied by the hospitable Dana brothers. These graves are also in sandy
soil, near a former settlement, the existence of which is well marked by
quantities of flint-chips, fragments of tools, bones, and a few shells.
Only about three hundred yards from the graves, and nearly in a

a ee ee ee 5 —_—"

i

SCHUMACHER—ANCIENT GRAVES IN CALIFORNIA. 343

straight line with them and one of the houses of Nipomo Ranch, there
is a large spring of good water, surrounded by willows. These graves
were indicated by an elder-bush, a plant which I always found near the
graves, or in the neighborhood of ancient settlements.

Lastly, I examined the W4-lé-khe settlements, (Fig. 5.) I hesitated
to undertake the trip to these graves, because I only had four days lett
before the departure of the steamer; and consequently I would only
have about six hours remaining for work. But, as I supposed this
country offered much of interest to the explorer, I made only the fol-
lowing examination ;

About twenty-five miles from the mouth of the Santa Maria River
the Alamo Creek empties into it, discharging a large amount of water.
Following the wide bed of the Santa Maria for about seven miles farther
up stream, we reach a smooth elevation, which at this place rises about
sixty feet above the bend of the river, and which trends in a curve
toward the mountains on the right bank. At the farthest end of this, at
a place where a fine view over the whole valley is had, we find the traces
of the ancient village, now known as Wi-lé-khe. A short distance from
the former dwellings, on the highest point of the ridge, an excavation
marks the spot where once a house stood, probably that of a chief.

I started from San Luis Obispo to visit this place, passing by the
remarkable tar-springs, which are situated at about a distance of eight-
een miles from the town. Near them I found traces of what had formerly
been a large ditch. As before stated, I had not time to make thor-
ough examinations, yet 1 found that the ditch was still three feet wide,
and entered the creek some miles above the tar-springs, on the banks of
which creek the said springs are found in different places. Near the road
I observed, in the middie of the ditch, an oak-tree, measuring twelve

- inches in diameter, and which plainiy had taken root after the abandon-

ment of the ditch; for it was not torn up, as would have been caused
by the running water, but was at this place well preserved.

I also visited Ostion rancho, (sometimes called Ranchito,) at which
place there are extensive beds of oyster-shells, and also some other
species of shells, among which are prominently Tapes. At one place,
about fifty yards from the right bank of the Arroyo Grande, the shells
are closely packed and bound together with coarse sand, forming quite
an extensive bluff. I collected a few specimens, which I presented to
the California Academy of Sciences.

At the place where Alamo Creek empties into the Santa Maria River,
on its left bank, I found several earth-works, and they appeared to me
to have been built on this level but elevated spot, the entrance of the
valley, for defensive purposes. During my hasty examination I could
not discover any place where a house might have been, nor any graves,
but nevertheless I incline to the belief that near this place had been an
important settlement; for Alamo Creek has better drinking-water than
the Santa Maria River, and its width and the adjoining country form

344 epee ETHNOLOGY.

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3242- Cucumis Colocynthis, et

Agen Op

aa €p

Shanty

Elder
Lusies

SCHUMACHER—ANCIENT GRAVES IN CALIFORNIA. 345

quite a picturesque landscape, which, together with the excellent hunting-
ground, is really most inviting for a settlement. Probably, on closer
exainination, the remains of a settlement might be found in the plain on
the right bank, where the elder-bushes give welcome shade to man and
beast. I have no doubt that the banks of Alamo Creek and the sur-
rounding country will yet yield many remains of former settlements,
as also the banks of the Santa Maria River and its tributaries, where,
besides the settlement of Wi-lé-khe, which I explored, there are two
others, known to the ever-roving Vaqueros.

With regard to the general character of the domestic utensils, arms,
and ornaments which I found in examining about three hundred skele-
tons in the graves of Kés-mia-li, Té-mé-té-ti, Ni-po-md, and Wa-lé-khe,
they all resemble each other very closely, seeming to show that their
possessors all belonged to the same tribe. First of all, the large cooking-
pots attract attention. They consist of globular or pear-shaped bodies,
hollowed out of magnesian mica. The circular opening, having a small
and narrow rim, measures only five inches in diameter in a pot with a
diameter of eighteen inches. Near the edge of the opening, this vessel
is only a quarter of an inch thick, but its thickness increases in a very
regular manner toward the bottom, where it measures about one and a
quarter inches. Made of the same material, I found other pots of a
different shape, namely, very wide across the opening, and narrowing
toward the bottom. With these I have also now in my possession many
different sizes of sandstone mortars, of a general semiglobular shape,
varyirg from three inches in diameter and one inch and a half in height

to sixteen inches in diameter and thirteen inches in height, all external

measurements, with pestles of the same material to correspond. There
were, further, quite an assortment of cups, measuring from one and a
quarter to six inches in diameter, neatly worked out of serpentine, and
polished. The smallest of these was inclosed, as in a doubly-covered
dish, by three shells, and contained paint, traces of which, by the way,
were found in all these cups, from which we may suppose that they
were not used for holding food.

Neither spoons nor knives were found in these graves. I got, how-
ever, three beautiful serpentine pipes, shaped like cigar-holders, much
stronger than, but similar in shape to, those found in Oregon. Not
many weapons were picked up here, only a few arrow and spear heads;
these, however, were mostly of exquisite workmanship. <A spear-head
of obsidian, five and a half inches long, was’ the only object I found of
this material; another lance-point of chalcedony, nine and a half inches
long and one and a quarter inches wide, was beautifully shaped and
carefully made.

A remarkable object is a bronze cup which was found at Té-mé-te-ti.
It was filled with red paint, and contained also the pretty paint-cup in-
closed in the three shells mentioned before. I also found in the same
grave, a Spanish coin of the last century, and a bronze buckle,

346 ETHNOLOGY.

which latter was lost. The bronze cup, the coin, and a pot of burnt,
coarse, sandy clay which was found at Ni-p6-mo, and also a few remains
of corroded iron knives, found in the three graves, tell us of the last
days of the existence of these people at a time when they evidently had
he'd intercourse with the advancing missionaries, who, almost every-
where in America, were the pioneers of civilization.

Fig. 6.

been broken by the pressure and. shifting of the. soil, as could easily be
seen from their position. It is, therefore, certain that the bulk of the
property buried with a person was not purposely broken nor destroyed,
the same thing being true of my investigations in Oregon. I even
found mortars and pestles which had been repaired and cemented with
asphaltum. The richer occupants of the graves had shell and glass

Cave forming 90° wi th the two Birds,

Sen ee oy

SCHUMACHER—ANCIENT GRAVES IN CALIFORNIA. S47

beads in great numbers, sickle-shaped ornaments of the abalone (haliotis)
shell, and an ornament resembling dentalium, but made of a large clam-
shell, strewed about their heads.

During my explorations I also diligently searched for caves which
might have been inhabited and from which important information might
haye been obtained. But in these investigations I did not meet with
much success, partly because 1 had not the time necessary at my dis-
posal, for scarcely had I got to a place where they existed, when my duties
demanded my attention and obliged me to give up the exploration. I
could, therefore, only designate on my map the place which I might, with
some degree of certainty, suppose to be a formerly-inhabited cave, so
as to facilitate later investigations. Once I was obliged to suspend
work at Point Sal for a whole week on account of thick fog. I had time,
however, to search in the gorges and rocks, hoping to find ethnologieal
objects. I discovered and opened at that time the graves of Kés-ma-li,
and not far off the cave, (Figs. 4 and 6.) But I was rather disap-
pointed, when, after clambering through and over almost inaccessible
places, I reached the cave, and found that it was only eight by four feet
wide and eight feet high; and that there were in it only one pestle, with
many oyster-shells, bones, and teeth. The floor was formed of stratified
brown ash-like soil, in which were the above-mentioned objects. The
circular entrance to the cave measured three feet in diameter. On the
right-hand side of the entrance was a niche which had evidently been
worked out of the hard but cracked sandstone, and was large enough for
one person to sit comfortably therein. Toward the back part, the cave
has also been worked out, so that a person might lie down stretched out ;
that is, [found that I could comfortably occupy these positions, although
I am seventy-three inches in height. The whole cave, it appears to me,
has been artificially made with a chisel. I did not examine the articles
which it contained very closely, and must, therefore, refer to the col-
lection itself. For the same reason, I have not said much about all the
other objects of the collection, but refer for more particulars to the fol-
lowing catalogue and to the collection itself.

CATALOGUE OF IMPLEMENTS FOUND IN THE DIFFERENT GRAVES.

1. Cup for preparing paints, together with an egg-shaped grinder, No.
42, Keés-md-li.

. Mortar for preparing paints ; found with red paint in bronze vessel.
Té-meé-té-ti.

3. Mortar, soft gray sandstone. Ni-p6-mod.

4. Mortar, hard gray sandstone. Ni-pd-mo.

5. Mortar, soft gray sandstone. Ni-po-mo.

G. Paint-cup, dark stone, was found, together with the pipe, No. 46,
iN

*N = Ni-po-mo; K, Kés-ma-li; T = Té-mé-té-ti ; W = Wa-lé-khe-

bo

348 ETHNOLOGY.

7. Mortar, sandstone, roughly made. K.
8. Mortar, perfect. W.
9. Mortar. N.
10. Cup made of taleo-slate. N.
11. Mortar, from graves atthe mouth of San Luis Obispo Creek. (See
map A.)
12. Mortar.
13. Mortar.
14. Mortar.
15. Mortar.
16. Mortar.
17. Mortar.
18. Mortar, repaired with asphaltum. W.
19-22. Mortar-halves, as found protecting skulls, (mostly of females,)
N, K, and T.
23. Pot of magnesian-mica, pear-shaped. W.
24. Pot of magnesian-mica, wide opening. W.
25. Pot of magnesian-mica, globular. N.
26. Pot of magnesian-mica, globular. N.
27. Pot of magnesian-mica, globular. T.
28. Pestle, sandstone. N.
29. Pestle, sandstone. N.
30. Pestle, sandstone. N.
31. Pestle, well worked, found in cave at Point Sal.
32. Pestle, fragment. N.
33. Pestle. N.
34. Pestle. N.
35. Pestle, fragment.
36. Pestle, repaired with asphaltum. T.
37. Pestle.” -W.
38. Pestle. N.
39. Doubtful, at the shell-heaps. Point Sal.
40. Flesher, (dressing skins.) Point Sal.
41. Whetstone. K.
49. Egg shaped pestle, (to cup No.1.) K.
43. Egg-shaped pestle. K.
44,45. Arrow-shaft polisher. N.
46. Pipe. N.
47. Pipe. N.
48. Pipe. N.
49, Amulet, (serpentine.)
50. Fossil, vertebra of (?)
51. Pot of burnt clay. N.
52. Cup of taleo-slate. N.
53. Bronze cup. ‘T.
54-66. Skulls. K.

AZAR ZASz

K
K.

AANA

eoemnN a oarwWNW Fe

106.
107,
109.
110.
ole

67-
7
7

, SCHUMACHER—ANCIENT GRAVES IN CALIFORNIA. . 349

Skull No. 57 supposed to be of a white man, and was found,
with the rest of the bones, among the rubbish of a shell-
heap at Point Sal.

70. Skulls. N.

. Skulls. W.

. Bones. W:

. Slab, of which the linings of graves, in most cases, consisted. N.
. Shell-ornaments. N.

. Teeth, shell-heaps. Point Sal.

. Cup covered with three shells. T.

. Glass beads. N.

. Shell beads, (dentalium-like.) N.

. Ornament. Point Sal.

. Plate, (fragment.) N.

. Plate. N.

. Plate, (machine-drilled hole.) N.

. Beads made of shells. K.

. Bone(-bow ?) shell-heap. Point Sal.

. Hair, &e.

. Bill of a bird, found in the mouth of a skeleton. WN.
. Red color, found in a pot.

. Beads of serpentine and shell. N.

. Mortar, (ornamental?) N.

. Rim of a bowl of serpentine. N.

. Seed found ina pot. N.

. Arrow-heads found with skull No. 105, on a temporary camping-

ground, as remarked in the text.

. EKar-ornaments. N.

. Shell ornaments. K.

. Seed found in a pot. N.
}, Abalone ornaments. N.

Abalone found in excavity of brains. N.

. Crystals of quartz. N.
. Shell ornaments, (dentalium-like.) N.

Cave results.
Bead of shell, finely finished and carved. K.

2. Shell ornaments.

Wall of grave. KK.
Skull, animal, found on shell-heap. Point Sal.

. Skull found on temporary camping-ground, as mentioned in text,

with arrow-heads, No. 92.
Spear-heads and arrow-points. N.
108. Lance-heads.
Knives, as found especially on temporary camping-grounds.
Ornaments of serpentine. N.
Stone blade. N.

575) 0 ETHNOLOGY.

112. Pestle, on shell-heaps. Point Sal.

113. Black paint, (?) found in pots, and often strewn about the skulls.

114. Knives, arrow-heads, &¢c., as found on surface near mouth of Santa
Maria River and other places, with indications of a formerly-
permanent camp.

115. Red paint.

116. Coin.

{EMARK.—The name of the grave was attached to the article when
exhumed, and the place described when it was found on the surface.

ACCOUNT OF THE BURIAL OF AN INDIAN SQUAW, SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY,
CALIFORNIA, MAY, 1874.

By W. M. Kine.

The body, cleanly washed, was dressed in its best clothing. Outside
of the clothing, and confining it to the body, was a bandage, apparently
a sheet, tornin half. The feet were covered and bound together, the arms
confined to the side, and the face covered by a bandage. The body
thus prepared was laid upon the ground, while the men of the party dug
the grave. While the grave was being dug, an old squaw danced slowly
once round the body, singing in a wailing tone, then seated herself at
its head, and continued her singing and wailing, sometimes breaking off
and addressing the corpse, at the same time patting its head with her
hand. The grave being completed, the body was lowered into it, its head
toward the south. The personal effects of the deceased were placed be-
side her. These consisted of a bundle of bed-clothing, several small
bundles of calico, various tin cups and pans, a table-knife and spoon, a
frying-pan, and, lastly, a small quantity of live ashes was thrown in
and the grave filled up. <A fire was then lighted on top of the grave,
the squaw who acted as chief mourner gathering the sticks. She also
threw on the pile a number of platter-shaped dishes or baskets of plaited
grass, which were burned. When the fire had burned itself out, the
Squaw above mentioned advanced and broke an oya, or water-cooler,
on the grave, by violently dashing it on the ground. The party then
dispersed.

A day or two afterward the house in which the woman died was pur-
posely burned. The dishes and oya that were destroyed showed signs
of long use, but were still perfectly serviceable. During the burial, no
signs of emotion were shown by any of the party, either men or women,
except by the squaw alluded to. °

M’ WHORTER—ANTIQUITIES OF ILLINOIS. 351

ANCIENT MOUNDS OF MERUER COUNTY. ILLINOIS.

By Tyter McWuorrer, or ALEDO, ILL.

It may be approximately estimated that there are more than a thou-
sand mounds in this county, yet persons who have not directed their
attention to the subject would not suppose half that number to exist.
These mounds are generally not such as to attract very special observa-
tion, not being of the larger size, the principal groups are very much
flattened down by time, and seem to relate to a more remote antiquity
than such as are more conspicuous.

These mounds are all located in the portion of the county bordering
on the Mississippi River. This fact, that the western mounds are univer-
sally found on lands adjoining the rivers, suggests tbe inference that
the race who erected them procured their subsistence mainly from the
water, or that the bottom-lands of the rivers constituted their principal
hunting-grounds.

The largest group of mounds in this county is found in Eliza Town-
ship (township 15 north, range 5 west,) on high timbered land, about a
mile or so back of the Mississippi bluffs. In this group may be found
over two hundred mounds within the distance of a mile. This group
seems to be of great antiquity, and is quite flattened down by the ele-
ments—only rising a few feet above the general level. Probably succes-
sive forests have grown and passed away sitce they were constructed.
Only a few have been opened, and these revealed only beds of ashes
and a few stones. But what seems strange, traces of ashes are oftén
found mixed with the earth of which the mounds are composed.

In the immediate vicinity are also found obscure lines of old embank-
ments that seem to relate to the same age as the mounds.

On the bottom-lands of the Mississippi, not far from the foot of the
bluff, in the same township, are found a few mounds of a very distinct
character. They rise up with quite an abrupt elevation, and are mani-
festly of a much more recent date. Presuming that the more ancient
mounds, in the high timbered lands, at some former time had the same
abrupt elevation as these, it manifestly must have required many years
to reduce them by atmospheric action to their present flattened condi-
tion. From this apparent difference in the antiquity of the mounds, it is
evident that the race or races who erected them continued to inhabit
this country for a considerable length of time. In these more recent
mounds human bones have been found with the usual accompaniment of
ashes and stones. Also, in one of them a stick of wood was found,
about eight inches in diameter, in a horizontal situation, a little to one
side of the center of the mound; it was in quite a sound condition.

As no depressions of ground are ever found in the immediate vicinity
of mounds, it is often difficult to conjecture where the earth was ob-
tained of which they were constructed; but there is a circumstance
in connection with the more recent mounds that seems to have a bearing

352 ETHNOLOGY.

on this question. There is a considerable space of ground, nearly two
hundred yards distant, where it seems manifest that the upper stratum
of the surface soil has been carried away. A uniform upper stratum
of soil is common to a large extent in this bottom-land, but in this one
spot this layer is gone. It seems, therefore, probable that the earth of
which these mounds were constructed was all carried from this place.
An approximate estimate of the cubical quantity of the superficial earth
removed from this depression, corresponds closely to what seems to
have been the original quantity in the recent mounds. It is difficult to
understand what motive could induce human beings to impose on them-
selves such a task as to carry such an amount of earth two hundred
yards. But if the amount of material necessary to erect these mounds
had been taken from any immediate piece of ground on this uniform sur-
face, some depressions would have remained as evidence of it. But at
the distance of two hundred yards we find this depression, which 1s
nearly as hard to account for by any natural process as it would be to
explain the mounds themselves by natural agencies.

There is another quite extensive range of mounds in the same town-
ship, on grounds bordering a stream of water called Eliza Creek. So
far as I have observed, this group seems to relate to a very ancient
period of time. Few of the mounds, tomy knowledge, have been opened.
I am told that traces of ashes have been found in them, and, in some
of them, human remains in a much decayed condition.

Another very extensive range of mounds is located in the township
of New Boston, which is the next township south of Eliza. These are on
the south side of the Edwards River, where this stream winds its course
across the higher bottom-lands of the Mississippi. The ground of these
mounds has been under cultivation for many years, hence but obscure
traces of them now remain. Their location was on the open prairie,
about a half-mile from the timber-grounds bordering the Edwards.

Broken pottery, pipes, and some implements were found by early
settlers in the vicinity of these structures; but I have been unable to
learn with certainty whether these were disinterred from the mounds
themselves.

There is, however, one circumstance in connection with this group
of earthworks that should not be passed unnoticed. Between them
and the Edwards is a long range of depressions in the ground. This
range of depressions runs nearly parallel to the range of mounds, and
is about forty rods distant. The size of these hollows seems to cor-
respond very nearly with the size of the adjacent mounds. The con-
jecture seems unavoidable that from each of these depressions sufficient
earth was carried to construct a single mound. These excavations
have no raised borders to indicate that the earth was merely thrown
out; they indicate that so much earth has been really taken away; and,
further, I learn that the number of these depressions corresponds quite

M WHORTER—ANTIQUITIES OF ILLINOIS. 353

nearly with the number of the adjacent mounds, being about one hun-
dred and fifty.

Another considerable group of mounds is located in the same town-
ship of New Boston, several miles farther up the Edwards, on high
terrace-ground, about a half-mile from the stream. This group was
entirely away from timber, the situation being formerly covered with
grass. For many years the ruthless piow has been leveling down these
ancient memorials, and fields of grain have long waved over the ashes
of a hy-gone race.

On the south side of Pope Creek, near where the valley of this stream
cuts through the Mississippi Bluffs, is quite an extensive group of mounds.
Some of them are high up on the brow of the bluffs. Nothing that I
ean learn distinguishes this group from others already spoken of.
Human bones have been found in some of them.

The next, and last, group of mounds to which we would call attention
is about twelve miles from the Mississippi River, being the most remote
from that river of any group in the country. It is situated near
the north side of the township of Millersburgh, on the high-timbered
division between the Edwards River and Camp Creek. Ashes and some
much-deecayed relics of human skeletons have been found in the few
that have been opened. Some traces of ashes were found in the earth
above the human remains.

I have made diligent inquiry of all the oldest settlers, and am unable
to learn that any mounds are to be found in the eastern portion of the
county, except that two or three isolated ones, which are reported to be
far up the Edwards. These I have never seen.

SHELL-HEAPS.—Before closing this paper, it may be proper to state
that formerly very large shelil-heaps existed on the high, sandy bank of
the Mississippi, immediately below New Boston. But it seems more
probable that these heaps of kitchen-refuse relate to the subsequent
Indian race, and not to the mound-builders. Though these shell-heaps
are in a considerable state of decay, enough remains of them to show that
the shells belong to the present species of our rivers. Broken pottery is
found about these heaps, and collections of burned stones, indicating old
camp-fires; also, abundance of flint-chips, and some broken arrows, are
found here, to indicate that flint-implements have been manufactured.
A careful inspection of these flint-chips leads to the conclusion that the
flint of which these implements were made was obtained from what is
called the *‘chert-bands” of the Burlington limestone. This formation
crops out along the Mississippi, about forty miles below this place.
Probably the material for the manufacture of these implements was
brought up the river in canoes.

23 8

354 : ETHNOLOGY.

ANTIQUITIES OF WHITESIDE COUNTY, ILLINOIS. -
By W. H. Pratt, OF DAVENPORT, Iowa.
Corresponding Secretary Davenport Academy Natural Sciences, Davenport, Towa.

On the eastern bank of the Mississippi River, in- Whiteside County,
Illinois, is situated the village of Albany. Over the bluffs in the neigh-
borhood is a growth of young oak trees, the largest of which are ten or
twelve inches in diameter. On the bluff and the slope toward the river,
about a mile south or southwest of the village, scattered irregularly over
an area of about one-fourth by three-fourths of a mile, are fifty-one an-
cient mounds, the positions and dimensions of which I have approxi-
mately determined, having spent several days in August of this year,
1873, in the exploration in the interest of the Davenport Academy of
Natural Sciences.

A general view of the whole is represented in the accompanying plan,
(Fig. 1.)

The land is owned by Mr. Samuel Rosenkranz, of Albany, who kindly
allows the exploration and excavation of the mounds without restriction,
except the reservation of a few of the most prominent. <A few other
mounds are said to exist not far distant to the northeast, but I have not
seen them. It is also stated that two or three were removed some years
since in making the grade of the Western Union Railroad, which passes.
close by the mounds, between them and the river. Over the area above
mentioned the young timber has been mostly cut off, and on the higher
portions evidently very few trees have ever existed. The soil is almost
entirely sand. The high land or bluff terminates abruptly to the south-
ward in a bold, narrow point.

A position on one of the highest mounds, some of which are situated
on this point, commands one of the broadest views to be found in the
whole Mississippi Valley, with a sweep of more than half a circle, in-
cluding the river and valley, and islands to the north and west and south-
west; and to the south and southeast the “ Dosia,” as it is commonly
called, or “ Maredosia Slough,” or, as it was originally named, the “* Ma-
rais W Ogée,” an ancient channel of many miles in extent, connecting the
Rock River with the Mississippi. In this the current flows in either
direction from the higher toward the lower of the two rivers at different
times. The “slough” is a broad marsh, nearly dry during a dry season,
and is believed to have been once the channel of a part of the Missis-
sippi, which divided at this point, and re-united at the present mouth of
Rock River, forty miles below. The location is one of rare beauty, and
has doubtless been for ages, as it is now, a favorite resort of bunters,
The high point above mentioned is a narrow and rather abrupt sand-
ridge, formed doubtless by the action of the current when the Father
of Waters occupied the entire breadth of the valley.

There is nothing in the relative position of the tumuli, as will be

PRATT—ANTIQUITIES OF ILLINOIS. 355

© \yr 1
ty!
| At

——

—_

Tow ground

antl
Wil yyaUeZ
HS yy,
Min, Z

4s

\

Ne

high ground

356 ETHNOLOGY.

readily seen by reference to the diagram, to indicate any arrangement
or design whatever, except to construct them where it could be done
with least labor, by taking advantage of the ridges and slight elevations
of loose and sandy soil. The structures vary in height from two to
twelve feet, the diameter being five or six times the height. They are
usually circular, only four or five being elliptical, the length of these about
double the breadth, and the longer diameter be:ag parallel with the
river. The outline of surface is such as would naturally result from a
rounded heap of sand or loose earth exposed for ages to the action of
the elements, the surface being protected by such grasses, plants, bushes,
or trees as the soil would produce. The exact height and diameter are
consequently difficult to determine, but it would appear that they had
originally been from four to fifteen feet in height and perhaps four
times those measures in diameter.

All of the largest mounds and several of the smaller are upon the
high ground, from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and
fifty feet above the river. The rest are on the slope between it and
the river. I selected for examination one of several similar mounds,
which were situated in a row parallel with the river, and but a few rods
northwest of the sandy ridge, at some fifty feet lower level, and on
ground sloping gently toward the Mississippi, which is distant about
one-fourth of a mile. This mound is marked 1 on the plan. It was about
four feet high and twenty-five in diameter. On the top was the stump
of an oak tree, five inches in diameter. This mound is composed, as are
the most of those which have been opened, of a loose fine sand, with
here and there a stone of two or three pounds’ weight or more, of the
Niagara limestone and the sandstone common in this region, many of
them evidently having been subjected to the action of fire before they
were placed there. No floor, wall, or internal structure of any kind was
found, and the same is the case in almost all instances in this district.

Making an excavation from one side and toward the middle, on reach-
ing a depth of six feet from the top, a quantity of human bones was
discovered lying about. in the center of the mound. Seven adult and
one child’s skulls were exhumed, the latter falling in pieces as soon as it
was removed. Theadult skulls were more or less crushed and distorted,
and some portions entirely decayed ; two of them, however, were secured
in tolerably good condition, one containing thirty-two sound teeth, the
other wanting but two or three. Many teeth were found with fragments
of decayed jaw-bones, and it is very evident that, whatever the troubles
and trials to which their possessors were subject, that plague of modern
times, the tooth-ache, was one from which they were pretty much
exempt.

The crania have apparently been subjected in life to no artificial dis-
tortion nor gompression, except, possibly, some flattening of the occipital
region, such as is said to be produced by the position and manner in
which some tribes confine the infant to a cradle-board. This seems the

——— ee

_—

PRATT—ANTIQUITIES OF ILLINOIS. 357

more probable, as it is observed that the children’s skulls found here
exhibit the same peculiarity in a more marked degree; the adults having
probably partially outgrown its effect. The heavy, superciliary ridge,
retreating forehead, and protruding and very wide jaws, and great bi-
mastoidal diameter, as compared with the bi-parietal, are indicative of
physical rather than of mental or moral capacity.

The accompanying description, with table of measurements by Dr.
Farquharson, will abundantly show such prevailing peculiarities as
fully identify them as skulls of genuine “ mound-builders.”

As portions of all parts of the skeleton are found, it would appear
that the whole of each has been deposited there, though thrown in
rather ‘ promiscuously.”. The heads were nearly all lying in the same
direction, southward, in some cases in contact with each other, and the
other parts so intermingled and decomposed as to make it impossible to
trace any one skeleton, or to determine to which one an individual bone
belonged. Many of the small bones and the softer portions of the
larger ones are entirely gone. The best-preserved skeleton, No. 3, was
lying stretched out in a horizontal position, with the face upward, and
was a few inches above the rest, and, of those which were piled in
together, one was lying on its right side.

