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ANNUAL REPORT
PO OF REGHRNTS
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF
THE INSTITUTION

ror

ape iey. ey Aur, Sa:

WASH UNGDTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1878.

FORTY-FIFTH CONGRESS—SECOND SESSION.
IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES.

APRIL 25, 1878.

The following resolution was agreed to by the Senate March 6, 1878, and concurred
in by the House of Representatives April 24, 1873:

Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That ten thousand five
hundred copies of the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1877 be
printed ; one thousand copies of which shall be for the use of the Senate, three thou-
sand copies of which shall be for the use of the House of Representatives, and six
thousand five hundred copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution : Provided,
That the aggregate number of pages shall not exceed five hundred, and that there be
no illustrations except those furnished by the Smithsonian Institution.

April 25, 1878.

Attest:

GEO. C. GORHAM,
Secretary.

By W. J. McDONALD,
Chief Clerk.

| Os Dad Nid Ad i

FROM THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

ACCOMPANYING

The annual report of the Board of Regents of that Institution for the year
1877.

FEBRUARY 15, 1872.—Ordered to be printed.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, February 6, 1878.
Sir: In behalf of the Board of Regents, I have the honor to submit
to the Congress of the United States the annual report of the operations,
expenditures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year
1877.
I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
Hon. W. A. WHEELER,
President of the Senate.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN: INSTITUTION FOR
THE YEAR 1877.

CON EON IES:

1. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the operations
and condition of the establishment for the year 1577, with the statistics of
collections, exchanges, &c.

2. Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs
of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, the re-
ceipts and expenditures for the year 1877, and the estimates for 1578.

3. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January,
1878.

4, General appendix, consisting principally of translations from foreign
journals or works not generally accessible, but of interest to the collab-
orators and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others in-
terested in the promotion of knowledge.

4

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, President of the United States, ex oficio Presiding Officer.
MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor of the Insti-
tution (President of the Board of Regents).

JOSEPH HENRY, Secretary (Director of the Institution).
SPENCER F. BAIRD, Assistant Secretary (Superintendent of the National Museum.)
WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk.

Pe Ne Ss: OR TRY TNS 2 LruU PYLON.

MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief Justice of the United States, President.
WILLIAM. A. WHEELER, Vice-President of the United States.
HANNIBAL HAMLIN, member of the Senate of the United States.
AARON A. SARGENT, member of the Senate of the United States.
ROBERT E. WITHERS, member of the Senate of the United States.
HIESTER CLYMER, member of the House of Representatives.
ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS, member of the House of Representatives.
JAMES A. GARFIELD, member of the House of Representatives.
JOHN MACLEAN, citizen of New Jersey.

PETER PARKER, citizen of Washington, D. C.

ASA GRAY, citizen of Massachusetts.

HENRY COPPEE, citizen of Pennsylvania.

GEORGE BANCROFT, citizen of Washington, D. C.

NOAH PORTER, citizen of Connecticut.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS.

PETER PARKER. JOHN MACLEAN. GEORGE BANCROFT.

MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE INSTITUTION.

RUTHERFORD B. HAYES, President of the United Sates.
WILLIAM A. WHEELER, Vice-President of the United States.
MORRISON R. WAITE, Chief Justice of the United States.
WILLIAM M. EVARTS, Secretary of State.

JOHN SHERMAN, Secretary of the Treasury.

GEORGE W. McCRARY, Secretary of War.

RICHARD W. THOMPSON, Secretary of the Navy.

DAVID M. KEY, Postmaster-General.

CARL SCHURZ, Secretary of the Interior.

CHARLES DEVENS, Attorney-General.

ELLIS SPEAR, Commissioner of Patents.

OFFICERS AND ASSISTANTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTI-
TUTION AND NATIONAL MUSEUM, JANUARY, 1878.

JOSEPH HENRY,

Secretary, Director of the Institution.
SPENCER F. BAIRD,

Assistant Secretary, Superintendent of National Museum.
WILLIAM J. RHEES,

Chief Clerk.
DANIEL LEECH,

Clerk, Correspondence.
CLARENCE B. YOUNG,

Clerk, Accounts.
HERMANN DIEBITSCH,

Clerk, Foreign Buchanges.
JANE A. TURNER,

Clerk, Library.
MAGGIE E. GRIFFIN,

Clerk, Distribution of Publications.
SOLOMON G. BROWN,

Clerk, Transportation.

G. BROWN GOODE,
Assistant, Zoology.
EF. M. ENDLICH,
Assistant, Mineralogy.
ROBT. RIDGWAY,
Assistant, Ornithology.
TARLETON H. BEAN,
Assistant, Ichthyology.
CHAS. RAU,
Assistant, Archwology.
EDWARD FOREMAN,
Assistant, Lihnology.
F. H. CUSHING,
Assistant, Ethnology

JOSEPH PALMER,
Taxidermist.

T. W. SMILLIE,
Photographer.

JOSEPH HERRON,
Janilor.

REPORT OF JOSEPH HENRY, SECRETARY, FOR THE YEAR 1877.

To the Board of Regents of the Sinithsonian Institution :

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor herewith to present to you a report
of the operatious and condition of the Institution, intrusted to your care
by the Government of the United States, for the year 1877.

INTRODUCTION.

Nothing of special importance has occurred during the past year to
vary the conditions and operations of the establishment, while from the
following report I think it will be evident that it has continued faith-
fully to discharge the duties assigned it by the will of the founder, as
well as to carry out the directions preseribed by Congress in the act of
its organization.

In the last report a full account was given of the operations of the
Institution in connection with the Centennial Exhibition, and in rela-
tion to this the Board of Regents addressed a memorial to Congress, ask-
ing for an appropriation of $250,000 for the erection of a new building,
principally to accommodate the articles presented by foreign governments
to the National Museum under the care of the Institution. <A bill in
favor of this petition was presented to the Senate by the Hon. Mr. Mor-
rill, of Vermont, which passed without opposition. It failed, however,
to pass the House of Representatives, although a majority of the mem-
bers approved of it, because it could not be brought before the House
without a two-thirds vote in favor of its consideration. The same
bil] will again be presented, and the hope is confidently entertained that
it will receive the approbation of Congress. In anticipation of this re-
sult a plan of the building has been prepared under the direction of
General Meigs.

In the two preceding reporis I have called the attention of the Board
of Regents to the propriety cf a final separation of the Institution from
the National Museum, and nothing has occurred during the past year to
change my opinion on this point. Although I do not urge this for im-
mediate action, yet I think it should be kept in view, and the proposi-
tion at a favorable time presented to Congress. Myreason for advocating
this proposition is that Smithson gave his own name to the establish-
ment which he founded, thereby indicating that he intended it as a monu-
ment to his memory, and in strict regard to this feature of his will his
bequest should be administered separately from all other funds and the
results achieved by it, accredited to his name alone. The Institution,

7

8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

therefore, should not be merged in any establishment of the government,
but should stand isolated, free to the unobstructed observation of the
whole world, keeping in per tual remembrance the will of its founder.

The functions of the Institution and the Museum are entirely differ-
ent; those of the Institution being—first, to enlarge the bounds of
human thought by assisting men of science to make original investi-
gations in all branches of knowledge, to publish these at the expense
of the Smithson fund, and to present copies of them to all the principal
libraries of the world; second, to institute investigations in various
branches of science and explorations for the collection of specimens in
natural history and ethnology to be distributed to museums and other
establishments; third, to diffuse knowledge by carrying on an extended
international series of exchanges by which the accounts of all the orig-
inal researches in science, the educational progress, and the general
advance of civilization in the New World are exchanged for similar
works of the Old World. To carry out this plan the Institution requires
no costly building, but merely accommodations for receiving and dis-
tributing its collections. .

The Museum, on the other hand, is intended to embrace a collec.
tion of specimens of nature and art which shall exhibit the natural
resources and industries of the country, or to present at one view the
materials essential to the condition of high civilization which exists in
the different States of the American Union; to show the various pro-
cesses of manufacture which have been adopted by us, as well as those
used in foreign countries; in short, to form a great educational estab-
lishment by means of which the inhabitants of our own country, as well
as those of foreign lands who visit our shores, may be informed as to
the means which exist in the United States for the enjoyment of human
life in the present, and the improvement of these means in the future.

The support of such an establishment must, of necessity, be derived
from Congress, and no part of the income of the Smithson fund should
be devoted to this purpose, since it is evident from the will of Smithson
that he intended his benefaction for the good of mankind, and therefore
all expenditures on local objects, or even on those limited to the United
States, are not in conformity with the intentions of the donor. A very
objectionable result of the present connection of the two establishments
is the necessity for the Institution to appeal to Congress annually for an
appropriation for the support of the Museum, whereby the Institution is
presented to the world as a suppliant for aid, although, for carrying out
the legitimate objects of the bequest, no annual appropriation from the
public Treasury is necessary.

The whole of the Smithsonian building is now required for the National
Museum, and, in case of the separation, a new building should be provided
for the accommodation of the Institution; and when the financial con-
dition of the country shall be better, I trust the sense of justice of the
people of the United States will induce Congress to restore to the funds

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 0

of Smithson at least a part of the $500,000 which have been expended
on the building from the income of the Smithson bequest. I know that
the present is a very unfavorable time for presenting this proposition to
Congress, but I do not despair of its being fuvorably received hereafter.

Among the minor incidents of the year was the reception of a letter
from M. de la Batut, of Belz, France, the haif-brother of the nephew of
Smithson, to whom he bequeathed his property, and in case of whose
death it was to be devoted to founding the Smithsonian Institution.
With this letter was a miniature likeness of James Smithson and another
of Colonel Dickinson, the half-brother of Smithson, which were offered
for sale to the Institution, and were finally purchased for the sum of
$100. Accompanying these portraits was what appeared to be the
original draft of Smithson’s will, slightly differing in one particular
from that previously published in the Smithsonian report for 1853, and
also a Series of notes addressed to Smithson by some of the most dis-
tinguished scientists of his day. Among these are those from Oersted,
Arago, Biot, Lester, Tennant, Klaproth, and others, which would be
highly prized by coltectors of autographs, and which serve to show the
intimate association of Smithson with the most distinguished cultivators
of science at the beginning of the present century.

There are now in the Institution three likenesses of Smithson, one a
small full-length picture, which was purchased from his servant, John
Fittall, and represents him in the costume of a student at Oxford ;
another, a small medallion, which was among his effects ; and the third
is the one above mentioned. As a part of the legacy of Smithson there
were received a small library and several large trunks filled with cloth-
ing, some articles of apparatus, a silver-plated dinner set, two small
cabinets of minerals, and a large collection of papers, including corre-
spondence. All of these, except the library, were destroyed in the fire
of 1865, The effects were, however, of little value, except as mementos.
The manuscripts consisted principally of private letters and a series of

sentences arranged according to the letters of the alphabet, as if they

were intended tora philosophical dictionary. ‘The library, which is still
preserved, consists of 125 volumes and 838 pamphiets, and is preserved
in a separate case in the Regents’ room of the Institution.

In the report of the Institution for 1853 I gave a list of the scientific
papers of Smithson which were published in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of London and in scientific periodicals. Although at the
present day there is nothing in these papers of very special interest, since
the facts which he communicated have since been merged in the general
progress of science, yet it might be well to republish them in a separate
volume as an illustration of the character of the founder of the Institu-
tion and to mark his connection with the science of his day.

In the report for the year 1876 an account was accidentally omitted
of the decease of Fielding B. Meek, an esteemed collaborator of this

iO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Institution, who oecupied for upward of twenty years a room in the
Smithsonian building and assisted without salary in the operations of
the establishment. He was devoted to paleontology, and was one of the
principal authorities in the country in the line of fossil shells. At the
time of his death he had just completed a large volume on the paleon-
tology of the Upper Missouri, published in connection with Dr. Hay-
den’s surveys. He was obliged on account of his health to spend his
winters in Florida, but, delaying his departure too long and unduly exert-
ing himself the day before he intended to leave, he was seized with a
hemorrhage, and, after an illness of a few days, died on the 21st December,
1876. He was born in the city of Madison, Ind., December 10, 1817, and
had therefore just completed his fifty-ninth year at the time of his death.
His grandparents were Irish Presbyterians, who emigrated to this country
from the county of Armagh about the year 1768. His father died when
he was but three years old, leaving the family in moderate circumstances.
He was educated in the public schools of Madison. His attention was
early attracted to the fossil shells so abundant in the rocks in the vi-
einity of his home. Arriving at the age of manhood, he invested the
small sum received from his father’s estate in mercantile business, but
having no taste for that occupation, and neglecting it to pursue his stud-
ies, a failure was the consequence. He then devoted bimself as a means
of livelihood to portrait-painting, continuing his scientific studies, espe-
cially in the line of geology. In the year 1848 he was associated with
David Dale Owen in the geological survey of Iowa and Minnesota, and
in 1852 became an assistant to Professor Hall in the preparation of the
paleontology of the State of New York. Under the direction of Profess-
or Hall he explored the Bad Lands of Nebraska, and collected a valuable
series of fossils. In 1858 he came to Washington, where he resided con-
tinuously to the time of his death, leaving the city for a few months only
from time to time while engaged in studying the paleontology of Iilinois,
Ohio, and California, and later in Florida during the winter on account
of his health. During his residence in the Institution he gradually lost
his hearing, and could only be communicated with by means of writing.
He gradually withdrew from social intercourse, and devoted his life ex-
clusively to the prosecution of science. He was in correspondence with
the principal investigators of the world in the line of paleontology, and
although scarcely known in this city his name was familiar to the culti-
vators of geology everywhere. He was aman of singular truthfulness
and critical accuracy, and was highly esteemed by the few who had the
pleasure of his acquaintance. His death has been widely announced in
all the scientific journals of the day, but no relative has appeared to
claim his property. As secretary of the Institution with which he had
been so long connected, I considered it my duty to assume the office of
adininistrator, and as a year has now elapsed since the time of his decease
Tam about to make a report of the condition of his estate to the or-
phans’ court of the District of Columbia. The final disposition of his

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 11

property, which is partly in lands in IKansas, cannot be determined at
present, and if not claimed by heirs may possibly require the action of
Congress.

MEETING OF TOE ESTABLISHMENT.

The law of Congress organizing the Smithsonian Institution direets
that the President and his Cabinet, the Chief Justice, the Commissioner
of Patents, and such other persons as they may eect honorary members,
may hold stated and special meetings for inspecting the affairs of the
fustitution, and, in accordance with this provision, a meeting of that
body was held on the 5th of May, 1877. There were present the Presi-
dent of the United States, R. B. Hayes; the Secretary of State, W. M.
Evarts; the Secretary of the re ieniy Joan Sherman; the Secretary
of War, George W. McCrary ; the Secretary of the Interior, Carl Schurz;
the Attorney-General, Charles Devens, and the Postmaster-General, D.
Ne Key.

The Secretary of the Institution, whois also the secretary of this body,
gave a full account of the history, operations, and state of the finances
of the Institution; and, after listening to it with interested attention, the
President, on behalf of the meeting, expressed the opinion that the con-
dition and management of the Institution were entirely satisfactory, and
that they had no improvement to suggest. After inspecting the build-
ing, the museum, and the system of exchanges, and examining the a
Teens, the eecnine adjourned to meet on the 1st Tuesday in vem 1878

FINANCES

The condition of the funds is nearly the same as in 1876. The only
difference is a diminution in the marketable value of the Virginia bonds
which has fallen from $42,000 to $34,562. This decline was occasioned
by propositions made in the legislature of the State which were thought
to savor of repudiation, but those propositions have not met with fa-
vorable consideration, and it is now sean expected that the bonds
will again advance in value.

The following is a statement of the condition of the fund at the begin-
ning of the year 1878:

The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the

United States in accordance with the act of Congress of

PN RSA lo va aye) a ee Sa fs et Naa iia oe $515, 169 00
Tne residuary legacy of Smithson, received in 1865, depos-

ited in the Treasury of the United States in accordance

with the act of Congress of February 8, 1867........ 26, 210 63

Total bequest of Smithson.-.....-........ Sere isis 541,379 65
Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States,
as authorized by act of Congress of February 8, 1867,
derived from savings of income and increase in value of

RWG SOTIC TA Lem rere ya Gy ere ee es Oy 108, 620 37

12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Amount received as the bequest of James Hamilton, of
@arlisie,- Pa., February, 24, (8f402 222-26: Sees ae $1,000 00

Total permanent Smithson fund in the Treasury of
the United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent.,

payable semi-annually in gold........-..2-...22 691, 000 OO
In addition to the above, there remains of the extra fund
from savings, &c., in Virginia bonds and certificates, viz:
Consolidated bonds, $58,700; deferred certificates, $29,-
375.07; fractional certificate, $50.15; apt: $88,125.20,

Valued January. 1Si8 020s Nase See dnp toil ame MetPa 34, 562 00

Cash balance in United States Treasury at the beginning
of the: year 1s7s for ‘current (CXpeDSes \- eee eee 20, 083 90
Total Smithson funds January 6, 187S*.......-..=. $710, 645 90

The receipts during the year 1877 were $49,007.62, and the expendi-
tures $44,952.90, leaving a balance of $4,054.72 to be added to the bal-
ance on hand at the beginning of 1877.

The interest on the Virginia bonds received during the year was
$2,885.76, realized from the sale of coupons amounting to $3,522.

The interest on the Hamilton bequest of $1,000 has been received to
the 31st December, 1877. There is now a balance on hand of interest
amounting to $96.17, which will be available during the present year, in
accordance with the terms of the bequest.

BUILDING.

Attention having been specially called to the condition of the public
buildings in this city, on account of the destruction by fire of part of
the Patent Office, it was deemed advisable to give additional security
to the valuable collections deposited in the Smithsonian edifice. The
main building, which contains the National Museum, is entirely fire- proof,
but the connecting ranges and the two wings are not so. It was there.
fore highly desirable that the main building should be entirely isolated
from the ranges and wings. Yor this purpose the large windows facing
the wings were bricked up, and all the doorways leading from the
museum into the ranges either bricked up or fitted with iron instead of
wooden doors. The carpenter’s and machinist’s shops were removed to
the main basement and inclosed in brick walls. The storage rooms were
made fire proof by replacing wooden partitions and floors, by those of
brick. In the high central tower brick partitions have been constructed
ou the stairways, to prevent the passage of fire from one story to another.

PUBLICATIONS.

The publications of the Institution are of three classes, viz, the Con-
TRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE, the MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, and

*The date at which the settlement of the accounts for 1877 was made.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. iS

the ANNUAL Rrports. The first consists of memoirs containing positive
additions to science resting on original research, and which are generally
the result of investigations to which the Institution has, in some way,
rendered assistance. The Miscellaneous Collections are composed of
works intended to facilitate the study of various branches of natural his-
tory, meteorology, &c., and are principally designed to induce individuals
to engage in these studies as specialties. The Annual Reports, besides
an account of the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Insti-
tution, contain translations from works not generally accessible to Amer-
ican students, reports of lectures, extracts from correspondence, &e.

The following are the rules which have been adopted for the distribu-
tion of the several publications of the institution:

Ist. They are presented to learned societies of the first class which in
return give complete series of their publications to the Institution.

2d. To libraries of the first class which give in exchange their cata-
logues and other publications, or an equivalent from their duplicate
volumes.

od. To eslleges of the first class which furnish catalogues of their
libraries and of their students, and all other publications relative to
their organization and history.

4th. To States and Territories, provided they give in return copies of
all documents published under their authority.

oth. To public libraries in this country, containing 15,000 volumes,
especialiy if no other copies are given in thesame place; and to smaller
libraries where a large district would be otherwise unsupplied.

6th. To institutions devoted exclusively to the promotion of particu-
lar branches of knowledge are given such Smithsonian publications as
relate to their respective objects.

7th. The Annual Reports are presented to the meteorological observ-
ers, to contributors of valuable material to the library or collections,
and to persons engaged in special scientific research.

The most important memoir accepted during the year for publication
in the Smithsonian Contributions is entitled ““Archelogical and Ethno-
logical Researches in Central and South America, with a Detailed Ac-
count of the Sculptures at Santa Lucia Cosumalwhuapa,” by Dr. Habel,
of New York. This gentleman, having an ardent desire to make an ex-
ploration of the physical geography and anthropology of Central Amer-
ica, relinquished his medical practice in 1862, and commenced a tour of
exploration in that region. In the course of seven years which he de-
voted to these explorations he made collections in natural history and
observations in neteorology, topography, geology, and archeology. On
arriving at Guatemala he made that city his headquarters, from which
four excursions were undertaken.

The first was directed to an unexplored region lying north of Guate-
mala, reported to be inhabited by the Lacandones, a tribe said never to
have been subdued by Europeans. On the route, Dr. Habel heard of

14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the remains of two cities near Rabinal, one of which, twelve miles from
the town, he visited. These ruins occupy the summits of three hills, and
some of the edifices are tolerably well preserved. The most conspicuous
one was 100 feet long by 30 feet broad. Its floor was elevated four steps
above the ground, and the walls left standing were about 6 feet high.
It seems to have had four entrances, one on each side. The interior
space was 18 feet broad by nearly 90 feet long. All the buildings were
constructed of thin slabs of mica-gneiss laid in courses like bricks and
united by a granular kind of mortar. The walls had been plastered out-
side and inside. On the side of the hill were found arrow-leads and
spear-points of obsidian and other minerals.

Arriving at Salinas there were found vestiges of the ancient popula-
tion in a squared-stone pyramid, heaps of broken pottery, We. A vo-
cabulary of the Egkschi language was collected. After waiting a month
for a boat to convey him to his intended destination, he was obliged to
relinquish the attempt and return to Guatemala.

The second exploration was to the borders of Mexico, and ancient ruius
were visited at Guequetenango, Palyah, and Sayeap.

Cn the third excursion the sculptures of Copan, in Honduras, de-
seribed by Stephens and others, were visited. Those of Guirigua are
of great archelogical interest. These are of various sizes and shapes,
the tallest being of columnar form abort 25 feet high, while others do
not exceed 12 feet. All of them have four sculptured sides, the front
and rear being the widest. The narrow sides of all the columnar mon-
oliths are covered with hieroglyphics resembling those found in Copan.

The fourth excursion was undertaken to visit a newly discovered series
of sculptures at Santa Lucia Cosumalhuapa, the description of which
forms the principal part of this memoir. On the way to this place very
interesting sculptures were found on the plain near the Hacienda los
Tarros, which exhibit fine workmanship and represent human figures
in high relief. They are 5 feet 9 inches high, 3 feet 7 inches broad, and
1 foot 8 inches deep, standing on a base 10 inches high.

Before describing the objects found at Santa Lucia the author gives
an account of some other expeditions. The first of these was to the Re-
public of Honduras, but no archeological objects were observed. Vocab-
ularies and valuable information, however, were collected from various
native tribes.

A visit was also made to Nicaragua, where a sculptured figure was
seen on the corner-stone of a house, and other remains were found in
and near the town. <A grotesque figure was observed sculptured on a
rock, forming the bank of a brook, which is the only instance of sculp-
ture found by the doctor on rocks in situ.

A visit to Costa Rica did not produce any results of interest. The
largest field for archaeological discoveries is considered by Dr. Habel to
be found in San Salvador, and an account is given of several sculptures
and mounds he examined there.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15

Leaving Central America, Dr. Habel visited parts of Colombia, Eeua-
dor, and Peru, which he found rich in architectural structures erected
by the ancient inhabitants. Descriptions and measurements of some ot
these are given in the memoir.

The author, however, as we have said, devotes the principal part of
this work to a description of the monoliths at Santa Lucia Cosumal-
huapa, a small town in the Department of Esquintla, near the base of the
volcano del Fuego, at the commencement of the slope which extends from
the mountain range to the Pacilic coast. The village is of comparatively
modern origin and is in the midst of an extensive orange-grove, which
yields so abundantly that the fruit is almost given away, and the great
number of trees is accounted for by the custom prevailing of planting
a tree by each head of a family at the birth of each child. A short time
before the arrival of Dr. Habel in the country the monoliths had been
discovered by a man who, in digging a field to prepare the ground for
planting cotton, came upon a large pile of stones which, on examination,
were found to be sculptured. To make drawings of these was no easy
task, for the dirt and moss attached to them had to be removed—a very
tedious work. To secure true copies of the originals, strings were
stretched over each slab, six inches apart, thus dividing them into squares.
The sketch-book was ruled in squares of half an inch, and in each of these
a copy of a square of the slab was drawn, making the drawings all one-
twelfth the linear size of the original. The slabs form an extended heap,
rendering it probable that there are others hidden from view which
further researches would reveal. All the sculptures are in low relief,
nearly all being in cavo-relicvo; that is, surrounded by a raised border.
In seven instances the sculpture represents, according to the author, a
person adoring a deity of a different mythological conception in each
case. One of these seems to represent the sun, another the moon, while
the character of the others it is impossible to define. These deities are
represented by a human figure, of which the head, arms, and breast are
correctly portrayed. Jour of the other sculptures represent allegorical
subjects. The stones on which the low reliefs are sculptured came from
the volcano of Ocatenango, and most of them are 12 feet in length, 3 feet
in width, and 2 feet in thickness. Nine feet of the upper part of these
stones are occupied by sculptures, while the lower 3 feet appear to have
served as a base. Very minute descriptions are given of each of these
sculptures, and au attempt is made by the author to explain the signifi-
cance of all the emblems, ornaments, figures, &c., forming the design
on each slab.

The author also indulges in speculations as to the origin and symbol
ism of the sculptures, which are ingenious, novel, and many of them
apparently very reasonable, while others will undcubtedly be accepted
with much hesitation, and will perhaps be rejected as untenable by
students of archeology.

The author was invited to visit Washington, where a room was pro-

16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

vided for him at the Institution and the drawings of these sculptures
were reproduced by an artist under his personal supervision and con-
stant instruction. The expense of the preparation of the manuscript
and illustrations as well as of the publication has been borne by the
Smithsonian Institution. The publication of the work was recommended
by several of the leading archeologists of the country, and in a report
in regard to it Prof. W. D. Whitney remarks, “‘ It seems to me a story
refreshing by its brevity and simplicity, very unlike the pompous and
boastful way in which such things are often heralded. One may not
agree with all the inferences drawn at the end, but that is a matter of
very small importance; no two persons would arrive at precisely the
same conclusions. So far as I can judge, the Institution has every rea-
son to take pleasure and pride in the issue of such a contribution to Amer-
ican archeology.” The sculptures represented are of such a remark-
able character that it has been thought advisable to iastitute some fur-
ther inquiries in regard to their present condition; and, fortunately, an
opportunity has occurred which enables the Institution to do this
without making any draft upon its income. The Government of Guate-
mala having requested the Government of the United States to nomi-
nate a competent geologist to make explorations of mines in the former
country, the Secretary of State referred the matter to the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, who nominated Mr. Arnold Hague, who
had been engaged on the survey of the fortieth parallel under Clarence
King, a gentleman well qualified to discharge the duties intrusted to
him. He has been requested to visit the region in question and to report
on the state of the sculptures described in the memoir of Dr. Habel as
well as on any archeological remains of interest wnich he may meet
with in the course of his explorations in the country.

In previous reports a paper has been mentioned which is the result
of the investigations of the late Prof. Henry J. Clark relative to Lucer-
naria, a class of animals formerly regarded as polyps, but more recently
associated with the acalephe or sea-nettles and jelly-fishes. It was
presented to the Institution several years ago, but the publication
has been delayed by a series of unexpected hindrances. Much delay
was experienced at first in obtaining proper engravings of the very
minute and complicated drawings to illustrate the work, and before these
were completed the author was called from this life, in the flower of his
age and in the midst of a series of successful investigations. After his
death it was found difficult to obtain the services of a person sufficiently
acquainted with the subject to read the proof.sheets, but during the
year the printing has been commenced under the supervision of Prof.
A. E. Verrill, of Yale College. Unfortunately, another delay has been
occasioned by the ill-health of this gentleman. We hope, however, that
the work will be completed in the course of a month or two and will be
ready for distribution at an early day.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17

During the year 1877, a paper has been published in the ‘ Contribu-
tions to Knowledge” on the “ Internal structure of the earth considered
as affecting the phenomena of precession and nutation,” by General J.
G. Barnard, United States Army. This is a supplementary article to
one by the same author published in the nineteenth volume of Contribu-
tions, and was read before the National Academy of Sciences at its ses-
sion in April, 1877.

For several years past Mr. P. P. Carpenter, author of the “ Lectures
on Mollusea,” and the ‘* Mollusks of Western North America,” published
by the Institution, has been engaged in the preparation of a monograph
of the Chitonide, or coat-of-mail shells, a remarkable group of shell-fish.
An appropriation was made in 1877 to enable him to have drawings pre-
’ pared of rare type-specimens in Europe. We regret to state, however,
that before his work was completed Mr. Carpenter died at Montreal, on
the 24th May,1877. Hewas the son of the well-known Dr. Lant Carpenter,
and a member of a family distinguished by great gifts. He was born in
Bristol, England, in 1819, and after graduating at the University of Edin-
burgh became a minister of the gospel. He early manifested a taste
for natural history, particularly of the mollusks, which he made his
special study during his life. He presented to the British Museum his
own collection of shells, consisting of 8,873 specimens, all determined,
and many of them described by himself. In 1859 he visited America,
where he was engaged in determining the collections of shells in the
Smithsonian Institution and other museums. His manuscripts were
left in an imperfect condition, and partly written in an obsolete phono-
graphic short-hand. An attempt at having this short-hand deciphered
is being made, by the help of his brother, the Rev. Russell L. Car-
penter, of Bridport, England. A large number of beautiful drawings
of the shells and soft parts of the various genera had been prepared
at the cost of the Institution, and the manuscript, or such portions of it
as may be made available, have been placed in the hands of Mr. W. H.
Dall for revision, with a view to their ultimate publication. It is
believed that this monograph will form a valuable contribution to the
knowledge of the invertebrate animals of the world.

In the report for 1875 it was stated that 184 pages had been stereo-
typed of the Botanical Index prepared by Prof. Sereno Watson. This
work is intended to facilitate the labors of botanists, especially in the
study of the plants of the western portions of the United States, by
furnishing references to all the published descriptions of species of the
flora of North America with lists of synonyms. The search for what
has been written frequently consumes more time and labor than all
the rest of a botanical investigation, and the present work has been
undertaken at the urgent solicitation of some of the principal botanists
of the country, who have also contributed to the expense of its prepara-
tion. Other duties of Professor Watson have been so engrossing that

258

18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

he has not yet been able to complete this work. It is now proposed, as
recommended by Professor Gray, to publish the pages already stereo-
typed, as part 1, since this will cover the ground of volume 1 of Torrey
and Gray’s Flora of North America and be complete in itself as far as it
goes. A short preface will be given, and at the end an index to the
genera. It will include nearly 500 pages, and can be printed and distrib-
uted early in the year 1878.

The “Toner Lectures” have been instituted at Washington by Dr.
Joseph M. Toner, a practicing physician of this city, who has placed
in charge of a board of trustees, consisting of the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, the Surgeon-General of the United States
Army, the Surgeon-General of the United States Navy, and the presi-
dent of the Medical Society of the District of Columbia, a fund, the —
interest of which is to be applied annually for a memoir or essay rela-
tive to some branch of medical science, and containing some new truth
fully established by experiment or observation. As these lectures are
intended to increase and diffuse knowledge, the Institution has accepted
them for publication in its series of ‘‘ Miscellaneous Collections.” The
following is a list of the lectures already published:

1. On the structure of cancerous tumors and the mode in which adja-
cent parts are invaded. By Dr. J. J. Woodward. November, 1873.
44 pp. Svo.

2. The dual character of the brain. By Dr. C. E. Brown-Séquard.
January, 1877. 25 pp. 8vo.

3. Strain and overaction of the heart. By Dr. J. M. Da Costa. <Au-
gust, 1874. 32 pp. 8vo.

4, A study of the nature and mechanism of fever. By Dr. Horatio
C. Wood. February, 1875. 48 pp. 8vo.

5. On the surgical complications and sequels of the continued fevers.
By Dr. W. W. Keen. <April,.1877. 72 pp. Sve.

6. Subcutaneous surgery ; its principles and recent extension in prac-
tice. By Dr. William Adams. May,1877. 20pp. 8vo.

Of the above series, the second, fifth, and sixth have been published
during the past year. The second, by Dr. Brown-Séquard, was not
printed in its regular order on account of the failure of the author to
furnish the manuscript of the lecture, and it was finally published from
short-hand notes taken at the time by a reporter.

Appended to the lecture of Dr. Keen on fever is a bibliography,
including works referring more or less briefly to several diseases, viz:
1, diseases of the joints; 2, diseases of the bones; 3, diseases of the
larynx; 4, gangrene; 5, hematomata; 6, diseases of the eye; 7, phleg-
masia; 8, miscellaneous.

To defray in part the cost of printing these lectures, they are sold at
25 cents each.

The records of scientific discoveries have become so extended and
so distributed among works forming whole libraries, that to become

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19

acquainted with what is known in any branch, would be a labor of such
magnitude as to form a serious obstacle to the advance of knowledge were
not means devised for facilitating this labor. The means adopted for
this end are classified indexes of special subjects in which may be found
everything of importance which has been published in regard to the
subject.

The Royal Society’s Catalogue of Scientific Papers is a boon to science,
and is of great importance to every original investigator, but it is
arranged solely under authors’ names, and contains only references to
papers appearing in periodicals published since 1800, excluding all books
published separately. To supplement this the Institution has pub-
lished during the year an index of books and memoirs relating to
nebulze and star clusters, by Prof. E. S. Holden, of the Washing-
ton Observatory. This index includes all papers, memoirs, and books
on nebule and clusters alphabetically arranged according to authors,
giving, for each reference, volume and page. Where the title of
a book or paper explains the subject of it, such title is, in general,
alone given. Where a paper is quite important its title is given, and if
necessary, a note more or less brief, expressive of its contents. The works
of the elder Herschel on these subjects are analyzed at considerable
length, in order partly to supply the great want of an edition of his col-
lected works. In the case of papers of minor interest, a reference to the
periodical, volume, and page is alone given (no title), and a note of its
purport. In addition to this, there is given a very condensed reference
to the papers in each periodical consulted. In this way a person con-
sulting the catalogue will find all the works of any author upon the gen-
eral subject, with brief notes of the contents of each paper; or again, any
person desiring to refer to the various papers on this subject contained
in any serial publication, as the Philosophical Transactions, for example,
will find references which will save him much time. The index is prac-
tically complete to the present date; it contains a complete list of all
published (and many unpublished) drawings of nebule and clusters, and
also an index to Sir William Herschel’s classes of nebula.

In the last two reports an account was given of a new series of publi-
cations to form part of the ‘‘ Miscellaneous Collections,” entitled ‘ Bul-
letins of the National Museum,” and intended to illustrate the collec-
tions of natural history and ethnology belonging to the United States,
of which the Smithsonian Institution is the custodian. They are pre-
pared at the request of the Institution by different individuals, and are
printed, by the authority of the Secretary of the Interior, at the Govern-
ment Printing Office.

Since the date of the last report, numbers 7, 8, and 9 of the Bulletins
have been published.

No. 7 is a contribution to the Natural History of the Hawaiian and
Fanning Islands and Lower California, by Dr. Thomas H. Streets, passed
assistant surgeon, United States Navy. The collection that furnished

20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the materials for this Bulletin were made by Dr. Streets while connected
with the North Pacific Surveying Expedition in 1873-75. The Fan-
ning group consists of four small coral islands, Christmas, Fanning,
Washington, or New York, and Palmyra. They are situated imme
diately north of the equator, extending from latitude 1° 57’ north to 5°
49’ north, and from longitude 157° 27’ west to 162° 11’ west. Three of
these islands have been terra incognita to the naturalist, and furnish
much new matter. This was particularly the case with Washington
Island, which is an obliterated atoll, having been lifted up by some
disturbing force, so as to close up the lagoon-outlet, and what was the
old salt-water lagoon is now a fresh-water lake. It is probable that the
salt-water of the lagoon has drained off through the light, porous soil,
and its place been supplied by rain-water. It is unfortunate that the
exigencies of the naval service did not permit of a longer stay at this
island, and especially that sufficient time was not given to investigate
the life in the fresh-water lake. During the half day which he was
allowed to remain on the island, Dr. Streets succeeded in fixing the
habitat of a lory (Coriphilus kuhli), which has long been a puzzle to
ornithologists, and he also discovered a diminutive species of the gad-
well duck inhabiting the lake. The specimens of the lory brought
home by Dr. Streets are, it is believed, the only ones in this country;
and they are exceedingly rare in the museums of Europe. The island is
densely covered with vegetation, the cocoanut-palm tree predominating.
The collection represents the complete avi-fauna of the group during
the winter months, with two or three exceptions. A point of interest
im connection with the fish collection is that it extends the area of dis-
tribution of many species that were previously confined to the East
Indian region. The conditions surrounding life on the southernmost
island of the group, Christmas, were generally found to be very different
from that on the others; and in cases where it was the same, the habits
of the species were observed to be greatly modified. The notes accom-
panying the names of the sea-birds are thought to be very interesting
in this connection. Purely land-life, as is natural to be supposed, is
very scantily represented on the islands. On Palmyra there was found
aminute shell, a Tornatellina, and a land-leech, that fastened itself upon
the eyelids of the young birds. Rats and house-flies are abundant, but
neither are indigenous. In addition to the land-birds already men-
tioned, there was also observed on Washington a bird resembling a fly-
catcher. Giant land-crabs were numerous on the same island.

After the Portsmouth, on which Dr. Streets was stationed, had com-
pleted the survey of the Fanning group, he was transferred to the
Narragansett, which was making a survey of the west coast of Mexico.
This portion of the collection does not pretend to be exhaustive even
of any one locality, the nature of the work, a running survey, precluding
the idea of a protracted stay in one place. The elucidation of some
doubtful points in the history of two species of birds and an account

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21

of the guano deposits in the Gulf of California are the only noteworthy
items in connection with the ornithology of this region. Angel Island
in the Gulf, was found to be the dwelling-place of two extremely rare
Arizonian reptiles. In regard to fish, two more species are added to the
number of those that are common to both the Atlantic and Pacific
shores of the American continent.

The eighth number of the Bulletin is an index to the names which
have been applied, previous to the year 1877, to the subdivisions of the
class Brachiopoda excluding the Rudistes, by William H. Dall, of the
United States Coast Survey. The Brachiopods are among the most
characteristic forms by which geological strata are co-ordinated. Many
genera have been described in little-known works by European authors,
and many others inobscure American publications. Mostofthenames ap-
plied to these generaare duplications of one another. Americanand Euro-
pean authors have been retarded in their classification of the Brachiopods
by this undigested synonymy. Mr. W. H. Dall has collected the his-
tory of all the names which have been applied to members of this group
both properly and improperly, and added notes on their synonymy, rela-
tions and a geological table of the strata in which each group is
found. This index affords the means for properly naming the national
collection of these fossils, and it has received the approbation of Mr.
Thomas Davidson, F. BR. S., of England, the highest authority living
on the subject of Brachiopoda. It is shown by this list that of sixteen
families of Brachiopods, six have living representatives, one more than
appear to have been represented during the Cambrian epoch, while but
two of the Cambrian families have survived. All those living in Creta-
ceous times have endured till now. All now living had Paleozoic rep-
resentatives, while half the Paleozoic families do not appear to have
survived the changes which introduced the Mezozoic time. This work
is an octavo of 88 pages.

The ninth Bulletin is entitled “Contributions to North American
Ichthyology based primarily on the collections of the United States
National Museum. Part I. Review of Rafinesque’s Memoirs on North
American Fishes.” By Prof. D.S. Jordan. The object of the author of
this paper is to present a series of identifications of the species of fresh-
water fishes described by Rafinesque in his ‘“ Ichthyologia Ohiensis ”
and elsewhere, the result of nearly three years of field-work in the region
explored by Rafinesque. It forms an octavo pamphlet of 53 pages.

Annual report.—The annual report of the operations of the Institution
for the year 1876, was presented to Congress on the 16th day of Feb-
ruary, 1877, and on the 28th of February a resolution was adopted by
Congress ordering an edition to be printed of 10,500 copies, of which
1,000 were to be for the use of the Senate, 3,000 for the House of Rep-
resentatives, and 6,500 for the use of the Institution. This was a reduc-
tion in the number usually ordered for distribution by the Institution of
1,000 copies.

22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The appendix to the report for 1876 contains translations of Arago’s
Eulogy on Gay-Lussac; Fialho’s Biographical Sketch of Dom Pedro I;
Pilar on the Revolutions of the Crust of the Earth; and Blondel on
Jade; besides original articles on Kinetic Theories of Gravitation, by
William B. Taylor; the Asteroids between Mars and Jupiter, by Prof.
Daniel Kirkwood ; the Latimer Collection of Antiquities from Porto Rico,
by Prof. Otis T. Mason; Antiquities in Guatemala, by the Hon. George
Williamson; Collections of Historical Documents in Guatemala, by Dr. C.
H. Berendt; Observations on the Prehistoric Mounds of Grant County,
Wisconsin, by Moses Strong; Deposits of Flint Implements, by Dr. J.
F. Snyder; Ancient Mica Mines in North Carolina, by C. D. Smith; a
Double-walled Earthwork in Ashtabula County, Ohio, by Stephen D.
Peet; an Ancient Implement of Wood, by E. W. Ellsworth; Centennial
Mission to the Indians of Western Nevada and California; Indian Forts
and Dwellings, by Dr. W. E. Doyle; and the Sioux or Dakota Indians,
by Col. Albert G. Brackett.

ANTUROPOLOGY.

Anthropology, or what may be considered the natural history of man,
is at present the most popular branch of science. It absorbs a large
share of public attention and many original investigators are assiduously
devoted to it. Its object is to reconstruct, as it were, the past history
of man, to determine his specific peculiarities and general tendencies.
It has already established the fact that a remarkable similarity exists in
the archeological instruments found in all parts of the world with those
in use among tribes still in a savage or barbarous condition. The con-
clusion is supported by evidence which can scarcely be doubted, that by
thoroughly studying the manners and customs of savages and the instru-
ments employed by them, we obtain a knowledge of the earliest history
of nations which have attained the highest civilization.

It is remarkable in how many cases customs existing among highly
civilized peoples are found to be survivals of ancient habits. Indeed it
is asserted, and with at least apparent truth, that every unmeaning
ceremony found in rural life in Europe and America, is a survival of
an important custom connected with an essential condition of life in the
aboriginal race. Hence, to clearly apprehend the manners and customs
of modern society, it is necessary to study them in connection with the
myths, the ceremonies, and the usages of ancient people.

American anthropology early occupied the attention of the Smithson-
ian Institution. ‘To collect all the facts which could be gathered in regard
to the archeology of North America, and also of its ethnology, or, in other
words, an account of its present Indian inhabitants, was considered a
prominent object in the plan of operations of the establishment. The
first volume of its Contributions, whereby its plan of intended operations
was illustrated, consists of an elaborate and expensive work on the
“Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley”; and from the time of

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23

the publication of this volume until the present, contributions of value
have been made annually by the Institution to this branch of knowledge.

During the past year small appropriations were made as usual for
opening mounds and collecting their contents, and larger ones to Mr. F.
A. Ober, for archzological explorations in the West Indies, and Stephen
Bowers for similar operations in California. The former gentleman has
succeeded in finding remnants of the ancient Carib tribes, and has
obtained photographs of the people and specimens of their handiwork.
His exploration bids fair to produce a valuable return for the money
expended. It is not confined to ethnology, but embraces collections in
all branches of natural history.

The exploration by Mr. Bowers was a continuation of one undertaken
in connection with Major Powell, and was made in the vicinity of Santa
Barbara and on the islands adjacent to Lower California. From this
exploration forty boxes of very interesting relics of the ancient inhabit-
ants of this country have been received. A full report of these will be
prepared by Major Powell. The entire series of objects obtained become
the property of the National Museum.

As will be seen from the exhibit of the executive committee, the whole
amount of money devoted to explorations during the year is $879.50.

The collection of the archeology and ethnology of America in the Na-
tional Museum is the most extensive in the world; and, in order to con-
nect it permanently with the name of Smithson, it has been thought
advisable to prepare and publish at the expense of the Smithson fund
an exhaustive work on American anthropology, in which the various
classes of specimens shall be figured and described.

For this purpose Mr. Charles Rau, formerly of New York, well known
for his contributions to American archeology, has been employed to
take charge of the work, with the assistance of skilled artists. He is
furnished with rooms in the building, and now devotes one-half of the
time to the arrangement of the archzxological museum, and the other to
the description of the specimens and the direction of the artists engaged
in delineating them.

The Institution has also lately entered upon a project it has long had in
contemplation, namely, the compilation of a map of the distribution and
character of thearchzological remains of North America. The prelimi-
nary arrangements for this work have been intrusted to Prof. Otis T.
Mason, of Columbian University, who has prepared a circular which wil
soon be published by the Institution.

in the last report it was stated that the large collection of Indian
vocabularies in possession of the Institution had been transferred to
Prof. J. W. Powell, to be incorporated with his series in his general
work on the ethnology of the Territories of the United States in course
of preparation and publication by the Interior Department. What has
been accomplished during the past year in relation to this work will be
seen in Professor Powell’s account of his explorations, given in the ap-
pendix to the report of the Secretary.

24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Reference was made in the last report to the “ Instructions for research
relative to the ethnology and philology of America,” prepared in 1861
by Dr. George Gibbs, and the fact was stated that a new edition of this
work had been undertaken in behalf of the Institution by Professor
Powell. During the year 1877, a volume entitled ‘‘ Introduction to the
Study of Indian Languages” has been printed, and a few copies dis-
tributed among those interested in the study of Indian languages for
such additions and emendations as may be suggested preparatory to
final publication. In its preparation Professor Powell was assisted by
Prof. W. D. Whitney, the distinguished philologist.

METEOROLOGY.

The Institution during the past year has continued its labors in the
line of the reduction of meteorological observations. It has been espe-
cially engaged in the discussion of material for a new edition of the Rain-
fall Tables for North America. It has also reduced and printed the ob-
servations made by Professor Caswell at Providence, from the termina-
tion of his series of meteorological observations published in 1860 down
to the close of 1876, the whole making a continuous series for a period of
forty-five years. Long series of this kind are of great importance in de-
termining any change of climate which may have occurred during the
period which they embrace.

We mention in regard to this series an interesting fact in connection
with the supposed change in the rain-fall in different parts of the United
States due to the clearing off of forests. If, for example, we take from
this series three ten-year periods, one at the beginning, one at the middle,
and one at the end, we observe a regular increase instead of diminution
in the amount of rain-fall in Providence, as shown by the following
figures:

From 1852 to 1841, average 38 inches.

From 1852 to 1861, average 44 inches.

From 1867 to 1876, average 49 inches.

This fact, however; may be in some way connected with the custom
which, I am told, has become common in New England since the inhab-
itants have devoted themselves largely to manufactures, of allowing a
considerable portion of the soil which was formerly under cultivation to
grow up in wood.

The next series of observations which remains to complete the results
of the whole meteorological system of the Smithsonian Institution will
be that on the pressure of the atmosphere, which is intimately con-
nected with the dominant winds in different parts of the country.

The miscellaneous work by the meteorological computers of the Insti-
tution during the year 1877, is as follows:

1. Tabulating the mean temperature and the maxima and minima of
temperature for the Smithsonian stations for the years 187172-'73.

2. Tabulating rain-fall, temperature, and maxima and minima for
Canadiap stations, 1875.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25

3. Tabulating rain-fall for Signal-Service stations, January, 1875, to
July, 1876.

4, Making corrections and additions to rain-fall manuscript.

5. Making indices to the rain-fall and maxima and minima tables.

TELEGRAPHIC ANNOUNCEMENT OF ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIZS.

The arrangement which was established between the Smithsonian J:-
stitution and the Atlantic cable companies in 1873, by which free tele-
graphic transmission of astronomical discoveries was granted between
Europe and America, has been continued during the past year.

The following isa list of the small planetoidal bodies discovered in
1877:

Number. Name. Discovered— | By— Ai
Mbyndiye ccreconopsne sane Sis| PRherotimiene sama sce | ‘Toulouse.
Opnoligkteecceesesscrs Jane oiler Borelivwenseseseiaae ai | Marseilles.
Baucis Baler Gans O) oeaeewerecutecs <a Do.

Sis hie oe ese OF eC Phalsiarel ees) aetna thse ae ome IND Waar DE
Sree toes eee atacieaiers ML SHid || (WiatsOlern = sissies =| AeA DOr.
Saonee nabeopecacod 62506 abe (Nt Beet) o coogocecacess 755) 0.
Idunna FART) SP Otersincsaes scee 2 seas | Clinton.
pleat eetoicts ated) ian Henry. s--es-+--- aris
a eee GR IUSIIC || TERNS Ch eee okee ceo Pola
aeaeer Sea COP ORy dees Bul a beye Watson. .---.---------| Ann Arbor.
BV QIU) fam mielietets wim ceeake Mees 29 180i Wi PaAlSAleces ss tcee score o> | Pola.

Note.—Lumen (141) was independently discovered by Watson and Borelly in August, and Athor
(161) by Palisa in October.

EXCHANGES.

The literary and scientific exchanges inaugurated by the Institution
have increased during the past year in a greater ratio than ever before.
Four hundred and six boxes, averaging 7 cubic feet each, with a total
weight of nearly 100,000 pounds, and containing over 15,000 separate
parcels, were sent abroad by the Institution. During the year, 4,870
packages, each containing several articles, have been received from
abroad for distribution in this country.

To show the high estimation in which this branch of the operations
of the Institution is held, as well as to give proper credit to the
parties who forward free of charge the packages of the Institution, we
republish, as usual, the following list:

Cunard Steamship Company. New York and Brazil Steamship Company.
Anchor Steamship Company. North German Lloyd Steamship Company.
Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Hamburg American Packet Company.
Panama Railroad Company. North Baltic Lloyd Steamship Company.
Pacific Steam Navigation Company. Inman Steamship Company.

New York and Mexico Steamship Company.

The special thanks of the Institution are again tendered to the above-
mentioned companies for their enlightened liberality.

We may also mention as an evidence of the high appreciation of the
character of the Smithsonian exchanges, that the packages bearing the
marks of the Institution are admitted free of duty into all foreign ports

26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The following are the principal foreign agencies of reception and dis-
tribution of the Smithsonian exchanges:

London, William Wesley, 28 Essex street, Strand.

Paris, G. Bossange, 16 Rue du 4 Septembre.

Leipsic, Dr. Felix Fliigel, 49 Sidonien Strasse.

St. Petersburg, L. Watkins & Co., 10 Admiralty Place.

Amsterdam, Frederick Miiller, Heerengracht KK. No. 130.

Milan, U. Hoepli, 591 Galeria Cristoforia.

Harlem, Professor von Baumhauer.

Christiania, Royal University of Norway.

Stockholm, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Copenhagen, Royal Danish Society.

Lisbon, Polytechnic School.

Madrid, Royal Academy of Sciences.

Havana, Dr. Felipe Poey.

Santiago, University of Chili.

Mexico, Mexican Society of Geography and Statistics.

Montreal, Geological Survey of Canada.

The packages of the Institution for the West Indies have been kindly
forwarded by Mr. Thomas Bland, of New York, and those for Turkey,
by Messrs. Chrysoveloni & Co., of 5 Fenwick street, Liverpool, England;
and those for other points in the East, by the American Board of Com-
missioners for Foreign Missions, Boston.

The following table exhibits the number of foreign establishments
with which the Institution is at present in correspondence, or, in other
words, to which it sends publications and from which it receives others
in return.

Foreign institutions in correspondence with the Smithsonian. Institution.

Alveriais. <5 s<ccatees cicsape ose Senn Bla a taan ws «an sistent ae aoe 187
Argentine Republic 2. - 2... <=... -- 225 Isle pamesgs boise sntaaaeins meeeete Shee 6
AMUBtCAlIS So oe ae Soe poe ecene Del UAV smc motaie mine ncteiat ace ee ameere 5
Bel ginii..s. vas sees se eee eee 113) | bibertais oss. seeecee crane eee 1
Bolivad, . sts 2c See et a eee Lj eMauritius. 0! cos. ce eee ee 3
DRAM se cin ceie ctabra som cise cla susiteranee LOB Mex CO) 22 <n.ce ce ace aaeeee eee 16
BTIGISHSAMELICRS= ose ve Shee ee 20h New: Zealand ...cc2csaseceeeee cess 15
BVLUSH GMa 22253 once oe ese eee. 3) | Norway ja. .642.2she cee eeeeeeics 25
@ape Colony ecto 22 5 ose | |i 16d2) 6 Ree Oe IRE A Coe Aone 4
Central Ameri¢a ..- 222.2. 2255252 2)}| Philippine Iekmdsi:2iieeers.2- sce 3
Clit) CER SSSA Ae ere es S49 Scere oe See 8! Polynesia... 22s peace Beueecee cele 2
Clavie tare es- Cates. SHR as Eanes 1) | 2Bortugal: 5 << scarp oe cemecae jessie 32
Colompaeaacsee noses aces ee ls SU GIRURSIAC ce aoe eos. stares eat ocns~ 1 lee
ID\Sovinenel te Ae Soni hte GE seri or one 29 | SPR oschseeeis coe cates cwcee cece se 24
Dutch Guiana inca, Gocsesseee 1, | Stielenazees Sse eee 2
HIGH GOL. oop esieeeenciecocischee cece. 1 | Seton ga eee cence teins 21
OV breseinncteaiciis se cieiscine scree cies S| Swabzenlandieesscees occ oss. cee 73
IMENT) Aeog B54 ABCC BEGINS Shee one 327 .| Wun key eee eet ie co ta si6 =o m a. cnce ere 12
Germany and Austria. ............. 661") Wenezhelais.c-2- .--...c. ccc senate 2
Great Britain and Ireland ......... 368°) Westidmdiesiloa2)2.be\5.s2. cua 8
(SAVAGES) sSéeeaasedod see aaeene ae one 8 | GOS eee bee oon ante gees 7
HIOM AM Ge ooo ects toe eis ose Sat ee tice 65 ——
Nicglandie co. achetek set eb ee tece 4 Motaliecc <i... tae ROE 2, 330

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 27

Statistics of exchanges sent during the last nine years.

1269. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874, 1875. 1876. 1877.
Number of boxes ......... 112 121 108 | 179 196 131 208 323 397
Bulk in cubic feet.....---: 1,033 | 1,189 V2 | 954 | 1, 476 | 933.| 1,503 | 2,261 2, 779
RWiei@ht 202. 2o 2s ueeee ses ROB. S76 | 31, 383 | 28,950 | 26,850 | 44,236 | 27,990 | 45, 300 | 80,750 | 99, 250
| | |

To facilitate the business of the exchanges, the following rules have
been adopted :

1. Every package, without exception, must be enveloped in strong
paper, and secured so as to bear separate transportation by express or
otherwise.

2. The address of the institution or individual, for whom the package
is intended, must be written legibly on the cover, and the name of the
sender on one corner of the same.

3. No single package must exceed half of a cubic foot in bulk.

4. A detailed list of addresses of all the parcels sent, with their con-
tents, must accompany them.

5. No letter or other communication can be allowed in the parcel,
excepting such as relates exclusively to the contents of the package.

6. All packages must be deli vered in Washington free of freight and
other expenses.

7. Every parcel should contain a blank acknowledgment, to be signed
and returned, either through the agent of the Institution, or, what is
still better, through the mail, to the sender.

Should returns be desired for what is sent, the fact should be ex-
plicity stated on the list of the contents of the package, as, unless these
are specifically asked for, they will fail in many instances to be made.

Specimens of natural history will not be received for transmission
unless with a previous understanding as to their character and bulk.

8. Unless all these conditions are complied with, the parcels will not
be forwarded from the Institution; and, on the failure to comply with
the first and sec ond conditions, will be returned to the sender for cor-
rection.

A new edition of the list of foreign correspondents of the Institution
is now in press and will be distributed to libraries &c., in the course of
a few weeks.

EXCHANGE OF GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS.—In the report for 1875 a
full account was given of the system adopted for carrying out the law
relative to the exchange of the official publications of the United States
Government for those of foreign nations. In accordance with this system,
during the past year, 71 boxes of documents were forwarded, the follow-
ing being a list of the distribution:

28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

International exchange of government publications in 1877.

Boxes Boxes

Argentine Republic .........----..--- 3 | Canada. ee eee ctee ae eee ae ele = 2
BeleiuM esse. soe +- meee see eee 2) Portagal . 42 — 2. eee aero 2
Btagliecias op cacisen Sick sence eee eeee 2) Prussiassbi sass. 32s seco eee eee es 2
Buenos Ayres -2 +. ce-saceee es sooesa se 2 | Queensland . See eeis 2 aac ee eee 2
(Chri Ta eee eR enn ps oS ee nes 2 | Saxony sccseeceas. sess ee sameness 2
ly PG Neeeeeeeoos a bco5 Coa aon eaaaee 2) Scotland( 22 aise cae a2 oe eee eet
PLANO i <2. sosasiewe codes wach csetecs-«) 3) |) SDA eee eeec nese sose eee eee 2
Germany 2.lcctwecsceeee sete tts essen 2'| South Australias ssccccos, eee eee ene
GTeCCE -..c sos scsccemeces neces sscece-~) 7 | (Sweden erate oeeeccsinc. cos ese 2
Hath: «2 sO. eeeee eee eee tisaais ose = o's 3 | Switzerland) 22. 2-25.22 3. <-- see) 2
Holland eeresertee coe cence eees acess 2 | Lasmantaien2 tees wccmec cc. s- ene 2
Japanese aeateeeter ees ceca cciatn sa 2.) Turkey: -soecscheeeseceus tenet eeeree 2
WIGS dO) Saad S554 SH oe a oes aoee ees 2° | Wenezuelarencceoer ces once cieconeteee 3
New South Wales: <..cScc.-scce<cce--<, 32) WiCboniaasememeceemineea saanicnais senses 2
Niewaetedlandneneces pasescee cers cee ae ae —
NGI ION) S50c Goo aase Coos SenO ROS eaeInee 2 MOU 556 Gos5 bhOaSo Os0nSa D60556 gal
OnipaniOle scarce acce och elasccsece ecee 2

The expense of boxing, packing, transporting, and payment of agents
in connection with the transmission of these government documents
has been advanced for two years by the Institution, but it is expected
that Congress will reimburse it by an appropriation at the present ses-
sion.

LIBRARY.
Statement of the books, maps, and charts received by the Smithsonian Insti-

tution in 1877, and transferred to the Library of Congress.
Volumes:

Octavo, or less..... 49 ie BAR ie core atera Ee a ae 1, 328
Quarto, or larger. ..< 2222em eee eek Aan eee 561
— 1,889
Parts of volumes:
Oetano; OP Tess 5. - 5. hi eee ae ee et eee 1, 954
Quarto, or larger....... eee OP eTSA TG = Ce erent ancume 2,373
—— 4, 527
Pamphlets: :
Octavo; or less [42 2). 232 e eee eee co eee 1, 754
Quarto; or larger:-'s2!,, 22. eee ee ee e's)
2,184
laps and charts: 0. 05 0 ¢).. 4. ee ee ee oe eee 32
dS) CO RT 8 oe ee 8, 726

An increase of 1,141 over the year 1876.

List of the more valuable books received in 1877.

From the British Museum, London: Fae-simile of an Egyptian Hiera-
tic Papyrus, of thereignof Rameses III. London,1876. Oblong Elephant
folio.—Fac-similes of Ancient Charters. Parts ii, iii. 1876-1877.
Folio.—Catalogue of Sanskrit and Pali books. By Dr. E. Haas. 1876.
4to.—Catalogue of Oriental Coins. Vol. ii. 1876. 8vo.—Catalogue of
Greek Coins. Sicily, 1876. 8vo.—Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29

South Africa. By R. Owen. 1876. 8vo.—Catalogue of Birds. Vol.
Hipmels tts, OVO. :

From the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries, Copenhagen: An-
tiquités Russes d’aprés les Monuments historiques des Islandais et
des anciens Scandinaves. Vols.i,ii. Copenhagen, 1850-1852. Folio.—
Aarboyer for 1875-1876. 7 parts. $8vo.

From the Royal Prussian Mining Office, Breslau: Geologie von Ober-
schlesien, with atlas, charts, and profile. Breslau, 1870. to. (8
copies.) —Uebersicht iiber die Production der Bergwerke, Salinen und
Hiitten im Preuss. Staate im Jahre, 1876. Berlin, 1877. 4to.—Mon-
tanstatistik des deutschen Reichs und Luxemburgs, &e., 1875. Berlin,
1877. 4to.—Vierteljahrshefte zur statistik des deutschen Reichs fiir das
Jahr, 1875. Berlin. 4to.

From the General Direction of the Royal Collections of Art and
Science, Dresden: Das Griine Gewolbe zu Dresden. Hundert Tafeln in
Lichtdruck, enthaltend gegen 300 gegenstiinde aus den verschiedensten
Zweigen der Kunst-industrie, nach Prof. Graff, Director der k6nigl.
Kunst-Gewerbschule zu Dresden. Berlin. Folio.—Mittheilungen aus
dem K. Zodlogischen Museum zu Dresden. ii. Dresden, 1877. 4to.—
Archiv fiir Litteraturgeschichte, 1877. 3 parts. 8vo.

From the Royal University of Norway, Christiania: Die Pflanzen-
welt, Norwegens. Von Dr. F.C. Schubeller. Specieller theil. Chris-
tiania, 1875. 4to.—Die Skandinaviske og Arktiste Amphipoder, besk-
revne af Axel Boeck. Christiania, 1876. 4to.—Enumeratio Insectorum
Norvegicorum, Auctore H. Siebke. i-iv. Christiania, 1874-1877. 8vo.—
Die Kirche zu Hitterdal, in 10 Bliittern. Dresden, 1837. Folio.—Aars-
bereturing, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875. Christiania. Svo.—Heilagra Manne
Ségur. Udgivne af Dr. C. R. Unger. Christiania, 1877. 8vo.—Pos-
tola Sédgur. Udgivne af C. R. Unger. Chistiania, 1874. Svo.—Norges
Mynter i Middelalderew af C. I. Schive. Christiania, 1865. Folio.—
Norske Rigsregistranter, 1628-1631. Christiania, 1874. Svo.—And 8
volumes and 14 pamphlets of university publications.

From the Imperial Archeological Commission, St. Petersburg:
Comptes-Rendu, 1872, 1873, 1874. St.Petersburg, 1875-1877. 4to. with
folio Atlas.

From the Royal Zodlogical Society, Amsterdam: Jaarboekje, 1852,
1853, 1855-1870, 1872-1875. Amsterdam. (22 vols.)—Nederlandsch
Tijdschrift von de Dierkunde. Vols. li, iii, iv. Amsterdam, 1865-1873.
Svo.

From the South Kensington Museum: Science and Art Department,
London; Descriptive Catalogue of the Maiolica, Hispano-Moresco, Per-
sian, Damascus, and Rhodian Wares, in the South Kensington Museum.
1873. 8vo.—Descriptive Catalogue of Bronzes. 1876. 8vo.—A Descrip-
tion of the Ionies, Ancient and Medizval, in the South Kensington Mu-
seum. 1872. 8vo.—Textile Fabrics in the South Kensington Museum.
1870. 8vo.—Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork in the South

30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Kensington Museum. 1874. S8vo.—Catalogue of the Special Exhibition of
Works of Art on Loan. 1862. 8vo.—The First Proofs of the Universal
Catalogue of Books on Art. Vols. i, ii, and supplement. 1870-1875.
4to.—Universal Art Inventory. Parts i, ii, iii, 1868-1872. 8vo.—Cata-
logue of Italian Sculpture, by J.C. Robinson. 1862. 8vo.—Descriptive
Catalogue of Musical Instruments in the South Kensington Museum.
1874. S8vo.—Historical Collection of Water-color Paintings in the South
Kensington Museum. 1876. 8vo.—Catalogue of Enamels on Metal.
Illustrated. 1875. 4to.—Illustrated Catalogue of Jubinal’s Collection
of Ancient Cutlery. 1874. 4to.—Illustrated Catalogue of Electrotype
Reproductions of Works of Art. 1873. 4to.—Drawings of Glass Cases
in the South Kensington Museum, with Suggestions for the Arrange-
ment of Specimens. 1877. 4to.—Special Loan Exhibition of Decora-
tive Art Needle-work made before 1800. 1874. 4to.—Catalogue of An-
cient Musical Instruments. 1872. 4to.—Catalogue of Exhibition of
National Portraits. 1866, 1867, 1868. London, 8vo.—Catalogue of
Special Exhibition of Portrait Miniatures. 1865. 8vo.—Objects of
Indian Art. 1874. 8vo.—Monuments of Early Christian Art. 1872.
Svo.—A Description of the Trojan Column, by J. Hungerford Pallen.
1874. 8vo.—And 65 volumes of catalogues, lists, &e.

From the British Government: Report on the Antiquities of Kathiawad
and Kachh, being the result of the second season’s operations of the
Archeological Survey of Western India, 1874~’75. By James Burgess.
London, 1876. 4to.

From Capt. John Ericsson, New York: Contributions to the Centen-
nial Exhibition, by John Ericsson, LL. D. New York, 1876. 4to.

From the Ministére de l’Instruction Publique et des Beaux-Arts,
Paris: Denderah: Description générale du Grande Temple de cette
ville, par Auguste Mariette Bey, i-vi. Paris, 1870-1875. Folio.—Cata-
logue dela Bibliothéque Nationale. Histoire. Tomex. Médecine. Tome
ii, Paris. 1870-1873. 4to.—Nouveile Archives du Muséum d’Histoire
Naturelle. Vol. iv, pt. 4; vols. v-x. Paris, 1868-1876. 4to.—Monu-
ments divers recueillis en Egypt et en Nubie. Livr. 1-24. Paris, 1872.
Folio.—Etudes Egyptologiques. Livr. 1-7 and 9. Paris, 1873-1877.
4to—Mélanges d’Archéologie Egyptienne et Assyrienne. Livr. 1-8.
Paris, 1872-1876. 4to.—Inventaire des Manuscrits Frangais de la Bib-
liothéque Nationale. Tomei. Theologie. Paris,1876. 8vo.—Rapports
sur le service des Archives, de la Bibliotheque Nationale et des Missions.
1876, Paris. 8vo.—Manuscrit Troano. Tomes i, ii, and supplement, 1869,
1870. 4to.—Travaux, Instruments et Machines Agricoles, par M. H. Man-
gon. Text and atlas. Paris, 1875. 4to—Statistique Monumentale de
Paris. Livr. 30-36 and text. Paris, 1867. Folio. Recueil de Diplomes
Militaires. i. Paris, 1576. 4to.—Examen des Tarifs de Douane. Paris,
1876. 4to.—Recueil des Chartes de /Abbaye de Cluny. Tome i. Paris,
1876. 4to.—Monographie de la Cathédrale de Chartres. Atlas. Livr.
5-9, Paris, 1853-1865. Imp. folio—Nouvelle Géographie Universelle,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31

par Elisée Reclus. Tomesi, ii. Paris, 1876, 1877. 8vo.—Rapport au
Ministre de la Marine relatif 4)cestréiculture. Paris,1877. Svo.—Statis-
tique des Péches Maritimes,1875. Paris, 1876. 8vo.—La Chaleur solaire
et ses applications industrielles, par A. Mouchot. Paris, 1869. 8vo.—
Situation Administrative des Monts-de-Piété. Paris, 1876. Svo.—Ré-
paration des Dommages résultant de l’Invasion. Paris, 1876. 4to.—
Enquéte sur les Bureaux de Bienfaisance. Paris, 1874. 4to.—Vo-
yage Géologique dans les Républiques de Guatemala et de Salvador.
Paris, 1868. 4to.—Rapports sur ’Exposition Universelle 4 Vienne en
1873. Tomesi-v. Paris, 1875, 1876. 8vo.—lLes Progrés de la Photo-
graphie, par A. Davanne. Paris, 1877. 8vo.—Rapport sur la Mission
des Chotts. Paris, 1877. 8vo.—Nouvelle Navigation Astronomique.
Théorie. Pratique. Paris, 1877. 8vo.—(2 vols.)

From Dr. W. Engelmann, Leipzig: Aristoteles Werke. Vols. i-v.
Leipzig, 1853-1874. 8vo. Morphologisches Jahrbuch. Vols. i, ii; vol.
ili, pts.1-3. Leipzig, 1875-1877. ‘Svo.—Jahrbiicher fiir wissenschaftliche
Botanik. Vols.iv, vi-xi. Leipzig, 1865-1877. 8vo.—Zeitschrift fiir wis-
senschaftliche Zoologie, 1856-1875. Leipzig. 8vo. (58 parts).—Die
Heliceen, von J.C. Albers. Leipzig, 1861. 8vo.—Lehrbuch der Botanik,
von Dr. J. Sachs. Leipzig, 1874. 8vo.—Die Spongien des A@riatischen
Meeres, von Dr. O. Schmidt and Suppl. 1-3. Leipzig, 1862-1868. 4to.—
Spongien Fauna des Atlantischen Gebietes, von Dr. O. Schmidt. Leip-
zig, 1870. 4to.—Handbuch der Zoologie. Vols.i,ii. Leipzig, 1863-1868.
S8vo.— Bibliotheca Entomologica. Vols. i, ii. Leipzig, 1862, 1863. 8vo.—
Jahresbericht der im Gebiete der Zootomie erschienenen Arbeiten, von
J. V.Carus. Leipzig, 1856. S8vo.—Die Siisswasserfische der Oestreich-
ischen Monarchie, von J. Heckel und Dr. R. Kner. Leipzig, 1858.
Svo.—Untersuchungen iiber Pteropoden und Heteropoden, von Dr. C.
Gegenbauer. Leipzig, 1855. 4to.—Catalogus Plantarum Cubensium,
von A. Grisebach. Leipzig, 1866. Svo.—System der Thierischen Mor-
phologie, von Dr. J. V. Carus. Leipzig, 1853. And various pamphlets.

From the Minister of Education, Tokio, Japan: 54 charts for object-
teaching, and 38 Japanese text-books.

From C. de Kaufman, Governor General of Turkistan, a collection of
photographs of the races of mankind inhabiting the Russian possessions
in Central Asia, prepared for the exhibition of the last International
Congress of Orientalists.

From the Academie de Montpellier: Faculté de Médecine. Théses de
Montpellier. 1870-1875. Montpellier, 47 volumes. 4to.

From the Spanish Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Coleccion
de Documentos inéditos del Archivo General de la Corona de Aragon.
Vols. i-xxxix. Barcelona, 1853-1871. Svo.—Memorias de la Academia
de Ciencias de Madrid, vol. i; vol.ii, pt.2; vol.iii-vi. Madrid,1850-1865.
4to.—Memorias de la Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Politicas.
Vols. i,ii. Madrid, 1861-1867. 4to.—Discursos de Recepciony de Contest-
acion Leidos ante la R. Academia de Ciencias Morales y Politicas, 1860-

32 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

1875. Madrid, 1875. 8vo.—Discursos Leidos en la Real Academia de la
Historia, 1852-1875. Madrid. 8vo.—Cortes de Leon y de Castilla. Vols.
i-iii. Madrid, 1861-1866. 4to.—Historia de la Universidad de Granada.
Granada, 1870. Svo.—Farmacopea Espaiiola. Madrid, 1865. 8vo.—
Antiqiiedades prehistoricas de Andalucia. Madrid, 1868. 8vo.—Estudo
‘social y politico de los Mudejares de Castilla. Madrid, 1866. 4to.—Estu-
dios Filosofia del Derecho, por Don M. A. Martinez. Madrid, 1874.
Svo.—Catalogo Bibliografico y Biografico del Teaslo Antiguo Espaiiol.
Madrid, 1860. 4to.—Diccionario de Bibliografica Agronémica. Madrid,
1865. 4to.—Classificacion General de los Montes Publicos. Madrid,
1859. 4to.—Noticia del Museo Arqueologico Nacional. Madrid, 1876.
Svo. (6 copies.)—Estadistica de los Montes Publicos, 1861-1865. Mad-
rid, 1876. 4to.—Comision dela Flora Espanola. Madrid, 1870. 4to.—
Memoria sobre la Inundacion del Jicar en 1864. Madrid, 1866. 4to.—
And 22 volumes and 30 pamphlets on education, medicine, &c.,

From the Swiss Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Geschichte der
Gesellschaft zur Beforderung des Guten und Gemeiniitzigen Jahre, 1-98,
1827-1874. Basel. Svo.—folio volume of Geological Charts, published
by Wurster, Randegger & Co., Winterthen.—28 volumes on Swiss rail-
roads. JT olio and 4to.

From the Turkish Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: L’Architec-
ture Ottomane, ouvrage autorisé par Iradé impérial et publié sous le
patronage de Son Excellence Edkem Pacha. Constantinople, 1873.
Folio. (2 copies.)—Les Costumes Populaires de la Turquie en 1873.
Constantinople, 1873. 4to. (2 copies.)

From the Netherlands Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Arch-
ives du Musée Teyler. Vols. i-iii. Haarlem, 1868-1874. 4to.—La
Chirurgie Militaire par W. C. Gori. Amsterdam, 1874. 8vo.—Des Hopi-
taux, Tentes et Baraques, par W.C. Gori. Amsterdam, 1872. 8vo.—A
Sketch of the Public Works in the Netherlands. By L. C. Von Kerkwyk.
Haarlem, 1876. S8vo.—International Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1876;
Special Catalogue of the Netherlands section. Amsterdam. 8vo.—Cata-
logue of the Collective Exposition of the Netherlands Booksellers’ Asso-
ciation. Amsterdam, 1876. 8vo. Elementary and Middle Class Instruc-
tion in the Netherlands. Leyden, 1876. 8vo.

From the New South Wales Centennial Commission, Philadelphia :
Letters of Registration of Inventions. Vols. i-iv. Sydney, 1875.
Folio.—Newspapers published in New South Wales in 1875, 8 folio vol-
umes.—Annual report of the Department of Mines of New South Wales,
1875. Sydney. 4to.—Mines and Mineral Statistics of New South Wales.
Sydney, 1875. 8vo.—Catalogue of the Library of the Mechanics’ School
of Arts, Sydney. Svo.—Official Catalogue of the Natural and Industrial
Products of New South Wales. Sydney, 1876. Svo.—New South Wales.
By Charles Robinson. Sydney, 1873. S8vo.

From the South Australia Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Plan
of the southern portion of the Province of South Australia as divided

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 30

into counties and hundreds, showing agricultural areas, post-towns, tele-
graph-stations, main roads, and railways; compiled from official docu-
ments. 1876. Elephant folio.—Flora of South Australia, 2 volumes.
Folio.—Ferns of Australia, 31 sheets.

From the Peruvian Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: El Correo
del Peru. i-v,1871-1875. Lima. Folio. (5 copies.)-El Boletin Municipal.
Vol.i. 1874. Lima. 4to.—Anales Universitarios del Peru. Vols. i-vii.
Lima, 1862-1873. 8vo.—Defensa de la Autoridad de los Gobiernos y de
los Obispos. Vols.i-vi. Lima, 1849, 8vo.—Diccionario de la Legislacion
Peruana. Vols. i, ii, and suppl. Lima, 1860-1864. 4to.—Anales de
Cuerpo de Ingenieros del Peru. i,ii. Lima, 1874. 4to—Documentos
Historicos del Peru. i-vi. Lima, 1863-1874. 8vo.—Documentos Lite-
rarios del Peru. i-vi. Lima,1865-1874. 8vo.—El Peru. Tomei. Lima.
1874. 4to.—Compilacion de las Vistas Fiscales. i, ii. Lima,1S873-1875
4to.—Relaciones de los Vireyes y Audiencias. i-iii. Lima, 1867-1872.
Svo.—And 91 volumes and 96 pamphlets, Theology, Education, Se.

From the Argentine Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Coleccion
de Obras y Documentos sobre el Rio de la Plata, por Pedro de Angelis.
Vols. i-vi. Buenos Aires, 1836, 1837. 4to.—Anales del Museo Pua-
blico de Buenos Aires. Vols. i, ii. Buenos Aires, 1864-1874. Folio.—
Correo del Domingo. Vols. i-viii. Buenos Aires, 1864-1867. Folio.—
revista Argentina. Vols. i-xiii. Buenos Aires, 1868-1872. Svo,—La
Revista de Buenos Aires. Vols. i-xxiv. Buenos Aires, 1863-1871.
Svo.—Revista del Rio de la Plata. Vols. i-x. Buenos Aires, 1871-
1875. Svo.—Revista Medico-Quirtirgica. Tomi i-xi. Buenos <Aires,
1864-1875. 8vo.—Boletin de la Exposicion Nacional de Cordoba. Vols.
i-vil. Buenos Aires, 1869-1873. S8vo.—Revista del Archivo General
de Buenos Aires. Vols. i-iv. Buenos Aires, 1869-1872. Svo.—Bole-
tin de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias Exactas. Tomoi. Buenos
Aires, 1874. 8vo.—Anales de la Sociedad Rural Argentina. Vols. i-
ix. Buenos Aires, 1867-1875. Svo.—Galeria de Celebridades Argen-
tinas. Buenos Aires, 1857. Folio —lLas Caballos Fosiles de la Pampa
Argentina. Buenos Aires, 1875. Folio.—Ensefianza Publica en Bue-
nos Aires. 1868. Folio.—El Plato Illustrado. Vols. i, ii. Buenos
Aires. 1871, 1872. Folio.—La Plata Monatsschrift. Vols. i-iii, 1873-
1875. Felio.—Registro Estadistico de Buenos Aires. 1868-1873. Folio.—
Concordancias y Fundamentos del Codigo Civil Argentino. Vols. i-xvi.
Buenos Aires, 1873-1875. 8vo.—Registro Nacional de la Republica
Argentina. 1851-1874 (18 vols.) Svo.—Registro Oficial de Buenos
Aires, 1521-1856. 8vo. Historia de Belgrano, por Bartolomé Mitre,
i-iv. Buenos Aires. 1858, 1859. 8vo. And 97 volumes and 62 pam-
phliets, chiefly government documents.

From the Queensland Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Queens:
land Government Gazette, 1874, 1875. Brisbane. Folio. 3 vols.—The
Queensland Statutes. Vols. i-iv (2 copies). Brisbane. 1874. 4to.—
Queensland Parliamentary Debates. Vols. xvi, xvii. Brisbane. 1874.

38

34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

8vo.—The Queensland Almanac, 1874. Brisbane. 8vo. 2 copies.—Sta-
tistics of the Colony of Queensland, 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873. Brisbane.
4to.—Public Accounts of Queensland, 1874. Brisbane. 4to.—Queens-
land Garden Manual. Brisbane. 1875. 8vo.—Catalogue Queensland
Exhibition. Brisbane. 1875. 8vo. 6 copies.

From the Venezuelan Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: 32 quarto
volumes of government documents.

From the Portuguese Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Revista
de Obras publicas e Minas, Publicagao Mensal da Associagao dos En-
genheiros Civis Portuguezes. Vols. i-vi. Lisbon, 1870-1875. Svo.—
Geographia e Estadistica geral de Portugal e Colonias, por Gerardo A.
Pery. Lisbon, 1875. 8vo.—Portuguese Special Catalogue Interna-
tional Exhibition, 1876. 8vo.—35 sets of works published by the direc-
tion of geodetical labors, and 80 pamphlets. Annaes de Observatorio
do Infante D. Luiz. Vols. i-xii. Lisboa, 1856-1874. Folio.—Movi-
mento Commercial de Portugal. Mappa des valores importados dos
productos Chymicas, Gommas e Rezenas, Tabacos, &e. (25 framed
maps.) Specimen de Fundicgao de Typos da Imprensa Nacional. Lis-
boa, 1876. 4to.—Carta Constitucional da Monarchia Portugueza. Lis-
boa, 1876. 4to.—Codigo Commercial de Signaes para uso Internacional.
Lisboa, 1868. 8vo.—A Delfina do Mal. Poema por T. Ribeiro.
Lisboa, 1868. 8vo.—Didascalia Aithiopum. (Desumpta ex editione
Londinensi Thome Pell Platt, 1834.) 8vo.—Luiz de Camdes Episodio
de Ignez de Castro. Extrahido do Canto Terceiro do Pema Epico Las
Lusiadas. Lisboa, 1873. 4to.—Recreio Apollineo. 4to.—Cancioneiro
d’Evosa par V. E. Harding. Lisboa, 1875. S8vo.

From the Mexican Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Historia
Parliamentaria del Cuarto Congreso Constitucional, por Pantaleon Tovar.
Vols. i-lii, Mexico, 1872-1874. 4to.—Diccionario Geografico y Esta-
distico de la Republiéa Mexicana. Vols. i-iii. Mexico, 1874, 1875.
4to.—Memoria de Hacienda y Crédito Puiblico, 1868-1875. Mexico,
4to.—Tratacto de Administracion y Contabilidad de los Candales del
Gobierno General, por Julio Jimenez. Mexico, 1868. Folio.—Diccion-
ario de la Legislacion Mexicana. Parts 1-64. 1868-1871. Folio.—La
Naturaleza. Vols. i-iii, pts. 1-15. Mexico, 1870-1875. Roy. 8vo.—La
Knsehanza. Vols.i,il. Mexico, 1872-1874. Folio. And 73 volumes and
133 pamphlets, chiefly government documents.

From the New Zealand Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Trans-
actions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute. Vols. i-vii.
Sydney, 1868-1875. 8vo.—Census of New Zealand, 1874. Wellington,
1875. Folio.—Statistics of New Zealand, 1874. Wellington. Folio.—
History of the Birds of New Zealand, by W.L. Buller. London, 1873.
4to.—New Zealand Exhibition, 1865. Reports and Awards. Dunedin,
1866, Svo.—The Official Hand-Book of New Zealand. London, 1875.
8vo.—Catalogue of Marine Mollusca of New Zealand. Wellington, 1873.
Svo.—Catalogue of Tertiary Mollusca of New Zealand. Wellington, —

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35

13873. 8vo.—Meteorological Report, 1868, 1870. Wellington 8vo.—
Fishes of New Zealand. Wellington, 1872. Svo.—Catalogue of the Birds
of New Zealand. Wellington, 1871, Svo.—Catalogue of the Echinoder-
mata of New Zealand. Wellington,1873. S8vo.—Catalogue of Land Mol-
lusca of New Zealand. Wellington, 1873. 8vo.—Criticai List of the Mol-
lusca of New Zealand. Wellington, 1873. 8vo.—Phormium Tenax as
a Fibrous Plant. Wellington, 1873. 8vo.—Reports of Geological Ex-
plorations during 187071, 1871-72. Wellington, 1871, 1872. 8vo.

From the Tasmanian Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Journal
of the House of Assembly, with appendices, vols. viii, ix, xii-xv, xxii,
Xxvil-xxix. Hobart Town, 1862-1875. Folio.—Journals of the Legisla-
tive Council (with papers). Vols. xix—xxii. Hobart Town, 1873-1875.
Folio.—Statistics of the Colony of Tasmania, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876.
Hobart Town, 1874-1877. Folio.—Welch’s Tasmanian Guide-book.
Hobart Town, 1871. 8vo. (2 copies)—Welch’s Tasmanian Almanac,
1866, 1867. Hobart Town. 8vo. (2 copies).—Experience of Forty Years
in Tasmania, by Hugh M. Hull. London, 1859. 12mo.—A Description
of the Island of Tasmania. Launceston, 1876, 8vo.—Standing Rules
and Orders of the Legislative Council, 1875, 12mo.—Map of Tasmania
(3 copies).

From the Victorian Centennial Commission, Philadelphia: Biograph-
ical Charts of Italian Painters of the Schools of Bologna, Florence,
Sienna, Rome, and Naples. Compiled by direction of the trustees of the
Melbourne public library, 1870. Vols. i, ii. Elephant folio.— Report of
the. proceedings taken under the provisions of the Land Act of 1869
during 1873. Melbourne. 4to.—Abstracts of Specifications of Patents.
Metals. 1854-1866. Melbourne, 1872. 4to.—Patents and Patentees.
Indexes for the years 1854-1873. Vols. i-viii. Melbourne, 1868-1875.
4to.—Hospitals for the Insane, Reports, 1870-1873. Melbourne. 4to.—
Melbourne Public Library. Reports, 1870-1875. 4to.—Catalogues of
Public Library, Supreme Court, and National Museum. 4 vols. Mel-
bourne. 4to.—And 31 volumes and 16 pamphlets, miscellaneous.

LABORATORY.

During the summer the laboratory was closed, Dr. Endlich, the min-
eralogist of the Institution, having been engaged on the survey under
Dr. Hayden. Mr. Fred. W. Taylor of this city occupied the laboratory
for some time in the autumn, and made analyses of mineral waters and
specimens of ores, &c., which had been sent to the Institution for exam-
ination,

As specimens are constantly being received by the Institution from
all parts of the country, with the request that a report be made as to
their character or constituents, it may be well to call attention to the
rules adopted for their examination.

1. Qualitative examinations, that is, for determining the constituents
of the specimens, are made without charge.

36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

2. Quantitative examinations, or the determination of the percentage
of the different components of the specimens, can only be made at the
expense of the applicant; the charge to be in proportion to the time
expended in the work, e. g., from $5 to $50, according to whether it is
partial (determination of silver, lead, or iron, Wc., only), or Jull (deter-
mination of every thing).

3. The report of quantitative examinations will be given under the
name of the expert to whom the specimen shall be submitted, and not
under that of the Smithsonian Institution.

4, All applications for the determination of specimens must be made
by letter, addressed “Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.”

5. The specimens examined, or part of them, will be retained by the
Institution.

6. All specimens to be delivered to the Institution free of expense.

NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The National Museum was established by the Government in 1842, at
which time it consisted principally of specimens collected by the Wilkes
exploring expedition. It was transferred from the Patent Office to the
care of the Smithsonian Institution in 1858, where it has been enlarged
by all the collections made by exploring and surveying parties of the
several bureaus of the War, Navy, Treasury, and Interior Departments,
and those of the Smithsonian Institution.

The following report from Professor Spencer F. Baird, assistant sec-
retary, gives an account of the additions to the museum and the various
operations connected with it during the year 1577:

REPORT OF PROF. SPENCER F. BAIRD ON THE MUSEUM,

Increase of the Museum.—Iit was hardly to be expected that the addi-
tions to the National Museum in 1877 should compare with those of
1875 and 1876, including, as they did, the results of large expenditures
for the purpose of making a suitable Ponca at the International Exhibi-
tion of 1876 of the ethnology and of the resources of the United States, as
derived from the animal and mineral kingdoms, with their accessories.
The reduction in the yield, however, proves to be much less marked
than was anticipated; and the aggregate of receipts has been far be-
yond that of any previous year, with the exception of those mentioned.
The number of donors was 342, of donations 489, and of separate pack-
ages S15,

As heretofore, the additions to the Museum consisted of five classes:
First, those supplied by the different government expeditions, in accord-
ance with the law of Congress. Second, the donations from private
individuals, made either spontaneously, or in response to special invita-
tions and requests. Third, the results of exchanges, prosecuted with
various establishments or individuals at home and abroad. A fourth

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ai (

source of supply is from explorations made at the expense of the Smith-
sonian Institution. A fifth source of increase is from purchase, which,

however, is very insignificant, and is principally confined to apeciiciis
of animals obtained in market or occasionally a single ethnological imple-

ment, offered under specially favorable circumstances. It isin this that
the National Museum differs most from establishments of its grade
throughoutthe world, which depend very largely upon purchases to secure
desired materials. Here, on the contrary, the space and force at com-
mand are all fully required to receive and care for the collections that
are continually arriving from the sources referred to.

In view of the limited accommodations for the collections and of the
small appropriations for their maintenance, the special efforts toward
the extension of the National Museum have been restricted, for the most
part, to North America and to the most interesting subject of research
at the present day, that of American anthropology. Every possible ef-
fort has been made to invite contributions of facts and materials on this
subject, and with very gratifying success. The intention of the Smith-
sonian Institution to publish, whenever the proper means can be obtained,
an exhaustive treatise on American archeology, with suitable illustra-
tions, has invoked the co-operation of many persons who desire to see such
an end accomplished; and especially as the Institution proposes to give,
under each group, an enumeration of the principal articles received,
arranged by localities and donors.

Few portions of the country have been without representation in the
ethnological donations of the year; although certain regions have been
more prolificthan others. The largest additions from any one source have
resulted from the continued explorations of Rev. Stephen Bowers on the
main-land in the vicinity of Santa Barbara, and on the adjacent islands
of Southern California; over forty boxes of material having been
supplied by him alone. This exploration was made under the auspices
of Maj. J. W. Powell, with the co-operation of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. An exhaustive report on the subject will be published by Major
Powell, the collections themselves becoming the property of the National -
Museum.

With the material heretofore gathered in the same region, by Mr. W.G.
W. Harford, Mr. W. H. Dall, Mr. Paul Schumacher, and Mr. Bowers him-
self, it is believed therecan never be a better representation of the
archeology of the tribes of the California coast than that now in Wash-
ington. This embraces a great variety of objects of stone, bone, shell,
and wood, representing applications of these substances far in advance
of those of any other aboriginal tribes, excepting those of the northwest
coast.

The large collections of similar character, made by Mr. Bowers, in
1875, in behalf of Lieutenant Wheeler’s survey, have also been trans-
ferred, in part, by that office, to the Museum.

From Mr. Lucien M. Turner, late meteorological observer of the signal-

38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

office, at Saint Michaels, Alaska, there has been received a continu-
ation of his extremely important collections of objects manufactured
and used by the Esquimaux of Alaska. This collection is especially
rich in carvings on bone and walrus ivory, representing scenes and in-
cidents in the life of that people.

The Institution is indebted to Mr. F. Hirst, of Bridger Station, for many
interesting articles from the Rocky Mountain region, principally stone
implements of various kinds.

Professor Hayden has presented a full series of models of the ancient
ruins in New Mexico and Colorado, together with restorations showing
what was probably their original character. These have attracted
much attention, and the promised continuation of the series affords much
satisfaction. :

Mr. Frank H. Cushing, assisted by Mr. Henry J. Biddle, of Philadel-
phia, visited a cave near Hagerstown, Md., and obtained many relics of
the aboriginal people who formerly inhabited that vicinity. Numerous
implements of stone and bone, articles of pottery, and fragments of the
remains of aboriginal feasts, &c., were collected and are now in process
of careful investigation.

The most important yields from the shell-heaps of the United States
were obtained from the shell-mounds of Mobile, by Colonel Gaines and
Mr. K. M. Cunningham, of that city. These consist of numerous articles
of pottery, some of them quite peculiar in form, and of a material and
ornamentation constituting almost a distinct class in aboriginal ceramics.
With these were also various articles of bone, stone, &c., the whole making
one of the most important contributions of the kind yet secured by the
National Museum.

From numerous localities in the interior have been received single
specimens or collections, partly from mounds, partly from graves, and
partly from the superficial soil. These will be referred to in more detail
in the list of donations. Among the more noteworthy are those presented
by Colonel McAdoo and Mr. McKinley, from Georgia; Mr. Perrine,
from Illinois; Mr. Brodnax and Dr. James, from Arkansas; Mr. Illigg
and Mr. Berlin, from Pennsylvania, and others.

A great many possessors of rare and curious objects, indisposed to part
with them permanently, have freely lent them to the Institution, for the
purpose of having copies made, and several persons have been occupied
during a great part of the year in making plaster casts and in painting
them from the originals before their return.

A collection of implements received from Mr. Berlin, of Reading, is
of peculiar interest as representing, in all probability, the same palo.
lithic epoch as that which Dr. Abbott has so ably discussed in his paper
on the Antiquities of New Jersey, published in the Report of the Smith-
sonian Institution for 1875.

A most valuable addition to the ethnological collection consisted of a
series of casts of the heads and faces of sixty-four Indians, held as pris-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39

oners of war at Saint Augustine, in Florida, under the charge of the
War Department. These were prepared during the summer by Mr.
Clark Mills, the well-known sculptor, of Washington, who visited Saint
Augustine for the purpose. It is generally difficult to induce an Indian
to submit to the discomfort and apparent danger of the treatment re-
quired in taking face casts, but these prisoners were easily persuaded
by Captain Pratt, United States Infantry, who has them in special
charge, to allow the operation, and Mr. Mills was extremely successful
in the work. In addition to the heads, a number of separate casts of arms,
legs, and busts were taken, thus furnishing a rare opportunity for study-
ing the anatomy of the Indian. The tribes represented are the Kiowas,
Comanches, Arapahoes, &c. This collection furnishes not only the
means of studying the lineaments of the North American Indian, but
also answers the purpose of models for lay figures on which to place the
many suits of Indian clothing in possession of the Museum.

Extremely important additions have been received from several of
the West India islands during the year, some of them unique and pre-
viously more or less unknown. Reference has been made in previous
reports to the extremely rich collection of stone implements bequeathed
to the National Museum by Mr. George Latimer, and of which an illus-
trated account by Professor Mason is published in the Smithsonian Re-
port for 1876. Among articles of West Indian archeology received in
1877 are several wooden stools of peculiar shapes, highly ornamented
and carved, presented by Dr. William M. Gabb and Mr. Frith; some
wooden idols of large size and complex shape, also from Dr. Gabb; a
stone celt, with the handle and cutting portion in one piece, from Mr.
George J. Gibbs; a stone celt inserted in its original handle, by Mr.
Murphy, and a number of specimens of somewhat similar character,
belonging to the public library of Nassau, and lent for the purpose of
being figured and copied. Some collections of a similar character made
by Mr. Frederick A. Ober in Dominica, Antigua, and elsewhere, have
not yet come to hand.

Other extra-limital collections received have been a series of very in-
teresting articles of obsidian and stone from the National Museum of
Mexico, and some ancient Japanese stone implements from the Tokio
Museum in Japan.

Of mammals quite a number of specimens have been received, the
most striking of them being a pair each of the blue and white foxes of
Saint Paul’s Island, Alaska, from the Alaska Commercial Company;
the skin of a cinnamon bear, from Mr. F. O. Matteson; skins of antarctic
seals, from Captain Fuller; and a skeleton of a porpoise of the genus
Tursiops, new to the Museum, from Mr. Alfred N. Lawrence ; two skel-
etons of the grampus, from Mr. Small, of Provincetown ; alcoholic speci-
mens of Platypus and Hehidna from Tasmania, &e.

The collections of birds and their eggs received during the year have
been quite abundant, the most noteworthy among them being a speci-

AO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

men of the everglade kite of Florida, from Mr. George A. Boardman.
Dr. James C. Merrill, assistant surgeon, United States Army, has con-
tributed a large collection of birds and eggs from the Lower Rio Grande,
several of them new to science, and others not previously known within’
the limits of the United States. Mr. Lucien M. Turner and Mr. Nelson,
of the United States Signal Service, stationed at Saint Michaels, in
Alaska, have also sent in large numbers of the birds of Alaska, includ-
ing many very rare skins.

A series of the birds of Southern Illinois has been received from Mr.
Robert Ridgway. Colonel Brackett and Mr. Hirst have furnished some
valuable specimens of birds and eggs from Wyoming. From Lieuten-
ant Wheeler and Dr. Hayden have also been received large numbers of
specimens collected in the course of their respective surveys.

The National Museum of Mexico has supplied a large number of species
from that country, several of them not before in the collection.

Perhaps the most important contribution of birdsis that received from
Frederick A. Ober, as the result of the exploration he is now making
in the West Indies under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution.
These were principally obtained from the island of Dominica, and con-
stitute by far the largest series ever gathered in that island, several rep-
resenting new species and others previously lacking in the Museum.
Mr. Ober is stiJl in the field, and additional contributions from the other
West India islands are expected.

The collections of reptiles have consisted in large part of the speci-
mens obtained under the direction of Lieutenant Wheeler and Professor
Hayden, and transmitted by those officers. The other additions have
consisted principally of turtles and snakes, forwarded at the express re-
quest of the Institution, to serve as models in the series of plaster casts
now in preparation for the Museum. The more important contributors
in this line are Mr. 8. N. Ferguson, of the large alligator snapper of the
Lower Mississippi; Mr. Kohn, of the turtles in the vicinity of New
Orleans; Dr. Merrill, of those from the Rio Grande; Mr. Richard, of
those from Pennsylvania, &e.

A very large living diamond rattlesnake was obtained through the
assistance of Mr. Way, of Sanford, Fla.; and Mr. Frank W. Heyward,
of South Carolina, supplied a number of living specimens of Siren.

Of fishes the collections have been very large, embracing, of course,
those gathered by the United States Fish Commission during its labors
in different portions of the country. The summer’s work of the Commis-
sion was prosecuted on the coasts of Massachusetts and of Nova Scotia,
and in the intermediate seas, extending over the months of July, August,
and September. Quite a number of fishes not previously described in
the fauna of the country were obtained. Many species in large quan-
tities were gathered to serve the purposes of distribution to museums of
the United States.

The collections of marine invertebrates, gathered under the same aus-

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al

pices, are also very large. Other collections made by the commission
consisted of series of the fresh-water fishes of the Columbia and Clack-
amas rivers of Oregon, and the McCloud River of California, gathered
by Mr. Livingston Stone; of landlocked salmon and other. fishes of
Grand Lake Stream, Maine, by Mr. Charles G. Atkins; and a great
variety of sea-fishes from Wood’s Hole, Massachusetts, by Mr. Vinal N.
Edwards, and of the Saint John’s River, Florida, by Messrs. Baird and
Milner.

A large number of the stomachs of mackerel, collected by Capt. H.C.
Chester, furnished the means of solving an important problem in regard
to the food of that fish. Collections were also made at various points
by Mr. Milner and his assistants of the Commission. Mr. Samuel Powel,
of Newport, who has been engaged for several years in collecting the
fishes of his vicinity, has added many specimens to those already pre-
sented by him to the museum, and furnished much information in
regard to the geographical distribution of species.

Captain Hulbert, who was engaged as pilot on the Speedwell during
her summer’s cruise, obtained and transmitted a new species of chi-
mera, Which is now named C. plumbea by Professor Gill. This was
taken on a halibut line, at a depth of several hundred fathoms, off the
coast of Nova Scotia.

Mr. E. G. Blackford, the well-known fish-dealer of Fulton Market,
New York, has continued his valuable contributions, that have now ex-
tended over a number of years, securing and supplying to the museum
all the rarer and more remarkable fishes received by the New York
dealers. A large number of specimens have been sent by him, as enu-
merated in the list of donations, and furnishing a continued illustration
of that public spirit, liberality, and disinterestedness for which we are
happy to make a public acknowledgment.

Many specimevs of various food-fishes, as salmon, trout, whitefish,
and the like, have been sent by different contributors for the purpose of
meeting an expressed want or of securing identification.

A very interesting series of contributions during the year has con-
sisted of specimens showing the success of the various efforts made un-
der the direction of the United States Fish Commission for the propa-
gation of food-fishes and their introduction into new waters. Among
these may be mentioned a full-grown, true shad caught in the Ohio
River at Louisville, being one of six hundred taken during the summer
under similar circumstances. These were probably derived from the
stock introduced four years previously as young fish into the Allegheny
River in Western New York. This was presented by the fish commis-
sioners of Kentucky through Mr. Pack Thomas.

A shad, also the result of the transfer of young fish to California sev-
eral years ago from the East, was furnished by Mr. Bassett, through Mr.
B. B. Redding. The latter gentleman also supplied several specimens
of the food-fishes of the Sandwich Islands, of which living specimens

42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

had been transmitted to the commissioners of California for introduction
into that State.

A salmon, of about twelve pounds weight, caught in the Delaware
River, at Easton, in October, was supplied by Mr. Howard J. Reeder,
fish commissioner of Pennsylvania. This was supposed to have been
derived from a stock introduced into the river in 1873.