The sand below, above, aud around the bones presents the same uni-
form appearance, from a yellowish-gray to a reddish-brown color, except
that that immediately about them is usually a little darker ; and ocea-
sional irregular and uneven streaks of rather darker sand are found,
as if some loads or parcels of the earth of which the heap is formed had
been partly of a dirtier surface-soil, and had been thrown scattering
over the surface and then covered with cleaner sand. <A few of the most
southern mounds,where the earth is gravelly,are composed of sand and
gravel, showing that, as in the other cases, they are built of the mate-
rial nearest at hand.

It would appear that the process of interment had been a very sim-
ple one, viz, selecting a spot where the earth was loose, sandy, and
easily removed; scraping away the earth to the depth of a foot or two,
then carelessly depositing a few bodies, or rather perhaps a few skele-
tons, collected possibly from elevated scaffolds, trees, or other positions
where the bodies had been previously placed; then replacing the sand
which had been removed, and adding enough from the surrounding sur-
face to raise a heap of such dimensions as the inclination to manual
labor and the respect for the deceased would prompt. The position of
the skeletons is a pretty certain indication that the bodies were not in-
terred one at a time, as that could not have been done without in each
instance entirely uncovering those previously buried, the skulls being
in some eases in contact with each other.

In this mound no relies, such as weapons or implements, were found,
except a very small fragment of pottery in the earth, about a foot from

358 ETHNOLOGY.

the surface, and an arrow-head of very peculiar form, which was lying

among the bones.
; Fig. 2.

Mica plate %o inch thick,rather soft
and flaky at the edges,

In November, several members of the academy visited the locality
for the purpose of further exploration. On this occasion three more
mounds were opened under the direction of Mr. A.S. Tiffany, who spent
the previous day in making preparatory excavations, so that considera-
ble search could be made in a few hours. He opened the mounds
marked 2,3, and 4on the plan. Nos. 2 and 3 were similar in all respects
to No. 1.

In No. 2 nothing was found except a few bones, the remains probably
of only two or three bodies, very much decomposed, and a few teeth, of
which only the crown remained. In No.3, at the depth of six feet from
the surface, were found the skeletons of four adults, lying stretched cut,
face upward, two with heads toward the east and two toward the west.
The four occupied a space of about four feet in width. Two children had
also been buried there, perhaps at a later date, but their position could
not be well ascertained. One of the skulls (skull No. 5) from this mound
was obtained in a very perfect condition, except that most of the teeth
are wanting. In this mound were discovered, lying immediately above
the skeletons, several relics of considerable interest, viz, a plate of mica,
about three by four inches and one-eighth of an inch thick, with several
notches in the edges; asmall lump of galena, surface much carbonized,
and the corners worn, apparently by handling; a dove-colored flint
arrow-head, very finely wrought, sharp, and smooth, (No. 2;) several
flakes of white flint; and a strangely-formed bone implement, charm,
nasal ornament, or whatever it may have been, (No. 3.) It is a frag-
ment of a marrow bone, four anda half inches long,and one and a
quarter wide at the middle, tapering nearly to a point at the ends, one ~
of which is more pointed than the other, and much curved edgewise.
Close to the edge, at the convex side, at the widest part of the bone,

a es

PRATT—ANTIQUITIES OF ILLINOIS. 359

are four holes, about one-eighth of an inch in diameter, but differing
slightly. They have the appearance of having been drilled with a tool
not much, if at all, tapering in form, and with a square cutting-edge,
which was not worked entirely through, as there remains in each hole,
on the inner side, a little edge which is not quite cut away. Across the
bone, near the larger end, are two rows of holes—five and six in a row—
one-tenth of an inch or less in depth, drilled with some round-pointed
instrument. One curved line is cut across, as shown in the figure.
The article seems much worn by handling. .What was its use, we can
scarcely conjecture; and some Indians (Sacs and Foxes) to whom it has
been shown, can give no clue.

The mound numbered 5 on the plan is like the others in material and
structure, except that it is much larger, being about sixty feet long,
thirty feet wide, and seven feet high. In this mound an excavation
was made in the middle, only about five feet square, which we hope to
work out more thoroughly at another time.

About two feet below the surface was found a much-decayed frag-
ment of the “shin-bone” of some mammal, possibly the bison; and a
little deeper, two fragments of pottery, parts, apparently, of the same
vessel, and bearing impressions on the outer surface of some kind of
woven or matted fabric. At the depth of nine feet was discovered a
large and remarkably well-preserved skeleton, almost entire, wanting
only a few of the very small bones, fingers, and toes, and the more per-
ishable portions of a few of the larger ones.

The skull (No. 6) is in tolerably good condition, and contains the en-
tire set of sound teeth. The pelvis was obtained almost perfect, which
was the case in no other instance. This skeleton, also, was lying at
full length, with the face upward and head to the east, in the direction
of the transverse diameter of the mound.

Immediately south of this was another skeleton, and over these some
others, all in a less perfect state of preservation than the one first men-
tioned, and the bones somewhat intermingled with it and each other,
One was that of a child of ten or twelve years. Close to the skeletons,
and immediately north of the first named, were a number of stones
lying, whether by accident or design, in a very irregular row, probably
accidental. Among the human bones was a piece of the lower jaw of
the deer or elk, containing four molars, all well preserved.

So far as our observations go no metallic articles of any kind are
found there, though it is reported that some years since a copper knife
was taken from one of the mounds.

Many of the mounds have been opened and partially explored by cit-
izens and visitors in search of curiosities, and of late such visits are
more frequent than ever. That these structures were merely burial-
places and nothing more, is evident from the fact that, ordinarily, there
is in them no trace of floor or roof, and no charred wood or bones, or other
indications of fire.

360 ETHNOLOGY.

Some estimate of the original maximum height of these tumuli may
be formed from the observation that sandy earth, such as that of which
they are composed, will not remain in position on a slope of more than
40° from the horizontal; they could not, therefore, have been higher,
even if raised to a point at the apex, than two-fifths of the width at the
base; and the very first rain or wind would reduce them considerably.
As they are now, they would probably remain, with contour unchanged
by the action of the elements, for a thousand years to come.

In one of the largest mounds, (W,) about twelve feet high, and stand-
ing on the highest ground, opened some years since, was discovered an
inclosure of ‘dry wall,” some ten feet square, containing a number of
skeletons supposed to have been buried in a sitting posture, with no in-
dication of any covering or floor having ever been there, save the earth
of which the whole mound was composed. A portion of this wall, which
still remained exposed, we carefully removed for examination, and
found it to be built of the fossiliferous limestone common in the neigh-
borhood, brought probably from near the river-bank, a quarter of a mile
distant and a hundred feet lower; laid up with tolerable evenness on the
inner side. It was about three feet high, two feet thick at the top, and
three feet at the base, piled up loosely, the lower stones broad and flat,
rather heavier than one man could well carry, and lying on the clean,
yellowish sand. Some of the stones had been burned red previously to
being placed in position. ‘his inclosure was entirely at one side of the
center of the mound, and nothing of interest was found in the other
part.

This region has long been occupied by the tribe of Indians known as
the Saes and Foxes, who came from the region of the Saint Lawrence
over two hundred years ago, and remained until about the period of the
Black Hawk war, about 1832.

George L. Davenport, esq., of this city, who was born on the island
of Rock Island, in 1817, and was the first white child born in this sec-
tion of the country, and who has been intimately acouainted with the
indians for over fifty years, and speaks their language, informs us that
the natives positively had no knowledge of these structures, and paid no
attention whatever to them. They had a village or town in the imme-
diate neighborhood of the mounds, though their principal town was
near the site of the present city of Rock Island.

It is, therefore, certain that the mounds presented much the same
appearance many years ago as now, and that these Indians neither con-
structed nor used them.

No evidences of ‘‘ intrusive burials” have, in any instance, been dis-
covered, and without doubt the mounds have been as at present, and en-
tirely undisturbed, for many centuries, until opened by recent explorers.

We inclose herewith a diagram of the group of mounds, aiso drawings
of the relics exhumed, and a series of photographs of all the well-pre-
served crania.

———_——————e

Se

PRATT AND FARQUHARSON—ANTIQUITIES OF ILLINOIS. 361

We also have the pleasure of presenting an exhaustive report upon
the crania, by Dr. R. J. Farquharson, a member of the Davenport Acaa-
emy of Natural Sciences, including measurements, analyses, and care-
ful comparison with skulls of other races of men, and with other well-
authenticated mound-builders’ skulls.

We also inclose Mr. A.S8. Tiffany’s description of the locality, on Rock
Island,where he discovered the skull which is represented by photograph
No. 8.

A STUDY OF SKULLS AND LONG BONES FROM MOUNDS NEAR ALBANY, ILL.
By R. J. FARQUHARSON, M. D., oF DAVENPORT, Iowa.

This lot of bones was obtained from mounds near Albany, Ill., by the
Davenport Academy of Sciences. The. topography, &ce., of these
mounds is given in the preceding paper by Mr. Pratt, who conducted
the explorations.

In the first place, an attempt was made by a rude analysis to arrive
at the probable age of these bones. A small part of the middle por-
tion of one of the long bones was incinerated, with the following re-
sult: Weight before incineration, thirty-eight grains; afterward, thirty
grains ; loss, eight grains ; equal to 20 per cent.

Mineral matter. Animal matter.

fresh bone, (Guy.) Berzelws. 22 /sc oi ssce is sels. 67 33
iMound- builder's: bowers) .2- 22. sa 2-5 = <ine 79 21
12 2

Now, as the lightness, or diminished specific gravity of these bones,
precludes the idea of an increase of the mineral matter, and also as we
know that, in certain conditions of soil, an actual loss of mineral matter
takes place, we may safely infer that a considerable loss of animal mat-
ter has here taken place; a loss even greater than what the above fig-
ures would seem to indicate.

But, unfortunately, these data will not afford even an approximate
estimate as to the time since these bones were buried.

‘Tn an old Roman frontal bone dug up from Pompeii, Dr. Davy found
35.5 animal parts, and 64.5 earthy; and in the tooth of the mammoth
30.5 animal, and 69.5 earthy.” (Todd and Bowman’s Anatomy, vol. 1, p.
105.)

Orfila, in his Exhumations Juridiques, (vol. 1, p. 350,) states that bones
buried in the cemetery of the Innocents, Paris, over six hundred years,
yielded, in analysis, 27 per cent. of gelatin and 10 per cent. of fat ; while
fresh ones yielded only 30 per cent. of gelatin, showing only a slight
alteration. On the other hand, bones exhumed from the church-yard of
Ste. Geneviéve, Paris, after a burial of over seven hundred years,
showed marked alteration, which he describes as follows: Very brittle,

362 ETHNOLOGY.

of a purplish color ; remarkable both for the absence of animal matter
and for the presence of the acid phosphate of lime. Unfortunately, no
analysis of these changed bones is given.

TABLE No. 1.—The plan of this table is taken from Foster’s work on
the prehistoric races of the United States, and the letters at the heads
of the columns refer to the same measurements. Four other columns are,
however, added, the first giving the capacities in cubie inches ; an im-
portant point omitted by Foster, probably from the fragmentary nature
of the skulls in his possession. The second and third added columns
give the distance of the occipital protuberance from the posterior mar-
gin of the foramen magnumand the ratio of this distance to the long
diameter of the skull. This is an important characteristic of the mound.
builder race, according to Dr. Wyman.

The fourth and last column gives the major and minor axes of the
foramen magnum in millimeters.

TABLE No. 1

-- |2 [24 |8 |S
s ey Q;: .
° Ise | 38 | ae
a SS - |o8 Cae) = lies}
Race of skull. Condition. | *A | *B /}*C | *D | *E |] 8] © @ oS a S45 sis
2) 8 Be 1OM a) 4S | Hg
= s Hm" 156 8] Son] SR
SS lee lassen | Se
ia SESE easy ZS] 6
= ae a et rt a S
mo; RA |o IA A DN
I. Mound-builder, 1} Imperfect | 21.5} 12 | 10 | 4.1 | 8 BY 48 yl WRG eae be eet eee
Il. Mound-builder, 2} Perfect ..-| 19 12 OF 4a 25625) e555) os 72. 0. 307/39 x28
ILI. Mouna-builder, 3}.--.do ..--.| 19.5 | 11.5) 9 3.5 6.6 525 hoal. 62. 0. 348/39 x32
IV. Mound-builder, 4} Imperfect | 19 11 Salecion |n6 6? | SG |e SK cen 5 ee euler Ge
V. Mound-builder, 5} Perfect .-.| 20 11.5} 9.5) 3.9 | 6.6 | 5.65 81.40) 2.4 | 6. 363/36 x32
VI. Mound-builder, 6) Imperfect | 20 1a eee 4.5" |Gid. an ceg (iG) Ne ee joke eeteece ae eee
Vit Gionsile. ses Perfect ...| 20.5 | 125,10 |3.5 | 71 |5.1)5.1 | 80.53] 1.9 | 0.267/42x35
WAMUE, SUBS) EAP enc cect tty = one pal 12 10.5) 4 7.125] 5.5} 5.1 76.20) 2.2 | 0. 310/40 x 31
EXS SOUS Ocoee oceanic Gla 20 Sai oes |\to 7 4.8) 5.125) 76.20) 2.1 | 0. 300/38 x35
X. Average mound-builder.. -.--. 19.83] 11.7/ 9.3] 3.93] 6.7 5.6) 5.1 | 72.31) 2.2 | 0. 328)*. 1122
ST. Average Sioux.<...5..-...-2- 20. 50} 12 9. 8} 3.50 | 7.03 } 5.1) 5.1 77. 64] 2.0 | 0. 284)*. 1357

* Square millimeters.
REMARKS,

I. Capacity approximate, from imperfection. Ratio of short and long diameters, 0.60 to 0.625.
II. Ratio of short and long diameters, 0.846 to 0.784.
IIL. Skull, thick and heavy, from former disease. Ratio of short and long diameters, 0.833 to 0.772.
IV. Ratio of short and long diameters, 1 to 0.933.
V. Aged—molars all gone y and alveoli absorbed. Ratio of short and long diameters, 0.848 to 0.757.
VI. Ratio of short and long diameters, 0.923 to 0.923.
VII. Ratio of short and long diameters, 0.718 to 0.718.
VIII. Re itio of short and loug diameters, 0.771 to 0.715.
IX. Ratio of short and lone diameters, 0.685 to 0.732.
Di Ri vtio of short and long diameters, 0.836 to 0.761.
XI. Ratio of short and long diameters, 0.725 to 0.725.

ee The horizontal circumference in the plane of a line joining the glabella with the occipital pro-
tuberance.

*B. The longitudinal are from the nasal depression along the middle line of the skull to the occipital
tuberosity.

«©, From the level of the glabello-occipital line on each side, across the middle of the sagittal suture
to the same point on the opposite side.

~D. The vertical height from the glabello-occipital line.

*E. The extreme longitudinal measurement.

*F. The extreme transverse measurement.

TABLE No, 2.—In this table an attempt is made (by means of another
table of the comparative lengths of the various long bones in a series
of skeletons, given in Orfila’s Exhumations Juridiques) to arrive at

FARQUHARSON AND TIFFANY—ANTIQUITIES OF ILLINOIS. 363

some idea of the stature of the mound-builders, but the conclusions are
very imperfect, perhaps necessarily so. Enough was learned, however,
to safely warrant the conclusion that none of the bones examined be-
longed to an individual much, if any, higher than six feet, thus doing
away with the assumption, made by some persons at the time of the
exhumation, that some of the mound-builders were giants.

TABLE No. 2.—Stature estimated from length of bones.

mide = Gel =| es chica =
=| 3 = & Ge
= A A Ba eR)
ag | aa | ga |g As
a5 ao ao |o2 |
Race. Bone, | “2 | 22 | 2 S Bea] oa Remarks.
as ag ag ane rey!
iS 5 S a >| wes
=| "=> =| Seq a ar)
a) = Ran] D a5)
4 | P| ca ms
Mound-builder, 1.| Femur.... 46 30 29 er 5.11 | Neck of femur long and not
oblique.
Mound-builder, 2.|..-.do ..-.-. 453 30 28 algal 5. 09
Sioux eee ee en sise| = eee doyeeas 45 33 29 1. 67 5.07 | Belongs to Sioux skull, No. 2.
Mound-builder, 1.| Tibia 32 33 22 1. 49 5. 00
Mound-builder 2-|- --- QOMeeslneetoees (2) 38 Po ime Sipe loot on pd A fragment, upper half.
DOME eee eres dOiso5- 38 36 28 1.69 5.08 | Belongs to Sioux skull, No. 2.
Mound-builder, 1.} Humerus - B ao Seno oaer (3)} 1.80 6. 00
Mound-builder, 2.|.-.-.. dove: Os esos an Sameer 1, 83 6. 02
Mound-builder, 3.|....do ..-- BBs a HeaaoeSoe (3) | 1.80 6. 00
Mound-builder, 4-|....do ..... OL | Receeers|| ee steer 1. 67 5. 07
SIOU Ree ee soa aoe dose: Sot eee taser (3) | 1.80 6.00 | Belongs to Sioux skull, No. 2.

?

1. The total length of the body is made ont by adding two inches to that of the skeleton.

2. These diameters, taken near the middle of the length of the tibia, and at its most prominent part,
show its flatness and the comparative sharpness of the shin-bones.

3. From an average of five skeletons in the table having a humerus measuring 33 centimeters. Here
it may be remarked that in the French table there is a greater disparity in the height of the skeleton,
in regard to the humerus, than either to the femur or tibia, one skeleton of 1.86 meters having a humerus
of only 33 centimeters.

The skulls and long bones of the modern Indians used in the com-
parative measurements in these tables, were those of male Sioux Indi-
ans from Minnesota, who died in this vicinity, while in captivity on ac-
count of their complicity with the massacre in that State, so that there
can be no doubt of their identity.

It only remains to remark, in conclusion, that an unusual number of
perfect sets of teeth were found in the mounds examined. These teeth
are invariably without any signs of decay, of almost flinty hardness,
and very much worn away, apparently from the attrition of very hard
particles in the food, probably the siliceous outer coats of some kind of
grain or seeds.

THE SHELL-BED SKULL.

By A. S. Trrrany, OF DAVENPORT, IOWA.

On the Rock Island arsenal-grounds, near the western extremity of
the island, there had been an excavation about three hundred feet long
and eight feet deep. Ata depth of three feet from the top there was a
deposit of shells, mostly wnios, but including melantho subsolida, and
two or more species of helix. This shell-bed at this exposure varies
from six to sixteen inches thick.

364 ETHNOLOGY.

In this deposit the skull and bones belonging to one individual were
found; all the covering was an aqueous sedimeut. Deposited with
and above the shells are lime, gravel, and sand, the material becoming
finer toward the top, the last foot being fine alluvium and vegetable-
mold. The sedimentary lines were perfect and unbroken, and the ex-
cavation had made the means of observation all that could be desired.

It was visited by many members of our academy, and by Prof.
Alexander Winchell, while some of the bones were in place; and all
agree that the covering to this pre-historic man was put on by sedimen-
tary deposit.

Accurate levelings prove the top of this deposit to be eighteen feet
above the highest water known since Fort Armstrong was established
on the island.

ANTIQUITIES OF NORTHERN OHIO.

By Gro. W. Hu, M. D., or ASHLAND, OHIO.

In the spring of 1872, Mr. S. W. Briggs, a farmer of Sullivan Town-
ship, Ashland County, while plowing an old ‘‘cat-swamp” or slough,
came upon a bed or nest of Indian flint-implements about eighteen inches
beneath the surface. His attention was arrested by a grating sound be-
neath the plow, and on examination focnd two or three peculiarly-shaped |
arrow-heads or flint cutting-points. Hastening to his house, he pro-
cured a shovel and mattock, and proceeded to unearth the deposit. On
carefully removing the surrounding soil—rich black mold—he found a
keg-like vessel of red-elm (Ulmus rubra) bark, about three-fourths of an
inch in thickness, some ten or twelve in diameter, and about thirteen
in height. The vessel was a section of the bark, which had been removed
from the tree by cutting or notching around the body and then peeling it
off. It would hold something over one peck. It was in a tolerable state
of preservation. It contained two hundred and one flint-implements,
neatly and symmetrically finished, and a number of fragments which
had not been dressed. The bottom of the nest was about two feet
below the surface. About four feet south of the vessel his plow struck
a forked oak-stake, the double end being deep in the mold, and also
another stake, of the same timber, about four feet east of the deposit,
driven deeply into the loam. The lower ends of the stakes were over
three feet deep, the parts above the water and ground having decayed
were wanting. In digging down, the forks were found to be beneath’
the surface soil and quite sound. There was also astreak of yellow sand
about ten inches wide, two or three deep, and eight or ten feet long, run-
ning in a northeastern direction from the deposit, which could have
been plainly seen when the water stood over the slough. This sand is
found on the banks of Black River, about one and a half miles distant.
The slough was drained some ten years since, and has been once or

HILL—ANTIQUITIES OF OHIO. 365

twice superficially plowed. The sand-streak was evidently put there to
mark the precise point of the deposit.

Sixty years ago, when the first of the pioneers began to settle in the
central parts of Ashland County, the northern section was a favorite
resort of the Delawares and Wyandots as a hunting-ground. About
twenty-five rods southwest of the slough are the remains of an Indian
village or camping-ground. Floors of broken bowlders and large peb-
bles were made by driving the pieces into the ground until a smooth
surface was obtained. Ahout one hundred rods in a northeastern
direction from the deposit is another ‘cat-swamp” or slough, somewhat
smaller than the first, which will probably, upon examination, be found
to contain other deposits. A few rods east of this were also found two
stone floors, constructed of the same materials and in the same manner
as the other. They were twelve or fifteen feet in circuit each, and
had to be dug up before the ground could be plowed. About one mile
southeast of this ancient village was a salt-spring, which was a common
resort for the Indians and wild animals. Many relics Lave been dug
and plowed up in its vicinity, among which was a large pair of elk-
horns. Above this, on the flat, near the head branch of Black River,
were several extensive beaver-dams. They were visible for many years
after the settlement of that region.

In 175556, James Smith, when a captive among the Wyandots and
Delawares, on his way to the Canesadooharie, in company with his
adopted brother, Tontileaugo, passed this locality. He had traversed
the Jerome Fork of Mohican to its source, about three miles from the
head of the Canesadooharie, or Black River, and over the portage or
divide between the streams running south to the Gulf of Mexico and
north to Lake Erie. At that time there was a large Wyandot village
near the falls, not a great distance from the present site of Elyria, in
Lorain County. The Black River and its sources long furnished a hunt-
ing-resort for the Ohio tribes, and the locality where these implements
were found was often a great encampment for the Indians.

There is a striking resemblance to each other in the implements
found by Mr. Briggs. They are generally leaf or pear shaped. They
are about three-eighths of an inch in thickness. The width of the largest
is two and three-quarter inches, and its length three and one-quarter
inches. The next largest is two and one-quarter inches wide, and four
inches long, running toa sharp point. They are all quite sharp around
the edge, and neatly and. sy mmetrically chipped, and would answer for
cutting-tools. :

It is difficult to determine their use. They certainly were not used as
arrow-heads, being destitute of nicks to attach them to the shaft. They
are too small for agricultural instruments. They could not be used for
preparing dug-out canoes, being sharp around their edges, and too fragile.
They may have been used for skinning and cutting the flesh of animals.
Possibly they were used in dressing deer-skins. The entire lot was new,

a

366 ETHNOLOGY.

and looked as if they had been finished just prior to the deposit. So

far as my observation extends, no flints of similar character have beep
found on the surface in this part of Ohio.

The material out of which these instruments were constructed is
found in abundance about eighty miles south of the Black River, and
is known as the “ Flint Ridge,” in Licking County, and consists, after
exposure, of a reddish, mottled flint, and, when fresh from the quarry,
of a bluish, or nearly black, color. The reddish tint may have origi-
nated from their burial beneath the bog or marsh water. When a boy,
some thirty-five years since, I resided a short distance south of the main
ridge, in Licking County. On the farm where I lived there had evi-
dently been large numbers of arrow-heads manufactured, judging from
the piles of fragments, broken arrows, and pieces of lances found on the
surface. Many of these were composed of a bluish limestone, found in
and north of the ridge, where numerous pits yet remain. When first
quarried, the stone splits easily, and is soft, but, on exposure to the air
and sun, changes color, and becomes extremely hard. There is also a
flint, or hornstone, found on or near the surface in that locality, which
is of a dark color, sometimes streaked or mottled with white, from which
large numbers of arrows have been manufactured, and are found scat-
tered all over Ohio.

These implements were probably made by the earlier Indians of

Ohio. It is not unlikely that they were carried there for immediate |

use. Their form, sharpness of fracture, and shape are so symmetrical
and complete, that we are Jed to conclude they are finished. Ifthey had
been intended for further manipulation, their finish would have been
less perfect. When Smith was on this stream in 1755, bark canoes
were exclusively used by the Wyandots and Delawares.

Some of the spear-heads are very rare. Five were picked up near
Ashland. I call them spear-heads, though it is uncertain for what pur-
pose they were used. They are generally well finished, and have been
used. Some of them. are of an unknown flint. I have never seen the
blueish kind in the “Flint Ridge” material. The first is intensely black;
the second, of a brownish black; the third, on being fractured, presents
a blue color; the fourth is a drab, or sort of dirty white, and is very
delicate in structure, and extremely sharp; the fifth, on being fractured,
exhibits a blue color, and is peculiar in shape.

A singular instrument was picked up by Mr. Briggs in the neighbor-
hood of the nest of flint-implements. It is made out of a sort of green-
ish-gray stone, variegated. It possesses a high polish, and the material
is quite hard. A hole in the center is neatly drilled. It may have been
suspended from the neck as an ornament.

ETHNOLOGY. 367

THE AGE OF STONE, AND THE TROGLODYTES OF BRECKINRIDGE COUNTY,
KENTUCKY.

By R. S. RoBERTSON, OF FoRT WAYNE, IND.

The remains of the stone-age are abundant on both sides of the Ohio
River, proving that its shores were occupied by a very large population
long anterior to the advent of the whites.

My attention having been attracted to reports of human remains found
in a cavern or rock-shelter near Hardinsburgh, Ky., I visited the locality
May 12, 1874, but was not early enough to forestall the vandalism nearly
always displayed when such remains are discovered, and by which many
valuable relics are destroyed, or scattered and lost. Nearly everything
of value to the ethnologist had been dug out and carelessly destroyed,
and out of thirty or more human skeletons of all sizes, from infants to
adults, exhumed, I was informed that only one skull had been preserved,
but as that is in the possession of Prof. N. 8. Shaler, State geologist of
Kentucky, we may expect to hear something of its characteristics.

Hardinsburgh, the county-seat of Breckinridge County, is eleven miles .
southeast of Cloverport, and in a hilly, broken country. Abouta mile
and a half northeast of the town is a range of high hills, at the base of
which runs Hardin’s Creek, now nearly dry. These hills are capped by
high limestone ledges, cut through in past ages by some powerful erosive
agency, leaving the general course of the cliffs on an east and west line,
bat cut by lateral fissures and valleys. The rock has been so eroded as
to leave overhanging shelters at several points, some of which are of
considerable size. One, particularly, seems to have been occupied by
man for a long period, and when it ceased to be used as a habitation,
became the sepulehre of the remnant of its occupants, who were probably
massacred and left in the ashes of their home, on the final extinction
of their tribe. The cavern is open toward the south, the overhanging
roof protecting the space below from any exposure to the elements from
above, while immense masses of fallen rock make a wall from ten to twelve
feet high, directly in front, between which and the rear wall of the eav-
ern the erp aie containing human remains was found. This deposit
consists almost entirely of wood-ashes, so dry that clouds of dust arose
while working in them, and we sank nearly to the knees at every step.
The deposit is about eight by fifteen feet superficial measure, and was
about seven feet in depth. In it, without order, were found thirty
or more human skeletons, nearly all with a flat stone laid upon their
heads. There were infants and adults promiscuously buried at various
depths in the ashes, and at the bottom, on a layer of broken stones, some
charred human remains were found. The bones had been thrown out
and broken, so that none remained worthy of preservation; but from a
description of the skwls found, I should think they were of a marked
dolicho-cephalic type, with flat, receding foreheads.

368 ETHNOLOGY.

Mingled with these remains many flint and other stone implements
and weapons were found, with a few fragments of rude pottery, such as
is commonly met with all over the country. I could learn of no orna-
ments, except some shells of the common muscle, perforated for suspen-
sion. Two perforated stones, of the kind supposed to be weaving-shut-
tles or thread-gauges, had been found, but carried away.

The polished and drilled ornamental stones found frequently in other
localities seemed to be entirely absent here, indicating that these cave-
dwellers had not advanced beyond the strictly useful arts. I found in the
ashes a number of arrow-heads, scrapers, and knives of dark flint, a stone
hatchet, and a buckhorn handle for a poinard or knife, similar to the
handles of some modern hunting-knives. These were all found in the
ashes which had not been disturbed. Quantities of flint-chippings he
around, and a stone, on the surface of which are fourteen small circular

depressions, disposed in two nearly parallel rows.
To the left of this large shelter, and under the continuation of the

same roof, is another on a high shelf of rock, reached by climbing on the
fallen rocks which form the front wall. It is large, but does not afford
standing-room in more than half its area, but has been used, perhaps, as
a sleeping-apartment, as the rocks by which you reach it are worn
smooth.

Immediately in front is a steep descent of about one hundred and
fifty feet to a brook, now dry, and, at a corresponding elevation on the
opposite side, is ‘another high cliff, perpendicular on its northern and
overhanging on its southern face. Here many chippings of flint, some
arrow-heads, and a flint knife were found, as if it had been used, also,
either as a dwelling or workshop. It is not so large or so well shel-
tered as the other. My guide informed me of several other rock-shelters
and of some stone-walled graves in the vicinity, which I had not time to
visit. Although the flint used is easily worked, the articles found were
all of ruder workmanship than those found at many other places.

In the road just outside of the town of Hardinsburgh I noticed a num-
ber of characters and figures cut in the surface of the flat rocks here
exposed; some of them are partially obliterated by travel, but they
still occupy a large space. As there are many smooth rock-surfazes
exposed in the vicinity, and none other exhibited these marks, I
had no hesitation in considering them to be the work of man, and
afterward learned that it was called “ Indian Rock.” The tau, T, is fre-
quently seen, while other marks are-in the form of the. Greek cross,
with shorter arms above than below. Others, and these the most
numerous, were a combination of the latter with other lines, X X;
and some other characters I cannot now describe, having lost the draw-
ing I made at the time.

At Cloverport I spent some time on the river-bank searching for
remains, and was rewarded by finding a number of flint weapons with
many chips or flakes, and, on the boys of the neighborhood becoming

ETHNOLOGY. 369

aware of the objects of search, they brought me large numbers, many
of them of interesting shape and workmanship. The bank here is a
long, gravelly slope up from the water, above which are successive
steps or benches of clay, bounded by a perpendicular wall of clay. It
is on the uppermost bench of clay that nearly all the specimens, fin-
ished and unfinished, and the chippings, are found. Those found below
this point invariably appeared to have been washed down.

The boys assured me that they could take me to a point across on
the Indiana shore where I could get a wheelbarrow-load, but as I had
neither time nor wheelbarrow, I was forced to forego the proposed visit.

I have no doubt that thousands of specimens could be obtained by a
visit to the landing-places on both sides of the river between Louisville
and Evansville.

One specimen shown me, but which the owner refused to part with
on account of some superstitious regard, considering it in the nature of
a charm, was sixteen inches long and five broad, in shape nearly like a
willow-leaf. It was a white, cherty limestone. I heard of a large stone
pipe found two years ago, but after an active search where last seen no
trace could be found of it. The children had been allowed to use it for
a plaything, and it had thus been lost.

Returning to Louisville, during a stroll of perhaps a mile on the river-
bank below the cement-works, and upon the same clay bench, I found
several complete and many broken specimens of worked flints, and
this where many people pass and repass every day.

On the whole, I couclude that the men of the stone-age who occupied
the shores of the Ohio and dwelt in the caverns and rock-shelters of
the interior, had not advanced to that stage of the arts which led men
to give a beautiful finish to their weapons and to carve and perforate
stones for ornament or for badges of authority, like the prehistoric
men of many other localities, but contented themselves with such im-
plements and weapons as the necessities of their wild life required,
without spending much time in giving artistic touches to their mant-
factured articles.

ANTIQUITIES OF ISLE ROYALE, LAKE SUPERIOR.
By A. C. Davis, or Drerroit, Mica.

I send you three photographic views of a mass of copper found in
clearing some ancient mine-pits on Isle Royale, Lake Superior. The
mass was found in the bottom of a pit sixteen and a half feet deep, and
was completely detached from the surrounding rocks. All the wings
have been beaten off by the ancient miner with his stone hammers—evi-
dences of which can be seen all over its upper surface. The section it
was taken from is 27, 66 north, range 35 west. The belt of rock in
which it ies found is of a sedimentary character, highly metamorphosed,

370 ETHNOLOGY.

from twenty to forty feet wide, and for a distance of two and a half
miles has been completely worked over by the ancient miner. I have
been mining for the last twenty-five years on Lake Superior, but I have
never seen anything to compare with this locality for ancient work.

Iam confident that, when this district is thoroughly mined, discov-
eries will be made throwing more light than we now have on the char-
acter of the people who did this work.

In the depression in the outlying trap was found clean lake sand,
and the rock thrown out of the pit first was thrown on the sand. There
was no sign of vegetable mold between the rock and sand, but over all
there was three and a half feet of made soil or decomposed vegetable
matter.

In the pit there are tons of stone and stone-hammers, and a large
quantity of ashes and charcoal.

In one I opened on a transverse vein on the same property, I found
the scales of white-fish. At this pit the ancient miner had used large
granite bowlders to hold up the hanging ground. These bowlders would
weigh from 300 to 400 pounds, and were put in where the modern miner
would place timber, to secure the ground. Nearly all the brands and tim-
ber we found in the pits were roots and stumps. This, with the fact of
their using these large stones for timber, leads me to think that the an-
cient miners had used up all the timber in their reach, and consequently
could not prosecute mining further.

There is another peculiarity in the hammers found in these mines—I
only found one that was grooved, while on the south shore of the lake
I never saw a stone-hammer that was not grooved.

ANTIQUITIES OF YAZOO COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI.

By J. W. C. SMITH, OF BENTON, Miss.

There is a mound on the Yazoo River, twenty miles below Satartia,
worthy of note. It is situated at the foot of a tall bluff, and near the
river. At the base it is, perhaps, one hundred and fifty or two hundred
feet in diameter, fifty feet high, and flat on top; some fifty or sixty feet
across. It evidently is the burial-place of some noted chief, and must
have required months to build it, and the nearness to a high bluff pre-
cludes the idea of its having been built to escape from water. There
are several smaller mounds in the neighborhood. Perhaps some sci-
entist at Vicksburgh will explore it for yeu on.application.

Near Carthage, in Leake County, Mississippi, there is a small branch
in which are many articles resembling petrified terrapin or tortoise
heads; and where at one time was found here the genital organs of a
man, also in stone.

1
—

ETIINOLOGY. 3

ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE,

By Dr. Danie, F. WrIGHT, OF CLARKSVILLE, TENN.

The locality in which the relics sent to the Smithsonian Institution
have been collected, has been known as the “Indian grave-yard” as far
back as any of the present inhabitants can remember, and has been
more or less noticed according to the condition of the superincumbent
soil as affected by successive inundations of the Cumberland. Thus, for
many years prior to the present date, the graves from which these relies
have been taken have been buried some eight or ten feet deep by the
fluvial deposit, and have been forgotten by the present generation; but
since the inundation of last spring, through some change in the current,
the receding waters have produced a contrary effect, and washed the
graves completely bare, leaving the skeletons only covered with the stone
slabs placed over them at the time of burial. The location is about fifty
yards from the left bank of the river, and about three miles above Clarks-.
ville.

The following considerations will, I think, be deemed conclusive: as:
evidences of its having been a permanent and rather populous settle-
ment of some tribe:

Ist. The nature of the graves.—These are eiaberately constructed. It
is impossible to say how deep they were at the time of excavation, om
account of the shifting character of the soil above described ; but every
grave has a slab of shale-stone at the bottom; upon this the body lies,,
and additional slabs are placed at the head and feet, and on each side,,
all rising to the same level, which is rather more than high enough to,
cover the body. Finally, on the top of the inclosure so formed a large:
horizontal slab is placed, completely covering the whole; the earth is,
then thrown in, and the body thus left inclosed not only in a _well-pro-
tected grave, but in a complete stone coffin. In one place (and only one),
a peculiar arrangement of the graves is noticed. Five or six graves:
are so placed together that all the heads are nearly in contact, while:
the feet radiate outward so as to mark out the circumference of a cir--
cle something over twelve feet in diameter. On the whole, I suppose
that more than forty skeletons, each in its separate grave, have been.
taken up since the last overflow.

2d. The evidences of manufactures habitually, followed.—These are flint.
Weapons aud implements and pottery. Where the greater part of the:
flint-implements were found innumerable chips and flakes of flint were
also observed, such as are struck off in the manufacture of fiint articles ;
these are found in great abundance. In reference to the pottery, still
stronger evidence of its being manufactured on the spot was dis-
covered. We found an excavation of a circular form about six or
eight feet in diameter, and four or five feet deep, which had been
loosely filled with sand that was easily removed; and in shoveling it

a2 ETHNOLOGY.

out, there were found mixed with it in great abundance fragments
of pottery, a quantity of charcoal, many charred and_ half-burned
pieces of bark which had passed through several stages of combus-
tion, some of them being in part entirely unaltered by the fire; and,
above all, several large lumps of unworked clay, partially hardened by
fire. The neighbors inform me that this clay must have been brought
from a considerable distance, as none like it, and, indeed, no elay at all,
is found within many miles of this place. In the specimens of pottery
sent, I would call your attention to the peculiar markings on the con-
cave surfaces of most of it. I at first supposed that these were made by
some artificial process for decorative purposes, though it seemed strange
to place decorations inside the objects; but a neighboring gentleman
called my attention to the exact resemblance these markings bore to the
corrugations on beech-bark, and I was led to the conclusion that the
pottery had been molded around an interior core constructed of beech-
bark. I think there is no doubt but that the excavation I have de-
scribed was an oven or kiln for baking the pottery.

3d. The presence of infant skeletons in great number, buried with
the same elaboration in all its details as above described in the case of
the adult sepulchre. Some fragments of cranial bones from these are in-
closed in package No. 7. . The undeveloped and imperfectly ossified con-
dition of the infant cranium renders it improbable that entire infant-
crania will be discovered ; which is the more to be regretted as it would
be interesting to observe the bones in the early stage of the flattening
process, which seems to have been customary in this tribe.

To sum up this part of my view, then: The elaborate and substantial
character and large number of the graves, the evidences of arrange-
ment for the manufacture of stone implements and pottery, and the
presence of a considerable number of infant skeletons, all carefully buried,
satisfy me that this burial-place was an appendage to Some permanently-
occupied Indian village.

But, when? There are some considerations which seem to throw us
back upon prehistoric times for an auswer—that is, what are to us Amer-
icans prehistoric times.

In Europe, these flint-weapons would carry us back to the mysterious
nationalities which occupied the site of Troy before the Troy of Priam
and Hector existed, or to those unknown tribes which lived in Hebron
before the seed of Abraham had germinated in Palestine. With us,
prehistoric times come down to a much more recent period. Anything
previous to the permanent occupation of a region by the European races
is withus prehistoric, and west of the Rocky Mountains there are tribes
still in the neo-lithic stage of development, using just such flint arrow-
heads and hatechets as I send you, to-day.

The evidences that, relatively to the Boones and Donelsons and Rob-
ertsons who first settled these regions, the remains now under discus-
sion are prehistoric, are as follows :

ETHNOLOGY. 313

First. I have had conversations with very old settlers—persons whose
recollections extend back fifty and even sixty years, and they report that
no Indian village existed in that locality or anywhere near Clarksville ;
and not only so, but they speak of conversations with the Indians, who,
in their childhood, frequently came here on hunting-expeditions, and
that none of them knew of any tribe or had auy tradition of any who
ever had any permanent residence either near this burial-place or in the
region at all; it was never within their knowledge anything but a hunt-
ing-ground.

Secondly. In his first visit to Kentucky, Daniel Boone spent a whole
winter encamped near the mouth of Red River, (a small affluent of
the Cumberland ;) in other words, on what is now the site of Clarks-
ville; and that during that winter he did not see a single Indian, the
country being only visited for hunting-purposes in summer-time.

This last statement I have on the authority of my friend, Professor
Stewart, well known to your Institution. I have no means of verifying
it by documents, though in Washington you have, I suppose, the means
of doing so in the National Library.

Supposing, then, that I have rightly interpreted the facts so far before
us, we are thrown back on all prehistoric times for the period of our vil-
lage’s existence, and have no means of determining whether it dates
before or after the discovery of the American continents by the Euro-
pean races.

The small package, No. 8, contains an invaluable relic in reference
to our chronological difficulty. On examination you will find it to be
a leaden bullet, completely covered with a bony accretion. This was
found in close contact with the scapula of one of the exhumed skeletons.
The manner in which it is enveloped with bony matters convinces me that
it was lodged in the shoulder long before the Indian’s death, and carried
there for years. This proves that the Indians in question had relations,
hostile at least, if not more intimate, with persons possessing fire-arms,
and so brings down the antiquity of our village to a date subsequent to
the appearance of the European races in the valley of the Mississippi.

The closest estimate, then, we can make of the period when the vil-
lage existed from which these relics are derived, is that it was prior
to the permanent settlement of this portion of the basin of the Cumber-
land, and subsequent to the first visit of European races, which still
leaves us a range open to conjecture extending from the middle of the
seventeenth century to, say, the time of the revolutionary war—a range
of from one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty years.

This much premised, I would call yeur attention to some matters of
detail in the relics to which this paper refers.

Opening the packages Nos. 4.and5, I think you will be struck by a great
diversity in the workmanship of the different articles. Thus, most of
them are as roughly chipped out of the original flint as anything we
know of in the rudest paleolithic times, and others are shaped with

374 ETHNOLOGY.

some artistic skill toa predetermined form. Give your special attention
to one article in package No.5, wrapped in a separate piece of newspa-
per—probably the blade of a tomahawk. You will observe that it is
ground down to a preconceived shape with a precision and finish which
would do credit to a modern lapidary. I have also given a separate
envelope to a curious implement made of a thin lamina of flint, in pack-
age No. 4. [am informed by persons acquainted with present Indian
usages, that an exactly similar implement is now employed to scrape
clean the inner surface of raw hides, prior to curing them for use.

Now, a few words about the three crania. Those in the packages 1
and 2 present the ordinary type of the Indian skull; narrow, with a
low facial angle, and with the prognathous character very strongly
marked in the facial bones—these characteristics being most pronounced
in No. 2. But No.3 rather puzzles me. The American Indian type is
here much less pronounced, the facial angle higher, and the prognathous
type scarcely marked at all. Inallrespects it seems to approximate the
Caucasian type. You will also observe that the process of artificial
fiattening, so common among Indian tribes, has been applied to Nos. 1
and 2 with complete success, the flattening of the occiput being so great
as to render the plane extending from the occipital condyles to the ver-
tex absolutely vertical.

Now, on No.3 this process has been very incompletely effected, having
succeeded not at all on one side, and only imperfectly on the other.

If I knew more than I do of the tribe whose remains we are studying,
I think I should venture upon the conjecture that No. 3 is the cranium
of a half-breed, which would imply a still more intimate association
with the white race than that short and sharp interview suggested by
the impacted bullet.

Such as they are, however, the foregoing remarks are submitted te
your riper judgment; they have been considerably longer than I antici-
pated when I commenced them, but I think that some interesting
problems are suggested by the relics, and could not resist the tempta-
tion of attempting a solution.

I should remark that, although a large number of entire skeletons

was exhumed, I did not see much to be gained by sending you anything
beyond the crania. The only thing really noticeable about them was
their great thickness, especially that of the maxillaries and the bones
of the extremities ; some of the femurs, though evidently not those of
tall men, would, in bulk and weight, largely surpass those of any white
man I have seen.

I forgot to state that the crania Nos. 1 and 2 are presented by Dr. W.
T. McReynolds, of this place, who had obtained possession of them be-
fore my exploration.

oo
=I
On

ETHNOLOGY.

ANTIQUITIES OF BLOUNT COUNTY, TENNESSEE.
By Miss ANNIE E. Law, or HOLLiIsTER, CAL.

The relics sent were all found in the vicinity of a large mound in
Chilhowee Valley, on the banks of the Little Tennessee River, Blount
County, Tennessee, except the beads and axes, which were found on
Tellico River, Monroe County, Tennessee. The mound in Chilhowee
Valley was partially washed away during a high tide. It contained
seventeen skeletons buried in a sitting posture, surrounded by stone
slabs. The mound was some twenty-five feet in diameter, and the
graves were in three tiers. With each had been buried water-jugs of
crumbling pottery, beads, and stone implements. These had been car-
ried off by relic-hunters before I was there. Those I got were plowed
up afterward from sand-beds in the bottom-iands, where the strong
current had carried them.

ANTIQUITIES OF ORLEANS COUNTY, NEWYORK.
By Frank H. CusHine, or Mepina,N. Y.

In the town of Shelby, Orleans County, New York, about three miles
southwest from the village of Medina, are the remaixs of one of the most
jnteresting ancient earthworks in the State.* This work is situated
at the summit of a slight and not abrupt elevation. It consists of two
mural embankments, which are now about two feet in height parallel,
and twelve feet distant from each other. They describe almost an ex-
act circle, having a diameter of four hundred and thirty feet and an
area of three and one-third acres. Two fences upon original ‘“ section-
lines,” running, one northand south, the other east and west, divide this
inclosure into four nearly equal parts or quadrants. Those portions of
the work included in the northeastern and south western quadrants have
for many years been under cultivation, and the embankments are nearly
obliterated. The northwestern and southeastern portions are still cov-
ered with forest-trees. In these portions the walls are interrupted only
by two sally-ports or openings for passage. These openings occur at
nearly opposite points in the circle. The passage through the outer
wall is not in either exactly opposite to that through the inner. In one
they are sixteen and in the other thirty feet apart. To avoid two large
bowlders of Niagara limestone, the inner wall at one point makes a slight
deflection from its regular circular course.

Upon these embankments are standing trees and the stumps of trees
that had commenced their growth long before the Jesuit fathers had ex-

* This work has previously been described in Squier’s Aboriginal Monuments of
New York, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. I, 1851.

376 ETHNOLOGY.

plored the region now comprising Western New York. Traces of a moat
which once encireled this work are still discernible at intervals. This
moat is broad in proportion to its present depth, and in this respect is
not regular. It was probably made by tie removal of earth for the
construction of the walls, and perhaps it was not intended as an addi-
tional defense, though it must to some extent have served as such.

Three features presented by this work add much to its interest:
first, it is almost exactly circular in form; secondly, it consists of two
parallel embankments; thirdly, the openings for passage are not oppo-
site in the two walls. These three peculiarities distinguish this from
all other earthworks known east of Ohio.

Ten rods south of this work lies a peat-swamp, two miles in length
by one in breadth. This swamp is or has been covered by a heavy
growth of black-ash timber. A vertical section of seven feet in this
swap shows first the remains of trees to the depth of two feet, next
below the remains of marsh-plants, gradually becoming peat, which, as
the depth increases, changes in character and color from dark brown to
light blue. At all depths in this peat are to be seen the remains of
leaves evidently brought by the winds from the forests of the surround-
ing higher land. Underlying this peat is a stratum from three to five
inches in thickness, composed entirely of fresh-water shells, mostly uni-
valves; some of which are apparently species of Pauludina. Beneath
this stratum there occurs another, composed of blue clay, intermixed
with sand, containing occasionally the remains of shells, among which
have been found specimens of the fresh-water clam, ( Unio.)

These facts lead to the conclusion that this peat-swamp was probably
a shallow lake at the time when the works were constructed. This con-
clusion is also strengthened by the fact that there is no evidence of
the existence of a permanent supply of water elsewhere within a mile of
the work.

It is proper to state that the supply of fish in this ancient lake was
abundant; replenished during the time of high water in the spring
of each year from Lake Ontario, thirteen miles distant, through Oak
Orchard Creek, into which its outlet flows.

West from the work,.at a distance of half a mile on the eastern slope
of a sand-hill, is a large “ bone-pit,” where the bones of many hundreds
have been deposited. It is said by “old settlers” that those portions of
the work now included in the cultivated fields spoken of, originally pre-
sented the same features now seen in those which the forest includes.

Of course exaggerated stories are told of the relics which have been
plowed up in these fields. Without doubt many which would be of
great interest to an ethnologist have been found, kept for a while, and
then given to the children as playthings by those who knew nothing of
their value as relics.

On making excavations in those portions still uncultivated, many
specimens of great interest are found. They usually lie from six to

ETHNOLOGY. — 317

eighteen inches beneath the surface, often imbedded in charcoal and
ashes. They consist of hammers, sinkers, celts, stone ornaments, pipes,
pottery; also implements and ornaments of bone, such as bone splint-
ers, awls, and needles, daggers or dirks, cylindrical ear ornaments,
implements for the ornamentation of pottery, perforated metatarsals,
and perforated teeth. These bone implements are found in all stages
of manufacture, from the rude splinter to the ground and polished imple-
ment or ornament.

What was the original height of these works can now only be a
matter of conjecture. It is probable, however, that the embankments
were from four to five feet in height and surmounted by palisades.
Vegetable mold to the depth of six inches has accumulated upon those
points most elevated and exposed to atmospheric action ; beneath this
stratum the relics occur to the depth of eighteen inches. The inference,
therefore, is that since the work was abandoned time enough has elapsed
for the accumulation of this six inches of vegetable matter by the slow
process of growth and deposit on dry land. It was inhabited or used
long enough for twelve inches to accumulate. It was probably aban-
doned when the lake was so nearly filled that it ceased to afford either
fish or a permanent supply of water. Since the time when timber com-
menced to grow at the surface of the lake, two feet of vegetable matter
have accumulated.

ANTIQUITIES OF LA PORTE COUNTY, INDIANA.

By R. S. ROBERTSON, oF Fort WayYNE, INDIANA.

At Union Mills, La Porte County, is located one of the most remarka-
ble groups of mounds to be found in Northern Indiana.

Union Mills is a small village, with a beautiful location on the high
table-lands between the great Kankakee Marsh and Lake Michigan,
most of the village being on the east side of Mill Creek, which furnishes
a fine water-power for the will from which its name is derived, and
which flows southwardly through a ravine some 40 or 50 feet below the
nearly level plain on which most of the mounds are situated. To the
southwest another ravine terminates this table-land, beyond which are
a series of ridges and levels gradually merging into the Kankakee Marsh,
which is here, however, generally drained and cultivated. Along the
brink of this ravine, ten (or rather five double) mounds have been raised,
of nearly uniform construction, and all evidently for places of sepulture.

Where the mounds are double, as all of this series are, the larger one
is now about 10 feet in height, and its companion about one-third lower.
The longitudinal diameter of the two is about 150 feet by from 60 to 70 feet
across, and they are from 50 to 100 feet apart. The small mound at each
end of this series is thrown back nearly at right angles with the general

378 ETHNOLOGY.

line, as if there were an intention on the part of the builders to make
these terminal points for the group.

The first or northernmost large mound was almost entirely cut away
some time ago in constructing the Peninsular Railway, which runs
directly through it; and the third large one was nearly half cut away
by the wagon-road, whose track here runs below the base of the mound.
The next has been partially leveled and a farm-house built on its
truncated base. There are no depressions in the surrounding surface,
showing that the materials, which in some are sand and others surface-
loam, have been brought to the place from some other point.

Proceeding eastward to the bank of the creek, we find another mound,
(No. 6,) which has been leveled to a terrace-form about 4 feet high, on
which Mr. Flanigan’s house stands; and directly north, across an arm
of the ravine, was another, (No. 7,) whose site is occupied by the house
of Allen Cummings. Across the creek, nearly east of this, is a very
large round tumulus, (No. 8,) which is about 15 feet high, with a base
of about 100 feet. One hundred feet north of this is another double
mound, (No. 9;) the smaller one of the group is in the yard of a church,
and the larger one just in rear of it.

I could find no traces of fortifications, and there are no other mounds
in the immediate vicinity, but I was informed that a large group exists
on a rolling prairie about two miles east, of which a very large one was
leveled several years ago. This is, perhaps, the same group examined
by Dr. Higday, of La Porte, some years since.

My informant also states that about a mile south of Union Mills is a
burial-place of the modern Indians, still known as “ Indian Fields,”
from which bones, medals, kettles, guns, &c., have been obtained, while
a half mile farther south, on a prairie overlooking the Kankakee, is
another group of seven or eight mounds. These different burial-places
would, undoubtedly, prove of interest to the ethnologist, for a compari-
son of the remains of the two races who practiced such different modes
of burial.

The greatest interest in these prehistoric remains centers in the fact that
the crania of the mound-builder, as found in these tumuli, differ widely
from those of any known race, approaching the Neanderthal skull in type,
and being, perhaps, lower in development. The frontal bone recedes
backward from a prominent superciliary ridge, leaving no forehead, or
rather the eye looks out from under the edge of a frontal plate, which
reminds me of a turtle-shell and is scarcely more elevated. My speci-
men is lower than the Stimpson-mound skull, and even than the Nean-
derthal, if we can judge correctly between the actual and the pictured
skull. None have yet been found here with the skull or bones entire.

In my examination of the group I concluded that the road cut through
No. 3 had passed a little south of the center of the mound, and selecting
the sloping bank of the roadway as the easiest point to excavate with
favorable results, I was rewarded, after a few minutes’ work with pick

ETHNOLOGY. 379

and shovel, by finding several flakes of a white flinty stone, and then
some fragments of bone, after which the hands were the principal tools
used to complete the work, lest I might injure the decomposing remains.

The skeletons of two individuals were found, all in a confused heap,
occupying a space less than two feet square, except that the leg-bones
were extended in different directions, perhaps a foot farther, each way.
The skulls had evidently fallen down upon the other bones of the skel-
eton, and all had been crushed together by the falling earth. They had
evidently been buried in a sitting posture, back to back. While ex-
huming them I concluded there were but two persons, but on a more
critical examination I find some fragments of a lower jaw, which lead
me to think there may have been three.