Many other equally interesting cases will be found referred to in the
list of donations, and more especially in the report of the United States
Fish Commissioner for 1877.

A finely-stuffed skin of the adult Ontario salmon was presented by Mr.
Samuel Wilmot, of the Canadian fishery department, at New Castle,
Ontario. This was a female, and especially interesting as having fur-
nished a quota of eggs during three successive seasons.

In consequence of an extended exploration of the rivers of Georgia,
the Carolinas, &¢c., prosecuted by Prof. D. 8. Jordan, during the last
summer, in part under the auspices of the United States Fish Commis-
sion, large numbers of species of fish, several of them previously un-
described, were collected, and a series transmitted by Mr. Jordan.

Collections of the fishes of the Great Basin, and of the coast of Cali-
fornia, were received from Lieutenant Wheeler, as the result of his
gatherings in past years.

Of extralimital species, the most impertant collection of fishes was
one received from Mr. G. Brown Goode, assistant curator of the National.
Museum, gathered by him during the past winter in Bermuda. Some
species from the vicinity of the Kerguelen Islands were presented by
Captain Fuller. .

Of marine invertebrates, the principal collections were those made by
the United States Fish Commissioner. Some of great interest were
obtained from Col. E. Jewett, of Santa Barbara, Mr. James G. Swan, in
Washington Territory, and others.

The collections of plants were not very extensive; the most important,
however, were furnished by Lieutenant Wheeler. A valuable contribu-
tion consisted of a series of specimens of Japanese woods, representing
fifty species, and presented by the Tokio Museum of Japan. These,
taken in connection with fifty other species received by the Smithsonian
Institution from the Japanese commission at the Centennial Exhibition,
complete the series of woods of Japan.

Fossil remains of more or less rarity and interest are represented by
a collection of the Black Hills fossils, gathered by Prof. Henry Newton,
whose untimely death science has reason to deplore. To this is to be
added a series from Illinois, collected by Mr. George Spangler.

Numerous collections of minerals have been added to the museum ;
but, for the most part, necessarily stored with the other accumulations
for the want of a proper opportunity of exhibition. The most important
of these consists of a collection illustrating the iron and steel manufac-
tures of Sweden. This constituted the exhibit of that government at

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. © 43,

the exhibition at Vienna, in 1873. It was presented by the commis-
sioner, Mr. Dannfeldt, to the Philadelphia Centennial Commission, but
was not exhibited, having been stored in Philadelphia until the past
summer, when it was presented by the Centennial Board of Finance to
the United States.

This exhibit was quite equal in value to that displayed by Sweden at
Philadelphia, and which became the property of the Institute of Mining
Engineers. The collection, amounting to about fifteen tons in weight,
was carefully packed under the supervision of Mr. Thomas Donaldson,
and forwarded to the Institution.

Messrs. Dunn & Brothers, of Philadelphia, presented three boxes of
China clay from an establishment in England, of which they are the
agents.

Surveyors-General Wasson and Hardenburg have continued their con-
tributions of specimens illustrating the character of the ores in newly-
discovered mining regions in Arizona, &c. Mr. C. W. Derry presented
a collection of silver ores from the J. D. Dana Mine in Colorado. Mr.
Reynolds, the United States minister to Bolivia, has transmitted a series
of copper ores of that country, and a large number of single specimens
have been received, sent in for the purpose of identification.

It will be seen, from the preceding enumeration and from the list of
donations, that the collections are of varying magnitude, some being
exhaustive and covering all branches of natural history, others limited
to a single department and sometimes to a single specimen. All these,
however, find their place, a single object sometimes being more valuable
than a large collection in supplying an important gap.

The most important sources of supply, as will be understood from what
has already been said, have been the several government expeditions,
particularly those of Lieutenant Wheeler and of Major Powell; the
articles of general and natural history and ethnology obtained from these
two officers being of very great magnitude and value.

The thanks of the Institution are due for 1877, as in previous years,
to the Alaska Commercial Company, for disinterested and important
services in acting as its agent in receiving and forwarding specimens
and supplies transmitted between the Smithsonian Institution and its
correspondents on or near the Pacific coast of North America and Asia;
in giving free transportation on its vessels to their correspondents and
their equipment and collections, as well as subsistence and quarters at
its stations; in supplying objects of natural history, valuable in a scien-
tific point of view as well as commercially; and in every possible way
giving to the Smithsonian Institution the benefit of its organization and
opportunities in the most liberal manner, and, in all cases, without any
charge beyond that required for the reimbursement of moneys actually
paid.

The United States Signal Service, under General Myer, has taken
part, with its usual liberality, in the efforts of the Institution to in-

44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

crease the knowledge of the natural history of North America, by allow-
ing it to nominate observers at several of its Northwestern posts, who
possessed the necessary interest and skill to make collections and obser-
vations. Noteworthy among these are Mr. Lucien M. Turner, for several
years stationed at Saint Michaels, in Alaska, and his suecessor at that
post, Mr. E. W. Nelson.

Single collections have been received from time to time from other
observers in theservice. Reference has been made to Dr. J. C. Merrill,
of the United States Army, who made collections on the Lower Rio
Grande, in the vicinity of Brownsville. This gentleman has enabled us
in great measure to complete the work begun years ago by Dr. Berlan-
dier, and continued by Lieut. D. N. Couch, Gen. Stewart Van Vliet,
Mr. J. H. Clark, Mr. Arthur Schott, and other members of the Mexican
Boundary Survey. Although but a short time resident at Fort Brown,
Dr. Merrill has already made a great many important additions to the
known fauna of that region. In this he has been aided by Mr. George
b. Sennett, of Erie, Pa., who has also rendered valuable service to
science.

To Mr. F. Hirst, of Bridger Station, Wyo., we owe many important
contributions of birds, eggs, ethnological specimens, &c. Col. A. G.
Brackett, U. S. A., also stationed in Wyoming, has likewise been a
valued contributor.

Mr. Livingston Stone has added greatly to our knowledge of the fishes
and ethnology of Oregon and California, by his collections in connection
with the operations of the United States Fish Commission.

Lieutenant Wittich has also contributed toward the same end in
Oregon. Mr. James G. Swan, for many years a collaborator of the In-
stitution, and who, in 1875 and 1876, transmitted such extensive collec-
tions of ethnologica for the Centennial Exhibition of the Indian Bureau,
has also made large contributions of various objects, during the year,
from Puget Sound.

The sea-coast has been well explored by the United States Fish Com-
mission on the coasts of Massachusetts and Nova Scotia, while the fishes
of Narragansett Bay and vicinity have been investigated by Mr. Sam-
uel Powel, of Newport.

The collections of birds and ethnologica from the National Museum of
Mexico have been already adverted to, and relations have been estab-
lished between the national museums of the two countries, which we
hope will tend to their mutual benefit.

The residence of Mr. G. Brown Goode in Bermuda during the winter
of 1876, has been productive of very desirable results; full series of the
fishes, invertebrates, corals, &c., having been gathered.

The attention of the Smithsonian Institution has for many years been
directed toward a thorough investigation of the natural history and
ethnology of the West India Islands, and extensive explorations and
collections have been effected through its agency in past years, in

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45

the Bahamas, Jamaica, Cuba, Hayti, St. Domingo, Porto Rico, St.
Thomas, Santa Cruz, and Antigua; thus covering very largely the west-
ern portions of the group, or the Greater and Lesser Antilles.

For the purpose of obtaining at least a general idea of the other
islands more eastward, and of having them represented in the National
Museum, the Smithsonian Institution, in the fall of 1876, made an engage-
ment with Mr. Frederick A. Ober to proceed to that region, and, if pos-
sible, visit every island, large and small, occupying several years in the
labor. The islands of Dominica, St. Vincent, Barbuda, Antigua, &c.,
have been explored by Mr. Ober up to the present date.

The subjects to which his attention was especially called were the
archeology and ethnology of the islands, and their vertebrate animals.
He has succeeded in finding remnants of the ancient Carib tribes,
especially in Dominica, and has obtained numerous photographs of the
people and specimens illustrative of their handiwork. His collections
of birds have also been very extensive, embracing several undescribed
species, and others of great rarity, or not previously represented in the
National Museum.

Reference has been made, in previous reports, to the large collections
made at the Kerguelen Islands by Dr. J. H. Kidder, while connected
with the Transit of Venus Expedition. Some important deficiencies of
specimens, however, not procurable during Dr. Kidder’s visit, have been
obtained, at his request, by Captain Fuller, of the merchant service,
and presented to the Institution.

Scientific investigation of the collections.—As in previous years, the
collections of the National Museum have been freely intrusted to com-
petent naturalists for investigation and description; and much has
been accomplished toward their proper classification and identification.
Specimens of certain groups of mammals have been intrusted to Dr.
Elliot Coues, of the United States Army, and Mr. J. A. Allen, of Cam-
bridge, who are preparing a series of monographs for publication, under
the direction of Dr. Hayden. A magnificent quarto by these two gen-
tlemen, forming volume xi of the Reports of the Government Surveys
of the Territories, and occupying 1100 pages, is devoted exclusively to
the Rodentia, the materials derived almost entirely from the National
Museum.

Other important monographs on the fur-bearing animals and on the
insectivora have been likewise prepared by them.

The birds of America outside of the United States, and those of the
West Indies, have been p laced in the hands of Mr. George N. Lawrence
who has published a number of papers upon them, describing several
new species, principally from the collections of Mr. Ober and of Mr. Brace,
of Nassau. Mr. Ridgway, the assistant in charge of the department of
ornithology in the museum, has made investigations into the scientific
relations of the raptores, the herons, &c., and published several mono
graphs.

46 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The reptiles have been placed in the hands of Prof. I. D. Cope for
investigation.

The fishes have been elaborated by Prof. Theodore Gill, Mr. G. Brown
Goode, Dr. T. H. Bean, and Professor Jordan. The latter gentleman
has prepared some important monographs relating to the fresh-water
fishes of the United States from the specimens of the National Museum,
describing many new species.

Mr. William H. Dall bas had charge of the Mollusea, and has described
some new species. Others have been submitted to Mr. Thomas Bland.

The marine invertebrates collected by the United States Fish Commis-
sion are in the hands of Prof. A. E. Verrill, of Yale College, the special
collaborator of the Commission. In their examination he has been
assisted by Prof. Sidney I. Smith, of the same institution. Extensive
monographs are in preparation by them, to be published by the Com-
mission.

The sponges have been sent to Professor Hyatt, of Boston, our chief
authority on that subject.

The fossil invertebrates have been investigated by Prof. C. A. White,
the paleontologist of Dr. Hayden’s survey.

In accordance with an arrangement of several years’ standing, the
collections of all vegetable substances, and of insects, have been trans-
ferred, as received, to the Department of Agriculture, and these have
been properly elaborated by the officers in charge of the several depart-
ments of its museum.

The ethnological specimens have been studied ecarefally by Dr. Rau
and Mr. Cushing, in charge of the department of the ethnological col-
lection, Prof. O. T. Mason, and others. Professor Mason has published
a paper, with numerous illustrations, upon the collections from Porto
Rico, in the Smithsonian Report for 1876.

Work done in the museum.—The force in the museum occupied in the
arrangement of the collections was necessarily diminished on account
of the reduction of the Congressional appropriation, but all those re-
tained have been diligently occupied in cataloguing the collections, in
preparing and arranging them for exhibition, and in identifying and
describing them.

As will be seen by a table in the appendix, the saga number of entries
of specimens during the year amounted to 11,398. Although this is
not quite equal to the number recorded in 1876, it is considerably in
excess of the receipts of any previous year.

The labor of receiving the specimens, ascertaining their exact origin,
distributing them among the various departments, giving to them the
treatment necessary for their permanent preservation, and finally their
identification and entry, and deposit in a suitable place, is very great;
no single day passing without seme fresh addition of material requir-
ing all these precautions. It is, however, believed that the National
Museum will compare favorably with any establishment of its kind
in the accomplishment of this necessary work with its actual force.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. AT

Distribution of duplicate specimens.—A very large portion of the labor
during the year has been directed toward the selection and labeling,
recording and packing, of duplicate specimens for distribution, in accord-
ance with the act of Congress providing for the same.

In addition to a large number of single specimens or small series,
supplied as the result of special application, a number of collections
have been prepared embracing many extremely rare and desirable ob-
jects. Among the most important of these may be mentioned twenty-
five sets of fishes, each containing seventy-five to one hundred and
fifty species. These have been carefully identified and labeled, under
the supervision of Professor Gill and Dr. Bean, and have constituted
extremely acceptable additions to the museums to which they have
been sent.

Other series of magnitude consist of birds’ eggs, shells, bird-skins, &c.

A large number of series of diatomaceous earths have also been sup-
plied, embracing forty or fifty different localities, many of them unknown
to the investigator. The demand for them is very great, and taxes the
ability of the person in charge to meet it.

Necessity of increased accommodations for the museum.—The necessity
for more space has already been adverted to in the report for 1876,
where full details will be found on the subject. It may be only neces-
sary here to say that the exigency is greater than ever, in view of the
largely-increased collections of the year and the deterioration caused
to the animal and metallic specimens in consequence of their being
boxed up and out of the reach of proper care. Very serious losses have
already been experienced in the collections of wools, animal fibers, &ce.,
and from the rusting of the specimens of iron and steel, and it is earnestly
hoped that the next report may chronicle the initiation of measures by
Congress for relief in this direction. :

At present it is reasonable to estimate that the articles worthy of
exhibition, but withdrawn from view, are several times greater in extent
than those at present displayed, and that a correspondingly enlarged
building is required for their display.

The collections thus withdrawn from exhibition consistnotonly of those
most interesting to the naturalist, but also of such as are of the highest
industrial value to the country, and will add greatly to the means of tech-
nical instruction, embracing as they do illustrations of different kinds of
building-stone, ores of all kinds, earths, china and porcelain clays with
the products derived from them, illustrations of the animal products of
the country in the way of furs, oils, gelatines, glues, fibers, hair, bristles,
chemical products, &c., and a great variety of articles to which refer-
ence is made in the report for 1876.

FISH CULTURE.

The labors of the United States Fish Commission, under Professor
Baird’s direction, have been prosecuted through the year with very sat-
isfactory results.

48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

As in previous years, the operations have been carried on under two
distinct divisions: first, the inquiry into the condition of the American
fisheries; and secondly, the multiplication of useful food-fishes in the
rivers and lakes of the United States.

The first division embraces a critical examination into the physical
and biological character of the waters, such as the determination of
their temperature in different seasons, their currents, their chemical
composition, the character of the bottom, and the precise nature of the
animal and vegetable life occurring therein, with their mutual relations;
as also the influences which may tend to affect the abundance and the
distribution of the fish in different seasons, whether by natural causes,
artificial impediments or obstructions, or by excessive fishing. Work
in this direction has been conducted since 1871, and has resulted in
supplying a minute and satisfactory knowledge of the character of the
coast and off-shore portions of the United States, from the Bay of Fundy
to Long Island Sound, and other portions of the sea-coast and of the
lakes have been investigated in a less elaborate manner.

The operations in regard to the propagation of food-fishes relate espe-
cially to the introduction of California salmon, Atlantic salmon, land-
locked salmon, and whitefish into new waters, or their multiplication in
those that have been depleted. Special attention, also, in later years,
has been directed to the European carp, a well known and favorite
domesticated fish, and promising to be an important addition to the
food resources of the United States.

The usual operations of the Fish Commission, in its maritime work
during 1577, were somewhat modified by the attendance of Professor
Baird on the International Fishery Convention on the part of Great
Britain and the United States, at Halifax, by the request of the Secre-
tary of State.

Under the law of Congress, which directs all needed aid to be fur-
nished, as far as practicable, to the United States Fish Commission in
its varied operations, by the executive departments of the government,
the Secretary of the Navy has for several years supplied a steamer,
completely equipped for use, and in the season of 1877 a much larger
vessel than usual was detailed at the request of the Secretary of State;
this was the tug Speedwell, an iron propeller of 310 tous and of great
stanchness, and thoroughly fitted for her work. She was equipped for
the special service at the navy-yard in Portsmouth, N. H., under the
direction of Commodore Guest, and the scientific apparatus formerly
used on board the United States steamer Blue Light was transferred to
her at New London. She was commanded by Lieutenant-Commander
A. G. Kellogg, with Dr. T. H. Sheets as surgeon, and Mr. A. V. Zane
as engineer. The vessel reported for duty on the 3lst of July, at Salem,
at which point Professor Baird had been stationed for a month, engaged
in the preliminary work of the commission prior to proceeding to Hali-
fax. This consisted, in part, in the collection of statistical information

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49

in regard to the present condition of the American fisheries, for which
purpose circulars were printed and distributed very extensively along
the coast, and several competent agents were detailed for making the
necessary inquiries.

As in previous years, Prof. A. E. Verrill, of Yale College, assisted by
Mr. E. B. Wilson, took special charge of the investigations in regard to
the marine invertebrates, while Mr. G. Brown Goode and Dr. T. H.
Bean discharged a similar relation to the vertebrates. A number of
trips were made by the vessel from Salem, which resulted in the dis-
covery of some new and extensive fishing-grounds of much value, which
it is believed will in time be utilized in the interest of the American
fisheries.

Professor Baird proceeded to Halifax about the middle of August,
where he was joined by the Speedwell on the 22d, from which point a
new Series of researches was carried on tending to still further elucidate
the fisheries of the United States and of the British possessions.

The opportunity furnished by the presence of many intelligent fisher-
men and other witnesses called on both sid es by the convention, was
embraced by Professor Baird to secure information in regard to the
condition, extent, and location of the American fisheries and the details
of their prosecution, and enabled him to collect material for an ex-
haustive work on the subject, to be published at some future time in
the report of the commission.

Professor Baird’s duties in Washington required his return from
Halifax a short time before the close of the convention, and he left on
the 20th of October for home, the steamer Speedwell having proceeded
to Salem on the 13th; and, after remaining a few days and carrying on
some investigations in regard to the habits and distribution of the sea-
herring, she reported herself at Portsmouth and was taken out of com-
mission.

The season of 1877 was unusually productive in the increase of our
knowledge of the natural history of the coast; a number of species
having been added to previous lists, a considerable proportion new to
science.

The work of the commission in the direction of the propagation of
food-fishes began in April with the shad, an establishment having been
formed at Havre de Grace, in the Susquehanna, where 11,000,000 of
young shad were hatched out and distributed throughout the United
States. During this season an entirely new system of hatching shad,
invented by Mr. T. B. Ferguson, fish commissioner of Maryland, was
put into successful operation. In this the necessary motion required by
the eggs is imparted by steam machinery, which causes a cylindrical
vessel in which the eggs are placed to rise and fall in the water with a
proper degree of velocity. In this way many practical difficulties in
the hatching of shad in open bays and elsewhere are overcome.

The work of hatching shad at Havre de Grace was prosecuted with
the assistance of Mr. Ferguson, while the shipment and distribution of

48

50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

the young fish was directed by Mr. J. W. Milner, Assistant United
States Fish Commissioner.

After completing operations at Havre de Grace, the commission,
under Mr. Milner, transferred its operations to Holyoke, in Massachu-
setts, which resulted in about the average success.

The yield of eggs of the California salmon from the United States
establishment situated on the McCloud River, in Northern California,
was not so large as usual, in consequence of the interference with the
upward run of the fish by some canning establishments on the Lower
Sacramento. Between five and six millions of eggs, however, were se-
cured and duly distributed. These were sent to all parts of the United
States, as also to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Sandwich Isl-
ands, Germany, France, England, and the Netherlands.

Nothing was done during the year with the Atlantic salmon, although
the establishment at Bucksport was kept in repair.

Unusual success was experienced in the collection of eggs of the land-
locked salmon in the Grand Lake Stream in Eastern Maine, about two
millions having been secured and distributed to fish commissioners and
other parties in a large number of States. This work was prosecuted
in co-operation with the fish commissioners of Massachusetts and Con-
necticut, who bore a share of the expense.

In the early part of the year Mr. Rudolph Hessel, an experienced fish
culturist, was sent to Germany to obtain a supply of the German carp,
and he brought back several hundred of the best varieties. These were
placed temporarily in certain ponds in Druid Hill Park, Baltimore, un-
der the care of Mr. T. B. Ferguson.

For the further treatment of these fish, and the multiplication of sufii-
cient numbers to commence distributing them throughout the United
States, Congress, in the latter part of the year, granted to the commis-
sion the use of the ponds on the Monument lot, in the city of Washing-
- ton, and made an appropriation to fit them up properly. Work has
been begun upon these ponds, and it is hoped that in the course of the
year 1878 a successful beginning may be made in the way of distribu-
tion of fish from them.

The labors of the United States Fish Commission can searcely be too
highly estimated. A very large and increasing portion of human life is
sustained by the product of the water, especially of shores and rivers.
Organic matter necessary to the sustentation of life is produced by
radiation from the sun in connection with plants, but a large portion of
this is carried into the waters of rivers and that of the sea, by sewage
and drainage, and can only be reclaimed for human use by the produc-
tion of fishes. Hence, with the increase of population of civilized coun-
tries, the art of breeding and catching fish becomes as important,
almost, as the extension of arable land and the improvement of agri-
culture. Indeed, it becomes in some respects more valuable than these,
since it supplies food differing from that of the land; and, therefore,
adds to the variety of the means for gratifying the palate.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51

The improvement which has been made in the art of producing fish is,
truly wonderful. Rivers, ponds, and lakes which are almost entirely
barren or inhabited only by fish of but little value may be filled to reple-
tion and kept full by judicious arrangement of the time of catching.
The rules, however, for the art of fish culture are founded on scientific
observations relative to the natural history of fish, and especially in
regard to one principle, namely: that nature, to preserve a species, is
prodigal in the production of individuals. This is especially true in
regard to fishes; for example, from a single shad may be stripped 10,000
eggs which, being left exposed to all the enemies to which they are sub-
jected, will yield not more than 50 young individuals able to feed them-
selves, and not more than 5 adult fish capable of reproduction, while
the same number of eggs hatched by artificial means ought to yield
9,500 young fish, with a reasonable expectation of 950 adults.

The subject of fish culture has, however, but lately attracted the
attention of the general government, the first small appropriation in
regard to it having been made in 1872. It has, however, been extended
year by year by small additional appropriations, and has now attracted
such attention that the country will demand a still wider extension of
its labors.

In this connection I would draw attention to the immense importance
of the National Museum as an educational establishment. Specimens of
every variety of fish in the different waters of the United States are sent
by the employés of the Fish Commission to Washington in a fresh con-
dition, and from them molds are immediately made in plaster from
which again models are cast and painted to give exact representations
in form and color of the original specimens. In this way in the course
of a limited time a full set of all the edible fish of North America will
be obtained, as well as models of those of a similar character from other ~
countries. In addition to this, the National Museum has now in its
possession ready for exhibition when a new building shall be provided,
specimens of all the apparatus used in all the different countries of the
world for the capture and utilization, as well as the propagation of fish.

The importance of such a collection as a means of diffusing and im-
proving practical ideas can scarcely be too highly estimated.

CONCLUSION.

It will be seen from the report of Professor Baird that a large amount
of his time has been expended in labor for the general government, in.
relation to American fisheries. >

Almost from the first organization of the Institution until the present
time the officers of the Institution have rendered service to the general
government without additional salary. For several years past the Sec-
retary has devoted the greater part of the summer to investigations on

sound in its application to fog-signals,in connection with the Light-
House Board.

52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

These investigations have been made along the coast on light-house
steamers, with the assistance of members and officers of the light-house
establishment. During the last year a series of experiments were made
along the coast of Maine, which served to establish some new principles,
as well as to confirm previous results.

From all the experiments which have been made by the Light-House
Board in regard to the transmission of sound in free air and those
derived from other observations which can be fully relied upon, the
following conclusions may be considered established, subject, however,
to such further modification and extension as subsequent investigation
may seem to indicate:

‘61, The audibility of sound at a distance (the state of the atmosphere
being constant) depends upon the character of the sound. The distance
through which a sound may be heard is governed by the pitch, the
loudness, and the quantity of sound. The pitch or frequency of the
impulses in a given time must not be too high, otherwise the amplitude
of vibration will be too small to allow a sufficient quantity of air to be
put into motion; neither must the pitch be too low, for in this case the
motion of the atoms of air in the sound-wave will not be sufficiently rapid
to convey the impulse to a great distance. Again, the greater the loud-
ness of the sound, which depends upon the amplitude of the vibrations
of the sounding body, the greater will be the distance at which it will be
heard. And finally, the greater the quantity of sound, which depends
upon the magnitude of the vibrating surface, the greater will be the
distance to which it is audibly transmitted. These results are derived
from observations on the siren, the reed-trumpet, and the automatic
buoy. The effect of quantity of sound is shown in the fact that in
sounding different instruments at the same time, it was found that two
sounds apparently of the same loudness were heard at very different
distances. The audibility of sound depends upon the state of the
atmosphere.

2. A condition most favorable to the transmission of sound is that of
perfect stillness and uniform density and temperature throughout.
This is shown by the observations of Parry and other Arctic explorers;
although in this case an efficient and co-operating cause is doubtless
the downward refraction of sound due to the greater coldness of the
lower strata of air, as first pointed out by Professor Reynolds. Air,
however, is seldom in a state of uniform density, but is pervaded by
local currents, due to contact with portions of the earth unequally
heated, and from the refractions and reflections to which the sound-
wave is subjected in its passage through such a medium it is broken up
and lost to the ear at a less distance.

3. But the most efficient cause of the loss of audibility is the direct
effect produced by the wind. As a general rule, a sound is heard far-
ther when moving with the wind than when moving against it. This
effect, which is in conformity with ordinary observation, is not due to

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53

an increase of velocity of the sound-wave in one direction and a dimi-
nution in the other by the motion of the wind except in an imperceptible
degree; for since sound moves at the rate of about seven hundred and
fifty miles an hour, a wind of seven miles and a half an hour could in-
crease or diminish the velocity of the sound-wave only one per cent.,
while the effect observed is in some cases several hundred per cent. It
is, however, due to a change in its direction. Sound moving with the
wind is refracted or thrown down toward the earth; while moving
against the wind itis refracted upward and passes over the head of the
observer, so as to be heard at a distance at an elevation of several hun-
dred feet when inaudible at the surface of the earth.

4, Although, as a general rule, the sound is heard farther when moy-
ing with the wind than when moving against it, yet in some instances
the sound is heard farthest against the wind, but this phenomenon is
shown to be due to a dominant upper wind, blowing at the time in an
opposite direction to that at the surface of the earth. These winds are
not imaginary productions invented to explain the phenomena, but
actual existences, established by observation, as in the case of the ex-
periments made at Sandy Hook in 1874, by means of balloons, and from
the actual motion of the air in the case of northeast storms, as observed
at stations on the coast of Maine.

5. Although sound issuing from the mouth of a trumpet is at first con-
centrated in a given direction, yet it tends to spread so rapidly, that at
the distance of three or four miles it fills the whole space of air inclosed
within the circuit of the horizon, and is heard behind the trumpet nearly
as well as at an equal distance in front of its mouth. This fact pre-
cludes the use of concave reflectors as a means of increasing the inten-
sity of sound in a given direction; for although at first they do give an
increase of sound in the direction of the axis, it is only for a compara-
tively short distance.

6. It has been established, contrary to what has formerly been thought
to be the case, that neither fog, snow, hail, nor rain materially interferes
with the transmission of loud sounds. The siren has been heard at a
greater distance during the prevalence of a dense and widely-extended
fog than during any other condition of the atmosphere. This may, how-
ever, be attributed to the uniform density and stillness of the air at the
time.

7. In some cases sound-shadows are produced by projecting portions
of land or by buildings situated near the origin of the sound, but these
are closed in by the spread of the sound-waves, and thus exhibit the
phenomenon of sound being heard at a distance and afterwards lost on
a@ nearer approach to the station.

8. It frequently happens that on a vessel leaving a station the sound
is suddenly lost at a point in its course, and after remaining inaudible
some time, is heard again at a greater distance, and is then gradually
lost as the distance is farther increased. This phenomenon is only ob-
served when the sound is moving against the wind, and is therefore

54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

attributed to the upward refraction of the sound-wave, which passes
over the head of the observer and continues an upward course until it
nearly reaches the upper surface of the current of wind, when the refrac-
tion will be reversed and the sound sent downward to the earth; or
the effect may be considered as due to a sound-shadow produced by re-
fraction, which is gradually closed in at a distance by the lateral spread
of the sound-wave near the earth, on either side, in a direction which
is not affected by the upward refraction. Another explanation may be
found in the probable circumstance of the lower sheet of sound-beams
being actually refracted into a serpentine or undulating course, as sug-
gested in the Appendix to the Report of the Light-House Board for 1875.
Such a serpentine course would result from successive layers of unequal
velocity in an opposing wind; as being retarded at and near the sur-
face of the earth, attaining its maximum velocity at the height of a
few hundred feet, and then being again retarded at greater elevations
by the friction of upper counter-currents, or statiopary air. In some
cases the phenomenon is due to one or the other of these causes, and in
other cases to both combined. That it is not due to the obstructing or
screening effects of an abnormal condition of the atmosphere is shown
by the fact that a sound transmitted in an opposite direction, through
what is called the region of silence, passes without obstruction. It is
probable, from all the observations, that in all cases of refraction of a
sound moving against the wind, it tends again to descend to the earth
by the natural spread of the sound.

9, The existence of a remarkable phenomenon has been established,
which is exhibited in all states of the atmosphere during rain, snow,
and dense fog, to which has been given the name of aerial echo. It con-
sists of a distinct echo, apparently from a space near the horizon of
fifteen or twenty degrees in azimuth, directly in the prolongation of the
axis of the trumpet. The loudness of this echo depends upon the loud-
ness and quantity of the original sound, and therefore it is produced
with the greatest distinctness by the siren. It cannot be due to the
accidental position of a flocculent portion of atmosphere nor the direct
reflection from the crests of the waves, as was at first supposed, since
it is always heard except when the wind is blowing a hurricane.

As a provisional explanation, the hypothesis has been adopted that
in the natural spread of the waves of sound some of the rays must take
such a curvilinear course as to strike the surface of the water in an
opposite direction and thus be reflected back to the station or location
of the origin of the sound.”

Respectfully submitted.
JOSEPH HENRY,
Secretary Smithsonian Institution.
WASHINGTON, January, 1878.

APPENDIX TO THE REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
GOVERNMENT EXPLORATIONS IN 1877.

In accordance with the law of organization of the Institution, all the
specimens that are brought to Washington by the various government
surveys and expeditions are turned over to the National Museum in
charge of the Smithsonian Institution, and, therefore, accounts are here
given of the Government explorations during the past year under the di-
rection of Professor Hayden, Professor Powell, and Lieutenant Wheeler,
furnished by the directors of the explorations.

THE WORK OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
SURVEY OF THE TERRITORIES, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF PROF. F.
V. HAYDEN, DURING THE SEASON OF 1877.

On the completion of the work in Colorado in 1876, it was determined
that the work should continue northward into Idaho and Wyoming
Territories. The belt of country along the fortieth parallel, including
the Union Pacific Railroad, having been explored in detail by the sur-
vey of the fortieth parallel under Clarence King, it was deemed best to
commence at the northern boundary of that work and continue north-
ward and westward.

The survey was divided into five parties for field, geological, and topo-
graphical work, besides several parties for special investigation. The
following notes present the salient features of the summer’s work:

Primary triangulation.—The primary triangulation party in charge
of Mr, A. D. Wilson, chief topographer of the survey, took the field from
Rawlins Springs, Wyo. Near this place a base-line was carefully meas-
ured and from this a net-work of triangles was extended to the north
and west. After completing the work in the vicinity of Rawlins, the
party marched northward, making stations on Seminoe and Whiskey
Peaks, and thence traveled westward to Yellow Butte, where another
station was located. From this point the work was carried to the Wind
River Range. Three stations were made on the more prominent points
of this range with much difficulty, owing to the great quantities of snow
found in these mountains during the month of June—the time the party
was working there.

Continuing the work northward and westward, stations were made
on the Grosventre and Wyoming Ranges and on Caribou Mountain and
Mount Putnam near Fort Hall. After refitting at the latter place the
party marched south via Soda Springs to the valley of Bear Lake, where
another base-line was measured and connected with the work as brought
forward from the Rawlins base.

After occupying Mount Preuss, Soda, Paris, and North Logan Peaks,
the party marched to Evanston where a connection was made with the

55

56 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

astronomical station made at this point by the boundary survey of Wyo-
ming. Stations were also made on Medicine Butte and Ogden Peak,
thus connecting with the primary triangulation of the fortieth parallel
survey. From Evanston the party moved eastward, occupying Pilot
and Black Buttes, again visiting Separation Peak near Rawlins, thus
bringing the work back to the point of beginning where the party was
disbanded and the train sent into winter quarters at Cheyenne.

Mr. Wilson has finished the preliminary computations of his work,
and a chart, showing the results, has been published. Twenty-six points
were occupied, while many others were located by foresights, among
them the Grand Téton and Washakie Needles.

The triangulation covered an area of about 28,000 square miles, extend-
ing from longitude 107° to 112° and between north latitude 41° 10’ and
43° 50’.

Stone monuments were built on all occupied points for future refer-
ence, and when the final computations are made, the latitude and longi-
tude of all these points will be given, with azimuths and distances
between the points.

Topography.—The topographical field-work of the past season was ear-
ried on by three parties, to each of which a definite area was assigned to
be surveyed. These areas were approximately in the form of rectangles,
limited by meridians and parallels of latitude. Each of them contained
about 11,000 square miles. That assigned to the Teton division, in
charge of Mr. G. R. Bechler, lay between the meridians of 109° 30’ and
112° and the parallels 43° and 44° 15’. This area comprises nearly all
the country about the sources of Snake River, including the very rugged
range of the Teton Mountains and the northern half of the Wind River
Mountains. From the character of the country, being nearly all moun-
tainous, and much obstructed by living and fallen timber, work was
necessarily slow, yet Mr. Bechler succeeded in surveying nearly 6,000
Square miles up to the early part of September, when he was obliged to
stop work and leave the country, owing to the proximity of Joseph’s
band of hostile Indians. About one-third of the area surveyed by this
division lies south of the Snake and west of Salt River. The remainder
includes the greater part of the most rugged mountains, among them
the Tetons and a portion of tne Wind River Range.

That portion of the district lying south of Snake River consists of the
northern ends of two mountain-ranges, known as the Blackfoot and
Caribou ranges, with their adjaceut valleys. These ranges have the
normal trend; are here scarcely high enough (6,000 to 8,000 feet above
sea-level) to be dignified with the name of mountains, and are bare of
timber and grass-covered. All this section is fine grazing-land, and in
the valleys are large areas of arable land.

North of the Snake are several fine valleys, well watered from the
snow-fields of the high mountains, among which are Pierre’s and Jack-
son’s Holes; but the mass of the country is made up of mountains.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ON

As a rule, the valleys are narrow, mere cafions in very many cases. The
mountains are everywhere heavily timbered with pine and spruce.

During the season, Mr. Bechler occupied 60 stations, and measured
7,340 horizontal and 5,700 vertical angles.

The area assigned to the Green River division, in charge of Mr. Henry
Gannett, lay between the meridians of 109° 30’ and 112° 00! and the
parallels of latitude of 41° 45’ and 43° 00’, being directly south of that
of the Teton division. This district includes the northern half of the
Green River Basin; nearly all the drainage area of the Bear, and sev-
eral large branches of the Snake, comprising portions of the three
Territories Wyoming, Idaho, and Utah. The country being especially
well adapted to this class of surveying, work was pushed very rapidly,
so that, after finishing his district, Mr. Gannett was enabled to carry the
work westward over the valleys of the Portneuf and Malade, with their
bounding ranges.

With the exception of the Green River Basin, which is a broad, flat
expanse of sage and grass, the country consists of a succession of par-
allel ranges of mountains, with the normal Rocky Mountain trend, sep-
arated by broad valleys. The valleys are fertile, and easily irrigated,
while everywhere there is a bountiful supply of water. The average ele-
vation of these valleys is from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, while the mountains
rise to heights ranging from 8,000 to 11,000 feet.

The lower mountain-ranges are grass-covered, while the higher ones
are well timbered, in some cases even densely timbered, with heavy
spruce and pine. The area of irrigable land is, by a rough estimate, ten
per cent. of the district, while at least three-fourths of it is suitable for
grazing. In surveying this area, Mr. Gannett made 347 stations of all
grades of importance, building monuments on 53 of the principal ones
for future reference by the land surveys, or other purposes.

The district assigned to the Sweetwater division, under Mr. George
B. Chittenden, lay between meridians 107° 00’ and 109° 30/ and parallels
41° 45’ and 43° 00’, being east of that last described. It includes the
southern half of the Wind River Range, the valleys of Wind River and
the Sweetwater, with the Sweetwater Mountains and the desert-like
plateaus about the continental divide south of the latter. Of this area
nearly all or between 10,000 and 11,000 square miles were surveyed.
Of this district, a rough estimate makes five-eighths desert country, two
eighths mountainous, of value only for its timber, or, hypothetically, for
its mineral contents, and one-eighth only valuable as pasture or agricul-
tural land. In surveying this area, Mr. Chittenden made nearly 200
Stations. Between 80 and 90 of these were marked permanently by
stone monuments for future reference.

As heretofore, attention has been paid to the economic value of the
land surveyed. Map notes and sketches indicate the extent of land
suitably situated for irrigation, and as all streams of any magnitude are
gauged, and their slopes measured, the data for estimates of the amount

58 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

of arable land are at hand. Areas of pasture and timber land are also
noted.

During the whole season, of four months’ duration, the weather was
unexceptionably favorable for the prosecution of the work; scarcely a
day was lost from bad weather by any of the parties.

The total area surveyed during the season, and to be mapped during
the winter, was about 29,000 square miles, a very considerable addition
to our knowledge of the Western country.

In succeeding years the work is to be extended toward the north,
east, and west.

Geology.—The geological field-work of the survey for 1877 was as-
signed to Dr. F. M. Endlich, Prof. Orestes H. St. John, and Dr. A. C.
Peale, in the Sweetwater, Teton, and Green River districts respectively.
Many interesting geological facts were observed which will be detailed
in the annual report of the survey.

The Sweetwater district comprised a well-diversified country. The
eastern portion of the Green River Basin was found to be underlaid
with Tertiary formations, with isolated volcanic eruptions at several
points. The prevailing westerly winds of the region have resulted in
the formation of sand dunes wherever the configuration of the country
has offered an obstacle to the progress of the sand that is formed from
the readily disintegrating Tertiary sandstones. On the eastern side of
the Wind River Mountains a full series of the sedimentary formations
was noted, beginning with the Silurian, and numerous stratigraphical
phenomena were observed and studied with a view to the determina-
tion of the age of the mountain-range.

Camp Stambaugh, at the south end of the range, is located within
the area of the oldest metamorphic rocks of the district In these, gold
has been found in varying quantities for the last ten years, and, at one
time, the region was the scene of considerable mining excitement.

The western side of the Wind River Mountains was found to be very
interesting on account of the remains of enormous ancient glaciers.
Moraines, covering many square miles, and often a thousand feet in
thickness, extend downward through narrow valleys that now contain
rushing streams. Striation, grooving, and mirror-like polish of rock in
situ, denote the course taken by the moving ice-fields that have left
these marks of their former existence. From all indications, the cessa-
tion of glacial activity must have occurred within a comparatively recent
time. Scarcely any vegetation has sprung up on the light glacial soil,
and the characteristic distribution of erratic material bears every evi-
dence of ‘‘ freshness.”

All along the Sweetwater River the characteristic Sweetwater group
of the Tertiary was found, continuing northward to the hills opposite
Seminoe Pass. These hills were found to be projections of granite that
during the Tertiary epoch, and probably long before, existed as islands
in a widely extended sea.

On the south side of the Sweetwater, in the Seminoe Hills, the older

APPENDIX TC REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. oo

sedimentary formations were noted. In the region between the Seminoe
Hills and Rawlins, on the Union Pacific Railroad, an interesting group
of mud-springs, analogous to the mud-puffs of the Geyser region, were
seen. About four hundred of these curious springs were found and ex-
amined.

After finishing his work with the field-party, Dr. Endlich visited the
coal-mines near Evanston, Wyo., to examine the coal-bearing rocks of
that region.

The Green River district lies directly west of the Sweetwater district.
With the exception of a small area of granite, along the southwestern
side of the Wind River Mountains, and some basaltic flows in the north-
western portion of the district, the rocks are sedimentary. The Green
River Basin was the first areasurveyed. The prevailing formation was
found to be the Green River group of the Tertiary, underlaid by the
Wahsatch. Toward the south, buttes of the Bridger clays rest on the
Green River marls and sandstones. They are the northern outliers of
the extensive Bridger areas found farther southward.

On the northeast, the Tertiary beds rest on the granites of the Wind
River Mountains, the line of junction being considerably obscured by
morainal material. One of the most interesting points noted in the
Green River Basin was on its west side, where the Wahsatch Tertiary
is seen resting unconformably on Jurassic and Cretaceous strata. At
one point, Carboniferous fossils were obtained from bowlders of lime-
stone found in a conglomerate in the Wahsatch group. These were
derived without doubt from the Carboniferous limestones of the mount-
ains that stand a short distance to the westward, and which must once
have formed a portion of the shore-line of the lake filling the Green
River Basin.

An arm of this Tertiary lake extended up Harris Fork of the Green
River, where Green River and Wahsatch beds are found in horizontal
position. In the Green River shales, at several localities, good collec-
tions of fossil fish and insects were found, among which were many new
species.

The region of the Blackfoot River, in the northwestern part of the
district, is covered in all its lowest portions with flows of basalt which
had their origin in craters that still show between the Blackfoot, Bear,
and Portneuf Rivers. The pouring out of this basalt must have occurred
either during or just prior to the present period, as there has been but
little if any change in the surface since the eruption. On the Portneuf
River a narrow tongue of basalt extends almost to Snake River Valley.
The surface of this basalt slopes somewhat, but not so much as the pres-
ent bed of the Portneuf. The lower valley of the Portneuf is interesting
from the fact that it is probably one of the ancient outlets of the great
lake that once filled the Salt Lake Basin and extended across into
Cache Valley. In Cache Valley and Malade Valley, modern Tertiary
deposits are found jutting against the mountains, and in the central por-

60 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

tions of the valleys they seem to pass gradually into the more modern
deposits.

The interesting soda-springs at the bend of Bear River were carefully
examined.

Although the area surveyed by the Green River division was large,
comprising about 13,000 square miles, large collections of fossils (many
of them new) were made. Notes were obtained for the preparation of
a geological map of the area, and data collected for the elucidation of
many interesting problems in relation to the age of the mountains.

Coal-outcrops were noted at a number of localities, on some of the
branches of the Upper Bear River and of Green River. The famous salt-
works on a branch of Salt River were also examined.

Professor St. John reports the Teton district to be one of great inter-
est. He found extensive areas covered with rocks of igneous origin, ba-
salts, and trachytes.

The Snake River plains are everywhere floored with basaltic rocks.
They extend up the valley of the Snake as far as the lower basin, where
they are succeeded by other volcanics, mainly trachytes. The latter are
observed inclining at greater or less angles and appear to be more an-
cient than the basalts. The Blackfoot Valley and the valley depressions
between the Blackfoot Mountains and the Caribou Range are floored
with basalts in every way similar to those occurring in the Snake River
plains. These extend southward into Dr. Peale’s district.

Rhyolitic products were found at a few localities. In one instance the
eruptive matter appears as a dike in the crest of a low, short ridge be-
tween the Blackfoot and Caribou Ranges, its eruption having tilted the
sedimentary deposits into an anticlinal ridge.

In Caribou Mountain, also, interesting phenomena were observed. The
mountain is a monoclinal ridge, made up of sedimentaries, between
whose strata the igneous material is intruded, appearing from a distance
like veritable beds of deposition, while the bulk of the west portion of
the mountain appears to consist of an enormous mass of eruptive mat-
ter thrust up from below. This mountain would therefore appear to be
another instance of local outburst, similar to those brought to light by
the survey in Western and Southwestern Colorado.

Extensive areas of the district are occupied by sedimentary or strati-
fied rocks, which were referred to the Lower Silurian, Carboniferous,
Jura-Triassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary ages. These rocks have been
subjected to considerable folding and displacements ia the different por-
tions of the district.

One of the most interesting discoveries was that of the presence of
fish-remains in the Lower Carboniferous. Several forms were found,
identical with or closely allied to Keokuk species of the genera Oladodus,
Petalodus, Anthiodus, and Helodus.

In the upper basin of Snake River, Tertiary lacustrine beds occur.
These are probably the equivalents of the lake-beds of Dr. Hayden.

The Teton Range was examined and found to be a gigantic monoclinal

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61

ridge, with a metamorphic and granitic nucleus, which forms a lofty,
exceedingly rugged, jagged crest, extending in a north and south direc-
tion three-fourths the length of the range, culminating in Mount Hayden.

In Jackson’s Basin, east of the Teton Range, a vast accumulation of
morainal matter was noted. Along the west side of the basin, extensive
morainal accumulations occur, which have been cut into beautiful ter-
races by Snake River.

Calcareous tufa, indicating the presence of springs, was found at the
mouth of Salt River, in a small basin east of Lincoln Valley, &c.
None of these, however, are comparable with the enormous spring de-
posits met with at the northeastern foot of the Wind River Mountains,
in the upper portion of the Wind River Valley, which were hastily ex-
amined late in the season.

The geological notes given above present only the salient features of
the season’s work.

Paleontology.—During the past year the prosecution of paleontological
investigation in the field has constituted a prominent feature of the
work. This investigation embraces not only a collection and study of
the fossil remains, but also the application of such study to the correla-
tion of the geological formations that occupy the different districts that
have from year to year been surveyed by various parties. Dr. C. A.
White, the paleontologist of the survey, has been placed in chage of this
branch of the work, which he pursued in the field during the whole of
last season. The region studied by him is briefly as follows: That por-
tion of the great plain which lies adjacent to the east base of the Rocky
Mountains between Cheyenne and a point 25 or 30 miles south of Den-
ver; a portion of Middle Park; the district drained by Yampa and
White Rivers into the Green; the district which lies adjacent to the
southern base of the Uinta range of mountains; that which lies adja-
cent to the northern side of those mountains; a large part of the Green
River Basin, and eastward as far as Rawlins Station on the Union
Pacific Railroad.

The results have been very gratifying; among the more important of
which is the definition of the paleontological boundaries of certain of the
groups of strata, especially those of the Laramie group, over a large area,
including both sides of the Rocky Mountains. He has demonstrated
the fact that at least the lower portion of the Fort Union group, the
Lignitic group of Colorado east of the Rocky Mountains, and the Lara-
mie group of King west of those mountains, including the great Bitter
Creek series of beds, all belong to one period, and which are included
under the general name of Laramie group.

In the valley of Lake Fork south of the Uinta Mountains, he found
the Bridger group well exposed, and in the valley of the Du Chesne, the
Green River group. Both these groups have there the peculiar litholog-
ical characteristics that distinguish them in the Green River Basin north
of the Uintas.

Important collections of fossils were made by Dr. White, comprising

62 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

many new forms, and also many interesting types. Some important
data were also obtained, showing the early differentiation and extraor-
dinary persistence ot fresh-water and land molluscan types. A discus-
sion of these and other kindred questions will appear in his paleontolog
ical reports. (

Fossil entomology.—Messrs. 8. H. Scudder, of Cambridge, and F. C.
Bowditch, of Boston, spent two months in Colorado, Wyoming, and
Utah, in explorations for fossil insects, and in collecting recent Coleop-
tera and Orthoptera, especially in the higher regions. They made large
collections of recent insects at different points along the railways from
Pueblo to Cheyenne and from Cheyenne to Salt Lake, as well as at Lakin,
Kans., Garland and Georgetown, Colo., and in various parts of the
South Park and surrounding region.

For want of time, they were obliged to forego an anticipated trip to
White River, to explore the beds of fossil insects known to exist there.
Ten days were spent at Green River and vicinity in examining the Ter-
tiary strata for fossil insects, with but poor results; the Tertiary beds of
the South Park yielded but a single determinable insect, but near Flo-
rissant the Tertiary basin, described by Dr. A. C. Peale in the annual
report of the survey for 1873, was found to be exceedingly rich in insects
and plants.

In company with Rev. Mr. Lakes, of Golden, Mr. Scudder spent several
days in a careful survey of this basin, and estimates the insect-bearing
shales to have an extent at least fifty times as great as those of the
famous locality at Oeningen in Southern Bavaria. From six to seven
thousand insects and two or three thousand plants have already been
received from Florissant, and as many more will be received before the
close of the year.

Mr. Scudder was also able to make arrangements in person with par-
ties who have found a new and very interesting locality of Tertiary strata
in Wyoming, to send him all the specimens they work out, and he con-
fidently anticipates receiving several thousand insects from them in the
course of the coming winter. The specimens from this locality are re-
markable for their beauty. There is, therefore, every reason to believe
the Tertiary strata of the Rocky Mountain region are richer in remains
of fossil insects than any other country in the world, and that within a
few months the material at hand for the elaboration of the work on fossil
insects, which Mr. Scudder has in preparation for the survey, will be
much larger than was ever before subject to the investigation of a single
naturalist.

Fossil botany.—Prof. Leo Lesquereux has been engaged during the
past year in studies of the tertiary flora. These are now completed,
and his monograph has been issued from the press.

Botany.—The botany of the Survey was represented the past season
by the two great masters of that department, Sir Joseph D. Hooker,
director of the Kew Gardens, England, and president of the Royal
Society of London; and Prof. Asa Gray, of Cambridge, Mass. Their

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 63

examinations extended over a great portion of Colorado, Wyoming, Utah,
Nevada, and California. Their investigation into the Alpine floras and
tree-vegetation of the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada enabled them
to give a clear idea of the relations and influence of the climatic condi-
tions on both sides of the great mountain-ranges.

Sir Joseph Hooker, whose botanical researches embrace the greater
part of Europe; the Indies, from the Bay of Bengal across the Hima-
laya’s to Thibet; the antarctic regions and the southern part of South
America, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Morocco, and Asia
Minor, presents in the English periodical ‘ Nature,” for October 25, 1877,
an outline of his studies during the season, and this outline, when filled
out, will form a most important part of the eleventh annual Report of the
Survey. It will be seen at a glance that the report will be of the most
comprehensive character, and cannot fail to be of the highest interest
to our people. The tree-vegetation, and especially the conifers, were
made special objects of study, and many obscure points were cleared up.

Dr. Hooker sums up the results of the joint investigations of Dr. Gray
and himself, aided by Dr. Gray’s previously-intimate knowledge of the
elements of the American flora, from the Mississippi to the Pacific coast :

That the vegetation of the middle latitudes of the continent resolves itself into three
principal meridional floras, incomparably more diverse than those presented by any
similar meridians in the Old World, being, in fact, as far as the trees, shrubs, and many
genera of herbaceous plants are concerned, absolutely distinct. These are the two
humid and the dry intermediate regions above indicated.

Each of these, again, is subdivisible into three, as follows:

1. The Atlantic slope plus Mississippi region, subdivisible into (a) an Atlantic, (/3)
a Mississippi Valley, and (y) an interposed mountain region with a temperate and sub-
alpine flora.

2. The Pacific slope, subdivisible into (a) a very humid, cool, forest-clad coast range;
(2) the great, hot, drier Californian valley formed by the San Juan River flowing to
the north and the Sacramento River flowing to the south, both into the Bay of San
Francisco; and (y) the Sierra Nevada flora, temperate, subalpine, and Alpine.

3. The Rocky Mountain region (in its widest sense extending from the Mississippi
beyond its forest region to the Sierra Nevada), subdivisible into (a) a prairie flora,
(8) a desert or a saline flora, (y) a Rocky Mountain proper flora, temperate, subalpine,
and Alpine.

As above stated, the difference between the floras of the first and second of these re-
gions is specifically, and to a great extent generically, absolute; not a pine or oak,
maple, elm, plane, or birch of Eastern America extends to Western America; and genera
of thirty to fifty species are confined to each. The Rocky Mountain region again, though
abundantly distinct from both, has a few elements of the eastern region and still more
of the western.

Many interesting facts connected with the origin and distribution of American plants,
and the introduction of the various types into three regions, presented themselves to
our observations or our minds during our wanderings. Many of these are suggestive of
comparative study with the admirable results of Heer’s and Lesquereux’s investiga-
tions into the Pliocene and Miocene plants of the north temperate and frigid zones,
and which had already engaged Dr. Gray’s attention, as may be found in his various
publications. No less interesting are the traces of the influence of a glacial and a
warmer period in directing the course of migration of arctic forms southward and
Mexican forms northward in the continent, and of the effects of the great body of

64 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

water that occupied the whole saline region during (as it would appear) a glacial
eriod.

; Lastly, curious information was obtained respecting the ages of not only the big
trees of California, but of equally aged pines and junipers, which are proofs of that
duration of existing conditions of climate for which evidence has hitherto been sought
rather among fossil than among living organisms.

' Zoology.—Prof. Joseph Leidy, the eminent comparative anatomist and
microscopist, made his second visit to the West the past season under
the auspices of the Survey. He madea careful exploration of the coun-
try about Fort Bridger, Uinta Mountains, and the Salt Lake Basin, in
search of rhizopods. He has been engaged for a long time on a memoir
on this subject, which will eventually form one of the series of the quarto
Reports of the Survey.

The rhizopods are the lowest and simplest forms of animals, mostly
minute, and requiring high power of the microscope to distinguish their
structure. While most of them construct shells of great beauty and
variety, their soft part consists of a jelly-like substance. This the ani-
mal has the power of extending in threads or finger-like processes, which
are used as organs of locomotion and prehension, often branching.
From the appearance of their temporary organs, resembling roots, the
class of animals has received its name of rhizopoda, meaning literally
root-footed. . |

In compensation for the smallness of these creatures, they make up
in numbers, and it is questionable whether any other class of animals
exceeds them in importance in the economy of nature. Geological evi-
dence shows that they were the starting-point of animal life in time, and
their agency in rock-making has not been exceeded by later higher and
more visible forms.

With the marine kind, known as foraminifera, we have been longest
familiar. Their beautiful many-chambered shells—for the most part
just visible to the naked eye—form a large portion of the ocean-mud
and the sands of the ocean-shore. Shells of foraminifera likewise form
the basis of miles of strata of limestone, such as the chalk of England
and the limestones of which Paris and the pyramids of Egypt are built.

Fresh-water rhizopods, though not so abundant as marine forms, ‘are
nevertheless very numerous. They mainly inhabit our lakes, ponds, and
standing waters, but they also swarm in sphagnous swamps and ever
live in newest earth. Professor Leidy has devoted several years of
study to the fresh-water rhizopods of the eastern portion of our country,
and his especial object in the past expedition was to investigate those
which are to be found in the elevated regions of the Rocky Mountains.

Dr. Elliott Cones, secretary and naturalist of the Survey, though pre-
vented from taking the field during 1877 by the press of publications,
which required his stay at the Washington office, has continued his in-
vestigations in Mammalogy and Ornithology. The printing ofthe “ Birds
of the Colorado Basin” has steadily progressed during the year, and very
great accessions of material for his forthcoming Report -on North Ameri-

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, 65

can Mammalogy have been received. He is at present investigating the
Insectivora of North America, with a view to a special monograph on
that subject.

Mr. J. A. Allen is engaged upon an exhaustive memoir on the Pinni-
peds, to be probably completed this year.

Dr. Coues reports unusual activity in the department under his charge,
and a very forward state of the several investigations now in progress.

Archceology.—Mr. W. H. Jackson, photographer of the Survey, has
added to his department the work of reproducing the ancient ruins of
Southwestern Colorado, &c., by models. Specimens of the ancient pottery
are also represented, not only by photographs, but also by actual models.

In the spring of 1877, Mr. Jackson made a tour over much of the .
northern part of New Mexico and westward to the Moqui towns in
Arizona, and secured materials for a number of very interesting models,
illustrating the methods of the pueblos, or town-builders, in the con-
struction of their dwellings. Two villages have been selected for imme-
diate construction, as showing the most ancient and best-known exam-
ples of their peculiar architecture, viz, Taos and Acoma; the one of
many-storied, terraced houses, and the other built high upon an impreg-
nablerock. The model of Taosis now completed, the dimensions of which
are 42 by 39 inches, and the scale one inch to twenty feet, 1:240.

Of this town Davis says:

-Tt is the best sample of the ancient mode of building. Here are two large houses
three or four hundred feet in length and about one hundred and fifty feet wide at the
base. They are situated upon opposite sides of a small creek, and in ancient times
are said to have been connected by a bridge. They are five and six stories high, each
story receding from the one below it, and thus forming a structure terraced from top
to bottom. Each story is divided into numerous little compartments, the outer tier
of rooms being lighted by small windows in the sides, while those in the interior of the
building are dark, and are principally used as store-rooms. * * * The only means
of entrance is through a trap-door in the roof, and you ascend from story to story by
means of ladders on the outside, which are drawn up at night.

Their contact with Europeans has modified somewhat their ancient
style of buildings, principally in substituting door-ways in the walls of
their houses for those in the roof. Their modern buildings are rarely
over two stories in height, and are not distinguishable from those of
their Mexican neighbors. The village is surrounded by an adobe wall,
which is first included within the limits of the model, and incloses an
area of eleven or twelve acres in extent. Within this limit are four of
their estufas, or secret council-houses. These are circular underground
apartments, with a narrow opening in the roof, surrounded by a pali-
sade; ladders being used to go in and out.

These models are first carefully built up in clay, in which material all
the detail is readily secured, and then east in plaster, a mold being
secured by which they are readily multiplied to any extent. They are
then put into the hands of the artists and carefully colored in solid oil
paints to accurately resemble their appearance in nature, and, in the
case of restorations of modern buildings, all the little additions are made

oS

66 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

which will give them the appearance of occupation. The Survey is in
possession of the data for the construction of many more models, and
they will be brought out as opportunity is given. They have also, in
connection with the views, multiplied many of the curious pieces of pot-
tery which have been brought back from that region by the various
parties connected with the Survey.

Office work in 1877.—The early part of the year in the office was
devoted to the completion of the Colorado work, and the latter part was
occupied in working up the summer’s notes.

During the summer, Mr. W. H. Holmes remained in the office, super-
intending the publication of the Atlas of Colorado, which is now rapidly
approaching completion. A large portion of the time was devoted by
him to the preparation of the “‘ Economic Map,” the “‘General Geological
Map,” the “Geological Sections,” and the “Panoramic Views.” The fol-
lowing are the sheets included in the Atlas of Coloradc:

I. Triangulation Map.

II. General Drainage Map.
III. Economic Map.
IV. General Geological Map.

V. Northwestern Colorado. XI. Northwestern Colorado.
VI. Northern Central Colorado. XII. Northern Central Colorado.
VII. Central Colorado. XIII. Central Colorado.
VIII. Western Colorado. XIV. Western Colorado.
IX. Southwestern Colorado. XV. Southwestern Colorado.

X. Southern Central Colorado. XVI. Southern Central Colorado.

XVII & XVIII. Geological Sections.
XIX & XX. Panoramic Views.

Publications.—The year 1877 witnessed a marked increase in the num-
ber of publications of the Survey, no fewer than nine separate and formal
works having been issued. These are enumerated as follows:

1, Catalogue of the publications of the Survey (second edition, revised
to December 31, 1876).

2. The annual report for 1875, a large octavo of over 800 pages, fully
illustrated with plates, maps, and wood-cuts, giving the results of the
field-work of the year 1875, with an extensive appendix, consisting of
J. A. Allen’s Memoir on the Buffalo, and A. S. Packard’s Report on
Noxious and Beneficial Insects.

3. A preliminary report of progress for the field-season of 1877, forming
part of the annual report of the Secretary of the Interior for 1877. The
full reports for the years 1876 and 1877 are in press, and will form two
large octavo volumes.

4. Volume III of the “Bulletin” of the Survey, containing very nu-
merous articles in various departments of physical and biological science.

5. The fourth edition of miscellaneous publications No. 1, being ‘ Lists

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67

of Elevations,” &¢e., by Henry Gannett, entirely revised and greatly en-
‘larged, now forming an independent octavo volume of 167 pages.

6. Misceilaneous publications No. 7, ‘*Ethnography and Philology of
the Hidatsa Indians,” by Dr. Washington Matthews, U.S. A.

7. Miscellaneous publications No. 8, “ Fur-bearing Animals: a mono-
graph of North American Mustelidz,” by Dr. Elliott Coues, U. 8. A.

8. Miscellaneous publications No. 9, ‘ Descriptive Catalogue of Photo-
graphs of North American Indians,” by W. H. Jackson.

9. Eleventh volume of Final Reports, quarto series, ‘‘Monograph of
North American Rodentia,” by Dr. Elliott Coues, U. 8. A., and Prof.
J. A. Allen, forming a large quarto volume of 1110 pages, with plates.

Various publications, including Leo Lesquereux’s Tertiary Flora, to
form Volume VII of the quarto series, several numbers of the Bulletin,
miscellaneous publications, and two annual reports are now in press.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN
REGION, BY PROF. J. W. POWELL, IN 1877.

About the middle of May last, the surveying corps again took the
field. This year the rendezvous camp was at Mount Pleasant, a little
town in Utah, about 125 miles south of Salt Lake City. Three parties
were organized, under the direction of Prof. A. H. Thompson; one to
extend the triangulation, and two for topographic purposes, the latter
being under charge of Mr. W. H. Graves and Mr. J. H. Renshawe, re-
spectively, and the former under the immediate diiection of Professor
Thompson, assisted by Mr. O. D. Wheeler.

The area designated for the season’s work lies between 38° and 40°
30/ north latitude, and between 109° 30’ and 112° west longitude, Green-
wich, and is embraced in atlas sheets 86 and 75.

Triangulation.—The triangulation party left Mount Pleasant in June.
The work of this year being a continuation of the expansion from
the Gunnison base-line, measured in 1874, it was desirable to first visit
some of the geodetic points established in previous years, but the
unprecedented amount of snow yet remaining in the high plateaus and
- mountains rendered this impracticable, and the first part of the season
was spent in establishing stations on the Ta-va-puts Plateau west of the
Green River. In midsummer the party was able to visit the high plateaus
and connect the work of past years with that of this season. Later the
triangulation was extended to the east, joining the work of the United
States Geological and Georaphical Survey of the Territories, under
charge of Dr. F. V. Hayden, and to the north to join the work of the
United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, Clarence
King, United States geologist, in charge. The whole area of the sea-
son’s work embraces something more than 13,000 square miles. The
instrument used was the theodolite, hereafter described. The points
sighted to on the geodetic stations were either artificial monuments or
well-defined natural points, and all stations were marked by stone cairns.

Topographic work by Mr. Graves.—The district assigned to Mr. Graves

68 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

for topographic work was that embraced in the eastern half of atlas
sheet 75, and that portion of sheet 86 lying east of the Green and
Colorado Rivers, an area of about 10,000 square miles. The most re-
markable topographic feature of this region is a bold escarpment facing
the south, and extending from the western, far beyond the eastern limit
of Mr. Graves’ work. This is known as the Book Cliffs. At the foot
of this escarpment lies a narrow valley, through which passes the only
practicable route of travel between Central Utah and Western Colorado.
South of the valley the whole region is cut by a labyrinth of cafions,
formed by the Grand, Green, and San Rafael Rivers and their tribu-
taries. This region is one of the most inhospitable and inaccessible in
the territory of the United States. It is characterized by extreme
aridity, and some portions are cut by many narrow gorges, forming
‘alcove lands.” In other portions are found hills of naked sands and
clays, regions of bad lands, bold cliffs, towering monuments, hills of
drifting, glittering sands, and deep, tortuous caions, which give to the
landscape a strange and weird appearance.

The Book Cliffs rise to an average altitude above their base of 3,000
feet, and about 8,500 feet above the sea-level, and the country from the
southern crest inclines gently northward to the valleys of the White and
Uinta Rivers. This gigantic terrace, called the Ta-v4-puts Plateau, is
cut in twain from north to south by the profound gorges through which
the Green River runs, known as the Caton of Desolation and Gray
Cation. The drainage of the plateau is northward from the brink of
the cliffs through deep, narrow cations for many miles, but at last all
these enter Canon of Desolation a few miles from its head. North of
the Ta-va-puts Plateau are the valleys of the White and Uinta Rivers.
Nearly all the former and a large portion of the lower course of the
latter are within the boundaries of Mr Graves’ work.

Over the whole district assigned to Mr. Graves he extended the
secondary triangulation. Owing to the peculiar topography of the
country, his stations will average about twelve miles apart. He also
made a connected plane-table map of the whole area, and complemented
his work with orographic sketches.

In the southern portion of the area surveyed by Mr. Graves, consider-
able bodies of irrigable lands are found along the Grand, Green, San
Rafael, and Price Rivers, and in the northern part, along the Green
River and in the valleys of the Uinta and White Rivers, are other large
tracts, on which the waters of the streams named can be conveyed at
slight cost. Mr. Graves determined the extent, character, and location
of these lands, and the amount of water carried by the streams through-
out the area embraced in his work.

On the Ta-va-puts Plateau are small forests of pine and fir, but gener-
ally Mr. Graves’ district possesses no more timber than sufficient to
meet the future local requirements of actual settlers.

Topographic work by Mr. Renshawe.—The district assigned Mr. Ren-

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 69

shawe was that embraced in the western portion of atlas sheet 75, an
area of about 6,000 square miles. The eastern portion of this area is a
broad table-land called the Wasatch Plateau, having an average eleva-
tion of about 9,500 feet, cut by deep valleys and drained from its very
western edge toward the east by the Fremont, San Rafael, and Uinta
Rivers. The western portion includes broad valleys, abrupt ranges of
mountains, and one plateau of considerable extent. The principal val-
leys in this part are the San Pete, Juab, and Utah all having a general
northern and southern trend, an average elevation of about 5,000 feet,
and all are drained by the San Pete River and the streams flowing into
Utah Lake. The mountain-ranges standing between the valleys are the
Wasatch, rising in its highest peaks to 12,000 feet, the Lake Mountains,
and the Tintic Hills, each reaching an altitude of nearly 7,500 feet.

The table-land called Gunnison Plateau has an area of about 750
square miles, and an average elevation of 8,000 feet. It is bounded on
three sides by almost vertical walls, and is extremely rugged and diffi-
cult to traverse.

There is but little irrigable land in the eastern portion of Mr. Ren-
shawe’s district, but the broad valleys of the western portion contain large
areas of excellent lands, and the numerous streams furnish a good sup-
ply of water. Mr. Renshawe determined the volume of water in every
considerable stream, as well as the extent and localities of the irrigable
lands, throughout his district.

On the plateaus and mountain-ranges are large quantities of excellent
timber. On the head-waters of Price River and on Huntington Creek
are extensive beds of coal, and on that portion of the Wasatch Range
included in Mr. Renshawe’s district are deposits of silver and galena.

Mr. Renshawe extended the secondary triangulation over the whole
district assigned him, making stations at an average distance of about
eight miles, and measuring all the angles of nearly every triangle in the
extension. He also made a connected plane-table map of the whole
area, and complemented his work with a complete set of orographic
sketches.

Hypsometry.—The hypsometric work of this season rests on a primary
base established at the general supply and rendezvous camp at Mount
Pleasant, and connected by a long series of observations with the sta-
tion of the United States Signal Service at Salt Lake City. At the base-
station observations were made with mercurial barometers four times
each day, and for eight days during the month hourly from 7 a. m. to 9
p.m. Mercurial barometers were carried by each field-party and obser-
vations made to connect every camp with the base-station. All the
geodetic points and topographic stations were connected by observa-
tions with mercurial barometers either with the camps or directly with
the base-station or both. All the topographic stations were also con-
nected with each other by angulation, and from these stations the alti-
tudes of all located points were determined by the same method.

70 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Instruments—Base-measuring apparatus.—The apparatus used in meas-
uring the base-lines from which the primary triangulation is developed
consists essentially of wooden rods aligned and Jeveled on movable
trestles or tripods, the contact being made by coincidence of lines in-
stead of by direct abutment.

The rods are 15 feet long, one-half of an inch square, thoroughly dried,
oiled, and varnished; they are supported in cases made truss-form to
prevent sagging, and moved in these cases to make the contact by a
rack and pinion motion. Both ends of the rod are shod with a plate of
brass firmly fixed upon and half the width of the rod, or one-fourth of
an inch, and so arranged that the plate upon the forward end of any rod
projects by the plate upon the rear end of the preceding one in such a
manner that both rods are in the same straight line. The line of coinci-
dence is marked upon both plates and contact is determined by a mag-
nifier.

A delicate spirit-level is attached to each case to adjust it horizontally
and a thermometer inserted to determine the temperature of the rod.
Two steel pins, by which the rods are aligned, are fixed on the cases
directly over the center of the ends of the rods.

The tripods (or stands upon which the cases carrying the rods rest)
have short double legs of the usual construction. Firmly fixed upon the
tripod-heads are two uprights upon which a sliding cross-piece is clamped
by thumb-screws. Above this cross-piece, parallel to and carried with
it, is a second, which can be moved up or down three-fourths of an inch
by means of a long slender wedge working between the cross-pieces,
and furnishing an easy means of making the final adjustment of the
rods in level. The uprights are several inches apart, and give sufficient
range to align the rods, which is done by a theodolite placed in advance
upon the line to be measured. Two or three rods and six or eight tri-
pods are used. The rods are kept in a horizontal position, and, when the
inequalities of the ground demand, vertical offsets are made with a the-
odolite. The line is first ranged out, and stakes set 500 feet apart along
its length, then, with six men to work the apparatus, 3,000 feet per day
can be measured with all the accuracy the refinements of the triangu-
lation demand.

Theodolite.—The theodolite used in the triangulation is of a new pat-
tern, embracing a number of improvements demanded by the character
of the work. So far as possible the number of parts has been reduced
by casting in a single piece parts that are usually combined by screws.
In this manner the liability to derangement incident to the vicissitudes
of mountain work is greatly reduced. The telescope has been enlarged
as compared with the graduated circle, so as to make its defining power
bear a greater proportion than usual to the refinement of graduation.
The object-glass has an aperture of two inches and a focal length of
twenty. The horizontal circle is ten inches in diameter, and reads by
double veraiers to five seconds of arc. The vertical circle is five inches

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 71

in diameter and reads to one minute. The instrument also embraces
other improvements designed to secure greater stability, with ease and
rapidity in manipulation.

Plane-Table.—In the topographic work the gradientor and sketch-book
have been superseded by the plane-table and the orograph. The plane-
table in use is of a pattern designed by Professor Thompson especially
for work of this character. The drawing-board is made of a series of
slats firmly fixed to canvas in such manner that it can be rolled into
small compass for transportation ; but when unrolied for work it is so
secured by ecross-pieces and screws that great stability is attained.
When in use it is fastened to the platen of the orograph. The position
of important features in the topography is fixed with an alidade by the
usual methods of intersection and resection. Details are placed directly
upon the map while they are still under the eye of the topographer, and
much of the labor and uncertainty of description by notes is avoided,
and the experience of five years in its use has demonstrated that the
plane-table as modified is equally well-adapted to regions of mountains,
hills, plains, or plateaus. The sketches produced are actual maps and
not mere map material. They need only to be adjusted in conformity
with the triangulation, and but slight adjustment is necessary. And it
has been further demonstrated that a topographer in one field-season
can extend his work over an area of about 7,000 square miles with all
the accuracy necessary for the scale adopted by the Interior Depart-
ment for the physical atlas of the Rocky Mountain Region, 7. e., a scale
of four miles to the inch.

Orograph.—The orograph is an instrument new to topographic survey-
ing, adapted to the requirements of this work by Professor Thompson.
It consists essentially of a telescope erected above a platen or drawing-
board, on which the movements of its optical axis are recorded. The
telescope rotates about a vertical and about a horizontal axis, similarly
to the telescope of a theodolite, and is connected by simple mechanism
with a pencil which rests on a sheet of paper fixed to the platform.
When the topographer moves the telescope so as to carry its optical
axis over the profiles of the landscapes the pencil traces a sketch of
the same. This sketch, being mechanically produced, is susceptible
of measurement, and is a definite and authoritative record of the angular
relations of the objects sketched. The instrument is also furnished with
graduated circles, on which horizontal and vertical angles may be read
to the nearest half minute, and these circles are used for the secondary
triangulation. The orograph and plane-table are used conjointly, and
their results furnish data for the production of contour maps. It is
believed that by their introduction the quality of topographic work has
been much improved without addition to its cost. When a topographer
takes the field with these two instruments and plane-table sheets on
which the primary triangulation has been previously plotted, he returns,
with a map on which all of the geographic features to be delineated

12 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

have been determined by their angular relations, and the scenic char-
acteristics necessary to give proper effect to the maps have been out-
lined by instrumental means. In this manner the subsequent construc-
tion of maps at the office, ready for the engraver, is reduced to a
minimum of labor, while for the proper accuracy the topographer is not
necessitated to resort to his memory for the appearance of the land-
scape, but only to the definite record.

Barometers.—Tne instruments used in the hypsometric work are Green’s
mercurial mountain barometers, Green’s psychrometers, and aneroid bar-
ometers of the usual construction.

Cartography.—Much attention has been given to this subject for the
purpose of determining the best method of representing the topography
of the region surveyed, taking into consideration the character of the
country, the more important facts to be embodied, and the scale adopted
for the physical atlas of the Interior Department. The systems of car-
tography in use in this country and many of those of Europe have been
examined and studied, and many experiments have been made in the
office for the purpose of determining the best methods adapted to these
circumstances and conditions.

For the physical atlas heretofore mentioned it is proposed to represent
the topography by contour lines with auxiliary hatchings to indicate
rock surface and shading for general reliefs, these so applied as not to
obscure the contours. For special purposes hatched maps are used, for
others contour maps, and for purposes relating to the discussion of geo-
logical structure maps are made by photographing or lithographing
models or relief maps in plaster.

Classification of lands by Mr. Gilbert.—The survey under the direction
of Professor Powell has been extended over the northern portion of
Arizonaand the greater part of Utah, but a broad strip along the north-
ern end of the latter Territory was embraced in the survey made by Mr.
Clarence King, under the War Department. It seemed desirable, how-
ever, to extend the classification of lands over this latter region, and
this duty was assigned to Mr. G. K. Gilbert.

Mr. Gilbert took the field at Salt Lake City and traversed all of the
Territory lying west, north, and northeast of that point, a tract compri-
sing so much of the drainage basin of Great Salt Lake as liesin Utah. In
this area is included the most valuable portion of the Territory, as well
as the most sterile. A very small part of it will repay cultivation
without irrigation, but this is exceptional, and in general the possibility
of agriculture depends upon the possibility of artificial watering. The
Bear River, the Weber, and the Jordan carry as much water as can
profitably be used upon all the lands to which it is practicable to convey
them by canals, and those lands were measured, in order to determine
the agricultural capacities of the river valleys. The smaller streams, on
the contrary, are inadequate to serve the arable lands through which
they severally run, and theagricultural capacities of their valleys were as-

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. (ie:

certained by measuring the volume of each stream. Eastof Great Salt Lake
are great mountain ranges, the Wasatch and the Uinta, and large streams
flow from their melting snows all through thesummer season. The Bear,
the Weber, and the Jordan flow to the lake, and the three rivers can
be made to reclaim 800,000 acres of land in their valleys. This is 124
per cent. of the district that they drain. West of the lake the plaius
are interrupted by mountains, but there are none of great magnitude;
the snows of winter are dissipated too early in the spring to be of use
for irrigation, and much of the land is an absolute desert. In a total
area of 8,300,000 acres only 21,000 acres are of value for farming—one-
fourth of one per cent.

These estimates are based upon the experience of the farmers of the
district, who have practiced irrigation for thirty years, and have given
ita greater development than can be found elsewhere in the United
States. They have now under cultivation a third part of the irrigable
lands of the Salt Lake Basin, and are utilizing many of the small
streains to the full extent of their capacities. A careful study was made
of their operations, for the purpose of learning the quantity of water
necessary to redeem a given quantity of land under various conditions
of soil and climate, and the resulting determinations were used in com-
puting the areas susceptible of irrigation by the streams and parts of
streams that are still unused. The greater part of the future extension of
the cultivated areas will be accomplished only by extensive engineering
works, including the damming of the principal rivers and the construc-
tion of long canals. Five million dollars is probably a moderate esti-
mate of the cost of redeeming the 500,000 acres that are susceptible of
reclamation, and the requisite capital will have to be concentrated upon
a small number of large canals.

Since the first settlement of the Territory, in the year 1847, the water-
supply has increased. It is reported by the citizens that each stream
is now capable of irrigating a greater area of land than when it was
first used. Creeks that once scantily watered afew acres of ground
now afford an ample supply for double, treble, or even fifty times the
original area. This increase has been accompanied by a rise of Great
Salt Lake, which, having no escape for its water except by evaporation,
has stored up the surplus from the streams. For the purpose of inves-
tigating the extent and the cause of the increase of the streams, Mr.
Gilbert made a study of the fluctuations of the lake. It was a matter
of common report that the surface of the water had been subject to
considerable changes, and that on the whole it had greatly risen since
its shores were first settled, but previous to the year 1875 no systematic
record of its movements had been kept. In that year a series of obser-
vations was inaugurated by Dr. John R. Park, of Salt Lake City, at the
suggestion and request of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
A small pillar of granite, graduated to feet and inches, was erected at
the water’s edge near a rocky islet known as Black Rock.

as APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The locality was then a popular pleasure resort, and the record was
undertaken by Mr. J. T. Mitchell. Observations were made at frequent
intervals for more than a year, but were then interrupted by reason of
the disuse of the locality as a place of resort, and they have not since
been resumed in a systematic way. To obviate a similar difficulty in
the future, Mr. Gilbert caused a new record-post to be established near
the town of I'armington, where the work of observation has been un-
dertaken by Mr. Jacob Miller, and it is anticipated that in the future
there will be no break in the continuity of the record.

In the interval from 1847 to 1875, during which no direct observations
were made, there was nevertheless a considerable amount of indirect
observation incidental to the pursuits of the citizens. The islands of
the lake were used for pasturage, and the facilities for the transfer of
cattle to and fro were greatly affected by the fluctuations of the water.
A large share of the communication was by boat, and the frequent
changes of landing-place which the boatmen were compelled to make
impressed upon their memories the character and order of the principal
oscillations. In pursuance of the inquiries instituted by the Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution, the testimony of the boatmen was com-
piled by Mr. Jacob Miller, and a history of the oscillations was deduced.

A similar and corroborative history has been derived by Mr. Gilbert
from an independent investigation. Two of the islands used for pastur-
age are joined to the main-land by broad, flat bars, and during the lower
Stages of the lake these bars, being either dry or covered by a moderate
depth of water, have afforded means of communication. It happens
that the Antelope Island bar was in use until 1865, when it became so
deeply covered that fording on horseback was impracticable; and that
the Stansbury Island bar was first covered with water in 1866, and has
been used as a ford with slight exception ever since. By the compila-
tion of the testimony of those who have made use of these crossings, a
continuous record was derived which cannot deviate very widely from
the truth, and the work was checked by making careful soundings to
ascertain the present depth of water on the Antelope Island bar.

From 1847 to 1850 there was little change beside the annual tide—a
variation dependent upon the spring floods, and which makes the sum-
mer stage in each year from one to two feet higher than the winter.
Then the water began to rise, and so continued until in 1855 and 1856 its
mean stage was four feet higher than in 1850. This progressive rise was
followed by a progressive fall of equal amount, and in 1860 the lake had
returned to its first-observed level. In 1862 there began a second rise,
which continued for eight years, and carried the water ten feet above the
original level. Since 1869 there has been no great change, but the mean
height has fluctuated through a range of about two feet.

As the lake has risen it has encroached upon the land, and the shores
are in many places so flat that large areas have been submerged. At
one point the water edge has advanced 15 miles, and the surveysof Capt.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. is:

Howard Stansbury and Mr. Clarence King show that from 1850 to 1869
the total area of the water surface increased from 1,750 to 2,166 square
miles, or nearly 24 per cent. By this expansion the surface for evapo-
ration was increased, so that the lake could return to the atmosphere the
surplus thrown into it by the augmented streams.

Whatever land is at any time flooded by the lake becomes saturated
with salt, and, if the water afterward retires, remains barren of vegeta-
tion for many years. The highest level reached by the water in storms
is marked by a line of driftwood and other débris. Above this line there
is usually a growth of grass and sage-brush, but below it nothing grows.
Previous to the last great rise of the lake the storm-line was six feet
lower than at present, and tlie intervening belt of land still retains the
Stumps and roots of bushes that have been killed by the advancing brine.
The encroaching water overran the ancient storm-line in about the year
1866, and for the past eleven years it has covered ground which had
been exempt from incursions of brine for a time sufficient to permit the
rains to cleanse the soil, and for a further time sufficient to produce a
growth of sage-brush. The whole period is as likely to have been meas.
ured by centuries as by decades.

Thus it appears that the last twelve years have witnessed an exten-
sion of the lake which is not only without precedent in the experience
of the citizens of Utah, but is clearly an anomaly in the history of the
lake. To explain it, and to explain at the same time the increase of the
streams, there are two general theories worthy of consideration.

The first is that there has been a change of climate in Utah whereby
the atmosphere is moister, so that the fall of rain and snow has become
greater and the rate of evaporation has become slower. The second is
that the industries of the white man, which have been steadily growing
in importance for the last thirty years, have so modified the surface of
the land that a larger share of the snow and rain finds its way into the
water-courses, and a smaller share is returned to the air by evaporation
from the ground. The latter theory, which is the one proposed by
Professor Powell, is considered by Mr. Gilbert the more probable, and
he finds reason to believe that the tax imposed upon the streams by the
work of irrigation is more than repaid by the effects of the draining of
marshes and the destruction of herbage and timber. <A great volume of
water is turned upon the cultivated fields, and from their moist surfaces
is absorbed by the atmosphere without ever reaching the lake; but, on
the other hand, the farmer has found it to his advantage to drain the
beaver-ponds and other marshes, and thus check the evaporation from
their surfaces, and the streams which he thereby rescues from dissipation
are used in irrigation for a few months only, while for the remainder of
the year they pay their tribute to the lake. The destruction of grasses
by herds of domestic animals and the cutting of trees upon the mount-
ains expose the ground to the sun and facilitate the melting of the snow;
the removal of the grass opens the way also to a fieer circulation of sur-

76 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

face-waters, so that the rain and melting snows are gathered more
quickly and thoroughly into rills and streams; and both these influences
increase the inflow of the lake.

This discussion has an important bearing upon the agriculture of the
arid region, for if the theory favored by these gentlemen is the true one
the work of irrigation can be pushed forward with the confident assur-
ance that the supply of water is more likely to increase than diminish
in the future; and it may even be possible, when the subject has been
fully developed, to devise measures which shall directly promote the
increase.

Geological work by Mr. Gilbert—During the preceding summer Mr.
Gilbert had discovered a peculiar series of phenomena produced by re-
cent orographic displacements, and he has this year found opportunity
to study them in numerous new localities. It appears that the system
of faults and flexures, the system of upward and downward movements,
by which the mountain-ranges and the valleys of Utah and Nevada
were produced, have continued down to the present time. Evidence of
recent movement has been discovered on the lines of many ancient
faults. The ancient shore-line of Great Salt Lake, which is exhibited
so conspicuously upon the surrounding mountain-slopes, and which must
originally have been level, is no longer so, but has been shifted up and
down by the displacement of the mountains. Its present altitude above
Great Salt Lake was determined at four different points by spirit-level,
and the determinations were found to range from 966 feet to 1,059
feet. The measurements by level were all made in the immediate vicin-
ity of the lake, but the barometer indicates that at points more remote
the discrepancy is several times greater.

These observations are valuable additions to our evidence that mount-
ain-making is a work of the present as well as of past ages, and that
the grand displacements by faults and folds are caused by slow and
intermittent movements.

Mr. Gilbert also traced and mapped the northern portion of the
ancient shore-line of the lake from Salt Lake City to Redding Spring,
following its sinuous course for 900 miles in Utah, Idaho, and Nevada,
and demonstrating that the ancient outlet he had discovered the pre-
ceding summer at Red Rock Pass was the only one by which the lake
had ever discharged its water to the Snake River. ;

During the winter of 1876~77, Mr. Gilbert prepared his report on the
geology of the Henry Mountains, and the manuscript was sent to the
printer. The Henry Mountains constitute a small group in southeastern
Utah and stand quite by themselves. They are of a peculiar character
and represent a type of structure that has never before been fully de-
scribed. Mr. Gilbert’s report is a monograph at once of the mountain
group and of the type of mountain structure. The mountains are of
igneous origin, but the rising lavas, instead of outpouring at the surface
of the earth in the usual way, failed to penetrate the upper portions of

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ei

the crust and formed subterranean lakes or chambers. The strata lying
above the lava lakes were upbent in the form of great bubbles, and from
these bubbles of sandstone and shale, with their cores of trap, the erosive
agents of the air have carved the mountains. The mountain structure
is thus two-fold, comprising first voleanic upheaval, and second atmos-
pheric degradation. To aid in the discussion of the first element of
structure, Mr. Gilbert constructed a stereogram of the district, in
plaster, exhibiting the forms due to upheaval as they would appear if
unmodified by degradation. He prepared also a topographical model,
exhibiting the same forms as actually modified; and the two models
will be reproduced by photography to illustrate the report. The treat-
ment of the second element of structure is of a thorough character and
includes a discussion of the general principles which control the sculp-
ture of the land surfaces of the earth by rains and rivers. The volume
is ready for the binder.

Geological work by Captain Dutton.—Captain C. E. Dutton resumed his
exploration of the same field which he has been studying for three years,
having recognized in it a certain unity which renders it eminently
adapted to an important monograph. The region explored by him is
centrally situated in the Territory of Utah, extending from Mount Nebo
in the Wasatch, nearly southward a distance of about 180 miles, and hav-
ing a maximum breadth of about 60 miles. It possesses certain features
which serve to distinguish it both topographically and geologically,
and he proposes to call it the District of the High Plateaus of Utah. It
consists of a group of uplifts now standing at altitudes between 9,000
and 11,500 feet above sea-level, while the general platform of the coun-
try is from 5,000 to 7,000 feet high. The plateaus have been carved
out of this platform by great faults, and the general structure corresponds
closely to that described by Professor Powell under the name of the
Kaibab structure, and illustrated by him in his section of the region
traversed by the Grand Caiion of the Colorado. The relations of this
belt of high plateaus to the regions adjoining are of special interest.
At the close of the cretaceous the country lying to the eastward of it
passed by gradation from an oceanic to a lacustrine condition, the inter-
mediate stage presenting, doubtless, a strict analogy to the condition of
the Baltic. This eocene lake area now constitutes the southern part of
the drainage-system of the Colorado River. During cretaceous and
eocene time, the area now occupied by the Great Basin was dry land,
and its denudation must have furnished a large part of the sediments
which were spread over the bottom.of the great lake. The movements
which took place during the eocene at last resulted in the desiccation of
the lake, and though a strict chronological correlation to European and
other divisions of time cannot be made with certainty, it may be provis-
ionally inferred that this desiccation was completed before the commence-
ment of the miocene. It was brought about by the more rapid uplifting
of the lake area than that of the Great Basin, until at last the former

78 APPEND!IX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

area became the loftier of the two, thus reversing their relative altitudes.
The lake area is now a portion of the so-called plateau country, and
since the commencement of the miocene (para-miocene) has been subject
to a great and continuous erosion. The District of the High Plateaus
occupies a portion of a narrow belt separating the plateau country from
- the basin province, and therefore stands upon the locus of the ancient
shore-line, which, in the lacustrine stage, bounded the two areas. To
that shore-line they stand in an intimate and remarkable relation. To
its trend the great displacements maintain, not merely a general paral-
lelism, but an approximation to strict parallelism both in totality and in
detail, which would not have been anticipated, and which cannot be
purely accidental, and seems to point to some definite determinative
association between the littoral deposits and the great lines of displace-
ment. The great structural features are these faults and their equiva-
lent monoclinal flexures. They are remarkably persistent, extending in
parallel courses throughout the entire length of the region surveyed.
One of them, the great Sevier fault, becoming here and there a mono-
clinal flexure, has been traced continuously over a length of 240 miles,
and others of nearly equal persistence have been noted. The High
Plateaus belong to the Plateau country, for notwithstanding the great
amount of dynamical energy indicated in their uplifting, they preserve
in a remarkable manner the plateau type of structure, which is distin-
guished sharply from the arched, flexed, and tilted types prevailing in
other disturbed localities. There is an abrupt transition from this
plateau structure to that found in the adjoining basin. There are some
localities where one may hurl a stone from one province to the other,
and in general it may be said that the dividing line must pass within a
single range or table. The plateau province seems to stand here in
strict correlation to the tertiary beds; where the tertiaries end there
also end the plateaus. The relation between the tertiary and cretaceous
throughout this belt is one of general unconformity; in many places
where the contacts are seen, the tertiary is revealed lying across the
upturned and eroded edges of the cretaceous, showing clearly a break
between those portions of the two series which are here preserved.

But of all the features displayed by the high plateaus the most re-
markable are the manifestations of former volcanic activity. Both in
area and thickness the volcanic emanations are very extensive. They
cover more than 5,000 square miles, and sections of 4,000 to 5,000 feet
are presented without revealing the lewest beds. The greater part of
the eruptions took place after the lake basin had been drained or had
shrunken to limits outside of the district, for sedimentary beds have not
been found intercalated between the various flows, but always underlie
them. lt is therefore impossible to fix with great precision the com-
mencement of the outbreaks; but the general indications are that they
began very soon after the close of the lacustrine period, and they may
have commenced still earlier. The eruptive epoch was undoubtedly a

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 79

long one. The individual flows are very numerous, and represent all
the great groups of eruptive rocks. In many cases the quantity of ma-
terial extravasated is so great that the eruptions may well be called
massive; not, however, of such marvelous extent as are asserted to
have been poured forth from fissures during the basaltic period in
Oregon and Northern California ; but there are many individual sheets
which surpass in magnitude any which is known to have emanated
during recent or modern times from any existing volcanic vent at a
single eruption. From what openings these masses were extravasated
it is usually difficult to fix with certainty and precision. So vast are
the accumulations and so expansive are the sheets, and, at the same
time, so numerous, that wheresoever they were emitted the earlier vents
must have been buried by later deluges of lava; and even the more
recent vents, except in the case of the latest basalts, have been swept
away by slow erosion in the long period which has elapsed since their
activity was extinguished. There are, however, still remaining, distinct
traces of localization of eruptive activity in the form of greater accumu-
lations, at some points from which, in mcst directions, the total thick-
ness of the volcanic series appears to attenuate. Moreover, in those
central localities of maximum accumulation there appears to be a large
amount of what might be called, in a certain sense, unconformity of the
various eruptions, and greater irregularities in their bedding, as com-
pared with the more even layers and more regular distribution of the
sheets more remote from these centers. This fact appears to be of gen-
eral application also to existing volcanic regions of great extent. Cap-
tain Dutton has succeeded in locating at least five areas, from which
the various overflows appear to have emanated, and believes that further
research might result in the determination of others.

At the time these eruptions were in progress it is probable that the
country was not an elevated one as at present, though it may have
been a rising area. The great displacements, consisting of faults
of extraordinary length and persistency, took place after the close or
during the decadence of the principal eruptions, and it was at this lat-
ter epovh that the greater part of the general elevation of this portion
of the plateau province occurred. During its progress many eruptions
must have taken place, and their later age is readily identifiable ; but
none of them were comparable in extent and in the volume of ejected
materials with older eruptions prior to the great displacements. Al-
though it is ordinarily not difficult to determine whether a particular
event preceded or followed some other within the locality, there seems
to be no way of correlating these different events strictly with the epochs
which are designated by the sedimentary formations of the adjoining
country, and it is therefore impossible to determine the exact period in
the chronological scale at which the faulting took place, further than
the fact that it must have occurred long enough after the close of the
eocene to allow for the accumulation of these vast bodies of volcanic

80 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

beds. This may carry the period of faulting far into the miocene period,
or possibly as far as the commencement of the pliocene. But while the
first stage in the activity of these ancient volcanoes was undoubtedly
the greatest, and accompanied by an incomparably greater amount of
extravasation, it by no means constitutes the whole of it. Even after
the great displacements, and after the principal topographic features of
the country, depending upon structure as they now exist, had received
their shape, minor eruptions continued ; they present, however, a some-
what remarkable fact. The later eruptions did not take place from the
same centers as the earlier ones, but show a tendency to recede from
them and to occur around the borders of the older volcanic. district.
The central portions of the volcanic area are unquestionably the oldest,
while the younger ones are found around their borders, and sometimes
at considerable distances. ie

One point which during the study of this region has engaged the care-
ful attention of Captain Dutton has been to ascertain whether it presents
any such sequence in the lithological character of the eruptions as is
asserted by Baron Richthofen to prevail in the volcanic districts of
Europe, South America, Asia Minor, and the Sierra Nevada. This as-
serted sequence has engaged the profound attention of most vulcanolo-
gists and is of great importance in relation to all questions bearing upon
the origin and causes of volcanic action. Although at first disposed to
doubt the prevalence of this sequence, and not favorably impressed with
the speculations and theoretical views of Baron Richthofen, Captain
Dutton has reached the conclusion that the high plateaus of Utah ex-
hibit in a decided manner essentially the same sequence which Richt-
hofen claims for other volcanic regions. The earliest eruptions consist
of rocks agreeing well in lithological characteristics with those described
by Richthofen under the name of propylite. This rock is usually con-
cealed if it exists in any great quantities by the later flows, but is in
several places brought to light partly by the great displacements, and
partly through the agency of erosion, and wherever found it is seen to
occupy the lowest position of all. Itis also worthy of note that this
rock is found at those points which constitute the centers of eruption
before referred to, showing that the activity which it ushered in con-
tinued to have its seat through a long cycle in and about the same lo-
cality. The propylite is succeeded by a rock answering to Richthofen’s
description of hornblende andesite, which is usually overlaid by a rock
rich in augite with triclinic feldspar which may be termed augitic ande-
site. Still higher in the series are found immense masses of trachyte
which, however, is frequently intercalated with dolerite. The variety of
the trachytes is very great; so great, indeed, that were it not for the per-
sistence of certain mineralogical as well as textural characteristics which
are universally accepted as being distinctive of that group of rocks, one
might feel strongly tempted to make numerous subdivisions of them into
a series of groups. The extremes of the varieties of the trachytes

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81

might be represented at one end by a coarsely granular micaceous rock
composed chiefly of orthoclase, and is sometimes hornblendie and some-
times augitic, at the other end a highly porphyritic trachyte consisting
of well-developed orthoclase feldspar imbedded in a fine paste highly
charged with peroxide of iron. Between these masses of trachyte are
intercalated, though in subordinate quantities, beds of dolerite showing
distinct crystals of striated feldspar with great abundance of augite and
magnetite. In the earlier and grander periods of the eruptions the fol-
lowing sequences may therefore be recognized : first, propylite; second,
andesite; and, third, interblended trachyte and dolerite. Still later than
these, and occurring at new centers of eruption, were outpours of rhyo-
lite, while last of all were erupted around the outskirts of the district
great quantities of true basalt. There does not appear to be any single
locality where all the groups of rocks are found superposed ; neverthe-
less the relative ages do not admit of any doubt, whether the various
beds are superposed or not; but while furnishing a general verification
of the sequence, the district of the High Plateaus presents the fact with
certain modifications which may be set forth in the following manner:
In the lithological scale propylite and hornblendic andesite are very
nearly intermediate between the extremes of acid rocks represented by
rhyolite, and basic rocks represented by basalt. Taking propylite as a
starting-point in the scale of classification, we find two divergent series
proceeding on the one hand toward the acid end of the scale, and on the
other toward the basic end. As we follow the eruptions down into the
later epochs, we find that both series are represented in a certain sense in-
dependently of each other so that they intercalate; the acid becoming at
one end more acid with the progress of the volcanic cycle, and the basic
rocks becoming more basic. Hach series seems to pursue its own order
and to be subject to its own law, so that, being originally divergent, they
become more and more widely separated in their lithological characters
as the cycle proceeds. Thus at the commencement of the activity we
have propylite and hornblendic andesite, which are closely assimilated
to each other in their physical characteristics; at the middle stage we
have trachytes and moderately basic dolerites, which are moderately
separated, and at the close we have rhyolites and basalts, which stand
at the opposite ends of the scale. .

Plan of publication.—In the geological branch of the work the plan has
been adopted as far as possible of publishing monographs, each embrac-
ing all the studies made by the corps of any particular region to which
it relates, preferring this to a system of annual reports consisting of
résumés of the field-notes of each season. In the preparation of these
monographs, relief maps or plates are constructed on a scale of two miles
to the inch or larger, vertical and horizontal scales being equal; and to
correspond with each relief map a stereogram in plaster is constructed
on the same scale, designed to exhibit such a surface as would appear
had there been no degradation by atmospheric agencies, but displace-

6s

&2 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

ment only. By this means the characteristics of displacement can be
studied independent of the phenomena of degradation, with which,
in nature, they are always associated, and by which they are more
or less obscured; and a comparison of the stereogram with the relief
map gives approximate quantitative results of degradation; that is, the
two factors of mountain structure, elevation by displacement and degra-
dation by rains and rivers, are separated, that each may be considered
independent of the complicating conditions of the other.

Geological illustration—Much attention has been paid to the graphic
representation of the important features of geological structure. The
Rocky Mountain Region has proved to be one of great interest in this
branch of investigation, because of the peculiar features of its physical
geography. Long and towering escarpments are found, deep cafions
with precipitous walls are numerous, its hills and mountains are often
without soil and vegetation, accumulations of subaerial or glacial drift
are infrequent, and thus the general rock-structure is well revealed.
Several new methods of illustration have been devised, some of which
have already appeared in the publications of the survey.

Ethnographic work.—During the season the ethnographic work was
more thoroughly organized, and the aid of a large number of volunteer
assistants living throughout the country was secured.

Mr. W. H. Dall, of the United States Coast Survey, prepared a paper
on the tribes of Alaska, and edited other papers on certain tribes of Ore-
gon and Washington Territory. He also superintended the construction
of an ethnographic map to accompany his paper, including on it the
latest geographic determinations from all available sources. His long
residence and extended scientific labors in that region peculiarly fitted
him for the task, and he has made a valuable contribution, both to eth-
nology and geography. With the same volume was published a paper
on the habits and customs of certain tribes of the State of Oregon and
Washington Territory, prepared by the late Mr. George Gibbs, while he
was engaged in scientific work in that region for the government. The
volume also contains a Niskwalli vocabulary, with extended grammatic
notes, the last great work of the lamented author. In addition to the
map above mentioned and prepared by Mr. Dall, a second was made,
embracing the western portion of Washington Territory and the northern
pa.t of Oregon. The map includes the latest geographic information,
and is colored to show the distribution of Indian tribes, chiefly from
notes and maps left by Mr. Gibbs. Much of the linguistic material of
this volume was collected by correspondents of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, and turned over to Professor Powell to be consolidated with
materials collected by members of his corps.

These papers form a quarto volume of 361 pages, entitled Contributions
to North American Ethnology, Volume I, the first of a series to be pub-
lished on this subject.

Volume IT, relating to the tribes of the eastern portion of Washington

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 83

Territory and the State of Oregon, was partially prepared for the printer,
but it was thought best to withhold its publication until further mate-
rials were collected from that region.

The third volume of the series has been published. This relates
to the Indians of California. Mr. Stephen Powers, of Ohio, has been
engaged for several years in the preparation of this volume. The first
part contains an account of the habits, customs, mythology, &c., of the
several tribes. At our earliest knowledge of the Indians of California
they were divided into small chieftaincies speaking diverse languages
and belonging to radically different stocks, and the whole subject was
one of great complexity and interest. The materials collected by Mr.
Powers were sufficient to successfully unravel the difficult problem rela-
ting to the classification and affinities of a very large number of tribes,
and his account of their habits and customs is of much interest. A
number of vocabularies of the Smithsonian collection are published with
those of Mr. Powers. The linguistic portion of the volume was edited
by Professor Powell.

The volume is accompanied by a map of the State of California, com-
piled from the latest official sources and eplered to show the SESE
tion of linguistic stocks. °

The Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, of Maryland, has been engaged for more
than a year in the preparation of a grammar and dictionary of the
Ponka language. His residence among these Indians as a missionary
has furnished him favorable opportunity for the necessary studies, and
he has pushed forward the work with zeal and ability.

Prof. Otis T. Mason, of Columbian College, has for the past year
rendered the office much assistance in the study of the history and sta-
tistics of Indian tribes.

Brevet Lieut. Col. Garrick Mallery, U. 8. A., has during the year
been engaged in the study of the history and statistics of the Indians
of the United States. His researches lead him to the conelusion that
the generally received opinion that a very large Indian population oc-
cupied this country at the time of its discovery is erroneous; that the
supposed rapid and general decadence of the Indians arising from con-
tact with civilization is not sustained, and that, when circumstances
have not rendered it impossible, they are making reasonable progress
toward civilization, together with which in many instances their num-
bers have increased. No final publication on the subject has yet been
ssued, but he has read papers before the Philosophical Society of
Washington, and other scientific bodies, to invite the attention of
ethnologists to the subject. He has also been engaged in preparing the
history and bibliography of the Klamath, T’sinuk, Wayiletpu, Sahap-
tin, and other families of Oregon, and his papers on this subject will
appear in the second volume of Contributions to North American Eth
nology.

In March last Mr. Albert 8. Gatschet was employed to assist in the

84 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

study of Indian languages, and during the spring months his time was
occupied as an assistant in compiling the bibliography of the North
American languages. During the summer and autumn months he vis-
ited a number of tribes in Oregon for the purpose of collecting vocabu-
laries and grammatic notes. On his way to the field he stopped at
Ogden, where he found a tribe of Shoshoni Indians from whom he
procured @ vocabulary of about five hundred words.

In Chico, Butte County, California, he stopped one week to visit the
Michépdo Indians, a branch of the Maidu stock, where he collected lin-
guistic material of value. From Chico he proceeded directly to the
Klamath agency, in Southern Oregon, where eight weeks were devoted
to the study of the language of the Klamath Indians, a branch of the
Modok family. Mr. Gatschet had previously studied this language by
obtaining words from Modok Indians visiting Washington and New
York, and his work at the Klamath agency was a continuation of such
study. Altogether he has collected a vocabulary of about five thou-
sand words, also many sentences and texts, on historic and mythologic
subjects, arranged with interlinear translations.

The numerical system of this language is quinary, end the numerals
above eleven have incorporated particles giving them a gender or classi-
fying significance, apparently based upon form. ‘The subject and ob-
ject pronouns are not incorporated in the verb; the personal pronouns
differ from the possessive ; and a true relative pronoun exists. An im-
portant characteristic of the language is the use of prefix particies in
nouns and verbs indicating form, and the reduplication of the first syl-
lable, which is usually the radical syllable, for the purpose of showing
distribution. It is often equivalent to our plural. It occurs in the
singular of adjectives indicating shape and color; in augmentative and
diminutive nouns and verbs; in iterative and frequentative verbs; and
forms the distributive plural of many substantives, adjectives, numerals,
verbs, and adverbs.

From the Klamath agency Mr. Gatschet proceeded to the Grande
Ronde agency in the northwestern part of Oregon. On his way he
stopped at Dayton and made collections of Shasta and Umpqua words
from reliable Indians. On the Grande Ronde agency are found a large
number of tribes and remnants of tribes, which were collected there after
the Oregon war of 1855-56; and with the exceptions of the Klikatats
they are all from Western Oregon. The following is a classification of the
linguistic stocks now on this reservation: ‘Tinneh, Siletz, Wayiletpu,
Shasta, T’sinuk, Sahaptin, Selish, Modok, and Kalapuya. The Kalapuya
once occupied almost the whole extent of the beatiful and fertile Willa-
mette Valley, and one branch of this stock, the Yonkalla, even extended
into the Umpqua Valley.

The Tudlati language, a dialect of the Kalapuya siock, was the one
studied by Mr. Gatschet, and from his notes the following characteris-
tics appear: The phonetics are strikingly soft and harmonious, and

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 85

though consonants are often assembled in large clusters they never of-
fend the ear, nor do they seem unpronounceable to Americans. <A large
number of words begin with vowels, especially with a,7,and wv. The
substantive, adjective, and numerals are not inflected for case, as in the
Modok. Adjectives and numerals and some substantives are varied to
indicate the plural number. The parts of speech are very imperfectly
differentiated. The personal and possessive pronouns have the same
form. Gender asa distinction of sex is indicated in the singular of sub-
ject pronouns, but not in the plural. Prefix particles are extensively
used to express the mood, voice, and tense of the verb, and the same
particles fulfill this fanction in the noun. The personal pronouns of the
direct object differ greatly from the pronouns of the indirect object ; and
every one of the three persons, in the singular and plural, possesses a
different series of direct and indirect objective pronouns. The conjuga-
tion of the transitive verb differs in many particulars from that of the
intransitive. There appears to be structural affinities between the Kala-
puya and Selish stocks. Over three thousand words, many hundred sen-
_ tences, and valuable ethnologic texts were collected.

Besides the Michépdo, Modok, and Tudlati, before mentioned, Mr.
Gatschet also collected vocabularies and sentences of the following
languages: Shoshoni, Achomawi, Shasta, Wintun, Waccanéssisi, Wasko,
Klakamas, Molele, Nestucca, Yamhill, Lukamayuk, and Akantchuyuk.
In the collection of all these vocabularies the ‘‘ Introduction to the Study
of Indian Languages,” prepared for the Smithsonian Institution by Prof.
J. W. Powell, was used.

Dr. H. C. Yarrow, U. S. A., now on duty at the Army Medical Mu-
seum, in Washington, has been engaged during the past year in the col-
lection of material for a monograph on the customs and rites practiced
in the disposal of the dead among the North American Indians. To aid
him in this work circulars of inquiry have been widely circulated among
ethnologists and other scholars throughout North America, and much
material has been obtained which will greatly supplement his own ex-
tended observations and researches.

During the summer some interesting work was done in the exami-
nation of the stone graves of Tennessee, and valuable collections were
made. Professor Powell hasco-operated with the Institution in providing
for a more thorough examination of the archeology of the islands off the
shore of Southern California. This exploration was made by Rev.
Stephen Bowers, of Indianapolis, Ind., and his report will be published
with the papers of the Survey.

A small volume, entitled “Introduction to the Study of Indian Lan-
guages,” has been prepared. This book is intended for distribution
among collectors. In its preparation Professor Powell was assisted by
Prof. W. D. Whitney, the distinguished philologist of Yale College, in
that part relating to the representation of the sounds of Indian lan-
guages. <A few preliminary copies have been printed and distributed

86 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

among gentlemen interested in the study of Indian languages, for such
additions and emendations as may be suggested preparatory to final
publication. A tentative classification of the linguistic families of the
Indians of the United States has been prepared. This will be published
as soon as the bibliography is ready.

In pursuing these ethnographic investigations it has been theendeavor,
as far as possible, to produce results that would be of practical value
in the administration of Indian affairs; and, for this purpose, especial
attention has been paid to statistics, the progress made by the Indians
toward civilization, and the causes and remedies for the inevitable con-
flict that arises from the spread of civilization over a region inhabited
by savages. It is believed that the labors in this direction will not be
void of useful results.

Survey of the Black Hills—In 1875 a reconnaissance survey was made
of the Black Hills of Dakota, by Mr. Walter P. Jenny, with a corps of
assistants, under the direction of the honorable Secretary of the Interior.
On the return of the party from the field, Mr. Jenny’s report, relating
to the mineral resources of the country, was immediately published ; but
the geographical and geological report was unfinished at that time.
This latter work was left in the hands of Mr. Henry A. Newton, his
geological assistant, to be completed. On May 28, 1877, at the request
of Mr. Newton, the completion of the work was placed under the diree-
tion of this survey, by order of the Secretary of the Interior.

On consultation with Mr. Newton it appeared wise that he should
visit the field again, for the purpose of determining certain doubtful
points in the geological structure, and to insert on the maps the position
of the several towns and roads established in that region since the dis-
covery of gold; and Mr. Newton was employed for this purpose. He
had been in the field but a short time when he was prostrated by the
sickness which resulted in his death. Previous to his departure he
completed his report on the geology of that country, and the map had
been placed in the hands of an engraver; the whole embodying all the
facts discovered up to that time. Thus, happily, his work will not be
lost. Itis expected that his report will be published, during the present
winter, in the shape in which it was left by him.

The death of Mr. Newton makes a serious break in the ranks of the
younger and more active geologists of America. He possessed rare
abilities, had much experience ia field operations, and had received
thorough and wise training; and his work in other fields had exhibited
his ability. But the great work of his short life will doubtless be his
report on the geology of the Black Hills of Dakota.

During the past six years one branch of the work of the Survey has
been considered of paramount importance, namely, the classification of
lands and the subjects connected therewith. The object has been to de-
termine the extent of irrigable lands, timber lands, pasturage lands,
coal lands, and mineral lands. In general the lands that are cultivable

|

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87

only through irrigation are limited by the supply of water. There are
some exceptions to this. Where streams are found in narrow valleys
or run in deep caiions, the limit of agricultural land is determined by
the extent of the areas to which the water can be conducted with
proper engiveering skill. In the study of this subject many interesting
and important problems have arisen, and many valuable facts have
been collected.

From the survey of the timber lands one very important fact appears,
that the area where standing timber is actually found is very much
smaller than the areas where the conditions of physical geography are
such that timber should be found as a spontaneous growth; that is, the
area of timber is but a small fraction of the timber region. The destrue-
tion of the timber in such regions now found naked is due to the great
fires that so frequently devastate these lands; and the amount of tim-
ber taken for economic purposes bears but an exceedingly small ratio
to the amount so destroyed. Hence the important problem to be solved
is the best method by which these fires can be prevented.

Another subject which has received much attention is the utilization
of the pasturage lands; and still another, the best methods of survey-
ing the mineral lands for the purpose of description and identification,
that the owners of mines may be relieved of the great burden of litiga-
tion to which they are subjected by reason of the inaccurate and ex-
pensive methods now in vogue.

UNITED STATES GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS WEST OF THE ONE-HUN-
DREDTH MERIDIAN, IN CHARGE OF FIRST-LIEUT. GHORGE M.
WHEELER, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, U. S. ARMY, IN 1877.

The geographical surveys west of the one hundredth meridian,
under First-Lieut. George M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, United States
Army, for the field season of 1877, were conducted in three sections,
named the Colorado, Utah, and California sections, respectively. In
each section were two main parties, besides special parties in the Utah
and California sections, making ten in all. One of the special parties in
Utah, being under the immediate command of Lieutenant Wheeler, oper-
ated in the northern part of that territory and southern part of Idaho;
others under his immediate direction were engaged in Utah, Idaho, and
Nevada. ;

(1) The parties of the Colorado section, under Lieutenants Bergland
and Morrison, operated from Fort Lyon, Colo., the former wholly in
Colorado, and the latter mostly in New Mexico, and to some extent in
Colorado and Texas. The special field of the former was in the Un-
compahgre region, the topography and drainage of which were deter-
mined, and the Gunnison and Tumichi rivers gauged, and mines of the
locality examined. The country examined is well watered, with plenty
of fish and game, rich minerals in the mountains, and portions of the
valley of the Uncompahgre good for agricultural purposes. For the
greater part of the season the party under Lieutenant Morrison was

88 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

engaged in Central New Mexico, south and southeast of Santa Fé, in
the area of atlas-sheets 77 D and 84 A and 84 B. Throughout the Rio
Grande and Fort Stanton sections, good agricultural lands were found,
and copper, silver, and gold deposits in the mountains. Ancient pue-
blos, among them the “‘Gran Quivira,” were visited, and a cave, in the
limestone near Fort Stanton, was explored for the distance approxi-
mately of one mile.

The various parties in the Utah section took the field from Ogden,
that one under Lieutenant Tillman operating in the area between the
meridians of 111° and 112° 20’ west longitude, and the parallels of 43° 10/
and 41° 40’.. The work was connected with a base measured at Ogden.
The whole area was triangulated and numerous secondary points located.
About 8,000 square miles were surveyed, and the data collected to com-
plete atlas-sheets 32 D and 41 B. In September, Lieutenant Young,
Corps of Engineers, took charge of this party, and Lieutenant Tillman
proceeded to Fort Ellis, Montana, where he measured a base-line in the
vicinity of the main astronomical station at Bozeman, for future use.
Lieutenant Birnie, in charge of Utah party No. 2, operated in an area
connecting with the geological exploration of the fortieth parallel under
Clarence King, with a view to finishing the work on atlas-sheets 41 A
and 32 C, containing approximately 6,800 square miles. This area in-
cludes the great basin north of Great Salt Lake; the drainage basin of
Snake River; several detached mountain groups, which were examined
for low passes, these passes being also examined as to their altitude
compared with the highest beach-marks of the ancient Lake Bonne-
ville; and north of Snake River an unbroken lava desert, remarkable
for its rock surface, almost entire absence of water, and fine grazing
near the few water-courses. In the mountains some timber was found,
and they have been prospected for silver in the Clear Creek and Black
Pine regions, from which a few streams run toward Great Salt Lake, to
be lost, however, in the neighboring valleys. Cattle-raising is exten-
sively carried on upon the grazing-fields in the vicinity of the numerous
tributaries of Snake River, running south from the mountains. Snake
River was gauged and examined for fords, and the party made several
trips outside the area particularly alluded to, one being for the purpose
of determining the course of Wood River, and to examine and locate
the Great Shoshone Falls.

The parties of the California sections took the field from Carson,
Nev., in June. One under Lieutenant Symons, Corps of Engineers,
occupied the area of atlas-sheets 38 B, 38 D, and 47 B, for the prosecu-
tion to completion of the work therein. A side party made the detour
of Pyramid Lake for the purpose of occupying outlying triangulation
stations, the main triangulation being extended over the whole area to
be surveyed. The main party worked from Honey Lake Valley north
to Eagle Lake, Horse Lake, Smoke Creek, the Madelin Plains, and by
the Warner Range to the west of Goose Lake to Drew’s Valley, in Ore-

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89

gon, all of which area was occupied with a view to correct topographical
data, and the triangulation carried as far north as Beatty’s Butte.

Returning by the east shore of Goose Lake, Granite Mountain, and
Honey Lake, to Verdi, Nev., a base line was measured and the triangu-
lation of 1876 and 1877 connected. The country surveyed by this party
embraced parts of California, Oregon, and Nevada, and is of volcanic
origin. Water is scarce, and except in the valleys there is scanty veg-
etation.

The party under Lieutenant Macomb pursued its labors principally in
the area of atlas-sheets 47 D and 56 B; its route was up Carson Valley
and cafion into Hope Valley to Placerville, Cal.; thence north and
among the headwaters of the American and Yuba rivers, connecting
with work of the previous year. In August it again moved from Placer-
ville eastward across the Sierras, occupying numerous triangulation
points, to Silver City. Thence it moved south to Sonora Pass, and as
far as Bridgeport, Cal. From thence its course was north by the Sweet-
water Mountains, and west by San Andreas, to Silver City, for sup-
plies, at which point the geologist was occupied for nearly a month in
the mountains east of Carson Valley, and the field-season closed. The
following summary shows a number of the principal instrumental
observations made:

Number of azimuths measured, 13; number of sextant latitude sta-
tions occupied, 118; number of main triangulation stations occupied,
108; number of secondary triangulation points occupied, 262; number of
three-point stations occupied, 1,414; number of meander stations occu-
pied, 11,227; number of variations of the needle taken, 423; number of
miles measured, 9,728; number of cistern-barometer stations occupied,
1,255; number of aneroid stations occupied, 7,558. The highest alti-
tude noted was 14,415 feet, and the lowest 900 feet, the latter at San
Andreas, Cal.

The special parties operating in Utah, Idaho, and Nevada, other than
Lieutenant Wheeler’s, consisted of Dr. Kampf, Miles Rock, and Francis
Klett, and their assistants. The results of their labors consist in the
establishment of a number of main triangulation stations, the measure-
ment of three bases, the occupation of a number of trigonometric stations
in the valley of the Great Salt Lake about Ogden, and the measurement
of several minor traveled routes from the Union Pacific Railroad to the
northward. The special parties in the California section were occupied,
one, under Mr. Weyss, in the Lake Tahoe region, productive of very
interesting topographical results; and one, consisting of John A. Church,
mining engineer, and A. Karl, in a critical survey of the Comstock
Mines, an interesting preliminary report of which has been made
by Mr. Church. The examination of the Washoe mining region, in
which the famous Comstock lode is situated, consists of an elaborate
contour survey of the entire area covered by the mining and milling
works, delineated upon a scale of one inch to five hundred feet, each

90 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

contour representing a vertical distance of fifty feet. The field-work for
this purpose is now completed. Cross-sections at horizontal distances
of one hundred feet are being made; the workings along each of the
opened Jevels of the numerous mines are being mapped, and a longi-
tudinal section on an appropriate scale will show most accurately the
relative position of the mines, their present openings, and the lines of
all tunnels, including the Sutro Tunnel. In this work the engineers
and surveyors of the region have gratuitously contribated the use of
their maps and tracings made by them for the several mining companies,
and especially Mr. I. E. James, whose name in this relation has been
connected with the Comstock Mines almost continuously since their
early working. The examinations proposed to be made include the sub-
ject of temperatures, ventilation, drainage, and treatment of ores. In
this work, that must cover a number of years in order to prove success-
ful, the officer in charge will be able to devote some of his time, and the
different problems involved will be submitted to experts in the branches
of geology, mineralogy, and metallurgy.

Mr. Henshaw, zodlogical assistant, accompanied party No. 1 of the
California section as far as Southern Oregon, and largely supplemented
the collections made during the previous year illustrative of the zodlogy
of that interesting region. The habits of the water-birds were carefully
studied, and large collections made of skins and eggs. A thorough col-
lection of fishes was also made, and the discovery of a large and fine
trout, one of two species inhabiting Lake Tahoe, is announced. The
Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, &c., gathered have yet to be examined and re-
ported upon.

Mr. A. R. Conkling accompanied party No. 2 as geological assistant,
and examined the eastern and western slopes of the Sierras, in contin-
uation of previous examinations. Some important mining stations were
visited, including Bodie, where new and promising discoveries of gold-
bearing quartz have been recently found, and Aurora, which is again
becoming prominent. The country examined, however, offers few
problems of interest to the geologist, presenting a morotonous uniform-
ity of stracture, granitic rocks largely predominating, with occasional
evidences of volcanic outbursts. Volcanic breccia abounds in some
sections. Evidences of glacial action, so abundant at Lake Tahoe, were
found at various points southward, notably about the headwaters of
the Stanislaus, American, and Mokelumne rivers. A small collection
of vertebrate fossils of the Tertiary age was made near Carson, Nev.

At the Washington office the usual number of draughtsman have
been continuously engaged upon the topographic sheets in course of
construction, upon scales of one inch to eight miles, one inch to four
miles, One inch to two miles, one inch to one mile, and one inch to two
thousand feet. The number of sheets so projected as to conjoin, cover-
ing the entire area of survey, is 95, each 19x24 inches. Many of these
sheets are now complete, and thirty-two sections to be represented by

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. SL

distinct sheets have been entered. The geological maps are based upon
the topographical-atlas sheets, and have corresponding numbers. The
following sheets appear with the annual report submitted to the Chief
of Engineers, June 30, 1877, viz: Atlas-sheet 53 C, embracing portions
of Central Colorado, and showing the drainage-basin of the South Platte
River; 61 B, Central Colorado, showing portions of the drainage basin
of the Rio Grande, Arkansas, Gunnison, and South Platte rivers, indi-
cating economic features; 61 C, sub, part of Southwest Colorado, and
drainage-basins of the Gunnison, Rio Grande, Animas, Miguel, and Un-
compahgre; 61 D, embracing portions of Southern Colorado, and lying
principally in the drainage-basin of the Rio Grande; 65 D, embracing a
portion of Southeastern California, showing the interior basin of Pana-
mint and Death Valleys, Amargosa River and Owens Lake drainage;
69 B, Southern Colorado and Northern New Mexico, lying principally
in the drainage-basins of the Rio Grande, Conejos, Chama, aud Navajo
rivers; 70 A, Southern Colorado and Northern New Mexico, showing
the drainage-basins of the Purgatory and Canadian rivers, and Costilla
and Culebra creeks; 70 C, Northern New Mexico, and drainage-basins
of the Canadian and Mora rivers; and 77 B, embracing portions of
Central New Mexico, and lying in the drainage-basins of the Rio Grande
and Pecos rivers.

All these sheets except 53 C and 61 D show economic features of the
areas represented by arrangement of colors.

A temporary field office has been established at Ogden, where time
and meteorological observations are being taken, and the further topo-
graphical and hydrographical survey of the Great Salt Lake basin is
being carried forward by a special party.

During the year, volume IV of the quarto reports on Paleontology
has been published, and volume II, on Astronomy and Barometric Hyp-
sometry, is passing through the press; as is also a catalogue of the
mean declinations of 2,018 stars, which useful work will supply all the
needed latitude stars for the entire area west of the one hundredth me-
ridian from latitude 30° to 60° N. During that part of each year, 7. e.,
from May to December, in which the season is best adapted for such
observations, it will appear that this Survey, having at its base the sys-
tematic collection by the most scientific method of topographical data
for an accurate map of the Western mountain region, has gone on with
its usual vigor, having now prosecuted its labors in the States and Ter-
ritories of Texas, Colorado, Nebraska, California, Nevada, Oregon, New
Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana, and already
published original maps covering an area of 242,598 square miles. It
will be seen that considerable progress has been made toward the com-
pletion of the great topographical map, on a scale of one inch to eight
miles, that will embrace an approximate area of 1,443,360 square miles ;
or an area considerably larger than that embraced by all the States lying
east of the Mississippi River.

92 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

STATISTICS OF EXCHANGES.

BOXES SENT ABROAD IN 1877.

=e) 5
<= 2 | Government
82 | exchanges.
Country. 2 Total.
2S |No.of
a= S |boxes. Mark.
AFRICA.
JAN oiers pper LAN COL. semceieame seins iclnie alone s/c in-cle.cs aa «)>'sslolomigiaimiatsininsins\cie orel| = Seer leet | Seer ea ere
Cape Colonies) per dneland jase ee ees celica ccsaiooplost cas bem e bik tees moist] (een alae eee eee eee
SED atete slom ete aie arate te let etre eine ne eee nw nie’ sin lalv ov e'= vinll= =m =iniviv =imieintelpieielnineeiniaies Pe So aes|bocoecck 2
Manritins, per Hin clanGeesees cer cccen cles -ccis < came nscsiccioaestesseadn manent ace ae. tas obec tae ee eee ee
St. Helena, per England -... 2.0... oe e penn nn onnnne sence, ene Seno 050 jponces pearod e=s0agc-||soc5a-
AMERICA.
Argentine Confederation -..-.. 2... ot cece ewes cocen SaSscoseooes- sose 4 5 |G. H.I. 9
DB A De Sis i Hi See SOCIO O SID ESRD SOO E CHC COCO UD EDO OSCUCUSOMASoccnSanocios a PAWN 8 Gib 9
OME Mine a2 cc 68 6c ig OS OUD SES OO CELE OEICUO OOO San CORDS ucHIaod 20d = Sra if Qi Fim 5
Ciera ee eee remecensc cc cscciscemecescacsnacuutmacaviccatmnianaeee| aeauee 27) SHC 23
@astaphicdeeeses sseessrccce= SIC IE SOOO OS SOO ESI SC EOD anodanaseecoodecss 2: eee emer eser 1
(Ce ose sge82 56.56 seb coos DOORS E ON CCH ESHEC OnE bp cOnessoceoccs sso saccass: 1 eS Bee il
Gupta ase esa eines oases ciaaie cls sem eeeisee = acls cieries mech sites eats | Em — ea esos ete 1
yee eee a eee cee ek eect csopeenesscoccsauus use vcnccateccpacsswocccecsilsasane 3 |G. HL 3
WSSU) 5.490506 Soe SOS IO CRODOTORU DEB OOCICOLO DD OOOO COC OSU USNEEO ECE OanGOnG0 3 P| eis Ba 5
ISN GUD) sae CAS ate SAS GR OSC SEO R EO Ce HEE Ca OS RO Sn ee soso nese Je. eemeSaSsooaeeos PA es Al Prin arnt 2
United States of Colombia.........-....-...-.--2+-.-6 seta ae iucive teres sees Li sh | See 1
Wien OZUGl acess oe eae ccc crecdascccces clas uccenscseeneacecr ar meme meee 1 3 |G. HL 4
Wiestindiess-cecccnessssecee SEAR CO SEI C HOSE COOH CER CCe nO RCOp ACHE Nab SCbsesan i Sse cso sore 1
ASIA.
Ghina tper ln Pland 32. feciscwc cae knaoesassccsteedecns soceeslassencsen<sess|toscerlsossesleseaaeameeeese
HASoNdIeSs, POL MNPlANd 252 csc ccnscacccses eas -boce cheese mete sp ences oeiaa he aera eee eee ees eee Peete
SIG; TRUSS Seo eee See ee ee Se ene eee aerasceeaetccseTacte 9 Pay 18 aC 11
Pavaepor HOMaANG «.o\- csicos cassie wow visiciciesiewcis caitiviee Swiss oclele/slen/sjausciaereiuicinacoei| se cmetalne mas ere eten eee
Philippine Islands, per Spain ....-...- BORE BAC O ICR EIC RDO SCOUE Dor ee deo nopanod jucisess|pasbad|eodseee|[ob2ec2
AUSTRALIA.
New South Walessis. scsc. cclswccce tacos eeava bows deur op Cactesenececer ances 4 Oi 1860 6
NOW GOAIANG oaienicc'scc acts caajsas nosis scicecenes clsisae ces ote cewisme aoe cote aise 7 eae ae 9
Queensland |. 5<hncde cissaconiecocc sesovesces ecelsesios seieseh caceadsiecor ee eee? 1 Daa as BP 3
South Australia’: 33522 leeatacoawacee tens cectaaceacceece Pee sescaceenes os 2 b3) lsh bs 4
TDASMANI Gi. Men Lowes cep abiomioce nes See nee See eens aoeaisc oe Rem eae eee 2 25| He 4
WiGbOrig: Pebe Re cic oe aeiwateicie ce dacicte eee oo tee eee ee oe ene e Seem oe nee 5 Pol (aca § 653 “f
EUROPE,
Belpinmlc socks ceecasets acs be a enews erase Seam ee see ee See Mee eee ne 4 Hal ie Ge & 6
Denmark’. sce. cemessse ke ootae cee ciate sctco ee ee eee eee ee aes epee Bi |e Sera | oeraee ees 5
TANCE eos. ed eee ee eee oe ca oc kas Sac on aes carteine Bien Soe recat babes 29 i Geske ae 32
Germatiy, 252202 5s. See Se ee Tee Eee RS Se ae acemencetis 89 Ga| bee 95
GreatBritain’ t) 3e5 0 See eo as Show te eaten de ee aa soiseeeee cecamins 67 4| 5 EE vel
GTECCOL eee a ee eed tcitaln de cee de sean Sea o as eae eet e ebb enowces shaseee 7 | C.to I. 7
Bolland. cette ee eee ad See eee ee ae See eee teres il Quit Hels 13
Kecland per MenMarkeoe .cos~ vetes scien coe te ek eee Pee oe nine eee eee he cae ce asi| Soca alana sen!| een e en | eee
tally ee a Fe ae a 2s ats SE oe ee ee ee eee REE Eanes oe DD eee | a 20
Malta, per Wnpland <2 285 Fs eee ares c area tone epee entice sacboue sl saccoc| caeeee | seme cal hetane
NOLrWaVreeeartccctsccceeeewessctes ceed doch cap wepeteeece Soaeew abet coi Js 7 DAA LE Isa bs 9
Portugal eee enn. er se teen cemeiee se oecscme 12 Pye 3 its 14
DRUSSIB: 222 See See ote Soa ob cabs ob ade ieee eee swine see aie ace es i eer ae en ee 16
Spaink Fee Mes ee ee ee ee eee on oemeeenince cee csninen 8 27] SEE 10
Sweden | 54:08 245.5 Fob 38 eB ee ee SE ae 7 al Sern ie 9
Switzerland... 2) HI. 6
Turkey OPA) 5 i 2
Sandwich [slands:ssacccsaeecsceeseeeisecee ss -saheree Wb eeenecceciris session ye ate eae Se 1
335 70: EN tee ees 406
RECAPITULATION.
PAW CR eee labs cies c Liincecee cosas coe ee ee dicine soc ce bee ee ee Sa eeeeene sbriears Oi eoaee eee 2
TRONGCLICH 6 2 oe esa oases so oc Hosen cee sae seas sje nies ae 6 aaah ee ee oe ee meee =e ener 23 Dic. seem 44
BAS Tey errs icin cicis cae o aie la cialanwloie cienineinin seis cielale iste weimineiaiee tte elstntas aetanale tetera stetel=-= 9 Dil coleniaere 11
Australia..... 21 12) ewes. ase 33
Europe ..... 279 SGM] |e aeeieerar 315
Palyneeiasess sees ee ee eee see eee eme heer «acto eice see eee eter et coy eee ek ge oe 1
Ro talycsseciev se ctcks see decee ee mepoe ect cuecesths ect eee eee sere eet 335 Tia ee adersee 406

Nore.—Fifteen thousand two hundred and thirty-three miscellaneous packages, of which 100 con-
tained specimens of natural history, exclusive of 3,500 Smithsonian publications, in all 18,733 addressed

packages.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 93

Table showing the number of entries in the record-books of the United States National Museum
at the close of the years 1876 and 1877, respectively.

[These tables show only whathas been recorded or entered in the detailed catalogue, constituting but a
small proportion of the whole.]

Class. 1876, 1877.

INTE ppaoeecodaacccsiecnd bod Codecs Stel b55555 JocndCOE Cobo’ Den Oe EERO ERSROCOGEOEC 12, 612 12, 838
727b1(0 ESSERE 6 5S e DEBE So Since ESSE BSB E eo Sere eae ag a 70, 987 73, 523
Reptiles and amphibians 8, 572 9, 500
TUG Cr eee ho er ae 16, 893 20, 864
Skeletons and’ skulls 25 < ss oe ee coco eee ale oan een wn cen nisawececcisaeccss 15, 442 15, 877
FiGGS 2-6 - ene ne enn cnn ne cen ne ene oe enn een rene nnn nese een e eens 17, 301 17, 500
Crustaceans ..-.-.--- 222 20-20 one ene cece ne een e cen ns cnn e ne eee e ene ne ene e ne 2, 310 2, 324
PATIMONIOS ocean ate cs now er meee cere wc cee na ween an sna n ernie = cin eniwinewiccece=- 100 100
MOM ns er seae so ce sole w cise ss omincinm acnin onl wininin slominn weenie win ani man leninin= anna nswsiicins 30, 721 30, 72L
Radiates .2. 22-222. <n cece ne nee ona enn, cece wen e nena nena n enn n eas ccenns secess- 3, 229 3, 229
HONS DISbOMOSSIS pees aria aise sein elas aelelniam alee nice eminiola om nisinlnlninicinw'<eiaisiwinie amin in\e=1=1- 7,905 7, 906
BVI Grn Spee so cape ae + owe inieisic =< 0icinaiaisinivicieive nici «ninioleinninieini sine mnie niam wine inv anim win'= @ 20, 050 20, 135
Ethnological specimens... -......-- 22.00.0250 02-02-22 - ono nnn nnn ee een n ence: 27, 880 30, 883

ANT Sess Shecocasceetia scone Gaede 5 CORD OC SDSS GsoecneupSrSerabposobacessobAcoos 234, 002 245, 400

Approximate table of the distribution of duplicate specimens to the end of 1877.

Total to the end of | Distribution during | Total to the end of
1876. 1877. 1877.
Class.

Species. | Specimens. } Species. | Specimens. | Species. | Specimens.
Skeletons and skulls..........---- 531 1, 624 5 194 536 1, 818
ANGER TERT TE ye ee Se eve 2, 141 4, 792 18 18 2,159 4,810
IBITO S22 Se ee ess 222 oer ees 25, 816 39, 426 1, 778 2, 440 27, 594 41, 866
Reptilest ee ert es eee 2, 005 3, 282 13 206 2, 135 3, 488
HHISHGS 2. oe eee eS aes eco 2, 924 6, 222 3, 156 3, 423 6, 140 9, 645
Nests and eggs of birds......-.--- 7, 423 8, 128 Qi 618 7, 639 18, 746
msects: 2.22225: Be Sp SE Hee ee 4,081 9, 360 123 | 140 4,209 9, 500
(nnstaceansyse ae nian seen seine 1, 078 2, 650 9 14 1, O87 2, 664
SIGH ER ARS Fe ae ee es oe Lee ers 89, 961 195, 514 210 929 90, 171 196, 443
RAOIAGCS eae ae aie aes tol ais, orniainicinin 5e3 778 10 15 593 793
Other marine invertebrates. ...--- 1, 844 5, 160 48 65 1, 892 5, 225
Plants and packages of seeds -..-.. 28, 450 49, 855 987 1,114 29, 437 50, 969
PROGR Ree ae Ce eee es. 4,125 10, 154 236 314 4, 361 10, 468
Minerals anditocks) ss. si aesac- <n 9, 083 16, 824 Q1 44 9, 104 16, 868
Ethnological specimens ..--..----- 2, 065 2, 481 169 200 2, 234 2, 681
Diatomaceous earths (packages) .- 408 1, 162 20 20 428 1, 182

Mota sete eek 182, 583 367, 412 7, 136 9,754 | 189, 719 377, 166

94 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

LIST OF DONATIONS TO THE NATIONAL MUSEUM IN 1877.

Alaska Commercial Company, San Francisco, Cal. Two skins of the blue

fox and two of the white fox (Vulpes lagopus), from the Prybilov
Se Islands, Alaska.

Ammen, Commodore Daniel, Hydrographic Office. Soundings of the United
States steamer Gettysburg, on the Gorringe bank.

Anderson, W. Bones, shells, &c., from cave in Ohio.

Appleton, R. M. (through John Sutherland). Salmon-trout and white-fish,
from Lake Winnipiseogee, New Hampshire.

Arnold, J. Edward. Three eggs of selachian, from Santa Monica Bay,
California.

Atkins, Charles G. Collection of fishes (salmon, white-fish, suckers, &c.),
from Grand Lake Stream, Maine.

Anderson, William. Box of stone implements and pottery, from Mlinois.

Babcock, L. L. Skin of Hedymeles ludovicianus, from Massachusetts.

Baird, Prof. S. F. Three everglade kites, two boxes fishes, reptiles,
shells, seven boxes turtles, fishes, &c., and potstone dish from Florida ;
two boxes of fishes from Wilmington, N.C.; box of fishes from Charles-
ton, S.C.; four living terrapins from North Carolina; stone tube from
Tennessee, and specimen each of Morpho cypris and M. menelaus,
from South America.—See, also, Washington, United States Fish
Commission.

Baldwin, D. Skull of black-tailed deer, and skeletons of skunks.

Ballou, W. H. Box of Indian relies, from Oak Harbor, Ohio.

Bannister, Marshall. Box of skins of Massachusetts birds.

Barber, E. A. Skin of loon, from California (collected by J. H. Buel),
box of fossils, shells, and minerals, from Colorado and Arizona.

Barringer, A. L. Your boxes of living snakes, from North Carolina.

Bassett, William. Specimen each of shad and cat-fish, from the Sacra-
mento River.

Beach, Miss Agnes. Horned toad (Phrynosoma), from Colorado.

Beach, Seth. Piece of enamel of tusk of mammoth.

Bean, Dr. T. H. Skin of night-jar, specimens of Hybognathus regius,
Pseudopleuronectes americanus, and plaice, Pleuronectes glaber; frogs,
(Rana halecina and R. clamitans), from Washington, D. C.; three boxes
of stone implements, from Bainbridge, Pa., and stone celt, from Ma-
ryland.

Bean, Dr. T. H., & F. H. Cushing. Collection of fragmentary pottery,
arrow heads, &ce., from Washington, D. C.

Beardslee, Commander L. A., U. 8S. N. Box of salmon and trout, from
Piseco Lake, New York.

Beaty, John F. Ball of matted hair taken from stomach of Texas ox.

Beauchamp, Rev. W. M. Box of stone implements and shells, from West-
ern New York.

fame Q.4. YHerkhtn. ef Par ome alt Ok:
me Hee CREA Yrs U ot jt ru - fone

Pa
yp 8 Gan. Sas GA =) thos 8 deer ee Hoe”

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 95

Beaumont, Thomas. Specimens of arrow-heads and rocks, from Kansas.
Beckwith, J. Rk. Devil beetle (Dynastes), from New Orleans, La.
Belding, L. Large collection of birds’ skins, from California.

Bellinger, Edmund. Narcotic bean (Indian “ Freholea”), from Texas.

Benecke, Louis. Box of minerals, from Missouri.

Bennett, Dr. Jaw of fossil Macropus, from Darling Downs, Queensland.

Bennett, C. J. Collection of arrow-heads and chippings, from Virginia.

Bennett, Henry B. Fragments of pottery, from near Cape Henlopen.

Berlin, A. F. Collection of rude stone implements, from Pennsylvania,

Bernays, Dr. F. T. Echinoderm, from Missouri.

Binney, W. G. Seven species of Helices.

Bishop, J. N. Box of 17-year locust and box of minerals, from Con-
necticut.

Blackford, Eugene G. Specimens of blue-back trout, suckers, Cristivomer
namaycush, Salmo salar, Coregonus albus, Lota lacustris, Alepidosaurus
Jerox, Argyrosomus tullibee, smelt, Esox nobilior, Lachnolemus, Ostra-
cion, shad, Bermudian prawn, oyster shells, and many other species
of fishes, from various localities in the United States.

Bland, Thomas. Nine species of Helices.

Boardman, Geo. A. Egg of Aramus giganteus; mounted skin of albino
robin from Maine; skins of blue heron and hawk, from Florida.

Boehmer, Geo. H. Nest and 4 eggs of crow, from Maryland.

Bowers, Rev. Stephen. Forty-four boxes of ethnological collections, from
Santa Barbara, Cal.

Boyd, Dr. S. B. Shed skin of black snake.

Brackett, Col. A.G., U. S. A. Box of birds’ skins and eggs, from Wyom-
ing.

Bransford, Dr. John F., U.S. N. Thirty-five boxes of pottery and tank of
alcoholics, from Nicaragua.

Brazilian Commission, Philadelphia. Specimens of glue, marine grasses,
&e.

Lrodnax, Benj. H. Indian utensils, and iron dust, from Plantersville
La.

Brown, A. Centipede and tarantula, from Texas.

Brown, Dr. J. J. Box of Pupas, Helices, &c., from Bermuda; specimen
of Chrosomus erythrogaster, from the Baraboo River, Wisconsin.

Bruner, C. 0. Box of invertebrate fossils, from the Mississippi.

Bunting, Gen. T. B. Two stone idols, from Guatemala.

Butler, A. W. Skin of Regulus calendula, from Indiana.

Carley, B. J. M. Specimen of borer-clam, and box of Calcutta oysters.

Carpenter, Lieut. W. £., U.S. A. Box of birds’ eggs, from the West.

Case, 1. B. Casts of stone implements, from Ohio.

Casey, Edward P. Carved black-slate dish, from the northwest coast.

Catlin, J. C. Insect, from Ohio. .

Centennial Board of Finance, Philadelphia. The Swedish exhibit of iron
and steel at the Vienna Exposition of 1873.

96 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Chapman, N. A. Stone implements, from Ohio.

Chase, Orem M. Specimen of Lota lacustris, from Detroit, Mich.

Chester, Capt. H. C. Stomachs of mackerel, from Fisher’s Island Sound

Clark, Geo. A. Spider, from Washington, D. C.

Oleneay, Thomas. Collection of stone.implements, from Ohio.

Coggswell, Amos. Specimen of silver ore, from Oregon.

Coleman, George. S. Specimen of coal, from Texas.

Colvin, Verplanck. Specimens of white-fish and salmon, from Raquette
and Bisby Lakes, New York.

Coues, Dr. Elliott., U. S. A. Five skins of birds, from Wyoming and
Dakota.

Coulter, k. M. Crustacean (Branchipus), from Ohio.

Coup, W. C., New York Aquarium. Flying-fox (Pteropus); and Mexican
Axolotl, from Germany.

Courtenay, William. Insects, from Dakota.

Cruger, Kortwright. Fresh-water polyp.

Cunningham, K. M. C. See Gaines.

Cushing, Frank H. and Henry J. Biddle. Three boxes of cave remains,
from Hagerstown, Md.

Cheney, S. F. Star-fish and specimens of coral, from Grand Manan, N. B.

Daggett, P. Rocks and minerals, from Vermont.

Day, Robert. Two fish (Cyprinodonts).

De Beck, D. W. Collection of fossils.

Derry, C. W. Box of silver ores, from the “J. D. Dana” Ledge, Dana.
ville, Colo.

Dimock, W. D. Stone implement, from Ohio. .

Doron, T. S. Specimens of fishes, from the Alabama River.

Doughertyville, Tenn., Quarry Company. Slab of marble.

Downing, S. W. Sulphate of soda, in deposit and solution.

Duffy, Daniel J. Specimens of Dorosoma and Hyodon, from the Tennes-
see River.

Duges, Dr. Don Alfredo. Box of birds’ skins, from Mexico.

Dunn, Geo. 7. Casts of stone implements and images, from Indiana and
Ohio.

Dunn Brothers, Philadelphia. Three boxes of China clays.

Du Pre, D. A. Box of fossil plants, from Virginia.

Dickinson, E. Specimens of birds’ eggs, from Palestine, and nest and
eggs of Selasophorus allent, from California.

Haston, D. M. Specimens of quartz, from New Mexico.

Edwards, Vinal N. Thirteen boxes of fishes, from Wood’s Holl, Massa-
chusetts.

Hlliott, B. 8S. Bone from round of beef with circular rings.

Ellsworth, H. W. Collection of shells and wooden implements, from
Connecticut.

Hversfield, Dr. W. O. Drilled ceremonial implement from Maryland.

Ferguson, 8S. W. Live snappipg turtle and specimens of pike-perch,
from the Mississippi River.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Si

Fisher, Miss Collection of English mosses.

Flack, J. O. Specimen of ore, from Fort Smith, Ark.

Fogg, W. H. Specimen of fossil (Allorisma), from Indiana.

Ford, John. Stone implement, from Illinois.

Ford, J. B. Quartz pebble.

Forney, D. S. Specimen of magnetic iron, from Virginia.

Fox, W.H. Thirteen bird’s skins, from New Hampshire.

Frink, W. R. Specimen of sounding sand, from Kania, Hawaii.

Frith, David R. Native Carib chairs, from Turk’s Island, West Indies.

Fuller, Capt. Joseph J. Collection of fishes, birds and mammals, from
Kerguelen Land, S. A.

Fitzhugh, D. A. Specimens of Notemigonus chrysoleucas, from Bay City,

Mich.

Gabb, Dr. W. M. Two wooden idols and box of alcoholics, from St.
Domingo; one Carib wooden chair, two wooden Carib carvings.

Gaines, Maj. A. S. & K. M. Cunningham. Two boxes of pottery, from
Mobile, Ala.

Galbraith, F. G. Arrow points and stone implements, from Bainbridge,
Pennsylvania.

Garreth, J. H. Newt in alcohol, from Pennsylvania.

Garland, Maurice H. Red-tailed hawk ( Buteo borealis), from Virginia.

Gibbs, Geo. J. Corals, ball of matted hair from stomach of cow, seeds
of giant yellow stramonium, and stone relics, from Turk’s Island,
W. SE.

Gill, Mrs. Charlotte. Insects, from Colorado.

Glass, Dr. J. H. Box of shells, from Oneida County, N. Y.

Goodale, S. LZ. Samples of Menhaden oil and extractum carnis.

Goode, G. Brown. Collections of fishes, shells, coral, twenty-two eggs of
Phaeton flavicauda, and fish-trap (model), from Bermuda; specimen of
salmon, from the Connecticut River.

Gordon, J. J. Specimen of coal, from West Virginia.

Graham, J. B. Model of fish-weir.

Grant, General U. S. Bust of General Grant executed in wire, exhibited
by. the Peruvian section, International Exhibition, 1876.

Greegor, I. Collection of Indian relics, from Florida.

Gregg, A. Photograph of sternum of deer.

Griest, Jesse W., United States Indian agent. Specimen of mineral,
from Otoe agency, Nebraska.

Gundlach, Dr. Juan. Ten specimens of birds’ skins, from the West In-
dies.

Haldeman, Dr. S. S. Indian slung-shot and plume, collected by Lewis
and Clarke expedition.

Hall, M. E. Fresh and alcoholic specimens of herring, from Lake Cham-
plain.

Hall, Capt. W. G. Basket, ceremonial ax, and collection of shells, from
the South Sea Islands.

78

98 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Haller, Chris. D. Albino robin, in flesh, from Virginia.

Hallock, Charles. Collection of alcoholic fishes.

Hammons, S. C. Minerals, from Alabama.

Hardenburgh, A. R., United States surveyor-general, California. Speci-
mens of gold, silver, and other ores from various mines in California.

Haskin, S. D. lydite, celt, and double-grooved stone ax, from Tennes-
see.

Harman, A. G. Broken arrow-head.

Hayward, F.W. Collection of sirens, from South Carolina.

Hessel, Rudolph. Specimen of Astacus fluviatilis, from Bohemia.

Hewitt, H. N. Specimen of pike.

Hewitt, John R. Entozoic worm, from liver of cat.

Hilder, Fred. F. Collection of mound pottery, from Missouri.

Hill, Charlotte. Fossil insects and leaves, from Colorado.

Hill, H. H. Casts of stone implements, from Ohio.

Himes, Prof. Chas. F. Bones, from cave near Hagerstown, Md.

Hirst, F. Collections of fossil shells, bones, fishes, Indian stone imple-
ments and pottery, birds’ eggs and skins, fishes and worms, and skull
of Castor fiber, from Wyoming.

Hitchcock, H. N. Skin of Plectrophanes maccowni, from Arizona, and
skin of Louisiana tanager, from California.

Hoffman, Dr. W.d., U. S. A. Album of autobiographical pictures, by
“Running Antelope,” a Dakota Indian chief.

Holden, Captain. Snake, from Indianola, Tex.

Hubbard, S.jr. Box of California birds’ eggs.

Hulbert, Robert H. Specimen of fish (Chimera plumbea), from the La
Have banks.

Illig, H. L. Box of stone implements, from Lebanon County, Pennsyl-
vania.

Irwin, Dr. B. J. D., U. 8. A. Specimens of 17-year locust, from New
York.

Ives, Frank. Box of fossils, from Kenyon County, Minnesota.

Jackson, H. E. Penis of Lacertian and specimens of gold-fish, from South
Carolina.

James, Dr. T. H. Box of Indian relics, from Arkansas.

Janeway, Dr. J. H., U. S.A. Three bottles of fishes, from Saint Augus-
tine, Fla.

Jeffries, W. W. Collection of rocks, from Pennsylvania.

Jennings, k. G. Eggs of tarantula, from Arkansas.

Jewett, Colonel. Bottle of parasites (Cymothoids), from Santa Barbara,
Cal.

Johnson, W. R. Mineral, from Marion County, Virginia.

Jones, H. R. Stone pipe and arrow-heads, from Indiana.

Jones, W. Mineral earth, from Alabama.

Jordan, Prof. D. S. Collection of western and southern fresh-water
fishes.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. do

Kales, J. W. Indian stone tube, from Ohio.

Keep, Professor. ————_—_—_——_—_—_—_

Kendrick, Frank F. Specimen of coal, from Virginia.

Kercheval, A. W. Quartz crystals, from West Virginia.

Kershaw, John. Box of fossils, from Nebraska.

Klemm, Theodore. Swan, in flesh, from Maumee Bay, Ohio.

Kohn, G. Collection of turtles and salamander (Manculus 4-digitatus),
from Louisiana.

Krefft, Gerard. Specimens of Lleotris, perch, and Phascogale, from
Queensland, Australia.

Kumlien, A. L. Collection of birds’ skins, from Wisconsin; nest and
eggs of Zonotrichia coronata, from California.

Langdon, Frank W. Collection of birds’ skins, from Ohio.

Langley, William FE. Crab, from New South Wales, Australia.

Lawrence, Alfred N. Skeleton of cow-fish (Tursiops), from Rockaway
Beach, Long Island.

Le Baron J. F. Box of shells, bones, pottery, &c., from Florida.

Letton, Rev. J. H. Insect (Lampyris), from Kentucky.

Locke, William M. Boxes of stone implements, from Ohio and New
York.

Lockwood, Samuel. Prepared skeletons of bass and shad.

Loomis, W. T. Two frost-fish (Coregonus), from White Lake, New York.

Love, Dr. J. G. Two marine shells.

Lugger, Otto. Specimens of Umbra pygmaa, Parephippus faber, Gobiids,
&c., and shark (Ginglymostoma cirrhatum), from Chesapeake Bay.

LIyford, W. H. Portion of lower jaw of musk-rat.

McAdoo, Col. W. G. Box of pottery, from Georgia.

McGannis, A. Specimens of mineral, from California.

McGregor (Iowa) Artesian Well Company. Bottle of artesian-well water.

McKinley, Wm. Box of Indian relics and funeral urn, from Georgia.

McLeod, R. R. Black fox in flesh, from Maine.

McNeill, Alexander. Specimen of sand impregnated with asphaltum.

McWilliams, Dr. Skin of Carpodacus hemorrhous, from Mexico.

Mahrenholz, H. @ A. Tanned skin of breast of human being.

Marsh, H. N. Quartz pebble, from New Jersey.

Martin, F. H. Skin each of Dendroica coronata and D. laburniie, from
New Hampshire.

Mason, Prof. O. T. Fossil fish, from California.

Mather, Fred. Eggs of Urophycis regius and parasites from Menobranchus
lateralis.

Matteson, F. S. Skin of cinnamon bear and skin of cuckoo (Coccyzus
americanus), from Oregon.

Maxson, O. P. Salmon, from Lake Michigan.

Maynard, C. J. Skin of Passerculus princeps, from Massachusetts.

Mazyck, W. G. Box of alcoholic specimens of mollusks, from South
Carolina.

100 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Meigs, Henry. Two boxes of antiquities, from Bolivia.

Meigs, General M. C., U. 8. A. . Rat, in flesh.

Meldrum, George. Collection of Indian relics, from Ohio.

Mercer, R. W. Supposed cremated remains from Indian vase.

Merrill, Mr. (through J. Henderson.) Chipped arrow-points, from Illinois.

Merrill, Dr. J. C., U. S. A. Three boxes of birds’ skins, two boxes of
general natural-history collections, skin of Felis yaguarundi, from
Texas.

Mickleborough, John. Collection of Lower Silurian fossils, from Ohio.

Middleton, H. J. Thirty-six birds’ and one weasel’s skin.

Miller, Howard. Dried plant, from Pennsylvania.

Mills, Clark. Sixty-four casts of heads of Indians, from Florida.

Milner, J. W. One box general natural history, 1 keg of alcoholics,
5 living turtles, box of fishes, from Havre de Grace, Md.; 1 black
bass, box of stone implements, from Lllinois.

Minnieville Mining Company, New York. Specimens of iron ore.

Moore, N. B. Four birds’ skins, from Nassau, N. P., West Indies.

Morgan, Senator John T. (through Interior Department). Mica, from
Alexander City, Ala.

Mueller, Dr. Rudolph. Stone celts, from Ohio, and moccasins, from
“Custer’s battle-field.”

Murphy, W. M. Jaws of Haploidonotus grunniens.

Nash, J. C. Brass hose-nozzle, from mound, in West Virginia.

National Museum of Mexico. Collection of Mexican ethnologicaand birds.

Neff, Peter. Cast of stone face.

Nelson, E. W. Skin of wild cat (Lynx rufus), from California; collection
of fishes from the Illinois and Calumet Rivers; collection of ethno-
logica and general natural history, from Saint Michael’s, Alaska.

Newton, H. Three boxes of fossils, from the Black Hills.

Nichols, Dr. C. H. Specimens in flesh of peacock and Canada goose.

Norway, King of. Two native chairs.

Nottingham, Wm. Specimen of Inoceramus, from Washington, D. C.

Nye, Willard. Box of alcoholic fishes, from New Bedford, Mass.

Ober, F. A. Collection of birds, mammals, reptiles, and fishes, from Do-
minica; and box of general natural history, from the Bahamas, West
Indies.

Ogle, David G. Collection of rocks, fossils, and Indian relics, from Mary-
land.
Ordnance Department, U. S. A., Gen. S. V. Benét. Large collection of

general natural history, fossils, minerals, and Indian implements, from
the West.

Osgood, F. Story. Minerals, from Massachusetts.

Outerbridge, A. E., jr. Microscopic slide of gold, from the United States
Mint, Philadelphia.

Owingo, Mr. Ironstone nodule.
Palmer, Joseph. Skeleton each of horse and duck.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 101

Palmer, William. Collection of fishes, from the Potomac River; snakes,
from Virginia and Maryland.

Peeler, Henry A. Caterpillar, from New Orleans.

Pergande, Ph. Collection of eggs, bones, woods, &e., from Missouri.

Permanent Exhibition Company, Philadelphia. New South Wales’, Vic-
toria’s, and Carneghy’s exhibits of minerals.

Perrine, T. M. Box of stone implements, from Illinois.

Plummer, Miss 8S. A. Can of mollusks, from California.

Powel, Samuel. Two tanks, 1 box, and 1 keg of fishes, from Newport,
R. I.

Preston, D. A. Box of minerals, from Joplin, Mo.

Queensland, Australia, Acclimatization Society. Package of seeds of
Maba fasciculosa and photographs of aborigines of Australia.

Ramsey, N. A. . Specimen of kaolin, from North Carolina.

Rau, Dr. Charles. Indian stone tube, from Warren County, Kentucky.

Ravenel, H. W. Bermuda grass, from Aiken, 8. C.

Redding, B. B. Fishes and invertebrates, from Japan; specimens each
of awa(Chanos salmoneus) and mullet (Mugil chaptalia), from Honolulu.

Reeder, H. J. California salmon (Salmo salar), from the Delaware River.

Reid, Dr. J. H. Two Indian mallets and arrowhead, from Colorado.

Reinsch, Dr. P. F. Box of microscopic slides of meteoric stones.

Reis, Prof. J. B., Centennial Commissioner. Portuguese arboretum,
specimens of cottons from African and Indian colonies, books, photo-
graphs, &e.

Republic (the) Iron Company, Darid Morgan, President. Specimens of red
specular iron-ore.

Reville, Father D. Anal spines and interspinal bones of sheep’shead.

Reynolds, Hon. A. k., Minister to Bolivia. Box of copper ores, {rom Boli-
via.

Richard, J. H. Thirty-one turtles, 1 frog, and 12 shells, from Pennsyl-
vania.

Richmond, A. G. Small package of fragmentary pottery, from New
York.

Ridgway, Robert. Box of birds, reptiles, &c., from Mount Carmel, IL;
2 birds, nest and eggs, from Washington, D. C.

Robertson, k. S. Two stone implements al portions of human crania,
from Illinois.

Robertson, Dr. W. B. Specimens of Campostoma, from Holstein River,
Virginia.

Robinson, Neill. Stone celt from West Virginia.

Rosamond, W. B. Box of stone implements, from Ohio.

Rust, H. N. Box of mound pottery, from Illinois.

Samuels, S. B. Minerals, from Virginia.

Schneck, J. Bottle of spiders, from Illinois.

Seligman, Henry, G Co. Sample of stable-purifying compound.

Sellers, G. H. Box of pottery and stone implements, from Illinois.

102 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Shaffer, David H. Box of Unios, from Little Miami River, Ohio.

Sharp, S. Z. Box of fresh-water shells, from the Holstein River, Ten-
nessee.

Sharp, R. Bowlder. Nine species of Old World birds.

Shaver, Amanda B. Geological specimens, from the Ohio River bottom.

Shelby, Dr. D. Stone bowl, from Jackson County, Alabama.

Sherman, N. A. Collection of bird eggs.

Shorne, Mr., through T. B. Ferguson. Section model of oyster pungy.

Slingerland, A. Stone implement, from Missouri.

Smith, J. P. Arrowheads, from Maryland.

Small, H. £. Two grampuses, from Highland light, Massachusetts.

Smith, Frank. Collection birds’ eggs.

Smith, W. H. Gall insects, from Chapel Hill, N. C.

Snyder, 8S. P. Specimens of galena, from Wyoming Valley, Pennsyl-
vania.

Sonnanstine, J. F. Supposed Indian implement, from Ohio.

Southwell, J. H. Bone perforator, from Illinois.

Spangler, Geo. Box of fossils, from Indiana.

Spanish Legation, Washington. Collection of Spanish pottery.

Stabler, James P. Snake (Ophibolus triangulus), from Maryland.

Stearns, R. FE. C. Stone implements and Indian food, from California.

Sterling, Dr. E. Cast of ovaries of fish, and dwarf pike (Zsox pygmceus.)

Stone, Gen. Chas. P. Block of Egyptian marble.

Stone, Livingston. Collection of salmonide, from the Clackamas River,
Oregon; box of fishes, from the McCloud River, California.

Stout, Mrs. Georgia. Box of Indian relics, from Pima Agency, Arizona.

Sutro, Adolf. Papier-maché models of the Sutro Tunnel and Comstock
Lode.

Taggart, k. F. Tooth of Equus occidentalis, from West Virginia.

Talbut, William. Living snake, from Washington, D. C.

Tanaka, Hon. Fusimaro. Collection of Japanese coins.

Tasmania, Government of. Two specimens of Platypus and three of
Echidne ; three boxes of seeds of Australian plants.

Tate, Geo. K. Specimen of iron pyrites, from North Carolina.

Thomas, Hilton. Orange infested with insects.

Thomson, J. H. Chub-sucker (Hrimyzon oblongus), Paratractus pisquetos,
and Achirus lineatus, from Massachusetts.

Thomas, Pack. Shad (Alosa sapidissima), from the Ohio River.

Thompson, J. B. Five specimens of Salmo quinnat, reared from eggs
planted in 1874 and 1875.

Thornburgh, Hon. J. M. Fossil coal plant, from Anderson County,
Tennessee...

Thornton, S. C. Skin of common myna (Acridotherus tristis).

Tilghman, Dr. Chas. H. Seeds and shells, from craw of red-head duck.

Tingley, Prof. Joseph. Fossils, from Indiana.

Tokio, Japan, Museum of, Hon. Kubo, in charge. Collection of
woods and stone implements, from Japan.

* See ote Ohvpaucu, Ck i
APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 103

Toner, Dr. J. we Stone pipe, arrowheads, and unfinished tube, from
Ohio and Kentucky; stone pestle, from Maryland.

Turner, Granville. Specimen of belemite, from the Black Hills.

Turner, Lucien M. Hight boxes of ethnologica and general natural
history, Saint Michael’s, Alaska.

Ull, Henry I. Box of botanical specimens, from New Jersey.

Valentine, G. G. Box of stone implements, from Virginia.

Van Benschoten, Prof. J. C. Stone ceremonial implement, from mound
in Indiana.

Van Dyck, W. T. Skin of Pastor, from Beirut, Syria.

Vickers, J. P. Stone implement, from Illinois.

Washington, D. C.:
Department of State. See under the name of Hon. A. R. Reynolds,

minister to Bolivia.
Treasury Department. Box of building stones, from new custom-house,
Chicago, Il.

United States Coast Survey (Capt. C. P. Patterson, in charge). Spec-

imens of starfish, from off Cape Cod, Mass.
War Department :

United States Army. See under the names of Col. A. G. Brackett,
Lieut. W. L. Carpenter, Gen. M. C. Meigs, and Lieut. Willis Wittich.

Surgeon-General’s Office. See under the names of Drs. Elliott Coues,
B. J. D. Irwin, J. H. Janeway, and J. C. Merrill.

Survey west of the one hundredth meridian (Lieut. G. M. Wheeler, in
charge). Collection of west-coast fishes, 941 birds’ skins, and 2
bales of ethnologica, from the West.

Signal Service. See under the names of Sergeants E. W. Nelson and
L. M. Turner.

Navy Department :

United States Navy. See vxzder the name of Ogmmander L. A.
Beardslee.

Burenx wf Navigation, Commodore Daniel Ammen. Soundin gs, from
the Gorringe bank, by the United States steamer Gett ysbure.

Medical Bureau. See under the name of Dr. J. F. Bransfora

Interior Department :

General Land Office. See under the names of Surveyors- General *
R. Hardenburgh and John Wasson.

Indian Bureau. See under the name of Indian Agent Jesse W.
Griest.

United States Geological Survey of the Territories, First Division,
(Dr. F. V. Hayden, in charge). Five boxes and 2 tanks general
natural history collections, from the West; 9 models of cliff-houses
and relief maps.

United States Geological Survey of the Territories, Second Division
(Prof. J. W. Powell, in charge). Eleven pieces of Shoshone In-
dian clothing, 1 box ethnologica. See also under the name of
Rev. Stephen Bowers.

104 APFENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Washington, D. C.:

United States Fish Commission (Prof. 8S. F. Baird, Commissioner).
Eleven boxes, 4 tanks marine zodlogy, collected at Wood’s Holl,
Salem, Mass., and at Halifax, N.S. See also under the names of
Chas. G. Atkins, S. F. Baird, T. H. Bean, H. C. Chester, Vinal N.
Edwards, Rudolph Hessel, A. L. Kumlien, J. W. Milner, and Liv-
ingston Stone.

Wall, John P. Two stone sinkers, from Florida.

Wasson, Hon. John United States surveyor-general, arizona. Specimens .
of gold and silver ores, from various mining claims in Arizona.

Way, D. 8S. Living diamond rattlesnake, from Florida.

Webb, John 8. Fossils, from near Dayton, Ohio.

Werner, W. H. Skin of solitary sandpiper, from Pennsylvania.

Whitman, G. P. Marine fern (Pennatula phosphorea var. aculeata), from
Brown’s Bank, Mass.

Whittlesey, Charles. Cast of stone implements, from Ohio.

Willets, Joseph C. Trolling-hook used for lake-trout, at Skaneateles, N.
Y.; 14 bottles of Forida fishes.

Willird, Mrs. Celeste. Box of insects, from Florida.

Williams, C. Foster. Shell, Pyrula, from Tennessee.

Williams, Dr. M. Specimen in flesh of Mexican flycatcher.

Williamson, J. M. Specimens of fulgurite, from Illinois.

Williamson, T. Spawn of black bass.

Wilmot, Samuel. Specimen of Dorosoma heterura, from Lake Huron;
stuffed skin of Ontario salmon.

Winchell, Prof. Alex. Collection of fresh-water fishes, from Tennessee.

Wittich, Lieut. Willis, U. 8S. A. Collection of shrews, reptiles, and in-
sects, from Fort Klamath, Oreg.

Wood, Thomas. Collection of fossils, from Maryland.

Wooster, A. F. @Aicétions of general navural history and Indian relics,
from Connestiee cate

Yarrow, Dr.‘ G, Box of slugs, from Washington, D. C.; tcaof shells
(Hydati ay Seon Santa Barbara, Cal.

Yerkes, Pct Two celts and quartz crystal, from Pennsylvania.

“Os mglove, John E. Pentramites, from Bowling Green, Ky.

Wack, John A. Sample of glass wool.

Unknown. Two boxes alchoholic birds’ skins; cast of human face; 2
grooved celts; pair of moccasins and belt; 3 pieces of rock; specimens
mica and granite; larvae of migratory praeeheaner:

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 105

LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT EXPLORATIONS AND EX.

PEDITIONS, THE COLLECTIONS OF WHICH HAVE CONSTI-

TUTED THE PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF SUPPLY TO THE
NATIONAL MUSEUM, WITH INDICATION OF THE DEPART-
MENT OF THE GOVERNMENT UNDER WHICH PROSE-
CUTED.

[ Where no department is mentioned it is to be understood that the collections were

made more especially at the request and under the direction of the Smithsonian In-
stitution and to a greater or less degree at its expense. ]

1.

bo

ii

15.

16.

Prior to 1850.

Captain Wilkes, U. S. N. The coasts of South America, Western
North America, Polynesia, etc. 1838-1842. United States Navy
Department.

. Rev. Dr. Gurley. West Africa. 1846-1857.
. Rev. C. W. Dennison. British Guiana. 1842-1857.

1850.

. Dr. D. D. Owen. United States Geological Survey made in Iowa,

Illinois, and Minnesota. 1850-1857. United States General Land
Office.

. Capts. L. Sitgreaves and J. C. Woodruff, U.S. A. The survey of the

Creek boundary. War Department.

. Dr. J. Evans. United States Geological Survey of Oregon and

Washington Territories. Land Office.

. Dr. Charles T. Jackson. United States Geological Survey of Lake

Superior. Land Office.

. Messrs. J. W. Foster andJ. D. Whitney. United States Geological

Survey of Lake Superior. Land Office.

. W. Stimpson. The New England coast.
. Thaddeus Culbertson. Upper Missouri.

1851.

. Col. J. D. Graham and Maj. W. H. Emory, U. S. A. United States

and Mexican Boundary Survey. 1851-1855. Interior Department,

. Capt. L. Sitgreaves, U. S. A. Zuni and Colorado Rivers. War De-

partment.

. Capt. Howard Stansbury, U. S. A. The Valley of the Great Salt

Lake, Utah. War Department.
1852.

. Lieut. J. M. Gilliss, U. 8S. N. United States Astronomical Expedi-

tion to Chili. 1849-1852. Navy Department.

Lieut. W. L. Herndon, U. S. N. The Amazon and its tributaries.
Navy Department.

Capt. Kk. B. Marcy and Capt. George B. McClellan, U. S. A. The Red
River. War Department.

106 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

1853.

. Dr. EL. K. Kane. North Greenland.
. Capts. C. Ringgold and J. Rodgers, U. S. N. Exploration of the China

Seas, Behring Straits, coast of California, ete. 1853-1856. Navy
Department.

. Gov. I. I. Stevens. The Pacific Railroad Survey of the forty-seventh

parallel. 1853-1855. War Department.

. Lieut. R. 8. Williamson, U. 8. A. The Pacific Railroad Survey on

the partial route in California. 1853-1855. War Department.

. Captains Gunnison and Beckwith, U. 8S. A. The Pacific Railroad

Survey on the thirty-eighth, thirty-ninth, and forty-first parallels.
1853-1855. War Department.

. Captain Whipple, U. S. A. The Pacific Railroad Survey on the

thirty-fifth parallel. 1853-1855. War Department.

. Lieut. J. G. Parke, U. 8. A. The Pacific Railroad Survey on the

western end of the thirty-second parallel. 1853-1855. War De-
partment.

. Capt. J. Pope, U. 8. A. The Pacific Railroad Survey on the eastern

end of the thirty-second parallel. 1853-1855. War Department.

. Lieut. Rk. S. Williamson, U. S. A. The Pacific Railroad Survey in

California and Oregon. 1853-1855. War Department.

- Commodore M. C. Perry, U.S. N. Japan. 1853-1855. State and

Navy Departments.

. Capt. J. Pope, U. 8S. A. Artesian Well Borings in the Llano Esta-

cado. 1853-1857. War Department.

. Dr. George Suckley, U. S. A. Washington and Oregon Territories,

1853-1856. War Department.

. Dr. J. G. Cooper. Washington Territory, California, and Nebraska.

1853-1856. War Department.

. Dr. F. V. Hayden. Upper Missouri. 1853-1855.
. Lieut. D. N. Couch, U. S. A. Northern Mexico.
. Dr. L. Berlandier. Northern Mexico. Collections made 1826-1851

and purchased by Lieutenant Couch.

. Capt. T. J. Page, U. 8. N. Paraguay. Exploration of the Parana.

1853-1855. Navy Department.

. Kk. D. Cutts. The California coast. United States Coast Survey.
. Prof. S. F. Baird. Wisconsin, Illinois, and Ohio.

18354.

. A.J. Vaughan. Upper Missouri. 1854-1855.

. Dr. P. k. Hoy. Wisconsin and Missouri.

. Lobert Kennicott. Illinois, Minnesota, and Winnipeg. 1854-1857.
. Capt. k. B. Marcy, U. 8. A. Brazos River.

. Lieut. W. P. Trowbridge, U. 8. A. The Pacific coast. 1854-1855.

United States Coast Survey.

41.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 107

Gustavus Wiirdemann. Texas, Louisiana, and Florida. 1854-1858.
United States Coast Survey.

. Rev. A. C. Barry. Wisconsin.

1855.

. Prof. 8. F. Baird. Coast of New Jersey.
. BH. Samuels. California. 1855-1856. Boston Society of Natural His-

tory and the Smithsonian Institution.

1856.

. Maj. G. H. Thomas, U. S. A. Vicinity of Fort Yuma.
. Lieutenant Bryan, U.S. A. Wagon-road survey from Fort Riley to

Bridger’s Pass. 1856-1857. War Department.

. Lieut. G. K. Warren, U. S. A. On the Upper Missouri and Yellow-

stone. War Department.

1857.

. W. M. Magraw. South Pass wagon-road. 1857-1858. Interior

Department.

. Capt. T. J. Page, U. 8. N. Wa Plata River and tributaries. Navy

Department.

. Donald Gunn. Red River of the North and Nelson River. Hudson’s

Bay Territory.

. John Xantus. Fort Riley, Kans., and Fort Tejon, Cal. 1857-1858.
. Lieut. N. Michler, U. S.A. Exploration of a canal route. The Isth-

mus of Darien. War Department.

. Col. J. E. Johnston, U.S. A. Southern boundary of Kansas.
. J. B. Leech. El Paso and Fort Yuma wagon-road route. Interior

Department.

. A. Campbell. Northwestern boundary survey. Westernend. 1857-

1861. State Department.

. Lieut. G. K. Warren, U. 8S. A. The Platte River Valley. War De-

partment.
1858.

. Capt. Thos. Blakiston, R. A. The Saskatcbewan.
. Lieut. J. C. Ives, U. S.A. Navigation of the Colorado River. War

Department.

. Dr. F. V. Hayden and Prof. F. B. Meek. Kansas.
. Dr. F. V. Hayden. New Jersey.

1859.

. Capt. J. H. Simpson, U. S. A. Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah. War

Department.
F, W. Lander. South Pass wagon-road route. Interior Depart-
ment.

108 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

63.

64.

65.

66.

Tieut. John Mullan, U. S. A. Wagon-road route from Walla Walla
to Fort Benton. Interior Department.

Capt. W. F. Raynolds, U. S. A. Upper Missouri and Yellowstone.
War Department.

Capt. J. N. Macomb, U. S. A. San Juan and Upper Colorado. War
Department.

John Xantus. Cape Saint Lucas, Lower California. United States
Coast Survey.

. John Feilner. Fort Crook, California.
. Robert Kennicott. British North America into the Arctic Circle,

1859-1861.

. J. W. Tolman. Illinois.
. Dr. J. B. Bean. Central Florida.

Dr. Suckley, U. S. A. Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah.

. William Cooper. Bahamas.

. Dr. H. Bryant. Bahamas.

. Dr. J. G. Cooper. South Florida.

. Capt. H. G. Wright, U. S. A. Tortugas.

. Capt. D. P. Woodbury, U.S. A. Tortugas.

. Dr. Whitehurst. Tortugas.

. Saint Charles College. Louisiana.

. James McLeannan. Isthmus of Panama.

. Theodore Gill. West Indies and Newfoundland.

1860.

. Dr. J. G. Cooper. To Oregon via Fort Benton. War Department.
. Capt. C. P. Stone, U.S. A. The Gulf of California.

. Dr. C. 8. Canfield. The coast of California.

. B. R. Ross. Mackenzie’s River district. Fort Simpson, Hudson’s

Bay Territory. 1860-1861.

. George Barnston. North shore of Lake Superior.

. J. Mackenzie. Moose factory, Hudson’s Bay. 1860-1863.

. C. Drexler. In James Bay, Hudson’s Bay.

. Elliott Coues. The coast of Labrador. :

. Williams College Lyceum of Natural History. Greenland and Lab-

rador.

. Dr. W. Stimpson. The coast of North Carolina,
. Theodore Gill. The coast of North Carolina.
. Dr. W. W. Anderson. Cantonment Burgwyn, N. Mex., and on the

Pecos.

. J. H. Clark. The Texas boundary survey. Interior Department.
. J. W. Swan. Puget Sound. 1860-1877.

. Dr. J. B. Holder. Tortugas.

. Charles Wright. Cuba. 1860-1863.

. J. M. Woodworth. Minnesota.

. Patrick Duffy. New Mexico.

oo:
. Lieut. J. D. Kurtz, U.S. A. On the Atlantic coast of the United

108.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 109

W. A. Henry. Uabrador Eclipse Expedition.

States.

. F. Germain. Chili.

. P. 8S. Dodd. Sable Island, Nova Scotia.
.d. Rk. Willis. Nova Scotia.

. W. G. Winton. Nova Scotia.

1861.

. John Xantus. Cape Saint Lucas and the Gulf of California. United

States Coast Survey.

. Robert Kennicott. Hudson’s Bay Territory: Fort Resolution, Peel’s

River, and Fort Yukon.

. Lawrence Clark, jr. Hudson’s Bay Territory: Fort Rae and Great

Slave Lake.
L862.

John Xantus. Western Mexico in the vicinity of Colima and Man-
zanillo. 1862-1863. State Department.

1863.

. Henry Connolly. Hudson’s Bay Territory: Rigollet, Labrador.

1863-1866.

. Hon. C. Rk. Riotte, United States minister. Costa Rica.
. J. Carmiol. Costa Rica.

. Dr. Charles Sartorius. Eastern Mexico.

. Prof. F. Sumichrast. Orizaba, Mexico.

. Capt. John. M. Dow. West coast of Central America.
. Hon. C. R. Buckalew, United States minister. Ecuador.
. Dr. Elliott Coues, U. S. A. Arizona.

. Dr. R. Hitz. Upper Missouri.

. Capt. John Feilner, U. S. A. Upper Missouri.

1864.

. Col. A. J. Grayson. Vicinity of Mazatlan, including the Tres

Marias and the Revillagigedo Islands.

. Dr. Arthur Schott. Yucatan, under the auspices of the government

of the province.

21. Hon. D. K. Cartter. Bolivia.
. W. T. March. Jamaica.

123. N. H. Bishop. Cuba.

125.
126.

. Lieutenant Fitzgerald, British Army. New Providence, Bahamas,

1865.

Gov. William McTavish. Vicinity of Fort Garry.
Robert Kennicott. Alaska and British Columbia.

110 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

127. Dr. H. Berendt. British Honduras and the interior of Guatemala.
128. Robert Swift. Saint Thomas and Porto Rico.

129. George Latimer. Porto Rico.

130. Rev. H. B. Tristram. Palestine.

1866.

(51. CO. P. Gaudet. Hudson’s Bay Territory: Fort Good Hope.

152. William L. Hardesty. WHudson’s Bay Territory: Fort Simpson.

133. Strachan Jones. Hudson’s Bay Territory: Vicinity of Fort Rae.

134. James Lockhart. Hudson’s Bay Territory: Fort Resolution, Fort
Yukon. .

135. John Reid. WHudson’s Bay Territory: Big Island, Great Slave
Lake.

136. James Sibbiston. Hudson’s Bay Territory: Fort Yukon.

137. Donald Gunn. West of Lake Winnipeg.

138. George A. Smith. Hudson’s Bay Territory and Labrador.

139. Robert MacFarlane. Hudson’s Bay Territory: Vicinity of Fort An-
derson, Arctic Coast. 1860-1868.

140. William Bross. WHudson’s Bay Territory: Fort Halkett.

141. Thomas Flett. Hudson’s Bay Territory: La Pierre’s House.

142. C. L. Bulkley. Russian America. Western Union Telegraph Com-
pany.

143. William H. Dall. Shores of Behring Straits. Western Union
Telegraph Company.

144, Ferdinand Bischoff. Kodiak, Sitka, and other portions of Alaska.
Western Union Telegraph Company.

145. H. M. Bannister. Vicinity of Saint Michael’s, Norton Sound.
Western Union Telegraph Company.

146. Dr. J. T. Rothrock. British Columbia. Western Union Telegraph
Company.

147. Dr. 0. A. Canfield. Monterey, Cal.

148. Dr. Edward Palmer. Arizona.

149. Dr. Wernick. Colorado.

150. Dr. H. B. Butcher. Laredo, Rio Grande.

151. A. EH. Younglove. Hayti.

152. Dr. Henry Bryant. Porto Rico and the Bahamas.

153. Henry Hague. Guatemala.

154. Dr. Earl Flint. Nicaragua. 1866-1877.

155. D*. A. Von Frantzius and J. C. Zeledon. Costa Rica.

156. J. and T. Rhodes. Panama.

157. Valdimir Knudsen. Sandwich Islands.

158. William H. Hudson. Buenos Ayres. 1866-1868.

1867.

159. Hon. A. A. Burton. Columbia.
160. Ferdinand Bischoff. Vicinity of Mazatlan.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Per

. Bernard R. Ross. Hudson’s Bay Territory: Moose Factory.
. Prof. F. V. Hayden. Geological Survey of Nebraska. United

States General Land Office.

. Dr. Thomas T. Miner. Winnebago Reservation.
. Clarence King. Along the line of the fortieth parallel. War De-

partment.

. Dr. M. Allen. Bermuda.

. Col. A. J. Grayson. Revillagigedo Islands.
. Dr. Van Patten. Guatemala.

. Mr. Hardemann. San Salvador.

1868.

. Prof. James Orton. Ecuador.

- Mr. McDougal. Hudson’s Bay Territory, Mackenzie’s River district.
. George Davidson. Alaska. United States Coast Survey.

. Dr. F. V. Hayden. Black Hills, Laramie Plains, &c. General Land

Office.

. J. H. Devereaux. Tennesee and Ohio. Ethnology.
. Dr. Edward Palmer. Indian Territory.

1869.

. Capt. C. M. Scammon. Coast of Oregon and Alaska. United States

Revenue Bureau, Treasury Department.

. Dr. F. V. Hayden. Colorado and New Mexico. Interior Depart-

ment.

. Lieut. F. M. Ring. In the vicinity of Fort Wrangel, Alaska.

Ethnology.

. P. Figyelmezy. British Guiana. State Department.

1870.

. Prof. S. F. Baird. In Marine Zoology, in Vineyard Sound. 1870-

1875. United States Fish Commission.

. Dr. F. V. Hayden. Rocky Mountains. Interior Department.

1871.

. Prof. J. W. Powell. Colorado. Interior Department.
. Dr. F. V. Hayden. Montana and headwaters of the Yellowstone.

Interior Department.

. Geo. A. Boardman. Florida and New Brunswick.
. Dr. H. C. Yarrow, U. 8. A. Vicinity of Fort Macon, North Caro-

lina.

. Capt. Chas. Bryant. Pribylov Islands, Behring Sea.
. Strachan Jones. Hudson’s Bay Territory, Lower Slave Lake Region.

1872.

. Prof. S. F. Baird. Marine Zoology in the Bay of Fundy. United

States Fish Commission.

112
188.

189.
190.
191.
192;
193.
194.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.

200.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Dr. A. S. Packard, jr. George’s Banks, &c. United States Coast
Survey and United States Fish Commission.

Henry W. Elhott. Saint Paul of the Pribylov or Fur Seal Islands
of Behring Sea. Treasury Department.

William H. Dall. Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. 1872-1874.
United States Coast Survey, Treasury Department.

Prof. 7. V. Hayden. Basin of the Upper Yellowstone and various
regions of the Rocky Mountains. Interior Department.

Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, U. S. A. Southern Utah and Eastern
Nevada. War Department.

Prof. J. W. Powell. Colorado River. 1872-1875. Interior Depart-
ment.

F. Sarg. Guatemala.

Prof. William M. Gabb. San Domingo.

G. Brown Goode. Bermuda.

1873.

Capt. C. F. Hall and Dr. Emil Bessels. In the Arctic Seas, on the
Polaris. Navy Department.

Henry W. Elliott. Saint George’s Island of the Pribylov Group.
Treasury Department.

Commodore G. E. Belknap, United States Steamer Tuscarora. North
Pacific Ocean. Navy Department.

Archibald Campbell and Dr. Elliott Coues. Along the north
western boundary survey, in Dakota. State Department.

. Gen. David S. Stanley and J. A. Allen. Along the line of the North-

ern Pacific Railroad. War Department.

. Prof. F. V. Hayden. Colorado and New Mexico. Interior Depart-

ment.

. Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler. The region west of the 100th meridian.

War Department.

. Capt. Charles Bendire, U. 8S. A. Arizona.
. Livingston Stone. Upper Sacramento River. United States Fish

Commission.

. James W. Milner. The Great Lakes and the Upper Mississippi.

United States ish Commission.

. Prof. 8S. F. Baird. Vicinity of Portland, Me. United States Fish

Commission.

. Vinal N. Edwards. Vicinity of Wood’s Hole, Massachusetts.

» United States Fish Commission.

. Samuel Powel. In Narraganset Bay.
. Prof. William M. Gabb. Costa Rica. Government of Costa Rica.
. Prof. F. Poey. Cuba.

1874.

. Lieut. Geo. M. Whecler. Nebraska, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico,

and Arizona. War Department.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 113

. Prof. F. V. Hayden. West of the one hundred and seventh merid-

ian, in Colorado. Interior Department.

. Prof. J. W. Powell. Utah. 1874-1877. Interior Department.
. Prof. S. F. Baird. South coast of Connecticut. United States

Fish Commission.

. Capt. Nicholas Pike. The Mauritius. State Department.
. A. B. Steinberger. The Samoan Islands. State Department.
. Lucien M. Turner. Vicinity of Saint Michael’s, Norton Sound.

1874-1877. United States Signal Service, War Department.

. Prof. H. E. Webster. The coast of Virginia.

1875.

. Prof. S. Ff. Baird. Vineyard Sound and Buzzard’s Bay. United

States Fish Commission.

. Alaska Commercial Company. 'The coast and islands of Alaska.
. Paul Schumacher. Oregon and the mainland and islands adjacent

to Santa Barbara. (Ethnology.) 1875-1876. Peabody Museum,
Cambridge, and Indian Bureau, Interior Department.

. Rev. Stephen Bowers. The south coast of California. (Ethnology.)

1875-1877. Indian Bureau, Interior Department.

. J. G. Swan. British Columbia: Vancouver's Island, &c. Indian

Bureau, Interior Department.

. Stephen Powers. Nevada and California. (Ethnology.) Indian

Bureau, Interior Department.

. Dr. J. H. Kidder, U. 8S. N. Transit of Venus Expedition: Kergue-

len Island and other points. Navy Department.

. Dr. LE. Kershner, U. S. N. South Pacific, in the United States

steamer Swatara. Navy Department.

. Hdwin Smith. Chatham Islands. United States Coast Survey and

Navy Department.

. Prof. F. V. Hayden. Colorado, Northern New Mexico, and Hast-

ern Utah. Interior Department.

. Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler. Colorado and Arizona. War Department.
. Dr. Edward Palmer. Arizona and California. Indian Bureau,

Interior Department.
1876.

. W. A. Mintzer. Arctic America, north of Hudson’s Strait. Navy

Department.

. Dr. W. W. Hays. San Luis Obispo. (Ethnology.)
. Dr. J. F. Bransford. Nicaragua. 1876-1877. (Ethnology.) Navy

Department and Peabody Museum, Cambridge.

. Capt. J. G. Baker. Islands south of California. Treasury Depart-

ment.

. Prof. F. V. Hayden. ‘Nestern Colorado and Eastern Utah. Interior

Department.
8s

114 APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.
1877.

237. Prof. F. V. Hayden. Wyoming, Idaho, and Northern Utah. In-
terior Department.

238. H. W. Nelson. Norton Sound, Alaska. United States Signal Office
and Smithsonian Institution.

239. Prof. D. S. Jordan. Fresh waters of Southern States.

240. Dr. J. F. Bransford, U.S. N. Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Medical
Bureau, Navy Department.

241. Rev. Stephen Bowers. Islands and mainland adjacent to Santa
Barbara, Cal. Maj. J. W. Powell, Interior Department and
Smithsonian Institution.

242. Clark Mills. Indians in Florida. Peabody Museum, Cambridge,

: and Smithsonian Institution. |

243. FH. A. Ober. West India Islands: Dominica, Antigua, Barbadoes,
&e.

244, 8. . Baird. Coast of Massachusetts off Salem, and of Eastern Nova
Scotia. United States Fish Commission.

245. Livingston Stone. Clackamas River, Oregon. United States Fish
Commission.

246. Capt. J. J. Fuller. Kerguelen Island.

247. Maj. A. S. Gaines and K. M. Cunningham. Shell mounds near
Mobile, Ala.

248. G. B. Goode. Bermuda and surrounding waters. Wesleyan Uni-
versity, Middletown, Conn., and Smithsonian Institution.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE ABOVE MENTIONED EXPLORATIONS UNDER
THE DEPARTMENT BY WHICH CONDUCTED.

Smithsonian Institution: carried on directly by or under the supervi-
sion of the Institution, and for the most part wholly or partially at its
expense: 87, 88, 90, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 102, 105, 106, 110, 111, 112,
113, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 123, 127, 128, 129, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 147,
148, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 158, 160, 163, 165, 166, 167, 173, 174, 177, 185,
196, 219, 233, 239, 243, 246.

Smithsonian Institution: less directly under the charge of the Insti-
tution, and not at its expense, but the results communicated to it: 82,
83, 92, 100, 101, 103, 104, 114, 115, 121, 124, 128, 129, 130, 149, 152, 156,
157, 159, 168, 178, 183, 184, 194, 195, 204, 209, 211, 247.

Smithsonian Institution, with the especial aid of the Hudson’s Bay
Company : 84, 85, 86, 107, 109, 125, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 161, 170,
186.
Smithsonian Institution and United States Coast Survey: 105, 171,
188, 190, 228.

Smithsonian Institution and Western Union Telegraph Company:
126, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146.

Smithsonian Institution and Kentucky University : 119.

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 115

Smithsonian Institution and Boston Natural History Society: 44, 113.

Smithsonian Institution and Peabody Museum: 222, 234, 242.

Smithsonian Institution and Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn :
248.

Smithsonian Institution and Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.:
89, 169.

Smithsonian Institution and Costa Rican Government: 210.

Smithsonian Institution and Government of Yucatan: 120.

Smithsonian Institution and State Department: 108.

State Department: 200, 216, 217.

Navy Department : 197, 199, 226, 227, 228, 232, 234, 240.

Treasury Department: 175, 189, 198, 235.

Interior Department: 93, 176, 180, 182, 191, 193, 202, 213, 214, 229,
236, 237.

Interior Department, Land Office: 162, 172.

Interior Department, U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the
Territories, Second Division, J. W. Powell in chGERD: 19

Interior Department, Indian Bureau: 222, 223, 224, 225, 231.

War Department: 81, 181, 201.

War Department, Engineer Bureau: 164, 192, 203, 212, 230.

War Department, Signal Office: 218, 238.

United States Fish Commission: 179, 187, 188, 205, 206, 207, 208, 215,
220, 244, 245.

Alaska Commercial Company: 221.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO NAMES OF INDIVIDUALS MEN.
TIONED IN THE PRECEDING LIST.

Current No.

Current No.

A. Bishop: Niue 2 occ. .aeee eee 123
Alaska Commercial Company.... BOSE, Ce eae IES
UGS COYNE eee Oe 9 Bowers, S.....------------------ 223, 241
JNU WS Se es ee eens eee 165 Seep Ji oaeee seo oo air?
ee BL aEOSS;, Wi a-)o=8 sieeles oni see Ooo
Anderson, W W Sh elie ae ee eee ee g Bryan, Ji TT SO Ne ee ee) eee: 46
B. Bryant © ec meceraceee eet see 185
Bryant, H........- eteisis 5 Sides eer 73, 152
Baird, 8. F'.35, 43, 179, 187, 207, 215, 220, 244 | Buckalew, C. R.......---------- 115
Line di Cid oe 2oo.'|) DUCKIES Oa Lip einerin een am ccero-ae 142
iBannistepphian Meeesess secon. os. = 145) Durcony Ave Alea ee co eas aaa eks 159
Balnstony GQeOeessee scceece 2a So. huvehervHe Bese cess .acces cee cee 150
Barry. Aa Cm omens recs cece 42
Bean) le biessaeeeee eae eccscacs 70
Beckwith, Capteeanesesseeses - 5-6 ele @arppolloly cose. << cu ce.c ac eu ace 55, 200
Belknap, Gu Ercecsse eee sewers a LOOP E Canselde CuAtn.. ..cdccce cee case 147
Bendre, OC. . occu see eeeee een as - AUS Camitotd CaS. ccc pas-ce os se cnice 83
erent, EL. cca eeneee ees —— pies) 6 CE Ta 0) a a ee ee 111
enigtidier, To2. ooca-ee s-eeee === = P22] |a( Cee Fc) nD DA ¢ Gaara ae 121
BOSS INS Wisi) 5 -'b els aay ures enna AS F/O: Crider cal 8 (eee 93
INGHGH, Hitoesascesdesssosecaes IAS Or We larke, Wart. e ec ooces ctcciec cco cee 107

116

Current No.

Connolly phleer sesse =e eee 109
Cooper; Ja'Geekch tie seaceeee 29, 74, 81
Cooper) Williams Ses. seca sesee 72
(Chm@las 1D IS) Gaacoc ce todos occas 31
Cones Vet sce: etesace se ence 88, 116, 200
Culbertson; \T)..-2-562 sec cecccee = 10
Cunningham, Ko Mw. -s3c-=-- = 247
Catts, RD 22-2 a. .ctseee aces: 34
D.
Dall Wii dicas seeaeesiceas Sos 1438, 190
Davidson, (Gnseosee eee steswiccs 171
Denison Chasheecsseeteices cic a-< 3
Wevereauss, Wineliseecc ct. + s-- hecis 173
Dodd, PAaStesececccetce sce se See 102
DOW Ve due GOSS og ces eee eee 114
DTrexlenme meses cece cccosscoeee 87
Duthyepb eee sac cess loteccsscose 98
E.
ES CW ARS AV elINia ec weeric/paeerce eee 208
JBMGINR Eby Wieceocdssoanc coabo ac 189, 198
FEIMOLY.,| Welk toe 2) oot eee aera 11
lBWAsE diaseeee cocScoaasecssaaas 6
1Re
Meiners. samsee Sees. cese cece 67, 118
HMigvelme7ys (hao alelceeeeecies 178
Bitzeerald Waeuteesssaeeesinee ace 124
WI Gbts wlan tes2 stows ae eee ee 141
ling Sa 256/35) tot eee ba esa ee 154
Boster; J. W...-s-seec ee erese oe 8
lahMNPAINE, JN WOM 50. c6ges6 eaone 155
Buller d oso cece eae eee one 246
G.
Gabb sewn ee ate eecae snes 195, 210
Goines WAC See cee concer scenes 247
(Crib inl Od seas seaudacd oGcbne 6 131
(Ormain, Why sseaaoric sie ee esas 111
Cin cca tec acceete aac coe eens 80, 91
(Co WNC E Peed Bees AP eee es i 14
OO er Gopbyee ce citemere me sce eeeoee 196, 248
Graham, J. D’...... Econ sais See 11
Grayson AC sacs cece sass 119, 166
Gridiil 5 DRReeSe58 Sao toes Cee ae 50, 137
Gunnisons Capticc-cese s<ce aces 21
RMEIOY, OV. DPQ. cscs cco ciacs <0 2
H.
JeOGAIGy 1B Se a eee Peer nec oeee 153
Jel, (Ch ae eS eee ercrare 197
LONG OMAN tae tos cies eens Se cie 168
Je Genes Esiay, \k/od Viesosccossoeseeee 132

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Current No.
Hayden, F. V-.-.30, 59, 60, 162, 172, 176, 186,
182, 191, 202, 213, 229, 236, 237

Hays, We Wssscssnaes a eeemtcice 233
Henry; W.cA assis eee eres 99
Herndon, W. Weis sos-e tesserae 15
Hitz, Riots Sasser eee 117
HolderkJwBa.- ose - eee 95
BOWE lies eben copood acco Sones: ai
JeUeG SOM Wolk pensas oe sodd sosehe 158
I.
Ives; J jCtee b> seathlasesameed 58
J.
Jackson) Cw eo sese~ seemcie scissice vi
Johnstons ys elieasece cies eeee eae 53
SOMES, US Saacicse stennie stoeeclecie/sice 133, 186
JORd aa DS ee ciate tees sete 239
K.
Kane), Bi iKe ose2 csite sensaecnsse 17
Kenpicott, Wessee esate siae eres 38, 68, 126
Kershner, Dr’ 2/2222 s2sccscscas 227
Kidders J). Eee = oie oe tee 226
LQon Ceo cCo cond esaccabecos YaobeC 164
Knudseny Visoac sencinss eee eee 157
Kuntz, Jie Dices Wetrias socwate te see 100
ip
IeandervEeeWisecc ssoacieescesesee 62
uatimery Geo; a. fosjaseie Soro- eee Se 129
IGG 04 U6. 1b ba acceso ocean Gsease 54
WockhartiyJeesecseeeseeeces staat 134
M.
M’Clellan, Geo. Brosccss 20 otes 16
MacDougallic. sa. sse ceases cee 170
MacWarlane, Riss-sswsssssassssee 139
IMAKenzie; Ji: -s2ss eseee eyocctanets 86
Miieannan, James coas weetoleel= 79
WEXGTINS dg I casecosescs0000.0055 65
Mactavish, Wicesecece ats as 00 s- 5 125
WERE Mio Wb so5 Sasen6 e555 0656 48
WEMGNG Lit icsessqsasoAbegs osucKC 16, 39
Wier}, W/o BUs5a9 scisocoudageecy 122
Mich] or yNpeeri1etantoseio' sclera 52
IW TIDER (Cas 58 SSO RS aapeeeeeooecos ac 242
IMblnervobmWineco-s.-2<2ceseeeees 206
yaya, Jy ARs peemeorsoeaococoad 163
IMMA \WinveGateeeeeanenceceacoc 232
folly d! eeasgenseese asecoo dos 63
N.
Nelson) gE nWieeia= nese seo oee 238

APPENDIX TO REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Current No.

O.
Ober Py A v.2ces tiecee eae eeers 243
Onto Wess. os sec eee nes. 169
Owen OS Dy. nc.-casincisceeneosae 4

P;
a ckond), A‘. Ques sme tects sain ana 188
RACs Ds, Dace casgacccoceseienios 33, 49
Palmer; Wi Steceieceansen sn cos 148, 174, 231
Rake dey Geceanee secs sessions 23
Berry Me © eerie eserssieaciascicc =< 26
(Bike MN ese eeae ete wiaciniecoa aia aia =~ 216
MG TP snec coc a5 Soo ce oEES “Seae5 211
IEC) 5 Se Be OR BSOL GHSOC ECC COICO NID LU
IROWTEMll, IS) caso coboe ooep Sooeseseas 209
Howellrdien Wise scenes sclas cee So) iene
IO WETS See tecictg or pan siete ia sitiniaieeinie 2290

R.
IRE ADOIOS MiMG 18 aed We Sopsesecee 64
INGO id) cegacepcmecne eaeeeC meres 135
Rhodes Si vWssc220 ceacice ssacrclee © 156

FY Cp! eas ee a 177

IMMER CAS ene Soon odeu EQUUOEe 18
TRIO. (Oh ine Spot ae BeEesebo moae 110
Rodeers, JOhM 22-2 cms esca= = 18
HOSS bs itescni< = sic sots- esis’ 84, 161
Rothrock Jelly ee serene- ss= 5 S22 146
S.
St; Charles College. -- 2... ....-- 78
Sia hoseooogakeoo BAeoOg anor 44
SI oppure reyatete nasi nelelelotelaizie) \s\cieiaie 194
Sera, © -scosccouss cava csadee 112

Scammon, C. M.....-

DCHOti PAN eyes omietea~ aS ssiatie siecle 120
Schumacher, BP ..5..-.<.c.52525 5 222
Si bestons Iles a. oceanic eters aoe 136
Shida oO ly U5 l8lAGcare Somer ea nocone 61
DIUOTCAVOS Me ais ciaemic cinta /ain-i> 5,12
SHATG RE estos a teysis ie inloerecnia.ci> Syeicie 228
PS) ELUILS}Tif C5 Ue \ eee a ee 138
Stanley Oe eee e cnc c sls 201
Stansburyspiiessneaeeee cs costes 13
Steinberger, At Biss ..255.)..2..< 217

SHOMGINH nl Le Seo AS ee eS 19

117

Current No.

Stimpson; Weemece sees sees se cons 9,90
Stone, Cs Batre eerste 82
Stone; ‘Ei. cssee coe eee eee ae Aly
Suckley;, Geo. steececeaacee eee 28,71
Sumichrast;.E--<.sen-se seer ¥. 113
Swany. Gr. coe aoe cee renee 94, 224
Siygiftes ys sos kee eee 128
als
Pe OMaS Crp lls nce ence cteee eee 45
Mlolmany Jian iWeoses sa. semeceeeeeee 69
AUTISULAIO Hp lsje nso cee en see 130
AMONMDEIES, Wig JP aaceeocsoco sec 40
MVOATNET Ayes scenic sini sinise oe eleva sare 213
Vv.

Wan Patten: Drieseu. tosses ste 167
Vain osha AVP Se a cers Se yesieccerst 36
W.

Warren t Go IGes isa. sccm s- seiesels 47, 56
Webster, Hi Hit 2.2.02 cctcs. ae 219
Vieni Vie se soeaceensocaoacsos 149
Wiheeler.G oN es ssc or 192, 203, 212, 230
Wihipples:Captessss-sce5--sss== 22
Wihitehursbperes acetone teres aetna 77
\eniinaeh A dod Daseecoseos ace cseccs 8
Wlkest* Chase 28? savceosacecss os 1
Williams: Collese cs. -s2s. esse 89
Nvallliomisoany vx. Wunsjo— selec se 20, 25
Wallis pene So) cjs pac ete 103
Wanton} Wie Giccos. cosaes esses 104
Woodbury.) bie secsocetee aes 76
Wroodnutt ry Cosscmeeeceeeseccets 5
Woodworth ran Mtcmase ieee 97
Waren, O eosusonecassasasco esac 96
Wigekeaoi Jeb CSeeseqcacoce scccaus 75
Wiardemann) Gere .)sssatecesenteeee 41
xX.

DEMME A yaaso7 conves GooKco e805 51, 66, 108
MG
Varrowi les@ ce eeee ts cece yecee 184
Noun clove peace bres seclssess eee 1ol
Z.

ASlEAOM Oe reece see siento: ssiseae 155

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Executive Committee of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian
Institution respectfully submit the following report in relation to the
funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Congress for the support
of the National Museum, the receipts and expenditures for both the
Institution and the Museum for the year 1877, and the estimates for the
year 1878.