Most of the bones had become as soft as the surrounding earth, and
while I could see and follow their outlines it was impossible to remove
them, except in fragments. One upper jaw was perfectly outlined in
the earth, with the full row of teeth upward, but it crumbled to
powder on attempting to remove it. The skulls were crushed and the
lower fragments were in the same state of comparative decomposition.
I secured the right half of the frontal plate of one and the lower jaw
nearly entire. The teeth were worn flat, indicating great age and hard
food. The molars and five incisors were perfect, but both canines and
one incisor had been lost and the bone had grown over and closed the
cavities. I regret that these teeth have nearly disappeared in drying,
falling to pieces like slaked lime.

I also secured a fragment of the right frontal bone of another individ-
ual, which I conelude to be that of a female, from its difference in form,
and from the fact that the teeth in the fragments of the jaw found with
it indicate mature age. The teeth are perfect and beautifully white
when washed.

Neither pottery nor weapons were found in this mound, but in the
one through which the railroad was cut were found a stone pipe of
beautiful workmanship, two awls of native copper, a large earthen
jar containing a black substance, and an earthen bowl, which are de-
scribed as having handsome designs on the surface, but which were
broken and lost, and ten spear and arrow heads, five of which I se-
cured and have represented. They are of a white flinty stone, with a
delicate chipping, and are quite thin. The form is different from any
of the hundred or more specimens in my cabinet, which are mostly
“ surface-flints.”

Since I was there I learn that there have been exhumed from the small
mound on the railroad bank, (No. 1,) a copper hatchet, which, from the
description, I conclude to be similar in form te the European bronze
‘“ celt,” two more copper awls, or needles, and two jars of pottery, both
broken. Ihave made arrangements to secure them. These remains,
as near as I could determine, are found on or immediately below the
original surface. The earth in the mounds is as hard and compact as

380 ETHNOLOGY.

the surrounding strata, and immediately around the skeletons is dis-
colored. I dug through about six inches of black loamy earth before
coming to the bones. They were found in what was nearly the exact
center of the mound.

At Haseall, a few miles west, I found a small ball of baked potter’s clay
in which pounded shells had been mixed. It had been squeezed up by the
hand just as we see children form balls of dough or putty. It is of the
color of Philadelphia brick. What is remarkable about it is, that not-
withstanding the lapse of time since it was baked it not only shows the
marks of the fingers, but even the lines of the skin are clearly impressed
on its surface.

Some phrenologists would say that a race with foreheads like those of
this race had no brain capacity, and could have no intelligence. Yet they
fabricated and used tools and weapous, some of which are of fine work-
manship. They understood the ceramic art, and that they had a religion
no one can doubt who reflects that they erected such monuments to the
memory of their dead chiefs, or showed such care for the safety and com-
fort of their passage to the spirit-world as exhibited in placing beside
them jars of food and water, their pipes and weapons, and perhaps by
their sacrificing and burying with them their favorite wives. Itis difficult
on any other hypothesis to account for these facts.

ANTIQUITIES OF ALLEN AND DE KALB COUNTIES, INDIANA,
By R. S. RoBrerTSON, FoRT WAYNE, IND.

I inclose by to-day’s mail manuseript description of mound-remains
in Allen and De Kalb Counties, which I hope may be considered worthy
of a place in your report. I think it important to describe locations of
mounds as far as discovered, and when Northern Indiana is fully
explored, it will prove rich in prehistoric remains.

I have been careful to defer noting anything from reports, which are
almost always much exaggerated, until I can verity them by personal
examination. For instance, some ten days since I rode twelve miles in
carriage and ten on horseback and return, to visit a fortification and
mounds in the north part of Huntington County, only to find a very
large beaver-dam. As reported to me, it was said to inclose from 150
to 200 acres. I found a beaver-dam, in zigzag lines, nearly 1,000 feet in
length, and half a mile farther on two more, one about 300 and the other
600 feet long.

Since my paper containing a description of the location and contents
of the mounds at Union Mills, I have received from there a copper
implement 43 inches long, 24 inches broad at the cutting-end, and 1
inch at the other, and 3 of an inch in thickness. It is slightly convex
on one side, and has apparently been flattened by hammering. I class
it among the hatchets of the “Age of Copper,” although it has no groove

ETIINOLOGY. 3881

for the handle. It was exhumed from one of the small mounds of the
group described by me, and with it was a copper awl or needle 3 inches
long, pointed only at one end. The same mound furnished fragments
of two different vessels of pottery, one deep and narrow, with bands
cut in chevron patterns upon the outside. The other was apparently
about the shape of the glazed earthen vessels used by our farmers for
milk-pans. The outside of this has been highly ornamented with cut
and indented patterns, but the device cannot be made out from the
fragment in my possession. Its inner surface has been smoothed by
pressure, I think, upon a potter’s wheel. Bones of a single skeleton
were found in this mound, but unfortunately no record was taken of
any peculiarities.
' During the summer I have investigated the prehistoric remains of
Allen and De Kalb Counties as far as my opportunities would allow.
All that I have discovered thus far have been in the vicinity of the
Saint Joseph River, which flows from the northeast to the head of the
Maumee and of one of its tributaries, Cedar Creek, which flows from
the northwest into the Saint Joseph. I know of no mounds on the Saint
Joseph much above the mouth of Cedar Creek; and the greatest number
are on the creek in De Kalb County and the northern part of Allen.
Near Waterloo, in De Kalb County, Kk. W. McBride, esq., an enthusi-
astic archeologist and collector, had excavated two mounds, finding
in one the remains of a great number of human skeletons, apparently
buried in a promiscuous heap, and in the other, not far distant, a single
skeleton. The bones were too much decayed for preservation. One of
the skulls, he says, appeared to have been crushed by a blow froma
blunt instrument. He found no works of art, but in examining the
rubbish afterward with him I found the butt-end of an arrow-head of
flint and a small fragment of pottery. These two mounds are about 50
feet apart, are about 30 feet in diameter, and about 4 feet in height,
and are situated on the high ground bordering a marsh, which has once
been a small lake. The remains were laid on the surface of the ground,
covered with earth, and fires built, which baked the earth and calcined
some of the bones. Quite a layer of charcoal and ashes was passed
through in digging, and above this layer earth had again been heaped.
_ From there we went to Smithfield Township, six miles northwest of
Waterloo, where, on the farm of Mr. Ruffner, is a circular earth-work
about 600 feet in circumference, with two entrances opposite each other.
The earth-work is from 2 to 24 feet high, with a ditch outside. Very
large trees, which grew on the embankment, have fallen and gone to
decay, and a black oak standing just inside the wall measured 125 feet
jn circumference at a height of 6 feet from the ground. The “fort” is
situated in the woods, on a high piece of ground, which is nearly sur-
rounded by ravines cut by the action of two streams now nearly dry.
We next went to the farm of Henry Gouzer, in Fairfield Township,
where a mound once overlooked a small lake, which is gradually filling

382 ETHNOLOGY.

from the wash of the surrounding hills. The mound is now nearly
obliterated by cultivation. We were informed by Mr. Gouzer that
it was opened about twenty years ago, when a-skeleton was found
the thigh-bone of which was as long as his leg, and the skull as
large as a half-bushel measure. We dug a little below the surface,
and found a few bones, among which was a broken thigh-bone of the
ordinary size, thus destroying a myth which has been a belief of the
credulous of the neighborhood for twenty years, that ‘“‘there were
giants in those days,” and that one was buried here.

The next day we visited a point five miles northeast of Waterloo,
where there are several groups of mounds. In the woods on Mr.
Boyer’s farm we found a mound about 12 feet in diameter and 3
feet high, composed entirely of large bowlders. It has been there ever’
since the settlement of the country. On removing the stones and dig-
ging beneath, we found that the original soil had never been disturbed,
and no remains were found. Near by in a cultivated field was another
mound of earth nearly obliterated by cultivation. Excavating it, we
found numerous bits of charcoal, and several fragments of pottery, but
no human remains. <A sort of trench from side to side had been filled
with what appeared to be dried swamp muck. Its outlines were quite
well defined in the sandy loam of the rest of the mound.

On the adjoining farm of Mr. Taylor, about half a mile distant, were
two more mounds. We dug into one of them, finding again charcoal
and fragments of pottery, but no human remains. None of these mounds
are more than 3 feet high, and generally haye a base of from 20 to 30
feet. All through this section many flints and carved implements and
ornaments of stone are found by the farmers. Some of them are per-
forated, and nearly all are of the banded siliceous slate, which seems to
have been so highly prized by the mound-builder. One found in this
vicinity and now in my collection is represented in Vig. 2. The boy
who found it described it as a “ stone bayonet,” and his mistake seems
quite natural when we look only to the shape of the ornament. It is
intended to represent a long-billed aquatic fowl, and was probably worn
as a totemic emblem on the head-dress of a prominent chief, to which it
was attached by thongs passing through the holes drilled in the ends.
The tail is unfortunately broken off. Mr. McBride has several in his
collection, some of which are fair representations of birds. He has one
almost precisely like Fig. 27 in Foster’s Prehistoric Races, and has also
a fac simile of the implement found at Danville, [ll., represented in
Tig. 28 of the same work. I have seen a number of articles carved
from this ribboned slate, some of which are shaped like a double-edged
battle-ax, but too slight for use. They all have a smooth, regular hole
drilled through the center about % of an inch in diameter. I con-
clude they were carried as emblems of authority in processions on
state occasions.

ETHNOLOGY. 383

We heard of other mounds in De Kalb County, but had no time to
visit them.

In Allen County these remains are not so numerous, and there are
none at all in the southern part of the county.

On Cedar Creek, about ten miles north of Fort Wayne, is a group
of four mounds, near Stoner’s Station, on the Fort Wayne, Jackson and
Saginaw Railroad. Two of them are in a line north and south, about
40 feet apart. About fifteen rods east of these are two more, about the
same distance apart, on a line nearly east and west. Three of them had
been opened years ago, and bones of a number of skeletons found in all.
The fourth had never been disturbed, but an excavation disclosed no
remains, out many fragments of charcoal aud hard-baked earth. I pro-
cured in the vicinity a large stone ax and a spear-head of large white
flint, leaf-shaped, and about 5 inches in length, (Fig. 7,) besides a num-
ber of smaller flints. These mounds are on the high ground at the june-
tion of Cedar and Willow Creeks. About four miles south of these is a
large, irregular-shaped mound, about 50 feet long by 20 in width,
It is situated on the farm of Henry Wolford, whose family, being some-
what superstitious, would only permit me to dig a small hole near the
center of the mound. About 2 feet from the surface I found an im-
plement (Fig. 31) of ribboned slate, with a perforation near one end, of
the class supposed by some to be a weaving shuttle, and by others an
implement tor gauging cords. Plenty of charcoal was found to a depth of
about 4 feet. Below that for a foot the earth was very hard, asif baked,
until the original soil was reached. I found no bones in this mound.
There is no stream in the immediate vicinity, but a large marsh lies
directly east of it.

At Cedarville, on the Saint Joseph, near the mouth of Cedar Creek,
are three mounds about 100 feet apart, situated in a line running north-
west, parallel with the general direction of the river at this point. None
of them have been opened, but one has been partially removed to mend
the road, and charcoal was found mingled with the earth.

Descending the Saint Joseph on the east side, to the farm of Peter
Notestine, one of the oldest settlers, we find a circular “ fort” in a bend
of the river similar to the one in De Kalb County. It has been plowed
over for nearly thirty years, but numerous fragments of pottery, flints,
and stone implements are yet found in and about its site when newly
plowed. Mr. H. J. Rudisill, county auditor, has a large rude pipe of
pottery from this place. The bowl and stem are in one piece, and the
end of the stem, which is nearly an inch in diameter, has been flattened
by the fingers while plastic for a mouthpiece.

Stull farther down the river, on the west side, opposite Antrup’s Mill,
is a semicircular “fort” with its ends on the river-bank. It is about
600 feet in arc. The earth-work is yet about 2 feet in height, with a
well-defined ditch on the outside. Very large trees which stood on the
embankment have fallen and gone to decay. We found in the earth

384 ANTIQUITIES OF JACKSON COUNTY, TENNESSEE—HAILE.

which had been upturned by a fallen tree a fragment from the neck of
a vessel, with square indentations on the surface, anda flint, flat on one
side and regularly chipped to a concave surface on the other. Still far-
ther down the river, at the mouth of Breckinridge Creek, is a single
mound, which has not been opened, except a slight excavation, which
developed the customary lumps of charcoal. This point is about four
miles north of Fort Wayne, and is the most southerly point in the
county at which mounds or earth-works are known to exist.

Still, on the ridges, implements and ornaments of the ‘“ stone age”
and fragments of pottery are often found in many parts of the county,
and many of these articles have a beauty of design and a polish un-
known to the Indians who were found here on the advent of the whites.
Some of the flints are beveled, and others seem to have been cut in a
winding form, probably for the same purpose as the beveled ones—to
give a rotary movement to the weapon. They are of every variety of
flints or cherts, and one I possess is a beautifully veined agate. Pro-
tessor Foster criticises Longfellow’s lines—

There the ancient arrow-maker
; Made his arrow-heads of sandstone—
and says, ‘‘ Sandstone was never used by the mound-builders as a mate-
rial for arrow-heads.” Ihave in my collection a broken arrow-head
chipped from sandstone, which proves that Longfellow was right and
his critic wrong.

Some of the stone ornaments are of a material not found in this local-

ity, except in a worked form. The ribboned siliceous slate seemed to
have been Held in special estimation, and I have part of one which I
presume to have been an emblem of authority. It differs from any I
have seen figured. It is of a reddish-veined slate, and had two perfo-
rations for the handle, but is broken through both holes, the interme-
diate piece being lost. The holes are about 2 of an inch in diameter,
regularly drilled.

I send you with this rude drawings of other implements and weapons
in my collection, which I have selected as types of the relies of the
stone age found in this vicinity, and which I hope may prove of inter-
est. They are all from this county, except those noted as from De Kalb.
They are drawn the exact size of the originals, and the flaking and
chipping represented as exactly as my artistic skill, or rather want of
it, will permit.

ANTIQUITIES OF JACKSON COUNTY, TENNESSEE.
By Rev. JosHua HaiLn, OF GAINESBOROUGH, TENN.
[Communicated by James W. McHenry, of Nashville. ]

There is a mound in this county, on the field of Mr. Philip M. Ray,
about forty yards in diameter and nearly 8 feet high, though lower at

ETHNOLOGY. 385

present by several feet than it was forty years ago. This mound has
been only imperfectly examined, and nothing found beyond a vessel or
two made of clay and slightly burned. No bodies have yet been found
in the mound or around it.

There are graves and a mound on my place, which have been carefully
examined. The mound is near the middle of a valley, on the east side
of Flynn’s Creek, about one hundred and twenty yards from the stream.
It is about forty yards in diameter and at the present time over 6 feet
above the general surface of the land. Surrounding the base of this
mound were placed loose, rough stones, forming a wall of 4 or 5 feet
high. I have made excavations into this mound, and in different parts
of it found that it is entirely filled in every part with graves just as close
to one another as they could be placed. They are found at the present
time from 18 inches to 2 feet below the surface, where there are no
washings; this seems to be their usual depth. The graves are not con-
fined to the mound, for the surrounding valley, containing fifty acres or
more, is filled with them as close as they can be placed. These graves
are generally in an east-and-west direction, and sometimes facing the
southeast, and occasionally, where the rock interfered with the position,
they are found without regard to direction, compactness seeming to
have been the leading idea. A great many of these graves have been
opened. They vary from 18 inches to 53 feet in length, and skulls, with
the jaw-bones still fastened to them, have been found ; also ribs and
leg-bones ; in short, all the solid bones of the human body, with little
sign of decay.

The manner of burying seemed to be as follows: The graves vary in
width from 10 to 18 inches; the coffins consist of slates, at the bottom
of the grave, closely fitted together; then slate set upon the sides and
at the ends, all of the same height, of about 15 or 18 inches. These
slates are generally in their rough condition, and the bodies seem to
have been deposited, and then one or two slates or other stones, smoothly
dressed or polished, laid over them. The stones are closely fitted
together where two are used, and, from the compactness, seem to have
been united with cement. The lid rests on the upright stones, and gen-
erally projects over the sides 3 or 4 inches. When these graves are
opened, they are found dry within, and generally contain some toys,
consisting of small jugs, crocks, skillets, or other small vessels, made of
clay, with the image of a man, eagle, or some other bird, evidently
stamped on them while in a soft state. The vessels vary in size from
the capacity of a pint to that of a gallon. They have been burned
slightly, but in no case have any been found glazed. There is at this
time one of these vessels or jugs, at T. L. Settle’s, in Gainesborough.
Some of them have legs and handles.

These graves were first discovered about fifty years ago, when the
valley as well as the mound were covered with a dense forest, composed
of trees of a large size. A violent storm blew over some of the large
trees, upturning the roots, and thus uncovered the graves

25 8

386 ANTIQUITIES OF PERRY COUNTY, OHIO—ANDERSON.

Contiguous to what may be called the valley of graves, on the west
side of Flynn’s Creek, is a low bluff, in which is a hole large enough to
take in at its mouth an ordinary-sized barrel. This hole is the entrance
to a cave under the hill, which has been explored to the distance of about
300 feet. This cave is high enough to allow walking in it erect, is
quite roomy, and perfectly dry. In it was found, in i863, a chest or
box, made of black-walnut plank 14 inches thick. It was about 2 feet
long, 12 inches wide, and 16 inches deep, with a well-formed lid of the
same wood. It was decayed on the outside with dry-rot to the depth
of about 1 inch, and in some places the finger could be pushed
through the wood ; in other places the material was sound inside, and
showed that the chest had been neatly dressed with a plane or some
other tool, and lined with cloth or some fine, soft substance. In it were
found wrapped up, in about three yards of large-checked gingham, a
part of which was still sound, about twenty surgical instruments, con-
sisting of a crooked knife, a crooked scissors, a lancet, and other articles
of which I did not know the name. These instruments were not badly
rusted, and in some places still quite bright; they were made of fine
steel, finely polished, with handles of tortoise-shell. Dr. U. T. Brown,
who has since died, took charge of them, and perhaps his family has
some of them still.

On the hill, some 200 yards high, which joins this valley, is found a
pile of loose, rough stones, 5 or 6 feet high. It has not been opened,
and therefore no information is to be given as to its contents.

On the top of another hill, which joins the mound in P. M. Ray’s field,
about the same distance and height from the mound, is a similar pile of
loose stones, which has not been examined.

KNTIQUITIES OF PERRY COUNTY, OHIO.
BY W. ANDERSON, OF BROWNSVILLE, OHIO.

I send to the Institution some specimens of antiquities from Perry
County, Ohio. The mound from which they were obtained is 6 feet
high, with a diameter of 25 feet. I found nothing until I reached the
original surface of the ground, where there were ashes and charcoal.
Two feet beneath these was the skeleton. The relics were deposited near
its head. Around the neck was a string of beads of sea-shells. Near
its right hand was found a plano-convex stone with holes in it. There
were also a large number of arrow-heads and stone axes with and with-
out grooves. ;

The skeleton wasin a poor state of preservation. I saved afew bones,
Around the skeleton was a quantity of ash-colored soil like that of de-
composed bark. I send a specimen of each.

ETHNOLOGY. 387

ANTIQUITIES OF CHARLES COUNTV, MARYLAND.
By OLiver N. Bryan, of Marshall Hall, Maryland.

The following paper does not propose to be an entire summary of all
the Indian relics in this county, but only to present a list in part of
such as have been found upon my farm on the Potomac, opposite Mount
Vernon, and of a few found upon the adjoining estates. What I propose
is simply to give a glance at my own cabinet, which I have been accu-
mulating for the last ten or twelve years, and at a few specimens I, from
time to time, have sent to the Smithsonian Institution.

Some ten or twelve years ago I became interested in gathering up, as
opportunity offered, the stone arrow-heads, axes, &c., that happened to
lie in my path, scarcely without knowing why I did so. At that time
an interest in archeology had not developed itselfin my mind, but now,
with a taste somewhat cultivated in that direction, and more sharply
eyed by practice, I take great pleasure in gathering up everything of
the kind that falls under my observation bearing evidence that it can
be referred to human ingenuity. I have become deeply interested in
the subject, and earnestly desire to add my mite toward developing
the history of the ancient people who lived upon the ground which I now
call my own. :

Among the articles I have gathered in my walks are axes, hoes, arrow
and spear points, scrapers, and lances of stone and bone, wampum and
pottery, pipes, needles with two holes, mortars, sinkers, hammers, chisels,
paint-material, bones (human and brute) from Indian graves, and speci-
mens from muscle-shell heaps. I have also found axes of greenish jasper,
of various Shapes and sizes, one of which] sent to the Smithsonian Insti-
tution ; found about three miles from my house. It was double grooved
and very long, and in respect to the extra groove was unlike any other
that Lever saw. The arrow-points show a greater diversity of form and
mineral than the axes or any other implement. I have them of quartz,
jasper, agate, chalcedony, hornstone, flint, lydian-stone, and a very rough
one of a granitic character. They vary in length from 4 inch to 4
inches.

It is evident that the makers of arrows could not work the stone, by
chipping, to any desired form, as is proved by the fact that no two points
can be found exactly of the same shape and size in all respects. Com-
pare two of the same length and material and you will find one more
umbilicated than the other, bases differently notched, points not true
with the base, and many other different phases, which plainly show that
the character of the mineral contr olled the makers at least in part. This
is not, however, the case with axes, pestles, or other implements sub-
mitted to a rubbing or grinding process. The makers of these had evi-
dently a mechanical eye as good, as far as their range extended, as that.
of the mechanic of the present day. Nearly all the rubbed implements.

388 ETHNOLOGY.

have their proportions wrought out, on both sides,-as true to the design
of the artist as could be done in our day upon such work.

Some of my arrow-heads have their points so crooked that one might
fancy that they were intended to shoot around a corner. Besides arrow-
points with bases to fit to the shaft, I have many without the projecting
base, from one to three inches long; others with flat and thin bases, said
to be war-implements, and to be left in the wound; and some few almost
triangular. These last are generally more perfect than the regular-
pointed.

The hatchets, so called, did not apparently answer the purpose of the
modern instrument of the same name, and, so far as I can see, were
never used by the Indian in that way. I have never seen one rubbed
or worn, and this is true also of the axes. The latter were, in my opinion,
used exclusively in war and in the chase.

Pottery seems to have been very extensively used among the ancient
inhabitants of this region; some of very good quality, others very
imperfect ; some baked doubtless in nets, other as certainly without nets.
I have one piece which, from its curvature, indicates a diameter of 17
inches, others from that down to 4 inches; none with ears or handles,
but some with deflected rims. Some of the pottery has pounded chal-
cedony mixed with the clay of which it is composed; more, however, with-
out it; another variety is worked out of soapstone or steatite. I have
a number of pipes, one of clay, one of limestone, representing the human

face and head in good style, and another of steatite showing a fox’s”

head, a most capital representation. There are hammers in the col-
lection, large and small, one weighing 8 pounds, 8 inches long, 63 inches
broad, 24 inches thick.

Mortars are found on my farm. A broken corn-mill was sent from it
a year or so ago; a medicine-mortar was also presented to the Institu-
tion. I have another, a paint-mortar, very unique, 4 inches long, and 2
broad, with a cavity on both sides (top and bottom) for the thumb and
fingers to hold the article while the party is painting himself. The
corn-mill was found three miles from my house. I think it singular that
among the articles I have found on my farm there has not been a single
eorn-mill, although I have found a piece of a very large pestle. I have,
however, two other very small mortars, which I suppose must have
been for medicine or paint.

I have gathered since I commenced my collection, as stated above,
everything that showed any trace of human art, consequently have
quite a variety of unfinished pieces, some just begun, others more per-
fect, showing at once the implement to be formed. One piece, for in-
stance, of yellow quartz, 10 inches long, 5 broad, 274 thick, weighs 6
pounds, intended to be a spear; another quartz piece, cimeter shape,
15 inches long, 34 inches broad, 24 iuches thick, weighs 63 pounds,
seems to be for a war-club, having a handle sufficiently developed for
that purpose. There are also a variety of net-sinkers, very rough, of

» pe —

“ETHNOLOGY. 389

cobble-stones; needles, one of stone, 14 inches long, 4 inch wide, Ts
inch thick, with hole and notch in one end; another, of horn, 7 inches
long, 4 inch wide, very thin; a third, of bone, an inch long, of -cylin-
drical form, constructed from the rib of some very small animal.

‘Wampum.—tThere are in my collection ten pieces of a bead, nine oy
shells, one of stone; another of shell, 4 inches long, 4 inch thick. This
last shows that the Indians must have had some communication with
the ocean, as no shell now found in the river or bay would make such a
bead. These wampum were taken from an Indian grave upon Piscata-
way Creek. There are doubtless graves in this neighborhood, but as
yet I have not been able to find them. I heard, a few days ago, of some
graves washed out, about fifteen miles below me, which I shall visit.

We have near my place several small “ shell- heaps” of muscle-shells,
Complinatus, nearly all “weathered out, from which I have obtained
specimens of pottery and bones of such animals as the ancient people
ate. One remarkable bone was submitted to Professor Cope, which ~
was pronounced by him to be the tarsus metatarsus of some large
water-fowl, but I have examined all the skeletons of that class in the
Smithsonian museum without finding anything like it. It might seem
at first that the Indians here were driven from necessity to eat muscles,
but from experiment I think otherwise. Ihave tried this mollusk, and
find it, when well cooked, quite a savory dish, as good, to my taste, as
common oysters.

We have also in this region and also in Saint Mary’s the true oyster-
shell heaps; one at Pope’s Creek, covering thirty acres from one to six
feet deep. Oyster-shell heaps abound upon the Wycomico River, and
there are several in Saint Mary’s County, upon the Potomac, the Wy-
comico, and Patuxent Rivers, and upon the bay. No ethnologist, so
far as I know, has ever visited these localities. Although, near as they
are to me, [ have not yet visited them, intending to do so, I have been
prevented by the constant recurring duties of the farm.

ANTIQUITIES OF STANLY AND HONTGOMERY COUNTIES, NORTH CAROLINA.

By F. J. Kron, of Albemarle, N. C.

I forward to the Institution, from Salisbury, N. C., by express, a
small box containing some antiquities collected in this part of North
Carolina, (the counties of Stanly and Montgomery,) on both sides of
the river called Yadkin above and Pedee below the mouth of the
Uharree River, on an area which, may be embraced at a glance from
the accompanying sketch, rough to be sure, but the bearings and dis-
tances of which are very nearly true. ;

From the vestiges left here by the Indians it must have been
a place much frequented by them. They have now all disappeared

390 ETHNOLOGY.

from about here. Some fifty years ago, however, bands of ten or more
were frequently met with on their way to Fayetteville, armed with bows
and arrows, and ready for a reward to display their dexterity in hitting,
before it came down, a piece of coin tossed up in the air. .

Implements of war or the chase, broken pots, burned stones, where fires
had been made, and arrow-heads chipped from minerals, are met with in
all directions, in the bottoms along the river, and on the hills within a
mile or soof the numerous fishing-stands along the banks of the stream.
Between the mouth of Uharree and Island Creek, on the river-bottom, large
spaces are covered with chips and blocks of chert from which pieces had
been taken. The lands being all made by successive deposits from the
stream, the remains are found from the surface down to the old bed of
the river, to the depth of about four feet. Broken pots, of various ma-
terial and ornamentation, can be picked up. Among those sent to the
Institution will be found one heavy specimen of soapstone, a mineral
not found in this neighborhood. Some years ago, a whole pot was
washed up during a freshet, but the vessel, which was of about two gal-
lons’ capacity, and gourd-shaped, unfortunately fell into the hands of
children, was broken, and only a few fragments saved.