Statement of the condition of the funds at the beginning of the year 1878.

The amount originally received as the bequest of James

Smithson, of England, deposited in the Treasury of the

United States, in accordance with the act of Congress of

ATISUSt AO. SABC cetcces iene Cals saree ecient $515, 169 00
Nesiduary ana of Smithson, received in 1865, deposited

in the Treasury of the United States, in accordance with

the act of Congress of February 8, 1867..............-. 26, 210 63

Total bequest of (Smithson ye eecet tecteto eset er $541, 379 63
Amount deposited in the Treasury of the United States as
authorized by act of Congress, February 8, 1867, derived
from savings of income and increase in value of invest-

HIG AAR ASG Saeaye oy nO bc oreb A Sao eA ode oe poe 108, 620 37
Amount of the bequest of James Hamilton, of Carlisle, Pa.,
February 24, 9804.25)..2 Seusishtseets peeicice s ectars Satoe e matelas 1,000 00

Total permanent Smithson fund in the United States

Treasury, bearing interest at 6 per cent., payable
semi-annually in S0lW oo 5. seem ices os ona $651, 000 00

In addition to the above, there remains of the extra fund,

from savings, &c., in Virgiaia bonds and certificates, viz:

Consolidated bonds .... ..-- eters at $58, 700 00
Deferred certificates’... 2. ae ssa 29,375 O7
Fractional] certificate ......... Seer tee aie 50 13
Dotale <cae dec.) ce eee eee 88,125 20
Walned- January, 1878, at... (omer meme ese sce 34, 562 00
Also, the cash balance deposited in the United States
Treasury, at the beginning of the year 1878.........- 25, 083 90
Total Smithson funds, January 6, 1878........--.. $710, 645 90

118

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
RECEIPTS IN 1877.

Interest on $650,000, for the year 1877, at 6 per cent., gold..
Premium on gold interest :

June, 30) 1ST Oro yee a cincey. UM el OE age $1,035 94
January 6, 1878, @ 211........ JABS CSRERE 524 06

1,560 00
Less broker’s commission. ......<.----+-0-- 48 74

Interest on Virginia bonds:

Sale of coupons by Riggs & Co., for January 1 and
July 1, 1877, for $3,522, November 26, 1877, @ 82-
Interest on Hamilton fund of $1,000:

HIOEAUMC) CALLS). oa Sera et own ie fel -yernisiejave.s, Se $60 00
Premium on gold, less brokerage......-... 2 32

Repayment by National Museum:

For advances made by Smithsonian Institution in
1875~76, for International Exhibition, &c..........

Notal receipts forthe year 18M... s~.<i25 + ssccaccee

EXPENDITURES IN 1877.

Building, furniture and fixtures.............. $4, 050 66
BOHRA OXMCH SES ear ovat elec cles ele eae te aie esas 16, 052 64
Publications, researches and explorations. ..... 12,946 81
International literary and scientific exchanges. 9,790 73
Crallorya Ghana craters ab51 ciclo ores o's op patejanwiare)aisioxe < tT, 710783
AMON MINISOUMA ps seers ee hes ee cs. Soca oe ne 491 23
Balance unexpended of the income for 1877..............
Balance at the beginning of the year 1877.............-.
Cash balance, January 6,1878........-......- 0.0.

113

$39, 000 00

5,548 28

$49, 007 62

44,952 90

4,054.72
21,029 18

25,083 90

120 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE,

HAMILTON BEQUEST.

Received from James Hamilton, February 24, 1874, and

deposited in the United States Treasury.......--.---- $1,000 00
Interest received from February 24, 1874 to December 31,
U STG ch ce ee eee orca rer ets fey str ino ever 2 eetete 183 85
Interest received from January 1 to June
30; UST: 2 Apacs ae oiels streets $30 00
Premium, 537..--...--+--.+-+-------- 1 59
31 59
Less commission ..... Rites cid ie Ron eer 04
—_——._ $31 55
Interest received from July 1 to Decem-
lei be a) Gael Lol (aR ee ORCAS ORE erie 30 00
Premium, 241 ...... 2.2.20 - sen ene ee aee 81
30 81
ese eeCOMMNSSON 5.2/2 ./s)ere clea ani Brion 04
—_—— 3077
—_- 62 32
Total income received to December 31,1877 ........ pee 5 246 17
Appropriated in 1876, for exploration of cave near Car-
TSS es We SRS Sos ebcia nb sa come Omridinerne stu os 58! 150 00
Balance on hand: January-1, 1818 12-2 oe. =e ore 9617
Statement of expenditures in 1877, in detail.
BUILDING.
Repairs and improvements. ...2.2- 3.0 2--.--- $2,325 46
Fire-proofing apartments for collections ....... 1,343 34
Furniture and fixtures ..........-- ego we AS ens 361 86
— $4,030 66
GENERAL EXPENSES.
Moetmes of tli¢ board vs ....'2 eee acess $197 50
1110) 1) 5110 > Se a Ree Pe IRIE Ao no ri : 238 09
BMA UDN Sate ea nye oo in eye's aie oi aia a3 aoe ee 1,029 10
BORA OGsS oc erin 2 onl w ws ones pee ead 162 31
SS UATIOM OLY oo So) s eo) eiew, 8,6 aie ore sisi 5 5.5 a Teer 286 16
Incidentals, ice, insurance, Ge....22 252 222. 560 60
Pee MINES aren ie cola one cuefeleieisie aac = los a ee 11,780 00
Waborand extra clerk hire <........--. senses = 1,382 11
Books and periodicals. <i 2c 5 -'=-1- <0. <a eee 416 77

—— $16,052 64

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 121

PUBLICATIONS, RESEARCHES.

Smithsonian Contributions ............ eae oe $6, 412 46
Miscellaneous collections .......--......-...- 2,205 81
MUNI MEREOLU! slc’ss cites sistas cies c es s/s ang barateie 994 09
Meteorology and researches ............-..... 985 43
RP MMCNECUDUC) im = le) a olalatal ola latetcle slates aime \-'= = Beier ae 1,406 14
WA WORACOLY -.(.2 ceenis soo) Cae ae nee 63 38
BES OT ALLOMS ies cleneets a alet= aleve s(cisie se 2s 2 <4) <'s 879 50
12,946 81
Literary and scientific international exchanges.....-...... 9,790 73
Gallery of art..... Oe UAB eng ors Bio Nera tela ee taliatisiet 1,710 83
HAM SOMiMNseLte). [acta yeseatita od id bale ersle wiles Need idid ea 421 23
eye aya asia FS) VRS oh fos Rtans a atoaken she =. a3 <etsrere hays © $44, 952 90
REPAYMENTS.

The Institution, as heretofore, has made temporary advances during
the year for the payment of freight on government collections, &e., the
repayment of which, together with the amount received from sales of
publications of the Institution, have been deducted from the several
items of expenditure for the year, as follows, viz:

From exchanges, repayments for freight ........-.-..-...- $459 65

Bron. postage re payMents\. .,2 js s/-sjs pa diutea oda sede e hes 7 42

Krompubheations, Saless..5./s1<\.)s,44ie ds. adid seen bb dps Sete 484 30

I'rom National Museum, repayments.....-.--... etre eee 427 34

From-eleetrotypes of wood-cuts - 2-25.45. sei sics<h bec ne ee be 87 50

alleges See tye 40ers Gen ziols Ha Ah eS. bc srce'se eis aoe sis0 BL, 446. 21
ESTIMATES.

The following are the estimates of receipts and appropriations for the
year 1878:
Estimated receipts.

Interest on the permanent fund receivable July 1, 1878, and

CaM LM OVO ANC ON <2 651s CoS eee ee sca Cosco san $39, 000 00
Interest on the Hamilton fund for the oe, 187 3, in gold-. 60 00
Probable premium on gold, 2 per cent...............00-- 781 20
Sale of Virginia coupons due January 1, 1878, and July 1,

USTS-2 «cae PDS BIR BE A ee OND 9 ON So 2,5€0 00

$42, 341 20

122 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

Provisional appropriations.

Bor buildin gy: 4% ee AA em Oe ee eee $2, 000 00
Bor general Expenses... sacs eee. aol sce Ce eee 15, 000 00
For publicationsand researches? 2--.2.2...-..56 s2tsee ae 15, 000 00
Hor exchanges sek... seein earn ce Acree ce ate 9,000 00
For books and apparatus ..-.... MEAS AAT ee oes cee aes iwetee 1,000 00
For contingencies .-..-... Pee 4.5 a me epic san: ssic mere 341 20

$42, 341 20
NATIONAL MUSEUM.

The government collections of specimens of natural history, ethnology
geology, &c., continue in charge of the Smithsonian Institution, and
Congress has made the necessary appropriations for their care and
preservation, and for defraying the expense of packing, moving, and
storing the articles received at the close of the International Exhibition
in Philadelphia. The advances made by the Institution in previous
years for the construction of a laboratory of natural history, required
for the preparation of new specimens for the Centennial, have also been
refunded.

The following is a statement of the National Museum appropriations
for 1877 and 1878, and the balances at the beginning of the year 1878:

The appropriation by Congress for the care and preservation of the
collections for the fiscal year erding June 30, 1877, was $10,000. Of
this amount $5,090.86 were expended up to December 31, 1876, and the
balance of $4,909.14 has been expended during the six months ending
June 30, 1877.

For repairing and fitting up the ‘“ Armory Building,” and storing the
specimens received from the International Exhibition, an appropria-
tion was made by Congress of $4,500, of which $3,916.23 were expended
in the six months ending December 31, 1876, and the balance of $583.77
has been expended during the first six months of 1877.

APPROPRIATIONS BY CONGRESS FOR NATIONAL MUSEUM IN 1877.
Preservation of collections, Smithsonian Institution, 1878.

‘‘ For preservation and care of the collections of the National

MITRE SSSA ee MaRR AS 8 Sea CHES eS eS $18, 000 00
“For expenses of making up into sets for distribution to col-

leges and academies, the duplicate ores, minerals, and
_ objects of natural history now belonging to the United

States, or in the collections of the International Exposi-

tion presented toit by foreign governments.” Act March

3, 1877. (Digest of Appropriations, 1878, page 86.) .... 5, 000 00

$23, 000 00

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 123
Preservation of collections, Smithsonian Institution, Armory Building, 1878.

“For fitting up the Armory Building for storage of articles
belonging to the United States, including those trans-
ferred from the International Exhibition, and expense of
PLEIN: (NO SAMO eetete ccclo sistelsnr 3 riers hs ces cesta eee TRS 5300 00

National Museum, Smithsonian Institution.

“For the National Museum in charge of the Smithsonian
Institution, for restoring to their proper place in the
National Museum cases removed to the International
Exhibition, and rearranging the collections, and for ex-
penses and preservation of the collections, and for receiv-
ing, packing, and transporting the objects presented to
the United States at the Centennial by State and foreign
governments, and for properly storing and preserving
them until a proper disposition can be made of the same.”
Act March 3, 1877. (Digest of Appropriations, 1878, page
cS LTS)) nas Sa is Sala ay a nae at at ie AA SiG SPR $25, 000 00

The total receipts of the Museum for the year 1877 have therefore
been—
Preservation account, for fiscal year ending June 30, 1877

(Nar ERT aN RAR De 2 Oe SLs 82 eT ee ree eran a $4, 909 14
Armory account, Ao fiscal year ending June 30, 1877 (bal-

ONE Pe elo ies Mets ah sa aiaby a celainl wes sila) Sis einiais = -10°=/s'¢ 583 77
Preservation account, for fiscal year ending June 30,1878. 25,000 00
Armory account, for fiscal year ending June 30, 1878...-. 2,500 00
National Museum (return of Centennial collections, &c.),

fortiseal yeat ending dune a0) 18718 — << 5 oa wan, 0e ons 25, 000 00

$55, 992 91
Expended during six months ending June 30, 1877:

ETESCEVAUION ss 5522-5 «/ _--- $4,909 14

FA TINOBY/ |< Sorcee wows © cieista's eee : 583 77
— $5, 492 91

Expended during six months ending Decem-

ber 31, 1877:

RES ESODMUUNOH) 410 ac icre.co.ce sci. eerie $11, 676 79
SEN HOD ate ae sna. 2 ws a= a.c.s ai sreretertt oss 1,011 75
ONanOnaL WEISCHM” 5-26. <tam ose ieee 22,959 10

$41, 140 55

Balance January 8, 1878, to the credit of the Museum, to
defray expenses of the vollectiane for the six x months end:
mOVS UNE SOP USS 2a no dsl - Beit SOR eee $14, 852 36

124 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

All the payments on account of the National Museum have been made
directly by the disbursing-officer of the Department of the Interior, on
the presentation of vouchers approved by the Secretary of the Smith-

sonian Institution.
SUMMARY.

The Executive Committee have examined six hundred and seventy-
six vouchers for payments made from the Smithson income during the
year 1877, and six hundred and eight vouchers for payments made from
appropriations by Congress for the National Museum, making a total of
1,284 vouchers. All of these vouchers have the approval of the Secre-
tary of the Institution and the certificate that the materials and ser-
vices charged were applied to the purposes of the Institution.

The Committee have also examined the account-books of the National
Museum, and find the balance, as before stated, of $14,852.36 to corre-
spond with the certificates of the disbursing-oflicer of the Department of
the Interior.

The quarterly accounts-current, bank-book, check-book, and journal
have all been examined and found to be correct, and to show a balance
to the credit of the Institution on the 6th of January, 1878, in charge
of the Treasurer of the United States of $25,083.90, to be appropriated
to the current operations of the Institution.

Respectfully submitted.
PETER PARKER,

JOHN MACLEAN,
GEO. BANCROFT,
Executive Committee of the Smithsonian Institution.

WASHINGTON, January 22, 1878.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,

WASHINGTON, D. C., January 16, 1878.
In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution fixing the time of the beginning of the annual session
on the third Wednesday of January in each year, the Board met this
day, but a quorum not being present it adjourned to meet on Wednesday,
January 23, at 7 o’clock p. m.

WASHINGTON, D. C., January 23, 1878.

A meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution was
held this day at 7 o’clock p. m., in the office of the Secretary.

Present, Chief- Justice Waite, Chancellor of the Institution; Hon. Wil-
liam A. Wheeler, Vice-President of the United States; Hon. h. H. Withers,
Hon. Hiester Clymer, Hon. James A. Garfield, Rev. Dr. John Maclean,
Prof. Asa Gray, Prof. Henry Coppée, Hon. Peter Parker, and the Secre-
tary.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Excuses for non-attendance were received from Messrs Hamlin, Sar-
gent, Bancroft, and Stephens.

The Secretary stated that on the 1st of November, 1877, the Vice-
President appointed Hon. R. E. Withers, of Virginia, as a member of
the Board of Regents, in place of Hon. J. W. Stevenson, of Kentucky,
whose term of service as Senator had expired. He also stated that the
Speaker of the House of Representatives, on the 14th January, 1878,
had appointed the following Regents: Hon. Hiester Clymer, of Pennsyl-
ania; Hon. Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia; Hon. James A. Garfield,
of Ohio. He also laid before the Board a letter from Prof. James D.
Dana, resigning his membership in the Board, on account of continued
ill health, and stated that a joint resolution had just passed both houses
of Congress electing President Noah Porter, of Yale College, Connec-
ticut, to fill the vacancy.

Professor Henry presented a general exhibit of the condition of the
Smithson fund and a detailed statement of the receipts and expenditures
for the year 1877. He stated that to save time these statements and
all the accounts of the Institution had been referred by him to the
Executive Committee.

The subject of the Virginia bonds held by the Institution and the

propriety of disposing of them was considered, the Secretary having
125

126 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

called attention to the fact that their present value was about $7,000 less
than at the last meeting of the Board.

Mr. Withers was of the opinion that the temporary depression was
due to fears of improper legislation by the State, and he could not pre-
dict what course would be pursued, but he believed it injudicious for the
Institution to part with these funds at present.

The Chancellor and the other Regents concurred in this opinion.

Dr. Parker, from the Executive Committee, presented the following
report relative to the portrait of the Secretary, ordered by the Board at

its last annual session :
REPORT.

The Executive Committee, which were authorized and requested to have
a life-size portrait of the Secretary of the Institution painted by some
competent artist, report that after a full inquiry for the best artist, the
chairman of the committee visiting New York solely for the purpose,
consulting men acquainted with, and judges of, the artists of the city, and
visiting the studios of some of the most distinguished portrait-painters
and examining their works, their choice was between Daniel Huntington
and Thomas LeClear, esqs.

Mr. Huntington, who had painted Professor Henry when a younger
man, would have been happy to paint him again in the maturity of his
years, but his health was delicate and he was averse to leaving home.
Mr. LeClear could come to Washington and paint the portrait at once,
The prices were essentially the same with both artists.

Mr. LeClear was decided upon, and he agreed “ to paint a three-quarter
length life-size, the canvas to be three feet by two feet nine inches, head
and two hands, for $1,500, the same to be painted in the best style pos-
sible to him.”

Mr. Huntington, on learning the decision of the Executive Committee,
wrote: “I congratulate you on your choice of my esteemed friend, Mr.
Thomas LeClear, to paint the portrait, which will insure you a work of
rare artistic merit.”

The committee have now the pleasure of presenting the Board of Re-
gents the portrait of Professor Henry, the result of their endeavor to
discharge the delicate duty devolved upon them.

PETER PARKER,
GEO. BANCROFT,
JOHN MACLEAN,
Executive Committee.
JANUARY 22, 1878.

On motion of Mr. Withers, the report of the committee was received
and ordered to lie upon the table for the present.

Dr. Parker presented the annual report of the Executive Committee,
signed by himself, Dr. Maclean, and Mr. Bancroft, relative to the re-
ceipts, expenditures, estimates, &c.

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 1a

On motion of Professor Coppée, the report was adopted.

The Secretary stated that the ‘Memorial of the Board of Regents,”
relative to the new building for the National Museum, had been presented
to Congress, and that a bill in accordance with it had passed the Senate,
without objection, but it had been presented so late in the session that
favorable action could not be obtained in the House of Representatives.
A renewed effort would be made this session to accomplish the desired
object. Several of the Regents expressed the opinion that the bill would
be passed at an early day.

The Secretary presented to the Board a miniature likeness of James
Smithson, founder of the Institution, and also one of Col. Henry Dick-
inson, his half brother, which had been purchased from Mons. dela Batut,
of Belz, France, a half brother of the nephew of Smithson, who parted
with them on account of pecuniary need and his desire that the Insti-
tution should possess them. Mr.dela Batut had also presented to the
Institution a numober of notes addressed to Smithson by Oersted, Arago,
Biot, Tennant, Klaproth, and other distinguished scientific men of his
time, showing his intimate association with them; also a draught, in
Smithson’s handwriting, of his will, differing in one very slight particular
from the will as presented to the United States by the English Court.

Professor Henry gave an account of what had been received of the
personal effects of Smithson, and stated that nearly all these had been
destroyed in the fire at the Institution in 1865. He advised the repub-
lication, in a suitable form, of all the scientific papers of Smithson.

On motion of Dr. Maclean it was—

esolved, That the Secretary be requested to have a memoir of James
Smithson prepared and published, to include all his scientific papers
now accessible. |

On motion of Dr. Coppée it was—

Resolved, That the Secretary prepare and publish a history of the
origin and progress of the Institution.

On motion of Dr. Coppée the Board adjourned to meet on Saturday,
26th instant, at 7 o’clock p. m.

JANUARY 26, 1878.

A meeting of the Board of Regents was held this day at 7 p. m., in
the office of the Secretary.

Present, Chief-Justice Waite, Chancellor; Hon. R. E. Withers, Hon.
James A. Garfield, Hon. George Bancroft, Hon Peter Parker, Dr. Asa
Gray, Dr. Henry Coppée, and Professor Henry, Secretary.

Excuses for non-attendance were received from Messrs. Wheeler, Ham-
lin, Sargent, Stephens, Clymer, Maclean, and Porter.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

Professor Henry presented his annual report of the operations of the
Institution for the year 1877, which was read in full.

On motion of Hon. James A. Garfield the report was accepted, and
the Secretary directed to transmit it to Congress.

128 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS.

The report of the Executive Committee, relative to the portrait of the
Secretary, laid over at last meeting, was considered.

On wotion of Dr. Gray it was—

Resolved, That the Regents accept from the Executive Committee the
portrait of the Secretary, procured in fulfillment of the resolution of the
Board of February 5, 1877, and present their thanks to the committee
for the satisfactory manner in which this duty bas been accomplished.

The Board then adjourned to meet at the call of the Secretary.

GENERAL APPENDIX

TO THE

SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1877.

The object of this appendix is to illustrate the operations of the Institution by
reports of lectures and extracts from correspondence, as well as to farnish information
of a character suited especially to the observers and other persons interested in the
promotion of knowledge.

129
9s

COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO ACCIDENTS BY RAIL
AND SEA.

By F. HOLMGREN,
Professor of Physiology at the University of Upsal.

[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by M. L. Duncan. ]*

INTRODUCTION.

In several preceding memoirs I have treated the subject of color-blind-
ness from the theoretical side of this singular phenomenon. But it has,
likewise, a practical side of vast importance; for not only does this de-
fect of vision every day give rise to inconveniences in the various depart-
ments of the sciences, arts, and industries, but itis also the cause of most
disastrous accidents by rail and by sea. Public attention has been
attracted to this side of the question by scientific works or by accidents,
and to judge from certain facts reported in books and newspapers, there
now seems to prevail a more general conviction of the necessity of making
the sense of color amongst seamen and railway employés an object of
official scrutiny and control in order to guard against this hidden danger,
to which too little attention has been given. Our times are probably
ripe for such a reform, and there is only wanting, it seems, for its imme-
diate and general adoption, a practical method, a well-arranged plan,
and initiatory energy. It is to supply these deficiencies that we have
undertaken and published these pages.

To Sweden belongs the honor of having taken the initiative in this
reform, and in such a manner as to exercise a full control over the sense
of color on all our railways. This reform was promptly matured, and
introduced in a not less rapid, sure, and systematic manner, which un-
doubtedly proves the advantages of the method, plan, and principles
which were followed.

A knowledge of the method of investigation and of the principles
relating toit has been so far disseminated merely by oral exposition and
application before the physicians and railway employés in the Amphi-
theatre of Physiology of Upsal, during the latter part of the year 1876.
Consequently, what is remarkable with regard to the subject is that the
entire reform was established in Sweden before any rules or principles
were printed. One of the most important causes of this fact is found
in the conviction felt from the first of the advantages of speech over
writing in such matters. The other reason is that our results were ob-
tained with unexpected rapidity, and that the time devoted to it pre-

* This article has been necessarily somewhat abridged from the French translation:
De la Cécité des Couleurs, dans ses rapports avec les Chemins-de-fer et la Marine, par
F. Holmgren. Traduit du suédors avec l’autorisation de auteur. Stockholm. 8 vo.

pp. 144. [1877.]
131

32 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

vented us from publishing this work before the reform was introduced.
If this fact should render the publication of these labors less indispen-
sable for the time being, we must not forget the importance and neces-
sity of directions which will serve in the future for our own railways, as
well as for the introduction of a similar reform elsewhere.

The importance of uniformity in the method of examination, in the
classification, and in the principles relating to the disposal of the per-
sonnel, cannot be too highly estimated, for this is of consequence, not
only to science, and especially to statistics, but also to a purely practical
eud. This fact becomes the more forcible when connected with the in-
vestigation of the sense of color among seamen; for every reform of this
kind within tke province of navigation naturally assumes an interna-
tional character. Our classification as well as our method of examining
the color-blind is founded upon the Young-Helmholtz theory, and we
cannot refrain from enumerating here the principal elements. This
theory is assuredly not the only one, nor even the last that has been
given to the public and gained partisans; but it is, in our opinion, the
best for the end in view, and it will be seen that it essentially responds,
as far as regards practical interest, to all that we have a right to require
of atheory. We have no intention of attempting to establish its correct-
ness. We make use of it for a definite purpose, under the conviction
that itis a needful basis for the systematic and accurate solution of
some of the practical questions under consideration.

In brief, the object of this work is to give a practical and clear idea
of the nature of color-blindness, of its importance to marine and railway
service, and, finally, a concise summary of the principles to be followed
and the measures to be taken in order to secure immunity from its peca-
liar dangers. The reason why we confine ourselves almost exclusively
to railways here is that the reform in view has already been introduced
into this department, and a valuable experience acquired. And it is
clear that these results may equally well be applied to navigation, at
least in all essentials.

Color-blindness in many other departments of practical life also leads
to serious inconveniences, and as it is desirable that an examination of
the chromatic sense be undertaken on a large scale in schools, as a guide
in the choice of professions, we hope this memoir may serve in a meas-
ure to this end. We should, moreover, be very happy to have the
opportunity (so rarely accorded to physiology) of being useful to haman-
ity, without the intervention of practical medicine.

I.— HISTORICAL SKETCH.

Color-blindness has been known for a long time, and, therefore, has
its history. The first cases known to the public are mentioned in a let-
ter from Joseph Huddart* to Joseph Priestley, dated January 15, 1777,

* An Account of persons who could not distinguish colors. By Mr. Joseph Huddart,

in a letter to the Rey. Joseph Priestley, L.L.D., F.R.S. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society of London. Vol. Ixvii. For the year 1777, part i, p. 260.

x

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 13a

just one hundred years ago. The cases in point were those of a shoe-
maker, named Harris, of Mary-port, in Cumberland, and his brother,
master of a merchant-vessel, belonging to the same port. Although the
description is very brief, several features, which at a later date charac-
terized complete color-blindness, are recognized, and especially in the
latter case the type of blindness known at present under the name of
red-blindness.

The first case of color-blindness accurately described, known to us, is
that of John Dalton, the celebrated English chemist and physicist.
Unable to distinguish red, he studied this defect of nature in himself,
and published in 1794 a detailed and accurate description of it.* It is
after him that color-blindness received the name of Daltonism, an ap-
pellation which appears to have been employed for the first time by
Pierre Prévost, at Geneva, in 1827, and was, therefore, in use during the
life of Dalton, who did not die until 1844. It is not known whether
Dalton was aware of this appellation, but, however that may be, he
probably would not have objected to this use of his name, for according
to George Wilson he was more amused than annoyed by his defect, he
himself enjoying the amusement he afforded others by his mistakes
in colors. His countrymen have, however, warmly protested against
this manner of immortalizing the memory of Dalton by perpetuating a
congenital defect, especially as his scientific merits are sufficient to ren-
der his name imperishable. But notwithstanding these protestations,
and the universal use in England of the name of color-blindness, which
was first introduced by Sir David Brewster, and is now in general use in
Germany (farbeblindheit), the terms Daltonisme and Daltonien are still
in common use in France.

Dalton also cites a number of instances of color-blindness, similar to
his own, and later a host of others are mentioned by different authors;
but, on the whole, these are isolated cases accidentally encountered, and
considered as curiosities, and their most striking features described and
discussed, but with no knowledge of how to reduce them to fixed laws.
For this purpose, three things were especially wanting: a practical
method of investigation, a large material for the purpose, and a satis-
factory theory for direction in the employment of this material.

Seebeck was the first to interest himself especially in systematically
collecting a number of cases relatively very large, and in comparing
them with each other. In 1837 he made a strict examination of the
students of one class in a school in Berlin, and gave a detailed account
of twelve cases of complete color-blindness examined by himself, and of
one mentioned by his father, as well as a few other instances more or
less color-blind, which form the transition between complete color-blind-
ness and the normal chromatic sense. Seebeck understood the uncer-

* Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colors: with observations by Mr. John
Dalton, read October 31st, 1794. Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society
of Manchester. Vol. v, part i (1798), p. 28.

134 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

tainty and inadmissibility of attempting to discover the nature of this
blindness by simply interrogating the color-blind as to the names of the
colored objects; he was careful to note what mistakes they made in
comparing the colors, or, in other words, he ascertained between what
colors, different to the normal eye, they found resemblances. Follow-
ing up this principle, he proceeded methodically to examine individuals ;
he invited them to arrange, in the order of their resemblances to each
other, a number of colored objects, which in the beginning were in confu-
sion. He used principally paper, about three hundred pieces of differ-
ent colors, not, however, rejecting other materials, especially pieces of
colored glass. He objected to silk on account of its brilliancy, but ree-
ommended wool, although he does not appear himself to have preferred
to use it. Itis not clear from Seebeck’s writings whether, after each
examination, he preserved the order in which these pieces of paper were
arranged by the color-blind; but it is certain he compared the manner
of arranging them in different cases, and drew his own conclusions.
By this comparison, Seebeck succeeded in pointing out two classes of
specifically distinct color-blindness. Of the thirteen cases he examined,
eight belonged to the first and five to the second class. Moreover, he
shows that in the two classes there is a great variety of degrees of color-
blindness, and seeks further to prove the probable existence in the two
classes of a gradual transition to the normal sense of color.

But Seebeck and his contemporaries, like their predecessors, could not
discover a satisfactory explanation of the defect in question, or practi-
cally see its relation to the normal sense of color. This is easily ex-
plained by the fact that at this time there was not the least plausible
system of a physiological doctrine of colors. Indeed, as early as the
beginning of our cenvury, a useful and satisfactory theory had been
devised by Thomas Youug, but it had been neglected or forgotten, as were
many of the other ideas of this extraordinary man, who was far in
advance of his age, and consequently not understood. The theory of the
three primitive colors, or fundamental perceptions, of Young, was rescued
from oblivion by Helmholtz about the year 1850, and also later, but inde-
pendently, by Maxwell. This theory has undoubtedly already exerted a
very happy influence over the physiological doctrine of colors in general,
as well as over thatof the anomaly in chromatic perception. In designat-
ing this theory by the names of both scientists, we thereby simply ren-
der justice to the merit which accrues to Helmholtz for having revived
and applied it. Owing to this theory, the question of the nature of color-
blindness has been of late the object of strong and growing interest. The
number of cases, and also of treatises on the subject, have increased very
considerably, and the study, undertaken by physiologists as well as by
ophthalmological practitioners, has not been confined to congenital color-
blindness and its different forms, but has also extended with much
earnestness over pathological diagnostics. It is only about ten years
since that a new theory, that of four cardinal colors, succeeded in making

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 135

many partisans. But when will it be in a condition to meet the exigen-
cies of the physiological doctrine of colors in a more satisfactory manner
than the Young-Helmholtz theory? Thisis yet unknown. With regard
to the defect now occupying our attention, it seems very doubtful, to
judge by the trials that have been made, whether this theory would better |
meet practical necessities than that of the three cardinal colors. And
it is precisely these practical requirements that have led us to mention
the theory here

Up to the present time, the theoretical problem of color-blindness
has undoubtedly been the object of more serious attention, and has been
richer in results than the practical. Now, as the latter is nevertheless
of singular importance, and the difficulties to be encountered to solve it
in a satisfactory manner seem, in many respects, of only secondary
importance, it is not easy, in reality, at the first approach, to find a suit-
able explanation. It will not, therefore, be uninteresting, we believe, to
cast a rapid glance over this side of the question from a historical
point of view, which will, in the first place, bring out the fact of which
we speak, and perhaps also contribute to bring to light the point at
which it is necessary to look for the cause of this state of things. The
first writer who seriously occupied himself with the investigation of
color-blindness in the various departments of practical life, and especially
drew attention to the possible accidents occasioned by the employment
of color-blind individuals on railways and at sea, and generally in all
operations where colored signals are used, was George Wilson, professor
of technology at the University of Edinburgh.* Wilson’s researches.
were purely practical in aim and end. The mistakes made by the
students of his laboratory in judging the colors of chemical precipitates
led him to reflect upon this subject, after reading the memoir in
which Dalton describes his own anomaly. Tor a long time, he tells
us he scarcely dared suspect any of his pupils of having so rare an‘in-
firmity, but, like many after him, he took courage, proceeded to make
an examination, and found that not only were his suspicions perfectly
correct, but that color-blinduess was far from being so uncommon
as usually supposed.

He dilates at length, in his memoir, on the peculiar characteristics of
seventeen color-blind individuals; eight were examined by himself, and
the others described by different observers, or the color-blind them-
selves. These cases were distributed as follows: fourteen men and
three women; sixteen cases were congenital, and one proceeded from
a cerebral affection caused by a fall from a horse. It must be re-
membered that this last case had not been examined before the acci-
dent; a circumstance renderipg the verification of the pathological
origin of color-blindness difficult, but the description seems to authorize

* Researches on color-blindness, with a supplement on the danger attending the

present system of railway and marine colored signals. By George Wilson. Edin-
burgh, 1855.

136 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

the conclusion that the case was correctly judged. Besides these
cases described in detail, and illustrated by a number of interesting anec-
dotes, Wilson cites a great many others analogous, but only accidentally
encountered by our author, or mentioned to him by other persons, for
which he was indebted to the interest the question had excited in Eng-
land by his own initiatory steps. Wilson’s data are not merely limited
to this kind of investigation. Healso mentions thesystematic researches,
(analogous in some measure to those of Seebeck,) which he undertook in
order to discover color-blind individuals, and by that means form some
idea of the frequency of color-blindness amongst the population. It is
to him, in fact, we owe the first efforts to establish regular statistics on
this subject, as it would be difficult to receive as such the cases collected
by Dalton. To attain this‘end, Wilson examined at the same timea large
number of individuals belonging to the same class, such as soldiers,
students, police-agents, veterinary students, etc., and discovered in this
way 65 color-blind out of 1,154 persons examined; that is, 5.6 per
cent., or one color-blind out of every 17.7 persons. If desired that statis-
tics of this nature should render the service expected, it is plain that
there must be great strictness in the use of the methods of examination,
and especially in any case where a doubt of color-blindness exists. Here,
as in the classification of color-blindness in general, theory exercises
great influence. In this respect, it is very important that uniformity
should prevail, or at least that, at the time of the employment of the
different theories and methods, the limits should be well defined between
color-blindness on one hand, and, on the other, between the different
kinds of anomalies, and finally that the process should be so selected for
examination and classification that from any practical point of view
an accurate judgment could be formed of the result, and a classifica-
tion made of the different cases under any system whatsoever. It is only
by fulfilling these conditions that these statistical data can be useful;
and that they may have a real value, it is the more necessary that the
method should be so sure that no color-blind individual could escape
the experimenter. .

It is impossible to say that Wilson’s statistics fulfill these requirements.
Wilson was not ignorant of Young’s theory as restored by Helmholtz
and Maxwell. But this theory had not as yet begun to excercise a
general influence over the ideas of the nature of the anomalous percep-
tion of colors, the methods employed in discovering it, and the manner
of classifying the different forms. Wilson’s method and classification
therefore are deficient. His method consists in presenting to the
individuals to be examined pieces of colored paper, one after the
other, or a diagram in an illustrated work, and asking the names of
the colors. Those only who evince some hesitation in distinguishing
red, green, and brown are required to submit to Seebeck’s proof, that is
to say, classifying according to their analogy, but without indicating by
name the pieces of colored paper, glass, or wool. From this it can be

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 137

quite positively concluded that this method is not altogether safe.
Wilson acknowledges as possible that some of the color-blind might pass
unperceived, especially when, to save time, the examination is made more
hastily than the method allows.

The classification is not better regulated; in fact, it distributes the
color-blind into three classes: Ist, those who confound red with green ;
2d, those who confound brown with green; and, 3d, those who confound
blue with green. This distribution is not founded upon any theory, nor
is it either the exact expression of well-defined kinds. Wilson himself
agrees that those who make the mistakes characterizing the first class do
not fail to make those of the second also. The second group might there-
fore be correctly regarded as the same kind as the first, of an inferior
degree. With regard to the third class, it is more than doubtful whether
the greater number of the cases which it includes can be classed under
the head of color-blindness. It also seems that Wilson hesitated with
regard to this, since he has excluded this group from one of his tables.
This class contributes the most also in rendering the proportion of color-
blindness as great as Wilson found it. From these statements, the
statistics given by this author cannot be regarded as very useful.
Besides, the number of cases examined is too limited, especially as the
particular figures forming the sum-total differ considerably among them-
selves. There is, however, another reason rendering Wilson’s work of
great importance, and worthy of being especially mentioned here. Wil-
son’s constant aim, in fact, was to direct attention to color-blindness in
its connection with practical life, and that in a very extended sense. He
shows that an individual whose anomaly from infancy has been estab-
lished should avoid selecting a profession in which his defective sense of
color might occasion difficulties and annoyances to himself as well as to
others. According to Wilson, the color-blind should never become paint-
ers, dyers, weavers, tailors, chemists, botanists, geologists, ph ysicians, ete.
Amongst the occupations in which the color-blind risk being the cause of
embarrassments and annoyances to themselves as well as to others, and of
real and serious accidents, Wilson especially mentions those of the
sailor and railway employé, because the color-blind, who have a peculiar
tendency to confound the very colors employed as signals at sea and
on railways, may in this way occasion even death itself.

Wilson does not confine himself to pointing out these dangers to their
full extent, but proposes preventive measures. For this purpose, he
Suggests very sensibly the only two measures that could be taken: to
preserve the colored signals in actual use,—red (= danger), green (=
attention), and white (the ordinary light of lanterns, that is yellow =
clear track), and in this case eliminate all the color-blind; or else
retain all, and change the signals. Wilson decides in favor of the latter
alternative, which he considers preferable. He says that the managers
of railways have been very unfortunate in their choice of colors, select-
ing precisely those, red and green, the color-blind confound the most.

138 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

This opinion does not extend to the signals used during the day. But
Wilson fails, and very naturally, when he proposes other colors prefer-
able, according to his judgment, for night-signals; for example, a blue
light, excellent in all other respects, cannot fail to be useless in conse-
quence of the small amount of power it is capable of acquiring in an
ordinary lantern. Wilson reaches the conclusion that colors should be
discarded as principal signals; they should be employed, he says, only
as auxiliary, and founds his system of signals on form, motion, and num-
ber. He enlarges to some extent upon this subject in a supplement to
his memoir, into the details of which we cannot now enter.

The dangers which threaten travel by rail and sea, and the disasters
resulting from mistakes of the color-blind with regard to colored signals,
were clearly understood and distinctly expressed, and the measures to be
taken to avoid them plainly proposed more than twenty years since. If,
therefore, it is now asked, as would be natural, to what practical results
all this has led, we might reasonably expect, especially when we recall the
attention that Wilson awakened on the subject amongst his contempora-
ries, that an important reformation for assuring public safety would long
since have been accomplished not only in England, but in every civilized
country. A mere glance over the existing condition of things, however,
reveals the fact that the answer is not satisfactory. The only practical
result mentioned by Wilson in his work as a result of his writings, is
the resolution of the Great Northern Railway Company that the entire
personnel must in future prove themselves free from this defect of the
chromatic sense before entering the service; and, as Wilson says, the
public is indebted for this wise measure to one of the directors of the
company, Mr. Graham Hutchison, whose attention was called to Wil-
son’s works by Dr. Mackenzie, of Glasgow. We see by this that the
numerous articles written by Wilson before publishing his views and
experience in full had aroused public attention to an interesting phe-
nomenon in the scientific world, but had not led to any practical appli-
cation, except in the one case in which a physician had succeeded in per-
sonally interesting one of the directors of a railway company in the ques-
tion. We know not how far other administrations have followed this
example. It is very probable that this measure has not been adopted by
a single company in Dalton’s country, where color-blindness was dis-
covered in the first place, and where it was studied with so much care
that England was long regarded as the veritable land of this anomaly.

It would appear then that no considerable change has taken place in
the matter since Wilson’s time. With regard to the English navy, we
still lack positive information.

With regard to France we are more fortunate. Fora long term of
years, Dr. A. Favre, of Lyons, was occupied with the practical side of
this question, and made different investigations into the perception of
colors, especially amongst the employés of the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranean
Company, of which he was for a long time one of the consulting physi-

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. | 139

cians. He then proceeded to make an examination of soldiers, sailors,
. and students. The information we are about to give is principally
derived from Dr. Favre’s pamphlet, which he kindly sent us.

We will give a brief statement of his statistics, his method, and his
idea of color-blindness, and then his propositions for practical measures.

In relation to the frequency of color-blindness amongst the personnel
of railways, Dr. Favre tell us that out of 1,196 candidates examined by
him from June, 1864, to December, 1872, thirteen were red-blind and
one green-blind (1.17 per cent.) ; but out of 728 employés of the same
line examined in 1&72 and 1873, he found not less than 42 cases (5.76
per cent.) of color-blindness more or less pronounced, and that although
276 amongst them had previously submitted to an examination for the
same defect. During a subsequent examination, from July, 1873, to Oc-
tober 1, 1875, he discovered, amongst 1,050 men from eighteen to thirty
years of age, nearly all formerly soldiers, not less than 98 color-blind
(9.33 per cent.). The increasing proportion of color-blindness at each
series of inspection must be attributed to the modifications introduced
into the method and diagnosis, owing to which a comparatively much
larger number of cases has been classed under the head of color-blind-
ness. This large proportion is easily explained by the method and man-
ner of makiug the diagnosis. Dr. Favre’s method, which he has devel-
oped from year to year, consists in this: he presents to the subjects to be
examined wool of different colors corresponding to those of the spectrum,
red, yellow (including orange), green, blue (including indigo), and violet,
and demands the name of each of these colors. All who are at fault
about them are pronounced color-blind. He regards also as such those
who hesitate, and who, when the test is repeated several times, give toa
color sometimes its own name and sometimes another. And yet, Dr.
Favre thought it his duty to correct the result obtained at the last exam-
ination: from the 98 cases, he withdrew 29, who hesitated only in the
designation of the colors, and 8, who, after repeated tests, corrected their
preceding mistakes; the proportion falls by that from 9.33 to 5.8 per
cent. |

On two points, Dr. Favre has in his works announced new views, and
whether they ought to be accepted or merely left to gain supporters,
they are of a nature to produce consequences of great importance in the
practical world. In fact, it has invited especial attention on one hand
to acquired color-blindness, which is quite common, according to his pam-
phlet, on the Paris- Lyon- Mediterranean line, and results from various
causes. On the other hand, he asserts that congenital color-blindness is
not incurable, but can be eed by means of assiduous and syste-
matic exercise in colors.

The practical measures demanded by Dr. Favre, in accordance with
his views and experience and that of his fellow-laborers, with regard
to color-blindness, might be embodied in the following terms: an ex-
amination of the chromatic sense, obligatory upon all candidates for

140 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

railway employment, and upon those already in service ; exclusion from
active service of all who cannot distinguish red; especial examination of
all employés afflicted with contusions or wounds on the head, orrecovering
froma serious illness; examination of drinkers and smokers; and, finally,
a periodical examination of the entire personnel in active service; these
last measures having reference to acquired color-blindness. These prin-
ciples apply equally well to sailors. In behalf of his views on the
curability of acquired color-blindness, in which he seems more and more
interested, Dr. Favre earnestly urges the intreduction of systematic
exercise in colors in schools, in the army and navy, and on railways.

It is readily seen that these views, and the measures based upon them
might have very considerable practical consequences; in fact, if they were
proved by a decisive test, we would have the best and most radical means of
preventing all the inconveniences and dangers that color- blindness might
occasion. But, on the other hand, if the ideas of our honorable colleague
prove to rest on but slight foundation, as is generally admitted so far,
and as we ourselves believe, it is to be feared lest through an actual
improvement in the chromatic sense, on which these measures depend,
we might be led into error as to the ability that the color-blind often
acquire by practice in designating the colors of common objects accu-
rately by conjecture or the help of other characteristics, and, lulled into
a false security, neglect the measures that should and might be taken.
We are far from asserting that Dr. Favre’s opinion on this point may
have already exercised such an influence, but we cannot refrain from
mentioning a circumstance, which, at all events, would not contradict
such asupposition. In fact, Dr. Favre tells us that in 1875 the Academy
of Sciences and Letters at Lyons voted resolutions calling the attention
of the ministers, and amongst others that of the navy, to Dr. Favre’s
publications, and especially his request that sailors should be educated
and exercised in colors. We do not know whether this decision has
been put into practice, but we have no reason to doubt it. But, on the
other hand, we learn, from special information, that up to the present
(January, 1877) no examination of the chromatic sense has been exacted
of those desiring to enter the French navy. Nevertheless, Dr. Favre’s
labors and his practical efforts in the cause of color-blindness have
awakened genuine attention in France and Belgium. He tells us bhim-
self, also, that the greater part of the precautionary measures in use on
the Lyons railway from 1857 have been since introduced on other lines,
and quite recently on the Belgian railways. Moreover, Dr. Favre’s
example has enlisted the interest of several physicians in this cause.
One of the most distinguished, Dr. Féris, surgeon-general of the navy,
has written a memoir on the importance of color-blindness to navigation.
This memoir describes an examination, by the author, of 501 sailors,
amongst whom he discovered 41 cases, more or less affected with this
anomaly of the chromatic perception, that is to say, 8.18 per cent. This
large proportion is explained by the fact that Dr. Féris finally employed

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. TAT

the same method and made the same diagnosis as Dr. Favre, ard nearly
the same classification, with slight modifications. .

The foregoing seems to show that the question is now exciting atten-
tion in France, and this owing to the activity of a single individual.
It is obvious, however, that although Dr. Favre may have succeeded
in introducing measures insuring the communications against color-blind-
ness amongst the employés of the line to which he was himself attached, or
those of other lines, no reform has been generally recommended or intro-
duced on the French railways, and that absolutely no measures have
been taken in thenavy. Besides, it is evident from certain passages in
Dr. Favre’s pamphlet and from his opinion of the curability of congeni-
tal color-blindness, that the principles applied, where a control has been
introduced, have not been particularly rigorous. <As to the elimination
of the color-blind personnel, it might with certainty be concluded that no
rigid rule has been followed; from the fact that those only are dis-
charged from active service who “‘ cannot or only partially can distinguish
red, and are consequently dangerous,” and the fact that of the forty-two
color-blind subjects detected by Dr. Favre in one of his examinations,
nine only were removed from active service.

In Germany, where an interest in color-blindness has been lately ex-
cited in many quarters, but little is presented in regard to the control of
this defect on railways and in the navy. We can supply only a few data
capable of throwing any light upon the state of the question there.

In an article on the works of Dr. Favre, Mr. Blaschko points out the
importance of seriously making the sense of color amongst the person-
nel of railways an object of official scrutiny and control, according to
Dr. Favre’s plan.

Dr Stilling in 1875 gave us still further information in an account of a
method proposed by him for discovering color-blindness by means of
colored shadows. “Here also in Germany,” says he, “several railway
companies have directed their attention to this subject (color-blindness),
and the time is probably not far distant when investigation amongst
railway personnel and others will be undertaken ex officio and en
masse.” We do not know how or in what measure this prediction may
be realized, but inasmuch as the late movement in Sweden was regarded
by the German papers as a new and extraordinary phenomenon, and as,
moreover, one of the most eminent physiologists of Germany writes us
that no general measures have been adopted with regard to it in that
country, we may conclude that no practical reformation on the subject
has been generally introduced there.

We hear from Holland that measures with regard to this defect are
now on the road to execution.

A rapid glance over the development and existing state of this ques-
tion in Sweden canuot be void of interest. In what is called the Lager-
lunda case or trial, instituted in consequence of a railway accident, of
which Lagerlunda in Ostrogothia was the theater, November 15, 1875,

142 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

and which at the time intensely excited public attention, testimony
was adduced which led me to suppose that color-blindness was one of
the principal causes of the disaster. This impressed me with the idea
that official scrutiny and control should be exercised over the sense of
color amongst railway employés. Without knowing what had been
done or written with reference to this in other countries, I considered it
my duty to take the initiative. After convincing myself that the steps
to be taken should consist, with the preservation of the existing system
of signals, in eliminating from the railway service all employés afflicted
with color-blindness, or at least those with certain kinds and degrees, I
regarded it, first, of the highest importance, to have a practical method
which should render the discovery of the color-blind rapid and certain,
without incurring heavy expense or requiring extensive preparations,
and in consequence to be able to examine easily a considerable number
of individuals. Then it seemed to me essential to endeavor to interest
the high functionaries at the head of the railways personally in the
matter.

As regards the method, I had already found one purely theoretic,
which, while in agreement with that of Young-Helmholtz, proved to be
practical in the examination of the color-blind. But this method was
only intended for discovering the types of partial color-blindness (com-
plete, according to the theory), but not the form of blindness I had
ascertained by the perimetrical examination of the colored visual field,
and defined under the name of incomplete color-blindness. The method
received accordingly a new practical aim, and it became necessary, in
consequence, to render it more accurate, and especially to make a trial
of it by an examination of the masses, so as to determine, by experiment,
the practical value of the method, and form an idea of the amount of
color-blindness in our country, of which no one had the slightest con-
ception. The desired occasion presented itself in the month of June,
1876, and I am indebteded to the politeness of Major-General Von Knor-
ring and Major Rudbeck for permission to examine 2,220 men belonging
to a regiment of infantry, cantoned in Upland (standing army and mili-
tia), and to the dragoons of the guard (militia). The method proved to
be capable, in its extraordinary simplicity, of perfectly answering the
end in view with reference to rapidity and accuracy. The examination
of each man required, on an average, one minute, sometimes more and
often less ; and with the improved form we had given the method, we
also discovered, with accuracy, every individual incompletely color-
blind. With regard to the knowledge acquired by this examination of
color-blindness amongst the population of the province, we found that
out of 2,220 men eleven could not distinguish red, seventeen green, one
violet (?), and thirty-one were incompletely blind, according to the
classification I had used. There were, then, in all, sixty color-blind,
or 2.7 per cent. —The instances of a feeble sense of color are not in-
cluded in this.

ACCIDENTS BY- RAIL AND< SEA. 143

On the 14th of July, of the same year, I had an opportunity, before a
congress of Scandinavian physicians assembled at Gothembourg, of
giving an account of the method, of stating the results obtained by its
use, and, besides, of expressing my views on the necessity of taking
measures, on a large scale, for the detection of color-blindness, especially
amongst railway employés. It resulted in the congress unanimously
resolving that it was necessary to make investigations for the detection
of color-blindness: 1st. Amongst employés of railways; 2d. Amongst
pilots, light-house keepers, and sailors in general; and 3d. In schools.
During the session of the congress I had an opportunity also of proving
to the physicians the practical utility of the method by examining, in their
presence, and with the permission of Colonel Carlsohn, 100 men of a regi-
ment of artillery from Gothia, amongst whom we found four color-blind,
namely, one red-blind, one green, and two incompletely blind. Besides,
on the same occasion, we discovered amongst the medical members of
the congress one green-blind, and amongst the audience one red-blind.

I was then advised to apply directly, in person, to the directors of rail-
ways. Thanks to the press, which had attentively followed up the
debates of the Gothembourg congress, the question had reached the
public. It naturally became an object of attention to railway officials,
although received by a greater portion of them with a certain mistrust,
seeing in it the result of a scientist’s imagination or an overwrought
solicitude, rather than a matter of practical application for the benefit
of railways. ‘If color-blindness really exist,” they said, “‘it cannot, at
any rate, be amongst the employés, or it would undoubtedly have been
remarked ; especially must this be the case amongst the engineers and con-
ductors, as they rise from inferior grades, and consequently have amply
proved their ability to distinguish signals.” It was therefore of extreme
importance to endeavor to obtain at once positive assurance on this
point. The opportunity soon presented itself. Mr. Jacobsson, superin-
tendent-in-chief of the Upsala-Gefle line, invited me to accompany him
in a tour of inspection to examine all the employés under his con-
trol. The trip was made in a special car; we left Upsal the 7th of
September, and, to make our inspection, halted at every station and
gate-keeper’s and guard-house. Inbrief, we stopped at every place where
an employé could be found. The investigation was concluded at Gefle,
the Sth of September. The entire personnel, men and women, number-
ing 266 individials, was examined. We discovered amongst these
thirteen color-blind men, that is, 4.8 per cent.; six were completely green-
blind, and seven incompletely blind. They were distributed as follows,
with reference to their functions: one station-master, one engineer, two
conductors, one foreman, two workmen (one a supernumerary), two
overseers (one a Supernumerary), two way-guards, one porter (messenger),
and one journeyman engineer. Immediately after the examination, the
general superintendent discharged all who were completely green-blind.

This first inspection was in many respects very interesting. It showed

144 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

that the method of inspection could be used and was expedient for rail-
ways. Moreover, it proved that there really were color-blind in almost
every grade of service of a Swedish railway, and this without there
having been the slightest suspicion of it, which confirmed my opinion of
the utility and importance of enabling those employed on railways to
convince themselves de visu of the nature of color-blindness and of its
practical value to railways.

Relying upon the experience I had just acquired, I wrote, September
25, to the royal directors of the state railways, and called attention,
amongst other matters, to the necessity of establishing a systematic con-
trol over the sense of colors amongst railway officials, and requested at the
same time permission, in the presence of the directors, or a person desig-
nated for the purpose, to examine the officials attached to any railway
whatsoever for the purpose of convincing the directors, in a practical
manner, of the true nature and importance of the question. At this time
the directors had already issued orders that as incapacity to distinguish
primitive colors closed the avenue to railway employment, the physi-
cians attached to the different lines must examine all applicants, and
that heads of sections must afterward examine into whether any of
their subordinates were incapable of distinguishing these colors, in the
use of flags and ordinary signal-lights, in any way which seemed pro-
per to them. On the other hand, however, debates and experiments on
color-blind individuals, at the Physiological Institute of Upsal, had
enabled me to succeed in interesting in the question several persons at-
tached to railways, and amongst them all the directors of the Upsal-
Gefle line.

In another letter to the royal directory, dated October 8, I invited
the members to be present at one of these experiments, to be able to
form a better judgment of the question. Two engineers of the rail-
way presented themselves October 11, and on the 13th the chief
director, Mr. Troilius, came in person. From this day success seemed
assured. As early as October 16, the directors ordered that a physician
from each district, and as many more as should desire, should assemble
at my office at an appointed time, to acquaint themselves with the
metheds that I would explain to them relative to the examination of
cases of color-blindness amongst the railway personnel. In consequence
of this, at the appointed time, October 24, twenty-six physicians at-
tached to railways assembled in the Amphitheater of Physiology at
Upsal, and also thirty-two individuals employed on railways, amongst
whom were the heads of nearly all the lines belonging to the private
companies of the country.

November 9, the managers directed the physicians of the lines to
proceed gradually, and according to my method, in the examination of
all the men then employed on railways. Those of the physicians
who did not understand this method, added the circular, should
study it, either with me, or with one of the physicians who had been

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 145

present at my lectures on the subject; and finally the superintendents
must send a report of the result of this examination, suggest measures
to be taken, And in certain cases apply those that circumstances might
require. In this way the reform was actually introduced on the rail-
ways of the state. The example was soon followed by the private com-
panies (we do not know of a single exception), and although all the re-
ports have not been returned (February, 1877), and consequently the
result is not yet perfectly known, we might assert that the examination
itself is finished every where, in an almost if not entirely thorough man-
ner. Every case during the examination pronounced doubtful in the
diagnosis, or where doubt. existed about the measures to take with re-
gard to it, has been reported to me. Sweden is consequently the first
and only country, as we see, where the control in question has been gen-
erally adopted, and applied according to determined principles.

We have enlarged to some extent on the manner in which this matter
has been successively accomplished in our country, not simply to give
our experience on the subject, but rather that such details seem to us to
elucidate the question occupying us. This will be clearly evident if we
compare other countries with our own with regard to this. Let us recall
the following facts: In England, color-blindness has been known for a
century, and tor more than twenty years a strict control over the sense
of color amongst railway employés and sailors has been demanded. In
France, a physician attached to a railway has been for a long time inter-
ested in color-blindness amongst its employés, and has been endeavor-
ing for at least three years to introduce a general control on railways, in
the navy, and in schools. Finally, in Germany, color-blindness has
been for a long time a subject of scientific study, where the necessity
of a control of the railway officials has been urged by a number of
people of late years. Well, we have seen that in spite of all this, not one
of these countries has yet decreed or introduced a general control on
railways and in the navy. In Sweden, on the other hand, where color-
blindness had scarcely been mentioned until the last few years, and
where a proposition to examine railway officials was only publicly made
July 14, 1876, and referred to directors of railways September 25, of the
same year, this important reform may be already regarded (February,
1877) as actually and thoroughly established, in all essential details, on
the entire system of railways throughout our country. To complete our
data, it may be added that since November 12, 1876, the king has issued
orders that, at the time of a general review of the fleet, every man should
be examined with reference to color-blindness. This result is so truly
remarkable that we cannot refrain from endeavoring to discover the
probable explan ition of the unexampled rapidity with which it has been
reached in our evuntry. The explanation does not seem to us difficult.
In our opinion, if is chiefly owing to two circumstances: one is the
method employed, which is not only accurate, as well as simple and
rapid, a effects so palpable a result that the most skeptical observer

Ss

146 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

is struck by it; the other circumstance is the manner in which the
knowledge of the method, as well as the principles for the introduction
of an official control, has been spread throughout our country. This
publicity was not reached in the usual way, through the medium of
books, but by oral exposition, practical application, and de visu. Our
idea is confirmed by the fact that this personal influence is recognized
in the cases brought to our knowledge in England and France, where
the scrutiny and control over the sense of color amongst the personnel
of railways has been introduced, particularly on the Great Northern
Railway of the first-named country, and the Paris-Lyons-Mediterra-
pean line. But even without this support, our experience would suffi-
ciently convinee us that it is important, if not necessary, to explain the
question orally and de visu to the physicians, and especially to railway
employés. Speech, in such cases, has an undoubted advantage, and
our experience of the last months of 1876, when the Amphitheater of
Physiology at Upsal was often the resort of physicians, railway officials,
and individuals afflicted with color-blindness, proves to us that this
kind of communication, especially in such a case as that now before us,
undoubtedly exerts a more powerful influence than the best written book.

The warm interest with which the question has been followed up by
the journals is too important a circumstance to be forgotten. Not only
has this kept the public on the alert, but the movement begun by us
has been continued in other countries. Immediate effects were visi-
ble amongst our neighbors. In Finland, Dr. L. Krohn, who acquainted
himself by correspondence with the method and principles used in
Sweden, has already examined the railway officials of his country. A
locomotive and ambulance were placed at his disposal for examining
the personnel the whole length of the line. All was accomplished in
twelve days. He discovered amongst twelve hundred individuals exam-
ined, sixty color-blind, that is, 5 per cent. They were distributed as
follows: four red-blind; twenty-five green-blind; and thirty-one incom-
pletely blind.

We have as yet heard of no results from our method in Denmark and
Norway, but the question is there under serious examination, as the
Physiological Insti‘:te of Upsal has been visited on different occasions
by two Danish ph sicians, Dr. Slidelin and Dr. Fontenay, sent by the
railway managers »f Zeeland, and by Mr. Hagen, assistant at the Physi-
ological Laborat: ry of Christiania, sent by the Medical Board of Norway
at the suggestivn of Professor Worm-Miiller. I have thus had the
pleasure of ex iaining to them the method of examination as well as the
practical prin :iples and rules I propose to communicate in this work.

Il.—THE NATURE OF COLOR-BLINDNESS.

It is not my intention to treat this question in a thorough manner,
but simply to mention what is essential to the practical end in view.
It has been known for a long time that every one does not possess

—

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 147

the power of distinguishing colors in the same manner, and that some
exhibit a divergence of such a nature as to excite surprise and amuse-
ment. The confusion of green and red is very common. But, in many
instances, the difficulty consists merely in discriminating between deli-
cate shades, while the principal colors are easily distinguished. How
shall we explain all this; how find the relation existing between the
normal sense of colors and the abnormal; and where must the limit be
drawn ?

1.— THEORETICAL SKETCH.

Every one knows that a radiant body creates, throughout the ether
which surrounds it, undulations which are propagated in every direction.
When these undulations—whether they proceed directly in right lines
from the radiant body, the sun for example, or whether they are reflected
by some intervening body encountered in their course—come in contact
with special organs of sense, they produce certain corresponding changes,
which, in their turn, excite certain perceptions in our mind. If the un-
dulations come in contact with our skin, we experience the sensation of
heat; if they strike the retina, that of light. It is consequently our own
brain that produces both light and heat, resulting from certain changes
that take place in our organs of sense (the retina or the skin), although
by these names we designate the external cause, when we say that the
rays of light and heat proceed from the ineandescent body. Neverthe-
less, to thoroughly understand this fact it is necessary on the one hand
to distinguish between light and heat in an objective sense, which are
virtually the same thing, that is to say, undulations of the ethereal
medium; and, on the other hand, between light and heat in a subjective
sense, which are sensations of an altogether different kind. We have,
in the first place, here to consider our perceptions, and as their most
immediate cause is found in a modification or activity of our own organs
of sense, whatever be the external cause, it is clear that we must seek
the explanation of all Jaminous phenomena in our special organism—
the optic nerve; comprehending by that term the retina, the optic nerve,
and those portions of the brain with which they communicate.

If all the undulations of the luminous ethereal medium were exactly of
the same nature, or,on the contrary, if all the elements of our optic
apparatus reacted in the same way on every kind of undulations of the
ethereal medium, we could with difficulty imagine sensations of light of
a different nature. Every specific activity of our apparatus of the optic
nerve would produce a perception of light which would vary in degree,
but not in quality. We could have no conception of, according to the
cases, a light of different kinds, that is to say, of color. But, on the one
hand, the science of physics teaches that the undulations of ether are
of various kinds, differing in the rapidity, and consequently in the length
of the waves; and, on the other hand, the subjective qualities of light,
or our perceptions cf color, fali within the range of our daily experience.

148 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

It belongs to theory to discover the law regulating these two factors.
All the qualities of light must depend upon functional differences of the
elements of the organ of the optic nerve. A necessary alternative is,
either this organ has but one kind of elements, and then different kinds
of undulations of the ether induce it to act under different forms, or else
there are several kinds of elements or terminal organs in the retina or
in the brain, which always act respectively in the same way, while differ-
ing from each other. This latter hypothesis accords better with all we
know otherwise of the physiology of the nervous system, and is virtually
but J. Miiller’s principle of the specific energies of the senses applied in
detail to the sense of sight. It is also on this last hypothesis that the
Young-Helmholtz theory is based.

The following is the principle upon which this theory explains the
qualities of light or colors. When one kind of element alone is excited
or set in motion, or when all are simultaneously excited, but one in a
higher degree than the rest, our sensation takes hold of that element as
the quality of the light, as the colored light or color, and particularly the
cardinal or primitive color, which corresponds specifically to the excited
element. If there are several kinds of elements, and only two of these
are excited or more excited than the rest, we see the light colored, but
of a color which constitutes the combination of the two colors corre-
sponding to the excitedelements. It is clear that the principle on which
this reasoning is based gives room for the admission of as many differ-
ent elements, and, consequently, primitive colors, as could be desired.
At all events, it results from the principle that when all the kinds of
elements, whether there be one or several, are excited simultaneously
with the same force, there is no possibility of perceiving the quality of
jight. We then see but a light in general, in contradistinction to the
absence of light or darkness; in other terms, we see a colorless light, or,
as it is called, a white light, and incorrectly a white color. It follows
therefore that when one element is principally excited while the rest
are also excited, but in a less degree, the perception of the specific
quality of the light is feeble in proportion to the degree of excitation
of the other elements, since this effect of their excitation must be, in
short, like a mixture of colorless light, or white relatively to the color in
question.

Let us now see how the Young-Helmholtz theory applies the principle
we have just explained. It recognizes three cardinal colors, red, green,
and violet, and consequently three kinds of corresponding elements in
the organ of the optic nerve; elements respectively perce.ving red,
green, and violet. When the perceptive element of red is excited alone,
or in a greater degree, we experience the sensation of red, and so on.
Different kinds of undulations of the ethereal medium excite, in differ-
ent degrees, the different elements; but in such a way, however, that
all excite in some measure each of these elements.

Without attempting, from a scientitic point of view, to explain the dif-

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 149

ferent kinds of objective light in the length of the wave, in the practical
course we are pursuing here it is much more convenient to designate
them by the effect they exert on the normal sense of colors. With
this explanation we will then proceed to speak of red, green, and violet
light, and so on, meaning those ethereal waves which differ in length, in
duration of undulations, in refrangibility, ete.

The easiest and most convenient means of describing the relations
existing between the kinds of objective light and the excitability of the
different elements, or, in other words, of the different kinds of subjective
light, will be to construct a diagram in which the curves indicating the
different kinds of light will be traced on an abscissa according to the
order in which they are presented in the solar spectrum, and those
which indicate the excitability of the respective elements, or rather the
intensity of the sensation of colors, will be expressed by the ordinate. To
save space, and more easily to comprehend the whole, we have drawn
the curves of intensity of the different elements on the same abscissa,
which consequently serves for each one of them.

Figure 1 represents this diagram, showing the normal sense of colors.
The spectral colors are here found placed horizontally in the natural
order, beginning with the red (R.), and finishing with the violet (V.);
the three curves of excitability, namely, 1st, that of the organ perceiv-
ing red; 2d, that of the perceptive organ of green; and, 3d, that of the
organ perceiving violet; these curves indicate the manner in which the
different systems of waves of solar light act on each of the three ele-
ments sensible to light.

Fie. 1.

1 2 3

R. Oo. Y. G. B. Nv.

According to these curves, the bomogeneous red, from the extremity of
the spectrum to beyond the orange, affects the perceptive elements of
red strongly, in a much less degree those of green, and still less those of
violet. From this results the sensation of red, which is transferred more
and more into orange in proportion to the increase of the excitation of
the perceptive elements of green. Homogeneous yellow intensely excites,
and almost in the same degree, the perceptive elements of red and green,
while only feebly affecting the perceptive elements of violet. Hence, the
sensation of yellow, which is a2 combination of red and green. Green
light strongly excites the perceptive elements of green, and very feebly
and almost equally the two other elements. Hence, the sensation of
green. -Hemogeneous blue excites quite strongly and almost equally the

150 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

perceptive elements of green and violet, but feebly those of red. Hence,
the sensation of blue, which is a combination of violet and green. Violet
light powerfully affects the perceptive elements of violet and feebly the
two others. Hence, the sensation of violet.

These curves enable us to explain easily the colors of the spectrum by
the theory. We find in what proportion each one of the three fundamen-
tal perceptions entersinto it by measuring the vertical distance from their
place on the horizontal line (abscissa) to the corresponding points of each
of the three curves. It is then seen that there is no color of the spectrum
into which but one primitive color entersexclusively. The two others also
furnish their contingent. Noone is therefore perfectly “saturated.” They
are more or less spread with white, and green is the least sensibly ‘‘sat-
urated,” or more whitish. The curves also show us that yellow and blue
are at the same time whitish colors, and the most intensely luminous in
the whole spectrum. When we again add that a color “saturated” in
almost the same degree as the other spectral colors, proceeds from the
homogeneous combination of red and violet, that is to say, purple, and
its whitish shade, pink, we shall have said all, theoretically, that we
have to say in relation to the normal chromatic sense.

To explain the abnormal sense of colors by the theory of the normal, we
can, in advance, conceive various possibilities. Let us suppose that one
of the three fundamental perceptions is wanting, or that one of the prim-
itive colors is absent; it is clear that the whole chromatic system will be
upset. It is evident, therefore, that this system must be completely dif-
ferent, according to the absence of one or the other of the three primi-
tive colors. It is virtually just in this way that it has been attempted
to explain cases of a strongly marked defect in the chromatic sense, or
genuine types of blindness to color, found in real life: The term color-
blindness has been justified by this, as it indicates in each case a genuine
blindness to one of the cardinal colors. In this way, therefore, we dis-
tinguish, according to the kind of element wanting, three classes of
blindness :

ist. Red-blindness.

2d. Green-blindness.

od. Violet-blindness.

We shall see that the Young-Helmholtz theory, as we have explained
it far from being contradicted, as has been recently claimed, by the
phenomenon of color-blindness, finds in it, on the contrary, a support,
and this theory most certainly furnishes the best guide for attaining
the practical end in view for which we intend to use it. Let us, in the
first instance, cast a rapid glance over the different kinds of typical and
complete blindness to colors, as their features are presented by the
theory. This sketch will be singularly facilitated by the use of the same
kind of curves employed in illustrating the normal sense of colors.

1. According to the theory, blindness to red is due to the absence or
paralysis of the organs perceiving red (fig. 2). Red-blindness has then

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 151

but two fundamental colors, which, adhering strictly to the theory, are
green and violet (blue according to Maxwell).

Fia. 2.

The curves distinctly show what aspect the various kinds of lights of
the spectrum must have for the chromatic sense such as the one we
have in view.. We will give a short list of them, according to Helm-
holtz, by designating here the different kinds of lights, as we did before,
that is to say, by using terms borrowed from the impressions they pro-
duced on the normal chromatic sense; the comparison will not be with-
out interest.

“ Spectral red, which feebly excites the perceptive organs of green,
and scarcely at all those of violet, must consequently appear to the red-
blind a ‘saturated’ green of a feeble intensity, more ‘saturated’ than nor-
mal green, into which a sensible portion of the other primitive colors
enters. Feebly luminous red, which affects the perceptive organs of red
in a normal eye sufficiently, does not, on the other hand, sufficiently
excite the perceptive organs of green in the red-blind, and it, therefore,
seems to them black. Spectral yellow seems to them a green ‘saturated’
and intensely luminous, and as it constitutes the precisely saturated and
very intense shade of that color, it can be understood how the red-blind
select the name of that color, and call all those tints that are properly
speaking green, yellow. Green shows, as compared with the preceding
colors, a more sensible addition of the other primitive colors; it then
appears, consequently, like a more intense but whitish shade of the
same color as yellow and red. The greatest intensity of light in the
spectrum, according to Seebeck’s observations, does not appear to the
red-blind to be in the yellow region, as it does to the normal eye, but
rather in that of the blue-green. In reality, if the excitation of the per-
ceptive organs of green, as it was necessary to assume, is strongest for
green, the maximum of the total excitation of the red-blind must be
found slightly toward the blue side, because the excitation of the organ
perceiving violet is then increased. The white of the red-blind is natu-
rally a combination of their two primitive colors in a determinate pro-
portion, a combination which appears blue-gray to the normal sight;
this is why he regards as gray the spectral transitition colors from green
to blue. Then the other color of the spectrum, which they call blue, pre-
ponderates, because indigo-blue, though somewhat whitish, according

152 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

to their chromatic sense is to them, owing to its intensity, a more evi-
dent representative of that color than violet.”

This description of the manner in which the red-blind forms a con-
ception of the different kinds of light of the spectrum is assuredly a
conclusion logically deduced from the theory, but it accords so well, at
the same time, with the experience acquired in examining the color-
blind, that this might perfectly serve to support and corroborate the
theory. We will simply add a point for our especially practical purpose,
or rather emphasize one point of this theory. In fact, it is clear that a
red and green light especially excite one and the same element in the
red-blind. A ray red and green, or an object red and green, to the nor-
mal sense, must seem fundamentally to the red-blind to be the same color,
and if, in especial cases, he knows bow to discriminate, his judgment
is simply guided by the intensity of the light. The intensity of light
is much more feeble, as shown by fig. 2, in red than in green. If then
a red-blind individual finds that a red and green tint are exactly alike,
it is necessary that the green be to the normal eye much less intense
than the red. This is distinctly shown by the vertical dotted lines
between R. and O., and also between Y. and G., in fig. 2, and this is
entirely confirmed by experience.

2. Green-blindness derives its origin, according to the theory, from the
absence or paralysis.of the perceptive elements of green. The green-
blind has therefore but two fundamental colors, that is—still closely
adhering to the theory—red and violet (blue according to Maxwell).
The spectrum for green-blindness should be, according to the theory,
constructed in the following manner:

FiG. 3.

The spectral red, which strongly excites the perceptive organs of red,
and but very faintly those of violet, must therefore appear to the green-
blind as an extremely “saturated” red, but of a light somewhat less in-
tense than the normal red, which is comparatively more yellowish, as
green forms a part ofit. The spectral orangeis again a very “ saturated”
red, but much more luminous. Yellow is undoubtedly a more intensely
luminous red than the spectral red, but, on the other hand, more whit-
ish, because a sensible portion of the other primitive color enters into it.

Green, with its shades inclining to yellow and blue, ought, correctly
speaking, to be a ‘‘saturated” purple and with a mean intensity of

7 a

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. : 153

light, but it is the white (gray) of the green-blind, for it is composed of
almost equal parts of the two primitive colors.

The blue is an intense violet, but a little less “saturated” than indigo,
which is more strongly luminous and more “ saturated.” Violet isa little
less intense, but more “saturated” than normal violet. The tints most
luminous and at the same time most “saturated” which must constitute
the types of the primitive colors of the green-blind are orange or its im-
mediate neighbor in the spectrum, red, and indigo-blue. Noworangeis a
color which, in ordinary language, especially amongst the uncultivated
and unpracticed, is indiscriminately called red and yellow; this fact
explains why the green-blind denominate their first fundamental color
sometimes “red” and sometimes “ yellow.” We will add to this descrip-
tion the same remark made about red-blindness. In green-blindness
the same organ is also found affected by spectral red and green light.
Red and green are then perceived by the green-blind in the same way,
or, in other words, are to him in fact exactly the same color. In cases
where he succeeds in distinguishing them, it is by the aid of the inten-
sity of the light; but with regard to this intensity of light, it is the op-
posite of what occurs in the case of the red-blind. <A green tint which
to the green-blind must appear exactly like a red one, to a normal sense
of color must be sensibly more luminous than red. This is shown by
the dotted vertical lines between R. and O. and also between Y. and G.
(fig. 3), and is confirmed in every respect by experience.

3. Violet-blindness (or blue according to Maxwell) is due, according
to the theory, to the absence or paralysis of the elements perceiving
violet. The two primitive colors of the violet-blind are then, according
to theory, red and green. The spectrum of the violet-blind must in conse-
quence be represented as follows:

Fig. 4.
1 2
R. oO. x. G. B. Vv.

The red is a purer red color (not yellowish) than normal red, but still
less “saturated”; the more it inclines toward orange the more strongly
luminous it is, but is at the same time less “saturated,” more whitish.
The yellow is, as it were, a combination of almost equal proportions of
the fundamental colors that form white. Green is a strongly luminous,
but whitish green, which in tending toward the blue, becomes more and
more ‘“ saturated,” so that greenish blue must be the type of these hues.
The blue is a green of moderate luminosity and strongly “ saturated”,
and violet is green very feebly luminous, but also “saturated” in a much
higher degree than the normal. A violet strongly luminous is sufficient

154 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

to induce this green, but a feeble violet, although very sensible to the
normal eye, is black to the color-blind in question.

Itis plain that the violet-blind, whose primitive colorsare red and green,
do not confuse these colors. This kind of blindness, from the experiments
made so far, must be very rare. For our part we have not succeeded in dis-
covering more than two cases agreeing quite exactly with the descrip-
tion given by the theory, while the first two kinds are comparatively
very common. In order to be abnormal it is not necessary that a sense
of color should completely fulfil the conditions indicated in the types
we have just described. We might perfectly conceive a resultant, not
of an absolute absence or of a complete paralysis of one kind of percept-
ive elements, but solely of a comparatively very low excitability, or, if
preferred, of a much more limited number of one kind of elements, act-
ing on the retina, as compared with the two other kinds. It is very easy
to construct curves in conformity with this idea, and not less easy to
arrange in this manner a continuous series of transitions and gradual
forms between one kind of complete color-blindness on one side and
the normal chromatic sense on the other. This kind of defective vision
might be called incomplete color-blindness, to distinguish it from complete,
as we have just characterized the three different kinds. Our experience
has taught us that the intermediary forms agreeing with the data given
above are met in large numbers in practice and of very different degrees.
These are the forms we designated under the common appellation of
incomplete color-blindness, but we can according to the theory still con-
ceive other forms of a defective sense of color. There is one, amongst
others, which has at command only one of the three kinds of elements.
Such a sense of sight is not properly a chromatic sense. For it, there
exists no specific difference in light, that is to say, no color. Every kind
of light here acts as if on one element alone. This is why the single
perception of differences of intensity of light (quantity), but not of dif-
ferences of color (quality), is possible. This condition may then be
designated under the name of total color-blindness. Several cases have
been mentioned from time to time, but we have not succeeded in find-
ing a single one, and it may well be questioned whether such a case has
actually existed. We may also conceive that another form of a defective
sense of color arises from the three kinds of elements being uniformly of
moderate sensibility. We are able to trace the following diagram (fig.
5), by which the three curves. simultaneously approach the abscissa, and
are flattened in such a manner that the vertices disappear the first.

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 155.

As is readily observed, green is then precisely the color which, being
ordinarily the most whitish of the primitive colors, is the first to lose its
quality of “saturated” color, and shades into gray. This must then be
the exact scheme of pathological color-blindness, according to the theory.
In fact, we have found in our examinations a large number of cases per-
fectly harmonizing with this scheme. We have, therefore, classed them
under the head of incomplete color-blindness ; and this from essentially
practical reasons. To define their nature according to the theory, it is
necessary to regard them as a particular variety, which we shall call a
feeble sense of colors. Weare not of course able to decide how far defects
of this kind should be considered as having a pathological origin, or
whether they are ever congenital. For this determination a much wider
experience in this particular department than we now possess is requi-
site, for reasons to be given hereafter. This kind of defect in the sense
of color leads, if we fancy it carried to its highest degree, or in such a
condition that all the elements lose sensibility, to the complete absence
of perception of light, that is to say, to blindness, strictly so called.
Every defect in the sense of color must then proceed either from a sensi-
bility anomalously reduced to a complete paralysis of one or several kinds
of elements, or from a number relatively diminished in sensibility to the
complete absence of one or several amongst them.

The experience acquired by an examination of colors in different parts
of the visual field elucidates our theory of color-blindness, while at the
same time having a practical value. The following is the manner in
which this examination is conducted: the eye is fixed upon an im-
movable point; a colored object—for example, a colored paper one or
two centimetres (two or. four-fifths of an inch) square—is slowly
passed from the side of the visual field toward the fixed point. This
experiment is performed still better by means of a special instrument,
Forster’s perimeter. We then find that the colored surface, of any color
whatsoever, appears completely colorless at the extreme periphery of
the visual field. Surfaces of different colors exhibit only variations
in intensity of light, not in color. The ground on which the surface
appears plays here an important part; since every time our visual
sense perceives the light and color of an,object, it partly depends upon
the comparison with that which surrounds it. Thus a colored surface
seems to us, in this part of the visual field, black or gray on a light
ground, and gray or white on a dark. If while following the same
direction, the colored object is carried within the region which surrounds
the rest of the visual field, like a belt of greater or less width, we begin
to see the colored object, but not always in its natural color. Two colors
alone, yellow and blue, retain their natural colors. All the others have
the appearance of one of these colors, consequently yellow or blue. It
is only after the colored object is carried a little farther toward the fixed
object that it is seen in its natural color. Consequently we normally
see colors only in the middle of our visual field, within a compass extend-
ing in a more or less eccentric manner in every direction from the fixed

156 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN: ITS RELATION TO

point. Outside of the central field extends a belt which surrounds it
on all sides, and in which our whole system of colors is classed under two
heads, exactly as in the case of the red-blind. We have here, as in the
last case, buttwocolors, yellow and blue. In other words, wearecompletely
red-blind in this intermediary zone; beyond this, there isa peripheral belt,
in which we are totally color-blind. These are matters unquestionably
of great theoretic value, but it must be acknowledged they are also of
great practical importance. Although we have adopted the Young-Helm-
holtz theory, we mustadmit that the different kinds of perceptive elements
of colors have a different local division upon the retina; and this is why
we may speak of the topography of the chromatic sense. The fact is ex-
plained in this way: in the retina ot the normal eye, there are simultane-
ously three kinds of elements in the central part, corresponding to the
central region of the visual field. Toward the periphery, beginning at
the central fossa, the elements become more and more rare, but in un-
equal proportions, so that the perceptive organs of red cease first, and
this at a limit corresponding to that of the central region. In a belt
which answers to the intermediate zone, or the belt of the red-blind,
there remains in consequence but the perceptive elements of green and
violet. At the limit near the periphery of the retina, corresponding to
that of the peripheral zone of the visual field, or region of absolute
color-blindness, the perceptive elements of green cease also, so that there
only remains in this last zone the perceptive elements of violet. We
have been especially led to this last conclusion by the examination of
two cases of color-blindness, where the visual field was so abnormally
small that the peripheral zone seemed to be effaced, and where we be-
sides recognized the characteristic features of violet-blindness. This
experiment, which perfectly harmonized with the theory, showed us the
relation of complete red-blindness to the normal chromatic sense. Red-
blindness is distinguished from the normal sight in this, that the normal
central field is wanting, but is replaced by a mean corresponding at the
same time to the central field and to the intermediary zone of the normal
sight. We have also succeeded, owing to the peripheral investigation
of the colored visual field, in verifying in a great number of cases the
continuous series of forms of transition which we have classified as one
kind under the head of incomplete color-blindness, or in the instance es-
pecially occupying us here, incomplete red-blindness. In the same way,
the other kinds of color-blindness may also, as regards the visual field,
be classified according to the theory. The visual field of the green-blind
is distinguished from that of the normal observer in this, that it has a
peripheral field corresponding in extension both to the intermediary and
peripheral zones of the normal observer. The violet-blind is distinguished
on the other hand in this, that it is completely deficient in the normal
peripheral zone. These two kinds of incomplete color-blindness are charac-
terized by a central field diminished at every degree. With regard to
the visual field we may therefore lay down this rule, that it has as many
distinct zones, with reference to the perception of colors, as the chro-

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. L557

matic sense has fundamental colors or different kinds of perceptive ele-
ments, and that the different degrees of incomplete color-blindness are in
the inverse ratio to the dimension of the visual field. If the central field
is limited to a circle of ten degrees from the fixed point, all the respective
characteristics of color-blindness are usually found in it, sometimes
within even a narrower range. A feeble sense of color manifests itself in
a much wider central field. All the anomalies that can be discovered in
an examination of the visual field might, in consequence of the method
employed, be explained by a diminution of excitability as well as of the
number of the elements. The intermediary zone of the normal visual field
or belt of red-blindness has an especial interest, as it furnishes us with
the opportunity of seeing with our own eyes as the red-blind sees, and
conseauently of exactly comprehending his abnormal perception.

According to the theory, we see only yellow and blue in this belt, and in
consequence we admit that the red-blind not only call yellow and blue their
principal colors, but moreover see them exactly as the normal observer does.
This hypothesis cannot assuredly be proved, but this is not necessary, as
the explanation Helmholtz has given of the designation of one of the
principal colors of the red- blind is perfectly satisfactory. This circum-
stance, however, has given rise, amongst others, to a doubt about the
Young-Helmholtz theory, and to another theory admitting four principal
colors to the normal seuse of colors, yellow being classed amongst them.
But thisis useless. It must not be forgotten that colorless light as well
as colored light are subjective perceptions, and that comparison here per-
forms an important part. This fact is sufficiently proved by the phe-
nomena of contrasts, accidental colors, ete. White is not a color; it is
merely a general, neutral light, and is therefore produced when one kind
of element is not more excited than another, or when all the elements
are equally excited.

But as the theory obliges us to admit that the excitation of the
perceptive elements of green and violet may in certain cases, as in
the instance of the red-blind, supply the perception of white, and
not bluish green, and that in certain cases, as in that of the green-blind,
the excitation of the perceptive elements of red and violet does not give
purple, but white, it is in no wise contrary to the theory to admit that
the excitation of the organ perceiving green gives the perception of
yellow in cases where all that remains moreover of the system of colors
is the complementary color of yellow, thatis to say, blue. The excitation
of the perceptive organ of green gives the perception of green only
on the retina or on a point of the retina which also contains the organ
perceiving red. But this is not the place for further developments of
this theory.

2.—CLASSIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF COLOR-BLINDNESS.

In the preceding we have indicated, in conformity with the theory,
the different forms of a defective sense of colors to which, we think,

158 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

‘should be applied the name of color-blindness, and which, owing to their
nature theoretically, must be considered as of different kinds. This
division will be sanctioned if we consider the relations in which it stands
to the method pursued for discovering them, and which is based on the
Young-Helmholtz theory. It is this we are about to explain.

We classify the different kinds of color-blindness under especial heads,
to be able the better to grasp the whole. We might indeed divide this
blindness into congenital and acquired, but as such a division has refer-
ence alone to the mode of origin, and not to the nature of this blindness,
and affects in no wise the manner of its discovery, it has no practical
importance in the case now occupying our attention. Besides, our
division relates, as does our entire memoir on this subject, essentially to
congenital color-blindness. The division is as follows:

I. Total color-blindness (total fargblindhet), in which the faculty of
perceiving colors is absolutely wanting, and where the visual sense con-
sequently can only perceive the difference between darkness and light,
as well as the different degrees of intensity of light.

II. Partial color-blindness (partiel fargblindhet), in which the faculty
of certain perceptions of color, but not ofall, is wanting. It is subdivided
into—

1. Complete or typical color-blindness (fullstandig or typisk farg-
blindhet), in which one of the three fundamental sensations, one of the
three perceptive organs of color in the retina, is wanting, and in which
consequently the colored visual field has but two ranges. This group
includes three kinds, namely :

(a) Red-blindness (red blindhet).

(b) Green-blindness (grén blindhet).

(c) Violet-blindness (violett blindhet).

2. Incomplete color-blindness (ofullstdndig fargblindhet), where one
of the three kinds of elements, or perhaps all, are inferior in excitability
or in numbers to those of the normal chromatic sense. Incomplete color-
blindness exhibits, like the normal sense, three zones in the visual field,
but is distinguished from it by an unusually small central field. This
group includes the whole of a series of different forms and degrees, a
part of which—the superior degrees, which might be called incomplete red-
blindness and incomplete green-blindness (and incomplete violet-blindness)—
constitutes the transitions to the corresponding kinds of complete color-
blindness, and another part of which—the inferior degrees, which we call
a feeble chromatic sense—constitutes the transition to the normal sense
-of colors.

We will show further on that this classification, based entirely upon
the Young-Helmholtz theory, is quite practical, and conformable to
experience. We know no classification which, though distinguishing
accurately between the different essential forms of a defective sense of
colors, draws a surer, more decided, and more practical limit between
the defective sense of colors and the normal sense.

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 159

For the classification of the different forms of the defective sense of col-
ors, regard is generally paid to the methods of investigation, and the divi-
sion is governed much more by those methods than by a theory of the
sense of colors. But in every case it is found that the classification lat-
terly in use leaves room for much improvement, either because some of the
forms of defective color-sense not taken into account, or, on the other
hand, because even some cases of normal chromatic sense, wanting in ex-
ercise and intelligence, have been classed amongst the different kinds
of defective color-sense. As an instance of the first kind, Dr. Stilling’s
classification should be mentioned, which is based upon the theory of the
four primitive colors, complementary two by two. According toit, there
could be but two kinds of color-blindness, namely : “ rothgriinblindhet” and
“ gelbblaublindheit” (green-red-blindness and that of blue-yellow). With-
out allowing ourselves to criticise the theory itself here, we will simply
remark, looking at it practically, that, on one side, this classification
draws no distinction between the various kinds of red- and green-blind-
ness, Dr. Stilling classing them as one, and that, on the other side, the
whole series of forms classed by us under the head of incomplete color-
blindness is not included in his plan.

As an example of a classification of the last kind, the one which seems
universal in France, and employed by Dr. Favre and Dr. Féris, may be
cited. It is reduced nearly to this: all those who give false names to
the primitive colors belong to one class; those who are only mistaken
in the shades, but not in the principal colors, are classed under another ;
and, finally, those who, after several trials, evince some hesitation in des-
ignating colors, form a third class. It is plain that this classification
gives but little idea, properly speaking, of the nature of the different
kinds, and that the third class must include a large number of individ-
uals endowed with normal sight, but who have been mistaken or hesi-
tated at the time of the test, in consequence of want of exercise.

3.—COLOR-BLINDNESS IN PRACTICAL LIFE.

Volumes might be written on this subject, if the different instances
of all the peculiarities presented by color-blindness, and all the embar-
rassment to which they give rise, were cited. We will limit ourselves
to a few facts here, closely connected with our really practical end, and
over which they exert a direct influence. To avoid being prolix, we
will merely remark that in alluding to color-blindness in general, with-
out naming one especial kind or form, we usually mean the ordinary
typical kinds of partial and congenital color-blindness, namely, red and
green. |

We must first remember that color-blindness is not a disease in the
sense of being attended with suffering, obliging the individual to have
recourse to a physician. Color-blindness, quite as well as the normal
sight, is a sense of color, though of another and a more simple nature.
He whom we call color-blind is not correctly speaking at all blind to

160 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

colors. He perceives, in the main, the same kind of light as the normal
observer, but sees a part ofitin another manner. In the system according
to which he arranges his colors, he has fewer kinds than the normal ob-
server, and this is why he is obliged to classify under the same denomina-
tion a portion of the colors classed by the normal observer under different
heads. It results from this that he finds resemblances between colors or
confuses others that the normal observer finds different; for instance, red
and green. These confusions naturally surprise and amuse the normal
observer, who readily imagines that it arises from very great ignorance of
colors, or from defective training. He ordinarily supposes that there is
no limit to the mistakes the color-blind might make in this respect. But
such is not the case; he obeys laws quite as exact as does the normal
observer ; a color-blind person can no more accustom himself to seeing
colors as the normal observer does than the red-blind can see colors in
the same way that the green-blind does, or conversely.

This theory, which is based upon experience, explains to us how the
color-blind see colors. But if we only base our ideas on the names
given to colors by the color-blind, we can be easily deceived. To judge
correctly of color-blindness, and the various practical questions con-
nected with it, it is of the highest importance to distinetly observe the
difference between the manner in which the color-blind person sees and
the manner in which he names colors. The sensation is based upon the
nature of the sense of color in the organization of the optic nerve from
birth. The name, on the contrary, is learned; it is conventional; it de-
pends upon exercise and habit. The names of colors are naturally the
objective expression of subjective sensations; but, on the other hand,
they are regulated by the system of normal sight, and cannot conse-
quently agree with that of the color-blind. They can, nevertheless, be
learned by the latter, and even applied correctly in many cases. There
is connected with this fact a peculiarity of the utmost importance
practically to the question in point, and one that has given rise to the
most serious embarrassments and misunderstandings. This has been
and is still one of the chief causes of our erroneous ideas on the subject
of color-blindness existing in the masses, because it is the veil under
which this defect usually conceals itself from our observation in every-
day life, and under which, even to the last moment, it will succeed in
escaping discovery in cases where, as frequently happens, the methods
of exploration employed are indecisive or are based upon erroneous
principles.

If we reflect on the condition of the color-blind, it is difficult to under-
stand how he can avoid being detected in his daily intercourse with
men endowed with normal sight. And yet experience has sufficiently
controverted this idea. That which we have acquired in examining en
masse the personnel of a railway, for example, where it is required night
and day to give attention to colored signals, is singularly worthy of notice.
We learn by it that a number of color-blind were discovered, although

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 161

their defective sense of color had never been suspected by themselves
or any one else, and the majority had correctly performed their duties.
Such a condition of things furnishes us with food for reflection, and it will
not be uninteresting to examine some of the peculiar circumstances
which explain it. All the details connected with the subject cannot be,
of course, enumerated here. We will content ourselves by merely indi-
cating the course to be followed to obtain this explanation.

Agreeably to the property of our senses to serve as sentries before
the external world, we interpret the information they give us ‘in a partic-
ular manner. In fact, we do not consider the changes that take place in
our sensitive apparatus, of which alone, however, we possess any im-
mediate perception, but refer everything immediately to the cause that
has provoked it (that is to say, to the external objects), and we attribute
as qualities properly belonging to them what in truth is merely a pro-
cess of our own organs. If an object simply reflects certain kinds of
rays of light to our eye, we preceive a certain corresponding color, red,
for example. We ascribe this perception to the object itself as an
attribute, and we say it is red. A red carpet seen by daylight is and
remains red. It is red by no matter what kind of light. Itis red even
when behind our backs or before our eyes in the dark. We discard the
sensation of red, which belongs to our optic nerve, for the quality of red,
which we ascribe once and forever to the carpet, and by this name of
red we supply a whole definition, which, to be complete, should be stated
nearly thus: ‘A red carpet is a carpet which, by the ordinary light of
day, reflects only ethereal waves creating, when in contact with the
retina of a normal eye, the perception of red, but absorbing, per contra,
all the other luminous waves.” It is owing to this manner of imputing
qualities to objects that the name black has been admitted amongst the
names of colors, although properly speaking it would designate the
quality of absorbing all light, and consequently of not at all affecting
our eye. Now the tendency to employ our senses, as we have just inci-
dentally stated, is often promoted by a school education so limited and
partial that the immediate impression is referred to the external object,
and the faculty of observation is suppressed to give place to descriptions
and to names.

As color is an immutable quality in a variety of objects of different
colors, it is not very difficult to learn their names by heart. The direct
impression is not even necessary. We may hear a really blind man,
even one born blind, give the exact names to colors of common objects of
which he has often heard. To the color-blind this is still more easy, as
he derives some assistance from his incomplete chromatic sense. On the
other hand, it must be comparatively very rare to meet one color-blind, who
influenced as Dalton was by individual interest carries his reflections
on colors and the chrometic sense so far as to reach the point of discov-

ering his own anomaly. Amongst the color blind discovered by us,
11s

162 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

while directing our researches especially to this point, not a few have
been painters and tailors.

But such disregard to the subject of colors is no longer permitted in
occupations where colored signals are employed and where human life
may depend upon the manner in which the signal is or is not understood,
as on railways and at sea.

A great number of color-blind are to be found employed in almost
every position on railways, without the defect in their chromatic sense
being suspected by themselves or others. Nay, more, a number of them,
far from being willing to acknowledge, even after the examination, the
existence of such a defect, urgently demand a new trial, even six or
seven, offering all kinds of pretexts to account for their repeated failures.
They all agree in declaring that they have excellent sight; that they
have never had the least difficulty in distinguishing signals, though they
have been employed for a long time and in the most important positions,
that for instance of engineer, and had never made the slightest mistake;
that the engineer is never the only one whose duty it is to watch the
signals. He has always near him a fireman, and in his neighborhood
an assistant engineer, a greaser, etc., who come to his aid at critical
moments. That must be a very rare case where all the officials are
affected with color-blindness.

Looking practically at the fact mentioned and the explanation given,
it might be imagined probably that color-blindness, although a subject
of scientific interest, could not possess any possible practical interest.
At least, it might be believed that all the stir which has been made in
our country about color-blindness amongst railway employés was founded
upon nothing real. Since it is proved (it may perhaps be urged) that the
color-blind have long been employed on railways and the defect never
remarked, withont any accident or even inconvenience resulting from
it, and finally since they can really learn to distinguish signals, although
otherwise than by colors, their kind of blindness should not legitimately
give rise to any preventive measures whatsoever. And doubtless a
great many still reason in this manner. ‘

We will not dwell here upon what experience has or has not proved
with regard to this in our country. The fact is certain that color-blind-
ness in other countries has caused numerous and serious accidents. And
even though experience should not have proved it in an absolute manner,
it would not be the less evident that in such cases no one has the right
to await a new experience of this kind before proceeding from words
to acts, inasmuch as it can be demonstrated that, in spite of the many
circumstances aiding the color-blind to obey signals, all danger is not
averted, and uncertainty still remains. Now, this is not difficult to
prove, for neither the fact that color-blind individuals have been long
employed on railways without causing accidents, or without the discov-
ery of the defect, nor the circumstances we have cited to explain this
fact, furnish the slightest ground for security.

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 163
A color-blind individual of the typical kinds cannot distinguish red
from green. This is an undoubted fact, easily explained by theory and
adequately proved by experience. All that he asserts about differences
between these colors is founded consequently upon conjecture. But this.
manner of perceiving signals is attended by great uncertainty, and he
who guesses correctly in this manner in a certain number of special
cases must infallibly guess wrong in some cases. This is a principle
which does not rest on a theory, but which has been confirmed by our
experience without an exception in an examination of more than two
hundred color-blind persons, and its evidence could be extended far
beyond the limits to which we are confined here, or, in other words, to
the majority of the cases of incomplete color-blindness.
if a small amount of soot, smoke, vapor, ice, snow, etc., adhere to the
glass, the lantern shines less brightly. A lantern shines differently in
clear or foggy weather, etc. All this may give rise to mistakes. But,
on the other hand, the sensibility of the eye is very different according
to circumstances. The nervous organ of the eye may, like every other
part of the system, vary extremely in sensibility. The same light is to
the sound and rested eye stronger than to the weak and tired eye, etc.
But every modification of intensity of light is equivalent, to the color-
blind, to a change of color. All this proves how little reliance can be
placed upon tie knowledge of signals acquired by the color-blind by
practice.

IIL—REFORMS RELATING TO COLOR-BLINDNESS.

As we have shown already, the tendency of color-blindness to conceal
itself wheresoever it occurs, in all classes of society, especially in the lower,
may be regarded as one of its most remarkable peculiarities. It is
necessary to add still another circumstance: one whose color-blindness
has been disclosed, and who is thus himself made aware of his defect,
and who has been, as is so commonly the case, a subject of ridicule
to his acquaintances, is generally more than ever eager to conceal his
infirmity. The result of this is, in spite of all that has been written on
color-blindness, this affection of the sight, far from being recognized
as a fact belonging to every-day life, has been and still is considered by
the public as a legend about which anything desired could be believed.
The idea, at least, usually formed with regard to its frequency and prac-
tical importance, is far from corresponding with the reality. It is diffi-
cult to accustom one’s self to the idea of the necessity of refusing to
3% number of persons admission to a career which would afford them
means of subsistence, and, what is worse, to discharge from their present
position those who have performed their duties in an irreproachable
manner, and which have been to them and their families a legitimate
source of income.

Prompted by a just regard for the good of man, it is asked whether

164 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN 1TS RELATION TO

the difficulty in distinguishing colors experienced by certain individuals
may be corrected by exercise. And if this is not possible, it is natural
to conclude that more regard is due to the men than toa particular kind
of signals, since the latter is not absolutely essential, and consequently
may be changed if not adapted to the employés.

1.—INSTRUCTION AND EXERCISE OF THE PERSONNEL IN RECOGNIZ-
ING COLORS.

The importance of the habitual exercise of our senses generally should
not be underrated. As we are born with naturally sound organs of loco-
motion, and yet require to be taught to walk, so it is necessary to learn
to use our organs of sense; and when experience shows us that many
original defects of our organs of locomotion can be remedied as well as
those of our visual organs, we readily conceive the idea that this is also
possible with color-blindness. If it were the case, this would be, without
doubt, the most radical means possible for protecting railway lines, with-
out the necessity of displacing a single employé.

To avoid all misunderstanding, we must dwell upon the difference that
we have mentioned between the genuine perception of the color-blind
and the name he gives to the color of the objects. We have already seen
that a true name may often be united to a false perception, but it is evi-
dent, also, that just as the perception is anomalous, or merely uncertain,
the name must also be uncertain, as it is simply a conjecture. We do
not here allude to that acquired color-blindness which, casually occur-
ring, might also disappear, but to congenital color-blindness, let it be
understood.

We will endeavor to give some account here of what experience has
furnished on this subject, and first of all we will try to discover upon
what grounds it is claimed that color-blindness can be cured.

An effort has been made to derive one indication of this from the fact
that amongst the numerous instances of color-blindness that have been
discovered and mentioned by different writers since Huddart, there are
many more amongst men than women. It is concluded from this, in the
first place, that color-blindness is much more common amongst men than
women, and from this statistical fact, added to the undoubted experience
that women have more to do with colors from their very infancy than
men, from the nature of their clothing, etc., another inference is reached,
namely, that exercise assists in diminishing and counteracting color-
blindness. All this may be true, but the argument fails in more than
one particular. In the first place, it has not been at ali proved, we think,
that color-blindness is less common among women than men. The
majority of the cases of color-blindness described by writers have been
accidentally discovered, that is to say, without any special examination.
If we observe, first of all, that these are probably the most marked eases
of color-blindness, and also that they are usually not persons who have
much to do with colors (as these easily conceal their defect), it will be

“=

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 165

readily understood why the female sex has furnished so small a proportion
to statistics. Again, in cases where experiments are made to discover
color-blindness, it is evidently much easier to find opportunities to ex-
amine menthan women. For the most part, those examined are soldiers,
students, agents of police, etc., it being difficult to find equal oppor-
tunities for examining women en masse. It is necessary to operate on
a large number to obtain very satisfactory statistics. The data we pos-
sess are furnished mainly by experiments among men. This is why we
venture to dispute what is usually admitted as a certain fact, that color-
blindness is more common among men than women, the necessary infor-
mation being so far wanting to establish such a fact. We must not
overlook the testimony of Prof. H. Dor on this subject, who examined
the very considerable number of 611 women at Berlin, amongst whom he
found only five color-blind, or little less, therefore, than 1 per cent., or
exactly 0.82 per cent. We do not desire in the least to deny the possi-
bility that color-blindness amongst women is less common; on the con-
trary, we think it even probable that this may be the case.

In using the statistics of the experiments thus far made on women, it is
important to observe carefully whether the method of scrutiny has been
such that previous exercise has not had some effect upon the result. For
if the method is founded upon the principle that those examined must be
interrogated as to the names of the colored objects presented to them,
and their chromatic sense judged according to the answer, it is clear
that the proportion of failures will be relatively less amongst women than
men, as they have much more practice. We are not certain that this
may not be the explanation of the result thus far obtained.

For anumber of years, Dr. Favre devoted himself to the study of color-
blindness amongst railway employés, and succeeded in introducing
reformatory measures on several railwaysin France. This circumstance,
and the manner, also, in which he has treated this subject from several
points of view, are more worthy of attention, since he has boldly pro-
nounced in favor of the curability of color-blindness by exercise, and
urged measures founded upon this principle. We will give his result
in the author’s own words:

“Out of one hundred and forty-six scholars, from seven to sixteen
years of age, belonging to two schools, one hundred and eleven named
the natural colors without error or hesitation; thirty-five made mistakes
in different degrees; twelve made serious mistakes with regard to sev-
eral colors; the errors of the others were with regard to orange, blue,
or violet; some were mistaken about all these three colors, others about
two, and some only about violet. These thirty-five children were sub-
jected by their instructors to repeated methodical exercises according
to the directions I had given them. One of the teachers cured all his
defective pupils; the duration of the treatment varying from two weeks
to six months. The other teacher had on the 2d of April of this year

only two patients out of eleven uncured.”

166 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

In an additional note, he adds: ‘This account of the treatment of
color-blindness must be brief on account of the object for which it is in-
tended ; but it may be necessary to set forth in a few words the process
in use in schools. I have simplified it as much as possible. The chief
point was to have the colors corresponding with those of the solar spec-
trum, that is, those generally designated by the names of violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. ‘The scale of colored wools that I
presented in large quantities to managers and agents of railways, to my
colleagues, to several teachers, male and female, and to individuals under
treatment, was thus arranged: five packages were composed of three
shades each—three shades of red; three of yellow, including orange; three
of green; three of blue, including indigo; three of violet; and besides one
package of white and one of black wool. The children are summoned
one after the other, and separately interrogated. The examination of
those who are without this defect, and are well trained, is soon made.
Those who hesitate or trip should be treated with great indulgence, and
set straight, if I may so express it, and if their errors are not easily cor-
rected, their answers are accurately noted down. The master then, in
another lesson, shows and names the colors to the children, and makes
them repeat with him. It is important not to make the inexpert pupil
an object of ridicule or even of attention to bis companions. The
lesson should be repeated every three or four days until he is quite cer-
tain that the idea of colors is well established. The training is com-
pleted by making them name the color of the various objects within
reach of the master; flowers, fabrics, geographical maps, ete. Ourpupils
will not be able to distinguish the 14,420 tints established by M.
Chevreul, but they will have acquired the indispensable mimimum; they
will know the a, b, ec, of the science of colors.”

What we have just quoted cannot essentially change the view we
have adopted and described in the preceding pages. ‘To demonstrate
the curability of color-blindness, it is indispensable to prove, first, that
the treatment is applied to those whose deficiency has been duly estab-
lished, and, in the second place, that these same at the end of the treat-
ment have a normal chromatic sense, or at least are not color-blind.

Dr. Favre’s pamphlet does not furnish us on these points with sufficient
evidence. We cannot, from our point of view, have much confidence
in the method of investigation employed by Dr. Favre. It is not only
possible, but even extremely probable, that ignorance and a want of prac-
tice might pass for color-blindness, and especially as the examination is
that of children. That there were among the individuals under Dr.
Favre’s treatment some cases of genuine color-blindness would appear
from the fact that two children, a year after beginning the training, had
not succeeded in learning the task imposed, which nevertheless does
not seem to present insurmountable difficulties, even in instances of per-
sons really color-blind.

In brief, without attempting to deny the curability of color-blindness

—_,

= ee eee

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 6%

theoretically or practically, we maintain that not one positive proof of it
has so far been produced.

It is a significant fact that individuals who have themselves discov-
ered their own chromatic blindness, and have been very much interested
in it, having reflected and experimented, and consequently exercised
themselves much in colors, have nevertheless retained their anomalous
perception, such as it was in the beginning, for many years, indeed, as
long as they lived. Such was the case with Harris, who himself discov-
ered his defect at the age of four years, and studied it with much inter-
est, but never succeeded in correcting it. Milne was found by Wilson to
be as color-blind at Edinburgh in 1854 as he was thirty years before,
when Combe examined him. Such was also the case with Professor
N. , examined twenty years before by Sir David Brewster. But
such was especially Dalton’s case, who has thrown much light upon
the subject. No one will deny that if exercise in colors can cure chro-
matic blindness, Dalton would have been cured, and yet it must be ac-
knowledged that at the meeting of the British Association at Oxford
in 1832 he then compared a scarlet red to the leaves of trees, proving him
to be as color-blind as in 1792, the date of the discovery of his color-
blindness, and as far as his friends could observe he continued so to
the end of his life (1844).

The history of science tells us of cases of persons completely blind who
can easily and correctly distinguish wool of different colors by means of
other senses, smell, taste, or touch. The power of touch in this case
deserves especial attention, as it is exactly adapted to the kind of quali-
ties now interesting us. The close connection between touch and sight
in determining whether an object is smooth, rough, etc., is well known.
The assistance which these two senses render each other in a gen-
eral appreciation of everything in space is not less well known.
These are the very qualities, beyond any doubt, that the color-blind call —
to their aid to supply the place of colors. This is why many color-blind
are seen placing the samples of wool in different lights, bringing them
quite close to the eye and in different angles to the visual axis. But
we have heard many color-blind, who knew the difference between red
and green, or purple and green, frankly acknowledge that they only
recognized them because one colored wool was coarser, harsher, or
rougher than the other. Consequently it is not the color, that is, the
quality of the reflected light, but the coloring matter and its peculiar
effects upon the wool, which were to them the distinguishing features.
As the result of our investigation we can state that exercise is certainly
not without value, but is more useful in other respects than in curing
color-blindness, or in removing the causes of the mistakes made by the
color-blind with regard to the colors of signals. We maintain, therefore,
that not one case has been sufficiently established to prove that a genuine
case of color-blindness has ever been cured by exercise.

But it in no wise follows, we repeat, that we deny the possibility of

168 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

improvement in cases where the corresponding organs are not wanting,
but are simply deficient in sensibility. Moreover, we are very much in-
debted to Dr. Favre for having interested himselfin the question of the
treatment of congenital color-blindness, and also for having undertaken
the work of applying this treatment. If this idea is generally admitted,
it will, without any doubt, produce excellent fruits, among others that
of introducing examinations into schools, so that color-blindness will be
discovered in time to be cured, if thatis really possible, or if not, that its
subjects may be enabled to choose a career in which their infirmity will
not be attended by inconvenience or danger. This is, moreover, the only
means by which we can reach a perfectly decisive answer to the extremely
important question, whether or to what degree color-blindness may be
improved or cured. But it is also evident that the more important the
answer to this question, practically, the more does its solution require
critical methods and rigid investigation and control in order that when
the answer is once obtained no doubt may be cast upon its accuraey.
On the other hand, we oppose in the most positive manner every
measure relating to railway officials, sailors, ete., founded upon the idea
of the curability of color-blindness, until this question has been perfectly
established by an affirmative answer. It is evident that otherwise not
only is the danger of employing the color-blind on railways, ete., not
diminished, but also that the introduction of a radical reform in this
matter is impeded. When Dr. Favre requests that the personnel on
railways and in the navy, ete., be exercised in distinguishing colors,
this demand, favorably received, can only lead to the admission of the
color-blind to the positions in question ; and then under the assurance
that their congenital defect may be cured, they are watched over until
they acquire the necessary amount of training. According to our opinion,
such a measure is positively dangerous, because it merely lulls the
authorities with the belief that the color-blind can cause no accident,
while in reality their defect is exactly where it was before, and, owing
to the exercise, has only become more difficult to detect, if for this pur-
pose a defective method is adopted.’ From this point of view it is
apparent that exercise, far from removing the danger, only increases it.
It may be answered indeed that, owing to exercise, the color-blind will
less frequently confound the signals than they will without exercise, and
this we willingly grant. But, on the other side, it is evident there should
be no question here of an alleviation, but of a radical correction. The
danger of employing the color-blind on railways or at sea once well
established, it is necessary, it seems to us, to take measures for com-
pletely removing the danger, if possible. If comparative security can
satisfy, we already have it, either from the fact that all the officials cannot
be color-blind, or that the majority of such do not usually cause accidents.
But it is precisely the desire to save the communications from this state
of uncertainty that has inspired us with the idea of taking measures
against it, and we believe that we have proved by what we have said that

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 169

any reform that can be introduced at present in this matter should be
established just as if it were already decisively proved that color-blind-
ness is incurable. It is therefore this hypothesis that we intend to apply
in what follows.

2.—MODIFICATION OF THE SIGNAL SYSTEM.

(a) Other colors for signals.—If congenital color-blindness is incurable,
or at least if we know no actual remedy for it, it is necessary to devise
some other method (while retaining the color-blind in the employment
of railways) of guaranteeing the communications against any mistakes
they might commit with regard to signals. It is seen by what precedes
that these errors can and must occur in the use of the signal colors
generally alopted, red, green (and yellow). This choice seems there-
fore unfortunate. Wilson is of the same opinion. When red and green
eolor-blindness are the kinds of complete or typical partial blindness
which are most generally seen, it would seem that the difficulty might
be considerably diminished, if, in place of using the actual colors, those
should be selected best suited to these kinds of color-blindness, although
they might not suit the third kind of typical partial color-blindness or
violet-blindness, which, according to the experience acquired up to the
present time, is much more uncommon.

Undoubtedly, the principle we have endeavored to establish would not be
radically enforced, but the practical result at least would be comparatively
nearly accomplished. As the color-blind has but two principal colors, or
two classes to which he can refer all the colors, it is evident that to select
two colors that he can recognize and distinguish without the least hesita-
tion, it would be necessary to select one from each class. “In this way, itis
always possible to bear in mind that each kind of color-blindness will
always be able to find twocolors distinctly defined, but not more than two.
It is therefore necessary first to ask how far two colors for signals could
satisfy the demands of railways and the navy. As regards railways,
it is claimed, and it may be conceded, that, in case of necessity, and
perhaps without too great inconvenience, two colors might be made
to answer. It is certain that three colors are a great improvement
upon two. Let us admit, however, that two colors would answer, and
that it were desired to sacrifice the advantage of three colors for an-
other advantage, namely, that of retaining in the service of railways the
color- blind, there will still remain the necessity of making a good selec-
tion of these two colors. This is more easily said than done. The choice
must be so made that one color may be selected from each of the two
groups in which all the colors are classed according to the system for the
eolor-blind. Now, it is found, as we have already seen in the instances
of the principal colors of the red and green blind, that, amongst the seven
colors of the rainbow perceptible to the normal observer, four, namely,
red, orange, yellow, and green, belong to one class, and three, especially
blue, indigo, and violet, to the second. Consequently, one of the colors

170 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

must be red, orange, yellow, or green, and the other blue, indigo, or violet.
It should very naturally be our object to give the preference in the
selection to the colors which most strongly affect the eye at the time of
the comparison. Now, the most intense colors of the spectrum, that is
to say, the most vivid colors which enter into the white light of the sun,
are yellow and blue, one of each of the two groups. We then select them,
the more willingly, that the light of the lantern is, without any prepara-
tion, and to a very high degree, yellow, though it is not homogeneous.
But we are far from being so fortunate with regard to blue. We here
encounter a difficulty, on the contrary, which induces us to doubt
whether a change of colors will accomplish the desired end.

On all colored surfaces—flags, paintings, semaphores, etc.—employed
by railways to reflect during the day the sunlight or daylight, the pro-
posed colors answer perfectly without any doubt, and, in all probability, no
color-blind individual of the kinds specified would nominally make mis-
takes of judgment. But the night-signals are quite another matter, and
are by far more important for many reasons. This is therefore why we
prefer to attach here so much importance to them, as during the day a
multitude of different circumstances might give warning of danger,
while during the night the colored light is the only signal which indi-
cates it.

The colored lights used for night-signals are made, as all know, by plac-
ing colored glass before the flame of a lantern. The use of Bengal lights
as regular signals could scarcely be introduced into practice. Now, a
colored glass produces a colored light, because, of all the kinds of light
radiated from the flame, but one kind (or, at least, mainly one kind) is
allowed to escape, while all the others, or a greater part of the others,
are absorbed by the glass. Thus, blue glass, according to its thickness
or degree of coloring, absorbs all the other kinds of light emitted by the
flame of the lantern, allowing only the blue rays to escape. But, un-
fortunately, as is well known by direct experience, the flame of the lan-
tern emits comparatively but a small amount of blue light when rape-
seed oil and photogene, or generally any of our ordinary sources of
artificial light, are employed ; and this is why all appear yellow or red
when compared with the light of day. Under such circumstances, blue
glass can naturally transmit only a small amount of blue light; and the
light of a blue lantern must consequently always be very feebly lumi-
nous.

What we have just said of blue applies equally to indigo and violet.
The proposed changes of the colors of signals furnishes, therefore,
but two colors in place of three; and then one is a very feeble light,
so that it is difficult to see it far off so long as it is sufficiently colored.
This state of things scarcely holds out much inducement to introduce a
reform of this nature. And it seems the more dengerous that this change
of colors in the signals would cause those with normal sight amongst the
personnel to run the same risk that the really color-blind do; I mean that

ACCIDENTS. BY RAIL AND SEA. Jags

they would be forced to distinguish and judge the night-signals alone
by the intensity of the light.

The result of all that we have just said is, it seems to us, that the
proposed change of the signal colors is not very practical, and such
would be the case with any other choice of two colors. It must at least be
conceded that the new signal colors would be to every normal observer
worse than those now in use with us, as with nearly all nations; in
brief, if they were adopted, it would diminish the public safety. We
must add that, by adopting them, the principle we have explained
is not taken into consideration, according to which it is necessary to
use a system of signals adapted to all kinds of color-blindness, since
the violet-blind are not able to distinguish between yellow and blue.
The proposed change should therefore be rejected, it seems to us, on
every practical consideration.

(b) Colorless light and darkness, black and white.-—It has been seen
that it is impossible to hope for colored signals suiting every one,
color-blind or not; it becomes necessary, therefore, to try to devise a
plan for establishing a system of signals independent of colors, and
based upon the introduction of a colorless light of different degrees of
intensity. While there is nothing more sensible to our sight than the
relative intensity of two lights placed side by side (when the absolute
intensity does not exceed certain limits), in the present case the
only comparison involved is made from memory, so to speak, which
is equivalent almost to an appreciation of the absolute intensity
of light. We are so far from being able to judge of this, that, in spite
of a deeply felt need and constant efforts, science even has not suc-
ceeded in discovering suitable measures to apply to it.

It is, however, necessary to acknowledge here that a system of signals
based only on two extremes of intensity of light, namely, on light and
darkness, white and black, ought to suit the normal observer as well as
the color-blind. Moreover, such a system ought to satisfy all exigencies,
provided it is practically applied, and that two signals only are sufficient.
A white and black flag, etc., would fully suffice during the day; but
such would unfortunately not be the case at night, for a black light is
a contradiction of terms, and it would be necessary, consequently, ac-
cording to this system for the night, when signals are of the greatest
importance, to be limited not to three, but to one signal only, unless the
absence of all signals could be considered as one. Here it might be
well asked, whether the better system is not that which is based on the
alternations of darkness and light, that is, movable signals or eclipsed
signal-lights. As far as we know, no system has yet been discovered,
based upon the principles alluded to above, which could advantageously
take the place of the one actually in use.

(c) Form, movement, number.—If we do not succeed in finding a suit-
able system of signals, based on the differences of the quality and quan-
tity of light, there remains but to appeal to some arrangement in space,

Lie - COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

if absolutely limited to the visual sense. Many different ways suggest
themselves of varying the signals by form and arrangement in space:
large brilliant surfaces arranged in different forms; several small lights
grouped in different positions with reference to each other; lights sim-
ply disposed, but differing in value as signals according to their number,
or else illuminated figures of simple colors, and produced by different
movements, and soon. A practical difficulty seems to be connected
with such a system; the signals require the illuminated surfaces to be
large enough, or placed at distanees considerable enough between the
luminous points, to appear distinctly afar off; now the larger such a fig-
ure, having the outlines marked with luminous points, the greater the
risk that a portion of it be hidden by other objects intervening between
it and the eye. These two inconveniences must be apparent, particu-
larly if these surfaces and illuminated figures have to be placed at every
point where colored lanterns are found, as for example on locomotives
and ears.

If the system of signals were based upon form, and all persons dis-
charged from the service of railways who, in consequence of an imperfec-
tion of vision, could not clearly and decidedly distinguish these signals at
a distance, the proportion of such would be larger than that of the color-
blind. ‘To form an idea of the different capacities of the normal eye in
the various senses just mentioned, we will recommend a very simple ex-
periment. Take something, colored paper, for example; make some plain
figures, such as letters, one of which must be attached vertically to a
large black or white surface. To prevent any distraction from subject-
ive influences, let some one else select and attach this letter, while the
observer stands at such a distance that even with the eye directed
toward it but a single object can be seen. If the letters are small, it is
not necessary that the distance should be very great. Then if the sym-
bol be slowly approached, with the eye fixed on the colored surface, the
following observations in the order in which the different impressions
succeed each other will be made. When the letter is first perceived,
neither form nor color can be distinguished ; nothing is seen but a point
or patch darker than the background, if that be white, or lighter, if it
be black. The first attribute remarked, as the distance diminishes, is its
color. When the color is very distinet, it is necessary to approach con-
siderably nearer before the form is perceptible, that is to say, before this
letter can be read, and its name given. This simple experiment clearly
shows that the eye, as far as it is possible to compare its capacities in differ-
ent directions, is first sensible to the relative intensity of light, then to
color, and finally to form. It would be necessary, of course, to consider
various circumstances relative to the choice of color, form, ete., if the
experiment should be made with exactness to serve as a basis for a
scientific demonstration. It would appear therefore that a system of

signals based on the power of distinguishing light from darkness is less .

suitable than the one now in use; not ouly because this is based upon

———————e —

OO Ee ee

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. Ik te

the principle of the difference in the quality of light, that is to say, on
color, but because, in the application, the very colors have been chosen
which in practice are the best adapted to the object in view. Expe-
rience also seems {o have decided in favor of this system, since in spite
of the substitutes proposed with a view to retain the color-blind, it has
up to the present time maintained its ascendency, so to speak, through-
out the entire world.

3.—DISMISSAL OF THE COLOR-BLIND.

It now remains to solve the question of what reform is preferable. Is
it necessary, in order to facilitate the free admission of all classes of
color-blind to the service of railways, to change a system of signals
recognized as the best and generally accepted, or, continuing the system,
to discard the incompetent? It is manifest, from what we have just said,
which measure is most conducive to the safety of railway lines. All
depends upon knowing whether, from solicitude for the color-blind, any
measures tending to diminish systematically or on principle this security
should be countenanced. We are fortunately accustomed to accepting
the maxim that private interest must yield to the general welfare. The
proportion of color-blindness in the population of a country is relatively
very small. It is true that railway employés are not made for signals,
but the signals for them; yet it is no less certain that in this matter the
first consideration must be the public good, and not a personal advan-
tage. It is, without doubt, very praiseworthy to desire that any one
afflicted with a congenital defect, for which he is not responsible, should
not be debarred from entering every career open to those more favored by
nature. But this case is not peculiar, for there are many other careers
to which every one has not access for want of the natural ability requi-
site for the efficient discharge of the duty; and there'are numbers of
persons who, in consequence of some natural defect, cannot be admitted
into even the most common occupations. We will, therefore, maintain
the position that, as long as the existing system of signals used on rail-
ways is considered in almost all respects the best known, it is indis-
pensable that no one incapable of rapidly and accurately distinguishing
red, green, and yellow should be allowed to fill any position on railways
involving any connection with colored signals.

IV.—GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PLAN OF CONTROL OF
THE CHROMATIC SENSE.

It is, of course, to the interest of railways not to take into their ser-
vice persons having any degree of defect in their chromatic sense. It
must be acknowledged tbat in several posts on railways, the observation
of signals is not considered an indispensable requisite; but as it is, at least,
unfortunate to have an employé who can not, in case of need, attend to
the signals, we consider this reason alone as quite sufficient. For no one,

174 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

and still jess a color-blind individual, could be regarded as born espe-
cially for a railway employé. Numerous other vocations are open to the
color-blind, although they might, on account of this defect, run the risk
of finding themselves excluded from many occupations where color-
blindness is much less injurious than to railways. Hence, we conclude
that the decision to be adopted in this matter must be comparatively
very stringent, that is to say, that a relatively slight defect of the chromatie
sense must suffice to prohibit admission to the service of railways.

The question is quite a different one with respect to those already
employed on railways, and other points must be weighed. It may be
necessary, perhaps, to remove them from a position which suits them,
and where they have earned a livelihood, and performed their duties in
the most irreproachable and decorous manner. Jt is just, therefore, that
the least severe principles be applied, and their personal interests as much as
possible considered without violating the requirements for the safety of the line.

In this case, no one should be dismissed without plausible reasons,
and when any such exist, the employés to be discharged should be trea-
ted with as much consideration as possible, and receive a legitimate
compensation for their loss by the offer of another place or a pension.

In order to secure an intelligent supervision and control, each employé
should submit to a rigorous examination of the chromatic sense, that
there might not be the slightest doubt as to the nature of its capacity.
To be able to attain this end in a perfectly certain and at the same time
practical manner, while creating as few difficulties as possible, is with-
out doubt the most difficult part of the reform to execute. It is admit-
ted as a fact that color-blindness may manifest itself in persons formerly
endowed with a perfectly normal chromatic sense. This is what is
called acquired or pathological color-blindness, only lately known, and
far from being as much studied as the congenital defect. It would be
perhaps more suitable for our practical purpose to divide pathological
color-blindness into two classes, one of which might be called general or
regular, and the other local or irregular. We will understand, by the
first term, that kind of pathological blindness due to general causes, and
usually concentrically disposed about the yellow spot; and, by the second,
that which is produced by local causes, and appears eccentrically placed
in the visual field, or having its center in the blind spot. This last class
should not belong to the subdivision now occupying us, principally because
it rarely appears in such a degree as to be able to occasion any danger to
railways. There is no doubt but that this acquired blindness really exists.
Dr. Favre and several other writers have especially devoted themselves to
this form of color-blindness amongst railway employés; they have pointed
out several causes to which it is due, and proposed measures for discov-
ering it. Itis of the highest importance here, it seems to us, that per-
feetly certain methods of investigation should be employed. Dr. Stilling
justly remarks that the great frequency of congenital color-blindness
constitutes one of the principal difficulties encountered in obtaining an

eee

ACCIDENTS BY- RAIL AND SEA. 175

accurate knowledge of pathological blindness. It is also plain that in
cases where pathological color-blindness might be confounded with con-
genital blindness, there is no means of arriving at a knowledge of its true
nature, unless in an individual who, after a rigid examination pre-
viously made by a trustworthy method, had been found to possess a
normal sense of vision. But it can scarcely be admitted that there have
been any such cases amongst those hitherto cited. But there is no better
way of definitely solving this question than by systematically organiz-
ing observations and repeated examinations on railways where all the
personnel have been previously examined. On this point, among many
others, the interests of science and those of the public go hand in hand.

Within the last few years sufficiently positive information has been
gathered to be able to form a fixed plan for enlarging these examinations.
Dr. Favre tells us—according to his experience and that of several of
his colleagues—that common causes of color-blindness are contusions,
serious illnesses, such as typhoid fever, etc., and the abuse of strong
liquors.

After every accident by rail or at sea, from collision, etc., where mis-
takesin distinguishing colors have been the principal or secondary causes,
not only the personnel present at the time of the accident, but also all
who have to give testimony about the signals, should be subjected to a
rigorous examination. The necessity of this measure must be evident
from what has been said before. Itis absurd to condemn any one because
some one who is blind says he has seen him violate the law, or to excul-
pate him because the blind person has seen him fulfill thislaw. To solve
the problems involved, it is necessary to make periodic examinations,
Ist, of every one who has a chromatic sense already acknowledged as
defective; 2d, of all who have had contusions, ete. ; and, 3d, of the whole
personnel, to discover any color-blindness that may have arisen without
apparent cause. The result of all that has been said is, that it is abso-
lutely necessary that the directors and principals should be perfectly
familiar with the nature of the chromatic sense of each one of their
subordinates.

V.—SHORT CRITICISM OF THE USUAL METHODS OF
INVESTIGATION.

Our exposition of color-blindness has shown, we hope, that, in spite
of its wide divergence from the normal chromatic sense, it is not so
easily discovered as one might imagine; quite the contrary. Just in
proportion to the increase of our knowledge of color-blindness and the
_ peculiarities of its subjects have we been led to establish different
methods for its discovery. Several already exist, which differ from each
other in the very principle upon which they rest or in the application
ot this principle.

Supposing the usual signal-lights be presented, one after the other,

176 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

to the person examined, he being required to name the colors or their
value as signals, his chromatic sense could not be judged by his answer.
For we have seen, on one side, that the color-blind can guess correctly
in such cases, and, on the other hand, it is scarcely necessary to say that
the normal observer might make a mistake in the name, either from negli-
gence, through inattention, or simply by a lapsus lingue. How many
times, then, must the trial be repeated to secure positive results? How
often must the individual make mistakes to be considered color-blind ?
How many times may he make them without being considered color-
blind? Evidently there is no categorical answer to these questions. We
are therefore authorized to conclude that the examination by means of
railway-lanterns, for discovering color-blindness, must be considered for
several essential reasons as an impracticable method, and consequently
to be rejected. The use of flags, for the same purpose, is still worse.
A general principle, applying to every examination of the chromatic
sense, is that such examination should not at first endeavor to trace the
connection of the chromatic sense with signals of any kind whatsoever,
but have in view only the discovery as to whether the subject is or is
not color-blind, or whether the chromatic sense is defective or normal.
While none of the various methods proposed can be condemned as ab-
solutely barren, there are several which, used alone, never give positive
results, or give them only in a limited number of cases, or else cause
so great a loss of time, and are so inconvenient, that they ought to be
rejected from this consideration alone. We class amongst these methods
all those which, as in the examination by means of the lantern, have a
tendency, in principle, to place before the one to be examined different
colors or colored objects to be named by him. The real question is not
to discover the degree of skill comparatively attained by each one in
correctly naming the colors, but the manner in which he sees them, or,
in other words, the nature of his chromatic sense. Any method fulfill-
ing this requirement must, in principle, be based upon the comparison
between different colors, and an investigation into the causes of the con-
fusion of the color-blind about several of them.

An example will more clearly illustrate our idea and show its impor-
tanee. Let us take a green-blind individual ; we know by experience
that he confuses or finds a perfect resemblance between the shades of
three colors very different to the normal eye. I allude topurple, green,
and gray. The reason of this is very simple according to the theory;
the green-blind is void of the organ for perceiving green. Purple, green,
and gray are, in reality, the same color to theeye of the green-blind,
but he has heard three names given to these colors under different cir-
cumstances. The result of this will be that he willin his turn designate
this color sometimes by one and sometimes by another of these names,
or else be will only use one, especially the one he first remarked or heard
most frequently applied to this color. If the subject use all three names,
he will apply them correctly in some instances and incorrectly in others.

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. IEEE

But if he employ a single name, it might in a consequent manner be,
according to the case, purple (improperly called red), green, or gray. Sup-
posing that heuses “ green,” according to the denominating method, his
chromatic sense will be judged as imperfect for purple and for gray, but
as correct for greem

From our point of view, therefore, Dr. Favre’s method does not seem
satisfactory. Besides, not appearing to us certain, and not supplying
us with any basis for a useful classification, it requires more time than
isexpedient; nevertheless, this principle seems usually applied in France
and England.

Dr. Stillings’s method is also founded upon the designation of colors,
and, if for no other reason, it should, we think, be condemned. ‘This
method is based upon the principle of colored shadows. Before a bril-
liant light in a dark room a colored glass is held, so that the light, pass-
ing through the glass, and in consequence colored by absorption, strikes
a white surface, a sheet of paper for instance, at right angles. In the
neighborhood of this sheet, and between it and the glass, a slender
and opaque object, a pencil, say, is held in such a manner that its
shadow distinetly falls upon the paper. This shadow then seems tinted
with the complementary color of the glass, that is to say, it shows the
different shades of purple or red if the glass is green; green or blue-
green if the glass is red, etc., in accordance with the Young-Helmholtz
theory. According to Dr. Stilling, the color-blind will be recognized by
the fact that the shadow in question appears to him uncolored, black
or gray, while to the normal observer it assumes the contrasted color, and
the diagnosis is established according to the names applied to the colors
of the shadows by the color-blind. It must be evident that his method
deserves very little confidence, and that it simply depends upona chance,
whether after such a proof a normal observer may not, be declared
color-blind. Besides, as the judgment is based upon the name given to
the colored shadow by the subject examined, it may readily happen
also that a color-blind person may be declared to have normal sight, if,
as is often the case, he guess the true name of the color. Briefly, then,
this method is not sure under this form. This judgment is not founded
merely upon theoretic reasons, but also upon a large number of direct
experiments, and is also confirmed by the examples cited by Dr. Stil-
ling himself.

It does not, however, follow that colored shadows may not be used in
the examination of the chromatic sense, if so arranged that the exam-
iner can perfectly regulate the light according to his pleasure. Accord-
ing to my method, with mirrors and two lights, a comparison between
two colors may be established. The green-blind here finds, as elsewhere,
a resemblance between a certain shade of green and purple, ete. As
by this method the intensity of the light may be exactly regulated, the
feeble perception may also be relatively determined. The experiment

we paves ete about this declares in favor of the Young-Helmholtz
28 ;

178 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

theory, but it has besides convinced us that the colored shadows are
not suitable for the discovery in the first instance of color-blindness.
This is the same case with Ragona Scina’s method of representing com-
plementary colors; and also that of Rose, which, Sees a strongly
resembles the recat

After having named the processes which, acperacie to our convic-
tions, are not suitable for the end in view, we must mention two other
inetnods which thoroughly supply us with the information wanted.
One is due to Seebeck; the other to Maxwell. They are both founded
on the comparison of colors, and do not assume either any knowledge
or any use of the names of colors, which is, we think, an essential
advantage.,

Maxwell’s method consists inrepresenting two colors on a rotatory disk,
to be compared by the person under examination, the tints, degree of
“saturation,” and intensity of light of which may be changed at will.
They can be modified, until, to the color-blind, they attain an absolute
resemblance. The chromatic sense is then judged by its dissimilarity to
that of the normal eye. It is in this that the force and accuracy of the
method consist. It shows us with certainty how the subject sees the
colors aS compared with each other. The Young-Helmholtz theory is
confirmed by Maxwell’s method, as this shows us that, by the aid of
only two primitive colors, we can exhaust the whole chromatic scale of
the color-blind.

Seebeck’s method consists in making the individual to be examined
classify a number of colored objects according to their reciprocal resem-
blance or dissimilarity. In this way, we have at once a complete picture
of the person’s chromatic sense. We learn what colors he distinguishes
and which he confounds. By this method, also, we can know how he
sees colors in their relations to each other. But, although these two
methods are perfectly reliable, they are not entirely suitable for a practi-
cal purpose, because they require much time and are very inconvenient,—
that of Maxwell for the examiner and that of Seebeck for the examined.
He who has examined a large number of color-blind by Maxwell’s
method knows only too well how much time this investigation consumes,
in however incomplete a manneritis made. This arises from the extreme
affectation of precision by the color-blind. It is not difficult for one
with normal sight to point out two similar colors on the rotatory
disk, because the essential point is the resemblance in the tint of the
color. But the color-blind person who cannot perceive this tint re-
quires a complete resemblance in the intensity of light or in the degree
of “‘saturation,” and in this lies the difficulty. His appreciation often
depends upon the addition of a minimum of white or black, which is to
him of the greatest importance, although the normal observer cannot per-
ceive any difference. We may add that the method is very fatiguing
and inconvenient to the examiner, on account of the continual changes
made in the colors, and the incessant work that the rotation of the

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 179

apparatus necessitates. Finally, if we state that the apparatus is some-
what expensive, and is comparatively difficult to transport, it will suffice,
it seems to us, to condemn its use as a method of the first order when it
is required to make the examination on a multitude.

The method of Seebeck causes much loss of time by obliging those
examined to classify a large number of colored objects. This is not an
easy task for them. It not only progresses very slowly, requiring per-
haps an hour, but costs much trouble and evident effort. One may
obtain a tolerably clear idea of this by attempting to do the same work.
with the use of blue-green eyeglasses. The colors are then seen and
classified very nearly as they are by the red-blind, and almost the same:
difficulty is experienced. Seebeck’s method, however, is superior to
Maxwell’s in this, that it requires the subject to make an active use of
his chromatic sense, while the other allows him to remain passive, and
merely announce his decision. Both methods, however, require too
much time to be employed with advantage for the purpose in question.
But they are the best methods known to us at present.

The perimetric exploration with Forster’s apparatus may be excellent
in more than one case for examining those before examined, but it is
not advisable alone and as a primitive method. It is even inapplicable
to some persons; it entails much loss of time, requires much exertion on
the part of the one examined, and requires an expensive instrument,
which is besides very inconvenient for transportation.

It may be very interesting scientifically to use the spectrum for exam-
ining the color-blind; but this method is not very appropriate for
practical purposes ; it requires costly apparatus, and different arrange-
ments, which render it more or less long and inconvenient. It does not
enter into our plan to give an account here of all the known methods
that may be used in the first inspection, or when desired to establish a
test for examination. We shall limit ourselves to the examples cited,
and to explain in a special chapter the method we have ourselves used,
‘and which of all tried seems to us best adapted to the purpose.

VI—NEW PRACTICAL METHOD FOR DISCOVERING AND
DETERMINING DEFECTS OF THE CHROMATIC SENSE.

The method we are going to describe here has been employed in all
the examinations of the chromatie sense of the different classes of the
population which have been made in Sweden.

1.—A SHORT SKETCH OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE METHOD.

Theoretically, our method most resembles those of Seebeck and Max-
well, as itis based upon a comparison between different colors. It there-
fore first seeks to discover the chromatic perception of the subject, disre-
garding the names he gives to the colors, as generally it is not neces-
sary he should designate the names. Our method resembles Seebeck’s

180 ’ GCOLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

most in this, that it does not require a special apparatus for preparing the
necessary tints for the examination; it assumes there will be a supply of
objects of different colors provided inadvanee. It agrees again with this
method in not allowing, as Maxwell’s does, the person examined to remain
passive, and simply give his opinion of the resemblance or dissimilarity
of the shades indicated, but requires him to discriminate and select the
shades, and in consequence reveal by an act the nature of his chromatic
sense. But practically our method differs essentially from Seebeck’s.
His certainly gives, in a certain sense, more complete results than ours
by requiring the subject to thoroughly clessify, in accordance with their
reciprocal resemblances and dissimilarities, the various differently col-
ored objects placed before him. A complete table of his whole system
of colors is the result of this. Our method, on the contrary, requires the
person examined to select, amongst a large number of variously colored
objects, those alone which resemble the sample shown him by the ex-
aminer. The difference is evident. Seebeck’s method is, without any
doubt, preferable when the nature of the color-blindness in the aggregate
is to be considered ; that is, so long as this is yet unknown. His method
then gives a more complete idea than ours of the nature of the color-blind-
ness. But for our actual purpose, the main question is to discover a
defect,with the entire nature of which we are acquainted in advance.
Our practical mission then is evidently to discover, if possible, some cer-
tain sign which will enable us to accomplish this end by the shortest pos-
sible route. If a single proof which would detect the color-blind as
certainly as if he revealed to us his entire system of colors were discovered,
this would undoubtedly be the method preferred to any other, as it would
accomplish the object much more quickly and easily. This is the case
with our method. We are far from denying, in general, the value of a
thorough examination, but we will say that it may sometimes be super-
fluous. Its practical advantage will not be very great, if at the cost of
a great loss of time, and it may even be prejudicial, if, under a multitude
of details, it conceal what is essential; in a word, prevents our ‘seeing
the city ou account of the houses.” All this may be applied to Seebeck’s
method, when the object in view is the one of which we are in
pursuit. Our method again endeavors to seize as rapidly as possible
one or two essential characteristics while neglecting all the others. A
single caudal feather of the peacock reveals whence it came; a single
flower or fruit, the plant whence it was plucked; and the genus man is
recognized if we can but see a face. It is only when the face is muti-
lated, the flowers, fruits, and caudal feather are defective, that in certain
cases it is necessary to have recourse to other characteristics. Our
method rests upon these principles; it also offers the same security as
Seebeck’s. But, as regards the time necessary to accomplish the exami-
nation, it bears nearly the same relation to that of the learned German,
that a minute does to an hour. This may seem a very trifling matter
at the first glance, but is in reality of immense practical importance

ACCIDENTS BY. RAIL AND SBA. 181

when a multitude of persons are to be successively examined. A simple
calculation shows us in fact that an examination requiring one day by
our method would require two months by Seebeck’s.

It is but just to.acknowledge that it was only by weighing the results
obtained by Seebeck’s method and following the Young-Helmholtz
theory, as well as the principles we have indicated as indispensable to
a practical method, that we have succeeded in formulating our own
method, such as we shall explain it in what follows. We also will re-
mark that it is very simple and easily mastered; but we think this is
likewise often the case with all that is useful and practical, and that
simplicity offers great advantages. We prefer this method because it
seems to us more than any other to fulfill the conditions we have
pointed out as necessary to a practical method, namely, certainty, rapid-
ity, and convenience. The only inconvenience of any moment besides
those it has in common with a greater part of the others is that it re-
quires daylight. It can undoubtedly be used by artificial light (elec-
trical and calcium lights, and certain arrangements of lamp-lights with
blue glass), but this causes much loss of time.

After this rapid sketch of the general principles of the method, we
will proceed to give its details, and shall not fail to mention generally
the reasons why, amongst several possibilities, we have selected this or
that process.

2.—THE MATERIAL AND ITS ARRANGEMENT.

Our method demands neither costly apparatus nor a special place for
the examination. The only necessary elements are a number of variously
colored objects. It consists in taking one from a number of ol:jects pro-
miscuously thrown together, and asking the person examined to select
from amongst them all the others corresponding with the first in color.
With regard to the colored objects, it of course matters little in principle
what their nature is, as, in the main, the method never changes, no mat-
ter what the kind selected. But, practically, the choice is by no means
a matter of indifference. Among the ordinary objects suggested, and
also used for the purpose, are pieces of colored paper, glass, or silk,
or Berlin wool, etc., the last of which seems to us the best, for the
following reasons: One of the chief advantages of Berlin wool is, that
if can be procured in all possible colors corresponding to those of the
spectrum, and each in all its shades, from the darkest to the lightest.
Such selections may be found in trade, and are easily procured when and
where desired. It can be used at once, and without any preparation
for the examination, just as delivered from the factory. A skein of
Berlin wool is equally colored, not only on one or two sides, but on all,
and is easily detected in the package, even though there be but one
thread of it. Berlin wool is not too strongly glaring, and is, moreover, soft
and manageable, and can be handled, packed, and transported as desired,
without damage, and is conveniently ready for use wherever needed.

182 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

These advantages are wanting in the other colored objects suggested
for use. Colored paper or silk may be used when light or dark, dull or
bright colors are wanted; but they both have these inconveniences, they
must first be cut into suitable pieces, and they are troublesome to handle;
moreover, they are easily concealed from view, and it is necessary to
stretch them carefully on a large surface to enable them to be seen
without trouble. They are often glaring ; they reflect, besides their
particular kinds of light, a quantity of white light, which is a promi-
nent defect, as it misleads the cclor-blind, who, as we know, judge of
colors by the intensity of light, that is, the quantity of light, and he
consequently estimates differently the color of a brilliant surface, ac-
cording to the position in which it is found with regard to the eye, ete.
The paper is often colored on only one side, and this gives rise to much
trouble, as it is necessary to turn the pieces from one side to the other
to see them in their true colors. Finally, from being so much handled,
the pieces of paper or silk soon become tumbled and faded.

Colored glass, which must be in pieces, is not suitable either, from
the fact that it is difficult to procure it in sufficiently great variety. It
is besides troublesome to transport, easily broken, and finally inconve-
nient for using, because necessary to be held against the light of day, or
a luminous source, in order that the color may be seen. The advan-
tage of being able to use them by any kind of light does not counterbal-
ance their inconveniences.

Although these are not all the objections, the preceding will suffice
to prove the advantages of Berlin wool. All this applies equally well
to wafers, powders, colored solutions, spools of colored thread, pieces of
wood, and porcelain, especially painted for the purpose, ete.; they can
all be and have been employed, but nove of these objects are, in every
respect, so well suited to our purpose as Berlin wool.

A selection of Berlin wool is then made, including red, orange, yel-
low, yellow-green, pure green, blue-green, blue, violet, purple, pink,
brown, gray, several shades of each color, and at least five gradations
of each tint, from the deepest to the lightest. Green and gray, several
kinds each, of pink, blue, and violet, and the pale gray shades of brown,
yellow, red, and pink, must especially be well represented. The choice of
the material does not belong specially to our method. In fact, Seebeck
Suggested the use of Berlin wool, which was employed by his advice and
still is at present. To us only belongs the credit of originating the man-
ner in which it is employed. According to our method, the examiner
selects from the collection of Berlin wool in a pile on a convenient table,
and lays aside a skein of the especial color desired for this examination ;
then he requires the one examined to select the other skeins most closely
resembling the color of the sample, and to place them by its side. The
chromatic sense of the individual is decided by the manner in which he
performs this task. The rapidity with which this examination is made
does not seem to directly correspond with the nature of the chromatic

ee

ee ——————— eee

ACCIDENTS BY RAI, AND SEA. 183

sense, but to depend finally upon the character of the person examined.
One of intelligence, with a quick, practical mind, is examined in less
than a minute. In this time, in fact, a normal eye could easily find the
four or five skeins of the same color as the sample, and the color-blind
make a sufficient number of characteristic mistakes to thoroughly
establish the diagnosis. It is clear that a method such as ours affords
the opportunity in connection with the investigation of the chromatic
sense of learning much of all the peculiarities relating to the use of
our senses. This is why we maintain the principle that it is nece-
essary to leave to the activity of the hands the task of revealing the
nature of the sensations, and to have recourse to the tongue only for
verification when there is need of more information. The combina-
tion of the action of the eye and hands, which plays in general so
important a part in the training and use of the senses, is also of
great consequence in this examination. An attentive examiner, espe-
cially if be have already acquired some experience, can draw im-
portant conclusions from the manner fn which the other executes
his task, not only and directly with regard to the nature of his chro-
matic sense, but generally as to his intelligence and character, and
especially in some cases as to his previous training and exercise in the
use of colors, and his skill in recognizing them. The examination
affords us also the opportunity of making psychological observations,
which contribute in a great measure in giving us a clear idea of the
nature of the chromatic sense. A practiced examiner can often detect
color-blindness by the first gesture, and make his diagnosis before the
end of the trial. He can, according to the manner in which the task is
performed, form a judgment of a feeble chromatic sense in instances which
are proved correct by the final result. He alsocan and must see whether
the result is erroneous simply on account of a misunderstanding or a
want of intelligence, just as he can see whether the really color-blind
succeeds, in a certain degree, from much previous exercise or a consid-
erable amount of caution. In short, the method supplies us with all
necessary information, so that by an examination made with its assist-
ance, a defective chromatic sense, no matter of what kind or in what
degree, cannot escape observation. As we have already said, the prin-
ciple of our method is that the test is confined to one color.

The faculty possessed by the eye of distinguishing colors and that of
defining the degrees of light and color (of ‘‘saturation”) are relatively
very different; but these special faculties have this in common, that they
have their maximum activity in a certain intermediary region of abso-
lute intensity of light and their minimum at the two limits of this region.
Just as we experience the most difficulty in distinguishing between the
shades of intensity of light by a very feeble or very strong illumination,
so it is difficult for us to distinguish colors slightly or strongly luminous,
or the deepest and the lightest. It is, therefore, necessary to select as
a suitable color for discovering a feeble chromatic sense either the light-

184 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

est or darkest shades. The well-defined kinds and degrees of a defect-
ive chromatic sense confound only colors of mean intensity. I have
selected, to determine whether the chromatic sense is or is not defective,
a light green (dark green may be also used), because green, according
to the theory, is the whitest of the colors of the spectrum, and conse-
quently is most easily confused with gray. For the diagnosis of the
especial kinds of partial color-blindness, I have selected purple (pink),
that is, the whole group of colors in which red (orange) and violet (blue)
are combined in nearly equal proportions, at least in such proportions
that no one sufficiently preponderates over the others, to the normal
sense, So as to give its name to the combination. This is the reason for
this choice. Purple occupies a singular position amongst colors; although
it is a combination, it is, we know, a color, as well “saturated” as the
colors of the spectrum, and might be, from this point of view, classed
with them, although it is not found in the spectrum. In fact, it has been
regarded as the eighth color of the spectrum, closing the circle of satu-
rated colors. Purple is of especial importance in the examination of the
color-blind, for the reason that it forms a combination of two fundamental
colors—the two extreme colors—which are never confounded with each
other. In fact, from a color-blind point of view, one of two things must
happen, according to the theory: either it excites but one kind of per-
ceptive organ or it excites them all. It appears then either like a sim-
ple color, that is to say, like one of the two colors of the combination,
or like white (gray). Experiment has confirmed this hypothesis. Our
sample colors, therefore, are the two complementary colors of each other,
green and purple. In the examination of the chromatic sense of a large
number of individuals, it is, of course, of importance to decide, first,
whether the chromatic sense of the individual is or is not normal. Itis
only after establishing the existence of a defect that its nature or degree
must be determined. The sample colors are, therefore, employed with
more advantage in a certain order, as the test must be accomplished as
a whole, according to a plan that experience has proved the surest, most
rapid, and, finally, most suitable for the purpose.

3.—THE EXAMINATION AND DIAGNOSIS.

The Berlin wool is placed in a pile on a large plane surface and in
broad daylight; a skein of the test color is taken from the pile and
laid aside far enough from the others not to be confounded with them
during the trial; and the person examined requested to select the other
skeins most resembling this in color, and place them by the side of the
sample. In the first place, it is necessary that he should thoroughly
understand what is required of him; that is, that he should search the
pile for the skeins making an impression on his chromatic sense, in-
dependent of any name he may give the color, similar to that made
by the sample. The examiner should explain that resemblance in
every respect is not necessary; that there are no two specimens exactly

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 185

alike; that the only question is the resemblance of the color; and that
consequently he must endeavor to find something similar, of the same
shade, something lighter and darker of the same color, ete. If the
person examined cannot succeed in understanding this by a verbal
explanation, we must resort to action. We must ourselves make the
trial by searching with our own hands for the skeins, thereby showing
in a practical manner what is meant by a shade, and then restoring the
whole to the pile except the sample skein. As it would require much
time to examine each individual in this way, it is advisable, when ex-
amining a large number at the same time, to instruct all at once, and
moreover to ask them to attentively observe the examination of those
preceding them, so as to become more familiar themselves with the
process. By this, time is saved, without loss of security; for no one
with a defective chromatic sense finds the correct skeins in the pile
the more easily from the fact of having a moment before seen others
looking for and arranging them. He makes the same characteristic
mistakes; but the normal observer, on the other hand, generally ac-
complishes his task much better and more quickly after having seen
how it must be done, and this is the advantage of our method.

The colors mentioned in this chapter are divided into two classes:

Ist. The colors for samples (test colors), that is, those presented to the
persons examined ; and

2d. The “ colors of confusion,” that is to say, those which the color-blind
selects from the heap, because he confuses them with that of the
sample.

TEST I.—The green sample is presented. This sample should be the
palest shade (the lightest) of very pure green, which is neither a yellow-
green nor a blue-green to the normal eye, but fairly intermediate be-
tween the two, or at least not verging upon yellowish green.

Rule.-—The examination must continue until the one examined has
placed near the sample all the other skeins of the same shade, or else,
with these or separately, one or several skeins of the class correspond-
ing to the “colors of confusion,” until he has sufficiently proved by his
manner of doing it that he can easily and unerringly distinguish the con-
fused colors or until he has given proof of unmistakable difficulty in
accomplishing this task.

Diagnosis.—He who places beside the sample one of the ‘“ colors of
confusion,” that is to say, finds that it resembles the “test color,” is
color blind. He who, without being quite guilty of this confusion, evinces
a manifest disposition to do so, has a feeble chromatic sense.

Remark.—We must remember that we cannot allow more than five
colors for “confusion,” But we have here in view, not every kind of defec-
tive color-sense, but only those important in the business of railways.
The number of colors allowed is therefore sufficient, as these are the
most important and most common.

Test If.—A purple skein is presented. The color chosen must be
between the deepest and lightest shades of the scale.

186 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN IT'S RELATION TO

Rule.—The trial must be continued until the one examined has placed
near the sample all or the greater part of the skeins of the same shade,
or else simultaneously or separately one or several skeins of “confusion.”
He who selects either the light or deep shades of blue and violet (es-
pecially the deep) or the light or deep shades of one kind of green or
gray inclining to blue has committed an error.

Diagnosis.—1. He who is color-blind by the first test, and who, upon
the second test, selects only purple skeins, is incompletely color-blind.

2. He who, in the second test, selects with purple only blue and violet,
or one of them, is completely red-blind.

3. He who, in the second test, selects with purple only green and gray,
or one of them, is completely green-blind.

Remark.—The red-blind never ratifies the test of the green-blind, and
vice versa. However, it happens in certain cases that the green-blind
selects a violet or blue skein, but always the lightest shades. This
should not affect the diagnosis. The examination may end with this
test, and the diagnosis be considered as perfectly settled. It is not even
necessary, practically, to decide whether the color-blindness is red or
green. But to be more entirely convinced of the relation of complete
color-blindness with the signal colors, and especially to convince, if neces-
sary, the railway employés and others who are not specialists, the exami-
nation may be completed by one more trial. The one we are going to
mention is not necessary to the diagnosis, and only serves to corrobo-
rate the investigation.

Trst III.—The red skein is presented to the subject. It is necessary
to have a vivid red color like the red flag used as signals on railways.

Rule.—This test, which is applied only to those completely color-blind,
should be continued until the person examined has placed beside the
specimen all the skeins belonging to this shade or the greater part or else
separately one or several ‘“‘colors of confusion.” The red-blind then
chooses, besides the red, green and brown shades which, to the normal
sense, seem darker than red. On the other hand, the green-blind selects
opposite shades which appear lighter than red.

Remark.—Every case of complete color-blindness discovered does not
always make the precise mistakes we have just mentioned in the preced-
ing examinations. These exceptions are either instances of persons
with a comparatively inferior degree of complete color-blindness, or of
color-blind persons who have been exercised in the colors of signals, and
who endeavor not to be discovered ; they therefore usually confound at
least green and brown, but even this does not always happen.

ADDITIONAL NOTE.—We have not given rules for discovering total
color-blindness, because we have not found any cases of this kind. If
any such should be found, they will be recognized, according to the
theory, by a confusion of every shade having the same intensity of
light. Violet-blindness will be recognized by a genuine confusion of
purple, red, and orange in the second test. The diagnosis should be

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 187

made with discrimination. The first test often shows blue to bea ‘color
of confusion.” This may, in certain cases, be the sign of violet-blind-
ness, but notalways. We have not thought it advisable to admit defects
of this kind; only the most marked cases, that other examinations
establish as violet color-blindness, should be reckoned in the statistics.
Finally, to acquire a desirable uniformity, it is necessary to add that in
the preparatory examination, it is my habit to indicate in the journal,
especially kept for that purpose, cases of complete color-blindness by 2
(2 R., 2 G., 2 V.), those of incomplete blindness by 1, and those of feeble
chromatic sense by 0.5 (0.5 R., 0.5 G., 0.5 V.).

4.—PRAOCTICAL RULES AND SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE CONDUCT
OF THE TRIAL.

The method, as we have said, plays an important part in an examina-
tion of this kind, not only from the principles upon which it rests, but also
from the manner in which it is used. The best plan for directing how
to proceed is by oral instructions and de visu; but here we are obliged
to accomplish this by description. Now, this is always defective in some
respects, especially if we wish to be brief. What has been said would
evidently suffice for an intelligent and experienced physician, but it
may not be superfluous to enter still further into detail to provide against
any possible difficulties and loss of time. Theobject of the examination
is to discover the nature of a person’s chromatic sense. Now, as the
fate of the one to be examined and that of others depend upon the
correctness of the judgment pronounced by the examiner, and that this
judgment should be based upon the manner in which the one examined
stands the trial, it is of importance that this trial should be truly what it
ought to be, a trial of the nature of the chromatic sense and nothing
else, an end that will be gained if our directions are strictly followed. It
is not only necessary that the examiner carefully observe them—which
does not seem to us difficult—but that he also take care that the indi-
vidual examined does thoroughly what is required of him. This is not
always as easy as one might suppose. Ifit were only required to ex-
amine intelligent people, familiar with practical occupations and espe-
cially with colors, and with no other interest connected with the issue of
the examination than to know whether they are color-blind or not, the ex-
amination would be uniform and mechanical. But it is required to ex-
amine people of various degrees of culture, all of whom, besides, have a
personal interest in the issue of the examination. Different people act
very differently during the examination for many reasons. Some submit
to it without the least suspicion of their defect; others are convinced that
they possess a normal sense. A few only have a consciousness or at least
some suspicion of their defect. These last can often be recognized before
the least examination by keeping behind the others, by attentively follow-
ing the progress of the trial, but if allowed willingly remaining to the
last. Some are quick; others slow. The former approach unconcernedly

188 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN 1TS RELATION TO

and boldly; the latter with over anxiety and a certain dread. The lowest
class are those who have the opposite desire, that is, to pass for color-
blind, although in possession of normal sight. We will speak of these
later, to enable us now to devote ourselves to those who undergo the trial
in good faith, or, at least, with the desire to appear normal, even al-
though color-blind.

In the trial it is especially desirable to confine the range of selection
to the lighter shades of the test color (say green), for the trial would
cause great loss of time and be less reliable if it included every shade
of green. In fact, no little judgment has been exercised in the selection
of the very lightest shade of the green proposed as a sample color. For
it is exactly what the color-blind most readily confounds with the paler
shades of gray, drab, straw, and salmon-color. If the subject were
allowed to depart from the narrow limits established by the trial, it would
include every shade of green, the result of which would be that he would
prefer to select all the vivid shades, and thus avoid the dangerous ground
where his defect would certainly be discovered. This is why it is neces-
sary to oblige him to keep within certain limits, confining him to pure
green specimens, and, for greater security, to recommend him to select
especially the lightest shades. What we have just said of green applies
also of course to purple.

The principle of our method is to force the one examined to reveal,
himself, by an act of his own, the nature of his chromatic sense. Now,
as this act must be kept within certain limits, it is evident that the ex-
aminer must direct him to a certain degree. This may present, in certain
cases, some difficulty, as he will not always be guided, and does
either too much or too little. In both cases, the examiner should use
his influence in order to save time and gain certainty, and this is usually
very easily done. Tbis intervention is, of course, intended to put the
examiner in the true path, and is accomplished in many ways according
to the case in point.

We will here mention some of the expedients we have found useful :

A. Interference during an extended selection.—It is not always easy to
confine the one examined within the limitsof the method. He easily slips
in the first test, for example, a yellow-green or blue-green skein among the
others, and as soon as there is one, others follow usually, and it thus
happens that, in a few moments, he has a whole handful of yellow-green,
a second of blue-green, a third of both these shades at the same time.
Our process has assisted us in more than one ease of this kind.

(a) When the person examined has begun to select shades of one or sev-
eral other colors than those of the sample, his ardor is arrested by taking
from him the handful of skeins he has collected, and asking him whether
his eye does not tell him there are one or several which do not match
the others, in which case he is solicited to restore them to the pile. He
then generally remarks that there is some obscuration, and proceeds in
one of the following manners:

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 189

1. He rejects one after the other, the foreign shades, so that the correct
remain, which is often only the sample skein. He is shown what mistake
he has made. Names are used to remind him that one class of green
may be yellow-green and another blue-green; and to induce him to
avoid them, he is advised only to select skeins of the same shade as the
specimen, although they be lighter or darker, and have neither more
yellow nor blue than that. If his first error arose only from a miscon-
ception or want of practice in handling colors, he begins generally to
understand what he has to do, and to do properly what is required of him.

2. Or else he selects and rejects immediately the skein of the sample
itself. This proves that he sees the difference of color. He is then
shown the skein as the only correct one, and asked to repeat the trial in
amorecorrect manner. He is again put on the right track as just before,
and the trial proceeds rightly, unless the error arise from a defect in
the chromatic sense. Many seem, however, to experience a natural diffi-
culty in distinguishing between yellow-green and blue-green, or the dull
shades of green and blue. This difficulty is, however, more apparent
than real, and is corrected usually by direct comparison. If the method
requiring the name of the color to be given is used, a number of
mistakes may be the result. If a skein of light green and light blue
alone are presented to him, asking him to name them, he will often call
blue, green, and green, blue. But if in the first case a blue skein is
immediately shown him, he corrects his mistake by saying this is blue
and that green. In the last case, it happens so mutatis mutandis. This
is not the place for an explanation. It must suffice to say that the error
is corrected by a direct comparison between the two colors.

There is, according to the theory, one class of the color-blind—violet-
blind—who, in consequence of the nature of their chromatic sense, and.
therefore, notwithstanding the comparison, cannot distinguish blue and
green. But our method has nothing to do with this class of the color-
blind, because such are not dangerous on railways.

(b) Another process.—If the one examined place by the side of the sam-
ple a shade, for instance, of yellow-green, the examiner places near this
another shade, in which there is more yellow, or even a pure yellow, re-
marking at the same time that if the first suit, the last must also. The
other usually dissents from this. He is then shown, by selecting and
classing the intermediate shades, that there is a gradation which will
diverge widely if logically carried out as he has begun. The same
course is followed with colors of the blue shades, if the blue-green were
first selected. He sees the successive gradations, and goes through
with this test perfectly if his chromatic sense is correct.

To ascertain further whether he notices these additions, or the tints of
yellow and blue in the green, we can take ourselves the yellow-green and
blue-green to ask him if he finds this to be so. Wecan judge by his
answer of his sense with regard to these shades, and the object of this
investigation is accomplished.

190 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

It results from all this that many who are finally considered to have
a normal chromatic sense may occasionally cause embarrassments. In
the main, the normal observer of this kind causes greater loss of time
than the color-blind. It is astonishing to see with what rapidity the
color-blind betray their defect. At least, it is found, in the majority of
the cases examined by us, that the first skein of wool selected from the
pile by the color-blind in the first test was one of the “colors of con-
fusion.” :

B. Intervention during a restricted choice.—Those who evince too great
slowness also require the interferences of the examiner in another man-
ner. We can lay aside here those cases in which at the sight of the
complex colors of the heap of wool, the examined finds it difficult to
select a skein resembling the sample in acollection where all the particu-
lar colors seem to differ from each other, and in consequence declares im-
mediately that he can find none resembling the specimen. It is replied
that an absolute resemblance is not demanded, and that no one asks
impossibilities, that time is limited, many are waiting, ete. But there
are people who from natural slowness, from being unaccustomed to such
business, from fear of making mistakes, and especially if previously ex-
amined and suspected of color-blindness, or from many other motives,
proceed with the greatest caution; they do not even wish to touch the
wool, or they search, select, and replace with the greatest care all the
possible skeins without finding one corresponding with the sample, or
that they wish to place beside it. Here then are two cases: on one hand,
too much action with the fingers, without result; on the other, too little
effort. The examiner is forced to interfere in both cases.

(a) At the time of a too great manual action without corresponding
practical result, the examiner must be careful that the eye and hand act
simultaneously for the accomplishment of the desired end.

Some people forget that the hands should be subservient to the eye
in this trial, and not aet independently. Thus they are often seen to fix
their eyes on one side while their hands are engaged on the other.
This should be corrected so as to save time and avoid further labor.
When, from the manual activity of the one examined, or by the unob-
served aid of the examiner, all the correct skeins or only a portion are
found in the pile, it is wise to stop and invite the former to cross his
hands behind his back, to step back a pace, and quietly consider all the
skeins, and, as soon as his eye has met one of those for which he is look-
ing, to extend his hand and take it. The best plan is to advise him to
look first at the sample and then at the pile, and to repeat this maneuver
until his eyes find what he is looking for.

This stratagem generally succeeds when nervousness from over-anxiety
causes his hands to tremble. But it is not always easy to induce him
to keep his hands behind his back until the moment for taking the skein
in question.

(b) In cases of great caution, the trial is hastened, if the examiner

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 19%

come to the assistance of the other by holding above the pile one skein
after the other, and requesting him to say whether it resembles the color
of the sample or not. It will be advisable first to select the skeins that
a color-blind person would approve. If he is so, he will approve of the
selection, and the question is settled. If not, he rejects them, not with-
out a characteristic smile, or with an expression of wounded dignity.
This also enlightens us as to his chromatic sense. But even the color-
blind may in such a case refuse what is presented, especially if his cau-
tion is premeditated, and he suspects that a snare is intended. It is
found quite frequently that he rejects the correct shades likewise pre-
sented with the others. This is not the case when one, having a normal
chromatic sense, is slow and deliberative when subjected to the test
under this form. He has an eye alive to the correct colors.

One process, in cases of this last kind, is to select false samples which
are placed quite near the correct one, by the side, above or below, to
attract the attention of the examined from the right side. It is necessary
so to proceed that the true sample be displaced when the others are
drawn out, so that the person examined may see it move. It does not,
however, always happen to catch his eye. The best means is then to
make him examine the whole, with his hands behind his back, and invite
him to freely make his choice. But, whatever the process, it is neces-
sary, in every case where one has been assisted in selecting a certain
number of skeins which he has found analogous to the sample color, to
make a rule not to conclude the trial without examining into the effect
of the aid accorded. It is necessary to hold in the hand the approved
package, and ask if he is satisfied or if he would desire any change. If
he approve the choice, the diagnosis is established. The same course
must be pursued with the defective chromatic sense, that the trial may
be made with or without assistance. To be thorough, the name given
by the color-blind to the colors in question may be likewise asked.

In cases where any one suspected of color-blindness has remained
some time to see the trial of others, and where, as often happens, he
has remarked the samples belonging to a required green shade, he may
of course profit by it in his own trial. But this can be prevented by
furtively concealing one or two of these samples. If he seem to be dis-
posed to confound green and gray, it will be very easy to entrap him.
If we do not succeed, even when assisting him, in entrapping him in
this snare, the hidden samples may be put back into their places, to be
convinced that the trial is correct. ;

From the above, it is seen that many artifices may be necessary in
our examination. It may be regarded as an advantage of our method
that it has at command a great variety of resources. We have by no
means mentioned all; and yet many who have only read this descrip-
tion will probably reproach us with having devoted ourselves too much
to details which seem to them puerile. But we believe that those who
have examined the chromatic sense of a great number of persons, and
acquired thereby considerable experience, will think differently.

192 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO
5.—APPRECIATION OF THE CAPACITY OF EXAMINEES.

The method of scrutiny here described is able to detect, as we have
seen, not only complete or incomplete color-blindness, but a feeble chro-
matic sense. Moreover, it has been proved that there is a perfect grada-
tion from complete color-blindness on the one side to the normal chro-
matic perception on the other. The question then naturally arises, from
our practical point of view, whether it is possible to draw a dividing
line between the kinds and degrees of defective color-vision which would
except those who could not cause any inconvenience to the railway ser-
vice, and, in case of an affirmative answer, where such limit is to be
found.

It must first be remembered that in the existing state of things, these
questions neither can nor ought to be settled in the same manner in
every case, Since the examination is intended for individuals of two dif-
ferent classes: 1st, the aspirants for railway employment; and, 2d, the
employés, or those already in service.

A. Aspirants—We must bear in mind that in Sweden, according to
the regulation in force there for the management of state railways (fol-
lowed also, as far as we know, on the private lines), it is required that,
in order to be admitted, each applicant “prove by a certificate from a
physician that he is exempt from any kind of infirmity, disease, or defect
of conformation that could be prejudicial to the exercise of his functions,”
and also, that among these defects of conformation, in connection with
signals, are reckoned the defects of the chromatic sense, to which the
managers have especially directed the attention of the physicians at-
tached to the lines.

According to the principles we have stated, the greatest severity
should be observed in this case, or, in other terms, the least defect in the
sense of colors should be a sufficient ground for rejection.

B. Persons already in service—We must here ask ourselves if there
is no necessity to modify the limit we have just traced, in order to carry
out the principle we stated before, namely, that it is necessary to adopt
less severe rules to eliminate from the service those who are already
employed. We here encounter great difficulties, and it will be seen that
it is not possible to settle the question summarily, that is, that a well-
defined limit cannot be traced. In such cases, the physician should
always, when he discovers a defect in the chromatic sense, give a certi-
ficate which should indicate its nature. These indications include, as we
have already said, the diagnoses: complete red-blindness, complete green-
blindness, incomplete color-blindness, or a feeble chromatic sense.

We are convinced that every case of complete color-blindness of both
kinds, as well as every case of incomplete of the higher degrees, should
be immediately dismissed. But as regards those who may be retained,
it is clear that the first question concerns those who, at the time of the
trial, were regarded in the diagnosis only as having a feeble chromatic
Sense, and then those who in the first test merely confound gray with

eee

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 193

the sample color. But we do not venture to lay this down as a principle,
for, if it should be proved that these individuals can generally distinguish
the light of colored lanterns with sufficient accuracy, this does not prove
that it is so in every case, and especially not at every distance required
in the service. This is-why we know nothing better to advise than to
refer all such cases to competent specialists, as long as the transition
period of which we have spoken lasts.

In the examination of doubtful cases submitted to my judgment, I
determined according to several of the methods mentioned in one of the
preceding chapters. In general, these persons were all subjected to a
trial according to the methods of Seebeck and of Maxwell, and an exami-
nation by means of the visual perimeter and of colored shadows, as well
as the lanterns of my invention and colored glasses. These last means
have capacity especially in view, and they are very suitable for the ob-
ject, when it is desired to investigate those who have been already dis-
covered, by my method of Berlin wool, as having a defective chromatic
sense.

The light of colored lanterns and illuminated surfaces generally, con-
veniently arranged and methodically used, may serve especially in such
cases to enlighten us as to the faculty of the person,examined for appre-
ciating colored signals. Our experiences of this kind have shown us that
the majority of color-blind railway employés, however much practice they
have had, are utterly incapable of recognizing and distinguishing the
regulation colors of lanterns, especially when they are employed in the
shades which are not mostcommonly in use inthe service. This applies
not only to the completely red and green blind, but also to the incom.
pletely blind. These last require the most circumstantial investigation,
and it is not to be assumed that the lower degreescan stand the trial; they
may often, it is true, distinguish the signal-lights at a short distance
with sufficient accuracy, but they do not succeed at a comparatively
greater distance. As the places where the trials are usually made do
not command such distances as railways for observing signals, signal-
lights cannot of course be used for these trials. They are replaced by
small illuminated surfaces, which, seen from a suitable distance, produce
exactly the same effect as lanterns at a great distance. Such surfaces
are made by placing a screen with a suitable opening covered with a
colored glass before the flame of a lamp. This is enough to show how
to dispose of the case in question. :

6.—EFFORTS TO CONCEAL OR TO FEIGN COLOR-BLINDNESS.

We have announced that none of the kinds of color-blindness we have
in view in this work could escape discovery by our method. But this,
of course, assumes that the subject does his best in the trial and acts in
good faith. Ifit happen that one persists either in concealing a conscious
color-blindness or for some other motive, in not giving the least informa-

tion by act or word it is evident that the examination must fail from this
13 8

194 COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO

simple reason, and that it is impossible to draw any positive conclusion
with regard to his chromatic sense. The examiner may in such a case
mention unconditionally in the certificate that the one examined refused
to submit to the usual examination.

It is not difficult to say how it is necessary to act with regard to such
persons. It should, in fact, be to the interest of each one possessing
normal sight, desirous of entering the service of railways, ete., to en-
deavor to be competent in every respect, and consequently to give mani-
fest proof of his sense of colors. The color-blind alone have any interest
in concealing their defect; therefore he endeavors to escape the trial.
Every candidate who will try to avoid the prescribed trial must there-
fore be considered and treated as color-blind. Such obstinacy on the
part of an employé must be considered and treated as an infraction of
the regulations.

But cases may arise also in which those possessing normal sight will
feign color-blindness, and act as if they were so affected. This may occur
when some one wishes to receive a pension before the time, or else to
escape punishment consequent upon an unexpected accident. These
are just the very cases that put the method and perspicacity of the
examiner to the test. The examination then assumes the character
of a kind of eriminal inquest, where the judge and the accused must
give all the attention of which they are capable to their reciprocal acts
and expressions, to try to entrap each other. The one examined tries to
prove that he is color-blind, while the examiner endeavors to prove that
he has normal sight. The prospect of coming off victorious in so singu-

lar a contest rests, in the last resort, with him who best understands the | -

nature of color-blindness, and has most experience in the manner in
which the color-blind act. To enable the pretender to deceive the ex-
aminer, it is absolutely necessary that he surpass the latter in knowl-
edge of color-blindness. There is in this an element of success to the
examiner, as it would be extremely rare to find a railway employé or
sailor who would, under the circumstances mentioned, be subjected to
an examination by a person inferior to himself in knowledge. It is clear,
in fact, that an examination so difficult, so minute, and involving so
much responsibility, should be confided to the most competent person
possible. But it is, on the other hand, very improbable that a case
should occur where it would be necessary that a learned and experienced
specialist would have to submit to an examination.

In the first place, examinations of this kind must rarely occur, and
when they do, it must be at least in the most difficult cases, that is to say,
after an accident—under circumstances where the one examined has not
had much time to study his part. It will generally be seen then that he
has not a profound knowledge of the nature of color-blindness, but
imagines it to be a difficulty or incapacity to distinguish signal-colors or
colors in general. He will, therefore, be governed by this idea, and,
either he will perfectly distinguish every other color so as to mistake only
the signal-colors, or else he will believe he must confound no matter what

ACCIDENTS BY RAIL AND SEA. 195

color. But, as we have seen, each kind of color-blindness follows laws
as fixed as the normal sense. Such a stratagem will not fail to violate
them, and the individual will be caught in the very act.

But there is absolutely nothing which opposes the supposition that
this individual may have a certain knowledge of the nature of color-
blindness, or, at least, that he may have an idea of its regularity with
regard to the confusion of colors. He may have studied the proofs we
have cited, and, owing to the exercise and observation of the color-blind,
he will know how to perform them in a manner suitable to the object in
view. The examiner has always, however, the choice of other sample
colors, and the Berlin wool method affords a large choice. If that does
not sufiice. and the individual has learned from the truly color-blind
to classify the whole collection of wool according to their chromatic
sense, that is to say, that he can stand the trial according to Seebeck’s
method, and if he is so thorough in his part that there is no means of
making him depart from it by abrupt or contradictory questions, the
examiner may employ for the examination a number of other known
methods, but probably unknown to our individual. It must not be for-
gotten here that it is generally easier to discover faults committed by
others than to avoid being guilty of them one’s self, and one must be
profoundly familiar with his borrowed part not to be guilty of inconsist-
encies. With regard to feigning a certain kind of color-blindness, we
know by our experience with regard to this, that it is a very difficult
thing, and scarcely ever succeeds before an attentive and experienced
examiner. All these circumstances are advantageous for the examiner,

-. but his superiority is not limited to this. For if it should happen—an

extremely improbable thing—that a pretender were familiar with all the
known tests and methods, and besides had not less practice than talent
jn executing them as accurately as the color-blind, the examiner has,
nevertheless, the power of inventing, owing to his special knowledge,
new tests, and of varying those already known. |

Besides the precaution, which must not be neglected, of conducting
the examination in the presence of expert and competent persons, there
is an especial means, which, while being certain of preventing all frau-
dulent attempts, judges the accused in the usual manner, that is, by the
testimony of two persons. These two witnesses should be two color-
blind of the same kind as that feigned by the examined. If these two
individuals are first subjected separately and independently of each
other and the pseudo-color-blind, to the same trial as he, let the results
be noted down carefully, and then the whole three together, and it will
then soon be seen how the case stands with one individual. The two
color-blind will in this manner give the necessary testimony without
resting upon the discretion of the examiner. This manner of proceeding
must, however, be employed with caution and discrimination, as the
conformity between two color-blind of the same class is not absolutely
perfect in every respect. The result must, therefore, always be made te
harmonize by the explanation of the examiner.

COLOR BLINDNESS.*

By JOSEPH HENRY.

[From the Princeton Review, for July, 1845.}

It is an interesting fact in reference to the dependence of one class,
at least of our knowledge, on sensation, that many persons are born with
defective vision and yet remain for years of their lives without being
conscious of the deficiency. We know a gentleman who had probably
been always near sighted, but who did not discover the peculiarity of
his vision until the age of twenty-five, when it was accidentally made
known by looking at a distant object through a concave lens. Many
persons whose eyes are sound and capable of exercising the most deli-
cate functions, are permanently unable to distinguish certain colors.
And the number of such persons is much more considerable than we
would be led to imagine from the little attention this defect of vision
has excited. It is often unknown to the individual himself, and indeed
only becomes revealed by comparing his powers of discriminating dif-
ferent colours with those of other persons. The eye also under some cir-
cumstances may lose its sensibility for particular colors, or be thrown
into such an unusual state as to present all objects to the mind under
the appearance of a false color. Thus if a person looks fixedly for a time
at a bright red object and then turns his eye to a white wall, he will
perceive a green image of the red object depicted on the white surface.
A lady of our acquaintance was once thrown into an alarming but laugh-
able paroxysm of terror by an effect of this kind. She had been for some
hours attentively sewing on a bright crimson dress, when her attention
was directed towards her child, who, in its sport, bad thrown itself on
the carpet; its face appeared of the most ghastly hue, and the affrighted
mother screamed in agony, that her child was in convulsions—the other
inmates of the house hastened to her assistance, but they were surprised
to find the little one smiling in perfect health. The sanity of the mother
became the natural object of solicitude, until the effect was properly re-
ferred to the impression made on her eye by the crimson cloth.

Phenomena of this kind are known by the name of accidental colors ;
they have long attracted the attention of the natural philosopher, but
the explanation of them is still involved in considerable uncertainty.
The hypothesis which has been most generally adopted is that the eye
by long attention to a particular color, becomes fatigued with this and
colours. By Sir David Brewster, K. H., &c. Philosophical Magazine.

2. Memoir on Daltonism, (or colour blindness.) By M. Elie Wartmann, Professor of

Natural Philosophy in the Academy of Lausanne, &c. Scientific Memoirs.
196

—S

Ee

COLOR BLINDNESS. LOY

is incapable after a time, of distinctly perceiving it; while it retains its
full power of perception in reference to a tresh color. The consequence
of this is that when the eye is directed to a white surface, after having
attentively regarded a red object, green must appear; because white
may be considered as a compound of red and green, and when the per-
ception oi the red is destroyed, the green must become visible. This
explanation, however well it may apply to some of the phenomena, is
not sufficient for the whole. Accidental colors can be perceived in the
eye itself in perfect darkness. This is shown by steadily regarding for
a short time a brilliant lamp, and then covering the eyes with the hands
so as to exclude all external light, a luminous spot will be perceived
which passes in succession through all the colors of the rainbow.

Of the real cause of these appearances we are as yet almost entirely
ignorant. Professor Plateau, of Ghent, has indeed referred them all toa
few simple principles, but these appear to us rather expressions of the
law of succession of the phenomena, than physical explanations of them.
Wedo not however at this time intend to dwellon this class of phenomena,
but to give a succinct account of those peculiarities of vision, in which
abnormal perceptions of color are permanent, and which are fully treated
of in the memoirs, the titles of which stand at the head of this article.

The peculiarity of vision called color-blindness, aud sometimes Dalton-
ism, may generally be referred to two classes. 1. Those in which al! im-
pression of color, except white and black, are wanting. 2. Those in
which the individual can perceive certain simple colors, but is not able
properly to distinguish between them. There are persons, strange as it
may appear, in whom the sense of primary color is entirely deficient,
and who, in place of red, yellow and blue, see nothing but different
degrees of white and black. Professor Wartmann gives a number of
eases of this kind. The most ancient of those he finds described, is that
by Dr. Tuberville, in 1684, of a woman, of about 32 years of age, who
came to consult the Dr. about her sight, which, though excellent in other
respects, gave her no impression in reference to color, except white and
black. Spurzheim menticns a family, all the membersof which could only
distinguish different shades of white and black An account is given by
Mr. Huddart of a shoemaker, in Cumberland, who could distinguish in dif-
ferent colors only a greater or less intensity of light, calling all bright
tints white and all dull ones black. His peculiarity of vision was unknown
to him until one day, while a boy, playing in the street, he found a stocking,
and for the first time, was struck with the fact that it was called by his
companions red, whereas to his mind it was capable of no farther descrip-
tion than that designated by the word stocking; he was thus led to con-
clude that there was something else besides the form and position in the
leaves and fruit of acherry tree, perceived by his playmates but not seen by
himself. Two of his brothers had the same imperfection, while two other
brothers, his sisters, and other relatives, had the usual condition of vision.

Of theother class, the cases are much more numerous; we shall, how-
ever, give only a few examples. Mr. Harvey, of Plymouth, mentions a

98 COLOR BLINDNESS.

tailor who could see in the rainbow but two tints, namely, yellow and
bright blue. Black appeared to him in general, green, sometimes crim-
son—light blue appeared like dark blue, crimson, or black—green was con-
founded with black and brown—carmine, red, lake, and crimson with blue.

But the most interesting case of this kind, is that of the celebrated

chemical philosopher, Dr. Dalton, of England. He published anaccount :

of his own case and that of several others, in the Transactions of the
Manchester Society, in 1794. Of the seven colors of the rainbow, he
could distinguish but two, yellow and blue; oz at most, three, yellow,
blue, and purple. He saw no difference between red and green; so
that he thought the color of a laurel leaf the same as that of a stick of
red sealing-wax. Astory istoldof his having, on one occasion, appeared
at the quaker meeting, of which he was a member, in the usual drab
coat and small-clothes of the sect, with a pair of flaming red-colored
stockings to match. Whatever may be the truth in reference to this
story, we have the assertion of Professor Whewell, that when Dr. Dalton
was asked with what he would compare the scarlet gown with which he
had been invested by the university, he pointed to the trees, and declared
that he perceived no difference between the color of his robe and that of
their foliage. Dr. Dalton found nearly twenty persons possessed of the
same peculiarity of vision as himself; and among the number, the cele-
brated metaphysician, Dugald Stewart, who could not distinguish a
crimson fruit, like the Siberian crab, from the leaves of the tree on which
it grew, otherwise than by the difference in its form.

On account of the prominence which Mr. Daltow’s publication gave this
defect of vision, the continental philosophers gaveit the name of Daltonism.
To this name, however, several British writers have strongly objected. If
this system of names were once allowed, say they, there is no telling where
it would stop, the names of celebrated men would be connected, not with
their superior gifts or achievements, but with the personal defects which
distinguish them from their more favoured but less meritorious cotempo-
raries. Professor Whewell proposed the term Jdiopts, signifying peculi-
arity of vision; but tothisnameSir David Brewster properly objected, that
the important consonant p would be very apt to be omitted in ordinary pro-
nunciation, and so the last state of the Idiopt would be worse than the first.
The name color-blindness, suggested by Sir David, although not in all
cases free from objection, is perhaps better than any we have seen proposed.

It has already been stated that the number of persons affected with
color-blindness, is mach more considerable than is generally imagined
They are often themselves ignorant of their imperfection of vision, par-
ticularly when it is restricted to the want of power to discriminate
between colors nearly related to each other. Professor Seebeck found
five cases among the forty boys who composed the two upper classes of a
gymnasium of Berlin. Professor Prevost, of Geneva, stated that they
amounted to one in twenty; and Professor Wartmann does not think this.
estimate much exaggerated.

Observations on this peculiarity of vision have as yet been confined,

a

COLOR BLINDNESS. 199

so far as we know, to Europe, with the exception of two cases described
by Dr. Hays, of Philadelphia, in the Proceedings of the American Philo-
sophical Society. It has also as yet been found only among the white
race, although sufficient observations have not been made to render it
probable that it is confined to this variety of the human family. The
question has been asked, whether there is any external sign by which
to detect, with simple inspection of the visual organ, a case of color-
blindness. Professor Wartmann remarks, that he would not venture to
give an answer to this question in all cases in the negative. I have
observed, says he, in the case of Daltonians whose eyes are brown, of
the color which the English call hazel, a golden lustre of a peculiar
tint, when the eye was viewed under an incidence of some obliquity.

Color-blindness is found much more common among men than women.
Out of one hundred and fifty registered cases, there are but six of females,
and one of these is doubtful. It has been conjectured that needle-work
on a variety of colored articles, might be the means of counteracting the
tendency to this defect, as well as to produce a delicacy of discrimina-
tion of different shades of color not possessed by those otherwise em-
ployed. But, in answer to this, it has been remarked, that in the case
of Daltonians engaged in painting, there has been found but little, if any
improvement of condition of the vision; and the very employment of the
females on works which require a constant comparison of color, would
daily reveal cases of blindness of this kind, did it frequently exist in the
female sex. This peculiarity of vision is principally congenital. Pro-
fessor W. has found but two exceptions. In one of these, colors were
perceived in the usual manner, until at the ninth year, when at that time
the boy received a violent blow on the head, which fractured the skull,
and rendered surgical operations necessary. The fact, however, that
three of the brothers of this individual were affected with the same kind
of vision, renders it probable that he was constitutionally predisposed to
this peculiarity.

With regard to hereditary predisposition there are some persons in
whom this defect of vision occurs, whose relatives have never been
known to be affected with it; others appear to have inherited it from
their fathers through several generations, both on the maternal and
paternal side. The boy before mentioned, as becoming blind at the age
of nine years, was the eldest of eleven children, seven males and four
females ; these were singularly divided into two sets, one of which con-
sisted of individuals with blond hair, and all the males with defective
vision; the other, of those with red hair and ordinary power of vision.

Dr. Seebeck, as well as Professor Wartmann, has made a series of
experiments to determine whether a person of this peculiarity of vision
possesses the power of perceiving differences in colors which appear
identical to us. The result of the investigations of both these philoso-
phers was that he does not. Another problem has also been solved by
the last-mentioned gentleman, in reference to the difference between a
person with this defective vision, and one of ordinary conditioned sight, in

200 COLOR BLINDNESS.

the perception of complementary colors. He found that colors which
we regard as complementary, or such as when mingled together produce
white, do not appear as such to those affected: with abnormal vision.
They are not however insensible to accidental colors, but the feeling
which results from the fatigue of attempting to produce these appears to
be more painful in them than in us.

Various hypotheses have been advanced by different persons for the
explanation of color-blindness. Mr. Dalton supposed that his peculiarity
of vision, as well as that of those whom he had examined, depended on
the fact that the vitreous or principal humour of the eye, in these cases,
instead of being colorless and transparent was tinged with ablue. After
his death, in obedience to his own instruction, his eyes were examined
by his medical attendant, Mr. Ransome, but the vitreous humour was not
found to exhibit any tinge of blue; on the contrary, it was of a pale
yellow color. Objects viewed through it were not changed in color as
they should have been had the hypothesis been true. Indeed, were the
supposition correct, the same effect should be produced by blue specta-
cles, which is known not to be the case. ;

Stewart, Herschel and others are of the opinion that this malady of
vision is attributable to a defect in the sensorium itself, which renders
it incapable of appreciating the differences between the rays on which
the sensation of color depends. Sir David Brewster conceives that the
eye, in the case of color-blindness, is insensible to the colors at one end
of the spectrum, just as the ear of certain persons is insensible to sounds
at one extremity of the scale of musical notes, while it is perfectly sen-
sible to all other sounds. He knows nothing about the sensorium or its
connection witk, or mode of operation upon, the nerves of sensation; and
from the analogy of sight and hearing, he has no hesitation in predicting
that there may. be found persons whose color-blindness is confined to
one eye, or at least is greater in one eye than in the other. Nor is this,
says he, wholly a conjecture from analogy, for my own right eye, though
not a better one than the left, which has no defect whatever, is more
sensible to red light than the left eye. The case is precisely analogous
with respect to his ears, for certain sounds; and no person, it is pre-
sumed, will maintain that there is a sensorium for each ear and each eye.

Whatever may be the cause of the inferiority, there exists a very easy
means of rectifying it to a certain extent. This method, first used by Dr.
Seebeck, consists in viewing colored objects through colored media.
Suppose the medium to be a piece of red glass; the impression of a red
body and of a green one on the eye of a person like Dr. Dalton, would
be different, although with the naked eye they would be the same. , The
red glass would intercept much more of the light of the green object
than of the red one, and hence the two would be readily distinguishable
by a difference in the intensity of the illumination of the two objects.
Nothing can equal the surprise, says Professor Wartmann, of a Dalton-
ian when the errors which he commits every day in the appreciation of
colors are thus disclosed to him.

REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE GENEVA SOCIETY OF
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, FROM JUNE, 1874, TO
JUNE, 1875.

By E. PLANTAMOUR, President.

Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by M. L. Duncan.

GENTLEMEN: I shall conform to the established usage of treating, in
the first part of this report, questions relating to the membership and
administration of our society, and of giving, in the second part, a succinct
statement of its scientific labors.

Our society has met this year with a very great loss in the neat at
Geneva, March 7, 1875, of Dr. Chossat; if medical science has lost
in him one of its most distinguished representatives, we have also to
mourn a colleague who felt the liveliest interest in the labors of the
society, in which, from 1850, he took an active part, and of which he
became president in 1863, and for many years punctually attended its
meetings. The great reputation of Chossat’s works extended far beyond
the confines of Geneva, and exercised a remarkable influence on the
science to which he had devoted himself; he was, so to speak, better
known abroad than in his own country, where he was, without doubt,
fully appreciated by his associates of the Society of Medicine and Physics,
but where, however, the influence and consideration he enjoyed among
his countrymen had not reached the level of his reputation abroad.
Being myself unacquainted with the science cultivated by Dr. Chossat, it
would be very difficult, if not impossible, for me to give an even imper-
fect account of his labors and life, without having recourse to the assist-
ance of a more competent person ; it is to the kindness of our colleague,
Dr. J. L. Prévost, that I am indebted for the following notice:

Dr. Charles Etienne Jacques Chossat, born at Carouge, April 30, 1796,
was descended from a French family originally from the environs of
Valence, who had taken refuge in Geneva, in consequence of the relig-
ious persecutions so cruelly waged in the Cévennes in the eighteenth
century. Chossat first studied with Pestalozzi, and on leaving the In-
Stitut d@’Yverdon, continued his studies at the Academy of Geneva.
While still young he evinced a very decided taste for the natural sciences
and medicine, which latter he intended to embrace. In 1813, Chossat,
then seventeen years of age, would have been enrolled in the Guard of
Honor (gardes Whonneur), if his father had not entered him as a student
of theology, either at Geneva or Montauban. This decision was entirely

201

202 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

antagonistic to the scientific tastes of Chossat, who, while attending the
lecture-room of theology to please his parents, was secretly studying
anatomy, under the auspices and direction of Dr. Coindet, then at the
head of the Hospital of Geneva, who gave him access to his library and
to the hospital. In 1815, after having obtained the degree of bachelor of
sciences, Chossat left for Paris, where he zealously devoted himself to
the medical and physiological sciences, under the auspices of Magendie,
his instructor, and at a later date his friend. In addition to his medical
studies, he assiduously attended courses of lectures on physics, by Gay-
Lussac and Biot; on chemistry, by Thénard; on comparative anatomy, by
Cuvier; on astronomy, at the observatory, by Arago; and on the differen-
tial and integral calculus and applied mechanics, by Lacroix and Poisson.
These numerous studies did not prevent him from undertaking original
researches, for, in 1817, he published his first memoir, “On the relation
of the sine of refraction to the refracting media of the eye”; and the year
following a second memoir, “On the curvature of the media of the eye.”

United by ties of friendship with one of his former school-compan-
ions, Dr. J. L. Prévost, from Edinburgh, Chossat made with him, in
the course of the same year (1818), a great number of experimental
researches on death by cold and on the mechanism of refrigeration—
experiments briefly stated in his thesis for the degree of doctor, which
was the object of his labors for the year 1819.

In 1820 he presented to the Academy of Sciences a memoir ‘On the
influence of the nervous system on animal heat.” In this work, which he
made the subject of his thesis, and which confirmed the former researches
of Brodie and Legallois, he attributed to the ganglionic nervous system
the power of directly developing heat, independently of the combustion
exercised by respiration. His conclusions are not all now admitted, but
the facts observed were exact, and only their interpretation has varied
since then.

After having received the degree of doctor in 1820, Chossat passed
several monthsin England, where his scientific researches, already known,
caused him to be kindly welcomed by Brodie, Astley Cooper, Aber-
nethy, Humphrey Davy, et al. He visited the faculties of Edinburgh and
Dublin, and then returned to Geneva, whence he soon set out as private
physician to an Austrian countess, with whom he traveled for several
years in Germany, France, and Switzerland, and in the south. During
these travels he made prolonged sojourns in the most important cities,
passing all his winters in Italy, which he learned to know throughly.
Meanwhile, however, he did not abandon study and experiment; it is
in fact to this period that we trace several of his works. It was dar-
ing along stay at Pisa, in 1824, that he completed a memoir “ On the
analysis of the urinary functions,” in which he sought experimentally the
circumstances in man influencing the secretion and composition of urine.
This very important memoir, which contains new and numerous observa-
tions, won the prize for experimental physiology at the Academy of

i
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GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 203

Sciences in 1825, and was inserted the same year in Magendie’s Journal
of Physiology. It was at the same time, during his winter residence in
Rome, Florence, and Naples, that he began his experimental researches
on inanition, a work to which he consecrated several years of diligent
labor.

In 1828, Chossat, leaving Italy, returned to establish himself perma-
nently in Geneva, where he was married; from that period he divided his
time between the duties of his practice and his scientific labors. Resum-
ing his studies, and pursuing them with indefatigable perseverance,
he presented in 1838, to the Academy of Sciences, his researches “ On
inanition”—a work remarkable from the importance of the results
obtained and thle influence it soon exercised on the dietetics of acute
diseases. A short time after, this memoir gained the prize for experi-
mental physiology, which won for its author, from the year 1846, the
title of corresponding member of the Academy of Medicine of Paris,
and in 1865 the cross of the Legionof Honor. In this work, Chossat col-
lected and grouped the results of his researches, some of which had
already been stated in several notes addressed to the Academy of Sci-
ences. He studied the influence of the deprivation of aliment in gen-
eral, and showed that an animal dies when it has lost, on an average,
0.4 of its initial weight. With warm-blooded animals, the integral loss
seems to be independent of the class to which the subject under experi-
ment belongs, as well as of the normal weight of its species. This
average figure of 0.4 for the adult animal varies, however, in its already
quite extended limits, according to the strength, age, and obesity of the
subject. With a very fat animal, the loss might be increased to 0.5,
while with the young it can scarcely exceed 0.2. The author also very
carefully studied the diminution of temperature caused by inanition.
These data are of essential importance in the treatment’of diseases, by
showing the injurious influence of tco restricted a diet.

Chossat then studied the influence of the deprivation of nitrogenous
food by subjecting animals to an exclusively sugar diet,.as well as the
influence on the skeleton of mineral inanition, or of the deprivation of
- saline substances.

It is impossible to give here even an incomplete summary of an au-
thoritative work, justly become classic, and one of the chief sources of
Chossat’s fame. In this work, as in all his other researches, Chossat
distinguishes himself by a remarkable scientific conscientiousness, a
minute exactness in his experiments, and a careful and truthful analy-
sis of facts. The author excludes every doubtful fact; and it is only
after convincing himself of his accuracy by new researches that he draws
conclusions. ‘In brief,” said Chossat, and it is in this way he ends his
memoir, ‘ inanitiation* is a cause of death, which marches silently and

*See on the subject of inanitiation the following note, p.9 of the memoir: ‘I find
myself regretfully obliged to invent a new term, thongh according to grammatical
analogy, to express the gradual passage of the body to a state which is only really inani-
tion at its close. Inanition is, correctly speaking, but the end of inanitiation.”

204 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

abreast with every disease in which the alimentation is not ina normal
condition. It reaches its natural limit sometimes sooner and sometimes
later than the disease it silently accompanies, and may then become the
principal disease in instances where it was at first but symptomatic. It
might be recognized by the degree of the destruction of the muscular
fibers, and its actual importance measured each moment by the relative
weight of the body.”

Constantly occupied with the task of verifying and completing his
researches, Chossat undertook the study of osteomalacy by saline inani-
tiation, when in 1842 he was invited to constitute one of the board of pub-
licinstruction. Carrying into these new functions all the zeal and perse-
verance which characterized him, he was obliged to abandon his original
scientific researches. Appointed in 1845 member of a commission
charged by the department of public instruction to organize a system of
instruction for the industrial and commercial classes of the canton of
Geneva, he drew up, as reporter, a detailed memoir, the conclusions of
which, logically deduced, were applied at a later date.

In 1848, the board of public instruction was dissolved, and Chossat
retired again into private life, but the time he was obliged to devote to
a large practice, and the fatigue attending it, forced him reluctantly
to renounce his original labors, which he felt, he said, that he had no
longer the timeand strength to continue in aregular manner. Although
he gave up writing, he still continued to occupy himself with the most
varied scientific and literary subjects. The taste for reading, which he
indulged, finally became a veritable passion, and even in the last years
of his life he kept himself informed of all the principal scientific discov-
eries, not, however, neglecting for this the ancient writers, especially
Plato, upon whom he loved to meditate.

Attacked by an organic disease of the stomach, which made rapid pro-
gress in a body worn out by intellectual and physical labors, Chossat
awaited his end with resignation, preserving his faculties to the last
moment sufficiently to be able to announce, himself, to his family, some
hours before dying, the precise moment of his death. This distinguished
scientist died March 7, 1875, in the seventy-ninth year of his age.

The society had to award this year the prize founded by A. P. De Can-
dolle. The prize was adjudged to Professor Radlhofer, of Munich, for
a@ monograph on the Sapindaceous family.

The second part of volume xxiii of the memoirs of our society ap-
peared during the course of last autumn; the first part of volume xxiv
is now in press, and includes the second part of the memoir of Messrs.
de Loriol and Pellat.

The Geological Society of France having communicated its desire to
meet in Geneva in 1875, to hold there a portion of its annual session,
the society appointed a committee, composed of MM. Alphonse and

ee, ee

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 205

Ernest Favre, de Loriol, de Saussure, and Soret, to arrange this mat-
ter. This committee, which had the power of adding new members,
was commissioned to take measures for the reception of the Geological
Society during its stay in Geneva.

RESUME OF SCIENTIFIC WORK.

1. Physical scitences.—Professor Colladon read before us a memoir in-
serted in No. 212 of the Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles
(Archives of the Physical and Natural Sciences), October, 1874, on the
vestiges of a former bed of the Arve, discovered by digging for the found-
ations of the new theater. The excavations made on this occasion, at
the foot of the terraces of Treille and Tertasse, disclosed the presence
of a bank of gravel and sand from 2.1 to 2.5 metres (7 to 8 feet) in depth,
lying on a bed of clay whose upper surface is 0.85 metre (33 inches) below
the mean level of the waters of the lake at the present time. The orienta-
tion of the stones and pebbles forming this bank indicates that it must
have been deposited by a current flowing from the southeast toward the
northwest, and the chemical and mineralogical composition of the sand
is absolutely identical with that of the sand now drifted by the Arve,
and proceeding from the rocks forming the chain of Mont Blanc. There
can then be no doubt that at the era when this deposit was formed, the
Arve emptied into the Rhone, very near its issue from the lake, and
within the inclosure of the present city, whereas the confluence is now
more than a kilometer (about a mile) down stream. The existence of
this bank of gravel and sand, at different points of the plain of allu-
vium, comprised between the city and the present bed of the Arve, had
already been established on several occasions ; and it might therefore
be concluded that the direction of the current of the lower portion of
the Arve has gradually changed in the course of centuries, and that
after flowing by the foot of the hill, on which the most ancient part of
the city is built, the river empties into the Rhone at the foot of the hill
on which the forest of Batie is found. The era to which the deposit of
gravel mentioned by M. Colladon dates back does not appear to be very
remote, not exceeding twenty or thirty centuries, as within the interior
of these ancient strata, which have never been touched, are found frag-
ments of bricks, and even pieces of wrought iron very much rusted.
The fact that the upper surface of tnis deposit is about 1.5 metres (5
feet) above the mean level of the waters of the lake at this present
time is mentioned by M. Colladon as proof that this level must have
been sensibly higher by at least two metres (64 feet) at the period of its
formation.

Dr. F. Florel communicated a memoir, inserted in No. 205 of the Ar-
chives, January, 1875, on the configuration of the bottom of Lake Le-
man, in accordance with the four maps of the topographical atlas of
Switzerland, published by the Federal Bureau of the Staff Office. These
four maps, drawn on a scale of 5;3,5, according to the notes and sound-

206 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

ings taken by the engineer, M. Ph. Gosset, include the Swiss bank
of the lake, from Saint Sulpice to Saint Saphorin, with the opposite
bank and the intermediary basin, which attains at this place its greatest
depth of 334 metres (1,000 feet) below the surface. The same number of
the Archives contains a memoir of M. Ed. Pictet-Mallet, read before the
society during its session of January 7, 1875, and relating to an analo-
gous subject. M. Pictet-Mallet undertook the task of representing-on
a chart, projected on a scale of ,51;,, and traced with contour-curves
at equidistant levels of 5 metres, (16 feet) the configuration of the bottom
of the lower part of Lake Leman; that is, the space comprised between
Coppet, Hermance, and Geneva. The portion of this work nearest the
city is not yet completed, but it contains a thorough discussion of the
advantages and disadvantages of the different methods that may be
followed in the operation of soundings, and quite singular details about
the inequalities of bottom presented by the lake in the portion that has
been explored.