Immediately below the month of Uharree River, across the Pedee,
when the waters are low, there can yet be seen the greater part of a
stone ford, in the form of a zigzag rail-fence. In 1829 it was still entire,
and could be used for passing over the stream; but the stones have
since been removed from both extremities for the building of fish-dams.
What remains, however, indicates the sound engineering notions of the
builders when they traced their path along a course the angles of which
would divide the force of the stream.

No mounds nor vestiges of other permanent works are to be found.
What remains seems to have been left on a vast eamping-ground during
the shad-fishing season, which in those days must have yielded a pro-
digious number of fish; for, not fifty years back, more shad could yet
be caught than could be cured by the fishermen. Not so, however, now,
Game must also have been an attraction, for the wild approaches of the
river are, even now, much visited by hunting-parties of the white race.

ANTIQUITIES OF FLORIDA.
By Aucustus MircHELt, M. D., of Saint Mary’s, Georgia.

While in the South during the winter of 1848, pursuing the study
and collecting specimens of ornithology, I was impelled by curiosity to
examine a mound of a moderate size situated on the southern portion of
Amelia Island, Florida, being kindly furnished with colored laborers,
and aided by Dr. R. Harrison.

This mound was about 15 feet in height, and 30 feet in diameter at

ETHNOLOGY. 391

the base, flattened and worn by attrition for ages; there having been
two growths of live-oak upon it, as stated by an old Spanish inhabitant
of the place. The soil composing the mound was of a light sandy, yel-
lowish loam.

We commenced the examination by cutting a trench 4 feet wide directly
through the center, from the apex to the base, and then another trench
at right angles to the former. The excavation revealed a number ot
relics, and the mode of burial of the mound-builders. They must have
commenced by digging into the surface of the ground about 2 feet;
then, partially filling the excavation with oyster-shells, they placed their
dead on these in a sitting posture, their legs bent under them, with their
faces to the east, and their arms crossed upon the breast, and next
spread over them a stratum of earth. It is evident that in the sueces-
sive burials the earth was reopened, and the additional bodies were
placed close either to the back or side of those which had been previ-
ously interred, until the whole of the first layer was complete; then the
circumference of the mound was walled in by a compost of marsh-mud ;
and then another layer of oyster-shells was placed over the heads of the
first layer of bodies, and a continuation of the mud wall, until the
superincumbent layer completed the mound to its apex.

Full three centuries must have rolled their tempests over this aborig-
inal repository of the dead. I quite expected to find everything like
mortal remains returned to dust. But in this I was in error, as through-
out the mound parts or complete portions of the bony structure still
remained; those on the southern or sunny side being in a more perfect
state of preservation. Counting the remains existing in the different
layers of this ancient tumulus, it must have contained about four hun-
dred individuals.

As we proceeded with our work, the interior of the mound presented
many objects of interest to the ethnologist. We could not, however,
secure many of these, since they crumbled, except the teeth, to dust as
soon as exposed to the air. I had therefore to study them mostly in
the earth, carefully scraping it away with a knife.

The conformation of the crania found in this mound appears to differ
somewhat from that of the present Indians; the facial angle less,
with superior depth of the frontal region, and greater capacity for the
anterior lobes of the brain; the outer surface of the skull somewhat
oval, smooth, and regular; frontal sinuses large; high cheek-bones;
cavity of the antrum large; orbital cavity of the eye deep and large;
occipital protuberance very large, with a great development of the
organs of philoprogenitiveness ; superior depth of the base of the infe-
rior maxillary bone; rough serratures and deep depressions for the
attachments of powerful muscles of that bone.

The teeth of many of the crania of this mound were, without ex-
ceptions, in a perfect state of preservation, the vitrified enamel of
these organs being capable of resisting exposure for centuries. These

392 ETHNOLOGY.

teeth presented distinctive appearances throughout, in the absence of
the pointed canines; the incisors, canine, cuspides, and bicuspides all
presented flat crowns, worn to smoothness by the attrition of sand and
ashes eaten with the half-cooked food. <A bi-section of some of these
teeth showed the dental nerve to be protected by an unusual thickness
on the surface of the crown. Not one carious tooth was found among
the hundreds in the mound. Many were entire in the lower jaw, the
whole compactly and firmly set. In some the second set was observed ;
while one jaw had evident signs of a third set, a nucleus of a tooth being
seen beneath the neck of a tooth of a very old jaw, whose alveolar pro-
cess was gone, and the whole lower jaw ossified to a sharp edge; none
showing the partial loss of teeth by caries and decay.

Some of the skulls showed evident marks of death by violence, as
from the hands of the enemy in war. In one instance the flint arrow-
head was seen sticking in the left parietal bone. A number of skulls
were broken in, mostly at the vertex, seemingly by that rude weapon,
the stone battle-ax, which was so effective on the skulls of the Spaniards
in the early periods of their settlement of Florida. It is evident that
sanguinary conflicts often took place between tribes of the mainland,
in their disputations for those enviable islands of the sea-coast, abound-
ing then in spontaneous productions and surrounded by fish and oysters.
No remains of these, much below adult age, were found; the weak and
slender frame had returned to dust. All that could be traced of their
mortality was a carbonized deposit in the clean sand, with here and —
there a small fragment of bone.

Pursuing my investigations, and excavating farther toward the south-
east face of the mound, I came upon the largest-sized stone ax I have ever
seen or that had ever been found in that section of the country. Close
to it was the largest and most perfect cranium of the mound, not crushed
by the pressure of the earth, complete in its form, quite dry, and no,sand
jn its cavity ; together with its inferior maxillary bone, with all the teeth
in the upper and lower jaws. Near by the side of this skull were the
right femoris, the tibia, the humerus, ulna, and part of the radius, with
a portion of the pelvis directly under the skull. All of the other bones
of this large skeleton were completely or partially decayed. Contiguous
to this was nearly a quart of red ocher, and quite the same quantity of
what seemed to be pulverized charcoal, as materials of war-paint.
Anticipating a perfect specimen in this skull, I was doomed to disap-
pointment; for, after taking it out of the earth and setting it up, so that
I could view the fleshless face of this gigantic savage, in the space of
two hours it crumbled to pieces, except small portions. According to
the measurement of the bones of this skeleton, its height must have
been quite 7 feet. :

There were three distinet rude ornaments in this mound. First, the
vertebra of a fish, painted with red ocher, and well preserved. Second,
an hexagonal bead, made from the tooth of the alligator, (not painted.)

ETHNOLOGY. 393

Third, the internal lamina of an oyster-shell, cut into small circular
spangles, pierced with a hole in the center, and threaded with the fibrillz
of the tendon of some animal, closely strung, and painted with red
ocher.

Coal was freely diffused throughout the mound, which contained but
little pottery. Two stone hatchets were found, and a small stone ax, in
addition to the large one described. This instrument bore evident marks
of fire.

There is one large mound on the eastern end of Amelia Island, Florida,
and two mounds on the central portion of Cumberland Island, Georgia,
likewise most of the islands on that coast, from which could be obtained
large collections of materials for the advancement of ethnological
science.

ANTIQUITIES OF FLORIDA.
[Extract from the journal of John Bartram, of Philadelphia. London, 1769. ]

“ About noon [25th January, 1766] we landed at Mount Royal and
went to an Indian tumulus, which was about 100 yards in diameter,
nearly round, and near 20 feet high. Found some bones scattered on if.
It must be very ancient, as live-oaks are growing upon it 3 feet in diam-
eter. What a prodigious multitude of Indians must have labored to
raise it, to what height we cannot say, as it must have settled much in
such a number of years; and it is surprising where they brought the
sand from, and how, as they had nothing but baskets or bowls to carry
itin. There seems to be a little hollow near the adjacent level on one
side, though not likely to raise such a tumulus the fiftieth part of what
itis; but direetly north from the tumulus is a fine straight avenue about
60 yards broad, all the surface of which has been taken off and thrown
on each side, which makes a bank of about a rood wide and a foot high,
more or less, as the unevenness of the ground required, for the avenue
is as level as a floor from bank to bank, and continues so for about three-
quarters of a mile to a pond of about one hundred yards broad and one
hundred and fifty long, north and south, seemed to be an oblong square,
and its banks four feet perpendicular, gradually sloping every way to the
water, the depth of which we could not say, but do not imagine it deep, as
the grass growsall over it; by its regularity it seems to be artificial ; if'so,
perhaps the sand was carried from hence to raise the tumulus, as the
one directly faces the other at each end of the avenue. On the south
side of the tumulus I found a very large rattlesnake sunning himself;
I suppose this to be his winter-quarters. Here had formerly been a large
Indian town. I suppose there are fifty acres of planting ground cleared,
and of middling soil, a good part of which is mixed with small shells;
ne doubt this large tumulus was their burying-place or sepulcher.
Whether the Florida Indians buried the bones after the flesh was rotted
off them, as the present southern Indians do, I cannot say.”

CONTENTS OF SMITHSONTAN REPORT FOR 1874.

Page.
Wrder/of Congress foyprint extra COPIES. --- Siem ne ses en anicenei cee wae ce ceec sees ee 2
Letter from Professor Henry, transmitting report to Congress -.----..--------- 3
List of Regents, committees, and members ex officio of the Institution -......-- 5
Officers and assistants of the Institution and National Museum........--..---. 6
Collaborators resident at the Institution -..---.-2--.- i.-.22 ss-ce5 cone ccc ce oe 6
REPORT OK ROVKSSOR HENRY, SECRETARY oc.c cece ecesn=s- sssece ecscesenes 7
@hangeswmithe board sea ssc cceeeseNecceetsnos tis oemas cocice moe cee becca. @
Bequest of James Hamilton ..-..-.-...---:...--. Seancdaadasd conSOaOeOCEe u
lmportancelotabstract SGlence--.4.)-- cee = acess eee sees snelecmcceneseees 8
Congressional appropriations for Museum .:......---...------<--..---«--- 9
Hatluneyotwirsh Nationally bankessss ses -eisen eine se slaee wemic ie cileemee cee eer 9
Statement of the condition of the funds. .---...----..----.-----.. Sooee odes 9
Safety of funds secured by deposit in United States Treasury.....----..--. 10
Warciniaebonds andicOUpons..aq-o slats ee ciioee eae eee eee coe ee asee 10
Publications uhevin stitutione ses. ace ease ae loa ae ates ee acre sees a 10
Rules of distribution of Smithsonian publications, -...--...-...----------- 10
Accountof publicationsun) TO(4 se sess. a eeiacma ata sse ee ce ieee eee eee 12
Smidhsonian| Contributions, volume UNG 4 ee etee etna atelelteleesie sells 12
Miscellaneous Collections, volumes XI and XII...-......-:..-..---.----.--- 13
Publications to form parts of future volumes._...----.<--.-:-..-----------< 13
Researches: ,
IMeteovolopiye satan ein eam aa te Seas AN eee CMe aan eee 16
Comets es tara o eee ee Rees ce sine eee cces tec enmemae soe cles 18
Biticteney, ofisteam-heabers(=se)o0 sisee eee snereaee one Sseroca cease 19
TEE TO heen Seco pnb BOb BoD oe a code SOCn oe bs See Sar ener e aac ntesone 20
Natiiral bIshory ano eUnMOlO RY woo cenicteteralalatciel telate =o ciate oeisie ie aia t= 20
OATS AME OWEN CRON IES Sao booo hODeae cadsos o6Seau DOO aU Seaeee ODE Gesees 21
OLE NAC OLLES ONG C1 yeaa erst teat olla ale ote ia alten tlle alacant 22
IMME oo den Mase beso dc cosbe bobose HOR n SE LSOH be COnn Dac ooE soSeuaToeS Snes 23
Historical manuscripts from Mrs. Dundas and General Lefroy. --..--..-.-.- 25
Telegraphic announcements of astronomical discoveries ...--..----..------ 26
ABLSKOIGS and comets Giscoveredsin) LGVAe soso same sacnaa eee lecea ess alee alee 26
Nationale Maseuim ast ociesie. wid isi ie sw awe Sdae ee sivsems sess nee mee oF
Increase:of the: Museum, by: locality: a2 sc scscon «at eee sos ce cos eee 27
Increaseiof the: Museum) systematiCz. 2 oa sae a aerial 29
Work done in connection with the Museum...-.......--..--..----...:- 35
Government? exploraiions/and SULVEYSirsse114 ies se else eee ieee eee 36
Muincellaneousts=.-scrmecacecicis <n sc ceive as uo aa, aeisnee ene ee Semana aciseet= 44
Corcoran’ Art Gallonygee. oa 'sisce ces wae ses Weis -ieeeeiaateeenieee oan eee 44
Army: Medical Museum tes-c(oass os setsccese see eee atocne selects ewes 44
Department of ACrICHMMTOr. << 52-0 «--~ 2eeemeeeies oneness eae eee neeian 44
OG Sin alls trcerrcerraine neat o's hla Caen aeieeents Saseecce seen Mea sete 44
Bishwnguiry and Eproparaion.—--. - -sesseaeiees aa «<5 ose) eine sales 44
WES )-86A SOU MIN OS ss pee eeteiieisis cna eerie ete cee Sesser ee ae 46
PolarigsA reticrexplorationys-mes snes ne. setts a- ale aes yass S sacle ye] enjeetoeree 46
Chemical ahoratoryes-eua eens eye e anaes eee ace ocr eee 47
Photography -as-e-<- voceee see eee peta ate soci sisal sin slaleista mpc nia aa eae 47
ives HOUSE ONY see tteine a aesinaielsenisaefanina si eis= te toes ae aaa ees 43

396 CONTENTS.

Page
APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY...----..----- --0-- Gbosohe Saaséc “49
Entries in Museum record-books in 1873 and 1874. .......--...---.-------- 49
Distribution of duplicate specimens to the end of 1874....--..----.---.---- 49
Additions to the: collections inl S74 eae - eee lars a eae en ee 50
List of articles deposited by the Institution in the Corcozan Art Gallery..-. 65
List of Indian vocabularies received from the Wheeler expedition. --....-- 66
Circular in regard to the disease known as Chorea, by Dr. 8. W. Mitchell -- 66
Wiferarysand (scent cle xc Wa OCs weet aeele ee teeta rate eal ale tt 67
Agents, number of boxes sent, size and weight..---....---.------------ G7
(Cro\eraalanve a reepol Mey oete ss = aes Sacany Soecos ASSO MnOoSo6 Hoses bocass Saerones 67
Packages received by the Institution from Europe for distribution in
IN MB AEE Gano pee seo Soobed cEbm oS oGod caacch poEese Codes Gace ieeccese sees 68
[Blore shes ACS IN EMS OBOs6 Rosse Kong choos ConRoH boaSeoeaSScHasEe 68
HMorhindividtals ste. mc ee ceewen cise secs see cones ea ere eetae ae ee eet 74
Classified record of miscellaneous meteorological material preserved in the
Sram Rove UN HUANMON AoScooescSoseeselcos SeSedn Stdoooibhoes cooosORSReES 77
/ Nigiri eo Goseas cob oso seoase cdooNasese csaudeccnecs Goon cass osecdosee ZAC
Instruments, (barometers, rain-gauges, &c.)....----.---------- ------ 80
IW IGT Ws oes ORG aceioncs Se ee ae Aen SOR See iSauo GaSdes chacba cacmds ote 81
LP pen eles no ee an aia mr oe SOAs SN Eaeao SSabae eases 83
Wind s2525- BES REET ICS SSN ASS SES Mb Seat mean SBOBastBAnobaas 85
General meteorology :
Halos, earthquakes, elevations, magnetic declination, balloon
observations, rise and fall of lakes, lightning, &c -..--....-.---- 85
Local meteorology :
INGO oadooe SosendpaccoSdesncd acehbs soos aobbda ebbodobddose casces 87
INET Wis tena I GaS OCOCEO HOSE Oo Sr SeSemo onus UcaaGoccoruc poaaEs. ceed . 87
IAD RING NUE Sood poe ee BEA a see nBoSked cuSecosunosesesocostotes cones 88
(Glave Luar BCEy AB Oe ee Bena dsou coe coe odds cbanop soacésosee sate 88
ID UIRO NE SS Saas oseGieade och cod ces bdescs Gros sss beseconsooaceHd 89
WON NMP as Sa dbcgoncesecude Saespo neccos bau sed RabeSO odes Sose 90
British Amreriearer esses nee eset ne aineee selene cette sere eet 90
IM@xc COs eee eee e ine as oem cinerea eiererefece Bee ot eect eiaisce tars 92
United States ....-. SSeS Re SE Ge Ba Sou atm semoa seaetesoaoseuRdesds 92
POlyMeS1A 22.6 coe come nes = ne seman velco ame eine Senin nie eee 115
South America.-.. .- ARE Aes Hoe een OW OSS SS aca ooceoosuEe 115
Aes niin) CaO eas Saag togbed codecs achoes wsSos6 saS085 sdteoo cco 116
Miscellaneous and unlki Own eee oles lee fee leeete rota ee ialeletel= eo ielie a= 117
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR 1874.....---------- ---------- ---- 118
Starter Grate ostwt lo emt tin Clee esate te ee eee atte ate eae 118
Receipts and expenditures.*..-...--..----- ---- -----+ ---- ---- ------ ------ 119
National Museum appropriations ..-...---...---- ---------- ------ ---- =--- 121
Nationals fusesum sbalances\eesee semen eee eeeiee = erl lee came aia tete FSess 122
Hstimates) for 18/h-222- sees es cee eons o nel enenieo=m <== we seeectsee eee see 122
Examination and approval of vouchers.........----.----.---------------- 123
JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS. ...--.--------- MABBSo ue 124
Meeting of January 20, 1875... -2 2. wee nne enon cone one cone wane een ene e eee 124
Meeting of January 23, 1875..-...-- Seis en Send Wee m Bi Cafes eta teal ee mieten tae ese 126
Report of special committee on the Museum......-..--.---------------+-- 126

GENERAL APPENDIX.
Tua Puace, eulogy by ARAGO- <u. oe) o-oo wie o ee eee cen ee ae
QUBTELET, eulogy by ED. MAILDY.2 2-0. J .ccsec0 ween cents eseneee eee nee eae

CONTENTS.

DE 1A Rrve, Arthur Auguste, eulogy on, by M. DUMAS ...-..-..-.-...----- ----
TIDES AND TIDAL ACTION IN HaRgors, by Prof. J. HE. HInGARD.....-...--.----
OBSERVATIONS UPON THE ELECTRICITY OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE AURORA
BorREALIS, made during the Swedish expedition of 1868 to the North Pole, by
Prof. Set1m LEMSTROM, with notes by Professor DE LA RIVE.....-----.-----
On A DomINantT LANGUAGE FOR SCIENCE, by ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE, with
OWES Lony Dies AiOheasy Wponins Gia esabesosadaaucalose ese Hocead coubes SsUaeEcoeS
ON UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE, by CHARLES A. SCHOTT and Professor EVERETT
ON A SERIES OF EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH CAROLINA, commencing on 10th Febru-
ary, 1874, by Prof. WARREN Du PRE, with notes by Prof. JosepH HENRY....
REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL
History, OF GENEVA, from June, 1872, to June, 1873, by Prof. A. Dr La RIVE.
WARMING AND VENTILATION, by ARTHUR MORIN, (continued from report of
USK SD) Stncebe Seece Soe C ESR O US He ReSSEE DEER ea CRE eee ee ane CaaS ee DoOaGe sae
AD PIIGATIONS see orerais seats s woes MED Sone tania (aielniaie aisle ache! cjaiaiaiseeiemnrere

Nini famiGeN Sy MUMS) sz 2-5 eveesiaias cer iee[ecieve see sista si-/cneeiafsiolay<cicine wine cist cieincfaeeete
enimamyaSCHOOls ecerasteete cers eye ceo :
AuliisChools se. ssc cee tc eejececin eaiaro ce meeee seis eects soasooeee ses
Nighitischools/ of desip nissan cscs <acietsesm sic iomles cians ion caicinici cleins isin aaccia
ILAOCTIAS ANG) COUGRIS. caaas Secs cass cecsccos=eu Gana Head cacp Doos b6gG ba55 ose
WiOrkshopstesesmne sieseacocis)c cease te see DN aN a oe a, ENS
Manufactories ....-...- ye Sn AP OY Ue Ae OE PS RE ABE ee ah kb ea a
Wiorkshopshtiew hich dusts produced -ssos2 css sceanae clea ee ieee eer
Cutlery-works --......- Ae seinG alas ate stelacie wn chalet wiotsiaals Serainie Som eos creme
GTIMMSTONCSLUSECWObramcae nine sae ao sisacccn cc cen caecie=isameee cess las aia
DEvIN CO ChamMibera hems icvacioe ceeve merece mene eeiwicisclose aces ereisciaat tains aecteels
Linen-drying chambers.....-..- meee see esas Scism Senin\e sijemeiees insisenineaves
Powder-dEyllroyrooniswessoccas a cece eee soe tarce sa eleaacicce seca oeiactiecle sci
IBanrackeaaewenemoeare cele cc cece se since Ma nean Cacee ence celine cise ecceionice
Hlospilalsitacemcemre ssceeee sate ace reee ened a acinais ars wwe closmyaeas eceaoseeu
INSWIUMS' So hecectecee seele sce cease LOSER e Sco C Leb eccmonanse BeE OD COnO RECO
Churches ...-- Be eers Meet Weta tare oataie oo tesa aias ie a iainin eae Kini wale state stove Seni areee

eceee wees Bee eee oe et eee we

Glass roofs and ceilings....-...---- -..- Bee Sac ae woe letton selon soings sa cniays
Dwelline=honuses¥-seeeeeereceeaoecees Beas ales rin niae Seems Sloe aneae cae ce
Court=yardsee..--eeen cesses alates cioeivin ones Seine a se caianis wamececicmios cies
KGHGCHENS wees a ee cee ae erees aero eae cote aloe carseanicels salcisiae wien acieieais
IB AWOS) Gen eeeean Ose Ocan CdSe nCoedasose ooeenCoe Dee vela(edisrsisinje'sieye = arias =

DD MAN P-TOOMI Reece aes basis secs a asinine aieineiseeie niece cio acini eee spose
Reception-rooms .......--- Bodog oe cen Soceno teen SeSHs BRE SRO Nocona nee
Halls\of assembly and lecture-rooms | «|. ~ 2-25 co<h\cec0 ceeene cc aoenlewe cine oe
AEH GATOUS se terrae eae eee ne ete nla cic was inicate sia om ote Scala pete semeeeiee aes see
Stablestanadteow=NOusessesnees ccc ae ceccise cele se sacmuseiemenemen sen costs
Means of control of ventilation. ...-.- ajesace acmoda «Sei eeeesaeaesesemmenee

ETHNOLOGY.
Ancient graves and shell-heaps of California, by Paul Schumacher... .-..--.
Account of the burial of an Indian squaw, San Bernardino County, Califor

AULA ew A eeD Van Wind Mogi Oreetae ora craia es nee ee tein ecteslan = misicis antetolsreyianetar = =
Ancient mounds of Mercer County, Illinois, by Tyler McWhorter...--. -.--
Antiquities of Whitesides County, Illinois, by W. H. Pratt.........-.-.----.
A study of skulls and long bones, from mounds near Albany, Illinois, by Dr.

R. J. Farquharson

398 CONTENTS.

ETHnoLoGy—Continued.

The:shell-bed’skall byw A. S. uittamyesc creer alo eemis ces tee e aero ee
Antiquities of Northern Ohio, by Dr. George W. Hill--.---.-.. ..---.-.-----
The age of stone, and the troglodytes of Breckinridge County, Kentucky,

by2RoSs Robertsonteresce a acer ie ctaetse Seacrest ante eens
Antiquities of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, by A. C. Davis.-..-.-.-.---.-----
Antiquities of Yazoo County, Mississippi, by J. W. C. Smith
Antiquities of Tennessee, by Dr. Daniel F. Wright.................--------
Antiquities of Blount County, Tennessee, by Miss Annie E. Law......-.----
Antiquities of Orleans County, New York, by Frank H. Cushing
Antiquities of La Porte County, Indiana, by R. 8. Robertson.----.---.---..
Antiquities of Allen and De Kalb Counties, Indiana, by R. S. Robertson. --.
Antiquities of Jackson County, Tennessee, by Rev. Joshua Haile, communi-

Se

CERES ees) Vivo MCI MM AY oS so0 casonseaor sae sos cob aes SeoSeSncs seSsse 384
Antiquities of Perry County, Ohio, by W. Anderson...............-------- 386
Antiquities of Charles‘County, Maryland, by Oliver N. Bryan....-..-....--- 387
Antiquities of Stanly and Montgomery Counties, North Carolina, by F. J.

Kronen eaaeerna ESRSR Shoe Sotoda Gescedttesedoe BAR Serres oceanic nace saneke 389
Antiquities of Florida, by Dr. Augustus Mitchell...........-...-..-------- 390
Antiquities of Florida, by JohneBartramts2 5-5. cesta moe ~ fesse a nani 393

IDTSH Gig UAE BST TMIORN |S cao sae Sood nos coc dececeesoscs acc Beg aa OS0Sb0 aod noanee 394

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.
La PLACE.
1. Inequality in the mean motions of Jupiter and Saturn...-.............-. 145
TIDES IN HARBORS.

lip GHMEMACU] A by Nas EU Ree onco can asco caH Sa comces SoSueneaen OS enEc cease = 210

Z-eOTUIMAlANGQUAUEY = s/cicsnn cain sceisieicocnias cael ae elsjncisia. esis caeeeee ee 212

Se LIGE-TEGISUCTS a155)-.s a mniscisiniseis ve cssarciniels eimisin coos wai ee (sso aelsacne teas 213

APP HALCNOMAC= WAV. CSiemc accra oni me soul epee corse ieeetae enale eine a setae emcee 216

5. Times and heights of tides on Atlantic coast of United States ....-..... 218

6. Effect of sinking stone-fleet on Charleston bar......-.----..-.--..------- 221

7. Times and heights of tides in Long Island Sound and New York harbor. 222

ee Eintrance)to New: York harboatee.. oo.\<wsees cisco oe aooccen. ces astoetee ceoe 224

WARMING AND VENTILATION.

BiG A inkaato ASV LUMNSS cc coenn can ce Sstescesioe cece caciase cease aces 274
Ure ErimaryasChoolsy scscs). ccs sc ner ss eesl sabe colaseecesn aa nemisckisceeee 279
1Gwkyceums and colleges; Lowloni Wycoumss.ss-\-s.55-2-— >see eee 284
17. Lyceums and colleges, Toulon Lyceum -.........--.--,------------- 284
18. Lyceums and colleges, Toulon Lyceum -....-.-.--..-.----- --------- 2384
19. Lyceums and colleges, Toulon Lyceum ..-......---.-.------------- 226
Ose WOLF KShODSeemas reser ea ae care rac ais emicaS ee nasi Semeicie Sens clemterciine 287
DT Match tactoriesg- soaee oe cece eee cece icicce eon eee micctaaces cece 289
22 Match tac tones cs cacpaiatae sacle teaas wiayatoe a a sclocin ss eee ease 289
Yoo GLInastones; Usedawieb soe eSeire coceic eee tone Soe oan ee eae eee 291
24 <Grindstoness sed “Wet na. casiecemon eee so one beeinciete em eeeceeeieeeeer 292
25.plinen-dryin ey Chambers sso >< oe cleseees =e sole seoeeieeiiae- eee 294
20 einen dryinpechambersrssqmcencsi- cece + vee enna ae laine seer 294
Die TLOSDLbALStasrccme te leticciciace sisnic sas Cuiee eeteneaieine oie sieves tale mela eis 298
ony HOSspital geen. jc cise oe a Cem elacicces Uno wee eee ecactacee he ceeetee ce 298
Se PEL ORME AIS an sian semaes slete Nomiclen alaisatc ao a/stt ia eae ee Oras ee ere 301
SOMEEUVIOS) Ja ae oc Siocon dcenvecc cc ardaci anwiss serelsjsniostciatsle oe elnidalarc os See 313
31. Northern Railroad Company water-closets...--...--.------------. 314
32. Northern Railroad Company water-closets........---.---2---.---- 314

ETHNOLOGY.
ANCIENT GRAVES OF CALIFORNIA.