M. Plantamour gave a summary of the observations relating to the
variations of the level of the lake during the year 1874. By the indica-
tions of the limnimeter of the Jardin Anglais (English Garden), the
mean annual level was within two millimetres, (one twelfth of an inch),
the same as that deduced from the thirty-six preceding years, but with
a greater annual variation than usual, say 1.69 metres (67 inches), instead
of 1.44 metres (57 inches). From February to June, the level was below
the mean; the absolute minimum occurred oun the 10th and 11th of March,
and was 9 centimetres (4 inches) below the mean annual minimum.
Per contra, from July to October, the level was above the mean, and
the absolute maximum exceeded by 16 centimetres (6 inches) the mean
level of high stages of water. The gauges established at two other
points of the canton of Geneva, at Sécheron and Genthod, and at three
other points on the Vaudois shore, Ouchy, Vevey, and Chillon, the daily
readings of which were transmitted by the engineer of the canton of
Vaudois, (M. Gonin,) admitted of a comparison being made from day to
day, and from month to month, of the level of the lake on the right shore
along its entire length; the zeros of all the scales of the gauges having
been made to correspond in the operations of running the level of Switz-
erland. By these observations it is ascertained that the inclination of
the lake is almost insensible from its upper extremity to 14 kilometres (1
mile) above the city of Geneva, the admitted level at Sécheron being
during the entire year within afew millimetres the same as at Vevey and
Chillon, and the chance depressions shown by the deviations among the
heights observed on the same day from one extremity to the other be-
ing very small and limited to a few centimetres. From Sécheron to the
limnimeter of the Jardin Anglais, the slope is very appreciable, as might
have been expected from the existence of a very sensible current in the
immediate vicinity of the city ; moreover, the inclination varies with the
season; it is very slight in winter, and at the opening of spring, at the

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 207

time of low water, and it is from 5 to 6 centimetres (2 inches) greater in
summer at the time of high water. If the level of the water is sensibly
the same during the whole year at Chillon, Vevey, and Sécheron, the
observations taken at Ouchy show a level lower by 2 centimetres (1 inch),
and at Genthod, on the contrary, higher by 2 centimetres, the difference
remaining also sensibly constant during the whole year 1874, The obser-
vations taken in the three preceding years at Chillon, Vevey, and Ouchy
confirm the constant depression of level at the latter place relatively to
the other two. It would appear difficult to attribute this anomaly to
errors in the agreement of the zeros of the different scales; yet new
measures of verification will be taken to put the fact itself beyond all
question.

M. Plantamour, in conjunction with Professor Hirsch, presented the
results of the latest operations of leveling; these results are recorded
in the fifth number of the Topography of Switzerland, published by the
Federal Geodetic Commission.

Professor Thury presented a memoir on photometry, and on an astro-
nomical photometer of his own invention; this memoir was inserted in
No. 202 of the Archives, November, 1874. Professor Thury’s photometer is
constructed upon the system of the extinction of the light of a star, an
extinction produced by the reduction of the aperture of the object-glass
by the help of a diaphragm, or by the reflection of pencils of rays
by a system of mirrors. The diaphragm in this apparatus consists of
16 thin rectangular plates, capable each of sliding in the direction of
its length and in the direction of the center of the object-glass. By a
very ingenious mechanism, the movement of these 16 plates is so co-ordi-
nated that their small interior sides form a regular polygon, the diame-
ter of which can vary from zero to the diameter of the object-glass. In
order to prevent the inconveniences resulting from false disks, produced
by too great a diminution of the aperture of the objective, a diminution
which might be necessary to bring about the extinction of a brilliant
star, Professor Thury has recourse to the interposition of one or two
black mirrors perfectly plane, and receiving the incident ray at an angle
af 45°, The extinction of the light can be produced either by the dimi-
nution alone of the aperture for a star of moderate brilliancy, or by the
interposition of one or two mirrors, according to the brightness of the star,
and not reducing the opening below 0.23 of the total aperture. In each of
these three cases the position of the eye-glass is of course different.

Professor Thury also presented a memoir on the experiments he made
an counection with Dr. Minnich, relative to a disengagement of electri-
city from the thermal waters of Baden (Aargan). These experiments,
which appeared in No. 205 of the Archives, January, 1875, furnish the
means of verifying the existence of a very decided electric current, which
is revealed by the galvanometer, when by means of electrodes the water
of the Limmat is pJaced in communication with the thermal spring, the
direction of the deviation indicating that the mineral spring is electrified

208 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

negatively. Professor Thury intends resuming and continuing these
experiments.

M. Soret read before the society a memoir, inserted in No. 199 of the
Archives, under date of July, 1874, on polarization by diffusion of light.
He described and discussed in his memoir the experiments that he made
on the reflecting power of flames on the proper colors of bodies, and on
the cause of the illumination of transparent bodies and the diffusion of
light; experiments in which he studied a large number of crystalline
substances, such as quartz, diamond, rock-salt, ete.

M. Soret also presented a memoir on the phenomena of diffraction
produced by a circular grating, a paper inserted in April, 1875, in No.
208 of the Archives. He gives the name of circular grating to opaque
screens pierced by a series of circular openings presenting the form of con-
centric rings. He further indicates the method he took for constructing
such a grating, and for producing upon a glass plate of small dimensions
a series of 196 concentric rings, alternately transparent and opaque, the
central part being transparent in the positive grating and opaque in
the negative grating; and the radii of the circles bounding these
rings increasing proportionally to the square roots of the series of nat-
ural numbers. He has shown that a circular grating of this kind can
perform the office of a non-achromatic object-glass; an inverted image
is produced of a distant luminous object, and this image passes through
the different colors of the spectrum, according to the distance of the
grating.

M. R. Pictet communicated the results of his experiments made in
Egypt on the propagation of the calorific rays of the sun through differ-
ent substances, sand among others. He undertook to verify the idea ex-
pressed by M. Soret, that sand acts after the manner of a plate of glass ;
that is to say, it would be found diathermanous to luminous heat and
athermanous to dark heat. M. Pictet found, in fact, in the action of
temperature, more agreement of sand with glass than with other sub-
stances, such as wood er sheet-iron, even when the latter were painted
the color of sand.

The same member explained to the society a new process for the manu-
facture, on a large scale, of sulphurous acid, which consists in pouring
sulphuric acid, drop by drop, on sulphur, heated to from 300° to 350°
C. (572°—662° F.), in a cast-iron retort. He stated some of the proper-
ties of the sulphurons acid prepared in this way, as well as those of the
sulphite of water, obtained by the addition of water in a determined
proportion.

M. E. Demole read a work, inserted in No. 204 of the Archives, De-
cember, 18/4, on the question of molecular transpositions in the aromatic
series. Taking up again the experiments of M. Lantemann on the prod-
ucts of the distillation of oxysalicylic acid, M. Demole reached the con-
clusion that the products obtained by the latter were due to the circum-
siance that the oxysalicylic acid employed was not pure, but contained

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 209

proto-catechic acid. With pure oxysalicylic acid, M. Demole obtained
hydroquinine and a small quantity of pyrocatechine. The formation of
these two dioxybenzols is a curious fact, the theoretical explanation of
which is still rather obscure.

The same member communicated a memoir, published January, 1875,
in No. 205 of the Archives, on the reaction of the bromide of ethylene
on diluted alcohol, in presence of the acetic ethers of glycol. M. Demole
made numerous experiments for the purpose of explaining the formation
of the products due to this reaction, namely, of glycol, bromhydrine,
acetate of ethyl, and bromide of ethylene.

2. Natural sciences.—Prof. A. Favre submitted a communication on
the altitude of the glaciers at the Glacial era, and the height that must
be attributed to the summits of the Alps, if the slope of the glaciers
were the same at that time as at the present day. Among the maps
of the topographical atlas of Switzerland, executed by the Federal
Bureau of the Staff Office, there are some referring to the Bernese
Jura, in which are found represented, on the flanks of the Chasseral,
erratic blocks of considerable bulk, at altitudes varying from 1,200 to
1,300 metres (about 4,000 feet). These blocks have drifted from the
mountains which command the present glaciers of the Rhone, and are
260 kilometres (162 miles) distant from the Chasseral. By assuming that
the glaciers of the glacial era had a slope equal to the minimum slope of
the present glaciers, namely, from 2 per cent. to 14 per cent., the result
would be a difference of altitude of 5,200 and 3,900 metres, (17,000 and
13,000 feet) respectively, between the upper and lower part. From the
altitude of the latter, which is 1,300 metres (4,000 feet), there would re-
sult 6,500 or 5,200 metres (20,000 or 17,000 feet), for that of the upper
part, or a sum greatly exceeding the height of the Galenstock, one of
the most elevated summits bordering on the glaciers of the Rhone, which
rises to a height of 3,600 metres, (12,000 feet). We would thus have
to admit that either the height of the Alps at the Glacial era greatly
exceeded the present height, or that the slope of the glaciers was con-
siderably less. This last hypothesis is quite admissible from the results
of the recent explorations of the polar regions, especially those of Green-
land, but nothing forbids the admission of the combined action of both
causes.

Professor Favre also presented a memoir on the recession of the gla-
cier of the Bossons of late years, and on the relation between the ad-
vanes and retreat of glaciers and the atmospheric conditions, especially
the summer temperature. In the last eight years, included between
July, 1866, and June, 1874, the glaciers of the Bossons receded 212 metres,
(696 feet), and at the latter date it was 682 metres (2,240 feet) in rear of the
point it had reached in 1818, the epoch of its greatest development in this
century. If within late years the retreat of the glaciers can be explained
by the elevation of the mean temperature, especially in the summer
months, their development at an anterior period can likewise be attributed

14s

210 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

to the effect of a series of cold and wet years. The series of meteorological
observations conducted at the foot of the Alps, in Switzerland, do not
go far enough back to enable us to compare the year 1816 and those
immediately preceding or following it with the mean temperatures
deduced from a great number of years. M. Favre was only able to in-
stitute the comparison by the observations made at the observatory of
Paris from the beginning of the century; these observations show for
Paris a series of cold years from 1810 to 1818, in which the lowering
of the temperature was more marked in the summer months, when the
thawing of the ice especially takes place. If we cannot admit a com-
plete parallelism between the course of the temperature at Paris and at
the foot of the Alps, still the alternations of dry and hot years and cold
and wet ones must afford a certain analogy, because they are due to gen-
eral phenomena, embracing a considerable part of the surface of the
globe.

M. Ernest Favre presented a summary of the work he is now pub-
lishing in the Memoirs of the Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences, on
the geology of the central Caucasian chain; this work is the result of the
exploration recently made of that region, and is accompanied by a geolog-
icalchart and numerous cuts. M. Ernest Favre read a memoir on the geo-
logical structure of the southern part of the Crimea; among the other con-
clusions of this work, M. Favre expresses the idea that the Crimean chain
is not, as was thought, a prolongation of the northern chain of the Cau-
casus; the prolongation of the latter to the northwest connects with
the granitic zone, which reaches into Poland and into the east of Europe.
The Crimea is left, by this prolongation, to the south, and seems rather
to belong to the mountains of Turkey and Asia Minor.

The same member finally communicated the results of an exploration
recently made by him, of a mountain of the Voirons, with the view of
verifying the geological section of that mountain, given by his father in
his work on the geology of Savoy. He was enabled by this new examina-
tion to confirm the perfect accuracy of the section as published.

Professor Renevier presented to the society geological tables, which
are more especially intended for facilitating the teaching of geology and
the study of the sedimentary rocks during the organic eras of the globe.
These tables contain, under a synoptical form, all the data relating to
the succession of the rocks, their geological age, their area, and their
most characteristic fossils.

Professor de Candolle communicated the results of his experiments
for studying the manner in which buds receive the impression of the
heat that promotes their unfolding; he reaches the conclusion that the
heat is collected as well by the wood that bears the bud as by the bud
itself.

M. Duby read a memoir on some new, or but little known, mosses,
drawn largly from the Delessert collection, and the description of which
is illustrated by plates. He discovered among these mosses a new kind,
altogether anomalous, to which he gave the name of Hymenocleiston.

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 211

M. de Saussure, in presenting to the society the third part of his
studies of the Orthoptera, which is devoted to the family of the Gryllide,
gives a few details of the musical organ with which the males of this
family are endowed. The singing is produced by the intercrossing and
very rapid friction of the two elytra against each other. He shows the
series of transformations that the elytron undergoes in the male to ren-
der the production of a sound possible, whereas with the females the
elytron remains in the normal state.

M. Fatio read a memoir on the different development of the pectoral
finsin the two sexes among some fish of the genus Cyprinus, which live
in the waters of our environs, especially among the minnows. With
these fish, particularly in the rutting season, the swelling and develop-
ment of some of the larger rays of the males have the effect of expelling
and causing the disappearance of the smaller rays, so that their num-
ber is reduced to ten, and even to six only, while in the female the rays
are always very slender and from fourteen to sixteen in number.

The same member communicated a memoir on a curious case of mela-
nism, of nodose melanosis, which is sometimes observed in fish of the
genus Cyprinus, and which is due to the presence of a small parasite
which M. Humbert recognized as a helminth. These two memoirs
were published in No. 205 of the Archives, of January, 1875.

Dr. Fol presented a summary of researches made by himself, on the
development of the egg of the Meduse and the Pteropodous Mollusks,
during his stay at Messina; he studied particularly the mode of formation
of the egg-shell of the latter.

The same member communicated the principal results of the investi-
gations to which he bad been devoting himself for some years, into the
devolopment of the nervous system and the sexual organs of the Mol-
lusks. M. Fol studied in the embryos of Pteropods (which more par-
ticularly favor these researches), the mode of formation of the nervous
system, as well as the organs of hearing and sight. Finally, M. Fol com-
municated the results of some observations made by him at Messina,
upon the origin of the generative organs, male and female. ‘These in-
vestigations led him to adopt the views of M. Ed. Van Beneden on
this subject.

Dr. Prévost presented the results of some experiments he recently
made on the physiological properties of the Jaborandi. The effects pro-
duced by an infusion of this plant are quite similar to those produced
by the muscarine, consisting in a powerful salivation, and in a general
way in an exaggerated secretion of all the glands except the kidneys.
Atropine may be considered as antagonistic to this new substance, as
well as to the muscarine; it can, in fact, be employed to arrest the sali-
vation produced by the two other poisons.

Independently of these memoirs read before the society, a large num-
ber of different communications were made, and reports of discoveries.

212 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

and labors abroad. In this way, Professor Gautier continued to keep the
society informed of the progress in astronomy, and in the physies of the
globe, by communications on various subjects, such as the preparations
for the observation of the transit of Venus by the English expedition,
from the Annual Report of the Royal Astronomer; observations made
at the Roman College on magnetic variations and their relations with
the maxima and minima of solar spots; appearance of the belts of Jupi-
ter, from a memoir published in the Monthly Notices ; a new theory of the
aurora-borealis, from a memoir by M. Grénemann, inserted in the Astro-
nomische Nachrichten; a memoir of M. Montigny on scintillation; the
orbit of Coggia’s comet and the phenomena presented by it during its
apparition; the present state of our knowledge of the small planets;
finaliy, the work of Pére Rosa on the variableness of the solar diameter.
The same member, while announcing to the society the deaths of the as-
tronomers Argelinder and Midler, gave a sketch of the character and
works of these scientists.

M. Soret gave a description of a new thermometer invented by Ne-
gretti in London, formeasuring the temperature of water at great depths,
without having recourse to the index; the same apparatus, placed in
communication with an electric current, which reversed it at a deter-
mined instant, might serve torecord the temperature, without neces-
sitating a direct reading at the same moment. M. Plantamour has sent
for one of these instruments, with which he proposes to measure ethe tem-
perature of the lake at different depths.

Professor Wartmann presented a résumé of M. Jamin’s method for
the study of magnetism, and of some of the results obtained. M. R. Pic-
tet gave some details of the exceptionally great rise of the Nile in 1874.
The same member described Boulanger’s teleometer.

Professor Marignac gave an account of a work by Dr. Wagner on the
antiseptic properties of salycilic acid.

M. E. Ador presented to the society a glass jar containing meat pre-
served for nearly two months by M. de Herzen’s process; this meat was
as fresh as on the first day, and had undergone no change.

Prof. A. Favre gave an account of a work by M. Zittel on the glacial
terrain of the south of Bavaria.

M. Ei. Favre mentioned a work on comparative geology by M. Stan-
islas Meunier, and a work by M. Stoppani on the glacial terrains of
the southern slopes of the Alps. The same member made a communi-
cation on some implements he had seen at Basle, at the residence of
M. Rutimeyer, and which were found in the lignites of Wetzikou. These
implements give evidence of the presence of men in Switzerland before
the second Glacial period.

Professor Candolle, when presenting to the society his notice of M.
Meisner, accompanied it with some details relative to the botanist of
Basle. The same member gave a recapitulation of Mr. Asa Gray’s work
on the natural extinction of varieties of fruit-trees, and also the results

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 2te

obtained from the restoration of the growth of trees to the Island of
Ascension, from an article by Mr. Bell, inserted in the Gardener’s Chron-
icle.

M. Micheli presented a branch of the genus Ficus repens bearing fruit,
which is remarkable from an extraordinary transformation of the leaves.
The same member gave some details of the flora of the central and north-
ern country of the Argentine Republic, from collections made by M. Lo-
renz, and described by M. Griesebad.

M. Ph. Plantamour invited the members of the society, or those whom
it might interest, to his residence, to see two plants of Armophoptales
Rivieri, just ready to bloom.

M. A. Humbert pointed out a peculiar change in the lenses of the micro-
scope, which he attributed to alge attached to the glass, and produced
by humidity. The same member described a work by M. Gerstaecker
on the respiratory organs of certain insects, and of a memoir of M. Zel-
ler on the development of the larve of intestinal worms.

Dr. Lombard made a communication relative to the accidents in the
last ascension of the balloon, the Zenith. He dwelt upon the conse-
quences of the diminution of the quantity of oxygen contained in a litre
of air at a great height, and on the internal and external peripheric
motions produced by a too rapid ascension.

Dr. Prévost presented a résumé of the researches recently made on
apomorphine, and the effect produced by this substance on different
animals. The same member summed up the most recent observations
on the hypnotic action of hydrate of chloral, the use of which may be re-
garded as dangerous to man, but which is capable of rendering great
service in experiments by vivisection of animals.

REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE GENEVA SOCIETY OF
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, FROM JUNE, 1875, TO
JUNE, 1876.

By Dr. J. Mixer, President.
Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by M. L. Duncan.

I.—MATTERS RELATING TO THE MEMBERSHIP, THE PROCEEDINGS, AND
THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

Our society has experienced this year a great loss in the death of
General Dufour, who was born in Constance, September 15, 1787, and
died in Geneva, July 14,1875. Switzerland loses in him one of its most
popular and beloved sons and most illustrious citizens. After the pub-
lication of the biographical sketches in the Journal de Genéve, there
appeared a history of his life, a life in every respect complete, and
marked by patriotism, disinterestedness, and general usefulness to his
country. This biography, besides giving a sketch of the war of the
Sonderbund, describes the brilliant career of the soldier, the classic
reports of the general, and the conscientious labors of the scientist,
whose military chart of Switzerland, requiring thirty-one years for
its execution, is a masterpiece of successful perseverance; it likewise
states the active part taken by the general in political, legislative, and
administrative affairs, both federal and cantonal, as well as his indefati-
gable activity in military, scientific, artistic, and philanthropic societies.
These publications, of course, render it unnecessary for me to enter into
more general details.

Our society, of which the general had been a member since 1819, and
to which he had contributed articles on the strength of iron wire, on the
determination of the astronomical co-ordinates of Berne, and the high ©
waters of the lake, published in volumes ii, ix, and x of our memoirs,
has lost in him one of its most zealous members, who took a warm
interest in its labors, and attended its meetings with military regularity
and punctuality. The energy, kindliness, and uprightness, so faith-
fully reflected in every feature, and his uniform politeness, created in all
a feeling of respect and affection never to be effaced.

Our society must also deplore the loss of two honorary members, M.
Adolphe Brongniart, professor of botany, and one of the directors of
the Museum of Natural History of Paris, and M..Ch. Desmoulins, of Bor-
deaux.

As to our publications, the first part of volume xxiv of our memoirs,
a large half-volume of fifty printed leaves and twenty-eight plates, is

214

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 215

published, and contains the paleontological and geological monograph
of the upper strata of the Jurassic formation of the environs of Boulogne-
sur-Mer, by MM. de Loriol and Pellat, and the selection of new and
but slightly known mosses by M. Duby. The secand part of volume
xxiv, and also the first part of volume xxv, are both in preparation
for the press, in the first of which is a memoir by Professor Plantamour
on the climate of Greece, and in the second a work by M. H. de Saussure '
on the Gryllide.

II.—MEMOIRS COMMUNICATED TO THE SOCIETY.

1.—Astronomy and meteorology—Physical geography.—Professor Plan-
tamour gave an account to the society of a memoir which he published,
with Professor Hirsch as collaborator, on the determination of the differ-
ence of longitude between the Simplon, Milan, and Neuchatel. During
this work, he ascertained that the Swiss telegraphic lines are not as well
insulated as the foreign lines, a circumstance that considerably reduces
the velocity of the electric current, owing to the retardation of attraction
of the armatures. Allowing for the changes of position that the axis of
the instrument undergoes from a unilateral dilatation, caused by the
presence of the body of the observer, and the corrections required by
personal equations, those of the four observers, MM. Plantamour at the
Simplon, Celloria at Milan, and Hirsch and Schmidt at Neuchatel, the
following differences were established:

iBecween Milan and the Simplon. .... 52420025 e6-c 500 206 aee 4’ 39,238
Between the Simplon and Nenchatel................+..-.- 4’ 16.824
Benween, Milan and Neuchatel -........-.- <--> «00+ 3% ees S’ 56.062

The same member also submitted to the society a summary of his
observations on the climate of Geneva. He found by examining the
mean temperatures for the last fifteen years that they were higher than
those of the thirty-five preceding years, so that the mean actually estab.
lished for a series of fifty years must be increased by nearly 09.2. C. (09.3:
F.). Forevery month of the last fifteen years, the mean temperature was
higher than the mean temperature deduced from the previous thirty-five
years, with the exception of the month of December, in which it was
09.2 C. (09.3 F.) lower. The greatest increase was 19.23 C. (2°.24 F.), and
occurred in the month of September. The mean temperatures of the
whole series of fifty years furnish the following results: January,
— 0°.079 C. (319.85 F.); February, -+ 19.598 ©. (35° F.); March,
+ 49.597 C. (409.274 F.); April, + 8°.967 C. (489.14 F.) ; May, +-13°.197
C. (559.75 F.) ; June, + 169.809 C. (64905 F.; July, + 18°.807 C. (659.85
F.); August, + 179.910 C. (649.24 F.); September, + 14°.659 C. (889.38
I’.); October, + 99.879 C. (499.78 F.) ; November, + 49.552 C. (409.194
F.); December, — 09.80 C. (309.56 F.).

M. Plantamour, on the other hand, made an examination of his obser-
vations by dividing the year into seventy-three series of five days (the

216 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL IISTORY.

pentades of Professor Dove) in order the better to detect the variations
of the elements which had furnished the monthly mean temperatures,
and to ascertain whether the meteorological theory by virtue of which
M. Ch. Sainte-Claire Deville admitted the more or less regular return of
anomalous cold spells at certain periods of the year, had or had not any
foundation in fact. The plotted means of these pentades (or five-day
periods) naturally gives a more undulatory line than the regular theo-
retical curve of the monthly means, and if there existed anomalous causes
at certain fixed epochs, we should find the duration proper to each of
those epochs traced in a manner altogether more decided in proportion
as the observations are extended over a greater number of years. Now,
M. Plantamour found that the very reverse was the case, and the curve . ~
of the mean temperatures of the pentades of the fifty years approaches
more nearly the regular theoretic curve than that which had been eal-
culated for the first forty years only. The annual mean for the last fifty
years is 99.345 C, (48°.821 F.). The warmest year of the series, 1834,
had a mean temperature of 109.99 C. (519.78 F.); the coldest, 1551, one
of 79.85 C. (469.13 F.). The period from 1826 to 1834 contains seven
warm and two cold years; that from 1835 to 1860 gives twenty-two cold
and only four warm years; and in the last fifteen years there have been
thirteen warm and two cold. But there is no regularity in these varia-
tions, which, contrary to the ideas of certain meteorologists, afford
nothing which substantiates any coincidence between them and the
periods of eleven years which have been observed for the epochs of the
minima and maxima of the solar spots.

Professor Gautier read a second account of the meteorological observa-
tions made at Labrador, at five different stations, by the Moravian mis-
sionaries. That of Hoffenthal gives the mean temperature of five years,
from 1869 to 1873, at — 39.03 C, (269.55 F.), while the annual mean tem-
perature of Edinburgh is + 8°.4 C. (46.47 F.). The winter and spring
are very cold, while the summer and autumn are relatively mild. The
mean diurnal variation, which is 49.45 C. (89.01 F.), attains at times to
220 C. (399.6 F.). The extreme temperatures observed at the station of
Roma were, on the 3d of February, 1873, — 35° C. (—31°9 I’.), and August
21, + 24° C. (759.2 I*.). The greatest number of auroras observed there
occurs in the months of January and February.

Professor Colladon read to us a work, which will be published in our
memoirs, upon the great hail-storms, one of which devastated the canton
of Geneva on the 7th and 8th of July of the past year, and the other
Savoy and Bas-Valois, twelve hours afterward, and which coincided
with violent storms between Lucerne and Zurich, and with another in
Ardéche. The storms moved at a velocity of 50 kilometres (31 miles) per
hour and the height of the hail-cloud was determined to be 2,000 metres
(6,600 feet). M. Colladon recognized four different types of hail-stones.

The same member communicated an article upon the effect of a thun-
der-bolt on the trunks of two Lombardy poplars of different dimensions

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL’ HISTORY. 217

on the plain of Eynard near Rolle. From the different details observed
and the topographical position of the poplars, M. Colladon concludes:
1st, that the poplar is more likely to be struck than other trees; 2d, that
when several poplars are standing in a group or in a row, the one near-
est to water is the first struck, and this fact may be made available in
discovering springs; 3d, the upper part of the poplar always remains
jntact, because its branches are good conductors of the electricity ; 4th,
the lightning passes between the sap-wood and the old wood, and escapes
near the foot of the tree, laterally, by passing through the sap-woed leay-
ing great spots around the holes through which it has passed.

Professor Forel, of Morges, announced to the society the first results of
his observations of the seiches (variations of level), made at Morges by
means of a recording limnimeter. The lake here presents longitudinal
and transverse seiches, according as the periodic undulations follow the
great or small axis of the lake. The normal seiches of Morges have a dura-
tion of ten minutes, whatever their amplitude may be. ‘There are other
seiches, less frequent, at Morges, having aduration of 70 minutesand of less
amplitude, notexceeding onecentimetre (four-tenths of aninch). M. Forel,
by comparing these with those of Lake Constance and Lake Neuchatel,
thinks that those of 70 minutes’ duration are to be considered as longi-
tudinal. Others, observed at Veytaux and Chillon, and which he acci-
dentally recognized at Morges and Evian, whose duration is about 35
minutes, might be the longitudinal seiches of the large lake, oscillating
from Chillon to the bar of Promenthon, and vice versa; those observed
at Geneva of a duration of 30 minutes are probably the seiches peculiar to
the small lake oscillating hetween the port of Geneva and the limit of
the large lake; and, finally, the ordinary seiches of Morges and Kivian, of
10 minutes’ duration, are the transverse seiches of Lake Leman. The
register indicates the passage of a steamboat, 20 minutes in advance, by
waves of three-quarters to one minute in duration, and these waves, after
the passage of the boat, continue to repeat themselves for an hour and
a half at intervals of from one to two minutes.

2. Physics and mechanics.—Professor Soret communicated to the society
the result of his study of the phenomena of diffraction in the circular
gratings examined by him in the special case of equidistant circles. This
result presents some analogy with those considered in a communication
of the previous year. They produce a powerful concentration of the
luminous rays along the whole length of their axis, and are capable of
giving images of objects quite similar to those obtained through small
holes.

The same member, in making a communication on halos, and especially
on parahelia by reflection in crystals of ice, adverted to the fact that
Bravais had considered two cases only, the prism with an elongated
hexagonal base, and the star or regular hexagonal prism with re-enter-
ing angles. M. Soret added two new cases of parahelias, the prism of
icicles with six regular sides, and prisms with elongated base, in which

218 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

the course of the rays is different from that which had been indicated
by Bravais.

-MM. Soret and Sarasin have made a summary of their work, inserted
in the Archives de la Bibliothéque Universelle, No. 215, p. 253, on the
rotatory power of quartz. The employment of the spectroscope, with
the fluorescent eyeglass devised by M. Soret, admits of the extension
of these limits to the ultra-violet part of the spectrum as far as the
line N; and by the interposition of a plate of cobalt-blve glass, which
arrests the mean red and orange rays, they succeeded in clearly dis-
tinguishing the lines a and A, by which they were then able to measure
the rotatory power of quartz. These researches complete, as regards
the extreme red and ultra-violet, the results obtained by Bloch and
Stefan. ;

Mr. N. Lockyer, of London, an honorary member of our society, did
us the honor of presenting the principal results of his researches
in spectral analysis. This scientist mentioned the different spectral
methods, the distinction which he established between the short and
long lines of the spectra, the different conditions in which the vapors of
bodies may be found, the modilications that the atomic grouping of those
bodies may undergo, and the effects in the spectrum by which these
modifications manifest themselves.

M. Raoul Pictet placed before us a communication on the application
of the mechanical theory of heat to the study of volatile liquids, and
the simple relations existing between latent heat, atomic weights, and
the tension of vapors. There results from this work, which was inserted
in the Archives de la Bibliotheque Universelle, No. 217, p. 66, 1st, that all
liquids have the same cohesion ; 2d, that the derivative of the Naperian
logarithm of the quotient of the tensions in relation to the temperatures
is constant for all liquids at the same pressure and temperature; 3d,
that the latent heat of all liquids under the same pressure multiplied by
their atomic weights at the same temperature gives a constant product;
4th, that for all liquids the difference of the internal latent heat at any
two temperatures whatsoever multiplied by the atomic weight is a con
stant number; 5th, that the latent heats of all liquids are multiples of
their specific heats.

Professor Wartmann presented to the society various models of
Crooke’s radiometer, manufactured at Bonn by M. Geissler. The radia-
tions from a luminous source act upon the wheel, and repel the blackened
faces. Nevertheless, by covering the latter, M. Wartmann showed that
the rays from the sun, or from sources of high temperature, repel also
the white faces. The interposition of colored glasses diminishes more
or less the rapidity of the motion, which continues very rapid in the
focus of a lens of sulphuret of carbon saturated with iodine. By acting
upon one paddle only, M. Wartmann found that it remained in a state of
equilibrium when the intensity of the radiation concentrated on the
black face and the opposite white face is in inverse ratio to the absorb-

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 219

ing power of those faces. Light is not the cause of the phenomenon of
the rotation of the wheel. This our colleague demonstrated by concen-
trating on the black face of the disk of an extremely sensitive radiometer
the light of the full moon passing over the meridian. If a large lens or
a concave mirror 0.55 metre (2 feet) in diameter is employed, the intense
light of the focus renders the paddle motionless. The phenomenon has
therefore a calorific origin. M. Wartmann also reported an experiment
due to Dr. Schuster, according to which, when the motion of the wheel
is impeded, it is the envelope of the radiometer, delicately suspended,
that tends to turn in an opposite direction. There is therefore a mechan-
ical reaction. Finally, M. Wartmann dwelt upon the fact that the degree
of vacuum exerts a very sensible influence on the rate of each instru-
ment under experiment. With the same radiometer, this vacuum does
not appear to preserve the same value after the energetic action of the
calorific sources.

M. Th. Turrettini submitted a communication on the different boring
implements employed in tunneling St. Gothard, and explained the
various apparatus, with working plans. The drill invented by him-
self, and bearing his name, is distinguished from others in two essential
points: Ist. The system of air-distribution, effected by the reciprocat-
ing motion of the piston, which is produced by an arrangement of the
piston and piston-rod in two separate pieces, and by the assistance
of a system of differential pistons; 2d. The automatic advance and
recoil of the machine is effected by utilizing the action of compressed
air upon the percussion cylinder, in order to produce the tightening and
loosening of the apparatus, which permits or stops that advance by the
position itself occupied by the piston-rod. This machine makes 600
strokes per minute.

3. Chemistry.—Professor Marignac gave to the society an account of his
researches, published in the Archives, No. 218, p.113, on the specific heat of
saline solutions. Thespecific heat depends on the nature of the acids and
the bases of the salts, and also on other circumstances, which do not seem
connected with the greater or less tendency of salts to combine with water
to form definite and crystallizable hydrates. It is much less in general
than the sum of the specific heat of the separate elements of the saline solu-
tions; but the greater part of the acetates and acetic acid dissolved in
water present the reverse. M. Marignac is of the opinion that the diminu-
tion of the specific heat of solutions is due to the disengagement of heat,
resulting from a dissociation of the definite hydrates contained in them.
This does not occur among alloys, because they cannot undergo disso-
ciation so long as they are below their point of fusion.

M. Ador gave a statement of the research which he carried out in con-
nection with M. Albert Rilliet, on the constitution of benzine. This
investigation, with its numerous details, was inserted in the Archives,
No. 219, p. 263.

M. Eugéne Demole made a communication on the compound Ct H? 10,

220 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

which is formed by the action of ethylene upon an alcoholic solution
of iodine heated to a temperature of 65° C, (149° F.) This compound had
been regarded by M. Baumstark as a derivative of ethyledine, and as
being possibly a singular instance of transposition. M.Demoie undertook
the synthesis of this substance, making glycol his starting-point. The
substances he employed were all prepared at low temperatures. They
were glycol, iodinated glycol, monethylic glycol, and iodethylie glycol.
Now this last agrees in its properties, its formula, and its vapor-density
with the said compound in such a manner that we are forced to consider
the latter a derivative of ethylene.

4, Geology.—Professor Favre presented to the society his chart of the
Swiss glaciers of the Glacial period, projected on the scale of 5,355.
This beautiful chart shows, Ist, the névés (partially congealed snow);
2d, the true glaciers of the Rhone, the Aar, the Reuss, the Linth, and
the Rhine; and, 3d, the glacial terrain or glacial clays and sediments, the
moraines, and erratic blocks. M. Favre designates as glacier réservoir

(glacial basin) the zone of the névés occupying the high valleys, and

glacier @écoulement (flowing glacier) the zone of glaciers properly so
called extending along the plains. As to the glaciers of the Rhone and
the Rhine, the extent of the glacier réservoir was found equal to that of
the flowing glacier. In addition, M. Favre deduced the depth of the
glaciers from the position of the most elevated of the erratic blocks.

5. Botany.—We were presented by M. C. de Candolle with the result
of his anatomical and physiological researches on the Dionwa muscipula,
which led him to admit that here also, as among sensitive plants, the
movement of the valves of the leaf is caused by the known phenomena of
turgescence. It is only by the touch of one of the three hairs that the
movement of the two demi-limbs is produced about the middle rib; for
if the surface of the leaf is touched, the two valves do not close at all.
It was therefore in the structure of the costa, and especially in that of
the hairs, that M. C. de Candolle sought and found the details of cellular
organization, which enabled him to refer the phenomena to the effects of
turgescence. This work, accompanied by two plates, was inserted in
the Archives, No. 220, p. 400.

6. Zodlogy.—Dr. Fol communicated to the society the principal results
of his investigations into the nutrition, the mode of reproduction, and
the means of locomotion of the Tunicates. These marine animals take
nourishment by means of a thick and glutinous saliva. Their repro-
duction is complicated, for it is not until the third generation that the
mother-form exactly reappears. The central style bears two kinds of
buds: the central, attached directly to the axis, perform the functions of
procreation and locomotion ; and the lateral, farther removed from the
axis, whose office had not been known, are only organs of nutrition and
respiration. When separated from each other, they soon perish. — Dr.

a

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 221

Fol concludes from this that among the Tunicates, as weli as the
Siphonophora, there are swimming individuals and feeding individuals.

The same member, in presenting to the society a copy of his memoir
on the Pteropods, gives some details of the Heteropods, which he is now
elaborating for his second volume, and proves, contrary to the opinions
of some writers, that the opening of invagination is persistent, and that
it becomes a mouth. This mouth once formed, the embryo swallows
the white of the egg; and this albuminous mass, after the hatching of
the larva, serves for food.

M. Al. Humbert communicated to the society the result of the study
of a blind Gammarus, found by M. Forel at the bottom of Lake Leman.
As no intermediaries have been found between the seeing Gammarus of
the lake at the surface of the water and the blind Gammarus which live
from the depth of 50 metres (160 feet) to the bottom, M. Humbert does
not think it can be admitted that this Gammarus is descended from the
Seeing species, and takes it for a variety of the Gammarus puteanus, a
species which dwells at the bottom of wells in the vicinity of the lake.

Professor Bogdanow, of St. Petersburg, read to us a memoir on the
successive history, through the different geological ages, of the fauna of
European Russia, and accompanied his communication with numerous
explanatory maps.

In addition to the works mentioned above, a large number of reports
of recent and rare publications were made to the society, and a series
of less detailed communications were presented.

M. Barbey gave some account of the California species of the genus
Epilobium, which he is now preparing tor the New Flora of California by
Mr. Watson.

Prof. Alph. de Candolle took up and refuted the principal objections
offered by M. Schacht to the theory of the sums of temperatures applied to
the phenomena of vegetation. The same gentleman informed us that Pro-
fessor Blytt, of Christiania, made observations in Scandinavia, which con-
firmed his own made in our Alps, and which lead to this: that of the
valleys laid bere at the Glacial period, those whose glaciers retreated
first, present a richer and more varied vegetation than those which re-
mained a long time covered with ice. By consulting the notes collected
by the Rigaud family and the employés of the guild hall on the folia-
tion of the chestnut of Treille, at Geneva, M. de Candolle was able to
show that the time of the foliation does not vary with the age of the tree.
The same scientist described to us a colossal tree of California, 276 feet
in height and measuring 20 feet in diameter, a section of whose trunk
was prepared for the exhibition at Philadelphia, and whose age was
estimated at 2,120 years. He gave us some details of the extent
of the culture of tea in the Indies, derived from the English journals.
He showed us a bunch of grapes, of half-white and half-red berries, and

992 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. —

also a remarkable leaf and fruit-bearing stem of the Diacontium pertusum.
The same member, when on the subject of the investigations of Profes-
sor Favre on the hill of Cassina Rizzardi near Como, remarked that the
two Tertiary and Quaternary floras north of the Alps are distinctly
separated by the Glacial period, while south of the Alps the Pliocene
and Quaternary regions fade into each other, the Tertiary flora already pre-
senting many of the plants of the present epoch. M. de Candolle like-
wise made a detailed report of the work of M. Francis Galton on twins
in the human species.

Prof. A. N. Cazin, of Paris, honorary member of our society, gave an
interesting recital, rich in details, of his journey to the island of St. Paul,
to observe the transit of Venus.

Professor Dor, of Berne, made a detailed report of the experiments

made under his direction by M. Decker, at the ophthalmological clinic —

of Berne, on the influence of the trijumeau in certain affections of the
cornea.

M. Fatio described his researches, made conjointly with M. Adore,
to determine the moment at which, with us, the winged form of the
Phylloxera is produced. It was proved that the event takes place in the
middle of July. These gentlemen also discovered a plant-louse, strongly
resembling the Phylloxera, on the leaves of the maple.

M. Ernest Favre, while distributing a memoir on the Jurassic rocks of
the Voirons, entertained the society with the discussions of geologists
ou the limits of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, and more par-
ticularly on the tithonic stratum of cephalopodic and coralline beds.
Far from sharing the opinion of the geologists, especially the French,
who see a great hiatus between the Oxford beds and the Cretaceous
deposits of our Alps, M. Favre admits, with the other Swiss and Ger-
man geologists, that at least for the Western Alps, and likewise the
Voirons, these are all the equivalents of the Jurassic rocks; and if we are
still unable to verify all the fossiliferous levels of the Jurassic basin, it
is because the sediment was formed under different conditions, especially
with regard to temperatures and currents. Professor Favre proves that
by examining, on the spot, the hill of Cassina Rizzardi, near Como,
where it was claimed that there were Pliocene shells in the glacial ter.
rains he saw nowhere between Mendrisio and Chiasso that pretended
mixture; that the hill in question bears no resemblance to a moraine;
and that it is formed from a post-Glacial alluvium. The fossils found
there were washed down by streams which drifted the rolling stones in
which these fossils are imbedded. M. Favre likewise showed us speci-
mens of the mineral known as the sapphire of the glacier of the Bois,
and now classed by M. Specia with emeralds.

M. Fol described in the embryos of mole-crickets, before hatching, a
larval heart analogous to that of the larvaof mollusks. It is a contrac-
tile region of the ectoderm on both sides of the body. The same scien-
tist gave some interesting details of the zodlogical laboratories of
Naples and Rostock.

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 223

Professor Gautier kindly continued to inform us, as in times past, of
new discoveries in astronomy and meteorology. Amongst other sub-
jects, he mentioned Encke’s comet, seven small new comets, three of
which were discovered by M. Borelli, the astronomer of Marseilles, and
a chart of shooting-stars observed by M. Ferrari on the night of the 11th
of August, in the neighborhood of the constellations of Perseus and
Cassiopia. He also alluded to a memoir published by the observatory
of Athens on Coggia’s comet, and gave an account of meteorological
observations made at the observatory of Berne. Colonel Gautier sub-
mitted to us an analysis of a work by M. Trouvelot, an American
astronomer, on a new category of solar spots, the veiled spots.

M. Raoul Pictet mentioned the second volume of M. Hiern on the
mechanical theory of heat. He also communicated to the society the
fact that sulphurous acid, after being used for several days in the ice
machine prepared by M. Pictet, and recently tested at Toulon and Mar-
seilles, was found much purer and more limpid than at the time of its
introduction into the machine, and no longer held sulphur in suspension,
and absolutely ceased to act upon metals, especially copper. The same
member, in giving an account of the trials he had made to determine
the conditions of equilibrium of a heavy body in a gaseous current,
pointed out to the society that there was in the interior of the conical
gaseous jet an ovoidal space, in the interior of which heavy bodies, such
as balls of different substances, remain in equilibrium, taking up a very
rapid rotatory movement.

Professor Plantamour commented before the society upon a publica-
tion of M. Tacchini on the Italian mission to the Indies to observe the
transit of Venus.

Professor Prévost gave an account to the society of a memoir that he
had recently published in the Bulletin of the Medical Society of Switz-
erland on cases of alcoholic delirium observed in the cantonal hospital
of Geneva, during the year 1874~75. The same member mentioned
the thesis of Dr. David on apomorphine, and also the researches of M.
Vulpian on the singular effects of the paralyzation of the movement
of the heart. He showed to us a photograph of the brain of an aphasiac
patient observed at the hospital of the canton of Geneva. This brain, in
confirmation of Broca’s opinion, presented a lesion in the third convolu-
tion of the left frontal hemisphere. On this occasion, Dr. Prévost re-
affirmed that a lesion in the island of Reil might have the same conse-
quence. He showed to the society a rat that had been perfectly pre-
served for two years by means of an injection of six grains of chloral.
Moreover, M. Prévost presented to us the circular of the committee
charged with the organization of the fifth session of the periodical In-
ternational Congress of the Medical Sciences to meet at Geneva, Sep-
tember 9, 1877, and gave some details of the congress.

M. Risler presented an analysis of M. Ebermayer’s work on the influ-
ence of forests on climate. The same member furnished us with some

994 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

details of the effects of a stroke of lightning upon five telegraphic posts,
placed at a distance of 30 metres (100 feet) apart. The mark left by the
fluid was a spiral; this passed from four to five times around the post, but
the post next to the last, which was of ash, was less injured, and the
fracture was in the form of a straight furrow.

M. Sarasin gave an account of a work by M. Weber on the specific
heat of carbon, boron, and silicon (see Archives, No. 216, p. 407).

M. H. de Saussure furnished some details on the fauna of Turkistan,
presenting at the same time the first number on the Orthoptera of that
country, now being published by M. Tchenko. The same gentleman
mentioned the scientific collections which he had had the opportunity
of seeing at Vienna.

Professor Soret gave us some information about the zodlogical labo-
ratory of Arcachon. ‘

M. Turrettini spoke of the tension of the overhanging granite of St.
Gothard. The parts laid bare press toward the vacancy, and break up,
often with violence, which made it necessary to arch the whole length
of the tunnel, vontrary to anticipation.

Professor Wartmann described to the society the results obtained by
M. Lockyer from observations on the variations of the calcium spectrum.

REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE GENEVA SOCIETY OF
PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY, FROM JUNE, 1876, TO JUNE,
1877,

By ADOLF Favre, President.
[Translated for the Smithsonian Institution by M. A. Henry. ]

GENTLEMEN: Called for the second time to render an account of all
that concerns our society, I have the pleasure to state that the number
of members has considerably increased, notwithstanding our previous
sad losses.

In presenting to you a summary of the condition and proceedings of
the society, as well as of the various subjects which have engaged your
attention during the seventeen meetings of the year, I will follow the
usual order.

J.—OBITUARY NOTICES.

Joseph de Notaris, made an honorary member of our society in 1871,
was born in 1805 at Milan, was of a noble family, and died at Rome on
22d of January, 1877. During his medical studies at the University of
Rome, where he received the degree of doctor, he acquired an ardent
taste for natural history. In 1832 he was made professor of botany at the
Lyceum of Milan; in 1836, assistant in the Museum of Natural History
of Turin; in 1839, professor at the University of Genoa, and director of
the Garden ; and finally, in 1872, he accepted the same position at Rome.
This was contrary to the advice of his friends, who feared, not without
reason, disappointment in the hopes he had conceived of the restoration
of the Garden and of science in the new capital of Italy. His nomination
to the Senate was but a small compensation for the numerous difficulties
he encountered.

As soon as he was established at Turin, J. de Notaris commenced the
publication of botanical works, particularly upon Cryptogamia. The
memoirs devoted to the mosses have been collected in a magnificent
volume, published at the expense of the municipality of Genoa, and con-
stitute a reliable system of Italian Bryology, to which the Academy of
Sciences of Paris awarded the Desmaziéres prize.

The other branches of Cryptogamy were also pursued with careful and
accurate research by the learned professor. J. de Notaris was the soul
of an important publication, ‘Herbier eryptogamique” (the Cryptogamic
Herbal). The flora of Liguria, as well as the fragmentary records of
Egyptian Agrostography, equally attest his profound knowledge in
every branch of botany.

995

oes

226 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

Two days after the death of Joseph de Notaris, our society sustained
the loss of Jean Christian Poggendorff, added to the number of her hon-
orary members in 1874, as an expression of her sympathy with this
illustrious savan, on the occasion of a féte celebrated in commemoration
of the fiftieth year of the publication of the annals bearing his name.

Born on the 29th of December, 1796, deceased at Berlin on the 24th
of January, 1877, this learned physicist labored unceasingly from 1821
until the time of his death, which came to him after a short illness.

During his laborious youth, his uncommon energy led him into a pathin
which his active perseverance, his just and clear understanding secured
the esteem and respect of allsavans. In 1820, he was matriculated at the
University of Berlin ; in 1834, received the degree of doctor of philos-
ophy ; was nominated professor at the same university ; and in 1839, was
made a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin. Still a young
man, hestudied chemistry, and soon devoted himself to physical research,
especially in the line of electricity.

In 1824, he commenced the “Annales de Chimie et de Physique” (An-
nals of Chemistry and Physics), which succeeded the Annales of Gil-
bert. The 166 volumes which have appeared in the course of fifty-three
years contain many of his own works, as well as additions, criticisms,
and elaborations of the memoirs of other scientists. This important
publication did not prevent him from engaging with Liebig in the forma-
tion of a dictionary of chemistry, while at the same time he was giving
to the world various biographical sketches and a biographical dictionary.

The death of Poggendorf is a great loss to science. He not only con-
tributed to itsadvance by his original investigations, but rendered easier
for others the researches to be made in physical science, still a maze of
confusion which every day renders it more necessary to reduce to order.

TE-—THE SOCIETY.

Our society has added this year to its regular members Dr. Pierre
Dunant, M. Schiff, Dr. Julliard, and M. Zahn, all four professors of the
university. These elections carry the number of regular members up to
fifty, the limit according to rule of admission, so that at present our
society is full.

From the ranks of the free associates we have had the misfortune to
lose Messrs. Charles Eynard and Prévost-Martin; we have, however,
added to them Charles Golaz, William Favre, Charles Rigaud, Emile
Pictet, Domaine Roux, and Ernest Covelle.

Professor Wartmann was elected president for the year 1877-78, and
Messrs. Marignac, Edward Sarasin, and Philippe Piantamour were con-
tinued in their offices of secretaries and treasurer, and received the thanks
of the society for the manner in which they had fulfilled their trust.

You have, gentlemen, taken an important step, it may be well to men-
tion here. In view of the constant increase in the number of ordinary
members and free associates, and the consequent insufficiency in the

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 227

supply of our Memoirs, it was decided that there should no longer be a
general distribution, but that the members and associates should be ad-
vised, as soon as a volume appeared, that it could be obtained at a cer-
tain place appointed, and if not claimed at the end of two years it would
be at the disposal of the society. This decision does not affect the dis-
tribution of our Memoirs abroad.

The committee of publication has been charged to make every effort to
obtain for the society former volumes necessary to complete our seriés..

The society has published during the past year the second part of
volume XXIV of its Memoirs, containing articles by M. Plantamour and
M.de Loriol. To this must be added the first part of volume X XV, con-
taining a memoir of M.H.de Saussure; and we have still in press the first
part of volume X XVI, containing memoirs of M. Duby upon new species.
of mosses, of M. E. 'avre upon the geology of the Crimea, and other
interesting matter.

In regard to the memoirs in competition for the prize founded by A.
P. de Candolle, to be presented in 1879, the society caused the following
notice to be published in various journals (Archives des sciences physiques
et naturelles,* March, 1877).

+ PRIZE FOUNDED BY AUGUSTIN PYRAMUS DE CANDOLLE FOR THE
BEST MONOGRAPH UPON A SPECIES OR A FAMILY OF PLANTS.

‘‘A competition is now opened by the Société de physique et Whistoire
naturelle de Genéve for the best unpublished monograph of a species or
family of plants.

‘““The manuscripts may be written in Latin, French, English, or Ital-
ian. They must be sent, postage paid, before the Ist of October, 1879,
to Professor de Marignac, corresponding secretary of the society at
Geneva. Members of the society are not admitted to the competition.

“The prize is 500 franes. It may be reduced or not awarded in case
the articles do not correspond to the conditions of this notice.

“Geneva, February, 1877.

“A. FAVRE,”
President of the Society.

II].—LABORS OF 'THE SOCIETY.

1. Physics.—Professor Plantamour has given an account of a work pub-
lished by him with Professor Wolf, of Zurich, upon the telegraphic deter-
mination of the difference of longitude between the observatory of Zurich
and the astronomical stations of Pfandler (near Bregenz) and of Giibris
(Appenzell). The astronomer Oppolzer assisted inthis work. During these

*Tn future we will mention this review simply as Archives.

228 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

observations it was observed that the pendulums of M. Wolf and M.
Oppolzer were influenced in their course by the electric register which
accompanied them, while the pendulum of M. Plantamour, constructed
by M. Hipp, was not in the least disturbed. In fact the probable error
for each combination of longitude is from seven to eight thousandths of a
second. The measures gave for the difference of longitude between the
three stations:

m. 8.
PEN COhS Ana we Ro ek aici eee erent ere een SS Ae 4 53.691
CEO CIS= AUTOM ss eerie oh. 2 a.5 2% clas awikkttisen ee ee ee 3 40.070
LPH Tah HON Gr ARES aes sec ces, afat ose, 0 ye seca ches lanl a Suede «Pers ence eee eae

M. Raoul Pictet has proved an anomaly in the law of the diffusion of
gases, in the fact that sulphurous acid passes through india rubber with
greater facility than hydrogen; a balloon of india rubber containing
sulphurous acid will soon be emptied. By filling with this gas a glass
tube closed at the upper end by a sheet of india rubber, and plunging
the lower end of the tube into mercury, the rapidity of the escape of the
gas may be measured by the ascent of the mercury in the tube.

Professor Soret has entertained the society at two sessions with some
new researches made, with M. Edward Sarasin, upon the rotatory
polarization of quartz, particularly for the ultra violet rays, by means
of a spectroscope with a fluorescent eye-piece. This instrument was
described in the Archives in December, 1876. The results of the labors
of MM. Soret and Sarasin are given in the Comptes rendus de V Académie
des Sciences, t. 83, p. 188.

Professor Wartmann made a communication upon the extrapolar
deviations observed upon mercurial conductors, whether vats or
troughs. He produced a very sensible current by placing the two
extremities of the wire of a galvanometer in the neighborhood of the
pole of a current passing through a trough er vat filled with mercury,
but beyond the line of the poles.

Lucien de la Rive presented a work upon the specular reflection of
surfaces covered with hairs, considering them as cylinders with a circular
base. The author demonstrated that a surface covered with cylinders
presented other brilliant points than those of the surface itself. (Ar-
chives, 1876, t. 57.)

Professor Marignae made in his laboratory some experiments upon
capsules of tempered glass; one of them very well resisted the gas
flame, but half a minute after the extinction of the flame it exploded
like a Rupert’s drop.

M. Theodore Turrettini observed that a mixture of snow and chloride of
magnesium gives a temperature of—34° C. (—29° F.), while the mixture
of snow and chloride of sodium gives only —18° C, (—2° F.) An im-
portant use may therefore be made of a product very abundant in mother-
waters which has hitherto been thrown away. The double chloride of

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 229

potassium and of magnesium is also a product of the mother-liquors which
is not deliquescent, and which presents some advantages over the
chloride of magnesium. It gives a temperature of —32° to —34° ©.
(—26° to —29° I.)

M. Turrettini showed that the temperature to which may be carried a
solution of salt or of chloride of magnesium in water is the same as that
produced by salt or by this chloride when mixed with snow: thus the
solution of chloride of magnesium freezes only at —34° C, (—29° F.)

M. Turrettini also exhibited and explained the diplograph, a writing-
machine for the use of the blind, invented by M. Ernest Reeordon of
Lausanne, and constructed by the Genevese Society for the Manufacture
of Physical Instruments. This machine forms, at the same time, char-
acters in relief for the blind, and ordinary printed letters for those who
can see; so that the blind can correspond with each other, and those
who have sight with the blind.

2. Meteorology and terrestrial physics.—Professor Plantamour presented
to our society a résumé of the principal results of a work upon the baro-
wnetric observations, the hygrometric state of the atmosphere, the nebu-
losity, the rain, and the wind observed at Geneva during the fifteen years
comprised between 1861 and 1875. These researches, which were con-
siderable in extent and important in results, were published in the twenty-
fourth volume of our Memoirs, under the title of Nouvelles études sur le
climate de Genéve (Recent investigations of the climate of Geneva), and
were discussed by Professor Gautier in the Archives, 1877, t. 58. They
formed a sequel to a volume published by M. Plantamour, in 1865, upon
the climate of our country from 1826 to 1860.

Dr. Forel while pursuing, as we know, with great perseverance his
investigations of Lake Leman, succeeded in discovering the form of the
seiches—oscillations of the water in the direction of the length and the
width of thelake. This exposition is equally applicable to the movement
of the waters of the lakes of Brienz and of Wallenstadt. The obser-
vations which served as the base of these calculations were made with
a limnimeter register. (See Archives, 1876, t. 56, 57, and 59.)

To carry the study of this oscillation of the water further than can be
done in a single locality, Professor Plantamour examined this move-
ment at Secheron near Geneva. He recognized its existence, but it was
produced here in a contrary direction from that at Morges. When it
was low at Morges it was high at Geneva and vice versa. Professor
Plantamour caused a limnimeter register to be established at Secheron.
(Archives, 1877, t. 58.)

Dr. Forel has also studied the transparency of the waters of Lake
Leman. He determined it by measuring the depth at which a white
disk ceased to be visible in the water, or by measuring the minimum
depth at which a photographic plate experienced no alteration. A
white disk of 25 centimetres (10 inches) in diameter disappeared, from

230 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

May to December, at 6". 6 (22 feet); in winter at 10™. 1 (33 feet ;) in March,
1875, it was necessary to sink it to 17™ (56 feet.) The limit of photo-
graphic action was found to be 45™ (148 feet) in summer, and 100™ (328
feet) in winter. According to the author the transparency of the water
of the lake depends, first, upon the temperature; second, upon the pro-
portion of organic matter in suspension in the water. The latter is more
abundant in summer than in winter, because the waters of the lake in
the first of these two seasons present strata of different temperatures,
producing differences in density, and the result is that the organic
matter, also differing in density, will seek a stratum of a corresponding
density and will be there held in suspension. In winter the temperature
of the water being more uniform, the substances are retained in much
less quantity. (Bulletin Soc. vaudoise des Sc. nat., 1874, t. xiii; 1875, t.
xiv; and Comptes rendus de VAcadémie des Sciences, 1877, t. 84, p. 311.)

M. Raoul Pictet has presented, in regard to the intermittent fountain
of Vichy, atheory by which he has been enabled to explain the singular
movements of waters more clearly, since he has succeeded in construct-
ing an apparatus which produced them in miniature. This fountain pro-
ceeds from a tube which descends to a depth of 197™ (351 feet), at the base
of which, therefore, there must be a pressure of ten atmospheres. The
eruption of water mingled with gas is produced for about an hour, rises
to ten or twelve meters (33 or 39 feet), and ceases for five or six hours.
If the pipe reaches a little below the most elevated portion of an im-
permeable vault which covers a part of the sheet of water, the gases
which are generated by the waters of Vichy accumulate in the vault,
drive the water to the lower edge of the conduit and escape with it
over the latter. (See Archives, 1876, t.57.)

M. Theodore Turrettini has made known the results obtained by M.
Pictet and himself in the fabrication of transparent ice by means of
the machine employed by the firm of Raoul Pictet and Company.
As slow freezing of the water could not be managed, MM. Turrettini
and Pictet tried agitating the water under the pneumatic pump in
order to drive out the air, but the middle of the block of ice formed
was more or less opaque on account of a sort of crystallization, M. Tur-
rettini has at last succeeded in obtaining some perfectly transparent ice
by causing globules of air to pass through the water to be frozen, in a
continuous current. These large globules of air seemed to carry away
with them the small air-bubbles, which even more than the crystalliza-
tion appeared to cause the non-transparency of the ice.

3. Geology and chonchoiogy.—Professor Renevier has exhibited a chart
of the Swiss Alpine Club on a seale of =535;5, colored geologically, pre-
pared for the federal commission of the geological chart of Switzerland.
It includes the most elevated parts of the Vaudois Alps, the rocks of
Diablerets, of the Muveran, &c., and extends along the right shore of the
Rhone to the north of Martigny in Valais, from the village of Ardon to
that of Ollen, to the north of Bex. This when published will be accom-

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 231

panied with numerous raised sections, prepared with the greatest care,
so as to represent the country in all its details. The inversions of the
strata are so numerous in this region as to be almost the normal condition ;
not less than thirty-six geological stages may be counted in this chart,
from the crystalline schists to the modern alluviums. Among the new
facts contained in a memoir published by Renevier, on the appearance
of this chart, we mention the discovery of a tooth of Otoduk in the sand-
stone of Taveynnaz. This is the first time a fossil has been observed in
thisrock. (Archives, 1867, t. 59.)

Professor A. Favre has given some explanations of the geological.
chart of the canton of Geneva, scale 5;1,5, and submitted them to the
society. The various strata which compose this region have been
already described elsewhere. The most ancient rock is the sandstone,
which is divided into the red, or lower, sandstone, and the gray sand-
stone, containing traces of lignite and gypsum.

The ancient alluvium rests upon the sandstone, and appears at vari-
ous levels; it is composed, at its base, of clay without pebbles, and with
lignite surmounted with a formation of worn pebbles and sand, often
in a state of hard conglomeration. M. Favre has recently discovered in it
scratched pebbles and insertions of a rock of a glacial character. (Bulle-
tin Soc. géol. de France, 1875, iii, t. 723, and Archives, 1877, 58, p. 18). If
such observation are multiplied they will probably acquire such impor-
tance that a refutation may be deduced from them of the hypothesis of
two glacial periods. The glacial stratum resting upon the ancient allu-
vium is composed of clay more or less gravelly; it constitutes the
largest part of the surface of the canton. Erratic blocks are found upon
it, all from the valley of the Rhone, while there appear to be none from
the valley of the Arve.

The post-glacial alluviums are composed of gravel and of sand from ter-
races more or less elevated upon the borders of the lake and of the
rivers. They contain many pebbles, broken and indented. This de-
struction or decomposition of pebbles, near the surface of the soil, is
without doubt one of the principal causes of the formation of vegetable
earth. We find in the canton much sandy soil, fine sand, and small
gravel. These are of different ages, and formed of various rocks.
Particles of oxidized iron are found in them, which attest their Alpine
origin. Peat and marshy ground are not of frequent occurrence in the
canton. M. E. Favre has presented Some remarks upon the origin of an-
cient alluvium. He has indicated the principal characteristics, and has
especially dwelt upon the sections of the Bois de la Batie and the quarry
of Mategnin. He concludes that the formation of this stratum, entirely
composed of worn pebbles, was intimately connected with the extension
of ancient glaciers, and that its presence at various levels on the sides
of the mountains and in the bottoms of the valleys is because the ice
covered very uneven ground. (Archives, 1877, t. 58.)

M. de Loriol has exhibited two species of Hchinoids from Maurice Isl-

232 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

and, one belonging to the genus Brissus, the other, the Echinolampas
Alexandri. This genus made its appearance with the Tertiary forma-
tion. The species, numerous in the Eocene, less extensive in the Mio-
cene, rarer still in the Pliocene, number four at the present time. (See
vol. XXIV of our Memoirs.)

A few years hence the conchologists of our country would be much
puzzled to explain the appearance of two fresh water shells, Paludina
vivipara and Planorbis corneus, if M. H. Fol had not taken the precau-
tion to inform our society that he had put in the salt marsh of Sionnet a
certain number of these mollusks to see whether they could be accli-
mated.

4, Animal physiology and medicine.—Professor Schiff has sought to

modify the hypothesis of M. Dubois Raymond, of the electric nature _

of the nervous agent, and to determine whether electric currents are
produced in the nerves of living animals. Using very sensitive appa-
ratus and operating upon the sensitive nerve of a frog decapitated
just at the moment of the experiment, the result was negative. In
other experiments M. Schiff employed the muscles of the thigh of a
frog cleaned and arranged so as to serve as a connection between
two electrodes. He observed no current, and the learned professor
concluded that none was produced, in the absence of all lesion in
the uncut nerves. He, however, immediately perceived, the formation
of a current when the nerve was merely pinched. After the hypoglos-
sal nerve of a dog has been cut and the wound healed, the nerve is no
longer in a normal condition. Uncovered at the moment of experiment
it gives variable electric effects. In operating upon the pneumogastric
nerve of cats and rats under the influence of alcohol and curara, kept
at the temperature of the surrounding air, M. Schiff observed no cur-
rent; but, on binding or tying the nerve, the current was formed imme-
diately. M. Schiff thinks, therefore, that in the normal condition of
the nerve and in the state of immobility of the living animal there is no
current; that when the current is produced, it results from the death of
the nerve, or from nervous activity and the contraction which accom-
panies it.

The same learned gentleman addressed the society upon the proper-
ties of nicotine as a poison, and the action of the liver under the effects
of this poison. The nicotine injected under the skin of a dog produced
death in a few moments. When the nicotine was forced through the
liver, its effects were weakened; the nicotine is destroyed by this or-
gan. The nicotine doubled has very nearly biliary activity. Until
now only iocyamine was known which produced similar effects; and
according to M. Lautenkach the action of the liver is more complete
upon this poison than upon the nicotine. One-sixtieth of a drop of this
substance is sufficient to kill a frog,.after the liver has been tied, al-
though one-twentieth is sufficient in the ordinary state. The tying of
the vena porta of a dog, of a cat, or of a rabbit, produces the death of

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 200

the animal in about two hours and a half, with circumstances similar to
those caused by morphine or any other narcotic. If two cubic centime-
tres of the blood of a dog, the vena porta of which has been tied, are
inserted in a frog, and in another frog the same quantity of the blood
of a dog intact, at the end of three hours the first frog will be dead,
while the second will be in good condition. M. Schiff concluded from
this that the action of the liver destroys the nicotine, and that there is
constantly produced in the digestive organs of man and of animals a
poisonous substance which would destroy them in a very short time if
they were not continually saved by the action of the liver.

Professor Zahn submitted to the examination of the society a prepa-
ration of the costal cartilage of man, showing a pigmentary infiltration
of the cells. This infiltration is a new characteristic of this cartilage,
and has not been mentioned in any treatise on pathological anatomy,
although M. Wech! and M. Wirchow have both mentioned the pigmen-
tation. It is four years since M. Zahn first noticed this infiltration ;
since then he has often observed it; it exists in half the men over forty
years of age. General pigmentation has been observed by him only in
two cases of severe ictarus. (Archives, 1877, t. 58.) M. Schiff adds that
he has been able to produce this pigmentation by the slow compression
of the biliary livers.

Dr. Prévost has given a description of a case of aphasia observed in
a young girl, who, although attacked with a right hemiplegia, retained
all her intelligence. The aphasia continued after the hemiplegia disap-
peared, and the patient could pronounce words only when she sang them.

Professor P!antamour drew the attention of the physiologists to the
difference in the power of perception of the transit of stars according to
the inclination of the head. He remarked this fact several times, and
again recently during some observations made with Colonel Orff, who
having difficulty in seeing on account of the position of the eye-glass,
bent more or less his head. The result was a very noticeable difference
in the appreciation of the transit of stars.

M. H. Fol gave an account of his researches in regard to the fecun-
dation of eggs, especially of sea-urchins. The details of these remark-
able researches may be found in several articles. (Archives, 1877, t. 58, p.
439; Comptes rendus de VAcadémie des Sciences de Paris, 1877, t. 84, p.
268, 357, and 659.)

M. V. Fatio has made known certain variations in species among
fishes, such as alterations in the form of the mouth on account of the
medium in which these animals live, as well as correlative modifications
in various parts of the body.

5. Botany.—Professor Candolle has given some details of a work he
has just completed relative to the family of Smilacee. 'Thisis a part of a
work entitled Monographie Phanerogamarum, which he prepared with his
son aud several other assistants. This family is well defined by its char-
acteristics, and is divided into three genera: Heterosmilax, Smilax, and

234 GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY.

Rhiphogonum. M. de Candolle has been able to prove that several
species have been described under two names, and has made known
fifty-five new species. The present geographical distribution of plants
of this family, combined with our knowledge, unhappily imperfect, of
fossil Smilacew, allows the presumption that dispersion in former times
was much greater than at present. Now the Smilacee are found only
in the district comprised between Japan, India, New Caledonia, and
the Sandwich Islands. From this limited region to Brazil, the Cape,
and the Azores, only a few genera or subgenera are found.

M. Duby submitted a work accompanied with plates relative to a genus
and eighteen new species of moss from Japan, the Philippine Islands,
and Maurice Island. They belong to the genera Batranica, Orthotrichum,
Schlotheimia, Pterobrium, Hypnum, and FHenoniella. M. Duby called
attention to the large number of mosses found at the same time in
Maurice Island and the Sunda Islands. (See part 1 of vol. XXVI of
our Memoirs.)

M. Mare Micheli has given account of the most recent investigations
relative to insectivorous plants. (Archives, 1877, t. 58, p.393). M. Duby
mentioned on this occasion that other plants exuded digestive acids,
among others the Petunias, which capture certain insects by means of
glutinous glands.

6. Statistics—Dr. Dunant ealled the attention of the society to the
change in the population of the city of Geneva from 1845 to 1872.

At no period has the increase by naturalization been as great as from
from 1850 to 1860. The proportion of the population under fifteen years
of age and that above sixty has increased; that of adults has dimin-
ished.

The number of marriages among the Genevese diminishes, that of
marriages between strangers and Genevese remains the same, and that
of marriages between strangers increases. There are fewer births
among the Genevese than among the Swiss of other cantons ard among
the foreigners. Illegitimate births are more frequent in the foreign pop-
ulation and the Swiss of other cantons than in the Genevese popula-
tion. The mortality is studied with care in this great and concientious
work. (See Journal de Statistique Suisse, 1876, Nos. II and ITI.)

The society has listened to numerous reports upon works published in
various countries, and in regard to which the members of the society,
after discussion, passed judgment more or less pronounced. These
discussions animated the sessions, and drew the attention of the mem-
bers to labors outside of their especial studies.

The following is a list of these communications: Professor Gautier,
observations made in various observatories, of the velocity of the stars,
the zodiacal light, a new star in the constellation of the Swan, the
double star of the Centaur, the climate of Berne, inundations in Switzer-
land in June, 1876, &c.; Colonel Gautier, solar protuberances; Pro-
fessor Soret, photographs of the moon, defects of the retina, and the

GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND NATURAL HISTORY. 235

telephone; Dr. Forel, the frost of the 12th of November, 1816; Pro-
fessor Wartmann, apparatus for ascertaining the impulsion that a spark
of induction passing through ararefied gas is capable of producing in a
longitudinal direction ; M. A. Achard, the form and properties of the
articulated losange of Peaucellier ; composition of certain waters, accord-
ing to Girardin; M. E. Sarasin, a writing-machine; M. R. Pictet, a
work of M. Dufour, of Lausanne, upon the cure of a person blind from
birth, and upon the theory of vision (Archives, 1877, t. 58); Professor
Schiff, various experiments upon the hereditary transmission of certain
artificial lesions ; M. Fol, memoirs upon the heteropodes, upon pulmo-
nated terrestrial mollusks, and upon a microtome which allowed the
making of fifteen or sixteen cuts of an embryo of one-fifth of a milli-
meter in thickness; M. Fatio, axolotls, the preparation of delicate skel-
etons cleaned by the tadpoles of frogs; Professor De Candolle, the law
of botanical nomenclature; Professor Muller, lichens ; M. M. Micheli, in-
fluence of manure upon the composition of grains.

With this list, gentlemen, I close the report I have the honor to pre-
sentto you. We have cause for satisfaction that the increase in the
number of members, of the memoirs presented, and of our publications,
manifests a growth of activity in our society.

ANTIQUITIES OF JEFFERSON AND CLEAR CREEK COUNTIES, COLORADO.
By GEORGE L. CANNON, of Idaho Springs, Colo.

During the last three years I have examined a large number of abo-
riginal structures in the counties of Jefferson and Clear Creek, and as
the prehistoric remains of Clear Creek County are of small extent, I shall
devote the greater part of my communication to a description of those
in Jefferson County. <A good idea of the topographical features of the
district in which these remains are situated may be obtained by con-
sulting Chittenden’s map of the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains,
published in Hayden’s Survey of Colorado for 1874. It consists for the
most part of elevated plains, interspersed with prairie bluffs and sand-
stone “hogbacks.” Most of the remains apparently belong to quite a
modern period, that is to say, within the space of twenty or thirty years ;
still, in some cases, judging by the depth to which the stones composing
them have sunk and by the thickness of the superincumbent soil, we may
give them an antiquity of a century or more. The greater part of them
are situated on the tops of hills, commanding a view of the adjacent
plains, but occasionally we find some in low lands, in the vicinity of
springs, where good water can be obtained. The first to be described, and
perhaps the most numerous class of relics, are the so-called “ fire-places.”
They consist of several flat, irregular stones, discolored by fire, arranged
so as to form a hearth, and are identical with the fireplaces which the
modern Indians have in the center of their wigwams. They are scat-
tered promiscuously over the plains, without much reference to location,
save such as a party of campers would choose.

Next in importance to the fire-places are what are locally denominated
“Indian circles.” They are usually constructed of bowlders arranged
in the form of arude circle, about a yard in diameter, with a cavity a
foot or two in depth, hollowed out in the center. The most common
opinion is that they were used by the Indians as fire-places. The modern
Indians are said to encamp on sites similar to those in which these circles
are found, and in some cases surround their fires with a wall of stones,
to prevent them from being extinguished by the wind. Some have sup-
posed that they were occupied by signal-fires, and this may have been
the case, as most of them are in situations that would be suitable for the
purpose. Again, it has been thought that they mark the graves of some
prominent Indian warrior or chief, although it was not the usual custom
of the Indians to bury their dead, but rather to place the corpse on an

elevated platform. 236

ANTIQUITIES IN COLORADO. 2a

One of these circles, on North Table Mountain, appeared so much like
a grave, that a party of excursionists made an ineffectual attempt to open
it, in hope of finding something to reward their pains, as Indians fre-
quently bury utensils and weapons with the dead. The wall surround-
ing the supposed grave differs from that of other circles in being con-
structed of flat slabs of basalt, instead of bowlders of quartzose rock, and
on the southern side of the inclosure stood a slab of trachyte, which had
probably been brought from the crater of an extinct volcano a mile or
more distant, and had the appearance of a tombstone. The ground for
some distance around gives forth a hollow sound, as if there were a
cavity beneath, and on a hill near by is a mound apparently intended
as a mark to guide in finding the grave. In connection with the circles
we sometimes find heaps of stones rudely piled together, whose use has
not as yet been conjectured. In many places are to be seen spots where
the Indians appear to have been encamping and making their arrow-
heads and tools. In most cases only a few scattered chippings of flint
and quartzite occur, as if they had encamped for the night and chipped
out a few arrow-heads for the morrow’s chase, while other places appear
to have been occupied for quite a length of time, and the ground in their
neighborhood is thickly scattered with fragments and flakes of the
various stones used by the Indians in making their implements, accom-
panied occasionally by chipping-axes, hammers, skin-scrapers, mortars,
and pestles. These camps are usually situated in fields, in the vicinity
of running water, and also in the neighborhood of a hill or steep blaff,
to which they could retreat in case of attack. In a small grove of cot-
tonwood trees near Apex, Colorado, the Indians appear to have made,
in former times, great quantities of tools and arrow-heads, for the ground
all around is thickly strewn with tools, chippings, and arrow-heads, some
of the latter made of beautiful stones and of the most exquisite work-
manship. Within the space of an acre or two we have found about a
hundred arrow-heads and ten axes and hammers. The Indians seem
to have carried on quite a trade among themselves, in order to procure
the materials for arrow-head making, as some of the chippings found
in their encampments are from stones which cannot be found within
several miles of this place, and some, I think, have been brought from
distant localities. Although the Indians used several kinds of stone in
the manufacture of arrow-heads, yet they seem to have had a preference
for quartzite, chalcedony, and jasperized wood, probably on account
of their superior hardness, and may have made others from handsomer
but less durable stones only for purposes of barter, as the Indians of
California exchanged arrow-heads made of bottle-glass.

The following minerals were employed in the manufacture of tools:
moss-agate, chalcedony, carnelian, wood-opal, sapphirine, petrified wood,
flint, red jasper, brown quartzite, agatized wood, obsidian, yellow quartz-
ite, purple and yellow jaspers, smoky quartz, chert, jasperized wood,
red quartzite, besides several undetermined silicates. While speaking

238 ANTIQUITIES 1N COLORADO.

of the encampments, it will be well to describe some of the most promi-
nent Indian implements found in this neighborhood, because we may
safely say (if we except a few scattered tools and an occasional arrow-
head lost in hunting) that they are all to be found in these places. The
most abundant implements are chipping-axes, hammers, skin-scrapers,
mortars, and pestles, but others occur to which we are unable to apply
names, owing to our ignorance of their former uses. The chipping-axes
are usually made from pieces of quartzite, worn or chipped down to an
edge, and were most probably employed in chipping out flint-flakes to
be used afterward in the manufacture of weapon-points. The hammers’
are simply oval stones, sometimes grooved on one or more sides, for the
purpose of attaching them to handles. The skin-scrapers found in this
vicinity do not differ much, if at all, from those procured in other local-
ities. The so-called “ corn-mills” consist of a flat slab of rock containing
on its upper surface an oval depression, and a roundish stone supposed
to be a pestle. These mills were probably used in pulverizing roots, and
perhaps corn, although I hardly think the Indians of this section culti-
vated corn, or any other sort of grain. Sometimes small pieces of fine-
grained quartzose rock are found, which appear to have been used in
polishing or sharpening weapons. A friend of mine states that he found
near Idaho Springs an earthern jar, a foot below the surface, containing
a quantity of reddish paint, and I have found at the encampment at
Apex small pieces of a reddish colored sandstone, which, on being wet
and rubbed on the flesh, leaves a slight red stain. I have been informed
that the Indians used it for paint, but I hardly think this can be the
case, as the sandstone is quite gritty and would scratch the flesh consid-
erably. The Indians probably had many other tools besides those which
I have mentioned, but being composed of wood, or of some other perish-
able material, they have decayed. There are said to exist in some
localities large circular depressions in the ground, where, according to
old settlers, the Indians were in the habit of holding war-dances. On
the top of a steep bluff near South Table Mountain is a semicircular
wall of basaltic bowlders about 20 feet in length and a foot or two in
height, and as the bluff on which this wall is situated is in the center
of a large prehistoric encampment, it may have been used as a breast-
work for the purpose of defense. On the side of a steep hill, near Green
Mountain is what appears to have been an Indian road; a path about a
yard in width has been made by clearing away the stones from the side
of the hill and placing them as a border on either side. or the greater
part of its course the path goes straight up and down the hill, but near
the bottom of the hill it takes an abrupt turn, making nearly a right
angle with its former course.

ANTIQUITIES IN WISCONSIN. Zoe

ANTIQUITIES IN WISCONSIN.
By Mosss SrronG, of Mineral Point, Wis.

Traces of the mound-builders are found extending northward in
Dunn, Barron, Polk, Burnett, and Douglas Counties. The localities,
however, are not numerous, and the mounds are usually circular.

Commencing in the territory south of that above indicated, the mound
shown in Fig. 1 was observed a short distance west of the village of
Orion, in Richland County. It is situated on the southeast quarter of
section 35, township 9, range 1 west, on a low, sandy ridge, which sep-
arates the Wisconsin and Hagle Rivers; and about a quarter of a mile
northwest of it is the mound shown in Fig. 2.

It is, perhaps, an open question whether these mounds are effigies of
men or birds, but after a careful examination of them and of many others,
T incline to think they are representations of the human form.

-So much, and so much only, of the article of Mr. Strong, on the pre-
historic mounds of the western part of Wisconsin, had been written by
him before the 1st of August, 1877. On the 18th of that month, while
engaged in the prosecution of his geological researches, he was drowned
in the Flambeau, a branch of the Chippewa River, leaving unfinished
the article of which he had commenced the preparation. The field-book
left by him contains, however, the notes of his examinations of several
mounds, with rough pencil sketches of their forms and dimensions. These
notes and sketches being in my possession as his father and administra-
tor, [have had drawings prepared representing the mounds, which, with
copies of the original field-notes explanatory of them, are herewith sub-
mitted.

Fig. 3 is a sketch representing mounds near Wauzeka, in Crawford
County, which are referred to in the field notes, as follows; “The fol-
lowing shows a number of mounds near Wauzeka. There is only one
which is at all remarkable in appearance; the rest are the usual round
and straight mounds. The large one has been excavated in three places
and scraped away on its western end. It seems to consist principally of
sand. Hxamined May 31, 1875.”

The accompanying pencil-sketch (Fig. 4) was made by Mr. Strong, on
a scale of 120 feet to the inch, from his notes, and is given as he prepared
it, instead of attempting to make another draught.

All that is contained in the field-notes concerning this group is written
upon the margin of a sketch, and is in these words: ‘Map of mounds
at Hazen’s Corners, on the Black River road, made June 5, 1875, in N. E.
x Sec. 3d, T. 8, R. 6 W. The mounds lie in the brush and woods, on the
crest of the ridge.”

The sketch of Fig. 5 was also made by Mr. Strong, in pencil, and is
given as he prepared it, together with the following in relation to it,
which is all the field-notes contain: “N. E. } of sec. 21, T. 8, R. 6 W.;

240 ANTIQUITIES IN WISCONSIN.

lies on crest of ridge alone. Saw several long, straight mounds on crest
of ridge in N. W. of sec. 21.”

———

"ean We

i“)

+ SSS SEE Eee
a

avou

The accompanying drawing (Fig. 6) was taken by tracing from the
sketch made in the field, and the proportions are probably not exact,
but can be corrected by the dimensions marked upon it.

ANTIQUITIES IN WISCONSIN. DAN

The field-notes accompanying this drawing are as fol-
lows: ‘ Man-shaped mound in N. W. 4 of see. 21, T. 8, R. 6
W.—very short legs, thick body, andlong arms. There are
three more exactly similar to this, a little further west in a
ploughed field.” Then follow in the field-notes rude
Sketches of the three, without dimensions, of which trae-
ings are given (Figs. 7, 8, and 9), and the only notes are
as follows: ‘' Three effigies in a ploughed field.”
The next two drawings (Fig. 10 and 11) are penceil-
sketches of bird‘mounds made by Mr. Strong, on a seale
(No. 10, of 50 feet to an inch, and No. 11 of 60 feet to an
inch). The following remarks in relation to these mounds
is all the information that the field-notes supply:
‘¢ Bird-mound in S. E. 4 of see. 19, T. 8, R. 6 W. No. 10.”
‘6 No. 10 lies about 50 feet N. E. of No. 11, and is 50 feet
from tip to tip of the wings.”
“No. 11 is a bid. Lies on crest of ridge on end of it,
03 toward the Miss. River, where the ridge splits up.”
bo The field-notes contain the following in this connection :
ae ‘¢The creek which runs through secs. 27, 28, 29, 30, T. 8,
R. 6 W. forms a little table about a mile above its mouth,
which is covered with mounds, but so overgrown with brush
that it is hard to make them out. The valley is narrow
and walled in with cliffs of lower magnesian limestone 200
feet thick. Potsdam sandstone does not appear. Timber
in this part of the country is scattering white-oak.”

The next drawing (Fig. 12) is made from a sketch in the
field-notes.

In reference to this drawing (Fig. 12) the field-notes con-
tain the following: ‘Monday, June 7.—Mounds on the
Black River road onS. H. 4 sec. 24, T. 8, R. 6 W. Mounds
z~< ___¢,, are covered with growth of small black oak. Two hundred
feet eat of No. 12 is astraight mound 250 feet long—course

Le a et ee OP ee (s:) 27 (ie }a-a5t-{ 5)

Aap a

aP-13" aie

The accompanying drawing (Fig. 13) is taken from a
field-sketch, made by Mr. Strong in his field-notes, and the
other (ig. 14) is intended to be likeit. The field-notes con-
tain the following: ‘Fifteen feet N. E. of No. 13 is another
exactly like it, situated in the same way. They lie 25 fect
S. E. of Black River road.”

From the field-notes it is evident that these two mounds
(Figs. 13 and 14) are in the east half of section 24, township
8, range 6 west.

The next drawing (Fig. 15) is made from a field-sketch, which is
accompanied by the following: ‘S. W. 4 sec. 19, T. 8, R.5 W. No. 15
lies about one mile beyond No. 13, on the north side of the road.”

168

rg
-Q-—--—-——-

!
1
1

242 ANTIQUITIES IN WISCONSIN.

Fig. 4.

MOUNDS AT HAZENS CORNER,
CRAWFORD COUNTY, WIS,
N.E.4 SEC.35.7.8.N,R.6.W.4™ PM,

|
| Scale:[20 FT=linch,
Ss

RIVER
FENCE

CULTIVATED, VEILED

BLACK

ANTIQUITIES IN WISCONSIN. 2438

Figs7. : Fig.8

N

Figs 9.

Scale: 50 FT=l inch.

Fe [os

eT

eeaereNe

50‘—-—-~

60.Fr=!I Inch,

aa Ee
a

244 ANTIQUITIES IN WISCONSIN.

Figs I2.

ye
BSL

_

Figs. 14,

BLACK RIVER ROAD

Fig, (5. —————— 2 8

i?)

=

245

ANTIQUITIES IN_WISCONSIN.

z

"oul | "24 08? eyess

"9l'3t4

a A

S42

‘W976 OL
"90'04S %'M'S NI SGNNOW

‘aV0Y UYAAIY NIVIA

246 MOUNDS IN WISCONSIN.

The field-notes contain the following: ‘ Thursday,
June 10.—The ridge in sec. 26, T. 9, R. 6 W., is very
narrow and steep on each side. Ridge is not over
thirty yards wide, and the crest has numerous long,
straight mounds on it conforming to it. The view
from here is very fine. The mound-builders chose the
ends of the ridges overlooking the Miss. River for their
mounds. Saw a man-shaped mound near 4 post be-
tween secs. 386 & 35, T. 9, R. 6 W.”

Fig. 16 isa pencil-sketch drawn by Mr. Strong from
the sketch contained in his field-notes:

The field-notes contain the following in relation to
the drawing (Fig. 16):

“On the man-effigies the body and breast bulge up
much higher than the rest. They look like a man
lying on his back. Mounds all about three feet high.
Arms and legs on these mounds about ten feet wide.
Mounds in 8S.W. 4 sec. 26, T. 9, R. 6 W., on crest of
ridge.”

“Saturday, June 12.—Went with Dr. Wight (Dr.
O. W. Wight, then chief geologist) and father and
George (Geo. Haven, assistant), and dug up mound
(B, Fig. 16). The mound was made of clay, and easy
digging. Found in bottom a thin stratum of hard
clay, with a whitish substance which may have been
decayed bones.”

The accompanying drawing (Fig. 17) is made from
a sketch found in the field-notes.

The field-notes contain the following in relation to
this mound (Fig. 17):

‘¢Man-mound on west fork of the Kickapoo River,
<a ec) ll Ne NV ase Cc ai, kev oN Vier

Se

——Y-————- 50+-—
lt
60

Fige. 17,

50"

THE MOUNDS AND OSTEOLOGY OF THE MOUND-BUILDERS OF WISCONSIN.
By J. N. DEHart, M. D., of Mendota, Wis.

Along the northern and eastern shores of Lake Mendota, or Lake of
the Great Spirit, as it was called by the aborigines, many mounds are
found, whose outlines are quite distinct, and represent the bear, deer,
squirrel, and other animals, while a few of them imitate birds of various
kinds. Some of the latter resemble the eagle, and are of very large
dimensions. There are three mounds of this character in close prox-
imity to each other; the body of the largest bird measures 100 feet in
length, and 30 feet in width at the junction of its wings; while its tail

MOUNDS IN WISCONSIN. DAT

expands to the width of 40 feet, and the wings are each 300 feet long.
The head is perfectly formed, so that the beak is quite distinct, and
measures 15 feet in length. The other two eagles are somewhat smaller
in all of their dimensions. Near the left wings of two of these birds,
the form of a deer, 3 feet in height, is easily recognized. The body of
the deer is 65 feet long, and the legs measure 14 feet in length; the
head measures 12 feet from the tip of the nose to the origin of the
antlers. These latter are each 10 feet long, with branches extending at
nearly right angles from their center. Near the right wing of the third
bird is the form of a bear.

In Sauk County, one mound is made in the form of an animal, which
also resembles a squirrel, whose body is 160 feet long, with a remark-
ably long tail, measuring 320 feet.

Dr. Lapham, in his “ Antiquities of Wisconsin,” describes a mound
which represents a turtle measuring 6 feet in height, 56 feet in length,
with a caudal appendage 250 feet long. Another ancient mound is in
the form of a night-bawk, whose expanded wings measure 240 feet in
length.

While many of the ancient mounds represent different kinds of ani-
mals and birds, others are circular in form, and a few are oblong.

There are several ancient mounds located upon the northeastern
shore of Lake Mendota and on the lawn of the former residence of

- Ex-Governor Farwell.

The largest of these mounds is circular in form, and measures 188 feet
in circumference and 35 feet from the base to its summit. It is elevated
96 feet above the lake, and was the first explored. It is the highest of
all the mounds in this group, and located in a central position. From
its elevated site it could have been used for observation and as.a means.
of communication by signal with other mounds in the adjacent country.
The view from its summit extends from 8 to 10 miles in all directions.

In commencing the explorations, it was decided to sink a perpendicu-
lar shaft, about 6 feet square, through the center of the mound from the
apex to the bottom. After removing the surface, a rich black earth,
similar to what is found along the shore of the lake where muck accumu-
lates or on the prairie bottom, was encountered to the depth of 5 feet.
At this depth and on the western side of the shaft stones, composed
of magnesian lime and yellow and red sandstone, were found. Below
this layer of earth there was a bed of yellow clay 4 feet in depth, through
which a course of similar stones was found, arranged in a circular man-
ner, and passing off toward the opposite side of the shaft. Some of
these stones were quite large, and presented a flat surface, while a few
of them bore indications of having been broken from the stratum of lime-
stone, which is found just below, along the shore of the lake. These
had been worn quite smooth in places by the continual washing of the
water. Beneath the bed of yellow clay a course of rich earth, similar
to the first layer, was found. This deposit was 44 feet in depth. After

248 MOUNDS IN WISCONSIN.

removing two feet of this course, some ashes were found lying quite
near the layer of stones previously described. Charcoal and decayed
wood in small quantities were unearthed ; also a few shells and small
pieces of flint. The earth was very dry and underneath the stones was
very hard, and had the appearance of having been baked. Another
foot of earth was removed, when the skeleton of an adult mound-builder
was discovered at the southeastern corner of the shaft, in a sitting
posture, resting upon a natural bed of yellow clay. Several pieces of
the cranium, the inferior maxillary, vertebra, ribs, and bones of the ex-
tremities were found, but none of them where wholly perfect. There
was a mold in the earth, in which the skull had lain, but only portions
of the bones were found. The body of the inferior maxillary was very
large. The vertebre were larger than those of the present human type,
and the right humerus was perforated at its inferior extremity. The
perforation on the anterior surface of the bone is surrounded by a gradu-
ally-receding border or margin. This bone is no doubt of great antiquity,
and is very much decayed, the superior extremity having disappeared.
In no case did I find any of the long bones wholly perfect, but all of
them were broken near the center of the shaft, the other extremity not
being found. It is hardly probable that this is due to decay, but as
others have previously stated, may point to some superstitious rite or
custom connected with the sepulture of the dead. This was the only
humerus found with either extremity in a nearly perfect condition.
Two small sections of the shaft of the other humerus were removed
{rom the tumulus, but they did not present any anomaly.

The shafts of ten tibiae found in this mound presented a remarkable
flatness. In comparing the specimens found near Lake Mendota, in
mound No. 1, with those reported by Mr. Gillman (see Report 1873),
I find they are very similar; and while his measure 54°, of an inch in
comparing their antero-posterior diameter with the transverse diameter,
my specimens measure ;52, of an inch in the same diameter.

The bones of the cranium crumbled into many pieces when removed,
and could not be put together so as to give a proper idea of its conforma-
tion and’ structure.

Underneath the remains of this mound-builder were a few inches of
black earth, the removal of which revealed a course of stones similar to
those found elsewhere in the mound. These stones lay upon a natural
bed of yellow clay. As there were no evidences that it had ever been
disturbed, and being below the level of the surrounding ground, it was
not thought best to continue the shaft any deeper.

A drift was then made into the side of the mound, about 3 feet above
the level of the surrounding surface, and to the width of 8 feet. After
removing several feet of black earth, a similar course of stones, as pre-
viously described, were found; charcoal, ashes and decayed wood were
discovered near them. On continuing the drift toward the center of the
tumulus and near the shaft previously sunk, the remains of the skeleton

a

MOUNDS IN WISCONSIN. 249

of a young mound-builder were found, probably not more than six years
of age, and in a sitting posture. Only a few pieces of the cranium, sev-
eral vertebrae, portions of the long bones of the extremities, and the su-
perior and inferior maxillary were found. Several teeth were still in the
alveolar process of the superior maxillary. Many pieces of flint, a few:
shell beads, and two fossil teeth of some animal, about one inch and a
half long, were taken from the same vicinity. About one foot from these
remains three pieces of ancient pottery were discovered. The largest
piece measured 44 by 54 inches, and bore indications of having been
part of the bottom of an earthen bowl. It was smooth on the inner sur-
face, and marked externally by oblique lines, such as are frequently
found upon the ancient pottery of the mound-builders.

The drift was continued toward the center of the tumulus as far as the
shaft and then downward to the natural bed of yellowclay. Just before
reaching the shaft, and after removing a course of magnesian limestone
and yellow and red sandstone, a few bones of the cranium and portions
of the long bones of another adult mound-builder were found. These
were all that remained of this skeleton. ,

Many flat stones were found below the skeleton, upon which lay char-
coal, ashes, and decayed wood. Large pieces of flint were quite numer-
ous in this vicinity. Some of the stones had been exposed to such
intense heat, that they crumbled to pieces on handling them. At the
junction of the drift and the perpendicular shaft a pillar of earth was
encountered. On removing this, a few bones of the foot of the first skele-
ton were found, together with large quantities of ashes, charcoal, decayed
wood, and flints. A flat disk of stone, one-fourth of an inch in thickness
and 4 inches in diameter, was removed from the earth forming the pillar.
Similar stone disks have been met with in other ancient mounds, and
are supposed to have been used by them in playing games.

Mound No. 2, circular in form, and located a few yards from mound
No. 1, was then explored. It was about 5 feet high and 130 feet in
circumference.

A drift 6 feet wide was made in the side of it, on a level with the sur-
rounding ground. After removing the surface, a layer of gravel and
pebbles to the depth of 1 foot was encountered, and at the summit there
was a course of sand, dipping downward ; this was followed by a course
of black earth about 3 feet deep. Below this there was a third stratum
of gravel and sand; then a course of earth to the depth of 1 foot. A
thin stratum of sand was then removed, which revealed ashes, charcoal,
and pieces of flint lying upon an altar of stone resting upon a bed of
yellow clay. This altar was about 14 feet below the natural surface.
The excavation was continued 14 feet deeper, but nothing was found.

A few feet from the summit of this mound there was a tree, measur-
ing 54 feet in circumference. In the side of this tree, and fastened in
the bark, was a stone pestle. This had evidently been carried upward
though the mound by the growth of the tree. The bark of the tree was

250 MOUNDS IN WISCONSIN AND IOWA.

broken and the pestle removed. It was formed of a very hard, gray,
granite, and measured 6 inches by 8 inches.

Owing to the rapid approach of cold weather, no further examination
of these mounds was made, Next spring it is my intention to continue
the explorations, and I hope to find more evidences of the existence of
this ancient race.

PITS AT EMBARRASS, WISCONSIN.

By E. E. BREED, of Embarrass, Wis.

There is a series of pits on the northwest of the northwest section 10
and northeast of the northwest section 10, townsbip 25, range 15 east
(town of Matteson). They are in an irregular line; general direction,
from northwest to southeast; from 4 to 6 rods apart. Quite a number
are in pairs. The depth, as found by excavating the earth that had
caved in, was originally from 4 to 5 feet; diameter, 3 feet. In almost
every instance the earth was thrown out on the southwest side; soil
sandy. A few years ago the land was covered by a heavy growth of
timber, principally hemlock. Trees over two hundred years old grew
on the earth that had been thrown out. The chain is broken by asmall
pond, perhaps 10 rods across, but follows a sandy ridge most of the
Way.

MOUNDS IN DELAWARE COUNTY, IOWA
By M. W. Moutrton, of Monticello, Towa.

So far as now known, the credit of discovering these mounds belongs
to Mr. Rynerson, of Hopkinton, and the following brief description will
convey some idea of their size and relative position: Assuming a start-
ing point which I shall call A, as the most important mound of the
system, from A in nearly a westerly course is a row of mounds ten in
number, exclusive of A. This row curves a little for the purpose of
following the highest land, the surface descending both north and south.
Starting again at A, and following a course west of south about 20
degrees, for 36 yards, we come to an earth-work of continuous eleva-
tion and 40 yards in length. After an opening of 10 yards, this ele-
vation continues 50 yards farther, making a work 100 yards in length,
including the opening. Leaving the south end of the long earth-work,
and stepping 18 yards due west, then following a line parallel with the
long earth-work 54 yards, we come to the first of another set of mounds
six in number. These are in an exact line. From the most southern of
these, and extending nearly in a western course, is still another set of
six. These are also in a straight line. The north and south rows are
parallel to each other. It will be observed that these three sets form

4
4

MOUNDS IN ARKANSAS AND MISSOURI. 251

nearly a hollow square, with the opening to the west. The area inclosed
is about ten acres. Returning again to our starting point at A, and pur-
suing @ northeasterly course, we find the most remarkable set of the
system, eleven in number, extending from A in nearly a straight line.
This set, with the exception of three, is almost perfectly preserved, ris-
ing abruptly from a comparatively level surface to a height of about four
feet, round and symmetrical, and with a base diameter of about 30 feet.
The system, as a whole, is well preserved.

EARTH-WORKS ON THE ARKANSAS RIVER, SIXTEEN MILES BELOW LITTLE
ROCK,

By Mrs. GirBert Knapp, of Little Rock, Ark.

When we came into possession of this plantation thirty years ago, it
was an unbroken wilderness. We were attracted to the place by the
immense artificial mounds and a wall similar to our levees, from 6 to
10 feet high, inclosing ninety acres, and forming a half circle on the ©
lake bank, which might have been, at one time, the Arkansas River.
In the wall are two openings, both deep pools of water.

Within the area, between the lake (which is three miles long) and the
wall, are numerous mounds, but only two of great size; the heights are
variously estimated ; one, which was called 100 feet high, we have cul-
tivated for twenty years. It produces more than a bale of cotton, so
you may imagine the size. As the years go by, it washes away, and
rude relics are picked up. It was certainly a place of sepulture, for
human bones are found tier upon tier, mingled with those of deer and
other animals. They are of great age, and crumble on being exposed
to the air.

One of the elevated mounds, still covered with trees, sometimes gives
forth a ringing sound as if it were hollow, when wagons are driven round
it. These two larger mounds are situated sixteen miles southeast of
Little Rock, in the alluvial valley of the Arkansas, where the black
deposit is 10 feet deep, and no stones or pebbles exist naturally; but
the bygone race who made it their home, brought crystals, flints, jasper,
granite, and sandstone from Hot Springs.

ANTIQUITIES OF KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI
By W. H. R. Lyxkuys, of Kansas City, Mo.

We have lately made a discovery here of a number of Indian mounds
which are evidently of great antiquity. They are situated on the north
side of the Missouri River, in the angle of the Great Bend, upon the
high bluffs commanding a view of the country about the mouth of the

252, ANTIQUITIES OF MISSOURI.

Kansas River, directly opposite. They are found for several miles up
and down the river, scattered in groups of three and five. They are of
two kinds, one made entirely of earth, the other has an interior con-
struction of stone, but outwardly they are all similar in appearance.
They are of an irregular oval shape, about 60 or 75 feet in length at the
base, and from 4 to 6 feet high. All have had a heavy growth of tim-
ber on them. On the apex of one, a stone mound, I noticed a large
burr oak about 5 feet in diameter, and on another, the decayed stump
of a black walnut about the same size.

We have not yet made any extended investigation of these mounds,
but examined partially one group of five, three of which were of earth
and two of stone and earth. In the center of No. 1, an earth mound,
at a depth of about five feet, we found a human skeleton, lying north
and south, with its face to the east. The bones were so fragile that
we could only get them out in fragments. The skull fell to pieces as
soon as exposed to the air; we, however, saved the frontal bone in
tolerably good condition. We did not notice any very marked peculiar-
ity as to these bones except their great.size and thickness, and the great
prominence of the supraciliary ridges. The teeth were worn down to
a smooth and even surface. The next one we opened was a stone mound.
On clearing off the top of this we came upon a stone wall inclosing an
area about 8 feet square, with a narrow opening for a doorway or en-
trance on the south side. The wall of this inclosure was about 2 feet
thick; the inside was as smooth and compactly built and the cor-
ners as correctly squared as if constructed by a practical workman.
No mortar had been used. At a depth of about 2 feet from the top
of the wall we found a layer of five skeletons lying with their feet
toward the south. The bones were in the same condition as those
of No.1. We saved two or three of the skulls in a tolerable condition,
by coating them with thick varnish as soon asexposed. We did not go
any deeper in this mound; but there are probably other layers of bones
beneath the ones we uncovered. Mound No. 3 was also a stone mound,
and contained a stone wall inclosing a room about the same size as that
in No. 2, but was built in a very rough manner as compared with the
other. We removed the earth of about half of this inclosure, but found
nothing inside but a mass of charcoal, ashes, and burnt human bones.
The wails and earth around them appeared to have been subjected to
long-continued heat, and the place had evidently been used for crema-
tion or sacrifice. No. 4 was a very large earth mound. In the center
of this, at a depth of four feet, we found a small pile of loose stones
covering a few handfuls of broken and calcined human bones, too frag-
mentary to make anything out of them. This was the extent of our ex-
plorations at this time. No flint implements, pottery, or any other
relics were found with the bones. A farmer living in the vicinity reports
having ploughed up a lot of pottery ; but it was, unfortunately, all de-
stroyed by his boys, who threw it on a burning log-heap to see if it

MOUND-BUILDERS IN ILLINOIS. 208

would ‘stand fire.” No flints are found on the surface in the neigh.
borhood of the mounds; but the farmers say that when their fields be-
come old and worn the plough often turns them up from the yellow clay
beneath the soil. A few rude stone axes and arrow-heads were found
in the ravines, where they had been washed out of the bank. <A gen-
tleman, living near the mounds we opened, has a spear-head, which he
found, when digging a foundation for his house, at a depth of over 3
feet. is house is situated on one of the highest points in this locality.
In our excavations into the mounds we did not find any of the black
surface-soil which covers the land here; the earth was entirely homo-
geneous, and was of the loess or bluff formation which covers these hills.
The mounds have the same depth of soil on them as the surrounding
surface, and there is no trace of any pits or depressions from which the
earth might have been taken to construct them.

THE MOUND-BUILDERS IN THE ROCK RIVER VALLEY, ILLINOIS.
By JaMEs SHAW, of Mount Carroll, Ill.

That part of the State of Illinois called the Rock River country is, in
many respects, one of the most interesting portions of the great North-
west.

The early settlers and explorers found this valley thickly peopled with
Indian tribes, who regarded it as a favorite hunting and fishing ground.
Black Hawk and his brother, the Prophet, here made their last desper-
ate struggle.

Those remains which can hardly be called prehistoric, such as the
later Indian tribes and the early French explorers left, will be dismissed
with a passing notice. In some localities, the early settlers well remem-
ber the evidences of an Indian cultivation of the soil, where well-de-
fined hillocks in parallel rows marked the old corn fields. Immediately
east of Rock Island, and at various places in the rich alluvial bottom
lands, these were found perfectly distinguishable. They are mostly
worn away now by the rains and subsequent cultivation. The writer
has also an iron lance-head, picked up many years ago on the prairies
of this county, whose wooden shaft was well-nigh rotted away, evi-
dently used by the Indians in spearing the buftalo, when they pastured
on our prairies. In several localities old decayed camp-kettles, of brass
or zinc, have been found buried near the edges of streams, which were
evidently used by the early explorers and voyageurs before the country
was settled by white men. Two of these were recently found near the
banks of Rock River, between Dixon and Sterling, and are now in the
collection of Dr. Everett, of the former city.

There is also abundant evidence that this Rock River country was
densely peopled by the mound-builders. They have left their remains

254 MOUND-BUILDERS IN ILLINOIS.

everywhere, on all its most beautiful spots. Stone implements, copper
weapons and ornaments, and the remains of their plastic art are also
frequently found.

The antiquities of that portion of Rock River flowing through the
State of Wisconsin and of the Wisconsin counties lying immediately
north of this part of the State of Illinois have been fully described by
Mr. Lapham, in Vol. VII of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl-
edge. But the antiquities of the Southern Rock River Valley and of
Northwestern Illinois yet remain comparatively unknown.

It is the design of the writer to indicate briefly the character and ex-
tent of the works of the mound-builders in this region of Illinois.

The first thing to be noticed is the contrast between the character
of the remains found here and those of Wisconsin and the Ohio Valley.
The animal figures and effigies of the former State are almost wanting
here. With the exception of a large turtle mound within the limits of
the city of Rockford, and a few rude serpent-shaped structures in an-
other part of the district examined, the mounds are round or oblong in
form. Nothing like the great field-works, fortifications, and sacred in-
closures of Ohio, or such as are found at Aztalan, in Wisconsin, exist,
so far as known, on or near the shores of Southern Rock River. But
the oblong and common round mounds, some of them of large size, may
be counted by thousands. The valleys of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers,
not a great distance from us, are very similar to this section of country
in their physical geography. The upper valley of Rock River very much
resembles the lower; the mound-builders swarmed over them all; yet the
effigy mounds are peculiar to a portion of Wisconsin, and are bounded
by geographical limits, outside of which they are seldom found.

Commencing with Winnebago County, the most interesting remain
is the Turtle Mound, within the city limits of Rockford, already re-
ferred to. It is noteworthy on account of its great size and fine pro-
portions, but more so because it is the only one of the kind on Lower
Rock River. It is generally known as the “ Turtle Mound,” but the
resemblance to a headless alligator is more striking. The following are
its dimensions: Length, 150 feet; width, opposite fore legs, 50 feet;
width, opposite hind legs, 39 feet; length of tail, 102 feet. The figure
lies up and down the river, on a line almost north and south, the tail
extending northward. The body rises into a mound as high as a stand-
ing man. The feet and tail gradually extend into the greensward.
The measurements across-the body at the legs include those appendages,
which are only a few feet long. The effigy, whether of alligator, lizard,
or turtle, seems to be headless, and no depression in the surrounding
soil would indicate that the materials of which it is constructed were
obtained in its immediate vicinity. Near by this is an oblong-shaped
mound, and several round mounds. The oblong mound is rather re-
markable, 130 feet long, about 12 feet wide at the base, and 4 feet
high,

a a

MOUND-BUILDERS IN ILLINOIS. 255

Thus it will be seen that three types of the mounds are found in this
county. The oblong ones are not numerous. Circular mounds, from 10
to 15 feet in diameter and from 2 to 5 feet high, abound. An interest-
ing group of large ones almost surrounds the oblong and turtle mound
above referred to. There is a large group of the circular variety on the
north bank of Rock River, about six miles below the city. They exist
in many places along the stream in scattered groups. But the locality
where they are met with in the greatest numbers is on the banks of the
Kishwaukee, in the southeastern part of the county, near the confluence
of the two streams of that name. Scores of them are scattered about
here, and scores more have been well-nigh obliterated by the plowshares.
This was a favorite spot with the mound-builders. Many relics, including
some ef copper, have been picked up, disturbed in their places of deposit
by continued cultivation and plowing.

Jo Daviess County, contains great numbers of these mounds. Dr. J.
S. Love, of Hanover, writes me that there are from three to four hun-
dred around that place, mostly on or near the banks of Apple River.
The locality is one of wild beauty, and such as would attract the mound-
builders and become a swarming center of population. Among these
are two well-marked chains of fortifications—a rather unusual kind of
works for this part of the country.

From excavations made in these mounds have been taken many beads;
arrow-points and spears made from red, white, and black chert and flint;
one large battle-ax, 8 inches long, 5 inches wide, and 2 inches thick ;
pestles for pounding corn; one chisel of flint, and one carved stone
pipe. No galena, so far as I know, has been found in these mounds,
although they are not far distant from the famous Elizabeth diggings.
Mounds abound near this latter place, but I have no special information
of their character or numbers.

In Carroll County there are some interesting works of the mound-
builders. About two miles northeast of the city of Mount Carroll, in
the southern margin of Arnold’s Grove, three mounds, of rather large
size, and somewhat oblong in shape, stand side by side. They were
opened a few years ago, but nothing except remains of ashes and char-
coal, with a few fragments of bones far gone in decay, were found. On
section 32, in the town. of Woodland, about six miles west of Mount
Carroll, are several groups of mounds. Most of them are the small,
common, round mounds. But one group is an exception to this rule.
Some of these seem to be unfinished works, some are circular in form,
some have a simple depression in the middle, and some are the common
round mounds. Ashes and burnt bones were found a few years ago by
digging into a few of them. The jaw-bone and teeth of a skeleton were
exhumed at the same time, but these evidently belonged to a later time.
There is an old tradition coming down from the later Indian tribes which
once dwelt here that these were cremation mounds. The internal evi-
dences found by digging them open would seem to confirm this tradition.

256 MOUND-BUILDERS IN ILLINOIS.

About one and a half miles west of Mount Carroll, in a valley made
by Carroll Creek, and walled in by high rocks, is a spot of ground filled
with fragmentary relics, The waters of the creek caused a part of the
bank to cave in, and thus the deposit was first brought to light. By
excavating back from the edge of the fallen mass, at the depth of from
one to two feet, pieces of pottery quite artistic in design, arrow-heads
of a light-colored chert and hard enough to cut letters on glass, prongs
of deer’s antlers evidently used as some sort of implements, bones of
animals in a fair state of preservation, abundant flint chips, and char-
coal and burnt stones in great quantities, were found inclosed in a black
alluvial deposit. This was evidently a favorite camping ground, and
the refuse of the kitchen lies buried over a large space of ground.

In the numerous mounds that might be referred to but one more group
will be noticed. These are called “‘The Mounds” pre-emivently. There
are six or seven of them, looking like large blunt-topped hay-stacks in
the distance. They are located in the western verge of a high sand
prairie, about two miles northwest of the village of Thomson, and can
be seen for miles from the north, east, or south. On the west the allu-
vial flood plain of the Mississippi River is about a mile and a half wide,
and is covered by a dense growth of heavy timber. A running slough,
a part of the river, washes this steep sand ridge on the west, and passes
close to the base of these mounds. Being situated midway between Sa-
vanna and Fulton, they are striking objects in the landscape. <A rude
stone altar was found in one of them a few years ago, but nothing satis-
factory ean be learned about the relics said to have been inclosed in it.

A pipe, shaped like an eagle—one of the real mound-builders’ bird-
shaped pipes—was taken from the stone inclosure at the time the exca-
vation was made. Its workmanship was perfect, and its shape artistic
in a high degree.

On section 7, in the town of York, just north of the residence of Mr.
John Cole, is a most remarkable deposit of flint chippings. They were
found on the top of a high sand ridge. A broad expanse of swamp land,
formerly covered with water, and an old bed of the Mississippi River,
runs up to the base of this sand ridge on the east. On the west the
sandy plain recedes and becomes lower. In the first settlement of the
country this sand plain and ridge were covered with a sward, which
held the sand permanently. Now the pasturage of cattle and cultiva-
tion have destroyed this, and many acres are now a naked yellow sand,
resting on a harder, sandy subsoil. The winds keep wearing and dig-
ging off this sand, and piling it about in other places—sometimes cover-
ing neighboring fences; sometimes digging the very posts out of the
ground.

All over this sand ridge, for a space a mile long and half a mile wide,
flint chippings are being exposed. In some places they occur in masses
of a peck or half a bushel; in other places they whiten the ground for
yards in extent. The material is a cream-colored chert, breaking with

———

EE

MOUND-BUILDERS IN ILLINOIS. 2K

a smooth, conchoidal fracture. It was all brought there, as no stone
is found in situ in the whole ridge.

Here was a great manufactory of arrow-heads, and other flint imple-
ments. Pieces of arrow-heads, and fragments of the flint in all stages
of manufacture, strew the ground. Perfect arrow-heads are sometimes
found in clusters. Twenty-six were recently picked up in one nest,
rough, but well-nigh finished. ‘Two copper implements, and one of sand-
stone, evidently used for polishing stone axes, were also picked up.

In Whiteside County, just above the city of Sterling, on a high table-
land overlooking Rock River, and on the north bank of the same, is a
large group of these mounds. They now form apart of the fine ceme-
tery grounds of thatcity. Along thesouth banks of the river below Ster-
ling are a number of quite large mounds, at considerable distances
apart. Most of these Sterling mounds are the common round ones.
Some of the largest are obiong in form. Many have been partially ex-
cavated, and some trinkets and charcoal and ashes observed in them.

At Portland and about Prophetstown similar mounds also exist. On
Elkhorn Creek, on the farms of Dr. Pennington and Mr. Dinsmore,
some small round ones were noticed.

At Cordova and New Albany, near the banks of the Mississippi River,
some large mounds may be seen. At the latter place, Mr. Tyler
McWhorter, in the summer of 1872, had a tunnel carried through one
of them. This one was 60 feet in diameter at the base and about 12
feet high. In it was found a rude stone inclosure. Portions of skele-
tons had been placed here, seemingly in detached parts. The structure
seemed to belong to the more recent works of the mound-builders.

But it is useless to enumerate further the localities where these mounds
may be seen. In almost every picturesque spot they were built; and
doubtless they exist in hundreds in this county, as they do in those
surrounding it. A village of mounds also exists below Sterling on the
north side of Rock River, of large size.

Mercer County contains probably something over one thousand
mounds, mostly located over the western third of thecounty. Theeastern
part of the county has a few scattered ones of the same general character.
Most of these mounds seem to be of very ancient date—they are much
flattened by the wear of time, only rising a few feet above the general
level. But there are a few mounds on the bottom-lands under the bluffs
of more recent date. They have steep declivities, and rise 8 or 10 feet
in height. These have yielded well-preserved skeletons ; but the more
ancient have disclosed to the spade of the excavator no well-preserved
bones or implements—only beds of ashes with some charcoal and stones,
and, in some of the older, human remains in a state of decay.

In Iowa, opposite to the county of Mercer, and near the Mississippi
River, is a high bluff range, on the top of which, facing the town of
New Boston, is the old half-forsaken village of Black Hawk. Here are
seven or eight mounds, on the brow of the hill, which are the largest

17 8

258 MOUND-BUILDERS IN ILLINOIS.

found in this part of the West. They rise twelve or fifteen feet above
the general level, and are four or five rods across the base. One of
them, on being opened, yielded numerous bones in partial decay; aiso,
pottery, flint implements, and flint chippings.

On the high level plain immediately back of the mounds was formerly
an old line of embankment, that contained five or six acres. The ground
has been under the plow for many years, and the embankment is now
almost gone. But pieces of pottery, flint implements, and numerous
chips are yet picked up, and at one time the manufacture of these was
evidently carried on here extensively. The pottery seems to have been
made of a mixture of river-mud and decayed clam-shells. In short, it
was made of lime mortar, and is different from that found in other lo-
calities in this part of the country. Pieces of clay pottery are also found
about the Black Hawk mounds.

What are called the New Boston shell-heaps are found in this county.
They are on a high, sandy river-bank, one-half mile below the town of
that name. They are constantly exposed by the sliding down of the
bank, and will in time disappear. Each one seems to have contained
many tons of shells, mostly in a state of decay. Enough can be seen to
determine that they are of the same species as those now existing in the
river. The following species are supposed to have been identified: Unio
tuberculatus, U. metanever, U. plicatus, U. asperamus, U. anadontoides.
These heaps were formerly some rods from the river. In proximity to
them were formerly found old fire-beds of burnt stone, with broken pot-
tery, mostly of burned or baked clay, but occasionally of the pounded-
shell mixture, some flint implements, numerous flint chips, &c. These
heaps seem to be the kitchen refuse of the mound-builders.

I have referred to this section somewhat in detail, because it is the
southwest corner of the tract of country mentioned in this article, and
because it illustrates very well the character of the works and remains
in the counties lying north of it, contiguous to the Mississippi River.

It would be useless to occupy further space with an enumeration of
the mounds of this section. In the counties adjoining those named,
they exist almost as thickly as in the latter; but none of them possess,
so far as now known, any special or peculiar interest.

WEAPONS AND IMPLEMENTS.

Copper relics.—This region abounds in interesting relics of the true
mound-builders. Drift copper is found often. The writer has a bowl-
der weighing 15 pounds, picked up in a ravine among some small bowl-
ders near Mt. Carroll. Implements of copper are rather scarce, two hav-
ing come under the immediate observation of the writer. The first was
the Sterling copper knife, figured in Foster’s Prehistoric Races, and also
in the Transactions of the Chicago Academy of Natural Sciences. The
cut in the former has no resemblance whatever to the original; while
that in the latter is too long for the width. At the time the knife was

MOUND-BUILDERS IN ILLINOIS. 259

found, I was disposed to associate it with the bone of a mastodon found
in a similar position higher up the river; but I am now satisfied it is a
relic from the mounds which abound in its neighborhood. It was found
some six feet below the surface of the soil, in the cut made by a little
ravine in the bank of Rock River. It stuck out of the bank when first
seen, and was imbedded in a material composed of black diluvial or river-
drift, filled with pieces of chert and river gravel. The knife is of pure
copper, made, I think, by hammering, and resembles in form one of our
long, heavy knives. The broad end has a hole for a rivet, and has the
edges turned over for about two inches, making a socket for the handle.
The blade is exactly 103? inches long, an inch and a half wide at the wid-
est part; tapers gradually on both sides—a little more on the cutting
edge—to a blunt point. The shape is modern; but the attachment of
the handle is of the age of the Lake Superior copper-mining, and the
veined appearance denotes an age equal to the older relies of the mound-
builders.

The next relic is an ax or hatchet, found half-way between Dixon
and Sterling, on the north bank of Rock River, on the farm of a Mr.
Lawrence. The locality is one of the most charming, and abounds in
relics, such as arrow-points and stone axes. This relic is also of cop-
per, evidently hammered into its present graceful shape. Several sur-
- face cracks made by the folding of the metal are to be seen. It is 63
inches long, 34 inches wide at the cutting edge, 15 inches wide at the
hammer end, and about one-fourth of an inch thick. There are slight
traces of wear on one side, as if made by the friction of a handle. The
hatchet resembles a tomahawk, and is a fine specimen of the copper
relics of this region. It is in the possession of the writer, but belongs to
the collection of Dr. Oliver Everett, of Dixon. Relics of stone pipes are
not very abundant. Occasionally one is found made of clay or stone.

In a collection of two hundred arrow-points belonging to the writer,
can be selected all the typical shapes given by Sir William Wilde; with
all the modifications figured by Foster, including those supposed to be
reamers or borers by some of the collectors. A group of arrow-point
figures, taken from Lubbock’s Prehistoric Times; Evans’ Ancient Im-
plements, &c., of Great Britain; or Squier & Davis’s Ancient Monu-
ments, &c,, will greatly resemble the originals in almost any cabinet in
the Northwest. The same is true of spear-heads; and flint-chippings.
Flame-colored chert, dark hornstone, and a whitish chert or flint, were
the materials commonly used in their manufacture. The writer has
picked up very perfectly shaped flint implements, which must have been
used for knives and scrapers.

Stone hatchets, axes, and skinning-stones are quite plentiful. The
finest in the writer’s collection was plowed up among the Kishwaukee
mounds. It is of spotted polished granite. A very perfect and artistic
tomahawk of stone, of small size, is in the collection of Dr. Everett, at
Dixon. The Hanover mounds have furnished a ten-pound ax of very per-

260 MOUND-BUILDERS IN ILLINOIS.

fect shape; butthe largest one in this section is in Dr. Everett’s collection.
It weighs one ounce over 15 pounds ; is of dark color; the shape is artis-
tic; the external boundary lines are all graceful curves. Only a giant
could have wielded it.

Among these relics of stone the writer has one of unusual shape and
appearance; it is somewhat like the section of a circle; thick along the
straight edge; and tapering from the top to the circular edge. It was
found in a mound, near the north line of the State.

Gorgets, or parallelogram-shaped stones, with two holes drilled through
them, are often picked up. The finest one in the writer’s collection is
of the red-pipe-stone material. A small one in Dr. Everett’s collection
has but one hole through the end.

Weapons of the size and shape of a goose-egg, with narrow creases
round the middie, clubs and hammers undoubtedly, are not rare. In
Dr. Everett’s collection is a large plummet-shaped implement, with a
sort of neck on the smaller end. As a slung-shot it would have proved
a formidable weapon.

A very perfect-shaped plummet, made from what seems to be hema-
tite iron ore is in the writer’s cabinet. it lacks the usual crease around
the small end. One discoidal stone, of spotted greenstone, was picked
up in this region, the only one found, so far as I know.

A flint hoe and flint chisel or gouge, from the collection of Dr. J. S. Lowe,
in Hanover, are objects of great interest.

Pottery.—Some very perfect specimens of pottery have been found and
preserved. The writer has three different styles in his cabinet. Some
of the fragments are large enough to show the graceful curves of the
vessels before they were broken. ‘The specimens taken from the mounds
are of more graceful shape, better and smoother material, and superior
hardness, to the later and ruder work of the Indians.

Beads.—Several strings of beads have been taken from the Hanover
mounds. These are circular and flat, with a hole in the center; and
some of them are artistic in shape. Hanover is the only place where
they have beeu found in this locality, so far as the writer knows.

ANTIQUITIES OF MASON COUNTY, ILLINOIS.

By J. Cocunrane, of Havana, Ill.

There are five interesting mounds in this vicinity, varying in height
from 20 to 40 feet. The two highest are built adjoining each other on
the bank of the Illinois River, two others are three miles below them,
also on the east bank of the Illinois River, and about ten rods apart ;
the fifth one is on the bluffs of Illinois River bottoms, west side, and
about six miles distant, but in full view of the former ones.

One is of gravelly soil (none of which exists in proximity to it) and
the others of loam. No excavations are perceptible in the vicinity

ANCIENT EARTHWORKS IN OHIO. 261

from which the loam could have been taken in such quantity. Many
small mounds are situated near by. No excavations or investigations
have ever been made.

ANCIENT EARTHWORKS OF ASHLAND COUNTY, OHIO.
By GeorGE W. Hitt, M. D., of Ashland, Ohio.

Evidence of the existence of a race somewhat advanced in the arts
of military defense, anterior to the appearance of the Caucasian, is
found in almost every part of this county. Mounds and intrenchments
in all the great valleys and commanding points are very numerous.
The principal streams along which the earthworks are found are the
Muddy, the Jerome, the Black and Clear Forks of the Mohican.

Tyler's Fort.—On section 24, now in Wayne County, a short distance
below the junction, upon the heights northeast of Tylertown, and east of
the stream, is an ancient intrenchment. It overlooks the valley, which
here is about one and a half miles wide, and affords an extended view
up and down the Mohican. The work is situated on an elevated spur of
the ridge, on the lands of Benjamin Tyler; is circular in form, and con-
tains about three acres. When Mr. Tyler took possession in 1814, he
found the work destitute of grown timber. The ridge, in and about the
intrenchment, had the appearance of having been often burned over. He
found the embankment about 4 feet high and about 10 feet in diameter
at the base, and completely covered with hazel-bush, about as high as
his head. He states that he stood in the center of the work, and could
overlook the Mohican Valley for many miles. The work is now covered
by a growth of thrifty young white-oak, ranging from 50 to 70 feet in
height, and 10 to 15 inches in diameter. Contrary to the general rule,
there was no spring in the immediate vicinity of this earthwork.

Ramsey’s Fort.——Ascending the Muddy Fork, about 15 miles, we find
another intrenchment upon the lands of John Ramsey, on the southwest
quarter of section 28, in Jackson Township. The valley of the stream
the entire distance is very fertile, and was once a favorite resort of the
Delawares. This work is situated on the western side of an elevated
ridge, overlooking the valley. The eastern line of the intrenchment
reaches the summit facing the valley. The work is quadrangular, and
estimated to contain a fraction over two acres. When first discovered
the embankment was about 3 feet in height, and from 8 to 10 in diameter
at the base. The timber within the fort was equal in size to that of the
forest around it, and was of the same character. The area of the fort has
been cultivated about twenty-five years, and the embankment is nearly
obliterated by the plow. While plowing within the fort, a highly-pol-
ished stone hammer was found, five inches long, two inches at the base,
and one and one-half inches at the point, encireled in the middle by a

262 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS IN OHIO.

groove. The ravines in the vicinity contained water sufficient to supply
the wants of the fort if beleaguered by an enemy.

Two mounds were found in the north part of Perry Township, about
one mile from the fort. They were about 30 feet apart, and occupied
level ground near a brook. The larger one was about 5 feet high and
25 feet in diameter at the base. The smaller one was probably 12 feet
in diameter at the base and 34 feet high. William Hamilton destroyed
the larger one in digging a cellar; and about 4 feet below the natural
surface found a triangular wooden post and three human skeletons, one
of unusual size, imbedded in sand.. On exposure the smalier ones dis-
solved.

Metcalf’s Fort.—By returning to the Jerome Fork, and ascending that
stream about one and a half miles, we approach a fort on the lands of
the late William Metcalf, south of the stream, on an elevated plateau,
facing the valley on section 21. It was circular in form, and contained
about three acres. It was near a spring. When first discovered in the
forest, in 1812, the embankments were about 4 feet in height, and the
base about 10 feet in diameter. Large trees grew in and upon the work.
It commanded an extensive view. The fort at Tyler’s, some four miles
down the stream, could be easily seen by the naked eye. By the means
of assault, probably used by the race that then inhabited these valleys,
it would have been difficult to capture it.

Winbigler’s Fort.—On an elevated point, two and a half miles moras
and across the Jerome Fork, was another fort, on the lands of Hone
Winbigler, on the northeast eee of Recto! 9. It contained about
four acres of land, was circular in form, and was much more easily
defended than Metcalf’s, because the ground around it was steep and
more difficult of ascent. The embankments were also somewhat higher
than the former work, and 10 feet thick at the base. When first dis-
covered it was covered with large timber—a sort of ridge-oak of slow
growth, and must have been abandoned for a long series of years. It
had a gate-way looking to the north and one to the south, and was
near an excellent spring. From this fort a good view of Metcalf’s was.
had. By the use of torches or other signals, the Tyler Fort could have
been alarmed at the same time. Nearly due west of this fort, on section
13 in Vermillion Township, is a large mound which was used as a burial
site by the Mohegans and Delawares, but was doubtless erected as a
signal point by the same race that constructed the forts. West of it
about four miles, on section 14, and near the town of Hayesville, is
another large mound at the head of avalley reaching the Mohican. It
was also most likely used as a signal point.

Gamble’s Fort.——Continuing up the Jerome Fork, which rises in the
summit, in the north center of the county, is found a beautiful valley,
from three to six miles wide, through which that stream meanders, fed
by numerous smaller ones on either side. As we approach Ashland, an
elevated point of land on the north of the town, on section 8, southwest

ANCIENT EARTHWORKS IN OHIO. 263

quarter, is seen overlooking the whole surrounding country for a distance
of from four to seven miles. This work is above the town, and there is
a gradual descent from it in all directions. It is a strong military posi-
tion. A circular embankment, 2,145 feet in length, containing an area
of 8} acres, surrounded the brow of the hill. When the late Henry
Gamble entered upon his land in 1815, the fort was covered by large
trees, such as were found in the forest of the neighborhood. The em-
bankments were very nearly 4 feet high in the center, and 10 or 11 feet
wide at the base. The work must have required a considerable body of
men a long time to construct it. It had a gate-way at the southwest
side, facing a deep ravine; and near the gate a very excellent spring. In
taking the dimensions of the fort, I was assisted by Col. George W. Urie
and Maj. Richard P. Fulkerson, who examined the work nearly fifty years
ago, when much of the large timber was standing. The Atlantic and
Great Western Railway passes down the ravine just south of the fort,
and the spring now supplies the water-tank. The embankments have
been plowed over for nearly fifty years, and exhibit but slight traces of
their outlines.

In looking down the valley some two miles, a large mound can be seen,
which has recently been opened and found to contain human bones,
chareoal, and wood, clearly evincing the presence of fire. The moundis
situated on the northeast part of section 9, and is composed of sand
and drift. The excavation from which it was taken, about one hundred
yards away, can be plainly seen. On section 3, in a northeast direc-
tion from the above mound, about a quarter of a mile distant, near a fine
spring, stood another small mound, which contained human bones, a few
arrow-heads, and one or two stone axes and fleshers. These were turned
up by the plow. The site of the mound is now obliterated. Other small
mounds have been found in Montgomery Township, the contents being
similar to the ones described. Four miles northeast of the Gamble Fort,
‘on section 28, in Orange Township, is found the Norris Mound, near the
village of Orange. It has been examined and found to contain human
bones, large quantities of red and yellow ocher, charcoal, a few shells,
and a pure copper needle seven inches long, with a well-tempered point.
If the forest were removed this mound could be plainly seen from the
fort. It was evidently a burial site. The presence of charcoal, and the
oily condition of the hard-pan, ocher, and sand, would suggest that vast
quantities of animal oil had been used in its sacrificial ceremonies. It
may have been a signal point also. Large trees grew around and upon
this mound, its height being about 5 feet, and diameter 30.

About thirty-five years since, while some persons were engaged in
cutting a bluff on the bank of the creek east of the residence of the late
Patrick Murray, for the purpose of improving the railroad alluded to,
a number of human skeletons were unearthed. The bones were in a
good state of preservation.

264 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS IN OHIO.

In the year 1850, in digging a well, Isaac Stull, near his residence,
half a mile south of the village of Orange, about 5 feet below the
surface, came upon an earthern vessel that would hold, perhaps, about
two gallons. Before discovering this relic he unfortunately stepped
upon and broke it. It was found mouth upward, and resembled in
many respects a two-gallon crock. The rim around the top was artistic,
and intended to aid in lifting the vessel. It was formed of a bluish
earth, and seemed to have been subjected to heat. It was ornamented
all over the exterior by finely pulverized white flint, somewhat resem-
bling rice-grains, which adhered firmly to it. A short time afterward,
in plowing in a field northwest of his house, Mr. Stull turned up a frag-
ment of the same kind of vessel, as large as his hand.

In the fall of 1872, Harvey Roberts, residing a short distance west of
the Stull farm, on an elevation just north of the creek, while engaged
in excavating for the foundation of a building, came upon two human
skeletons, about 3 feet beneath the surface, in a sitting posture, in a
good state of preservation. These remains were undoubtedly those of
Wyandots who had died during their annual residence and hunting ex-
cursions along the Mohican, over sixty years ago. Another old Indian
eemetery was found on the premises of Jacob Young, about half a mile
southeast of Mr. Roberts’s, and many of the graves being very shallow,
were exposed in his garden and on the bank of the creek. Most of the
skeletons on the lands of Mr. Young, we believe, were buried in a hori-
zontal position. We do not see the precise reason for this difference.
It may be that the parties found by Mr. Roberts may have been chiefs
or members of another tribe.

Sprott’s Hill.—On the northeast quarter of section 35, in Clear Creek
Township, and about two and a half miles northwest of Gamble’s Fort,
is Sprott’s Hill. This hill is about 90 feet high, and contains, at its base,
an area of about five acres. It is composed of alluvium, mixed with
gravel and rounded bowlders. The top is about 60 by 90 feet, and
nearly flat. Upon this two mounds were erected, each about 25 feet in
diameter and 4 or 5 feet high. When Thomas Sprott settled there,
some fifty years since, large trees grew upon and about these mounds.
They were about 30 feet apart. From them a view of the Gamble Fort
and the mound at Orange can be had.

In examining the south mound thirty years ago, Thomas Sprott and
his brother came upon a sort of stone coffin, constructed of flat stones
set on the edges, which contained the skeletons of six or eight Indians,
neatly cleaned and packed, in a good state of preservation. On the flat
stones, constituting the lid of the coffin, more than a peck of red ver-
milion was found. These relics were replaced by Mr. Sprott.

About one and a half miles northwest of the Sprott Mound, on section
26, is j

Brytes Fort.—This work is quadrangular in shape. Its longest sides

ANCIENT EARTHWORKS IN OHIO. 265

face the east and west, and are very nearly 500 feet each in length, while
the north and south ends are each about 250 feet long, making the
whole length of the embankment about 1,500 feet. Near the southwest
corner was a gate-way leading to a very fine spring, four or five rods dis-
tant. A deep ravine encircles the west side and south end of the work,
while there is a gradual descent from the north end and eastern side,
showing that it was erected for defensive purposes. The view from the
fort in all directions is very fine, and takes in an area of four or five miles.
The Orange Mound and those of Sprott’s Hill were plainly discernible.
When Mr. John Bryte commenced to clear his farm, fifty-four years ago,
he found large oak trees and other timber growing on the embankment,
and often walked upon it in hunting squirrels. When he first saw it
the walls were between 3 and 4 feet high, and perhaps 10 or 11 wide at
the base. He has been cultivating the fort for nearly fifty years, and
the embankment is nearly obliterated. For defensive purposes, the site
was a good one. The water of the adjoining spring would supply a
large army. It is situated on the summit where the brooks divide to
flow north to Lake Erie and south to the White Woman, the Muskingum,
and the Ohio.

Many stone axes, fleshers, arrow-heads, polished and perforated stones,
and pipes have been found in the vicinity of the foregoing work.

Shambaugh’s Fort——Returning to the south end of the county, we
ascend the Black Fork of the Mohican. At the farm of Lewis Oliver,
and one or two points below, were found mounds of 5 or 6 feet in height
and about 30 feet in diameter at the base. A little southwest of Perrys-
ville, on the road leading to Newville, on the summit above the village,
was a mound overlooking the valley the size of the ones described.

Passing up the stream to near the old Indian village of Greentown,
to the lands of Mr. John Shambaugh, on the north side of the stream,
on section 18, we find another circular fort, containing very nearly two
acres, with a gate-way looking to the west. In the center was a mound,
about 4 feet high, which had probably been an altar or lookout. When
first discovered, the embankment was about 3} feet high and 10 wide
at the base. It is difficult to conjecture for what purpose the work was
constructed, as it was situated on the bottom, fully a quarter of a mile
from the elevated lands on either side of the stream. A small brook
flowed by it, from which, no doubt, water was obtained. Timber—such
as oak, hickory, and elm—grew upon and within the work, the larger
trees being over 3 feet in diameter. The lands along the streams are
very fertile, and the site of the fortification having been plowed over
for half a century, the embankments are merely traceable.

The Parr Fort.—About one mile distant from the work alluded to, on
section 19, is found what is known as the Parr Fort. It is alsoa circular
work, the embankment, when first discovered by the pioneers, being
about 7 feet high, and 12 or 14 in diameter at the base. it inclosed an

266 ANCIENT EARTHWORKS IN OHIO.

area of about three acres, and had a gate-way at the west. Very near
it, on the east side, stood a large mound, from which copper beads and
stone implements have been taken.

IT am informed by Dr. J. P. Henderson, of Newville, that this mound
was opened about fifty years ago. In it were found human bones, char-
coal, decayed wood, a stone pipe, the stem of which was wrapped with
copper wire, and a copper wedge. The mound was of a peculiar struc-
ture. It was built of large flat stones in a circular form, like a shot-
tower, and filled up and around with earth, and was a cone in appear-
ance. Many stone axes, stone fleshers, and polished stone plates have
been found in the vicinity of these works.

Darling's Fort.—About two and a half miles south of Parr’s fort, near
Saint John’s church, on the north bank of the Clear Fork of the Mohican,
may be seen another defensive work. It is circular, and contains an
area of nearly 3 acres. It had embankments from the gate on the south
side (as I am informed), leading down to the bank of the stream. When
first discovered it was covered with large timber, and the embankment
was over 3 feet high. It commands a full view of the valley for many
miles, and was doubtless used as a defensive work. Many very choice
stone relics have been plowed up along the valley by farmers, and are
now in the cabinet of Dr. James P. Henderson, of Newville.

We find no other remains until we reach the village of Mifflin. On
level land a little northwest of this village is a large mound. The top
is slightly flattened, and was, no doubt, used asa burial spot by the
Delawares. It has not been excavated and its contents are only a mat-
ter of conjecture. Many stone axes, some beads, flint arrow-heads, and
pick-shaped implements of stone, highly finished, have been plowed up
by the farmers all along the valley of the Black Fork.

There are, perhaps, twenty or thirty smaller mounds scattered over
the country, to which my attention has not been given. The mounds
of this county are invariably truncated, and none exceed 10 feet in
height. I am inclined to the opinion that many of the smaller ones
were the center of an encampment, and were erected for sacrificial pur-
poses. Such a mound existed in the center of the council-house of
Greentown. The venison and bear-meat for their great feasts was
boiled in large copper kettles upon the mound. This may account for
the charcoal, ashes, and charred bones so frequently found in small flat
mounds. Ihave reason to believe, also, the tent or wigwam of the rul-
ing chief was sometimes placed on a central mound of similar structure.

Stone implements.—Severai classes of implements are found in great
numbers within this county. They seem to have been scattered broad-
cast over the hills and valleys. One class consists of highly-polished
stone pestles, stone axes, weighing from six or eight ounces to five or six
pounds, stone fleshers, stone implements, pick-shaped, with a neatly-
drilled hole in the middle, stone beads, and flat variegated stones from

ANTIQUITIES OF OHIO. 267

one to two inches wide, six or seven long, and half an inch thick, with
rounded ends, highly polished, and generally with a neatly-drilled hole
in the center, have been found in and about these ancient works.

Another class, of more recent date, consists of thousands of flint arrow-
heads, from a half inch to seven inches in length. These were unques-
tionably made by the modern tribes that overspread Northern Ohio, and
most of the material was procured from the ridges in Licking County.
One such nest was plowed up in Sullivan Township, three years since,
by Mr. W.S8. Riggs, containing 201 pear-shaped arrow-heads, neatly
finished and of an unusual style, having no notch for fastening them to
the shaft, and had the appearance of being intended for cutting.

FLINT IMPLEMENTS IN HOLMES COUNTY, OHIO,

By H. B. Case, of Loudonville, Ohio.

An interesting “find” of flint implements of the leaf-shaped pattern
was discovered in the summer of 1870 on the farm of Daniel Kick,
about half a mile north of the Lake Fork of Mohican River, in Washing-
ton Township, Holmes County, Ohio. They were found in a pond or
basin-like depression formed in the glacial drift or river gravel which is
found in this vicinity. The pond has no outlet, as the rim of the basin
is 20 feet high. In order to collect the water, which, during most sea-
sons, covers the bottom of the pond, a ditch 4 feet deep was dug
through it. Near the bottom of the ditch were found the remains of an
old oak log lying across the cutting, and beside the log were found
ninety-six flint implements, all leaf-shaped, and of sizes from 2} to 54
inches in length. ‘They were colored by red oxide of iron, which ad-
-hered very tenaciously to the flint, showing that a quantity of this ma-
terial had been deposited with them. This pond, in seasons of great
drought, becomes dry, but has not been so for several years. Were
these implements buried in the pond by the owner, or were they placed
beside the log and covered by the slow accumulations of the alluvial
deposits of centuries? The pond never having had an outlet since the
deposition of the glacial drift, and the flints being found within a foot
of the bottom of the four feet of alluvial deposit, would indicate, if de-
posited upon the surface, an antiquity of three-fourths of the post-gla-
cial period, assuming that the alluvium was laid down uniformly, and
that the flints were placed beside the log and had not been buried, and
had not sunk to their place from higher up in the mud. These imple-
ments are now in the collection of the writer, who has furnished speci-
mens of the same to the National Museum at Washington.*

* The implements were, in all probability, intentionally buried, forming a deposit
or “cache.”

268 ANTIQUITIES OF OHIO AND KENTUCKY.

MOUND IN TRUMBULL COUNTY, ONTO,

By F. Mitier, of West Farmington, Ohio.

The mound referred to is situated about a mile north from the village
of West Farmington, Ohio, on the land of Mr. Belden. Its elevation
above Swine Creek, flowing near by, is about 70 feet, and its height is
supposed to have been some 30 feet above the level of the land. It has
been much reduced in circumference by the plow. Two years agoa
gentleman dug three holes in the mound, in one of which he found a
square piece of lead; in another, some red paint, and a round stone in
the form of a human head, and some bones. In the third, and central
excavation, he found two skulls; but they were so much decayed as to
crumble on exposure. The jaws and teeth of one of the specimens
remained perfect. The bodies originally were laid in circular tiers,
with their heads in the center and the feet outward. Above and below
each there was placed a flat stone, which must have been brought at
least six or seven miles from here, as none of that kind are found in this
vicinity. How many tiers of bodies there were I could not learn, as
there was no note made of it. In the upper part of the mound a skele-
ton of large size was discovered. Flint tools were also discovered with
the bodies.

The father of the present owner settled here about sixty years ago
and on his arrival found beech-trees over 2 feet in diameter surround:
ing the mound, several of which were hollow.

ANTIQUITIES OF HANCOCK COUNTY, KENTUCKY.
By Joseru FRIEL, of Cloverport, Ky.

About a mile north of Bennettsville, Hancock County, Kentucky, is
a range of hills, at the foot of which runs Allen Cave Creek. These hills
are capped by high sandstone ledges, which have been so eroded in past
ages as to leave overhanging shelters at several points; some of these
are of considerable size; one, particularly, seems to have been occupied
by man for a long period, but now serves only as a shelter for hogs.
The cavern is open toward the south, the overhanging roof protecting
the space below from any exposure to the elements from above, while
an immense rock which has fallen down forms a partial wail directly in
front, between which and the rear wall of the cavern the deposit contain-
ing prehistoric remains is found. Thisdeposit consists of rich black loam,
wood ashes, and decomposed vegetable matter. The deposit is 27 by 12
feet, and from 12 to22 inches deep. I found large quantities of flint chips
and fragments of arrow-heads scattered all over the surface of the deposit.
On digging down I found bones, flint-chips, wood ashes, charcoal, burnt

ANTIQUITIES OF KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE. 269

sand-rocks, fragments of rude pottery, pieces of decomposed wood, and
frequently pieces of muscle shells. I found signs of fire mostly in the
center of the cave, while fragments of pottery and bones were more fre-
quently met near the outer edge. A small piece of a cocoanut shell was
discovered near the bottom of the deposit. This proves that the cave-
dwellers of Kentucky carried on trade to some extent with their southern
neighbors. About three hundred yards farther down the valley, and on
the opposite side, at a corresponding elevation, is an underground cayern
which runs under the hill to a considerable distance. In this cave I hoped
to find the skeletons of the ancient cave-dwellers, but I was mistaken.
After a diligent examination of every part I discovered nothing but the
skull of an animal. In one corner near the mouth of the cave I found
a number of burnt sand-rocks, but could discover no other signs of fire
or human habitation. I find a great many arrow-heads and flint chips
scattered all over this country, and also numbers of rough sandstones
with cavities in one side.

recently I visited the mounds of Indian Hill, located on the farm of
Mr. James Sanders, about three and a half miles north of Pellsville,
Hancock County, Kentucky. Indian Hill is about 150 feet in height,
and on the summit of it are three mounds built entirely of sandstone,
which must have been conveyed a distance of at least 250 yards up the
steep side of the hill. The mounds are 25 feet in diameter ‘at the base,
and were originally 12 feet in height, 15 feet apart, and in a straight line
with the ridge, of the hill, which runs in a direction northeast by east.
The average weight of the stones used in constructing these mounds is
about 65 pounds, but many of them will weigh 100 pounds. The mounds
were perfectly solid, having no cavity in the interior whatever, neither
were used as sepulchres, for the parties who opened them some years
ago state that they found no traces of human remains. Close to the
base of one of the mounds is a white-oak tree which is about 18 or 20
inches in diameter, and probably one hundred and fifteen years of age.
This tree bears no mark or hacks, which if doubtless would have re-
ceived and yet exhibit, if the Indians who occupied this country one
hundred years ago were in any way connected with these mounds. About
20 feet northeast of the most northerly mound many flint chips may be
found, which indicates the place where the mound-builders were in the
habit of manufacturing their arrow-heads, spear-heads, &c. Many stone
implements occur in the vicinity of these mounds.

ANTIQUITIES OF. TENNESSEE,

By W. M. Cuark, of Iranklin, Tenn.
The mounds and cemeteries of Tennessee are situated throughout the
whole of the State, but especially in the middle portion. The Indians

seem to have preferred a water-course for their habitations, and it is
generally the case, that, wherever these remains exist, there are the very

270 ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE.

best of our farming lands. There are various kinds of these remains,
such as mounds, cemeteries, and fortified camps. There is a singular
chain of works extending from the Tennessee River at Florence, Ala.,
diagonally across the State of Tennessee and resting on the Upper Cum-
berland River near Monticello, Ky. Whether or not this chain denoted
a line of travel for the aborigines, or was accidentally the most thickly
populated section of country, I know not. This region, at any rate, is
far-famed for its fertile soil, and is, at this time, the most thickly popu-
lated section of Tennessee. In the county of Williamson alone, where
my investigations principally were made, are four fortified camps, and
the builders of these defenses evinced a shrewdness in the selection of
location and the manner of improving the natural advantages that we
seldom find among the ignorant savages of the present day.

In May, 1875, with a force of hands, I commenced digging in a large
mound situated two miles from Franklin, in this county. This mound
is located upon a high hill on the farm of Dr. William Reid. The hill is
isolated, and commands a view of the country for many miles in every
direction. It is 400 feet in circumference, and is surrounded by a level
terrace, smooth, and free from stones. The height above the terrace,
after ages of settling and attrition, is 20 feet. Itis covered by a growth
of trees similar to those of the surrounding forest, which has never been
cleared. The hill is very rocky, and the wonder to me was where so
much soil had been procured. But my wonder ceased after a few hours’
digging, for, when I had penetrated the deposit of made-soil on the sur-
face about 18 inches, I came to the material of its construction,
which consisted almost wholly of limestone bowlders, gathered from the
face of the hill. These stones varied from small, broken pieces to masses
which would tax the strength of a large man tocarry. About 4 feet from
the top, we came to a layer of graves extending across the entire mound.
The graves were constructed in the same manner as those found in the
cemeteries, hereafter to be described; that is, of two wide parallel slabs,
about 24 feet long for sides, and with the bottom, head, and foot stone of
the same material, making, when put together, a box or sarcophagus.
Each of these coffins had bones init, some of women and children together,
and others of men. Numerous bones of rodents, and a few of deer, were
mixed with the human bones, and were in a much better state of pre-
servation than the latter. In fact, the human bones were very much de-
cayed, and I was able to obtain onlyafew fragments. The skeletons were
laid in the graves with the heads to the east, and the arm and leg bones
were alongside of the body. It is probable that the later tribe of In-
dians used this place as a sepulcher, from the fact that these graves
were so near the top of the mound, having, in the other mounds, found
the skeletons at or near the center, and at the bottom. The only relics
I discovered among these graves were a string of beads, which were ly-
ing with the cervical vertebra of the skeleton ofa woman. These beads
are made of chalk,* and have a polish when not eroded by lying in con-

aie Probably of shell, which, when decomposed, has the appearance of chalk.

ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE. Dl

tact with the soil. They are large in the center, gradually tapering
each way to the end. There were also some broken fragments of pot-
tery, but no entire vessels. We penetrated the center of this mound
until we struck the top of the hill, and it appeared that the builders had
made no change in its apex, but simply piled up rocks, with, possibly,
some soil, at its summit, the top being slightly truncated.

About two miles to the west is a group of mounds, and a cemetery,
and every evidence of alarge encampment. Warth-works were also once
there, but they have been destroyed by cultivation, being located in a
very fertile valley on West Harpeth, and all fully in view of this mound.
I am under the impression that this was an advanced outpost for the
village, and, as such, was used as a signal station to warn the inhabit-
ants of approaching danger. There was no altar at its bottom, nor
any evidence of fire, except just above the graves, where a few ashes were
found, caused probably by the signal-fires here lighted. Whether the
terrace was made by the subtraction of the soil in the formation of the
mound, or by soil carried there, did not appear.

North of this hill and near its base, on a slight elevation, were three
small mounds, not more than 20 feet in diameter and about 6 feet high,
though their height had been reduced by cultivation. I examined two of
them, and found no remains of skeletons or relics, but beneath the Jevel
of the surrounding land was a simple pile of stone mixed with ashes.
These were evidently altars, and though rudely put up, showed the
handiwork of man. We went altogether below the stones, but found
nothing. I then removed my party to the farm of Samuel I’. Glass, to
the encampments above alluded to, about two miles to the west. There
is a fine group of mounds, and four of them are in a line from north to
south ; a large one in the center, flanked on the south by two small ones,
and on the north by another, evidently intended to be a large one, but
from some interruption never finished. This last was not more than
3 feet high, though 75 feet in diameter. It had been cultivated a great
number of years, but showed distinctly its proportions. Being in cultiva-
tion at the time of my visit, I did not examine it. The two smaller ones
were about 6 feet high and 20 feet in diameter, while the largest was 20
feet high and 400 feet in circumference. They did not stand in a per-
fect line, but formed the segment of a very large circle, the largest mound
forming the lowest part of the curve. I made a section across the large
one, carefully noting the work which progressed from either side. I
dug east and west two trenches, meeting in the center. This proved very
conclusively to have been a sacrificial mound, and though the relies found
were indeed few, yet they were of the greatest interest. There were
no stones in the mound, it being constructed entirely of soil, not even
any clay being visible. It had, 5 feet from the summit, a layer of ashes
and baked earth. This layer was conical, as if spread over the top and
afterward covered up. The evidence of fire extended about 8 feet over
the surface, so that, in the section presented to view, the ashes formed

272 ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE.

a curve about 8 feet across. Charred wood was intermixed with the
ashes, showing that the earth had been piled on it while yet burning.
No fragments of bone were found, as they would surely have been
if there had been any burning of animal offerings. These layers of
burnt soil and ashes recurred every 5 feet, until we reached the last,
which was on a level with the earth, but for 4 feet below the surface
the whole seemed baked and interspersed with ashes and charcoal. In
this charred mass of earth we came upon the only relics contained in
the mound; both are of copper, and were made of unsmelted ore. No.
1 is a face or mask, and is composed of four pieces. The main pieces
are beaten together in the center by some instrument of stone, the mark
of the blows being distinctly visible. One piece is riveted on each side
to represent ears, and the rivets are exceedingly well put in and firmly
united. It is oval in shape, 6 inches long and 4 wide, being about as
large as the average face of a man. By aid of a sharp tool small dots
were made to trace the location of the eyes, eyebrows, nose, and mouth,
and a horizontal line beneath the nose shows the place of the nose-
stick, which has a pendant on either end, with a bead or other ornament
resting on the cheek. At its lower edge, below the chin, are three rivet-
holes, by which it was possibly fastened to a wooden or stone body, and
then raised upon the altar, with its burnished surface glittering in the
sun, an object of pride and admiration to the assembled nation. One
side of this mask is eroded, and the whole is heavily coated with the oxide
ofcopper. Byits side lay another; it consists of two concave disks, which
are connected together by a stem, the whole being shaped like an hour-
glass, hollow through its entire length. It was also hammered out of
copper ore, and so deftly done that no joints are visible either in the
ends or in the stem. The stem is not riveted, but seems continuous, as
if it had been cast in one piece; yet the blows of the tool with which it
was made are plainly visible. At first I supposed it to have been a
spool upon which the Indians wound their thread of sinews; nor could
I have guessed its proper use had I not discovered one of a similar
kind in an adjacent mound. It would have been a costly spool, for, no
doubt, with their mechanical appliances, it was a labor of long dura-
tion to fashion one such, and I afterward became convinced thatit was an
emblem of authority, and was worn around the neck of their priest.
Where did they procure the copper? ‘There is none in this country
nearer than the mountains of Unaka, 300 miles distant, and the still
more remote shores of Lake Superior. The existence of copper imple-
ments is so rare in this State, that they must have been indeed precious
to the tribe owning them, and may have been buried for safe-keeping.
The two smaller mounds were now examined, but, in the one nearest
the large one I found nothing, it having been previously opened and ex-
amined by Dr. Joseph Jones, of New Orleans. In the farther one, how-
ever, I found an oval piece of galena, weighing three pounds—this lay
about 4 inches to one side of the other objects—and a piece of a lower

ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE. Pu ics

maxillary bone. A man had been buried in this mound, but all that
was left of him was some bone-earth, showing where they laid him, and
this small fragment of the jaw-bone, preserved by its contact with the
copper, it being colored and permeated by the oxide of copper. It is
the central piece of the lower jaw, and shows on each side the mental
foramina and the absorbed remains of the alveolar processes. Only
fragments of the incisors remain. Now, the fact that the skeleton was '
entirely decayed, excepting this small fragment, plainly indicates its
great antiquity; for in all the mounds examined, not only by myself, but
by others, where the remains of bones are discovered at all, they are in
a good state of preservation, the depth of the sepulcher preserving them
from decay. And yet, inthe bettom of this mound, never before brought to
light, or subjected to the influences of the atmosphere, only this remains;
and even that would have long since moldered into dust had it not been
in contact with, and almost surrounded by, this piece of copper. Nor
was this the only strange thing preserved by this copper, for on the stem
of the bobbin was about 18 inches of flax-thread and through its
center was a piece of cord. This thread and cord are green from
the effect of the copper and still retain some degree of strength. I
say it is flax, but of that I am not certain, as I examined it
with a pocket microscope only. It certaivly is not of animal fiber, but
is vegetable. It had evidently been hanging around the neck of the
skeleton over which this mound was erected, and, the lower jaw drop-
ping, the mental portion of the bone became naturally wedged in the
copper bobbin, and thus it remained until my discovery. The skeleton
was that of a very old man. In all my exhumations I have not before
found a decayed skeleton, rarely even a missing tooth. The order of loss
is well known; first, the molars, then the bicuspids, and finally the incisors.
Hereallwere gone. From these facts suppose this man to have attained
a very great age. From the known veneration of the later races of
Indians for the aged, I infer that he was one of their rulers; and the
Indians being patriarchal in their form of government, he must have
been a priest and a noted person, or no mound would have marked the
place of his burial. This, then, is my reason for believing these copper
bobbins to have been the symbols of office or authority, and not simply
spools upon which to wind their thread. The fragment of thread is
coated with some kind of gum, probably asphaltum, and that, no doubt,
contributed to its preservation. These few relics were all that was
obtained from these mounds, except the piece of galena, before alluded
to, which may have served to give weight to the club of some stalwart
warrior. Unfortunately the land has been cleared and cultivated so
long that most of the graves have been destroyed. Several ledges of
rock pass through it, and in every crevice of these ledges bones are <e-
posited. They are also to be found scattered over the ground, where they
have not been destroyed by the plow and the elements. Old settlers say
that at one time the ground was thickly strewed with them. Near the
18 s

rata’ ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE.

center of the great cemetery stands a huge mound, the finest in the coun-
try, and one which I was anxious to examine, but was prevented from
doing so by the scruples of the owner. I examined some of the graves,
however. I found them, as usual, composed of flat stones, set edgewise,
with stone bottoms, but no covering except earth. Several pieces of
crockery were broken by the carelessness of the assistants. One spec-
imen resembles perfectly a squash, and tends to show that this vegeta-
ble at least was familiar to these people. I also obtained a string of
beads, and an amulet which resembles the face of a man. Many relics
have been taken from these graves, but being considered of little
value were neglected until lost or destroyed. There was at one time a
large fortified camp which withstood the changes of time, but it has
long since yielded to the influence of the plow. Three miles south of
Franklin, on a bluff of Big Harpeth River, was another camp, covering
twelve acres of land, each end of the inclosing earth-work resting upon
the bluff. This camp was surrounded by a wall and ditch, and three
mounds were within the inclosure. Three mounds were examined in
1867 by Professor Jones, the result of which I have not been able to
procure. I found a few isolated graves there, from which I procured a
very perfect vase with ears to it. This vase was lying inverted by the
neck of a male skeleton, and there were also some bones of a deer. A
pile of rocks near by indicated, as I thought, a grave, but I found it to be
an oven, lined at the bottom and sides with baked clay, and covered
with flatrocks. It had broken pieces of pottery in it. On the largest of
the three mounds, about half-way up the slope, a grave was discovered
containing a large skeleton. Piercing the sternum, from the interior,
was a small, delicately-made arrow-head, the cause, no doubt, of the
death of the buried man.

The most celebrated cemetery, and the one most frequently resorted
to by relic-hunters, is at “Old Town,” seven miles northwest of Frank-
lin, on the farm of Mrs. Brown. Formerly, like other encampments,
it had a wall and ditch surrounding it, but they are gone. There were
many graves and mounds scattered over the inclosure. Most of these
graves have long since been emptied of their contents, and the mounds,
for the most part, have been dug into. However, I obtained some
very interesting relics here, among them two beautiful pieces of ivory
carved with a precision seldom seen among Indians. They are made
from a tusk, probably, of the mastodon. The larger one must have
come from the tusk of a monster, for to furnish material for such a
gorget it must have been 12 inches in diameter. These gorgets have
two holes in the edge, near each other, and they were most probably
worn suspended on the breast, and may have been emblems of authority.
One of them was in the grave of a giant, for a large man could pass the
lower jaw-bone around his face; and the thigh-bone was four inches
longer than that of a man six feet two inches high. A piece was frac-
tured off one edge by accident after taking it up. Another string of

ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE. 2D

beads was procured here. They are made of bone, are quite small, and
were lying in the grave of an infant. The dead in this cemetery were
all buried with their heads toward the east, and some graves contained
the bones of three or four persons. It was quite common to find the
bones of children and adults in one grave, though occasionally a grave
was occupied by several children. The relics, when there were any, were
always found by the side of the skull.

Where they procured the material to make the greenstone axes found
among their grave relics I cannot say, as it is a voleanic or igneous
rock, and none is found in this State. It is said that a bluff on the Mis-
souri River furnished the neighboring Indians with the material for
these and many other implements.

A jar holding about two quarts, and a small pot, were exhumed. In
the latter was found a piece of oxide of iron, weighing about two
ounces, which shows a worn spot, where it had been scraped by the
owners to obtain paint for their bodies. It readily yields a dusky-red
color on being moistened. In one of the graves were found five beauti-
ful oblong beads of amber, two inches long, and in the center one-half
inch in diameter. They were smoothly bored, and, though showing
some cracks, were still entire. Unfortunately, these were stolen. They
showed a fine polish, and would have been prized by our ladies very
highly. I also saw a bead of the same material raised upon the drill of
a well-borer in this town, only differing from the others in the fact that
it was round and about the size ofa grape. It was accidentally lost by
the gentlemen who discovered it. I have a small implement of con-
glomerate—iron, silica, and pyroxene—so hard that the best file will
make no impression upon it, and tapering both ways from about one-
third its length. It is difficult to conceive its use, unless by the aid of
sharp sand it was used to bore or drill the bowl and stem-hole of their
pipes. It fits those openings in both the pipes which I have. I also
procured a large number of axes of every size, from the smallest toma-
hawk to the largest chopping-ax. Flint arrow-heads, harpoon-heads,
and spear-heads also are plentiful in my collection, besides many other
utensils and implements. On the bluffs of the Big Harpeth many pic-
tures of Indians, deer, buffalo, and bows and arrows are to be seen.
These pictures are rudely drawn, but the coloring is as perfect now as
when first put on. We have also bone awls, buckhorn handles for
knives, &e.

We now have to consider the most interesting relics found with the
dead aborigines, viz, the idols; and, as I have before stated, since it is
universally conceded that our Indians are the only known savage race
which does not worship idols, it is difficult to define the use to which
these relics were put by their owners. I have procured four speci-
mens, all of sandstone, except one made of clay and sand and burnt.
One of these idols weighs 274 pounds, and is cut from a solid block of
sandstone. It is remarkable for its great resemblance to the idols of

276 ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE.

India and China. The workmanship is rude, it is true, but faithful in
its details. The legs are only represented to the knees, There is an
attempt to show the hair, and at the back of the head there is a knot
of hair, with a loop for the suspension of ornaments. This figure does
not contain an opening like a pipe, and was evidently only intended as
a@ representation of aman. It was found lying in a grave by the side
of a huge skeleton, much taller than the present race of men. The
skeleton was in such a state of decay that it could n@t be preserved.
Another idol of sandstone of much ruder workmanship than the former
was found here. It weighs eight pounds, and was also taken from a
grave. Evidently art was in its earliest stages when this was executed,
and it is rather a caricature than a likenessof man. The arms folded
on the breast are only outlines traced in the stone, and the features are
made in a similar manner. The breasts are larger in proportion than
those of the former image, and from their prominence I am inclined to
think it was intended fora female. Another figure about the same size
and of the same material was found; it unquestionably represents a
woman. “The features are more distinct, and the arms, instead of being
“crossed, rest upon the side, with the hands upon the knees. The breasts
are well developed, and the spinal column is marked along the entire
length of the back. The head-dress is peculiar, the hair being in folds,
and divided into three separate parts, with a knot on the top of the head.
All these images were taken from graves, though mounds were in their
immediate vicinity. I have many other relics of the mound-builders,
but these comprise the most important and interesting.

ANTIQUITIES OF NASHVILLE, TENN.
By R. S. Ropertson, of Fort Wayne, Ind.

On the 27th of August, 1877, during the session of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, in company with Mr. H. U.
Rust, of Chicago, and Mr. E. Curtis, of Nashville, I visited a locality
famous for its stone graves, or “cist” burials. It is a vast cemetery,
situate on a hill-side, about two miles from the State House, beyond
Fisk University, the hill being crowned by Fort Zollicoffer, a Confed-
erate earth-work commanding the Cumberland River for a considerable
distance. Nearly all the hills and ridges in the vicinity are said to have
been occupied and used as cemeteries by theaborigines. A brief search
through a corn-field close at hand rewarded us with a number of perfect
and broken arrow-points and two pestles, one of which is peculiar from
having the upper end flattened like the “ fleshers,” or ‘ skin-dressing
implements.” The ground on the face of the hill, where denuded by
the action of the weather, is covered with periwinkle shells, and on
digging we found them everywhere mixed in large quantities with the

ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE. it iad

earth filling the graves. The graves, or ‘ cists,” do not seem to be laid
out according to any regular plan, though many of them are side by
side and located close together. We found none, however, in which the
same Slab was used as a partition between two burials, but those opened
were complete in themselves. Of two completely exhumed by us, lying
side by side, one had stone slabs lying on the bottom upon which the
body had been laid. The sides and ends of the grave were lined with
thin limestone slabs, making a complete stone cist, about six feet long
and just wide enough for the body to be placed within it, with the arms
pressed close to the side. The body had been placed on its back, but
the head had fallen a little to the right side, and the pressure of the
earth had caused a distortion of the base of the skull in the opposite
direction from the point on which the skull rested. Close to the left
shoulder a small earthen vase, holding about a gill, was found. It had
perforated ears for suspension, and was filled with some carbonized
matter. The skeleton of a child, of about two years (as we surmise
from the condition of the teeth), lay between or upon the legs of the
adult (probably a female), its head between the thighs, and the body
extended down along the legs. The earth inside the cist was very com?
pact, and mixed very thoroughly with periwinkle shells. I concluded,
from the compactness of the earth within the cist, that it had been
heaped up and the slabs laid upon the heap to allow for settling, as no
space existed between the covering siabs and the earth beneath.

In the next grave there were no stones forming a bottom to the cist,
but the body lay upon the earth. In this case the head had not turned
at all, and the distortion by compression was a flattening of the rear of
the skull, so that the diameter from front to rear was less than the lat-
eral diameter. No ornaments, tools, or pottery were discovered in this
grave, but a flint arrow-head of the blunt pattern was found in the earth
above the covering slabs. Another noticeable feature was the fact that
part of the covering had fallen in at one side. Had the stone been laid
upon the upright slabs forming the sides, it could hardly have fallen in
in that manner, but must have broken by the weight of the superin-
cumbent earth. The earth filling the grave, as in the other, was mixed
with shells.

These graves are found everywhere about Nashville, and within the
city limits. On the ridges close to the Sulpbur Spring, the stones in-
closing such graves may be seen protruding from the ground, where the
earth above has weathered off. Fragments of pottery abound, some of
the common sort, and others very thick—about one-half to three-fourths
inch—composed of a grayish clay, with large fragments of shells. The
vessels of which they were part must have been very large. Tradition-
ally, they are believed to have been used in evaporating salt from the
spring. <A brief search resulted in finding numerous specimens on the
surface and protruding from the sides of the ridges near the surface.

ate ANTIQUITIES OF TENNESSEE.

It is said that the saline properties of the spring were more notice-
able before the deep bore was made which produced the sulphur water,
which is so much patronized. The well is now 300 feet deep.

My main object in presenting these facts is to call attention to the
distorted condition of the crania. In my opinion many otherwise acute
observers have been misled in their classification of skulls by the ap-
pearance of those distorted by pressure.

My experience has led me to believe that many skulls considered ab-
normal, or as belonging to a race type, are simply distorted by the
pressure of the superincumbent earth. To illustrate: If a corpse has
been buried in a sandy or otherwise loose earth, with the eyes turned
upward, as the soft parts decay, the skull is filled by the earth pene-
trating or silting down through the sockets so as to present a resistance
to pressure, and we may expect to find a skull in the normal condition.
If, on the other hand, the earth is hard and not of a quality to penetrate
and fill the skull, or if the skull be turned to one side so as to prevent
it being filled except by a slow process, we may expect to find the skull
distorted, bent as it were, and, so far as my experience goes, the rule is
invariable. If the head lay on its side we should bave a dolichocephalic,
and if upon its back a brachycephalic sknll, without any breaking of
the bone. If turned to either side, we should have a distorted skull,
which belongs to neither class, but might be unwittingly classed as a
“ type,” or as an abnormal development.

ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA.
By CHARLES C. JONES, JR.
4
BIRD-SHAPED STONE TUMULI IN PUTNAM COUNTY, GEORGIA.

The existence of curious effigy-mounds in the southern counties of
Wisconsin was noted by Mr. Lapham in 1836. Subsequently, Mr. Tay-
lor, Professor Locke, and Messrs. Squier and Davis furnished additional
information in regard to the distinctive characteristics of these unusual
structures. It was reserved, however, for the Smithsonian Institution,
in the seventh volume of its ‘ Contributions,” to furnish, from the pen
of Mr. Lapham, the most complete account of these interesting remains.
They were quite numerous along the great Indian trail or war-path
from Lake Michigan, near Milwaukee, to the Mississippi above the
Prairie du Chien. Generally representing men, buffaloes, elks, bears,
otters, wolves, raccoons, birds, serpents, lizards, turtles, and frogs, in
some instances they were supposed to typify inanimate objects, such as
bows and arrows, crosses, and tobacco-pipes. While the outlines of not

ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA. 279

a few had been seriously impaired, others in a spirited and correct man-
ner declared the objects of their imitation. Constructed of earth, they
varied in height from 6 inches to 7 feet. In certain localities the
animals were delineated not in relief but in intaglio, by excavations
and not by elevations.

Two animal mounds have been observed in Ohio. Onanelevated spur
of land near Granville is an earthwork known in the neighborhood as
the Alligator. Its total length is 250 feet. The head and body, four
sprawling legs and a curled tail, were all clearly defined. Across the
body it was 40 feet broad, and the length of the legs was 36 feet. Four
feet expressed the average height, while at the shoulders the mound
attained an elevation of 6 feet. It was manifestly the effort of the
primitive workmen to preserve the proportions of the reptile.

Situated on a ridge rising 150 feet above Brush Creek, in Adams
County, is a still more remarkable structure, which, from its contigura-
tion, has received the appellation of the Great Serpent. ‘Conforming
to the curve of the hill, and occupying its very summit, is the serpent,
its head resting near the point and its body winding back for 700 feet in
graceful undulations, terminating in a triple coil at the tail.” If ex-
tended, its entire length would be not less than 1,000 feet. The em-
bankment is upward of 5 feet high, with a base diameter of 30 feet at
the center of the body, whence it diminishes somewhat toward the head
and tail. “The neck of the serpent is stretched out and slightly curved,
and its mouth is opened wide, as if in the act of swallowing or ejecting
an oval figure, which rests partially within the distended jaws.”

When and by whom these remarkable tumuli were built is not known.
The object of their construction is equally a matter of conjecture.

It has been supposed that these animal-shaped mounds existed only in
Wisconsin and a tew other localities in the West. Our recent observa-
tions prove, however, that the primitive dwellers in the South have left
similar traces of their constructive skill.

Six miles and a half north of Eatonton, in Putnam County, Georgia,
on a plantation owned by the heirs of the late Mr. I. H. Scott, may
now be seen a bird-shaped mound of definite configuration. Located
in the midst of a beautiful wood, and crowning a high ridge near the
headwaters of Little Glady Creek, it is composed entirely of bowlders of
white quartz rock, gathered from the adjacent territory. Most of these
bowlders are of such size that they could have been transported by a
single individual. For the removal of others two or three persons
would have been requisite. These bowlders were carefully piled one
above another, the interstices being filled with smaller fragments of
milky quartz. Into the composition of the structure enters neither earth

nor clay.

280 ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA.

FIG.1.

ee ee ee = = — eee

°o
\
'
1
‘
1
i]

Gres Se ee ea wanna --- 24-4 -
1

7

=== 24-6--

Scale 40 feet to 1 inch.

Bird-shaped stone mound in Putnam County, Georgia.

This stone mound represents an eagle lying upon its back, with ex-
tended wings. (See I'ig.1.) The head is turned toward the east. In
the construction of this tumulus respect was had to the object imitated ;
the height of the tumulus at the breast of the bird being between 7 and
8 feet, its altitude thence decreasing toward the head and beak, where
it is not more than 24 feet high, and also toward the extremity of the
wings and tail, where it has an eievation of scarcely 2 feet. The beak
is decidedly aquiline, and the tail is indented. Measured from the top
of the head to the extremity of the tail this structure is 102 feet long.
From tip to tip of the wings, measured across the body, we have a dis-
tance of 120 feet. The greatest expanse of tail is 38 feet, the same as
the lateral diameter of the body. The proportions of the head, neck,
wings, and tail are cleverly preserved. That this tumulus was designed
to typify an eagle, we think may be affirmed with some degree of con-
fidence, and that it possesses unusual attractions will not be denied.
Surrounded by primitive forest and composed of most durable material,
its antiquity is evidently very considerable. If undisturbed, it will
preserve its integrity for an indefinite period.

By some curious persons an attempt was made, years ago, to pry into
its secrets. A partial opening was effected in the breast, but with what
results we could not learn. It excites no surprise that the eagle should
have been selected in ancient times as a symbol of all that was swift,
powerful, watchful, daring, and noble. Of its feathers was the battle-
flag of the Creeks made. Their council-lodges were surmounted with

ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA. 281

carved images or stuffed skins of this regal bird. None among the
Cherokees, save approved warriors, were permitted to wear its plumes.
To this king of the feathered tribe were religious honors paid by the
Natchez, who regarded its feathers not simply as ornaments and tro-
phies, but as marks of dignity and insignia of no common import.

About a mile and a half from Lawrence’s Ferry, on the Oconee River,
and situated on a stony ridge near the main road, on the plantation of
Mr. Kinchen D. Little, in Putnam County, is another of these bird-
Shaped mounds. Like the former, it is composed wholly of bowlders
of white quartz rock, collected from the hill on which it stands. (See
Fig, 2.)

FE na a FIG. 2).
zo

eG

54 4

~12:3.-S2-

o
©
)
Bon
°
oo

°
20 eo?
nooo en amenacescoe

Scale 40 feet to 1 inch.

Bird-shaped stone mound in Putnam County, Georgia.

Its dimensions do not materially differ from those of the tumulus on
the Scott place. The tail, however, is bifurcated. The head of the bird
lies to the southeast, and its wings are extended in the direction of
northeast and southwest. The entire length of the structure, from the
crown of the head to the end of the tail, is 102 feet and 3 inches.
For a distance of twelve feet the tail is bifurcated, and just above the
point of bifurcation it is 12 feet wide. Across the body, and from tip
to tip of the wings, the tape gave us a measurement of 132 fect. The
body of this bird, which is evidently lying upon its back, is stouter than

282 ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA.

that of the eagle, being 76 feet in diameter. Its wings are relatively
shorter. The proportions of the head, neck, and tail are tolerably well
observed. What particular bird this tumulus is designed to typify, we
are at a loss to suggest. The altitude at the breast is about 5 feet, and
from that point the structure tapers to the head and tail, which are some
two feet high. At the tips of the wings, which are short and curved, the
height is not more than a foot and a half. The ridge upon which this
mound rests has never been cleared.

Surrounding this bird-shaped tumulus is an inclosure of rocks similar
to those of which the mound is built. This stone-circle is symmetrical
in outline, and at its nearest approach passes within a few feet of the
tips of the wings.

Crowning the elevated ridges by which this county is traversed, are
occasional rock-mounds of artificial origin. Usually from 4 to 8 feet
high, and with base diameters of from 30 to 40 feet, they are circular in
form, and are composed of the fragments of milky quartz so common
jn the region. Some have been opened, and from them have been taken
human bones and relics of various sorts. Manifestly such are grave-
mounds, it being easier in the rocky neighborhood to heap such stone-
piles above than to cover the dead with earth. Of this class of tumuli
we instance one on the plantation of Dr. J. T. de Jarnette, 12 miles from
Eatonton and about a mile from the Oconee River, and another on the
land owned by Capt. A. S. Reid, four miles from Eatonton and near
Little River.

it was intimated by some of the early observers that tumuli of this
description were not infrequently temporary in their character, and
designed as a protection to the dead who perished away from their
homes, until such time as they could be conveniently removed and carried
back for interment in the established burial-grounds of the tribe or com-
munity of which the deceased were members. While it may be true
that some, and perhaps many of the smaller rock-piles so frequent in
many portions of Cherokee Georgia, may have originated in this way, we
are of opinion that the substantial structures to which we have alluded
are permanent in their character, and were erected as enduring memo-
rials of the primitive dead of this region. Surely no more lasting mon-
uments could have been devised at that early period.

The existence of two distinctly marked bird-shaped mounds, of firm
construction and excellent proportions, within the territory occupied by
the Southern tribes, is deeply interesting, and will attract the attention
of the student of American archeology.

ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA, 283

iE;

ANCIENT TUMULI ON THE SAVANNAH RIVER, VISITED BY WILLIAM
BARTRAM, IN 1776.

Near the close of aspring day in 1776, Mr. William Bartram, who, at
the request of Dr. Fothergill, of London, had been for some time study-
ing the flora of Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, forded Broad River just
above its confluence with the Savannah, and became the guest of the
commanding officer at Fort James. This fort was situated on an emi-
nence in the forks of the Savannah and Broad, equidistant from those
rivers, and from the extreme point of land formed by their union. Fort
Charlotta was located about a mile below, on the left bank of the Sa-
vannah. The stockade of Fort James was an acre in extent.

Fig. 1.

TUMULI
VISITED BY 9
Wu BARTRAM Q

SCALE.2 MILES TO 1 INCH

Ancient tumuli on the Savannah River.

Attended by the polite surgeon of the garrison, Bartram made an
excursion up the Savannah River, ‘to inspect some remarkable Indian

284 ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA.

monuments,” four or five miles above the fort. Of them he writes as
follows: ‘¢ These wonderful labors of the ancients stand in a level plain
very near the bank of the river, now 20 or 30 yards from it. They con-
sist of conical mounts of earth, and four square terraces, &c. The great
mount is in the form of a cone, about 40 or 50 feet high, and the cir-
cumference of its base two or three hundred yards, entirely composed
of the loamy, rich earth of the low grounds; the top or apex is flat; a
spiral path or track leading from the ground up to the top is still visi-
ble, where now grows a large, beautiful spreading red cedar (Juniperus
Americana). There appear four niches excavated out of the sides of the
hill, at different heights from the base, fronting the four cardinal points ;
these niches or sentry-boxes are entered from the winding path, and
seem to have been meant for resting places or lookouts. The circum-
jacent grounds are cleared and planted with Indian corn at present,
and I think the proprietor of these lands, who accompanied us to this
place, said that the mount itself yielded above one hundred bushels in
one season. The land hereabouts is indeed exceeding fertile and pro-
ductive.”

Fic. 2.

Ancient tumuli on the Savannah River.

Unable satisfactorily to determine the precise object the aborigines
had in contemplation in the erection of this striking monument, he
hazards the conjecture that the Indians formerly possessed a town on
the river bank, and raised this mound as “a retreat and refuge in case
of inundations, which are unforeseen, and surprise them very suddenly,
spring and autumn.”

What were the uses of the smaller elevations he does not suggest.

Wishing to note the changes which might have occurred during the
past hundred years, we visited these tumuli a few weeks since. The |
attendant mounds, which are mainly grave-mounds, had been materially
wasted by the plowshare and the influences of the varying seasons.

ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA. 285

The tetragon terraces had lost their distinctive outlines, and were little
more than gentle elevations; their surfaces littered with sherds of pot-
tery and flint chips, and occasionally with fragments of human bones.
Freshets had sadly marred the level of the adjacent space. Overleaping
the river bank, the turbid waters had carved deep pathways in the sur-
face of the valley on both sides of the “ great mount.” There it re-
mained, however, wholly unaffected by these unusual currents. It had
evidently suffered no perceptible diminution in its recorded dimensions.
The Savannah River still pursued its long-established channel, but “the
four niches or sentry-boxes,” if they formerly existed, were entirely gone,
and of “the spiral path or track leading from the ground up to the top”
we could discover no trace. On the south a roadway, about 15 feet
wide and commencing at a point some distance from the base of the
mound, leads with a regular grade to the top. This manifestly fur-
nished the customary means of ascent, as the sides are too precipitous
for convenient climbing. This feature seems to have escaped Mr. Bar-
tram’s observation.

Not having been cultivated for many years, the apex and sides of this
truncated cone are now clothed in a luxuriant growth of trees and
swamp cane. Attired in such attractive garb, this tumulus forms a
marked object in the profile of the valley from which it springs. Proofs
of long-continued occupancy, by the aborigines, of the adjacent territory
are abundant. Ancient burial-places, the sites of old villages, traces
of open-air work-shops for the manufacture of implements of jasper,
quartz, chert, greenstone, and soapstone, refuse piles, and abandoned
fishing resorts, are by no means infrequent along both banks of the Sa-
vannah River for many miles. Upon the advent of the European the
circumjacent valley was found cleared and in cultivation by the red
men, who here had fixed abodes and were associated in considerable
numbers. The Southern tribes, in the sixteenth century, subsisted
largely upon maize, beans, pumpkins, and melons. These they planted,
tended, and harvested regularly. Of their agricultural labors at the
dawn of the historic period we have full accounts.

So vast are the proportions of this largest mound that we are per-
suaded it rises beyond the dignity of an artificial place of retreat, eleva-
tion for chieftain-lodge, or mound of observation.

It appears entirely probable that it was a temple-mound, built for sun-
worship, and that it forms one of a well-ascertained series of similar
structures still extant within the limits of the Southern States. These
Florida tribes, as they were called in the days of De Soto, worshiped the
sun and were frequently engaged in the labor of mound-building. Over
them ruled kings who exercised powers well-nigh despotic. Often were
the concentrated labors of the nation directed to the accomplishment of
allotted tasks. Hence, within the territory occupied by these people,
we find many traces of early constructive skiil of unusual magnitude.

The material employed in erecting this large tumulus differs from the
soil of the surrounding bottom. It is a dark-colored, tenacious clay,

286 ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA.

while the surface of the valley is covered with a micaceous loam readily
dissolving into an almost impalpable powder. Near by are no traces
of pits or excavations. Nor are there indications that any earth was
scraped up around the base. These facts afforded confirmation of the
statement made by the present owner of the plantation upon which
these tumuli are located, that the big mound had been built with clay
brought from the Carolina side of the Savannah River. There clay
abounds ; and we were informed that in the side of the hill immediately
opposite, the excavations may still be seen whence the tough material
was obtained for heaping up this mound. This tumulus is one of the
finest within the limits of Georgia, and should be classed with the
truneated pyramids on Tumlin’s plantation in the Etowah Valley, with
the largest of the East Macon mounds, and with that frustrum of a four-
sided pyramid on Messier’s place, in Early County.

het.
ANCIENT TUMULI ON THE OCONEE RIVER.

About a mile and a half north of the Fontenoy Mills, in Greene
County, Georgia, and located on the left bank of the Oconee River, are
three tumuli surrounded by traces of extensive and long-continued in-
humations, The largest (A) is situated rather more than 100 yards

WW

’

SCALE J000 FEET. TO 1]. INCH.

Ancient tumuli on the Oconee River,

ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA. 287

east of the river, and rises about 40 feet above the level of the valley.
In general outline it may be described as a truncated cone. Its apex
diameters, measured north and south, and east and west, were respect-
ively, 65 and 68 feet. At the base, however, the flanks are extended in
the direction of the east and west to such a degree that there is a differ-
ence of 35 feet between the base-diameters running north and south,
and east and west; the former being 133 feet and the latter 168 feet. At
the center of the top may be seen a circular depression, some 20 feet wide
and 2 feet deep. Toward the north the face of this tumulus is quite
precipitous. When first observed by the European, this monument
was covered with a growth of trees as dense and apparently as old as
that of the circumjacent lowlands. When the neighboring fields were
cleared, this mound was also denuded of its vegetation and cultivated,
its rich surface yielding generous harvests both of corn and cotton.
Although now overgrown with brambles and small trees, which materi-
ally retarded minute inspection, it appeared quite probable from the
sears on the surface of the valley in the immediate vicinity, that some
severe freshet years ago impinged upon the northern base of this mound
and carried away 2 considerable portion of its northern flank.

Rather more than 100 yards to the north of this tumulus, and trend-
ing to the northwest, is an irregularly shaped excavation (B), 2t present
from 10 to 15 feet deep and partially filled with water, from which the
earth used in the construction of these tumuli was obtained.

‘As yet no attempt has been made to open the large mound, but
a its eastern face the overflowing waters of the Oconee at one
time dashed, wearing it away for some distance and leaving there a
perpendicular front of 10 feet or more. Here were disclosed human
bones, the skeletons of dogs, and large beads made of the columns of
the Strombus gigas. If this partial revelation be accepted as indicative
of the general contents of the tumulus, it should be classed as a huge
grave-mound. We decline, however, adopting this conclusion without
further information. It may be that the remains and relics then un-
earthed belonged to later and secondary interments. Instances of this
sort, as we well know, are of frequent occurrence.

Two hundred yards to the south is an elliptical grave-mound (C), not
more than 4 feet high, but covering a considerable area. This struct-
ure, in the direction of its major axis, is about 150 feet long. Its minor
axis is two-thirds less. The surface and neighborhood abound with
human bones, sherds of pottery, fragments of pipes, shell-beads, muscle-
shells, and various other relics. Across a shallow lagoon, and 250 yards
southeast of the large tumulus, is a third mound (D), well preserved, 10
feet high, and quite level at the top. In every direction, except where
it looks toward the north, its sides slope gently. Ilaving been constantly
cultivated for many years, this structure has encountered no inconsid-
erable waste. At the base its north and south diameter was 100 feet.
Measured at right angles, the other diameter was 88 feet. Similar meas-

288 ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA.

urements across the top indicated 50 feet and 40 feet. To the east,
west, and south, are traces of spurs or graded ways for easy ascent.

This mound occupies a central and commanding position in the mid-
dle of a fertile alluvial field of fifty acres. Although its contents are
unknown, we conceived the impression that it was designed as an eleva-
tion for a chieftain’s lodge, since the Spanish historians mention the
existence of artificial tumuli erected for this purpose. Around the base,
and for a considerable distance on every hand, are traces of primitive
occupancy, all persuading us of the fact that, in former times, this tum-
ulus was surrounded by the dwellings cf people who had here fixed
their home.

The space adjacent to the large tumulus (A), to the extent of some
four acres, appears to have been largely, if not exclusively, dedicated to
the purposes of sepulture. Every freshet which sweeps over this area
uncovers human skeletons, disposed in every direction only a few fret
below the surface. So thoroughly and frequently has this territory been
torn by freshets that it has lost its original level, and now exhibits on
every hand heaps of broken pottery, quantities of human bones, and
fragments of various articles of use, sport, and ornament. The freshet
of 1840 was the first, so far as we can learn, which in a marked manner
invaded the precincts of this ancient burial ground. Upon the subsi-
dence of the waters many were attracted to the spot by the multitude
of terra-cotta vessels, human bones, shell-beads, pipes, discoidal stor
grooved axes, celts, and other objects of primitive manufacture.
gentleman collected nearly a quart of pearls which had been perforate?
and worn as beads. The plantation negroes supplied themselves with
clay pipes then unearthed. In the possession of not a few of them were
seen strong clay vessels, thence obtained, which they used for boiling
soap. Large calumets and other objects of special interest were secured
by the curious and carried to their homes, where, for a season, they
formed matter for speculation and idle talk, and in the end were either
lost or broken. Subsequent inundations have brought to light similar
proofs of sepulture and early manufacture, but this treasure-house has
been so often visited and so carefully searched that its present yield
falls far short of that which was encountered when the Harrison freshet
invaded this place of the dead.

It is a sad fact that the denudation of the banks of these southern
streams and the destruction of extensive forests in reducing wild lands
to a state of cultivation have proved the proximate causes of serious in-
jury to, and often of the total demolition of, many prominent and inter-
esting aboriginal structures.

On the right bank of the Oconee River, about a mileand a half above
its confluence with the Appalachee River, situated in the low grounds
of the plantation of Mr. Thomas P. Saffold, is a circular earth mound
some 20 feet high, covering about the eighth of an acre. The sides are
sloping, as in the case of other conical mounds along the line of this

ABORIGINAL STRUCTURES IN GEORGIA: 289

river, but the peculiarity which distinguishes it from its companions is
that around the apex stout earth walls were raised to the height of sev-
eral feet, thus causing a depressed or guarded top.

Near the banks of the Appalachee River, in Morgan County, may still
be seen occasional artificial pits, some 4 feet in depth and 6 feet or more
in diameter. Uponremoving the débris of leaves and earth with which
they are filled, their bottoms and sides indicate the influence of long-
continued and intense fires. Fragments of pottery also occur in them.
It would seem that they constituted a sort of rude oven in which the
Indians baked their clay vessels.

We might multiply instances of tumuli still extant in the valleys of
the Oconee and its tributaries, but having already described and figured
those in Hast Macon and its vicinity,* enough has probably been said
to convey an intelligent idea of the aboriginal monuments of this sec-
tion.

ANTIQUITIES OF SPALDING COUNTY, GEORGIA.
By W. B. F. Bamny, of Grifin, Ga.

About three miles west of Griffin, in a field known to the inhabitants
of this vicinity by the name of Walnut Level, is, from present appear-
alices, a place where once a thrifty Indian village was situated; but

4 ther inhabited by the Creek Indians or by the more ancient mound-
ilders is unknown. This field contains, in one place, a perfectly level
plain of four or five acres, which, when first cleared, was a walnut
grove, in which the Indian village was situated. East of the village,
and not more than 100 yards distant, runs a beautiful little stream, now
known as ‘“ Wilson’s Mill Creek.” This stream and the fertility of the
land no doubt attracted the people of this ancient village. With the
exception of broken pottery and a few arrow-heads, no relics are left to
mark this spot; though I am told by the old inhabitants that when the
field was first cleared they would plow up urns of a curious shape, but
not deeming them of any importance left them on the ground; and
nothing now remains but a vast quantity of broken fragments. Of this
pottery there are thousands of pieces, ranging in size from that of a
silver dime to pieces as large as one’s hand. I have no doubt but that
aman could gather five or six bushels of fragments in one day. This
pottery is of two different styles of workmanship, one being plain and
the other carved in the “cord fashion.” These relics are fast dis-
appearing, and in a few more years scarcely anything will remain
except a few arrow-heads. One mile east of this is a small lake, about
a quarter of a mile in length and 30 feet wide, with an average depth
of 4 feet. Onthe banks of this lake and in the surrounding fields a
- great number of arrow-heads are scattered around. The water in the

*Antiquities of the Southern Indians, &c., p. 158 et seg., New York, 1673.
i) ss

290 ANTIQUITIES OF GEORGIA AND ALABAMA,

lake is fast failing, having sunk about 4 feet in the last ten years, and
ere long it, too, will be numbered with things of the past.

Judging from the alluvial deposits on its banks, this was, at the time
when this Indian village flourished, a great lake for this part of Georgia.
Fish of all species common to the country are found in great abundance
here. From the number of relics found and the great quantity of fish
at present in the lake, I have no doubt that this place was once their
favorite hunting ground. About midway between the lake and village
was an earth-work. I only hear this from others, as it was plowed down
level with the ground long before Iwas born. People who have seen it
say that it resembled the breastworks of the present day; that it was
circular in form, inclosing about two acres, with a base 8 or 10 feet wide,
4 or 5 feet wide on the top, and an average height of 18 inches. They
supposed, and some still think, that it was made by De Soto, and that
he had a fight with the Indians here; others think that it was made
during the Revolutionary war, while I attribute the work to a more
ancient age, namely, t he “ mound-builders.” If this work was really
done by the “‘ mound-builders” (and there can be no doubt of it), it is the
only trace left behind them in this vicinity. The idea that De Soto or
any other man had a fight with the Indians at this place is, to say the
least, absurd, for there are no implements of war found here other than
the arrows used in hunting, whereas if a fight had taken place between
De Soto and the Indians, some kind of war implements would have been

found.
a ‘we

SHELL-HEAPS ON MOBILE RIVER.
By A. S. GAINES AND K. M. CUNNINGHAM, of Mobile, Ala.

The Smithsonian Institution has received a very valuable collection
of shell-heap relics from Simpson Island, at the mouth of Mobile River.
They were sent by Mr. A. L. Gaines, land commissioner of the Mobile
and Ohio Railroad, who gives the chief credit for their discovery and
transmission to Mr. K. M. Cunningham, from whom the Institution has
received several communications, accompanied by sketches of the speci-
mens.

These shell-heaps are very numerous on the banks of the Mobile
River at its mouth, especially upon Simpson Island, which forms the
delta between the mouth of the Mobile and that of the Tensas. Many
of them are the sites of market-gardens, and the shells from those most
accessible to the water have been utilized in paving the stock-yards of
the railroads, and the grounds around the cotton warehouses in Mobile.
The one from which the relics in question were recovered is about 19
miles above Mobile, on the land of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad, and
200 feet from the water’s edge. The heaps are composed almost entirely

STOCK-IN-TRADE OF AN ABORIGINAL LAPIDARY. 291

of clam-shells, although a few specimens of Arca incongrua, Neritina,
Melania, and Fusus cinereus are met with.

Human remains have been found in great abundance even upon the
surface. Mr. Cunningham reports the discovery of portions of fourteen
skeletons. Of the perfect crania found, one was very much distorted,
the other was slightly flattened on one side. Bone implements were
also recovered, sharpened at the end like a toothpick. But the most
interesting part of the collection is the pottery, thousands of fragments
having been recovered on this single occasion. Five entire vessels
were saved, and fragments of one or two others which can be repaired.
Of the entire vessels, No. 1, 18 inches wide and 14 inches deep, is com-
posed of coarse material, shells and clay, brown outside and red inside.
In shape it is an inverted conoid, with perpendicular rim. There is no
ornamentation excepting a line drawn around the base of the neck. It
contained human remains, and when found was covered by a flat dish
in the same manner as the burial jars of Nicaragua. No. 2 is a flat in-
verted conoid, 74 inches deep and 18 inches in diameter, angular at the
widest part, and with perpendicular rim. The portion from the bulge
to the neck is elaborately ornamented with sigmoid lines and dots, at
intervals interrupted by figures which resemble a pair of hands or feet.
This is a very unique specimen in smoothness and ornamentation. Sev-
eral of the broken jars were similarly ornamented. No. 3 is similar in
shape and ornamentation to No. 2, 3 inches deep and 6 inches wide.
The rim was formerly furnished with knobs or handles. No.4 is a plain,
round-bottomed cup, 34 inches deep and 4 inches in diameter. No.5
resembles in shape an ordinary dinner pot, 6 inches deep and 6 inches
in diameter. It is to be hoped that further researches will be made in
this interesting locality.

THE STOCK-IN-TRADE OF AN ABORIGINAL LAPIDARY.
(Mississippi.)

By CHARLES Rav.

In an essay entitled “Ancient Aboriginal Trade in North America,”
which was published in the Smithsonian Report for the year 1872, I
attempted to trace the beginning of a division of labor among the
former inhabitants of this country. I expressed the opinion that certain
individuals, who were, by inclination or practice, particularly qualified
for a distinct kind of manual labor, devoted themselves principally or
entirely to that labor, basing my conjecture on the occurrence of manu-
factured articles of homogeneous character in mounds or in deposits
below the surface of the soil. There is little doubt, for instance,
that there were persons who devoted their time chiefly to the manufact-
ure of stone arrow-heads and of other articles produced by chipping,
among which may be mentioned those remarkable large digging tools

292 STOCK-IN-TRADE OF AN ABCRIGINAL LAPIDARY.

described by me several years ago,* and the oval or leaf-shaped imple-
ments made of the peculiar hornstone of “ Flint Ridge,” in Ohio. These
latter, which bear much resemblance to certain paleolithic types of
Europe, were first noticed by Mr. E. G. Squier, who found, many years
ago, a large deposit of them in a low mound of “Clark’s Work,” in Ross
County, Ohio. An excavation, six feet long and four feet wide, disclosed
about six hundred specimens, which were standing edgewise, forming
two layers, one immediately above the other. The deposit extended
beyond the limits of the excavation on every side, and hence the actual
number of specimens has not become known.t Since that time deposits
composed of objects of corresponding shapes and of the same material
have been discovered, generally under the ground, in Illinois, Wiscon-
sin, and Kentucky; but the area of their distribution may be much
greater. Dr. J. F. Snyder has described the Illinois deposits in the
Smithsonian Report for 1876.4 That of Beardstown, in Cass County,
is of special interest. It contained about fifteen hundred leaf-shaped or
round implements, arranged in five horizontal layers, which were sepa-
rated by thin strata of clay. According to Dr. Snyder, another deposit,
said to have consisted of three thousand five hundred specimens, was
discovered in Fredericksville, Schuyler County, in the same State.
Smaller subterranean deposits of flint arrow-heads, cutters, &ec., have
been met with in various States in the eastern half of this continent,
the articles showing in many cases no traces of use whatever, and gen-
erally exhibiting a symmetrical order in their arrangement. Such facts
naturally lead to the supposition that flint-chipping formed a special
profession, and, furthermore, that the objects found in these hiding-
places, or “caches”, constituted the magazines of the aboriginal crafts-
men. The deposit of Clark’s Work, it should be stated, has been thought
to owe its occurrence in a mound of peculiar structure to superstitious
or religious motives, and thus to partake cf a sacrificial character.
This view, however, whether correct or not, has no bearing on the point
in question, namely, the production of the chipped articles by way of
trade.

The carved stone pipes, representing imitations of the human bead,
of quadrupeds, birds, &c., which were found in great number by Messrs.
Squier and Davis in a mound of the group called “ Mound City,” not
far from Chillicothe, Ohio, illustrate the highest development of early
aboriginal art in this country.§ Their production required much skill
and patient endurance, and hence we may infer that the manufacture of
stone pipes formed in past times a branch of industry which was chiefly
carried on by persons who possessed an extraordinary talent for this

* A Deposit of Agricultural Flint Implements in Southern Illinois, Smithsonian Report
for 1868, p. 401.

+ Squier and Davis: Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, Washington, 1848,
p. 158; representations of the objects on p. 214.

t Deposits of Flint Implements, p. 433.
§ Ancient Monuments, &e., p. 242, &e.

7

STOCK-IN-TRADE OF AN ABORIGINAL LAPIDARY. 293

peculiar kind of work. There are to this day pipe-makers among the
Ojibway Indians, and probably among other tribes.

In corroboration of the foregoing, I may state that certain handicrafts
were practised to some extent by the North American Indians at the
time of their first intercourse with the whites. ‘They have some,” says
Roger Williams, “ who follow onely making of Bowes, some Arrowes, some
Dishes (and the women make all their Earthen Vessells), some follow fish-
ing, some hunting: most on the Sea side make Money, and Store up shells
in Summer against Winter whereof to make their money.”* These re-
marks, of course, relate to the New England tribes, with whom Roger
Williams used to associate; but a later writer, Lawson, gives a similar
account of the Southern Indians, among whom labor was doubtless still
more systematized, considering that they had attained a somewhat
higher degree of civilization than their Northern kinsmen. It is known
that until within late years the manufacture of arrow-heads was prac-
tised as a profession by certain individuals among several Indian tribes.

I will now proceed to describe a deposit of aboriginal manufactures,
which illustrates the subject of division of labor among the earlier in-
habitants of this country better than any other discovery of kindred
character with which I have become acquainted.

In the spring of 1876, Mr. T. J. R. Keenan, of Brookhaven, Lincoln
County, Mississippi, presented to the National Museum a collection of
jasper ornaments, mostly unfinished, which had been found in Lawrence
County, in the same State, forming a deposit of a very remarkable
Character. Being desirous of learning the particulars of this discovery,
I addressed a letter to Mr. Keenan, and obtained from him the desired
information. The deposit was accidentally discovered on the farm of
Anthony Hutchins, situated on the east side of Silver Creek, about one
mile distant from Hebron church, in the northeastern part of the above-
named county. While Mr. Huchins’s son was engaged ore day in July,
1875, in ploughing a cotton-field, entirely free from pebbles and stones of
any kind, a grating of the ploughshare attracted his attention, and upon
examination he found that he had struck the deposit, which appeared
originally to have been buried two feet and a half below the surface,
filling an excavation of about eighteen inches in diameter. The
arrangement of the articles coustituting this deposit will be described
hereafter. They all consist of jasper of a red or reddish color, which is
sometimes variegated with spots or streaks of a pale yellow. But few
of these objects, which were undoubtedly designed for ornament, may
be considered as entirely finished.

The following is an inventory of the specimens sent to the National
Museum by Mr. Keenan:

1. Twenty-two pebbles of jasper, showing no work whatever. They
are irregular in shape and mostly small, being from half an inch to an
inch and one-fourth in size.

* A Key into the Language of America (London, 1643); Providence, 1827; p. 133.

294 STOCK-IN-TRADE OF AN ABORIGINAL LAPIDARY.

2. Twelve rudimentary ornaments of different forms, brought into
shape by chipping.

3. Three polished pieces with narrow grooves, showing that cutting
was also resorted to in the manufacture of the objects.

4, Two hundred and ninety-five beads of more or less elongated cylin-
drical shape, measuring from one-fourth of an inch to three inches in
length, and from one-fourth of an inch to one inch in thickness.
Though they are polished, they exhibit but rarely a perfectly regular
cylinder form. Ten of them show the beginnings of holes, in most cases
at one end.

5. One hundred and one round beads of a more compressed or dis-
coidal shape. They are from one-eighth to five-eighths of an inch long,
while their diameters vary from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch.
They are polished, and only five of the number exhibit incipient holes.

6. Nine polished ornaments of elongated flattish shape, showing an
expansion on each side (like Fig. 10). They measure from an inch and
one-fourth to two inches and one-fourth in length, and from three-
fourths of an inch to an inch and one-fourth in width across the middle.
One specimen is partly drilled.

7. Two specimens of similar character, but expanding on one side
only (Fig. 11). They are from an inch and a half to two inches in
length and seven-eighths of an inch wide across the middle.

8. One large ornament showing two expansions on each side (Fig. 12).
A more minute description will follow.

9. Two small animal-shaped objects. They are about an inch long
and well polished.

10. Two semicircular polished pieces, probably designed to be worked
into the shapes of animals.

There are four hundred and forty-nine pieces in all. Mr. Keenan has
kept for himself sixteen specimens, and four had been disposed of be-
fore he became the owner of the collection. One of the latter was drilled
entirely through. Hence the entire deposit consisted of four hundred
and sixty-nine objects.