Fig. 1. Sketch from Point San Luis to Point Sal, California ...........----- 336
2. Shell-heaps between North and South Point Sal..-..........--..--. 3338
3. Shell-heaps between North and South Point Sal........-.-...-..--- 339
ABINOS-MN AM 5 coe taiaie ee erates (oi siais/e icc tate ee eee aera nw naa eels comet sememe 340
Da IGA de See Aa ene Aan eee ee meee Bee 344
G.. CAVOIGL IGRI Ar Sa cle eA ws ain cnielesam alee afee wai aia's eles wie aneaiea ch 346

ANTIQUITIES OF WHITESIDES CouNTY, ILLINOIS.

Fig. 1. Location of mounds, Whitesides County, Illinois............-...--. 395

2. Relics from Whitesides County, Ilinois.............. escescc--- one 338

LN Dix

Page.
Pelt CO. .4,IMINerals {OM i ckce se caclsc accel eees cee aisiocicce Se vessweacce 35, 50
Academy of Brussels. (See Quetelet.)
Acousiics, Etofessor Henry's experiments'onm .-222.!-2202ce~ cece nes coos ns enone 44
AMO Me Olu MS DCCIMENS TOM: occ. <eelscleioe Saicieleceieelcieln weiss semisiqeseaae 32
Additions to collections of National Museum in 1874.........---.---.---------- 50
BENG THLONS UO MUD EADY ves sis ove sels Sis esc ae 05 esses ab ooscvecies ae selene cleincmicioceleie mere 23
Avassiz, Prot. E:; succeeded by Dr. Gray as Regent._-:---.=-.2.--- <22------=--- 7
AGEs Oher wean shioitiOn iy WUTOPO <6. scsi cel as eee cio asee seat ses se acelseteeieas 21
Agriculture, Department of, Smithsonian deposit with..--.....--.--...----» 34, 36, 44
Muican sO. Hess eClMONSALOMe ema s sco 6 ces.ceclocis ote emissiseidemetsese soe eeremioee 32, 50
PUD GUELG Le mse HOLS PeCClMONSULOM s.\c cc's se sore aicisicie cian ease se cnveisniey saisiere eee 32, 50
Alexander, Prof. Stephen, on harmonies of the solar system.......-..-.--..---- 14
Wow airesh=watel, Or.) WOOUS Paper ON. - 25. 0. sic. 5 oo sic seine eons aaencinieccecs 12
PVT eho pana SEO LELTE OS LO) 76 2 /eis/-(o ois ea siniwin aye sieisrcioume nisin Se ayes seveu ets eae 36
Allen, J. A., mammals referred to.-.--.. Pialelele bio aise ie fe sein sie tseteeaere nis ciate otetcle estan eereie 36
Alvord, Benjamin, letter oniearthquakes to)... -<- -20--s--cssecince~ coer cane oeee 254
UM Sree ree) ANGE ALOMa sn stoic e/olens cic sola oa se nmlecisisiesiseaiasicinelanaiteaiseea nee OOO
Ammen, Commodore, deep-sea soundings from ....-..----...------------.----- 46
ARNEL CLEGLNICA MN GISCOVELIES Of= << <)<j/\c\a\s wacicise ooo ciel vcsiceelencsiar seis ses scenes 188
PAM AIV ACS (Ol MINELAlN eee serenieochalceiseic< aio Silas Sieasisien cigs .chae aatcerse cee ce 35, 36, 38, 47
Anderson, Prof. W., antiquities of Perry County, Ohio..............-..--..---. 386
Antiquities. (See Ethnology.)
Antiquities of Tennessee, by Dr. Joseph Jones... ...- 200-260 sennes ence soe oss 14
ND PeAdixs LO heme portonsbhe SeCebaLlyn,..-- osc6 sae eiseeiniecen cen eo eeeeeeeeee 49
Appropriations by Congress for National Museum........-.....---..---------- 27, 121
ESOIEO PPI LUIONS OL etbe Oho ieisisine es ale: = <icicie em a cieienelntee cin eae eise ae ee eee 121
Beep, el COUriCAl@IRCONEFIES Olga sete oe ~~ 2 < oe'n wisn = ani min enl stewie aejae eens 189
Cri yEng id DEN 2) et CoS So Onga SSO SO SEE Eee Sonoma ccna Aasess 129
Archeology. (See Ethnology.)
Arctic expeditions, scientific resultsiof, Polaris -.....-c--. <2 «c-ceeeecem os es e= 46
PAT CLICLOSPEGINON, SWISH... o[ees <se's ais cn ale's ocisies Gaian Eats sini lSomeneitenie mic 227
Argentine meteorclogical observatory, tables printed for .........--..--------- 14
Army Medical Museum, Smithsonian deposit with......-...----.--.-..--..---- 44
Arny, Governor, additions to collections by... --.~.--<<isecece-e-ccee enmsos aces 30,50
Mnesian Wells sLeMPOrauUle Obie ac <= a)e-malsaciccsl-civciwalceccewecinseitlicmeeecaiccee 249
Art gallery. (See Corcoran.)
Assistants in the Institution and National Museum.............--.-.---------- 6
ARsYriani tablet, irom brite Museum’..... 2.26.25 -accncisceweneceesccess = ee BY)
Asteroids discovered in 1874 ....-. ...--. ..-...--- Goayeicee oteitaciwicetierseistele o oseinice 26
DUMERLI CA LIONLOLALLV.C LO) seninina sets -[-0 = elnsteremieetes ae) ere sa) insist 19
Professor Watson’s plan for discovery of .......-... (le kealiccus se oeisaee 26
Astor, William B., succeeded by Professor Coppée as Regent .... .. ....-...--,- 7
Astronomical discoveries, telegraphic announcement of .-....--...-.-.----.---- 26
Astronomy. (See Alexander, Bessels, Wheeler, Hayden, Powell, and Campbell.)
dia bias, labors:and GjsCOVELeS Oliesecsesee oases oe came oe ee ee 131
Kepler, Jaborsjand @iscoverieslOf--.4 <2 ci-s- ssses odesess sacl sdeeeees 131
Newton; labors/and*discoveries of ..2... 5.1.2... -<5-. case tecceclseaeee 133

268 401

402 INDEX.

: Page.
Astronomy, Euler, labors and discoveries Of -- -... .c- 226s cccees panes eaneee enue 134
Copernicus, labors and discoveries 0f- 2 -- 2... soos eee - 135

Huyghens, labors and discoveries of .. 2... i225 mace s- eee ene 136

Clairault; labors and discoveriesiOfes eescee see] seem eee enema

Cassini; Jaborsiand discovertestols=s--4-4- sae 44c- oe eee eee eee eee 139

Dp Alembert, labors/and discoveries Of2525-5-5 s-6oo sass eeee eee 134

Lagrange, labora:and discoveries-0f m= .-.2.5s<-4-53-25-052> sees 134

Adams Vaborsiand (discoveries Olen seas. -oe eee ee eee eee 144

Halley, labors: and discoveries Of, 22: <cc.0 cm oh ots ce Sceeecie a e eee 146

Galileo; labors and discoveries of. .2--.-ca-ne ae eeeeeeeeaaee eee 151

Bernouilli, labors and discoveries\0fi.222.. s2222- oc socn oes aen eee 158

iie-Sagey laborsiand. discoveries Of... -2.. o22b assess eeee es owes 158

Button; labors and-discovertes Of <5 <sas-)sesese Sec ophe tata 160

Agwlumsy, warminoandyventilation: Offic. ccocoe «=< sae eens aoe neste ieee ee 273, 305
Atkins, Charles.G.,-salmon-hatching Dycasces a2 22) = as se eleanor 46
AGOMIC GH COLY «2 aais.aine aioicis a chaiate siateiate lateaheicteye ic else Se a cae ee ee 192
Anroras; De lasive’s theory. of-.sso52 .cesacce ose setiae eee ae see eee oe eee 195
opservationsion;im:Aretic resionsiss- cacee one. seen sce See eee ere aes 227

TECOPAS Oe 3. ors seis nS elses Sais.ax Somes weniaiane Halse Ae ae ee eae 77

Baird, Prof. Spencer F., Assistant Secretary of the Institution .........-.--.-.-- 6
fish inquiry and propagation in charge of...-..-.----.. 44

observation by, on temperature of sea-waters...--.--.-. 46

report of;on: Museume. 22 a5. teeta. eaaae eeee s eee 27

review-of Americat: DirdS ieee -fssseeessee eee soa eee 13

SPECIMENS HVOM> <2 sce Sasoeae eins «so Ge nsnene eee eaeeee 33, 50

Bancroft, Hon. George, acts of, as Regent and member of executive committee. .5, 123,
124, 125, 126, 128

elected Regent, vice General Sherman -.. ..---.-.-..----. ch

Bank, Hirst National, deposit) withe: =5: = 222.245.6528. ee aie ee 9,119
Barnard, General J. G., problems of rotary motion by.----.-.-------.---------- 12
Barnum,-P."T;specimens:from: 2.2252 saecc2 seb Se ae ea ae 31, 32, 50
Barometer, work on, to be undertaken. «so .<se4- 202 se oseet seen enoeeee oene 18
Barracks, warminp: and ventilation of 222522261 0c 2 soa. hoe paeeee ese eee 295
Bartram; John, antiquities:of Mlorida:. 5. sso.c2. see ssec as sae ae see ee nee eee eee 393
Baumhauer, Professor, Smithsonian exchange-agent at Harlem...-.....--------- 21
Bean, T.-H; specimens from: 22 s0c-crs6 fo.ck cence cece case eee Cee eee 34, 51
Bechler; Goh: explorations by (ss 52-o sae lee cies see sae Se ee ee eee eres 39
Beeguerel, experiments: Of: 252226055226 1F sess Mes see ee eee nea isles facet 193
Belknap, Commander G. E., soundings on Tuscarora from...---.. .----.--.---- 34, 46, 63
Bendire, ‘Capt. Charles, specimens from 2. 22s)-— 42 eee eee ee ee ee see iealon a 32, 33, 51
Bequests to the Institution 22.0552 5 SS ae Nee atte ook ete eee eee vi
Berlandier, collection of minerals from Mexico ...< ..--22..-2.0 seee cece cece 53
Bessels, Dr. Emil, scientific results of Polaris Arctic expedition ........--...... 46
Specimens {LOM -. Sc S.c.- se cece tere =~ apse eerste eee 31,51

Bibliothéque Universelle, De la Rive’s connection with ..---......--.---------- 200
Binney, W./G.,shells: referred-t024: scescsacmomace sss vet kc else consnicle seeeeears 36
Birds; referred -to Gs. N.-Wawrencec< 24.0. eeece sees = c - oetae nieces eee eae 36
Birds, review ofLeAmerican, by. Prof. 8. Ba Bainde=- 2. Socee seen ce oetee eect ee 13
Birnie, Lieut. R., astronomical observations Dy..-.-. -.--.-22 s--se0 sesaeeeoeess 37
Blacktord,.1.G.; specimens) frome. 23 Passes fe a ee et ee ieee eee 33, 51
Blunt, Lieut. §. B., astronomical observations by -.---.:.------2-- ------------ 37
Boehmer, George H., arrangement of work on thunder and lightning by ------ - 18
Boiling and melting points, tables by F. W. Clarke .-.-..------.---------=--<- 13
Bolton, Dr. H. Carrington, catalogue of scientific periodicals by -.-.-.--------- 26

Bones;analysisoft. cso. ccs se eSsice s sees Rae eee eee eee Reine ci tists 361

INDEX. 403

Page
Borelly, comets observed by .----- eae tee SOR aeatee oats Soenceces ss 26
Bossange Gustave, Smithsonian exchange-agent at Paris...-......----.-------- 21
Botanicalandex by Sereno Watson Saecesoaessces sce crests eae as cme ca eraseise= 16
Botany. (See De Candolle, explorations.)
Boulaq Museum, plaster cast of Tanis stone from.-.---..-.-...----..----------- 29
Boyd, C. H., specimens from --... ---.-- SRR COO eC PASC) ners caters Samet 33, 51
Briers SW abtiquiilesidiscovercd by coos. scuseeonoct ces cen cael meesre 364
Brown, solomon! G., transportation) clerks <--\c.---s-sscecess cece ce os cca sce 6
Bryan, Oliver N:, antiquities of Charles County, Maryland .............-...-- - oo
BacklandyHrank collection of casts) of fishesse-ts-se-n-= eon ssc scloces oncom 33
Burial of Indian squaw in California, account of..-......--..----.--.--..----- 350
BuTMeister pores pecuBens frome. waco se coe on clcse omicis a a cian cio mminleininis 31, 32, 52
Campbell, Archibald, additions to collections by --..-........----------------- 30, 62
CaTsOnspOr wp lamtigmererred stow - =) cesei- see eee e ese oemeeecc ete ese cece meee 36
@ases, appropriations for 2-2: =--=-. +---'--o-,--- = See enn cee cee caer 121, 122
anitot a Neabustes<.: i ssenee cess Sess ek cece ce elt cee ees ssc menen anaoeaeleeee 65
WASTSVOPISTES ere = Air eee noe eae ee ccs elec on clcem ete roteiele one c tameemacee 29533
Royptianvantiquiblessecceeee ee cere. eee ane ena a tinnwimieleem eee 31
ESTES ESVESD Se FUER ore a ee esta tet earl cS he es arti To Co RSE 32
Catalogue of implements found in ancient graves in California -...-.-.-.-----. 347
scientific periodicals, by Dr. H. C. Bolton ..-.-...--...--.-. ..-e0 26
transactions of learned societies in Smithsonian library.-.---..--- 25
Chandlersoe He especimens ikon, = sees. = eee sme eyo eo ae cies en aimee yateiale elaine 33, 52
Chase wAraw ead arions torcollectionsiOy ass- cece ae ee sere eee eee een 30, 52
Chase, Hon. S. P., change in the Board on account of death of..---.-.----..-.-- 7
Chemicaltformulss; tables by BF. W. Clarke)-- 22 .22.-- «-++e--e--- 36 se peeweeach 13
Jaboratorvoperabions ants tana aan hoe eile se cme nes cee) Semesters 47
Whores, queries Tespechinm kee... eh etes cee ose ches cme cuieee cc commis <a m cee lseiniwine 66
Ghorchess warminorvand ventilation Ofs_-— 2226. 225. tcete --teeno ese ss ene aes ee 305
CircolarrelabivertouChoreates se hee a See oe ee see eee elton oa Je emeeicecesess ees 66
Glarkemerotrb saw, CONScAntS Ol Mabuless 4-26 22 se ce ee ce ace Noes Sec Sens see's ee TSG
Clenkslist-orimeinstitution- and Musenms2cs-css-- cose e enn cones acc oscee ace 6
Clifford, Justice Nathan, as chancellor of Board of Regents.......-..---..----- 7
Coast-Survey, explorations and collections by ..--.-.-....---.-----.----------- 62
Cofin Prof.) on) windsrof-vheiolobe .22 2s. 2-c5-- Jasces Soet eae cose oces coe 15,07
Coffin, Prof. Selden J., completion of work on winds by.--..----.-.----.------ 17
Car ciacomets: OWSCEVOO NY soa eeee 61a Se et es code secs coe ot en cooecw anes onee 96
Coleman. 1 specimens ronives see sen once of ccte tee tesueces one ceceuessisce 34, 53
Coleoptera, classification of, by Dr. John L. LeConte ...-......----0.-----+---- 13
NeWASpecIes of Dy Ors Lohm i-dueConter «-2-2-- .<m-0n wsie selec oe 18
Collaborators iasimeralehystory 2 -2- =. 225s <1 os co - 2s bone >< eel eeeneene 6, 36
Collecting apparatus lent to fifteen expeditions .4...-. .--.-. ---- -----+-eee- eee 36
Collections, appropriation for preservation of...-...------------2----------+--- 121
Gollores,; “warnnnr and ventilation Of. 2. .'\s2oSsece ae tees c~- seed aoe nce Soca 284
Comets. detevtiedtnwleydis see oe eas Lahde tae tel al al oA ae A alae ay 26
La Place’s method of determining orbits of ...--.....-----.----.------ 165
RESUAreheVelapivOwOMsesee ee. acco 8. See ees eo ae cerca fetes Samo cin ate 18
Congress, appropriation by, for National Museum.......-..-.------.---------- ¥
printing of 10,500 reports ordered by..---..---- aE Ae AentC CSE Cash AE 2
Constants of nature, part 1, specific gravities, &c., by F. W. Clarke ...-......-- 13
BPeCiiG ie aire aes Coe oe esate ae ocisesacamonts Jes au se 16
expansion by heat for solids and liquids ..--.-,----..-.--- 16
Wel UVOLaIL CoO meet ec amas ona a cosmi sc wcisn es seek pesielepets 16
Wontaputions to knowledpe,account Of... -<-- 6. ce. oes omnes cae nenncn soem 10

Coopers Dry WilliamA., specimen from) -<. sn. cccsosse tees some secess oce~ se esee 32, 52

404 INDEX.

Page
Copeverofessor L. > explorations byeseeescees cate cae et ere heen er eeeeeeeae 38
reptiles:and fishes referred to: 2. --.25-2 a= -24- ss eecee. oe 36

Coppeée, Prof; Henpy,.actsiofsasmherenttmeasaser see eee eee ee on esse eee 124, 125, 126
elected Rerenty vice MryAstor=---ss-eese eset eee @
report on National Museum ..--- fiscit ooh a aie see 126
Copper:mining onhbake Superiors-eesee ese ee eee eee secre sae oe eee eee 369
Copyright not taken on Smithsonian publications. .................--.-..----. 12
Corcoran Art Gallery, Smithsonian deposit with. .......-....--..---.---------- 44, 65
Corresponding institutions, number ofetoreieny see. sa- 952 o see ate eee ee 22
Couch; ‘(Gen DSN. minerals front 4. aac sa se ssce cece ee cere cee eee eee 30, 53
Coues, Dr. Elliot, collaborator in mammalogy and ornithology..-..-.--....----- 6
collections:and observations by ---.-2- .s-c2sic2-22reneseceneee 43
SPECIMENS Tromgern aes ee celeste meses Fadausicteeyseroem eee 30, 33, 53
Cox Eon aess.cAchs Of lasmvecent sesso e cette ner ene eae eceseere re econo 126, 128
Cresson; EEL: insects referred toe aaskssca sees: ae ee aeeniae eceeeles cee acnr ee 36
Creveling, James :P., specimens fromeas: ssn sees one ces S jeceeiee serait 34,53
Crustaceans; referred to SJ Smith aa. oss eee ae eee se ooe soon eens 36
Cushing, Frank H., antiquities of Orleans County, New York..-.-.-.---.--..---- 375
Speciinens MOMs. 26) ae wee os cen hee te cease sees 53
Cutting; HronksH: specimenss{tomie se -s.sce = eae. enone east oa eee eee ol
DaCosta, Dr. J. M., on strain and overaction of the heart .............-....--.-. 14
Dall Wer ..collaboratorsim malacol oye caseces eo slae erecta eae eee set BSOD 6
specimens from ..---. Se EE RCE Oe cei so een cine e pulse ieemiaere 30, 32, 34, 53

Dana, Prof. J. D., elected Regent, vice De W OOS Ye ertiss ss iaeceuseneeie eerie ai
Davenport oudseae Natural Sciences, explorations by) -=---5-- ----=---------s=- 304
Davenport, George L., statement of, relative to ancient mounds .-.....---.---- 360
Davis, A.C. antiquities of IslewRoyaleies.-.)cs-46/- ase eae eae sie eieeee 369
Dawy-.electrical discov eries.of- 2. s2 5252 <6 ticsk eee sete tees coe acres oe eee eee 190
De Candolle, A., on a dominant language for science...-....----.--.---------- 239
Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis.........--.. 269
De la Rive, Prof. Arthur Auguste, eulogy on, by M. Dumas.-...-.-.....--..----- 184

on Lemstrém’s observations on electricity.... 236
report on transactions of Geneva Society of

Physics and Natural History -..- .-=- -----. 261
Devlamkive; Charles \Gaspard notice: ohmeseaeate ae aeee eee eee eee ae eeeeae 185, 186
Departments. (See Agriculture, State, War, Navy, and Interior.)
De Saussure, Professor, monograph on American vespids or waspS..-.---.------ 16
Diebitseh;) Hermann, exchange:clerk S222 sje 5 oe cents salsa seein oe oleae 6, 23
Diptera, monograph of, Ortalid# family, by H. Loew --..-.....------..-..----- 13
Distribution of Smithsonian publications, rules for .......-----.--------------- 11
duplicate specimens: 322 32. S22 aceon Jane sisicls eeeyesios 36, 49
Dominant language for science, by A. De Candolle..........----...----------- 239
Donations. (See Library and Museum.)
Damas Mo. enlogy jon De lapRiviec-e- a. 2 oe eeeee een 2 ie eee tae ete erence 184
Dundas, Mrs., of England, historical manuscripts presented by.-.---- dacEaunicdbe 25
Dauplicateispecimrens; distr butionsotes see = aaee eee ee eae 49
DuPre, Prof. Warren, earthquakes in North Carolina.........--..------------- 254
Dwelling-houses, warming and ventilation of .-......--....---. .-.-.. --------- 310
Manthquakesseftectsionwldesy=- a. lee ce tee ase = naan sede eenetee eereretele 216
in North Carolina, on February 10, 1874, by Professor DuPre...... 254
Professor Henry/siexplanabiomlob ses esl aini a eeiaeieaete 259
Tecords) of, Ame la tihULlO Meee seh ete eee eee ae eee elses cetera 85

Hdwards, spb, msects reterred topeees = -i=- eee eee cee cece aaa 36

INDEX. 405

Page
Egyptian antiquities, presented to Museum... ...-.- 1-2-2. se: oes weceee eneo--- 29
Electricity of the atmosphere in the arctic regions, Lemstrém..-.-.--..--..----.- 227
Wetlamkive.t-oesc se eaeeee 236
Electroplating, originated by De la Rive..--.--- seneeastescrs de ts cnosecne sae eee 198
Elevations, research on, by Nicholson and Gardiner .............-.---.-------- 20
Elliott, Henry W., additions to collections by...-......-. ..--..-...-.---- 30, 31, 32, 54
PNHOHLON, xf.) EL INSeCta-TeLerLed: tOr \. 24 2. ana eae ease noe hans sete fac weaeae ene 36
PACH OE Ee? MT. OX PLOLALONS DY, 2. gu aeay ao tect iene ne ote mece-es dete cee 35
mineralogist of National Museum. ......-.........-.-...-.- 6
SPOCIMENSALOM oe 5 2m arora cae sae iste eyane semper ete. te ce tee ee 35, 54
Engelmann, Dr. George, plants referred to .----. seminsiafttiseislsian cee aiceies ceieeet= 36
Pnoimecrs United shales, explorations DY s-satecss see ne eas ose see eee eees ae 36, 62
Engravings and etchings deposited in Corcoran Art Gallery ....--...---.-.---- 65
PichersArnoldvaccount of. by De lawkivesseesececs- oe eessemeseee se ceee ee ae 261
Bsquimauxs echnolocicalicollections) Of s-sere se ==. eos oe eee ten meee eee 27
Shimatesdormne year USiS s5.2.c.sSsse nshrscs eeatetn sociale mar ere Sa oens wen icmmaee 121
vo Coneress for, museumlappropriations-o---e-e- 6-5 -s-ssse seer eee 122
Ethnology, account of additions to collections im .........-.....--...---.--.-.-- 30
MESCALCHES MMs sects. Sats os ase Stn) eee loa epwine Deets wei els Sec e eee eet 20
report of committee of Regents on collection of....---..----.------ 126

ancient graves and shell-heaps of California, by Paul Schumacher.. 335
account of the burial of an Indian squaw, California, by W. M.

ISIN se cisateoe yeaa so se acess sles S53: s seais eeeemaecoacereee oe eres 350
ancient mounds of Mercer County, Illinois, by T. McWhorter .. ..-- 351
antiquities of Whiteside County, Dlinois, by W. H. Pratt..--..----. 354
a study of skulls and long bones, from mounds near Albany, Iinois,

DysDrEekherharqunarsone.s2s soca senascae ssc oceees ee oeeiee es 361
theshellebedrekull aby eAcgs. dutta yee. sacelee ene elsees eae sats mor
antiquities of Northern Ohio, by Dr. George W. Hill...---..----.--- 364

_ the age of stone and troglodytes of Breckinridge County, Kentucky,

Dye Sy ODETUSON ee mem soa eee s Fiodae sa edesouasoate SOn

antiquities of—
Isle Royale; Lake Superior, by A. Cs Davise-- 4-2 ance cease eee 369
Yazoo County, Mississippi, by J. W.C.Smith......-.-.--....--. 370
Mennessse Dyer anlelae wWWithO Mies aeec acess cia = cena 371
Blount County, Tennessee, by Miss Annie E. Law.-.---.---.-.-.. 3875
Orleans County, New York, by Frank H. Cushing..-..----.--... 375
La Porte County, Indiana, by R.S. Robertson..-...-..----. SES mpern cil
Allen and De Kalb Counties, Indiana, by R.S. Robertson .-..--.. 380
Jackson County, Tennessee, by Rey. Joshua Haile, communicated
DY sates VW. MICELCNR Ys oo. sino se sates se a cliesaete cee eisai 384
Renny Counhy, Ohio jy WAN dersOnieee = s-\oossieeeaee ones eeeaee 386
Charles County, Maryland, by Oliver N. Bryan..:--..--....-...- 387
Stanly and Montgomery Counties, North Carolina, byF.J.Kron. 389
Honda, by or Augustus Mitchell’- 2. 232022 eet ais wn ona 390
Dlonday by JonnuBartram= 9). ssse.- scene esse eee shee ace eee OOD
CalitorniamSGupberninssc =a ace ae scents saeite eas odew ecineee 330
Nal Bernardino COWBOY. 2es's- oa nmjcece scene ence ne 300
PWlorid ais ae eens ce no sigeigapeinie aay suieiate te cinte sis eee ie 390, 393
Dai MBE Re COMM DY (ss a0 ceicsec sans aes ~ cm cis mated beeen = ae 351
Wihitesider@ountyeac-2 se sen serena cae aenee, 004,000 505
Indiana, ba Porte Counby sas. a ee ease ois 5 wcisow sloecace sce 377

ALONG COUNTY Rote eieseaties sciciaat cise sec sfoec tte recenise 380

406 INDEX.

. Page.

Ethnology, antiquities of—
Indiana, DedKalb-County... ..sec aes sae cose seco see ec eae cee ee
Hintineston County. .2.c)<.nicwsras sos ee Doce ae se eens Ga ee

Kentucky, sSreckinrid ce. Counmbyeac eo stea = selene ieee ree teat 367
Maryland) Charles(@oumtiy.---)- ses he eo eee eee ereeeee ri
Michigan, Isle: Royale -s.. 2.2 soe pict c\econteee sehen eons cee ee
Mississippi; eake. County). 22 ..'.i2252s seao0e see oo eee 7 3
MEV oro" Clon ny esses oS aece paso S OS Gauboans deaocsrc 7
New York, Orleans: Coumtyrace.- coocse ose oes enereea seer Sees 375
North Carolina, Stanly and Montgomery Counties. ........------ 389
Northern! Ohid ea: accom nse Coca sniee ese See eco ee ee eerie 364
OhiowAshlands County: soccer se cece eee esse ee eee eee 364
Mickines County: secscs-eeles sas crsee io -eiece= ceeieneener 366
Perry County aces fece tee siae = acces aoa ate ee eee 386
LOM 030y AER ee seo ea o Saco repeac, coon Sacood GuspbeeceE,7ss0s° 330
Tennesseese asso heck soca seco esas cisesee wes aeeee eee ese areres 371
BlountiCounbyee esses se sete see eee ee eee 375
Clarksvilletecease pecs eee eens eee ee cee 371
Jacksons Countyiee = seleseaco se eee ena eta eet 384
Monroe Couliiysese cree seer oo aioe e neers 37
(See Bessels; Hayden; Powell; Wheeler.)
Eulogy on La Place, by Arago..-... .----.-- ---2 2-222 eon ene ween eee eee 129
Quetelet, by Mallya. eco sea oe ea eee ee eee ae 169
IDE) hey yA DWE on oeon pSao osu S babe so shone 66esn epogan oaacde 184
Everett, Prof. J. D., on under-ground temperatures ..-...-.---..--------------- 250
Exchanges, account of system of international ......---..----.--------------- 21
resolution of Regents that aid may be received from societies, &c- 23
HAO TOS ENRUEI Ganson Sono csaoce once Sope ane anesd seceod ones Sse 22
SeLVICEs Of Missi Jane Murnet see series =) aici ela eee ee a 23
servicesioL El, Wiebitseh en --- si. s sais eer eee es aioe eae tstatstat= 23
Btatishicsvofss= 2.225% Sacco basics bee seeetas oe ieee Cee aor sabe eeiete 22, 67, 68
Executive Committee, report of. . 2.225.225 ce. eee. eae eee tee es ee LxziSS AUS 118
Expenditures and receipts of Smithson fund......---...--..-..........---...- 119
Explorations and surveys, by Lieut. George M. Wheeler.-..-..-..-..---..--..---- ees
Prof. iho Viiiay den cx ssa tees eae Se fee sien 36
Prot J. Week OW lane sea sect sabe ia ae cthaereters 40
Anchibaldi@ amp bellteeyiecse so neereeteceatecie tas 42
(See Museum.)
Paraday ¢ Oxperiments Of. 22) Ye. son Soe a. Seis tte esl thd reeea etches 193
Farquharson, Dr. R. J., study of skulls and bones from mounds in I}linois...-.. 361
Finances of the Institution, condition of-... ---.- gees Pk ue 24 oe eu ee 9,118
push cammission,; collections DYy-.4-.2- 45-42 soe ee epee ee wee a ein se aeeieene 44, 45, 63
Fish, inquiry and propagation, in charge of Professor Baird.......-..-..---- 33, 44, 45
Fishes, arrangement of families of, by Dr. Theodore Gill....-..---....--..----- 13
referred to... D. Cope’ sicees 2. c5 5 Soebroto cee see eee eaeteoee eee 36
HMiizhugh,jr..-Dvb., specimensstrom <tcee. sass cca teeeciea eee ae ema ae
Flugel, Dr. Felix, Briineoaran exchange-agent in Bone oe che sjee ote tenia 21
EF space. Professor Henry’s investigations Om --.. s2.- s-ce)lsmneelaseeeee eee A4
Foreign centers of Smithsonian exchanges... 2. 22.) ce toe ease eee eee ee 21
establishments in correspondence with Smithsonian.......--..--.----- 22
Foreman, Prof. Edward, collaborator in ethnology .........-------------- ‘Salers 6
Possils,, arranged in) Musewim)-2.525..s22ciecce cose see ce cece eee eoeemeoe a 35
discovery of. (See Explorations.)
Hoster;, J. .G:,,0n mound-builders? siknlllssses same eeeeee nee cence one ee eee 362

Franklin, General W. B., research on steam-heaters......-.-. .--- ---- -ssees -08 19

INDEX. 407

Page

Fund, -statement-of the Smithson ..5--5.----..-2--- -..- pencmaew seem ance wa -aes 9,118

Gabb, Prof. William M., specimens from ......---.--..-.-- SASS he 30, 31, 22, 33, 54

Ro luanie XPOriments Oli 2-522 -\aa eee ee. she oe Sa atame cae ole ac elseereee eel (dow

Gannett, Mr. explorations Dy/---- ---s--2 s=-2<. 22 ee 6 aels= ea ~~ = 39

Goinslintare, Ve Wh Gag lenient) lyf oooeas soo5o0 Jone dueeedioneeoo Sascan sodenaasnd0'ss 40

MESEALE MLOMTC LE Vi eu NLOTS Tb Vase ara ast ee tee ee 20

Garfield, Hon. J. A., succeeded by Hon. E. R. Hoar, as Regent...-..-.-..----.-- 7

Geneva Society of Physics and Natural History, report on......-.--..--.------ 261
Geodesy. (See Explorations.)

Geography. (See Explorations.)

Geology. (See Explorations.)

Geometry. Researches of La Place.......---.--..-.----- 2 SE ence en te ld)

Gill, Dr. Theodore, arrangement of families i mammals nil Aehes EEO SEe 3

colaborator in-veneral) Z00l0py 22s a= == 1-2 en nae 6

Glass reots;and ceilings; ventilation of) 2: 222. -- -.-- -----4----)-soewe lao e== =a 308

HOV OLY Le eINSCCES LELCLREd bO seins ee a aot eco einaiclelesite Sala senaie aici 36

Coode.Prof, G- brown, Specimens tLOMleas so ts aee = Sates nee esis lse a ise seer 34, 55

zoologist of the National Museum........--...--.--.-- 6

Goldsmith, Dr. M., specimens from .-.--..-.-...--.-- Bee seis easels a aie net cieicet 34, 54

Gould, Dr. B. A., meteorological tables printed for .....--.-....---..----.------ 14

Governmentiexchanves, stabistiestofs-.—---e>- ee eel = Soe a= Sewer 67

explorations and sugveys, account of...-../...---.-.------------- 36

Grant, U. S., ex-officio presiding officer of the Institution......--....-.-..----- 5

Gray, John Edward, on a dominant language for science -...-..-.------------- 247

Gray erotvAsa vachs Of,,asshecemteos eres peee ste ee nea teal ae aeele oi ete 124, 125, 126

elected Regent, vice Prof. L. Agassiz..---..------------------- 7

DMS MET Nes Gan bcoeecs nao ab4 So ecnSce. ce sane Seng ssoeedas 36

reportron National Vinsenm eo) se etal sa emi eeal 126

Griffin, Maggie E., recording-clerk.-.......----- PA een Oe Me ays ee OME eT Ic 6

Gyroscope, General Barnard’s paper on .--.---.---- Paha s Sarit s tas pw) pease tat 12

Hague, Henry, additions to collections by -......----. -.-.-+-.------- 4- -------- 30

Haidah indians, ethnolorical: collections of 7-2-2: ---1-=-~e>-=' =e = Se 28

J. Gus wawas paper Ole ses. ase aee Mea ss Gee re Ae ies 13

Haile, Rev. Joshua, antiquities of Jackson County, Tennessee.----.---..------ 384

ethnological specimens from. .:......-----.------ ---------- 31,55

Hallsof assembly; ventilation(ofe--- suse] so. asses == 2 lee = 321

Hamilton, James, bequest of $1,000 to the Institution......-...---.-------- 7, 8,9, 118

amin, Hon. H.,.acts.of, as Regent -.5...-- - tlh. 255-3. += «22226 -222-- es s--- 124, 126

Eblea li Mere tNLGN talon. aecerani lester scie BE See a tlaweins 2 Scc ete enecn Mens sae
ardisty aw oi: donations to Museum from, 2.2. J: /5-.j28s0-.22 42-36 <--5-5-5 4 Ol, oo

Harmonies of the solar system, by Prof. 8. Alexander. ...--...----.-----.------ 14
Bart, Drs ChaniespAsispectmens 11rOmso2222)0s— —-)ciee em aiaa aia ee ite = eine tela 34, 55
Parting) Drad.eH).. Specimens arOMen 2. jesse se ela pete te bape se ie 32)/55
TEGARey ye den, Win, yes baveNG| MONS a aeoe ceoose.ce aco aor SoA tnoe OcooS oopcsecsac< 31, 55
Hayden, Prof. F. V., additions to collections by ..--.. ..-. ------ +--+ «----+ ---- 30, 63
explorationsiand surveys by- 2c: .)s 26 -2s- ss neccen sos eenecen eye

FAVS: re Wie Wi OXPlOLAHIONs Dys a20 2.312 22 ttn so pate oa nelo=s=n'0 wees ene 342
Hazelton, Hon. G. W., appointed Regent, vice Hon. L. P. Poland.....----------- 7
detsOlrasmvere nthe... a Seeeee seen ane hee ee See ee arte 126

Heart, Dr. DaCosta’s Toner lecture ON.) .- << <tenewneyaohja= oe =) a Sere ER ee 14
Heating-apparatus, resolution asking for appropriation for ..-.-.---.---------- 128
Henry, Prof. Joseph, explanation of earthquakes ....-...---.-------------+----- 259
acts of, as secretary of Board of Regents..---.-.-----.----- 124, 126

labors on the Light-House Board .-........----..--------- 48

letter to Congress transmitting report..-.---..---.---.---- 3

report of, as Secretary of the Institution. ........--....--.. 4

408 INDEX. ;

Henry, Prof. Joseph, trustee of Corcoran Art Gallery.........-.-. Sain eee ae
investigations on fog-sionals,..2- 5 \.055 <ccoo- oa ao eed a ee }
results of experiments on sound. 2. < 2c 2- Seen
rules for telegraphic announcements of astronomical discoy-

GUIGS 2 ecto ta aS Se oe lee a ee

Henry, M. A., translation of eulogy on Quetelet.-......-. .----. -2.- s2c--0--pnee

We Ta RING ene cee ee eo ee

Herron, Joseph, janitor of National Museum ....¢...<. /.0< cecsc-sess soe nsns see

Hilgard, J. E.,on tides and tidal action in harbors-.......--....----.---..-----

Hil, DroG, W., antiquities of Northern OiG-. 25. 4..cesh oo ae eee sae

approval of Newcomb’s paper on planetary motion ........-.--.

Hoar, Hon Heh, acts ofaswhecent 2. joc. oe cece oe ee ee eee eee

appointed Regent, vice General Garfield.........-...-----.--.

Hoepli, U., Smithsonian exchange-agent at Milan ..---- a cianiate = tis seen ss eaecas

Holden; Dr., insects referred tos <2. - Sars seis cise sels se a eee e Aer eeer

Fospitals; warming and ventilation: Ofer. 22. soe caer en a eee eee

Hubbard, Lieut. BE. B., ethnological specimens from... ..-...-.-.---<+-<--. «<c-

Illustrations to Bessels’s report, appropriation for.......--.---..--.----- --.--

Indians,

Blackteets.-sa~ acetoacetate tee ee eee Be mse ee ee 43
Oalifornia. 2-20... 55.6 scope eee meee te Sy eee ee 350
Welawares <a. 52ers mors soe sacs tc meesta enteee See eee ie aa ee 365
Go-81-UteS, 22 = 22s ane Saiekioest oc omen wec ns socee ee ee eee yan 42
GrosnVenbiress s24.25 coe pa Sicie eina acta ste eect 1s here tis a oo sae eee 43
Haidah, GaJaS wanes paper ON. ssn 2 eee aeeeee eee Aessd yo aciae sae 13
North Assinabomnes :<-1 2% ce ceiepeeciocs rect afh eee eee rere ee tere 43
PieGaNs soso Core soz ore ae eee nis bien Sats aie ete terns Saat cf ha : 43
IR IVOR CROWS ssn sta cals tle be oo eis Sc pok Oe ees ene ee Aare ee 43
HPacs and Boxes). 22 oo. cape eee eee see cer eee ote eee 360
SIOUX Seo 2 niciea Sta cn ie Saisie! Se eee ic Sere net io aio eeye ne meee ae eee ae eee 43
U-in-tats, Unitah-utes, Seur-a-rits, She-be-riches -.-...--.----- Mega Sar 41
Wyandotts-. 522522 coc ccs 5 Sas ocssinn sapecee eee ae ee cess eee 365
(See Ethnology.)

Indian vocabularies received from Wheeler expedition -.---. .-...---.--------- 66

Inequality in mean motions of Jupiter and Saturn -2- 2225255 22-2. 5-5s-5 =-=2 = 144

Insects, directions for collecting and preserving, by A.S. Packard, jr.-.-.-------. 13

referred to Messrs. Packard, Scudder, Edwards, Ostensacken, Uhler, Ulke,
Stretch, Cresson, Thomas, Glover, Emerton, Holden ........-.-.------ 36

Institution, list of Regents and members ex officio........---.----------+---- +--+ 5

Instruments for meteorological observations .-.....----..--------- ---- e--- --e- 80

Interior, Department, explorationsiby.=-- 45-42 -- > sseeee eae] eee eee 39, 49, 62

Investigations. (See Researches.)

Isothermal maps by Schott, published by Smithsonian Institution......--.-.---- 17

Jackson, Werk. explorationssWyyo-c2— + caso = eee een ce eo ee eee 39

James: Mr:plants, referred! 0: <2 <2 =.2 Gaee ce eso ee RS occ eee 36

Jenkins, J. H., deposits of ethnological specimens by.-...-..-2---.----+---- .--=--1 31,00

minerals fromi:.. 2. Go. seston ese eee eee 35, 56

Jenks, Professor, specimens from: ..2 5. b= -agaess oe = ose eee ee ee nee 32, 56

Jones, Dr: Joseph, antiquities of Tennessee; by, so==en = ose eeaee eee eee 14

Journal of Board of Regentsr:.253 2.655 5 -cl esac se sew a Rete eee eee 124

Jouy, 2. L., specimens: from: 725 ...2246 «cack Rebate Hoan mee oe oe BS ee eee:

Kamtschatka, specimens from)... < oo... cnc s+ eee ees eins ote a ee 29

Kerrick, Li: H.,; specimeéns from: .28:> 3-2-5. oro. eee eee eee eee ae 32, 56

iKchediveof Heypt, donations fromis<- 33 2p 522- cesacs assole a se sneer ie 31

King, Wi. M.; account of burial of Indian'squawe-ee--es => sees ose eer eae 350

INDEX. | 409

Page
Kjokken-méddings in California .-....-...-.--------- ----.-------+ ---- -------- 330
Kron, T. J., antiquities of North Carolina ..........-.. Beet ee Senet eens weet 389
Laboratory of the Institution, investigations in ..-.-. ..--2. .--. -.-- --ese. -- == 47
aM ON irs POCIMOENS LOM kee a aiainee staal tee ele miele aie eesti) meals) aise een Oe TOO
Language, a dominant, for science, De Candolle’s..................---...-.---- 239
Apc ene ULO MYON De NEAOO ee ete sersismeiaeatae lei nee aco nicee saree inn Semiciccte ae 129
WALLEU A LOLeSsOL, ANUIGMILIES! LLOM E22 oe etiam esa eos s2 cicicn saleielemais scl sacicioe 31, 57
Wawrence,| GeorvewN,,WICdS TeteLLed: Oca see sec weeams eamaas care eec eee cca <yane 36
Wp NeCHUCUA SILOM sce ae ae eee ete eet ate iatni= icicislem ata omesiole 32, 07
Law, Miss Annie E., antiquities of Blount County, Tennessee --...-------.---- 375
Melconte, erot, Johns constants of Mature! see see oee oe eee > Sen vale es eulenae se se 16
Le Conte, Dr. John L., new species and classification of Coleoptera -..-.-.-..--. 13
Keech une-rOOmss VEN bation Obi jose. neiseen ewes sete cetcno eae Mec eenre sates ee cine 321
Leech, Daniel, corresponding clerk of the Institution --...-....---..--..------. 6
Hee Colon er, SPECLMOENS LOM .ce coisa sects ee cise tslenio cle eis Ce micats eatoieue Lace 34, 57
Lefroy, General J. H., donation of manuscripts from Mrs. Dundas, through... .-- 25
. Lemstrém, Prof. Selim, observations on electricity and the aurora..---..--.---- 227
Letter from Secretary to Congress transmitting report .-....-.--.------------- 3
General Shermaninesionino Recentyiss-oeeee eee tee assem eeieee. 124
NET NOE RM oem She eon eae Seog os ooo oes se eoeadadess | Lk:
Library of Congress and Smithsonian library .......-.-.---..--..--.-----.----- 23
catalogue of ‘‘ Transactions of learned societies” in. ......-- 25

Library, donations to, from—

Een erbuine) © ONLOd Ord ON S.= ye moeee ate mat tales aes eens eee ere eae 24

Boardiof Admiralty, ondon= 225 ces0 02 - eect aas 2c = een ese eae eae ey
Britishe Museum. Londonhssss. sents onion te ee eee eee me Seeenen coenee 24
Central Bureau/of Statistics, Stockholm=2-<. --252o5c5. 04-0 cc-nc-ccee < 25
Company of Public Works of the Mediterranean..--..-............--. 24
Hydrographic department of Ministry of Marine, St. Petersburg ..---. 24
liceldndiceeiherany: SOClety ees a= te mete tee == sae cise sae cee ee sae 24
Imperial Archzological Commission . phe Aen inci tae UAE ein A INS, FN, 24
Medico-Chirurgical Society of Modena .... ....-..--2. -.------ ---- =< 25
Minisiry,of Acricultures & cs Omer a secs 22a - ees einais sees sone ses eee 95
NationalvionvanianeMiisenmsees.\meeen are soci nae obs hese soeee 24
Norwepian GOVeEn Ment 2. -vasese er aaas tee wc Sool nents some eee 25
Overyssel Society for Promotion of Provincial Welfare, Zwolle . .....- 25
Royal Statistical! Bureau, Copenhawen!= 2225-0 - =~ ---,--sao- one ncece 25
State library of Varciniayes-\es2 ees ee eee see eyecieecin emia ee soe cai aareee 25
Stuart, Robert & Alexander, New York ......-: SSO NE eran Pe s 25
WiMIVerslbles) OfE MRONGkaa st sa= lacie Sore ctmmins ease = oe cen se onie ee ereeee : 24
WVeLGnIMALya SCHOOL DW Orpatiaaacssacelsaicore se ceees = ao ntoaoe ese eeaemels 24
Stabishiesotsoryear 1S/4 25-2. sas eccceeecneees tents bape tar 23
Light-House Board, Professor Henry, chairman of committee on experiments.. - 48
labors for twenty years unremunerated-. - 48
PSHE EON Is PLOCLss.GUiss'=. sa sso sein Sas ase aageec ca sebons « sckke- Slee 17
Rasnompublicabions\O1mbhelmstitubiony a. a. occte ee sec ae oe ease cece cade tacccene 14
Loew, Dr. Oscar, chemical laboratory in charge of...........--...--.----.----- 47
analyses of mineral-waters, &c., by-......-.1-..---2. .2---. 36, 38, 47
oom ls, MoROseIpILOL Diptera coe. c a) cacerceeen feos sone Sosc ccs cece eons 13
yceums, warming and ventilatiomier -<..-. 2.2562. Foc. boa sk Soest lle cece 284
Maclean, Rev. Dr. John, Regent of the Institution ........ eens ere anna shoe es
member of executive committee... ..2..--2..2...2.-.! 5
Wianehism, records Gf, in) Mnstitution)...- 222.2 -2 + - 2 eee UY Lae 86, 90
Maillyshd-.euloxyionOueteletucacieanscec cies cosets Sock tet ee eases sosee eee 169
Malacology, W. H. Dall, collaborator in. ....................- sod eace cet sees 6

410 INDEX.

Mammals, arrangement of families of, by Dr. Theodore Gill - .... ghia Sos Soe

referred to H. and J. A. Allen and Dr. Sclater
Manigault, 'G. E., specimens from: - 2 -Semgeke canoer toon Sse oe eee
Manufactories, warming and ventilation of...--. 8a Sas eet eee sae eee
Manuscripts from Mrs. Dundas, account of, by Mr. Spofford
Marine invertebrates, referred to A. E. Verrill
Marshall, Lieut. W. M., surveys by
Marvin, Apr: explorations bys =~ sa25 soaectse isco Set seeie ee e eesaee y e e
Mason, Prof. Otis T., collaborator in ethnology
Materialism: doctrines) of ee = ns5- oe een aoe is ane eee nae eee ee eee ee
Mather, Frederick, specimens from
Mauritius; specimens from). ) sae eae acme cece cece eee ese eect nee
Maxwell, Mrs. M. A., specimens from
McBride, R. W., explorations by

ee

McHenry, James W., antiquities of Jackson County, Tennessee........-...---- - 364
MoReynolds; Wil. specimens irom) .<.)- seen sa 62 -eaee Beene eo eee ee eee 374
McWhorter, Tyler, ancient mounds of Mercer County, Illinois... ..............--- 351 -
Mécanique Céleste, exposition of Wia-blaceisees. esseee eee sen. nee eee ee ee 129
Meek, Prof. F. B., collaborator in the invertebrate paleontology...--...---..--- 6
Specimens from aso se nace seco eae ae eee ee ee eee 33, 58

Meics, General M. C., ethnolocical specimens from-----2. --2.....--2.1=---.---- 31,58
Memibersver Oftcio olsthes ins tituiionyes sae ae eee ae eee ee ee 5
Metallurgical collection of the Institutions --22 4. =e esee ese) | ae ee eee 35
Meteorolocy, classified record of; antorasps----4--2--eeeeee oe ee eee oee eee reee ee TU
INS{ruMents c=. saksese eee 6 oa os ocr eee £0

MOLCOLSe jecenid eee eek pneu eee chee ee 81

miscéllaneaus-+ sees cea. a5- Sense eee eee es 85

PANN ris 6 Gb ieisie ne RE CE seek once eee pepe aes 83

Wind ss, ss ck Sek Se Beep ee as aiocae Seis eae 85

lOCal \-c52). esos ati sees Sete else ee eeeeee 3 87

AdviGa:..A. 5 ac useere eee eee eae oe eee 87

Asia, [25 -iiscc as Secece ee eee Sisco eee ees 87

Australia: 225 atose teks rene oe ee eaten eae 88

CentralpAmernicapese ose sae e ste See esee 83

HULOPOr =25.222 waa eee eee eee te Seen e eee 89

North Amienicas: 25.32. 280 See eee css Sens ee ee 90

Polynesig#- facets ce ee sso sitoceatecewecs 115

South America .2. 3-stecsee ee occ eee eee 115

Wrest Indies: |: 32 Jaeseaetseenee ee comes eto css 116

transfer of Smithsonian system to United States Signal-Office- ---- 16

(See Bessels ; Quetelet; Wheeler; Hayden; Powell.)

Moteors, records of dn nstitwhionos a22-cnoses oe eee ee ae eee en 81
Microscopic material referred to Messrs. Smith & Seaman..-.--.......--..------ 36
Milner, James W., new species of fish deseribed by--:---.....----.-------4. 5--- 28
shad hatching and distribution! bys =~ ics ae te = = seis ciel 46
Mineralogy. (See Endlich; Explorations.)
Mineral-waters referred to Doctor Loew .-..--..-----.-----.--- PAE Se Sees ece 36
Minerals, examinationyol <<. < saceisc aceon ceelas eee eee eee Serie neiae eee 35, 36
Miscellaneous collections, account of..-.-. ci ee cist Se ee ene eee ie eaten Os
Mitchell Dr Aur. antiquities ofmblondasssss scene meee seen ieee 390
Mitchell, Dr. S. Weir, queries by, in regard to chorea..--...-.--..----.---------- 66
Mont Blane; De: la Rive’sistidtesiotes2s- eeeeos see cee oe siee aac ee eee ee eee 199
Mounds. (See Ethnology.)
Mountains, effect of Vapors On .222 (22292 faeces wo nese esc sae oe tee aneeene Seseee 199
Muller, F., Smithsonian exchange-agent in Amsterdam ...-..-.---.-.----.----. 21

INDEX. All

Page.
Museum, National, list of officers and assistants in..--.....---..--.------------- 6
additions torcollechionsmm 1874s jase ee see eo ae ee ee st aes 50
condition of fundsiofesess.cs2ce cece oe cste siete eee 121
BPPLOPLIablONs TOL eaaecee ane asc sae aoe eee sone meee 10, 27, 121
ACCOUNUOL Sapte Saaeeioke soe a ae ete Se ae. Se ee eres 27
AN CREARBLOL eae Sansone ee eles a eee eens Set ecioce see aieeae 27
completionioficases#for a. 225 ssaene sees Seeees| ssc ete es tae a, LoL
distribuwonot quplicatesiOte-secesseesee een eee eee eee 36, 49
enfiriesin: Tecord=boOkswecathsssassen ss sac ment sie = aelcniereereee 49
report of Professors Gray and Coppée on condition of-....--.- 126
WOLKONG MMs soe ee Ro aoe Ee eee eae ees 30
geographical list of additions from—
Alaskacedicmaniee oe otek nce baa peteemacas omens smeeiecice ce 27
Arcticgmamland soso sc = os Soe eile Sete ee eee eee eee 27
ATIZON A Reece one Be eee Ree see Ce eID cael at sere oeeae 25
@alitormiaes oe. soley ee aie sie nated LOR ee ete cle yng 28
CentraliAmenicapcesstesjo ss Shee Cece ec ececoce sacs 29
CentralkUnited|S tatieste ot ease eee wetocet oc ssee coe 28
Colorad once ee eso eee na tae See eae acct remnee 28
Cubase te euet eee see see oe oe eee ee ade eee actos 29
Mako tases oases ce ced sae rene ee oe See en iae aioe 28
Mastern UnitedsStatese: 5. ..S2 sos osck eae ceetocece a oe 28
PUTO WGsse Saernssccscnesee coe Seances see ee aelcoe ee aaaee 29
WlOVIiGa Beane amc se sisarce Ges ee se ee te ee eee eee 28
Greenland ssc oes ee oe ees tno sine too oe ms wisle crea ceeincie 27
MexXi COs S20 Soca see eee eels bee eee See ene a ceeee sane 29
Miscellaneous) csceeeieicct aoe nwa dacs wiewis tebe ee cieicceeene 29
NMOMPAN AR aa wee Santee as sae ee chlcata sine owes eae oe ae 28
Newroun dm) anges © or cemcsaeceecccaelos cenvas Serle cone caer 29
ING WelMiGxi Comat ccm entae seme ae oes aicicmrow ton nines este e ee 23
Northern: Oceans sonics cs semesccee Sass ciaes oat seme er 27
Onregoneee we eis eicese daienasteteeissccisctenehceonsescse cess 28
Other partsorthemyonldtesssaeees cease mess secs cteeeee 29
QueeniCharlotte/sislandeasec. 05 oot eee ees eee sees 27
SouthwAimerica toss haste Suse ee cee as eis Sacesice onic seeieee 29
hate ass cies ee asks eek ce sees sbecie cel sa testes 28
Washington Territory ---..----- SIS OSD IEOERNENGOOIS Cone = 27
systematic list of additions; 2 eecisc26 miecteiceis ils < steelers 29
Bind Sees ses Se aks ee ee ee yk Senate te mse oe 32
DIGS 55 Sco podoug soeQod BnoI40 bo beoon Nagano eESdse saeaser 32
EGNOS yee ieee ns seks ee mee cloene oeieeececeete 30
TRIB IGT Res cee Se coe Se EGS an OC OE RECA ONO OO OOSaC ORES 33
ImseGtsiec 2 Suisse Piss Qe ae She sotiseatas sieisahnet cisetee ae 34
Mammals; . avotewejncsee adas atlas sealers sae nate eee 31
Maninenvertepratesisacs sateck masctee ceeelece wee canis cone 34
Minerals. can diccwslieeecieeeces fer oecesem. dese cet ees 3D
Plaintavs. aoe ss 3c 3 dc. eeee cisciasce ob ceo: ont Sere 34
Repiilleseesatee 5 <3 ci Seeeeee seb wis aessaeicsere was heeaeee 33
hell Steye seer eer ones cee Seis ele sea sin seinen ees 34
SOUMGING Sem ceen hee con eeieebe dot acini cicleeit cicaate ereate 34
Myer, General A. J., meteorological system of United States Signal-Service- .--. 16
Napoleon, lettersofsrelative toua Place.22+.-—-- seers ones] ee see Gt cence ees 164
National Museum. (See Museum.)
Natural history report on Geneva Society transactions.....-....--..---------- 261
MESCULCHEN RIN aoe eee eiae ee. nant erie alae cee me eelaees 20

(See Explorations.)

412 . INDEX.

Page.
Navy Department, deep-sea soundings. ---.. .--.<. -c-tiseee accesses aeacme wemese 46
explorations Dy 2-222 dosmiSerce eee inretsteicena nis Sess eeepc 46, 62, 63
Navy of United States, collections made by.-...----..--- -.-22- s<2-- «=== des 29
INebulax hy pothesis /.< 3.25 5— 2s =- sce 3cc.cse sens i-ce et oees Menon Senos ~ oer
Newcomb, Prof. S., on general integrals of planetary motion.......--.-.-------- 13
on: orbitio£ Uranus 2) S22 tse cele eccte e te eer See eee 12
Newton, Prof. H. A., approval of Newcomb’s paper on planetary motion.-..-..-.- 13
Nichols,:Dr: |@. Hi. specimens from ...52- vasisee-yeceinie oe Cee eee eee eee eee 32, 58
Nicholson, W,1l;, researchon elevations, |Dy.-2--)--s+5 0 see = eee See eee ieee eee 20
Observatory Brnsselsjhistory ofs. 537s ee ee ee Bee ee See ee ae nee nena 174
Oerstedvelectrical’discoverics Ole ou ak ec eccse scoters ee ee ee eee ene eee 187
Officers of the Institution and National Museum.---.-..-.--...----------------- 6
Olney, (Mar: plants @TeferredvWiores 2. sos ones soci ciseeieisee eects ee mene eeees 36
Orfila’s tablesiof bone analysis. s2-- ote syseeceeseee set caren sere ne eerie 361
Ostensacken,. Baron R% insects referred to.----..----.-----..----- ---- Seen 36
Ozone; Dela Riveisstheorydt--esstec sce ceee ki ce arses toe esoseme se neeee oF
Packard, Prof. A. §.,jr., directions for collecting and preserving insects.......--- 13
insecismeferred to. aso ane os sees et eis eee ee oe 36
Pacenstecker, Professor, specimens {ome s soe eee sie ee ee tena late 31,55
Paintings deposited: insCorecoran Ant: Gallenyess.-=---heoeee eee eee eee eee 65
Paleontology. (See Wheeler; Hayden; Powell; Meek ; Geneva Society.)
Ralisa, Ms asteroids discoveredsDye--.s-see ae ee epee ieee Se eee eee 26
Palmer, Joseph, taxidermist of the National Museum..-........-..-------------- 6
Parker, Honweeter.acts of as, Rec entices. Uses. =se-e sae e eee eee seer 124, 125, 126, 128
report of executive committee.-....-.-.--.---..---.---. --123, 126
Pendulum, General Barnard’s paper oni 2-2. -+ ~~ = este eee eae oe yaseer 12
Periodicals, catalogue of scientific, by Dr. Bolton....--..----.---...---...---.--- 26
PerrotinyM. \asteraidsdiscovieredsbyiscesecc cee ase eer sie eee ea = eer 26
Peters. Ons Cole. b.. Ashenold SidiSCOViene Ou byes eter oe eee ete atelier 26
Phinney, Captaint SPeGumens! ECO Mee oer see ola eee ee eee 34, 59
Photographic laboratory in charge of T. W. Smillie ..---. -.-------.----------- 47
Photography. (See Wheeler ; Hayden ; Powell; Smillie.)
Physics, report on Geneva Society transactions......--.. .--------------------- 261
Pikes Capt: N..Speciinens frommhes soe eats Saree aren eee eee ene 30, 34, 59
Planetary motion, general integrals of, by Prof. S. Newcomb .------.---------- 13
Plants referred to Messrs. Gray, Rothrock, Vasey, Engelmann, Olney, James,
and: CarsOMbivaceeetsewee ass r 2 ee a eee SASS Ae Ss Se DO GODO OKROO GoUC 36
Poey, Prof. Felipe,.specimens from © 2.2. Jose seas enna dee ee ieee =e 34, 59
Polaris.Aretic exploration, scientific results of ..--....---.----------.----- .--. 46
Poland, Hon. L. P., sueceeded by Hon. G. W. Hazelton as Regent-.....-----.---- 7
Portraits deposited am. Corcoran Att: Gall6ty-<- qq o-oeew nee — === =e 65
Tetey east elves se Veneye aN Beene h5 ogc obec mS ob6 loo oSpSsne eeecogses Scoacac 33, 59
Powell, Prof. Baden, translation of Arago’s eulogy on La Place----..----------- 129
Powell, Prof. J. W., explorations and surveys by..---.------------ .-.--------- . 40
additions torcollechions byeesceaesa- sae ee ee eee eeee eee 30, 63
Pratt, W. H., antiquities of Whiteside County, Illinois .....-..-.-.-..---------- 354
Precession of the equinoxes, General Barnard’s paper on..---.-.--------------- 12
Printing of ten thousand five hundred copies of report ordered by Congress .---. 2
IPriviess sven tilabl ONeOle see = ce en ae See ere eee lee eee ieee ee ee aie nee at 312
Probabilities, La: Place’s theory.of.-. 2225255 .-osc~ = 2eeer pee ee eee ee= ee
Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis, De Candolle’s ....----.------ 269
Publications. of the Institution, account Ofss2. ase. a2 sees eat eee 10, 12
stot: 2-52 2oke Hecate Sec ceee a ee ome eee 14
rules of distribution --..----.--- Be acs cee 10)
Publishers) trade-lish) annuals - soe see leans eee es aero eee eet ete 14

Queseda, John; specimens from. +... .. ..cceean ee (<n ec eee ee eaeee- are coe

INDEX. 413

Page.

Gueteletsodlosy, on sby, Pde Mall yaeeeereesetear i= te ae cena eel clei mare ella 169
Railroad-stations, warming and ventilation of ...--...---..---..-------------- 306
arn tale pu biGablOn: OM aeee tae tasers ere setae eia ns aieisian = ata ate te aia staters) ater eters 17
Rain, records of, in Institution....-.-.-..--- RES ASE ee a ee eer Se Ok 83
Receipts and expenditures of Smithson fund..---.....-......-.-+--.---.---.-- 119
Regents, journal of proceedings of, January 20 and 23, 1875.........-.---.----- 124
Ofstheamstitntion: listoOhsaose sass eeereceetc sec = sea eer on cee 5
board:of chan sesin) thé ~-ss—eeeeer eee ee eee ee ee eee ee a= seis 7
resolution of regret at resignation of General Sherman-.----. 125

resolution appointing Hon. George Bancroft on executive com-
TIME BEB sec Bene ects ai sibs seer oe ete ae ei ee eae ee elie
resolution charging loss by theft to incidentals.......-...--- 125

resolution appointing Professors Gray and Coppée committee to
meport,on Museum —. <2 2-6-9. seco mee sniactec eee eee seem ae ee

resolution adopting report of executive committee....-..----- 126

resolution adopting report of Committee on Museum ..---.- -- 126

resolution asking Congress for $2,500 for additional heating-
APPALAtUs)< Son sovacise soe cons = seats emgeteeee see eee siseioe ar 128

resolution adopting and transmitting to Congress report of
Secretabyy cn... c2cce cee tee Sones casera an asta ace os
Religionmand svience,.De la, Rive Ol..- 2-2. see ean caseieae es = eee
Senaysicuts bo smithsom fund 2.2... aso mene eteee eee ee n= ee ee see eee
Report of De la Rive on Geneva Society transactions....-.-.-..--------------- 261

GRExeeutive COMM (bee aa sit Jo < eae ce Sie ete a eee ec 118
of Professor Henry, Secretary, for the year 1874 ..........-.--..----.---- 7
printing of ten thousand five hundred extras ordered by Congress -.- ---- 2
foiWoneress: account) Of = 222 ---)essese= aiecl= =e ae ee eee ae 10,11

to British government on claims of those loyal to British Crown during
MOVOMMMMCMAIAT WEP aaS5 oacn code 6ecu Sh ne asap soos eeocoy Bose beodoo bSesc¢ 25
Repimlesmerorce dubon Ps WN COM Cesare ete mates ae oc niepe ie nie elm lala oleate 36
rescarch plan Of OLIiNal ce. - ess ome weno <nee ea = sen ieee ell 8
IRETSO NA, FOOD NM Ole S55 5a casece sdeegd AQe oro Hose Ouse ada ees SSu entIe Gass 16
COMBE ly Tenor, OL SOs so5 sog5 conpeo Gonos S caso se Sone soSsae5ceaD 18
elevations, by W. L. Nicholson and Mr. Gardiner-.........--..----- 20
MebCOLOlOGY, =. . ass ess omen women seman sae ene mene so - =e = ae 17
Haturalshistory and ebhnology, s--scmes si celsasele aisle Hala 20
steam-heaters, by General W. B. Franklin and C. B. Richards. ..---. 19
Feuss, Dr, Specimens from -- 22 -. <-- 5. aceon ana one mcleme mee taal === = 33, 60
Revenue-marine, explorations and collections by...--.-.---.------.----.------ 62
Revolutionary claimants, loyal to British Crown.....--..---.------------------ 25
Rhees, William J., chief clerk of the Institution. ..-........----.---------«---« 6
Richards, CE: research on steam-heaters, .--~-- --<000c.-oceuenmesismecns sauon= 19
Ridgway, Robert, ornithologist of National Museum. ..-..---------.--+. -------- 6
Riggs & Co., sale of Virginia coupons by...---.. -----------------+--: pence 10,119
Robertson, R.S., age of stone and troglodytes of Kentucky ..--....-------.---- 367
antiquities of Allen and De Kalb Counties, Indiana....-.-.---. 380
antiquities of La Porte County, Indiana ........-....----.---- 77
Robeson, Hon. G. M., specimens from....-.-- ese emae en siete atiecuctel eae tee ee 33, 60
Rolleston, Professor, Saxon antiquities from ...-.. Seeker esol aeons 31
Rothrock, Dr. J. T., natural history explorations by. .----..----..------------- 37
PLANS LEtented holes eels eles ie etaletae lomo == als ace ales ellos 36
Royal Danish Society, Copenhagen, Smithsonian exchange-agency .-...---------- 21
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, Smithsonian exchange-agency - - 21
Royal University of Norway, Christiania, Smithsonian exchange-agency ....-.-. 21

Rules of distribution of Smithsonian publications ....-..-......---.------------ 11

414. INDEX.

Page.
Russell, Mr., specimens from. ....-.- cee UR ORR 34, 60°
Saint Vitus’s dance, queries in regard to .----.---------- -----+ -+---------2-- Br 66
Salmon-hatching, by United States Fish Commission ..--..--.------------.---- 46
Samoan Islands, specimens from. .--.-..---.------ +--+ -----+-------ee teers eee 29
Sandberger, Mr., shells referred to. --.---------------- -----+ -----+ +2222 ++ -* . 36
Sandstone arrow-heads ..-.--------- ----20 ---- --- 208 eee nee ce nee cee cee en ne oon 384
Sargent, Hon. A. A., acts of, as Regent -. .----------- .----+-----+--+--++------ 124, 126
elected Regent, vice Senator eantoull SS a a i
Sars, G. O., specimens from -....--..----- -----+ +--+ 22+ 2 een eee ree eee eee 34, 60
Scammon, Capt. C. M., specimens from ---..---. ---- ---- +--+ e--- 2+ eee 2 eee eee 31, 60
Schools, warming and ventilation of..-----.---.--.--------------+---+-------- 273
Schott, Charles A., temperature-tables, by ----..--.---------------+-+++-------- 16, 17
on under-ground temperatures ---..-------+-+--+--++-------- 249

Schumacher, Paul, additions to collections by ..---- .------- +--+ --------+-+--- 30, 60 -
ancient graves and shell-heaps of California. --...--.-------- 335
Science and religion, Dela Rive on. ....-.------ -----+ -----+ s+-0-+ ee eee etree 203
as element in advance of modern civilization. .-...------- 8
De Candolle on a dominant language for.......--..-----. 239
Sclater, Dr., mammals referred to -.--.------- +----- -+---- + 2-22 52-222 tree ree 36
Scudder, 8. H., insects referred to -.-.~--. -------- ---- 2+ e-0- e222 cent cree nee 36
Seamau, Prof. W. H., microscopic material referred to .----..----------------- 36
Shad-hatching, by United States Fish Commission ...-..------------------ --- 45

Shell-heaps. (See Ethnology)

Shells, referred to Messrs. Tryon, Binney, and Sandberger..---.---------------- 36
Sherman, Gen. William T., letter from, resigning Regency ..-- .----------------- 124
succeeded by Hon. George Bancroft as Regent -- ---- 7,125

Signal-Service United States Army, collections by .----------------+---+-+----- 62 °
transfer of meteorological systeum to... --.-- 16
Skull, shell-bed, by A. 8. Tiffany.-.--- .----------- -----+-----2 22-2 e seer ecr cee 363
Skulls, study of, by Dr. R. J. Farquharson ..---- .----- ------ +--+ ----++------ 361
Slack, Dr. James H., shad-hatching by.----------------+ ¢----- +--+ 2222 --0--- 46
Smillie, T. W., photographer of National Museum .-....---.------ +----+--+----- 6, 47
Smith, Captain, dredgings from .----------- -----+ . +2022 ee +222 eee ee tree eee 35
Smith, Prof. Ham. L., microscopic examination of soundings ..---.----------- 30, 2h 46
Smith, J. W. C., antiquities of Yazoo County, Miss ...-..----------------+------ 70
Smith, 8. J., crustaceans referred to ..---.---------. ------ ee --22 coer e reece 36
Smithson, bequest of, and condition of fund..-....---.---+---------------++---- 9,118
Snyder, Dr. J. F., ethnological specimens from -.....-------------+++-+-2++-2--- 31, 61
Solar system, harmonies of, by Prof. 8. Alexander....-..-----------+++--+-+--- 14
Somerville, Madame, account of, by De La Rive..--- BEBO BRS OSA RCLesoe cesscc 261
Sound, Professor Henry’s investigations relative to ..----.-----+-+------2+++----- 44
Soundings, deep-sea, by United States Fish Commission .-.-.--------+----------- 46
Navy Department...-....---------------+------------ 46
Specialists to examine natural-history specimens .----.------+ ----+----+ +--+ +--- 36
Specific gravities, tables by F. W. Clarke......--.------- ------ esse eer ree noes 13
heats, tables by F. W. Clarke ..---- -------- +--+ ------ -e- 022 eee een oee 16
Spinner, Gen. F. E., acknowledgments to, for financial arrangements. .----- ---- 10
Spofford, A. R., account of the Dundas manuscripts. .---.-----------++++------- 25
Squeezes from Egyptian antiquities TECOLVEC 2 os cc- sos eee ee ena a= lel le 29
Squier, E. G., antiquities of Orleans County, New YOU. oe pon eee aa 375
Stables, euedeen Tey Aree RAO fe Ree ors eae Se eI ORO E MOO Qo ea Sod soc 331
State Department, United States survey, by Archibald Campbell--.------------- 42, 62

Statistics. (See Quetelet, Exchanges, Museum, and Library.)
Steam-heaters, efficiency of, research on, by Gen. W. B. Franklin and C. B. Rich-
ALTOS S2oace sees teens Saale series Lup hails A fetal te 4 Aen haere tene et stetee' 19

INDEX. A15

Page
Steam-heating apparatus, appropriation for.......-..-----..--------- Melocetiott 122
Steamship companies granting free freights.-....---..---+.------------ ------ 21
Steinberger, A. B., collections from Samoan Islands .----.--.-.--------------" oleos,oL
Ssereotyping of Smithsonian publications.........-..----+- -------+--+-2+----- 12
Sternberg, Hon. Charles H., plants from ..-... .-.--. --+--0--2-2-----+---2 22-20 34, 61
RieBVeUs, ILC. Fe. planbe trOM 22... aces. eerie + sie a a= a ebee == = =a eee 34, 61
HEevenson, Hon d. W..,, acta Ot,.as Repent. 22.2. tyes ae See oe cee eee cele 126
Stevenson, James, specimens from: .........--2.--2s-0 eeaen eee === = === === 32, 61
Stone age. (See Ethnology.)
Stone, Gen. Charles P., Egyptian antiquities from......-.-. Scisb ie Bese Jbscekes 31, 61
Stone, Prof. Ormond, S eamahes om Tuttle’sicomet: Dy. ses e eee a= eee eee 18
Stone, Livingston, salmon-hatching by .---.-...------------ ---------------+---- 46
APECINENS ACOM | 2. cron wisaters~ akan See ca pees cine = ae eee 34, 61
MAB ten ver sINAeC TS LeLELLOG UO) <.-o6,<-) se ete stois nse ois em soe ere ete 36
Stuari, Robert and Alexander, donation of books to hava fLoUNssseecse eee 25
Bemmenrast, Croft ©. specimens from... ois ssc stce ae oe le eee te 32, 33, 61
Surgeon-General’s Office, specimens deposited in...--..--.- Dottie ch ok eeteneeees 36
Swan, James G., additions:toscollections| bycaieiae-'2ee 52-2 oe = =o oe 30, 61
Onsihel Heardahwin dans) eee -ee ees eae eee see eee ee eee 13
Swedish expedition to the North Pole.....-.- so) ahaa de Scie re eres wie Seerebare Sin ahe aie 227
Tables, physical and meteorological, printed for Dr. Gould-...----.----..------ 14
Tables. (See Clarke.)
Tanis or Canopus Stone, cast of, presented by Khedive of Egypt----.-..--------- 31
Telegraphic announcement of astronomical discoveries -....-----.---------«--+ 13, 26
Temperature of the earth, by Schott and Everett.-...--.---------------------- 249
United States, publication on -.-..----..----..--. --------- 155 e
Tennessee, antiquities of, by Dr. Joseph Jones .-.--.- waa HB as Soom as hela a= ete 14
MSaLeras wen tilaglOn Olsens acieee no sete geisls nate Goecm ce eae ~ eam ae 2 a= 323
Mbeti rom O MCE Ol SECECbALY, een ss s--- stein cso See oe eS =~ I= itches oc 125
Thomas, Cyrus, insects referred to..-....----- ------ ---20+ ----0+ s2 2-2 22-2 =o 36
Ghompson, John’ H., specimens from... ---3-- -- =... e/saels om Hae wie sess 34, 61
Mhompson, Prof: A. H,, exploration by ..<2s2y- <-<estes safe ees se h2) f= 40
Thander-storms, work in progress ON... --- --s--- 2-220 4eee seis aan aes St 17
LG" P AMP OS. ~ 052 oc sca. cee ete eee ise Ps eee reese 2 ers eee se ete 214
Tides and tidal action in harbors, by Prof. J. E. Hilgard........-----.----.----- 207
Memes theory: Of ..- 2. iicncseciccrens ba ~cish some eels ioe eee aerate Ptr taat des ee 154
Tiffany, A. S., account of shell-bed skull from Illinois.....----.--------------- 363
exploration by s-ns2. ¢2s2-26-e eee Oo 2benirs See eS aye = ae ea = ae 358
Saner lectures, publication: of ..-... 2-22. siee- > ceweete see sleen a soso eine ase 14
Topographical map of the United States........--2...---+0----+ --enee seee eee 20
Topography. (See Wheeler, Hayden, Powell, Campbell.)
Tornadoes, records of, in Institution... ..-...-----+ ------ --- 222 ene ee eee 85
Transactions of learned societies in library, catalogue of .--------------------- 25
Transportation companies granting free treights -....----.-----------------+-- 21
Treasurer of United States, arrangement with, for deposit of funds .--....--.-- 9,10
Treasury Department, explorations by..-..----.----++---+ --0+---2--- 222 te2e 2
Trinity College, Dublin, collection of casts of fishes -.....---.---------------- 33

*Troglodytes. (See Ethnology.)
Trumbull, Hon. L., succeeded by Senator Sargent as Regent.... .--------------- 7

Mevon, G. Ws, shells referred $0. ..250-<5.-= 3 - ssjseser cen’ anode seme ee eoe tt - =e ee 36
amner, lL. M. specimens from. <6 66s. a 6\-1- beds Joeman aee sos e- => te sel eesh hm 32, 61
Turner, Miss Jane A., in charge of exchanges received..---..------------------ 23
Turnstile, to record number of visitors, suggested by committee. .---.--------. 128
Tuscarora, soundings made by. ...-- 02 - 0-00 seed een ele sede coenleses seco aware 29
Tuttle’s comet, researches on, by Prof. O. Stone ...--.------------+ +--+ ---+-++-- 18
Twining, Maj. W. J., astronomical observations by...--.------ aoweeecathistes 43
Uhler, P. R.; insects referred to...... ee Ses fe nae eee err ree 36

<a

416 INDEX.

Page.

Ulke, Henry, insects referred to -.-..-.------+------++---- bere aims arate al tafe etme 36
Under-ground temperature, by C. A. Schott and Professor Everett...--.-.------ 249
United States Fish Commissioner, additions to collections by ......--..---.---- 30, 63
Universe, present conception of ....-------- Foo ea wneGuoleba: Ae sone coed ncas coos 194
University, national, proper ideas of... ..---- .----- -----+ -----+ 2-22 eee 2 eee 8
Universities, European, donations of books from .-....---------- ee Seer 24
Uranus, orbit of, paper on, by Prof. 8S. Newcomb...--. .----------+------ pooseons 12
Vasey, Dr. George, plants referred to..-. .----- +--+ ---+ +---2+ --e-e2 22-2222: : 36
Venabel, Judge, exploration by .--.--.----- ------ -----+ -----+ --- 222 reer rt eee eee 342
Ventilation and warming, by A. Morin .--. .--- ---- -----+ -----+ -----+ 222+ ----- 272
Venus, transit of, scientific expeditions to observe....-----------+------------- 146
collections from expeditions...--..----------------- +-------- 34
Verrill, Prof. A. E., fish inquiry and propagation ....-.------------+-+--+------ 45
marine invertebrates referred to.....---------------++----- - 386
Vespidx, monograph on, by De Saussure .-....---.------ +--+ e222 s2eeer terres 16
Vienna Zoological Museum, specimens from..--..------------+-+ +--+ 2-22 e+ 2--+- 31, 62
Virginia bonds of the Institution ---...---.-------- +--+ e222 seers erro 9,10, 118, 119
Vocabularies of Indian tribes, received from Wheeler expedition -.... ---.----- 66
Volta, expetiments of........---------+ 2-222 ee een eee eee ee nee en terre ee 192
Vouchers, examination and approval of..---.------------+----+-+---++----+--- 123
Waite, Chief-Justice M. R., acts of, as Regent ..---.-- -----+ +-+--+-----+------ 124, 126
elected chancellor..---.-.-------------- -----+ -=---- 7
War Department, explorations by ----------------------+2 sserce cee rrt etter 36, 62
Warming and ventilation, by A. Morin ..---. .----- ------ -----+ e---22 2-05 20-7 72
Warming buildings, relative efficiency of steam-heaters for...----------------- 19
Wasps, monograph on, by De Saussure ...--.------------ Seer e ees seem eee 16
Water-closets, ventilation of ...--. ...---- ------ 0----- e222 2+ eee ne ener ee seen 312
Watkins & Co., Smithsonian exchange-agent of St. Petersburgh.-..--.-.---.---- 21
Watson, Prof. J. C., asteroids discovered by .---- ean Sates se eee eee RD SSR ese 26
plan adopted by, for discovery of asteroids..---...-----+--- 26
Watson, Sereno, botanical index by .----------+ +--+ e-see- renee cere re eet cree 16
Webster, Prof. H. E., specimens from..-... .------- .+---+----22 err eee cere rere: 33, 64
Wesleyan University, specimens from -.---.----- 0 -----+-----+ se-222 reecre cree 32, 58
Wesley, William, Smithsonian exchange-agent in London ..--.-.----.---------- 21
Whipple, Lieut. C. W., astronomical observations by ..-.-..------.-------------- 37
Wheeler, Lieut., G. M., additions to collections by .--------------------++----- 30, 33, 62
analysis of mineral springs, rocks, &c., for ..---.-------- 47
explorations by .-..---------- -----+-----2 ee rere tt tt tee 36
Indian vocabularies from...--..----.------------ ------- 66
Wilson, Hon. Henry, acts of, as Regent .----.------ -----+ ----s-2 ee sere reer 124
letter of Professor Henry to, transmitting report. .--------- 3
Wind, records of, in Institution ...-..--- Se eee Hcl oe ee eee eee 85
Winds of the globe, by Prof. J. H. Coffin..---..----.-------- tie ae eee Licoraeee 15, 17
Winnecke, comets observed by ..---. ------ + --- 225 ee ence cere ee terres tees ttre 26
Woeikoff, Dr. A., work on the winds of the globe, by..----.------ +----+----++-- 17
Wood, jr., Dr. Horatio C., on fresh-water alge ---..---- Seu ae eepeeateeminte 12
Woolsey, Prof. T. D., succeeded by Professor Dana as Regent -----.------+------ of
Workshops, warming and ventilation of ..------------+---+-- See cia attra ate 284
Wright, Bryce M., specimens from...--- .-.--- +--+ ---2-+ sercee eee rrs crete 32, 64
Wright, Dr. D. F., antiquities of Tennessee..---. ..---+ ----++ e+-220 e222 08 erro 371
Wyman, Prof. Jeffries, characteristics of mound-builders, by ---- --- Dr pee eer 362
Yarrow, Dr. H. C., explorations by ..-. ---- ----2+ e-- 22 eee nee e cece ee eens cen ree 38
Yates, Dr. L. G., specimens from .....----- ---+ 2-222 eee cece eens resent erent 31, 64

Young, Clarence B., book-keeper of the Institution....-----.------+--+-++++--- 2

translation of Morin on warming and ventilation..-...---- 272°

Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, models of fish-weirs from.... ..----.--------- 34, 53 -

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