From the character of the inventory just given several inferences may
be drawn.

There can hardly be any doubt that the deposit constituted the stock-
in-trade of some aboriginal manufacturer of ornaments of jasper, which —
he made from pebbles of that material.* He shaped them by the oper-
ation of chipping before he proceeded to grinding, and he likewise ap-
plied the method of cutting in the manufacture of the articles. The cut-
ting, however, was done after the piece had been reduced to a certain
shape by grinding. The drilling of the beads and bead-like ornaments
was the final process in their fabrication. This fact affords an additional

“According to Mr. Keenan’s express statement, no jasper pebbles occur in the neigh-
borhood of the place where the ornaments were entombed. They must have been
brought from a distance.

STOCK-IN-TRADE OF AN ABORIGINAI, LAPIDARY. 295

proof that in this country stone objects requiring perforations were
brought into perfect shape before the drilling was commenced. The
same rule prevailed in Europe, as every one knows who has studied
the stone antiquities of that part of the world.

Jasper ornaments from Mississippi (4).

The accompanying illustrations represent, in full size, typical speci-
mens of the different classes of wrought articles composing the deposit.

Fig. 1.—A jasper pebble, chipped into the form of a cylindrical bead.
The smooth surface of the pebble has not entirely disappeared.

Fig. 2.—A long, comparatively slender piece, designed for abead. It

shows the chipping very distinctly, though the sharp edges have been
removed by grinding.

296 STOCK-IN-TRADE OF AN ABORIGINAL LAPIDARY.

Fig. 3.—Polished cylindrical* bead (undrilled).

Tig. 4.— Very regular and well polished cylindrical bead of a fine red
color (undrilled).

Tig. 5.—Long and slender bead, apparently not entirely ground into
shape (undrilled).

Tig. 6.—Large cylindrical bead, which exhibits a rather rough sur-
face, the traces of chipping not having been entirely removed by the
grinding process (undrilled).

Fig. 7.—Small cylindrical bead, polished, but not regular in shape,
and showing at one end the beginning of a hole, which forms a cylin-
drical cavity nearly three millimeters in diameter and two millimeters
in depth.

Fig. 8.—Polished bead of discoidal shape, with incipient holes at both
ends. One of the holes is merely indicated by a small depression; the
other forms a cup-like cavity of two and a half millimeters diameter and
two millimeters depth.

Fig. 9.—Ornament of clongated flattish shape, with an expansion on
each side. It is unfinished, having been brought into shape by chip-
ping alone.

Fig. 10.—Object of the same form; well polished, but not absolutely
regular in outline. There can be no doubt that the ornaments of this de-
scription were intended to be drilled in the direction of the longitudinal
axis. A broken specimen of the collection shows the commencements
of holes at both extremities.

Fig. 11.—Polished ornament of similar character, exhibiting an ex-
pansion or projection only on one side (undrilled).

Fig. 12.—Large polished ornament of elongated flattish form, with
{wo expansions on each side. The object is irregular in outline, the ex-
pansions being larger at one extremity than at the other. It is three-
fourths of an inch thick in the middle. A longitudinal perforation was
doubtless intended.

Fig. 13—A small, flattish, bird-shaped object, made of beautiful
cherry-red jasper, and well polished. The wings are indicated on both
sides by slight grooves.

Fig. 14.—A similar polished object of dark-red jasper, in which the
bird form is less distinctly expressed. Indeed, the maker may have pur-
posed to represent some quadruped. It would be unprofitable to spec-
ulate on the use of these two carvings. They probably were merely toys,
though it is not impossible that they had a totemic significance, or were
designed to serve as charms. They could not well be worn about the
person, and I doubt whether it was intended to perforate them.

Fig. 15—A polished semicircular piece, perhaps designed to be
worked into the shape of a bird; its size is exactly the same as that of
the original of Vig. 13.
mathematical sense, as I merely intend to indicate by it an approximate resemblance
to a cylinder.

STOCK-IN-TRADE OF AN ABORIGINAL LAPIDARY. 29M

Fig. 16.—A polished piece, of a compressed oval shape, showing two
parallel incisions in the direction of the minor axis. They were evidently
made with a sharp flint tool. It is probable that this specimen illus-
trates a stage in the manufacture of a small animal-shaped trinket, like
those already described, the piece being almost too flat to be made into
adead of cylindrical form.

Jasper ornaments from Mississippi ap.

It now remains to be stated in what manner the objects forming the
deposit were arranged. The large piece, represented by Fig. 12, lay flat
on the bottom of the hole; the long and massive cylindrical beads were

298 STOCK-IN-TRADE OF AN ABORIGINAL LAPIDARY.

placed on end, on and around it, as closely as possible, and the smaller
objects were spread over them in a rather promiscuous way.

The owner of the articles here described, we may suppose, had no in-
tention of leaving them buried in the ground; he would some day have
recovered them, had circumstances permitted. Death, captivity, or re-
moval to another part of the country, from which he never returned, may
have frustrated his design. The deposit in question shared the tate of
many others which have been preserved to our time, in order to add,
as it were, to our knowledge of the former occupants of this country.

It would be a vain endeavor to offer any conjecture as to the age
of the deposit. The objects appear absolutely fresh, not showing the
slightest alteration of the surface. Jasper, however, is a very hard sub-
stance, capable of resisting the influences of exposure for ages. On the
other hand, there is nothing that would militateagainst a comparatively
recent, though pre-Columbian, origin of the deposit.

It must have been a very difficult task to work a stone as hard as
jasper without the proper appliances, and we cannot but admire the
skill, and, above all, the patience of the artist or artists who fashioned
the ornaments from such an obdurate material. Yet it is known that
even at the present time mineral substances of equal hardness are
shaped and perforated in the most primitive manner by tribes occupy-
ing a very low position in other respects. The execution of such work
is but a trial of endurance, a quality displayed in an eminent degree by
uncivilized man when his mind is bent upon a definite purpose.

OBSERVATIONS ON A GOLD ORNAMENT FROM A MOUND IN FLORIDA.
By CuHar es Rav.

In December, 1877, Mr. Damon Greenleaf, of Jacksonville, Florida, sent
for examination to the National Museum a curious relic of gold, lately
discovered in a mound in Manatee County, Southern Florida, with a
request for information as to its probable origin and use.

The accompanying illustration represents the object in question re-
duced to one-half of its natural size, the original measuring exactly nine
inches from the point to the middle of the opposite curve. It is cut from
a flat piece of gold plate, not quite a millimeter in thickness, and some-
what thinner toward the edge. The specimen is broken in two pieces,
as indicated by the dotted line in the figure; but the two parts fit well
together, and thus the original character of the object remains unal-
tered. On the whole, it is in a good state of preservation, though the
effects of long exposure are plainly visible. Both faces appear bright
and smooth, and the engraved lines, which represent exactly the same
pattern on both sides, seem to be as fresh as on the day when they
were traced.

Little need be said concerning the shape of the ornament, considering
that all its features are distinctly expressed in the cut. The maker

OBSERVATIONS ON A GOLD ORNAMENT FROM FLORIDA. 299

evidently intended to represent a bird’s head, the neck of which forms
a blade-like prolongation, and the grotesque execution clearly illustrates

Gold ornament from a mound in Florida, and head of the ivory-billed woodpecker. (4).

the curious taste characterizing the ornamental work of the North
American Indian. It never would occur to a person of Caucasian origin
to represent a bird’s head in the peculiar manner here exhibited. The
eye of the bird, it should be stated, has been formed with great regu-
larity by the process of punching from the under side, and perfectly
resembles in size and convexity the head of a common brass tack.
However clumsy the design of the object may appear to a common
observer, the ornithologists of the National Museum have discovered
the prototype that was before the aboriginal artist’s mind. The trun-
cated bill and recurved crest leave no doubt that he intended to repre-
sent the ivory-billed woodpecker (Picus principalis, Linn.; Campephilus
principalis, Gray), a bird quite frequent in Southern Florida, but not
found at any great distance from the Gulf of Mexico. To facilitate
comparison, a half-size sketch of the head of the ivory-billed wood-
pecker is placed in juxtaposition with the cut representing the aborig-
inal relic.

The composition of the gold plate from which the specimen is made
indicates its post-Columbian origin. Having been forwarded, through
the courtesy of Mr. E. B. Elliott, chief clerk of the Bureau of Statistics,
to the Mint at Philadelphia, for the purpose of ascertaining its weight
and composition or fineness, it was found to weigh 1.53 ounces (troy),
and to consist exclusively of gold and silver, in the proportion of 893
parts of gold to 107 parts of silver. Consequently, the amount of gold
therein contained is 1.366 ounces, and of silver 0.164 ounce (troy).
The metal value of the relic is twenty-eight dollars and forty-five cents.
According to Mr. Elliott’s statement, its composition corresponds almost
exactly with that of the “ounce” of gold or quadruple of Spain bearing
the date of 1772; and this circumstance is not without significance, in
so far as it seems to point to the source from which the material of the
figure was derived. It may have been given by Spaniards to some

300 OBSERVATIONS ON A GOLD ORNAMENT FROM FLORIDA.

Indian, who fashioned it, according to his taste, to serve as a totemic
emblem or ornament, perhaps designed to form a part of the head-
dress; for, though a small elongated aperture is formed by the inner
curve of the bird’s neck, I hardly deem it likely that the object was
intended for suspension. The Florida Indians, it is well known, paid
particular attention to the decoration of their heads, and hence it is
not an improbable conjecture that it once embellished the crown of
some chief or brave while living, and was afterward placed in his grave,
in accordance with aboriginal custom.

Whether the figure was brought into shape by hammering a large
gold coin or a bar of gold, or was made from a piece of sheet gold, can-
not now be decided. The surfaces certainly look as though they had
undergone the process of beating; but it is just as likely that the orna-
ment was made from a piece of goJd plate furnished by whites. That
the Indians were skillful in working metal in a cold state is shown by
the implements and ornaments of copper found in various parts of the
United States, more especially in the neighborhood of Lake Superior,
where their supplies of native copper were chiefly obtained. Even
modern Indians practise the art of working silver dollars, beating and
cutting them into tasteful gorgets, ear-rings, and other objects of per-
sonal adornment. On the other hand, there is no ground whatever
for supposing that the Indians north of Mexico possessed the skill of
casting gold, and far less of producing an alloy like that of which the
Florida ornament is composed. ;

While I am of opinion that the material of the relic was obtained from
whites, I ascribe (as stated) the work itself—that is, the cutting out of
the figure and the tracing of the lines—to the agency of an aboriginal
artist. The ornamental lines, though incised with a steady hand, are
not uniform in width, and in some places the tracing forms a double
line, as though the implement used in lieu of a graver had not been pro-
vided with a sharp point. A knife which has lost its extreme point
would produce such lines; perhaps also a pointed flint. The latter
alternative, however, is hardly admissible, considering that at the time
when the object was made, implements of such primitive character prob-
ably had been superseded by more efficient instruments of iron or steel.
The North American Indians, like other savages, were not slow in recog-
nizing the superiority of the white man’s tools, and adopted them with-
out hesitation.

Though it would be hazardous to pronounce a definite opinion con-
cerning the age of the relic, it may be assumed that it is not very old.
Its origin may not date back more than acentury. It was perhaps
made during the second period of Spanish supremacy in Florida, which
lasted from 1780 to 1821, when the province was ceded to the United
States. The ornament was taken from the centre of the mound, and
doubtless formed a part of a primary burial. This fact affords an addi-
tional evidence that mound-building was continued in this country after

UBSERVATIONS ON A GOLD ORNAMENT FROM FLORIDA. 301

its occupation by Europeans. “The man who dug it out,” says Mr.
Greenleaf, “had no idea that it was gold. He had been digging all
day, and was just giving up the work, when, with a final desperate
blow, he struck, broke, and brought to light the gold ornament. He
then explored the rest of the mound carefully, but found nothing but
fragments of pottery and crumbling bones.”

Purely aboriginal relics of gold appear to be extremely rare in this
country. According to Colonel Charles C. Jones, Indian beads composed
of that metal have been met with in Georgia. He says: “Gold beads—
evidently not European in their manufacture—have been found in the
Etowah Valley, in the vicinity of the large mounds on Colonel Tumlin’s
plantation.”* This statement is corroborated by Mr. M. F. Stephenson
in an article on ancient mounds in Georgia, which was published in the
Smithsonian Report for 1870, I am not aware that Indian relics of gold
have been found in Florida in modern times; but mention is made of a
small gold bell obtained in 1527 by the party of the unfortunate Pam-
philo de Narvaez, immediately after his landing in Florida. It was
discovered in one of the large houses (buhios), which the natives had
deserted upon the approach of the Spaniards. t

We learn from the old accounts relating to the discovery and coloni-
zation of the large tract of land formerly called Florida that the abo-
riginal inhabitants were cognizant of the occurrence of gold in their dis-
tricts. The grains of gold which the early Spanish visitors saw in the
possession of the Floridians excited their cupidity, and inspired them
with the hope of finding a second Mexico or Peru in the more northern
portion of the new continent. Upon asking the Indians where the
precious metal had been obtained, they were referred to the “Apalatey”
Mountains, in the north, from which rivers carrying particles of gold,
silver, and copper were flowing. The Indian method of collecting these
metallic grains is represented en plate 41, vol. ii, of De Bry’s Peregri-
nationes (Frankfort on the Main, 1591), where the natives are pictured
as using long tubes for this purpose. Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues,
the artist of Laudonniére’s expedition, to which the volume relates,
probably drew the sketch from imagination, or according to what he
had heard from the Indians, who were never noted for their veracity.
The short Latin description accompanying the sketch closes with the
statement that the Spaniards knew how to apply these treasures to their
own use. Indeed, traces of mining operations which are ascribed to
the Spaniards have been found in the gold district of Georgia. It
would be foreign to my purpose to enlarge on this subject ; but I will
refer to two articles by Dr. D. G. Brinton, which treat of this early

* Antiquities of the Southern Indians. New York, 1873, p. 48.

t ‘Un de ces buhios 6tait si grand, qu’il pouvait contenir plus de trois cents person-
ces: les autres étaient moins vastes; nous y trouvdmes une clochette en or parmi des
filets.’—Relation et Naufrages d Alvar Nunez Cabega de Vaca. Paris, 1837, p. 24. (Ter-
naux-Compans Collection.) The Spanish original was published in the year 1555 at
Valladolid.

302 ON A POLYCHROME BEAD FROM FLORIDA.

mining: one forms the third appendix to his excellent little work en-
titled Notes on the Floridian Peninsula; the other is published in the
Historical Magazine, vol. x (1866), p. 137, under the title “Early Spanish
Mining in Northern Georgia.” Additional information on the subject
is to be found in Colonel Jones’s work, to which I have referred on the
preceding page.

ON A POLYCHROME BEAD FROM FLORIDA.

By Pror. S. S. HaLpEMAN.

This bead (Fig. 1), now in the United States National Museum, is of
a kind known to archeology as the star pattern, because the white be-
tween the exterior blue and inner red forms a terminal star or zigzag
band when the original cylinder is ground into an oval so as to expose
the interior colors. Examples occur of various sizes from about two
inches in length and one and a half in diameter to about one-fourth
of an inch in size, the latter being spheric or oblate and as distinctly

Fig. 1.

29880.
(4)

colored as the large ones. There is a specimen about an inch anda
half long in the ancient Egyptian department of the Louvre (hor-
izontal case Q), and, according to my recollection, a specimen from
Dakkeh (Nubia) in the British Museum (horizontal case E, No. 6294
d) is larger. The Slade collection in the British Museum contains
two of the same character.* <A large one found in England with
Samian cups and Roman buckles is figured in the Proceed. Brit. Arch-
ol. Assoc. 1848, vol. 3, p. 328; Faussettt figures an example from
Gilton, England; and another is described in the Archeologia (1851,
vol. 35, pl. 5, fig. 10), the locality unknown, but Mr. B. Nightingale says
examples occur along the Rhine and are to be seen in the museums of
Mannheim and Baden. Mr. Morlot, of Lausanne, gives colored figures
of two examples in the museum at Copenhagen.{ That of fig. 1 was said
to have been found near Stockholm, the other in an antique grave in

* Catalogue of the collection of glass formed by Felix Slade, esq., F. S. A., with notes
on the history of glass-making, by Alexander Nesbitt, esq., 1871, p. 10, fig. 21.

t Inventorium Sepulchrale, 1866, pl. 5, fig. 2.
t Proceed. Am. Philosoph. Soc., Nov., 1862, p. 111-114 and 119-120.

ON A POLYCHROME BEAD FROM FLORIDA. ava

Denmark. He also copies (fig. 3) one of Schoolcraft’s figures of a smaller
eylindric bead from the ossuaries at Beverly, Canada. Somewhat
similar to the Stockholm specimen is a bead in the National Mu-
seum (Fig. 2) from Santa Barbara, Cal., in which the exterior blue is

minutely and thickly speckled with yellowish points. The same collec-
tion has examples of the small spherical kind from graves at Lima, N. Y.;
and I have a specimen found on the Susquehanna, with other remains,
in digging the Pennsylvania canal, about the year 1830.*

The exterior blue is usually more or less clearly striped with a lighter
tint, owing to the ridges of the interior white shining through. In all
the specimens, and in such as I have seen in Europe, the order of the
eolors toward the interior is blue-white-red-white, with an additional
central color in some of the larger ones, that of the large Louvre ex-
ample being dark blue. This order is present in modern Venetian beads,
of which I have examples much like that of Santa Barbara, Cal., and
in those from New York and the Susquehanna, but the last two are
more neatly made, the white, wavy band in the Susquehanna specimen
being very slender, delicate, and regular. The external tint of the mod-
ern Venetian cylindric beads is blue, green, red, or longitudinally striped
with several colors, and the Louvre has blue and also green ancient
Egyptian specimens.

Mr. Morlot’s paper is intended to show that the Northmen received
these beads from the Phenicians and carried them to America, a view
which is opposed by Mr. A. W. Franks, F.S. A., of the British Museum,
who thinks that the Beverly specimen figured by Schooleraftis Venetian
of the fifteenth or sixteenth century,t a view which is probably correct
for all the North American examples. Of these, the New York speci-
mens show signs of oxidation, while that from the Susquehanna is un-
tarnished.

* Proceed. Am. Phil. Soc., May, 1869, vol. 11, p. 369. Mr. Thos. Masterson, of Colum-
bia, Pa., has added to my cabinet a fine specimen, but little tarnished, from a grave in
Tioga County, Pa., and he has the longitudinal half of another, 13 inch long and 1;;
in diameter, found at Turky Hill, below Columbia, Pa.

t Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries, January 28, 1864. Lubbock, Prehistoric
Times, ch. 3. I am indebted to the kindness of Mr, Franks for valuable ancient and
modern additions to my cabinet of beads.

304 ON A POLYCHROME BEAD FROM FLORIDA.

And yet, the manufacture of the star pattern and other kinds of beads
in glass and enamel, with varicolored spots and circles, is of great an-
tiquity. The art seems never to have been lost, and in later times to
have been chiefly cultivated at Venice, where more than five hundred
varieties are made. A local historian, Mr. Samuel Evans, of Columbia,
Pa., says the natives along the Susquehanna traded with the French for
fire-arms before 1608, and he mentions a trading-post at the mouth of
the river, established in 1631 by a person named Claibourne.* Charles
C. Jones t mentions that De Soto found European beads in possession
of the natives as early as 1540, and they seem to have been valuable
articles of trade at various periods and among many nations. They are
abundant in European mounds, where they occur in various shapes and
variegations of color, as may be observed in works devoted to antiqui-
ties. The magnificent Cesnola collection in New York has varicolored
examples from Cyprus. The Kertch example (Archeologia, 34, pl. 5, f.
20) is blue with white circles. The same tints occur on Egyptian beads
in the Louvre, and on Pheenico-Greek specimens in the Liverpool Mu-
seum. The British Museum has beads from Tyre of a dark ground, some
with white circles, others with transverse zigzag bands.

A Venetian bead known as “cornaline d@’Aleppo” is widely spread.
It is red, with a white or yellowish center, and when strung or worked
into ornaments the white is scarcely apparent, so that it might be sup-
posed that red beads would answer aswell. Possibly they are more pleas-
ing to the eye when sold in bulk. I have specimens of it from Abyssinia,
Algeria, in native work of Demerara, in a medicine-bag probably from
the Rocky Mountains, in moceasins of the kind made by the Indians of
New York and Canada, and Mr. W. H. Holmes of the Hayden expedi-
tion picked up a specimen near the trail in the vicinity of the ancient
ruins of the Rio Mancos, in Southwest Colorado. Mr. Holmes also found
a small elliptic white enamel bead among the débris of the ruins, but

* Lancaster, Pa., Express, March 8, 1876.

t Antiquities of the Southern Indians, 1873, pp. 235-237, 520.

t Archeologia, 1851, vol. 34, cuts p. 117, and pl. 5, including a Sabine example (f. 27),
two from Kertch (f. 20, 21), and three from Egypt. All these are varicolored. The
spheric and suleate forms, figs. 8, 13, 15, known as ‘‘ Druid’s beads,” occur in Egypt,
and are represented in a large and varied collection of ancient Etruscan specimens
which I owe to the liberality of the distinguished archeologist, Signor Alessandro
Castellani. Among its representatives of the plate referred to are fig. 20 (Kertch), 23
(cylindric, Nubia), 25 (triangular, Egypt), 27 (spotted, Sabine), and 35, with colored
rings.

R. C. Neville, Saxon Obsequies, 1852, pl. 18-22, containing several hundred figures,
mostly varicolored.

John Yonge Akerman, Remains of Pagan Saxondom, 1855, cuts p. xxviii, and colored
plates 12 and 21, with thirty or forty varieties.

Faussett (op. cit.), pl. 5, 6, 7, figures in single tint and varicolored of about two hun-
dred examples.

Achille Deville, Histoire de ’Art de la Verrerie dans l’Antiquité, 1873, pl. 78-9, vari-
gated; pl. 5, unicolored.

BEAD FROM FLORIDA—SHELL-HEAPS IN FLORIDA. 305

even this is a Venetian pattern. Among many varieties of glass beads,
the Wheeler Survey has the cornaline d’Aleppo from excavations near
Santa Barbara, Cal. (Dos Pueblos, Big Bonanza), also another Venetian
variety with the center black instead of white. Both kinds are used
by the modern Utes. It deserves mention that Professor Henry has}
recently procured for the Smithsonian Institution a fine collection of Ve-
netian beads for comparison in this branch of archeology.

COLORED BEAD DUG FROM A MOUND AT THE EXTREME NORTH END OF
BLACK HAMMOCK, THREE MILES WEST OF MOSQUITO INLET, EASTERN
COAST OF FLORIDA.

By A. M. Harrison, Assistant, Coast Survey.

Imbedded in the roots near one of the skulls was found a small gold
bead, and another larger one of such peculiar material and construction
that a description of it will not be amiss. (See Fig. 1, in preceding
article). It is cylindrical, 14 inches long, 1 inch in diameter through the
center, and one-half inch across the hexagonal ends. When taken from
the ground, parts of its surface had a peculiarly pearly or iridescent ap-
pearance, due to oxidation. Upon my return home I divided it length-
wise, and gave one-half in its original condition to the Superintendent
of the Coast Survey; the other I had polished, and it is still in my
possession. Itis brilliantly colored around the middle by dark and light
blue longitudinal bars, taperiug toward the ends of the bead, which are
deep red, each bar being defined by a dead white line. Running length-
wise through the center is a variegated cylinder of opique and semi-
transparent enamel, or glass, which has a single perforation. Obviously,
a tube arranged in concentric layers of different colors was first made,
then cut into sections at intervals, and each section ground to the present
shape. It is beautifully tinted, and plainly the work of a skilled artisan.

SHELL-HEAPS AT THE MOUTH OF SAINT JOHN’S RIVER, FLORIDA.
By 8S. P. MayBerry, Cape Elizabeth, Me.

Fort George Island lies at the mouth of Saint John’s River, Florida.
It embraces 1,100 acres of high and dry “ hammock” land, surrounded
on three sides by 1,800 acres of marsh. On the remaining part is a
sandy beach, which also extends along the mouth of the river four miles.
The island is very nearly level and covered with a dense growth of many
varieties of wood, among which are live and water oak, magnolia, hick-
ory, cedar, and pine. Mount Cornelia is a hill of sand about one-half
mile from the shore. It is estimated that there are forty. acres covered
with large piles of oyster-shells, while many acres are covered with

20 8

306 © ANCIENT MOUND IN PENNSYLVANIA.

them distributed evenly over the surface. In that climate, when not
protected, they disintegrate with some degree of rapidity.

The larger deposit that we examined covered 14 acres; the height at
the point must have been 30 feet. In shape it resembled a bowl turned
bottom side up. The upper surface was covered with a vegetable mold
from 10 to 15 inches, upon which were growing forest-trees. We meas-
ured a live-oak which had a diameter of 32 inches. Six feet from the
bottom was a layer of black vegetable mold following a course nearly
parallel with the surface of the ground. It showed no indication that
there were any trees growing in the space occupied by these deposits
previous to their being transported there. The shells were, without an
exception, single, and inside of the pile, where they had not been exposed
to the influence of the climate, no signs could be discovered of their
having been treated with fire. Large quantities of these shells are being
carted off to make roads on the island, so that we had a good chance to
see the interior of the pile. We were informed by the cartmen that
human skeletons were found oceasionaily. A gentleman informed me
that he had seen a piece of pottery on which was marked “1707.” Ad-
joining the above pile was a depression resembling the inside of a bowl,
the outside being irregular, and in one place it looked as though the side
might have been forced out and that it was caused by a large body of
water which had been inclosed and burst from its confinement. In the
center of this deposit the shells were not three feet deep, while the walls
were fifteen. |

On another part of the island the proprietor informed me that among
forest-trees of 2 and 3 feet diameter, on the deposits could be traced dis-
tinetly the rows and other indications of sugar-cane culture. About a
month previous to my visit, Dr. Hall leveled a sand mound in front of
his residence, in which were human skeletons, stone implements, and
pottery.

ANCIENT MOUND IN WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA.
By WiLi1aAM M. Taytor, of Mount Jackson, Pa.

This mound is about 35 feet in diameter and 5 feet high. Joining the
circumference on the southeast is a projection 35 feet long, of the same
height as the main part. This gives the mound a gridiron shape, with
a very broad handle.

The site of the mound is on the Mahoning River, west side, second
bench, and about a quarter of a mile from the stream. It is one-third
of a mile from the mound back to the range of hills more than a hundred
feet high. It is worthy of notice that the projection extends in a course
parallel with the river on one side and the hills on the other.

In leveling this mound a number of graves and skeletons were dis-
covered. There were also a few implements, bone beads, mica, &c.,

ARROW-HEADS FROM FISHKILL, N. Y. 307

found. Most of the skeletons quickly crumbled upon exposure to the
air. From Mr. Gibson, the owner, I obtained a large and well shaped
skull. The under jaw is still attached, and most of the teeth remain.

On a former visit I picked up a number of bones that were lying loosely
around after the attempt at leveling. The skeletons were surrounded
by large flat stones set on their edges. These stones were brought from
the hills, as there are none like them in the bottom. The earth of which
the mound was built was also brought from a distance. It is quite dif-
ferent in color and quality from that near by. Some charcoal is found
mixed in it. Flint chippings and arrow-beads are still lying around.
Formerly various stone implements were found in the neighborhood.
Last spring a colored man was plowing on the farm of Mr. C. B. Easby,
on the hill-side, in sight of the mound, and less than half a mile from it.
In the turning over of the sod he discovered an ancient cache. The
stock or collection consisted of axes, hatchets, tomahawks, hoes, wedges,
and a chain on which were strung several of the tomahawks. There were -
over twenty iron implements in all. No two of even the same kind were
of the same size or shape; but one of the hoes was almost identical in
shape and size with the hoes made for the Southern cotton-fields. Is it
probable that the same race and generation used both the iron and stone
implements? The iron tools have avery thick coating of rust upon them,
and are evidently among the first iron implements ever used by any
people in the valley of the Mahoning.

Near the mound once stood the Indian village of Kushkushkee, or Kas-
kaskunk. Pakanke, the Delaware chief, and Glikkikan, a celebrated
orator of the Delaware tribe, lived here. It is probable that Christian
Frederick Post visited the Indians in this town, by appointment of the
governor of Pennsylvania, in 1758. “Again, in 1761, Post repeated his
visit ; not on this occasion in the capacity of a political envoy, but as
an ambassador of the gospel.”— Black Robes.

This was the year before the establishing of the Moravian missionary
station and the founding of Friedenstadt, nine miles below on the Bea-
ver River, near the present town of Moravia.

DEPOSIT OF ARROW-HEADS NEAR FISHKILD, N. Y.

By EDWIN M. Surparp, of Norfolk, Conn.

This interesting discovery of arrow-heads was made upon the farm of
Mr. George Allerton, at Green Haven, Dutchess County, New York.
The farm is situated in a beautiful valley about twelve miles from Fish-
killon the Hudson. It seems that there were several bog-holes scattered
about the place, each, perhaps, 25 to 40 feet in diameter. They have a
few inches of water and several feet of rich muck, and are the resort of
numerous frogs, turtles, and snakes. Last July Mr. Redevaty, thinking

308 ANTIQUITIES OF WEST INDIES—INDIANS OF PERU.

that the muck would be an excellent thing to spread on his land, set
one of his men at work hauling it out. While employed in digging, his
spade brought up a number of arrow-points. He described them to be
nicely piled side by side, edgewise, in two or three rows. There were
perhaps two or three hundred in all. On each side and on top were
some charred logs and sticks, that seemed to be the remains of an old
fire. They were 10 or 15 inches below the surface of the pond. They
are of a blue jaspery flint, and seem to be in an unfinished condition.
I thought that probably the Indians had brought them from a distance
(as I have never found any of the same rock anywhere in this neighbor-
hood) and made this pocket and covered the traces of them by building
a fire, intending to return and finish them at their leisure; or, perhaps,
they hid them there to prevent their capture by their enemies.

STONE CELTS IN THE WEST INDIES AND IN AFRICA.
(Extract from a letter of Geo. J. Gibbs, esq., Turks Island.)

Mr. Gibbs draws attention to a paragraph (vol. ii, p. 451) in the work
of Martin Fernandez Navarrete, a French translation of which was
published in Paris in 1828, entitled ‘Relations des Quatre Voyages
entrepris par Christophe Colombe, &c.,” in which the natives of all the
West Indies are said to use “des haches et des erminettes faites avec
des pierres si élégantes et si bien travaillées, qu’on ne peut trop s’éton-
ner de ce qu’ils ont pu les fabriquer sans fer.” On page 448, vol ii, M.
Navarrete repeats the words of Columbus concerning the idolatry of the
natives, ‘‘Car dans leur maisons ils ont des idoles de plusieurs espéces.
Je (Columbus) leur ai demandé ce que c’etait, et ils m’ont répondu que
etait une chose de Turey, ce qui veut dire du ciel.”

In the same letter, Mr. Gibbs, after drawing attention to several
places in Livingstone’s “ Last Journal,” where the distinguished author
denies ever having heard of stone implements in Africa (pp. 83, 89,
442, 448), says that in 1841 a Spanish slave-ship was wrecked on the
Caicos Islands. In conversation with Mr. Gibbs, who showed some of
the negroes a stone celt, they remarked that such things were wor-
shiped in their country, that they fall from heaven during thunder-
storms, and that they are a sure preventive of the evil effects of light-
ning to those who keep them in their houses. It is esteemed very
unlucky to part with one under any circumstances.

THE INDIANS OF PERU.
By F. L. Gat, M. D., of Lynchburg, Va.

The tribes of South American Indians who live on and to the east-
ward of the Andes in Peru belong, according to d’Orbigny’s classifica-
tion, to the Race Ando-Peruvienne, one branch of which he designates as

THE INDIANS OF PERU. 309

the Quichuas and Aymaras, and the other as the Amtisian. The latter,
more especially, embrace those living to the eastward of the Cordil-
leras, whose home is among the lowlands, which, I suppose, include
what is known as the “ Montafia” of Peru. This Montana embraces a
district from an elevation of 4,000 feet down to the level of the Ucayali
basin, whose average level above the sea varies from 200 to 500 feet,
and is continuous with the lowlands of the Brazilian portion of the
Amazon Valley. There are three platforms, differing greatly in height,
which form the basins of the Ucayali, the Huallaga, and the proper
main current of the Maranon itself; and the tribes who inhabit the low
countries of Eastern Peru have traded for centuries among the broad
currents of the first two river bottoms. The Ucayali River, which seems
for some reasons worthy of being more properly considered the contin-
uation of the Peruvian part of the Amazon, has a length of 885 miles
from its debouchment into the Marafion to the point where the two
streams Urabamba and Tambo unite to form it. On the old charts of
the priests it was called the Apo-Paro, and the term Ucayali only applied
to the more northern half, from about the Pachitea to the Marafion. A
fine stream like this, which by recent surveys has been shown to be
navigable for steamers its whole length, and with its comparatively
moderate current of 2.65 miles per honr, must have naturally attracted
the natives to its borders, where abundance of fish, turtle, and water-
fowl offered so easy a livelihood. We accordingly find that the manu-
script records of the friars of the order of Saint Francis, which show
the ardent spirit of these enthusiasts during two centuries, mention
numerous peoples dwelling along the whole length of this noble river;
and the present deserted spectacle of its borders gives us no index of
the population which once dwelt here. Another attraction for the
native was the comparatively moderate heat which is to be encountered
here, as in all parts of the Montana of Peru, not rising above an annual
average of 24° C.,and it must have attracted migration now and then from
the more desolate or cold heights of the sierras to the westward. The
great drawback to the basin of this river Ucayali, and also to the whole
of the river country of the lower part known as the ‘‘ Pampa del Sacra-
mento,” would have been, probably, the inundations of the rainy season,
and the comparatively few points suitable for permanent settlement.
The simplicity of house structure, and the very few articles to be trans-
ported, would have counteracted this objection, and the generosity of
the climate as to vegetable production would offer them a relief from
the toil of a hardy agriculture and the preparation for cold, which they
found so necessary among the mountains.

Of the origin of the tribes living in the lower portion of the Montana
of Peru, we have little or no reliable information. What relation the
present representatives bore to the Inca population is uncertain.

In some recent surveys, undertaken under the auspices of Peru, of the
tributaries of the Amazon, which waters the territory of that republic,

oe THE INDIANS OF PERU.

I had, as surgeon of the expedition, many opportunities of becoming ac-
quainted with the tribes who live in the lowlands of the basin of the
Ucayali, the Maraiion, Pachitea, and other streams, and I could obtain
but the faintest knowledge of their peoples. Tradition among them
seemed to be reduced to its lowest condition, and among those tribes
which i visited there was only one which seemed to treasure any notion
of the Inca history ; and they, in their pride of fancied descent from that
race, showed in their physical type some resemblance to the ancient
rulers of Peru.

Beginning at the mouth of the Ucayali River, the following tribes ap-
pear as we go up that stream: Kokamas occupying both sides and the
adjacent country of the Marafion River. They are a Christianized peo-
ple, and are those more frequently found about the villages occupied
by the white settlers. Their color is darker than that of most others
of the inhabitants of that country, and their stature is below the average.
Their limbs have not the rounded forms which characterize some others,
and their features are harsher in expression. They are very tractable
and work faithfully. Fidelity among their women is a characteristic
virtue.

The Mayourunas inhabit the country back from the river hereabouts,
and are less approachable by Christian or civilizing influences.

Remains of the Setibos shipibos are here and there to be found,
although, as is generally the case on this and other river borders
of the Montafia, the tribal type is so destroyed by the custom of the
priests for many years to collect together at the various missions the
younger of the different tribes for religious and other purposes, that
intermingling of blood has destroyed among most of the tribes distinct-
tive marks.

The Conibos, are the largest, most numerous, and most important of
all the river tribes, and, having been about the prominent missions,
such as Sarayacu, Callina, and other places for many generations, they
are the most conspicuous on the Ucayali. In their type they resemble
much the Inea caste in their strongly aquiline nose, which is prominent;
their broad forehead, large eye, yellow cornea, and not prominent cheek-
bone. The limbs are round; abdomen protuberant; hands and feet small;
shoulders broad, though rounded. The custom of flattening the heads,
said by some to be a custom among them, must be very rare, as I never
saw an instance of it, though much among that tribe. They pride them-
selves much on their blood, and do not permit of marriage among neigh-
boring tribes, although they frequently make raids on their neighbors.
living up on the Pachitea and Sungaruyacu, the Coxibos, for the pur-
pose of stealing children, women, and slaves.

Avout the missions of Calleria and Caxiboya are found the remains of
the older tribe of the Remos, who have disappeared very much through
wars and disease. They, like the Amahuaeas, who live higher up the
Ucayali, above the Pachitea, are mostly to be found as slaves.

THE INDIANS OF PERU. oe

M. Castelnau, in his Voyage, gives some statements going to show that
there is among the tribes of this region a definite idea of futurity in
connection with the soul’s immortality and of a Supreme Being. It ap-
pears to me that he must have confounded the notions they have gained
by long contact with the friars with their original ideas. Those whom
I often conversed with among these tribes, traders, priests, half-breeds,
and Indians themselves, seemed, as far as I could learn, a race most
ignorant of everything beyond the daily life they led, except where they
had some comprehension of what tey had heard from the teachings of
the friars, who for over a hundred years have been among them. I was
repeatedly told by the very intelligent prefect of the order of Saint
Francis, at Caxiboya, the headquarters of the missions, that he had
never been able to detect among the purely savage natures any notions
of the subjects referred to, except that they seemed to have a vague
idea of an evil spirit, whom they looked upon as the author of all the
ills of life; that of the soul and its immortality they did not entertain
the rudest conception.

The Conibo tribe, from their prominence on the river, are more ap-
proachable by the whites, and they show a larger degree of thriftiness
and comprehension of the uses of trade. But when at their homes,
unexcited by the animation of business, there seems little difference
between them and the other tribes in that country, being indisposed to
communicate information, quiet, with a species of cadness, or rather
apathy arising from want of thought. Yet it is well known that when
they, or any of the representatives of the tribes, are taken young, as is
frequently the case—sale of them being one of the elements of trade on
the rivers—and brought down to the villages on the Maraiion, or to the in-
terior, where there are white populations, they develop rapidly a remark-
able sprightliness. They learn the Spanish language with great facility, as
also the various duties they are called on to perform as nurses or servants
for children or grown people, and in all respects acquire the arts of the
stage of civilization of that country with ease. Many of these young
persons, however, die before they have been in their new homes any
length of time, not from homesickness, which they rarely feel, but from
a change of diet and mode of life, the comparative plenty of their new
mode of existence and its excitement apparently producing derange-
ments of digestion. Among all the young people of the tribes of the
Ucayali and its tributaries who thus find their way into civilization, the
children of the Campas tribe, who inhabit the country of the Cerro de
la Sal and the south part of the Pampa del Sacramento, are preferred
on account of their quickness, energy, and fine physique, which, though
slight, is somewhat more elegant in figure.

The Conibo tribe contrel the Ucayali for some distance above the Pa-
chitea, and are then replaced near the Urubamba ard Tambo Rivers by
the Pirros, who are the most stalwart of all the aborigines of this country.
They inhabit both sides of the Ucayali near the two rivers mentioned,

FZ THE INDIANS OF PERU.

and also about the mouths of the Urubamba and Tambo. This change
from the dull, heavy-looking Conibo, Sitibo, and Shipibo is possibly
owing to a modification in climate, which, about the country of the
Pirros tribe, is much more moderate as to temperature and damp-
ness.

The surface of the country is also much more open a little way from
the river margins, and allows, therefore, of locomotion by other means
than that of the sluggish canoe. This difference of physical features of
a section must in the course of time make considerable difference in the
physique of races, and its effects are probably not more distinctive any-
where than in the tangled jungles of the Amazon and the open plains
of the La Plata basin. This physical distinction reacts on the morale
of the inhabitant, and substitutes for the sluggish, apathetic, and uncom-
municative native of the former location the active horseman, the bold
antagonist, and the ready occupant of the pampas of the temperate
regions to the south. The country inhabited by the Pirros tribe com-
municates with the headwaters of some of the Brazilian rivers, and
intercourse is more or less regularly kept up with the tribes of that
country, inducing similarity of customs, &c. The Pirros also communi-
cate with the country of Cuzco for trading purposes, and they show a
much greater vitality than those living down on the Lower Ucayali.
But, of all the tribes of the tributaries of the Ucayali, those of the
Tambo and Ere Rivers and of the Cerro de la Sal, attract more atten-
tion by their long, persistent, and dangerous hostility to the whites.
They are known iu the old manuscripts as the “ Antis,” and under the
name of Campas appear more conspicuously about the end of the last
century. The friars of Saint Francis seem to have made, among the
tribes of the Cerro de la Sal, greater progress in civilizing than else-
where in the Montaiia, and, from that portion of the valley of the Chan-
chamayo, of the Perene and Ere Rivers, they steadily pushed their way
to the Ucayali, and even down to the Marafion, during the last century
But it appears that an apostate from Christianity, one of the race who
had been educated in Spain, returned to the land of his fathers, pro-
claimed himself as sent of God, to redeem his people from the tyranny
of the worship of the priests, and a general massacre of these holy pio-
neers forever put a stop to progress in the southwest part of the Pampa
del Sacramento. Since that time the route to the Ucayali by the Ere
and Perene has been closed to the white man and the neighbor Indians;
and even government expeditions sent to reopen that road have been
baffled and compelled to retire before the ambuscades which the Campas
ever prepared for all who sought to disturb their water-front along the
Cerro de la Sal. Besides the Campas, living along these rivers there
were the Campantis, Pirros, and Siminchis, although all were merged
or lost in the towering reputation of the Campas, and now, all along the
Uexyali, the Pachitea, and, in fact, all the streams flowing from the
Pampa del Sacramento, that name is suflicient to startle a tribe into

THE INDIANS OF PERU. Sita

fear or flight. The old name of “Enim” is to be found as that of an
Indian sovereignty in the southern part of the Pampa, although one does
not hear of it nowadays. The Campas have generally a broader chest
than is common with the other tribes, proportionate to the height, and
their hands and feet are often very beautiful as to size, and the instep
of the foot much arched; their eyes are smaller than those of many
other tribes found in the Ucayali Valley, and the forehead has not
that breadth so common among the Conibos. The progress first made
among them by the friars has had the effect of causing a good many
reports as to their advance in the mechanic arts, and I heard, while
upon the Ere and Tambo Rivers, that they knew now the art of work-
ing in iron, although I could never ascertain this fact from those whom
I saw of that tribe. Being the Ishmaelites of the Ucayali basin, there
was little to be learned of them from their neighbors.

Many of the tribal names mentioned by the friars in their early voy-
ages down the Ucayali are not now to be heard on that river. Some
have disappeared by war, others by pestilence, and some have left for
“parts unknown.” The old ‘‘ Pano” lives now only as a sort of basis
for some of the dialects, especially the Remo, Conibo, Sipibo, and Setibo.
The language of the old “ Omaguas ” tribe, which now is rarely heard,
is, I am told, the most difficult of all to learn; that one has to learn, in
fact, two dialects, the men using one set of words to express their ideas,
and the women another. In a modified form this is seen not only in
the Quichua, but some other of the river dialects of the Upper Amazon.

During my visit to the river country of the Pampa del Sacramento I
was unable to learn any traditions as to the Inca power having, in
ancient times, ever extended itself as far east as that portion of Peru.
However, in June, 1873, during an expedition made up the Pachitea and
Pichis Rivers, which flow through the middle and southwest of the
Pampa, I discerned, some 50 miles up the first-named stream, on the
face of a sandstone rock which formed a surface some 60 yards long by
40 in height, near the foot of which flows the river itself, a great num-
ber of representations cut into the rock, and which could also be dis-
covered by digging away the soil which had accumulated at the foot of
this stony rampart. Some of them have a relation with other relies
found in the interior districts of Peru. The Indians whom we had with
us had never heard of or seen these tracings before, although they had,
at least a few of them, gone up higher than this point, and lived near
the mouth of the Pachitea River itself.

It is a very noticeable fact that these tribes of the lower platforms of
the Montaiia of Peru, and of its continuation into Brazilian territory, do
not seem to be an aboriginal race, or one suited to their habitat. They
remind one of refugees from some other clime, and have the appearance,
as to the conquest they make over the difficulties of their situation, of
‘‘strangers in a strange land.” The ease and frequency with which
they move from one part of the river to the other, according to the stage

314 THE INDIANS OF PERU.

of water, the unhomelike look of their habitations, the untilled nature
of the soil, where vegetation crowds up to the very doors, the unoccu-
pied character of their life, their inability to tell us of themselves, their
forefathers, of the scenes of the land they live in, all go to show a for-
eign extraction of not many centuries past. In fact some of the tribes
living now on the Ucayali and on the Marafion did come from the slopes
of the Andes far away to the northward in Ecuador, and others arrived
there from the upper country about the Huallaga, and Upper Maraiion ;
while the name ‘“*Omaguas,” which appears on the Marafion in the name
of an abandoned village site, and a member of which tribe rarely is
heard of in this western part of the great Amazon Valley, comes from
the south and east under the name of Tupi or Guarani. The physical
characteristics applied to this stock by La Condamine will answer for
many of the tribes encountered in this section of South America. It
seems not improbable that the oldest of the tribes living some few cen-
turies back in the low country of the Ucayali and Marafion have been
replaced by the stronger red races from the Andean slopes, who in their
turn have withered under the influence of their new climate and its
debilitating tendencies. To this cause for disappearance must be added
small pox as a large factor. During the past year this scourge has
desolated the river country of the borders of the Brazilian and Peru-
vian frontier, and has caused the entire disappearance of one of the most
docile and physically the handsomest of the tribes about the mouth of
the Napo, the Yaguas, who died by families, and were eaten by the wild
beasts and birds of the forest about them. The custom of piercing the
lower lips and the ears for the purpose of placing wooden plugs therein,
which was characteristic of the old Tupinamba race of Brazil, is to be
found now and then among some of the tribes of the Ucayali and the
Napo, on which latter stream the enormous dilatation of the lobe of the
ear by these plates is a striking peculiarity among one of the tribes known
as the Cotos. But as far as I could learn there seems to have been
given to none of the Ucayali or Maraiion tribes that organized faith in
religious matters which some writers have discovered among the tradi-
tions of the Tupinambas of Brazil.

In reference to the breadth of chest and size of the lung-case noticed
among the dwellers on the Andean slopes, I may state as the result of
my own observation that this development is oftener to be encountered
among the mixed breeds, the cross of the Indian and white, and more
particularly in the female, than among the pure-blooded Indians whom
Ihave seen from there; and I am disposed to ascribe this to the fact that
the female is the burden-carrier not only among the pure Indian races,
but also among the half-castes of Peru, and in her relations with the
whites has more drudgery of life to perform in many instances. The
custom among them of carrying burdenson the head, while it contributes
to expansion of the chest, gives them an erectness and elegance of move-
ment of the body which is frequently noticed. The absence among the

THE INDIANS OF PERU. _ 315

Indians of the Pampa del Sacramento and adjoining regions of the mus-
cular delineation in the limbs is very characteristic; they seem to be-
cushioned with adipose matter, which gives aroundness which does not
disappear even when performing an act of muscular exertion, and the
contrast between this race and the negro of Brazil is very striking. This
roundness of figure is continued in the mixed breeds of Indian and white.
One of the most frequent and severely painful affections among the
Indian races is what is known as * cold abscesses” which form in and
under the muscular tissue of the body. ‘They give rise toenormous depos-
its of pus, which entail great debility on the individual, and which are these
adipose tissues breaking down, no doubt, under influences of depressed
vitality. This softness of the muscular system is also noticed in their
hands, which, although in incessant use of the paddle, never seem to
acquire that horny hardness to be found among a laboring class in more
open and temperate regions. In the tribes living on the Maraion bor-
ders, about the Ucayali mouth, the nose has a tendency to spread con-
siderably at the nostril, nor has it the arched appearance to be seen
among the Conibos and others living higher up on the Ucayali River.
The color of the skin, too, is more inclined to brown than red, and the
prominence of the cheek-bonesis greater. A noteworthy fact among the
half-breeds—the offspring of the Spanish- Peruvian descendant and the
Indian of the Montaiia of Peru—is the great general resemblance thereis to
the Chinese type, so much so as to make us often doubt whether there
may not be sometimes a blood kinship. This resemblance is found in
the oblique position of the eye, the yellow-white complexion, and the
shape of thenose. This resemblance is one of the most common features
observed by strangers who are thrown among the half-castes of this
region.

The different dialects spoken by the tribes on the Maraiion, Ucayali, and
Huallaga Rivers, where the Indians have been for some time in con-
tact with the white or half white Hispano-American, are very much inter-
mingled in conversation with the Spanish language, so that persons who
are familiar with this latter are enabled sometimes to partially understand
the subject when listening to the natives. The Mestizos who talk with
the natives always use the Spanish largely in their sentences. I was
also told that the Quichua spoken in that part of Peru was much cor-
rupted, sometimes so much so as not to be intelligible to those speaking
the purer form in use about Cuzco.

SANTA ROSA ISLAND.

By Rev. STEPHEN BowErs.*

The approximate geographical position of the central portion of this
island is latitude 33° 55’ north and longitude 120° 84/ west. The
island is fifteen miles long by ten miles in width, the general shape being
that of a parallelogram, and contains about 75,000 acres. Its longer
axis is parallel with the line of the coast and the Santa Inez Mount-
ains, which form the northern side of Santa Barbara Channel. The
channel between Santa Rosa Island and the island of Santa Cruz has a
width of five miles, and that between Santa Rosa and San Miguel a
width of four miles. The depth of water around Santa Rosa Island is
less than that of the other isiands. The outline of the island is bold,
and no harbor exists around its shores. There are, however, several
places where vessels can land, and the present proprietors, the Messrs.
Moore Brothers, have buiit a wharf on the eastern end of the island,
where vessels can load and unload at any time, except when gales pre-
vail from the northeast.

Geology.—This island has been described as being composed of sand-
stone, but the first thing we observed upon landing was that the eastern
end of the island is composed principally of volcanic rocks. At the
wharf we found a good exposure of strata, forming cliffs about 30 feet in
height, the lower portion, for about 15 feet above the sand of the beach,
composed of stratified sandstone, fine grained, and destitute of fossils,
with an occasional stratum of breccia or conglomerate. These strata
have a dip of from 12° to 14° southeast. The upper portion of the cliffs
consists of a horizontal ceposit of fragments of rhyolite, trachyte, vesic-
ular basalt, and white bituminous slate. The fragments gradually
decrease in size from the bottom upward, and are cemented together
with voleanie sand. The whole is covered with a deep and apparently
good soil. In some places the rock fragments in the upper half of the
cliffs have been water-worn and form conglomerate. This character of
- rock extends from the wharf southeasterly to near a sand-point at the
southeastern extremity of the island, where it culminates in a hill of
volcanic rock 175 feet high. This is exposed for some distance in a
southerly direction from the beach on the north side of the point. The
rocks have a tendency to weather into odd and fantastic forms, the
angular ones becoming rounded by disintegration, irregular cavities
and caves being worn in it by the winds.

*Dr. Lorenzo G. Yates, of Centreville, Cal., rendered me valuable assistance in the

exploration of this island. The geology is principally compiled from his notes.
316

SANTA ROSA ISLAND. ad

At the northeastern extremity the rock is a coarse, volcanic breccia,
composed of porphyritic and trappean rocks, having a distinct stratifi-
cation, with a dip of 30° southeast. Several spurs extend out some dis-
tance from the shore-line and others have been worn away by the in-
cessant beating of the surf until they form small rocky islets, while the
porphyritic rocks which have weathered out of the main body of the
breccia, lie as smooth bowlders at the base of the cliffs. From this
point the hills rise sharply to a height of from 250 to 300 feet, and run
southwesterly to the main backbone of the island, which lies on the line
of its longer axis. The highest points on this range were visited, and
the altitude was found to approximate 1,400 feet. Several high peaks
are grouped together about five miles south of the wharf, being on the
southern side of the line of the longer axis of the island. Three of
these high peaks, lying within a circuit of about two miles, were meas-
ured. The first (Black Mountain) measured 1,325 feet. Crossing over
a depression 350 feet below the first summit, rhyolite and white bitu-
minous slate occurs. The next peak south (Saddle Mountain) is about
100 feet higher than the first. Between this point and the hills on the
southeasterly side of the Caflada la Cruz limestone occurs in the bed
of the creek, with ostrea titans and other Miocene fossils. Southeast-
erly from Saddle Mountain, and lying between Cafiada la Cruz and the
ocean, there is an intrusion of syenite, the extent of which we did not
ascertain; nor did we discover the line of juncture between the Mio-
cene and Pliocene.

On the north side of the island, about ten miles from the wharf, and
near the mouth of Soledad. Caiion, there is a fine exposure of strata,
consisting of about 90 feet of Post Pliocene deposit, containing fossil
bones of vertebrates, and at one place fossil physas, at a depth of some
75 feet below the surface. This deposit is horizontal and overlies strata
of older rocks, probably Pliocene, which dip 13° northeast, and contain
Pectens and Turbinellas in abundance. From this point to the north-
western extremity, and around the west end of the island to the point
where the main range of mountains meets the ocean, the shifting sands
have covered the rocks, obliterating all other writings of time in the
geologic formation.

History.—The first written account of this island and its inhabitants
is that of Juan Rodriguez de Cabrillo, a Portuguese navigator in the
employ of Spain. He reached this group of islands October 7, 1542,
and spent nearly six months here and on the main-land. He died here
and was buried on one of the islands on the south side of Santa Barbara -
Channel, most probably San Miguel.

Cabrillo describes Santa Rosa Island as filled with inhabitants, who
differed in some respects from those living on the main-land, and spoke
a different language. The women were comparatively white, very hand-
some, and of retiring and modest demeanor,

The cause of the decline and final extinction of this race is variously

318 SANTA ROSA ISLAND.

stated. The old Jesuits of Santa Barbara Mission informed Mr. Taylor
that a century ago the Russians were in the habit of visiting this island
for the fur of the sea-otter, then very abundant here. They brought
with them natives from Alaska, whom they left on the island during
the winter months, having taught them the use of fire-arms. These
fellows, in the absence of the Russian ships, amused themselves in
shooting the defenseless inhabitants. Mr. Tavlor thought that in this
way we can account for the number of skeletons which lie exposed in
different portions of the island. Another account is that the Russians
themselves killed them off in vast numbers in order to obtain the furs
they had accumulated.

Still another account is to the effect that a destructive famine pre-
vailed, reducing the number from many thousands to a few score of in-
dividuals.

In examining their burying-places we found many skulls which had
been broken by violence, but none that seemed to have been penetrated
by bullets. This was especially true of those buried just beneath the
surface. But as other tribes inhabited adjoining islands, they were
probably sometimes engaged in war, which may account for the perfo-
rated and fractured skulls. A famine of food could hardly occur, as the
inhabitants depended largely on the sea to yield them food. Mollusks
are still abundant, as well as whales, sea-lions, seals, and sea-otters ;
also various kinds of fish and water-fowl. The only possible chance for
a famine, we can see, would be in the drying up of the springs and
fresh-water streams, now abundant in the island. In a large burying-
place in the western portion of the island we found human bones occur-
ring near the surface, which were broken lengthwise, as if to extract
the marrow; and in the same place we found the skeletons of as many
as fifty children, who would probably be the first to die in case of a
famine. The stumps and roots of many trees, indicating about the
same age, may be still seen in various portions of the island, and dead
land-shells (Helix ayersiana) in multiplied millions, all of which must
have been destroyed by a long drought many years ago. At all events,
about the year 1816 the inhabitants of this island were reduced toa
few individuals, and were removed by the priests of the Romish mis-
sions to the main-land. They were placed in the mission of the Puris-
sima, in the western part of what is now Santa Barbara County. One
individual, an old man, and the last survivor of his tribe, was visited
by Dr. J. L. Ord a few years since. This man’s name was Omsett,
-and he said his tribe was called Chumas. When visited by the doctor (to
whom I am indebted for the old man’s narrative respecting his people),
through very old and entirely blind, he was quite intelligent, and spoke
Spanish fluently. He represented his tribe as being very numerous
previous to the advent of the Spaniards. They were strong, well-built,
good swimmers, and fine fishermen. They made their hooks from the
shell of the haliotis; had canoes made from the skins of sea-lions, and

SANTA ROSA ISLAND. _ 319

also from the pine and large redwood logs found on the beach; used
spears in killing the whale, the blubber of which they ate raw. <Accord-
ing to this old Indian’s account, their idea of a future state was some-
what obscure. They worshiped the sun, the crow, and the sword-fish.
The sun they worshiped morning and evening, and as the source of
light and heat. The sword-fish was worshiped because it brought
them the whale, as they were numerous, and united with the “orca,”
or killer, in killing or driving these monsters ashore. Their object in
worshiping the crow is not so clear.

Nearly all their food they ate raw, it being principally of fish and
mollusks. They pitched their boats with asphaltum. They carried
on considerable trade in shells with the Indians in the interior, who
would manufacture them into money and ornaments that were highly
prized by both sexes, especially the females. The language spoken
by the ‘ Chumas” was different from that spoken on the main-land.

Antiquities.—A large portion of this island appears as a vast ranche-
ria, and it once doubtless supported a vast population. Just west of
the wharf a rancheria begins and extends for the distance of two miles,
stretching across a point of land which projects into the sea. This old
village or rancheria has an average width of about one mile. The sand
has drifted over it in many places, and in others the soil has been
removed by westerly winds until many skeletons are exposed, and
human bones are scattered promiscuously over the surface. Some idea
may be formed of this extensive sheli-heap when I state that over the
entire rancheria shells, bones, and other kitchen débris have accumu-
lated to the depth of several feet.

Owing to the luxurious vegetation, the burial places were not readily
found, but those examined yielded many skeletons. The implements
were not numerous, and were generally broken when buried. The in-
habitants seem to have been an indigent race, living in much greater
poverty than those on the main-land. Including fossils and some
alcoholic specimens, we obtained about one ton of specimens.

The specimens from the graves and shell-heaps consisted of mortars
manufactured from sandstone; one olla carved from crystallized tale and
used for cooking purposes ; one pipe, cone-shaped, and about six inches
long, with bone mouth-piece inserted in the smaller end; pestles of sand-
stone; perforated disks from the size of a silver half-dollar to five or six
inches in diameter. These were used in games. It required either
three or four to play a game with these disks. Two individuals, stand-
ing at a given distance, rolled the disk rapidly upon the ground between
them, while one or two others stood at the side with sharpened sticks
and caught the disks as they were whirled rapidly by. We also found
a conical disk, which was probably used in spinning. Spear-points,
arrow-heads, knives, drills, &c., of chert were common. We found
wampum, beads, and a great variety of ornaments manufactured from
shells. The Olivella biplicata is used from which to manufacture wam-

320 _ SANTA ROSA ISLAND.

pum, the Pachydesma erassatelloides for beads, and the Haliotis for orna-
ments. The specimens in bone were principally whistles, perforators,
needles, &c. We found a bone implement some eighteen inches long
and shaped like a butcher’s cleaver ; also bone swords or spears.

Although more than sixty years have elapsed since the last survivors
left this island, yet the material of which their houses were constructed
remains undecayed. A circular excavation was made to the depth of
three or four feet, around which the ribs of whales were planted point-
ing inward at the top, and covered with ‘“‘sea-grass.”. Those we exam-
ined had fallen inward, and the bones and grass were covered with débris
to the depth of a foot or more, but perfectly preserved. In many in-
stances they had used the circular depressions, where these dwellings
had been erected, for burial places.

It was not unusual to find the teeth very irregularly set in the jaw,
and sometimes an extra tooth would appear. This probably gave rise
to the story of skulls having been found on this island with double rows
of teeth. I have frequently heard this related of the Indians that once
inhabited this island and the main-land, but after exhuming some 5,000
skeletons, during eight or nine months’ explorations in this portion of
California, I failed to meet with a single case of the kind, nor have I
been able to learn of a well-authenticated instance of such a find. In
some instances the skulls indicated great longevity. The bones were
generally large, and the markings of the muscular attachments indi-
cating a very stout race of people.

NOTES ON THE HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

3y Dr. THos. A. McPaRLIn, Surgeon, United States Army.
(Communicated by General J. K. Barnes, Surgeon-General, United States Army.)

HISTORY OF NEW MEXICO.

What is now known as New Mexico has had a varied history. First,
the home of nomadic Indians, perhaps as peaceable, loving, and tracta-
ble as those first described by Columbus. Gold and silver and the quest
of precious jewels, like the Golden Fleece, brought over the Spaniards,
and with them Mother Church. In 1540 Francisco Vasquez Coron-
ado came to the country with an expedition. He found some of the
Indians nomadic, and others living in settlements, and among them he
describes Cicuyé, extending along the river for six miles, and the soil
cultivated by the Indians, from the mountains as far west as the present
town of AguaFria. This pueblo and cultivated valley correspond with
what was afterward named after the patron saint, San Francisco de
Asis de Santa Fé. As it is at least four hundred years old as a town,
(how much older it may be there are no means of determining,) it is
much older than San Augustine, Fla., founded in 1565, or any other
town on this continent.

In 1546, during the empire of Charles V, it was determined to encour-
age the settlement of the Indians in towns in order to protect the Pu-
eblo Indians. New Mexican Pueblo traditions accredit Montezuma with
having gone south from this Territory, and with his people the substan-
tial evidences of gold and precious minerals gave the Mexicans and
their conquerors, under Cortez, the information that their gold came
from the north, and with precious minerals existed here in great quan-
tities.

The Indians were compelled by the Spaniards of this country to dig
the mines in all parts of the Territory, to carry water, and pack ores and
fuel on their backs to the furnaces ; and in consequence, after the rebel-
lion in 1680, when they drove the Spaniards out, they filled up and care-
fully concealed all evidences and traces of the mines they had worked
so successfully. When in 1704 the Spaniards revisited New Mexico,
the Pueblos entered into a compromise “ by which the Spaniards were
permitted to return, but with the positive and express condition that
they should not open the mines or prosecute mining as a pursuit.”

Hence it is probable that the richest mines in this country are yet to
be discovered ; and it is certain that but for the scarcity of water very
many now known, but only imperfectly worked, would be very product-
ive. The records of the ancient mine near Abiquiu, derived from an

2s

322 NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

old church near by, show that 10 per cent. in tithes collected from it
amounted to $10,000,000. No mining of any extent has been prosecuted
in this mine since 1680. Gold, silver, and coal and turquoise are found
near Santa Fé; and from this country an unusually large and valuable
turquoise was sent to the Emperor.

Pedro de Reralto was governor in 1600; in 1640 General Arguello
was governor and captain-general, resident at Santa Fé as the capital ;
General Concha, in 1650; Henrique de Abila y Pacheco, in 1656; Juan
Francisco Junio, in 1675; Antonio de Otermin, in 1680-83.

The Indians rebelled first in 1583 and again in 1680, and on the night
of the 20th August, 1680, Otermin evacuated the place and marched
to El Paso, arriving there October 1.

In 1681 the viceroy at Mexico dispatched General Otermin from El
Paso with an army to recapture the capital; but after reaching La Ba-
jada, 21 miles from Santa Fé, he gave up the enterprise, finding the
Pueblos concentrated to resist him. In 1692 the viceroy commissioned
Diego de Vargas Zapata Lujan Ponce de Leon as governor and eaptain-
general of New Mexico, who fought and overcame the Pueblos Septem-
ber 15 of that year and entered into Santa Fé. After the re-establish-
ment of Spanish supremacy he returned to El Paso, reaching there De-
cember 20, 1692, and returned December 16, 1693, to Santa Fé, where his
occupation and re-entry was disputed, and a battle was fought on Christ-
mas-day. The next day he took formal possession of Santa Fé, in the
name of King Charles II.

After the reconquest by the Spaniards, the Pueblos (twelve towns
on the Rio Grande or in the vicinity) made their submission and were
subject until 1837, when they rebelled, on account of a tax on tobacco
and other articles laid by Governor Albino Perez. After fighting a
battle with the Pueblos at Santa Cruz de la Canada, he was beaten,
returned to the suburbs of Santa Fé, where he was overtaken and as-
sassinated, August 9, 1837.

In 1838, Manuel Armijo was recognized as governor, and continued
so until the capital was taken possession of, in the name of the United
States, by General Stephen W. J. Kearney, U. 8. A., August 18, 1846.
General Kearney occupied the palace, a building now in existence, and
which was erected previous to the year 1581, being built then of mate-
rial of the old Indian town, (Cicuyé.) Since his time it has been occu-
pied successively by Col. John M. Washington, Col. John Monroe and
Col. KE. V. Sumner, as military governors, until March, 1851, when theex-
isting territorial government was initiated.

The office of the Secretary of State contains several extended docu-
ments, in Spanish, upon the history of the conquest, occupation and
reconquest of the country. From these and the works written upon
New Mexico by Mr. Elias Brevoort, Gov. W. F. N. Arny, Mr. D. J.
Miller, and General Davis, the student may find ample material for
interesting inquiry.

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 323
CLIMATOLOGY.

Formerly a journey across the plains, a distance of 700 miles from
the frontier of Missouri, requiring a life in the open air, traveling with
a wagon-train, amid hostile Indians, from May to July, was necessary
to reach Santa Fé. Many pulmonary invalids came out, living on game
and buffalo-meat, gradually ascending day by day to the level of 8,000 feet
in the Rocky Mountains. They were undoubtedly in the great majority
of cases benefited, while many recovered from threatened consumption.

Two railroads now have advanced to within 220 miles of Santa Fé, at
El Moro, near Trinidad, and it is expected that by May 1, 1877, the Den-
ver and Rio Grande Railroad will be completed to Fort Garland, 156
miles from Santa Fé. The line of daily stages now runs from Santa lé
to El Moro in 36 hours. 1

Now the traveler passes over the plains on the railroad, and at once
begins traversing the Raton Mountain chain and then the spurs of the
tocky Mountains. The old-fashioned trip across the plains is deprived
of many advantages to the invalid above mentioned ; although in some
cases it is (especially to the timid valetudinarian) compensated by an
earlier and more comfortable transit.

The altitude of Las Animas, (Fort Lyon,) 4,000 feet, and of Trinidad,
5,000 feet above the sea, has been quite beneficial to such as require a
gradual approach to a higher level.

They are accessible by railroad, and comfortable accommodations are
to be had at both places.

After reaching Fort Garland, nearly 8,000 feet above the sea, or
Santa Fé, 6,846 feet, any less degree of elevation can be obtained by
going southward down the valley of the Rio Grande toward El Paso,
3,600 feet of altitude; and at every step southward a milder summer
climate will be found.

A portion of New Mexico, the Mesilla Valley, acquired in 1848 under
the Gadsden treaty, has of late years developed features of unusual
interest on account of its mines, minerals, pasturage, fertility and
climate. It is between the thirty-third and thirty-first aud a half par-
allels of latitude, is about 70 miles long, from 1 to 6 miles wide, and
contains about 289 square miles; embracing the towns of Dona Ana,
(population 1,000,) Las Cruces, (2,000,) Mesilla, (2,000,) and others of less
size.

The air is mild, snow being very rarely seen, with a bright daily sun-
shine in about 360 days of the year. Vegetation dries rather than rots;
meat is cured without salt in the open air; and it presents to the inva-
lid the advantages of a very moderate altitude, varying from about
4,000 feet near the Rio Grande to about 7,000 feet in the high cattle-ranges
of the Guadaloupe and other mountains. The valley is protected by
the mountains from the cold winds prevailing from the north.

I know of one asthmatic patient who abandoned the Pacific coast to
join a friend in Mesilla, who, similarly affected in every other locality,

324 NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

had wanted him to join him. His friend had secured the desired
climatie relief and taken up his residence there.

The dryness of the air in the Lower Rio Grande and Mesilla I have
no doubt is not exaggerated. During the past year I had occasion to
see the body of an individual who died on the southern plains (of starva-
tion, it is said) several (perhaps seven) years ago. The body was found
some time after death, and had been buried near Fort Craig. It was
disinterred for removal to the national cemetery here in 1875, and pre-
sented a remarkable preservation by desiccation. The process it had
undergone was what I would term mummification, and reminded me
of the accounts of what oceurs to the bodies of the dead when aban-
doned in the deserts of Lybia or Arabia.

The Mesilla Valley is said to produce a fine variety of grape, with
juices heavier than from the grapes of Madeira and Portugal, as the
grapes remain on the vine until they commence to dry before being
pressed ; and the wort contains as much sugar as the sweetest of Mal-
aga, (Brevoort.) When dried, they make a good raisin. The almond-
tree, peach, apple, pear, quince, apricot, are raised there, and all kinds
of garden-plants; and probably game is as abundant as elsewhere in
the country.

Mesilla may, I think, be considered a very favorable locality for pul-
monary invalids. The trip across the plains and to New Mexico may
be contrasted and compared with interest to the invalid with that which
might be experienced in old Mexico. The journey from Vera Cruz to
Mexico is made by rail in fifteen hours. The ascent is 7,459 feet, (to
the highest point on the road 8,318 feet,) and is made in ten hours.
‘“‘ Many travelers, though in health, (says Prof. I. Rh. Peaslee,) experi-
ence a decided dyspnoea on reaching these altitudes, especially in mak-
ing any considerable exertion, on account of the rarefaction of the
atmosphere, though no amount of effort produces much sensible per-
spiration. The consequences in cases of pulmonary emphysema or
asthma dependent upon cardiac affections are, as might be expected,
not favorable. Asthma depending on derangement of the stomach,
however, is sometimes cured. Chronic bronchitis also is not likely to
be relieved at this altitude, combined with the dampness I have men-
tioned.*

But all these are alleviated by a residence at a lower altitude, the
point suitable for such cases being found at Vera Cruz or between that
city and the altitude of Cordova or Orizaba, 7. e. 2,700 to 4,000 feet.
(New York Medical Record, No. 286, April 29, 1876, p. 291.)

The situation of the Mexican peninsula between the Atlantic and. Pa-
cific Oceans, and the nearness of all its cities to one or other ocean, is
very different, however, from that of theinland nature of New Mexico ;

*The present city of Mexico was built upon grounds formerly covered by Lake
Tezcuco, and into which it is drained. (See New York Medical Record, April 27, 1876
p- 290.)

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 325

and especially in the dryness of the atmosphere of our continent is the
patient interested.

With all the dampness found at the city of Mexico, it is stated by Dr,
Peaslee that ‘‘ Phthisis is not indigenous in that city, and it is not sel-
dom arrested in those who come here from the north. A member of the
Mexican Congress assured me that the natives donot die of phthisis,
and that the lives of phthisical patients from the north are usually much
prolonged by a permanent residence here.” (Ibid., p. 291.) He thinks,
however, it presents no special advantage to phthisical or bronchitic
patients, and he cannot recommend it to such as a winter residence.

But there are other places of lower altitude in this country (Mexico)
which he believes to be fally equal, and in some respects even superior,
to any of the famous resorts abroad, mentioning ‘Cordova (altitude
2,715 feet) and Orizaba, (4,030 feet,) both presenting a tropical climate
and all its productions and the most grand and picturesque scenery.
Cordova has, moreover, sometimes been visited by yellow fever. Jalapa
also, now accessible by railroad, is doubtless equal to either of these
places as a Sanitarium for this class of patients, and as a residence is one
of the most beautiful places on earth. Its great humidity may, however,
render it unsuitable to some cases, ond the sudden chill of the northers
must also be guarded against in these places. But Cuernavaca, 60
miles south of Mexico and not accessible by railroad, has an altitude of
5,428 feet, and the same climate and productions as Orizaba, and is far
more desirable. In addition to these, Tetecala, not far from Cuerna-
vaca; Atlixco, 23 miles from Puebla, and Monterey, are mentioned by
Dr. Peaslee, though the latter is only accessible by a tedious journey by
diligence.”

It may be interesting to compare with the climate of Mexico that of
Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Texas. Whatever may be lost of the
tropical air and productions as we go northward from Mexico may be
more than made up by the dryness of the atmosphere, a short wet sea-
son, and diminished rain-fall.

In some localities dust-storms are sufficiently prevalent to be prejudi-
cial, on account of the irritation they occasion to the air-passages. In
Texas the heat of summer is extreme, and the sudden vicissitudes of tem-
perature and moisture and extreme chill produced by northers are
worse, perhaps, than in Mexico. In Utah (see Report of Surgeon E. P.
Vollum, Circular No. 8, Surgeon-General’s Office, May 1, 1875, p. 343) the
humidity is marked in the spring months, arising from the winds passing
over Great Salt Lake from the northward, bringing the watery vapors
not only from that great body of water, but also from the regions beyond,
supplied by the southwesterly currents that are seen to pass over at a
great altitude most of the winter long. This statement is true as to
the climate of Camp Douglas, 24 miles east of Salt Lake City, and at an
altitude of 4,904 feet above the sea.

‘Great Salt Lake, with a shore-line, exclusive of offsets, of 291 miles,
is vast enough to furnish a horizon in places like the ocean itself.”

326 NOTES ON HiSTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

In Dr. Vollum’s special report on the diseases of Utah, (tbid., pp. 341-
343,) he regards the altitude and climate of Utah on phthisis as favor-
able. * * ‘“ITfacase comes here in the incipient stage, and is well
situated for comforts, that it will get well spontaneously from the bene-
ficial effects of this altitude and the inland dry character of the atmos-
phere. It is the boast of the people that this is not a consumptive coun-
try, which is my opinion decidedly. On the other hand, it is believed
that if a patient comes here in the later stages of the disease, that the
atmosphere is too rare to give the proper support, ana that the case will
be hastened to a termination more speedily than on the sea-coast. * *
The beneficial influence of this climate on asthma is decided and deserves
a prominent mention. It is also the boast of the people, as well as the
physicians, that asthma cannot exist here, excepting under a relieved
and modified condition; which I think is the case.”

Very many invalids are attracted annually to the mineral-waters of
Manitou, Colorado, (6,370 feet above the sea-level, and 8,000 below the
summit of Pike’s Peak,) where there are several springs containing car-
bonic acid and carbonate of soda, (as the Navajoe, Manitou, and Ute
soda;) purging carbonated soda-waters, modified by the presence of sal-
phate of soda and potash, as the * Little Chief” and “Shoshone;” and fer-
ruginous carbonated soda-waters containing carbonate of iron, as in the
“Tron Ute” and the ‘ Little Chief” mineral springs.

Tn a memoir (Saint Louis, 1875) on the climate of this region, by 8.
Edwin Solly, M. R. C. S., (late house surgeon to St. Thomas Hos-
pital, London,) reference is made to the decrease of pressure in a rarefied
atmosphere, causing a diminution of the gases of the blood and lymph,
and this probably checks the advance of phthisis, as unquestionably
beneficial in certain cases. In phthisis, where the weakness is not ex-
cessive but there is anzmia and want of assimilation, a high elevation
with a moderate supply of stimulants and a course of cold douches is
generally beneficial. The greater dryness of mountain air acts bene-
ficially on phthisis, probably for the most part in the manner indicated
by Dr. Herman Weber: ‘“* We may here mention that although the loss
of moisture to the whole organism may not be greater in high than in
low elevations, yet the acknowledged greater loss through the lungs may
be accompanied by local effects in certain morbid conditions of the res-
piratory organs, as well as by producing a more active circulation in the
lungs in order to supply the required moisture, as also by favoring a
kind of drying up of surface, secreting a morbid amount of mucus and
pus, and also of moist exudations within the tissue. Possibly the im-
provement in many cases of chronic catarrhal pneumonia may be pro-
duced by this increased afflux of blood and increased loss of moisture.”

“Very highly situated places are adapted for winter treatment (of
phthisis) on account of the greater number of clear days.” (Braun.)
And for another reason they are specially desirable in the winter; be-
cause in high elevations thereis less moisture during the winter than at

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 327

any other season of the year, and therefore the air being dry, the greater
actual cold than in lower climates is felt less severely, and if the body
is warmly clad the lowness of the temperature exerts only its tonic influ-
ence. The air being rarefied, the sun has a much greater influence, be-
ing more constantly visible in mountainous districts, and enables the
enfeebled invalid to spend several lLours almost daily in the sunshine
with very great advantage. (Page 32, ‘ Manitou, Colorado, U.S. A.;
its mineral-waters and climate.” Saint Louis, J. McKittrick & Co.,
1875.)

Dr. Solly refers to the fact that oxygen is essential to procure change
of substance, and as it diminishes in proportion to the elevation above
sea-level, it might be supposed that healthy change of substance would
be retarded in mountain air; ‘ but this,” he adds, ‘is practically found
to be otherwise, and the reason doubtless is that, as only about 25 per
cent. of oxygen is on an average used in respiration, there is probably
more than sufficient oxygen at any height that has as yet been attained
by man.”

The discussion as to the gases of the blood, their ratio to other con-
stituents, condition of the oxygen as free, mechanically dissolved there-
in, or chemically combined, or both, I have no disposition to continue ;
but in so far as atmospheric pressure may be considered an important
cause of variation, we have the statement of Lehman (Physiological
Chemistry, vol. 1, p. 572) that “ Liebig is certainly in the right when
he advances the proposition that ‘a gas can only be considered as me-
chanically absorbed when its quantity increases and diminishes in pro-
portion to the external pressure.’” We think we are justified in conclud-
ing with Liebig that the quantity of oxygen which may be absorbed by
the blood is constant in amount, and, to a certain extent, independent
of external pressure—an opinion which is based partly on the fact that
the respiratory process is carried on nearly the same, both at very great
heights and at the level of the sea; and that no more oxygen is absorbed,
even in an air very rich in oxygen, than in the ordinary atmosphere.” A
certain amount of mechanical difficulty, labored respiration, on ascend-
ing heights rapidly is generally experienced. At the same time, the
very great strain put upon the muscles of locomotion causes pain in the
limbs. We have no reason to expect the muscles of respiration to bear
undue exercise and strain without fatigue, and it very probably contrib-
utes largely to what is known as dyspncea, which is experienced as
severely after rapid running any distance upon a plain. The question
might be asked to what extent a diminished atmospheric pressure might
facilitate the escape of carbonic acid from the lungs? May it not be far
more important to free the blood rapidly of its carbonic acid, which is
poisonous, than to inhale and accumulate oxygen in excess of the need
of the system and the chemical capacity of the blood to utilize?

The extent to which diminished pressure alone may affect respiration
can best be determined by the aéronaut, who reaches a height without

328 NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

physical fatigue. He does so, however, at avery rapid rate, and a
quickened respiration is the result. Dyspnoea (besoin de respirer) results
from any change of accustomed relations between the lungs and the air
to be respired. It occurs in pregnancy; (in dropsical accumulations,
abdominal or thoracic, which obstruct the expansion of the chest and
lungs, and limit the free play of the muscles of respiration and fatigue
them.) Emotional disturbances, nervous perturbations, and mental anx-
iety cause it, as well as any undue physical labor or unwonted exertion.

That the respiration of an atmosphere of 8,000 feet above sea-level
need not necessarily involve dyspnea in an individual, I know from per-
sonal experience. I visited this country, ascending 8,000 feet, in 1849,
and lived at an elevation of between 6,700 and 7,000 feet for three years.
Again, in the past year (1875) I revisited New Mexico, and I have never
detected in myself any disturbance of respiration as the effect of this
altitude—not even a quickened respiration. I am not unmindful of the
fact, however, that another person may have a different experience, but
it may, perhaps, be attributable to other causes than altitude, or as com-
bined with it.

The amount of oxygen present available for respiration may be in some
degree dependent upon the stagnation or relative movement of the air.
A moveless atmosphere becomes very oppressive, and perhaps is most
prevalent in low countries. The movement of the air is, as a rule,
greater in the mountains and high altitudes generally. I invite atten-
tion in this connection to the Chief Signal-Officer’s remarks for October,
1874, (page 285, report for 1875:) “The extreme maximum movements
of the wind have been, at Breckenridge, 7,650 miles; at Cape Henry,
9,147; Cape May, 6,907; Cleveland, 7,281; Escanaba, Mich., 7,217;
Long Branch, 9,242; Pike’s Peak, 14,734; Sandy Hook, 10,917. The
extreme minimum movements have been, at Memphis, 1,700, and at
Shreveport, 1,886. The calm area is therefore coterminous with that of
high pressure.”

That high temperature produces oppression in breathing is evidenced
in the East Indies both in the periods of calm and during the prevalence ot
the hot winds, especially when, as happens in midsummer, the thermome-
ter reads higher at night than in the day-time. At Nowshera, in 1867, the
condition of the troops is described as “ gasping for breath. There was
a peculiar feeling of weight on the chest, even in the apparently healthy;
and after every 20 inspirations, or thereabout, a strong and convulsive
effort was necessary to inflate the lungs. * * * When the cause,
viz., prolonged high temperature, was removed, an almost instantaneous
return to health (in cases of insolation) was the result.” (British Army
Med. Dept. Report for 1868, Appendix No. X, pp. 296, 297, by Asst.
Surg. Staples, 19th Regt.)

‘In the same way that we cannot endure either constant dryness or
dampness, so we cannot endure a very constant state of the barometer
without suffering in our breathing or nerves. In fact, there is little

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 329

doubt that rapid changes of the barometer are more favorable for the
more important functions of life than its relative stability; and this
probably explains in a measure the value of both mountain and sea air.”
It also explains the benefit experienced frequently by confirmed invalids
in a change from inland to sea-shore, or from mountain to sea-level, or
vice versa,

Dr. Holland, in his “ Medical Notes and Reflections,” expresses the
opinion ‘ that the action of different degrees of atmospheric pressure in
disturbing the bodily functions and general health is rather derived from
the frequency of fluctuation than from any state long continued either
above or below the average standard; that of the two conditions, sud-
denly incurred, the human frame is better capable of withstanding a rarefied
than a condensed atmosphere; and that, in either case, the previous
health and proneness to disorder in particular organs are greatly con-
cerned in determining the results on the body.”

He supports some of these views from the fact that ‘there are in-
habited places in America, such as the town of Potosi, at an elevation
of more than 15,000 feet, the inhabitants of which seem to have tolerable
health.” (Medical Times and Gazette, London, September 9, 1876, p.
299.)

At all elevated places the diurnal variations, barometric and ther-
mometric, are sufficiently great to meet the demands of the economy for
change, and these are augmented agreeably, and changed again,.with
the months and seasons as they come. At the same time the extremes
of temperature are vot experienced in high as in low altitudes; cer-
tainly the mountains are devoid of the intense heat of other more northern
but lower localities.

The annual range of the thermometer at some places otherwise
favorable becomes too exccssive to be compatible with health in weak
constitutions. At some low places the long continuance of summer-
heat debilitates so greatly that months pass before normal vigor is
regained. [xtreme heat of long continuance involves even fatal pros-
tration in a very few hours when the action of the skin is suspended,
(insolation ;) and this may occur in localities where, in a few months,
an almost Arctic rigor is experienced. We fail to find in the mountains
such experiences or such results; on the contrary, the air is invigorat-
ing and bracing at all seasons under conditions that prevail elsewhere,
and not involving extreme exposure.

The contrast is particularly noticeable in India between the low plains
and the hill stations.

We find the Savoyard, the Swiss, and the residents of mountains
generally, of our time, as hardy as the mountaineers of history. They
do not degenerate at home, nor until they migrate to the lowlands.
The inhabitants of Georgia, Circassia, and Cashmere, and the hill tribes
of India area superior race. The Arabs and Abyssinians on the elevated
lands of the desert and on the sides of the mountains from which the

330 NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

Nile descends present a striking superiority over the people of lower
Egypt. Their fiery life, love of liberty, and warlike genius place them
immeasurably above the “ Fellahs.” The recent war against the Abys-
sinians has demonstrated anew the vigor and valor of their race.

The human race has not only degenerated by dwelling in low, un-
healthy places, but it is again and again decimated by the pestilences
generated in them. In the language of Dr. Farr, “it is destroyed now
periodically by five pestilences—cholera, remittent fever, yellow fever,
glandular plague, and influenza. The origin or chief seat of the first is
the Delta of the Ganges. Of the second, the African and other tropical
coasts. Of the third, the low west coast around the Gulf of Mexico, or
the Delta of the Mississippi, and the West India Islands. Of the fourth,
the Delta of the Nile and the low sea-side of cities of the Mediterranean.
Of the generating field of influenza nothing certain is known; but
* * * the four great pestilential diseases—cholera, yellow fever, re-
mittent fever, and plague—have this property in common: that they
begin and are most fatal in low grounds; that their fatality diminishes
in ascending the rivers and is inconsiderable around the river sources,
except under such peculiar circumstances as are met with at Erzeroum,
where the features of a marshy sea-side city are seen at the foot of
the mountain chain of Ararat. Safety is found in flight to the hills.”

* * * * * * *

In treating upon the “ salubrity of high places,” he refers to the influ-
ence of locality on race, of the sanitary instinct, the effect of the high
and, and the sight of the hills on the energies of the sick, the longevity
of the inhabitants of various places, the effect of healthy places on the
breed of animals, the degeneration of race in unhealthy places, the time
required to produce degeneration and degradation of race.

It is, perhaps, well for us, as individuals, to revert to such historic
facts as he presents in terms of classic elegance, and it is, I trust, cog-
nate to the subject we have inhand. ‘As the power of the Egyptians
descended from the Thebaid to Memphis, from Memphis to Sais, they
gradually degenerated, notwithstanding the elevation of their towns
above the high waters of the Nile, their hygienic laws and the hydro-
graphical and other sanitary arrangements which made the country
renowned, justly or unjustly, for its salubrity in the days of Heroditus,
the poison of the Delta in every time of weakness and successful inva-
sion gradually gained the ascendancy, and as the cities declined the
canals and the embalmments of the dead were neglected, the plague
gained ground. The people, subjugated by Persians, Greeks, Romans,
Turks, Mamelukes, became what they have been for centuries, and what
they are in the present day. Every race that settled in the Delta de-
generated and was only sustained by immigration. So, likewise, the
populations on the sites of all the city-states of antiquity, on the coast
of Syria, Asia Minor, Africa, Italy, seated like the people of Rome on
low ground under the ruin-clad hills of their ancestors, witbin reach of

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 331

fever and plague, are enervated and debased apparently beyond redemp-
tion.

‘‘ The history of the nations on the Mediterranean, on the plains of the
Euphrates and the Tigris, the deltas of the Indus and Ganges, and the
rivers of China, exhibit this great fact: The gradual descent of races
irom the highlands, their establishment on the coasts in cities sustained
and refreshed fora season by immigration from the interior, their degra-
dation in successive generations under the influence of the unhealthy
earth, and their final ruin, effacement, or subjugation by new races of
conquerors. The causes that destroy individual men lay cities waste,
which, in their nature, are immortal, and silently undermine eternal
empires.

‘On the highlands men feel the loftiest emotions. Every tradition
places their origin there. The first nations worshipped there. High on
the Indian Caucasus, on Olympus, and on other lofty mountains the
Indians and the Greeks imagined the abodes of their highest gods, while
they peopled the low underground regions, the grave-land of mortality,
with infernal deities. Their myths havea deep signification. Man feels
his immortality in the hills.” (Page xciv, Report of William Farr,
esq., to the Registrar-General of England. London, 1852.

The climate of Kansas, so far as my experience of it may warrant an
opinion—and I have served there in 1849, 1857, 1858, 1573, 1874, 1875—
is not favorable to pulmonary invalids. They should go out on the plains
and gradually work their way to the mountains. Neither can lrecommend
Texas, unless it may be the region near San Antonio, which is said to be
favorable. San Antonio is, however, liable to choleraic visitations, and,
being a limestone region, the fatality is extreme. Ihave seen pulmonary
invalids visit New Orleans and very rapidly decline, I suppose on account
of the excessive humidity. .

Of Colorado I have no experience. It resembles the climate of New
Mexico, but is to the north of it, and may be inclement.

Of New Mexico there are certain features worthy of consideration by
invalids and their advisers.

J. The dryness of the atmosphere associated with elevation above sea-
level to be found at any elevation desired, in localities ranging from
3,600 to 8,000 feet.

The dryness of all mountain regions is acknowledged. The range
of mountains in Colorado has this excellence in common with those of
New Mexico.

By reference to the report of the Chief Signal-Officer of the Army for
January, 1875, it will be perceived that the percentages of relative hu-
midity for the different districts average as folléws: New England, 73
per cent.; Middle Atlantic States, 74; South Atlantic States, 79; Gulf
States, 82; Lower Lake region, 79; Upper Lake region, 70; Ohio Val-
ley, Tennessee, and the Northwest, 73. As usual, the mean relative
humidity has been lowest at the Rocky Mountain stations, amounting

332 NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

to .56 at Denver and .51 at Santa Fé. In the report for July, 1874, p. 271,
he remarks: “The relative humidity has averaged on the Gulf and
South and East Atlantic States 75; New Jersey coast, 85; in the Lake
region, 68; Lower Mississippi Valley, 70; in the Tennessee and the Ohio
and Upper Mississippi Valleys, 62; in the Lower Missouri Valley, 58 ; at
the Rocky Mountain stations, 41.” I extract from his report as of
interest the following data:

SANTA FE, N. MEX.

Maximum, August 2, 1874, 89° F.; minimum, February 24, 1875, 2° F.

1874, 1875.

July. | Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.}| Dec.| Jan. | Feb.}| Mar.| Apr. | May. | June.

° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° fo) ° ° °
Range ...... acodadonnEcas 36 40 45 o2 42 55 45 54 63 65 49 50
Monthly means .......-.. 71.1 | 69.9 | 60.6 | 52.3 | 38.7 | 29.2 | 28.1 | 31.4 | 34.4 | 47.4 | 59.2 | 67.9
Rain-fall in inches -.-..--- 3.92} 1.7] 1.42) 2.47) 0.5) 2.26) 0.67) 0.72) 1.37) 0.33) 0. sl 0. 33

Rain-fall, annual amount, 16.68 inches.
DENVER, COLO.

Maximum, July 4, 1874, 102° F.; minimum, January 9, 1875, 29° F.

1874. 1875.

|
Taly.| Aug Sent Oct. | Nov.| Dec.| Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. June.

° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
TREN 2) Seas ooeodnedeocc ol 45.3 | 57.4 | 70 64 76 84 67 72 69 52 59
Monthly means .....----. 76.1 | 73 59 52.9 | 42.2 | 29.7 | 16.8 | 32.3 | 33.4 | 44.5 | 60.2 | 70.4
0. 43
'

Rain-fall in inches -....-- 3.35} 0.62) 1. 34) 0. a 0.03} 0.17; 3.38) 0.60) 0.39) 2.24) 1.94
|

Rain-fall, annual amount, 15.24 inches.

COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO.

Maximum, July 11, 1874, 98° F.; minimum, January 13, 1875, 25° F.
Maximum thermometer broken; rain-fall, annual amount 15.24 inches,

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH.

Maximum, July 1, 2, and 3, 1874, 98° F.; minimum, January 16, 1875, 5° F.

1874. 1875.
1
July. | Aug. |Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec.| Jan.| Feb.} Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.
° oO ie} ie} ° ° ° ° ie} fo} oO °
IBAWNEE) paccodsouensossauds 42 38 49 51 34 43 46 39 51 60 56 56
Monthly means .....----- 78.2 | 74.7 | 62.6 | 55.6 | 43.4 | 33 29.4 | 33.7 | 35.2 | 50.3 | 60.1 | 69.1
Rain-fall in inches - ..---- 2.42) 1.03] 0.20) 1.74) 2.16] 0.73} 3.05] 0.79) 2.8%) 1.50) 2.91) 0.90

--- Na

Rain-fall, annual amount, 20.24 inches.

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 333

SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.

Maximum, September 14, 1874, 89° F. Minimum, December 26, 1875, 40° F.

1874. | 1875.

iene Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | Jane.

July.| Aug.|Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. |

Rain-fall in inches....... 0. 00 0. 00! 0502) 2°69) 7:53 na 20 OFS2)) WBC 2OLAG Oh 22) eae

| |

Rain-fall, annual amount, 21.54 inches.

GALVESTON, TEX.

1874. 1875.

July.) Ang. Sept Oct. | Noy.} Dec. | Jan. Feb. Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.
ar cae \
Rain-fall in inches ...-.... 9.31} 7.19) 6. a 0.12) 1.538) 6.92] 4.31) 2. m4 3.51} 2 5 1.50) 0.89
Rain-fall, annual amount, 46.66 inches.
NEW ORLEANS, LA.

1874. 1875,
July. | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec.| Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.
Rain-fallin inches........ 12, mi 4.82) 4. | eee Wied hae “a 1485 en Meeaa aes

Rain-fall, annual amount, 74.98 inches.

He remarks for June, 1875, as to relative humidity: “ This element
averages 80 per cent. for the immediate coast of New Jersey and New
England, and 75 per cent. on the South Atlantic coast. Elsewhere, over
nearly the entire country east of the western plains, the average is from
65 to 70 per cent. It is, as usual, very low at the Rocky Mountain
Stations, being 33 per cent. at Cheyenne, 29 at Salt Lake City, and 28
at Denver.”

The rain-fall in inches for June, 1875, was, for Santa Fé, 0.33; for Den-
ver, 0.43; Salt Lake City, 0.90; and the annual amount of rain-fall for
the same places is reported at 16.68, 15.24, and 20.24, respectively. For
San Francisco, Cal., it was 21.54; for Galveston, Tex., 46.66; and for
New Orleans, 74.98 inches.

NEW MEXICO.

The dryness of this atmosphere is proverbial. Vhe lands are eculti-
vated entirely by irrigation, and have been so for centuries. The tra-
dition among the Pueblo Indians, as given by Hosti, is that, the rain
falling less and less, the people emigrated to the southward long before
the Spaniards arrived in the country, (the visit of Coronado was made
about 1542,) being led by Montezuma, a powerful man, who was born in

334 NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

Pecos and had settled with the Pueblos on the Rio San Juan. Montezuma
was to return and lead the rest of the Pueblos also to the south, but be
failed to come back. * * ‘This whole tradition accords well with an-
other held by the Aztecs, in old Mexico, when Cortez entered the country
of Anahuac, namely, that their forefathers came (most probably at the
end of the twelfth century) from the north. (Dr. Oscar Loew’s report
on ‘ Ruins in New Mexico.”) Itis probable that the climate has be-
come progressively more dry as time has elapsed, from evidences ot
former cultivation which would be now impossible. At Quivira, Dr.
Loew says, ‘* when Coronado visited this province it was, as he de-
scribed it, very fertile; at present it resembles a desert.”

At similar elevations in other countries the snow would accumulate
and form glaciers upon the mountains, whence an ample river-supply
of water would continue all the summer. Nothing like this occurs here,
and the extremely rapid evaporation in this dry air may help to account
tor the difference.

II. Very soon after ny arrival in New Mexico, in October, 1875, I be-
came aware of unusual electrical disturbances around me. Severe shocks
were experienced on touching garments of wool or cotton that had just
been taken off, and if at night, vivid sparks of electricity and a trail-
ing line of light would follow the fingers when passed over them. The
Shaking of clothing, to free it from dust, or friction with the fingers
over a sheet, would have the same effect. Upon inquiry I found others
also sensible of a highly electrical condition here. The telegraph was
disturbed in its operations by excess of atmospheric electricity, and on
inquiry of Mr. Gough, the agent of the Western Union Telegraph Line,
he was happily able to confirm my impressions from a very extended
experience. The subject became one of almost daily inquiry between
us since July 18, 1876; and at my request he has furnished me a writ-
ten statement, to which I invite special attention.

‘* OFFICE OF WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH COMPANY,
** HEADQUARTERS DISTRICT OF NEW MEXICO,
*“ Santa Fé, N. Mex., December 12, 1876.
“To General T, A. MCPARLIN,
“ Surgeon, U. 8S. A.:

‘DEAR Sir: In reply to your question as to whether I have noticed
any unusual electrical disturbances on the telegraph-lines in this region,
{ would respectfully state that I have noticed such disturbances, and
that in character and frequency they are very remarkable, and really
astonishing, and such as in a seventeen years’ experience I have noticed
on no other lines.

“From about the middle of April until about the middle of October,
between the hours of 10 a. m. and 5 p. m., these disturbances are most
frequent, and render the working of the line almost impossible.

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 335

**On my operating-table I have a galvanometer. The regular battery
or artificial current on the wire deflects the needle from the north to east
60° to 65°—a steady, uniform deflection. During these electrical pheno-
mena the needle commences to become unsteady, pointing 10,30, 50, 70, and
90 degrees east. The flow will increase to such tremendous quantity that
I have frequently opened my key an eighth of an inch, (which is equiva-
lent to breaking the wire and separating the two ends by that distance,)
when the flow of electricity would pass from point to point with a buzzing
sound and an intensely brilliant flame, sometimes of a blue, sometimes of
a purplish color, and as large nearly as a candle-flame. At such times I
have placed tissue-paper between the points, when it would instantly
commence to blaze. Thick, heavy writing-paper would be burned com-
pletely through, but would not blaze. These heavy flows will sometimes
continue for hours with but little variation, at others in one instant the
flow ceases entirely; the needle of the galvanometer drops down to zero;
remaining so for an instant, it will fly back to 80 or 90, drop down to 10,
20, 50; the next instant the whole artificial or battery current is neutral-
ized (so to speak) by a tremendous flow of an apparently different polar-
ization, as the needle before deflected to the east now flows round to 70,
80, or 90 degrees to the west; the next 90 to the east, again at zero,
and thus never steady for more than afew seconds at any point. I
have frequently taken off all the artificial batteries entirely, and no per-
ceptible difference could be noticed; at one moment there would be so
much electricity that in trying to work the line it would fuse the platina
points of thekey, and in the next instant not a particle; and at no
time, either with or without the artificial batteries, would the current
be steady long enough to obtain intelligible signals over the wire.

‘Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
JOSEPH M. GOUGH,
“¢ Manager Western Union Telegraph Company.”

Referring to the Signal Service Reports last published, I found in the
Monthly Reports of Weather for July, 1874, and August, 1874, electri-
cal phenomena of special interest as connected with the summit of Pike’s
Peak, and for January, 1875, atmospheric electricity generally com-
mented upon; and a special extract referring to an extraordinary elec-
trical storm observed at Santa Fé, which I have extracted as of special
interest in connection with the subject of electrical disturbances and dis-
tribution in this and other mountain regions. Facts like these should
be collated and fully considered if it be determined by experience that
atmospheric electricity exerts an influence upon development of health
or disease.

Extracts fron Report of Cwief Signal-Officer for 1875.
ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA.

‘The local storms previously referred to were in many instances ac-
companied by vivid displays of lightning. The most remarkable series

336 NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

of thunder-storms occurred at the summit of Pike’s Peak from the 14th
to the 25th, during which the electrical effect was so intense as to inter-
rupt telegraphic communication with that station. The observer reports
that sharp peculiar sounds were emitted from all pointed objects, and
that painful sensations were experienced in the hands and face.

‘A brilliant display of ball-lightning was observed at Denver July
21, the ball exploding in full view and the fragments re-exploding as they
reached the earth. This phenomenon was also observed at Keokuk,
Towa, on the 16th.

‘*Ground-currents interfered with the working of the telegraph-line
at Sandy Hook on the 4th, 11th, and 16th.” (Page 272, Monthly Weather
Review, report for July, 1874.)

‘¢ In addition to thunder-storms spoken of under previous headings,
there were strong ground-currents on the telegraph-line connecting Col-
orado Springs with the summit of Pike’s Peak, Colo., on the evening
of the Ist. Frequent lightning was observed on the same line during
the month. On the 5d heavy snow accompanied a heavy thunder-storm
on Pike’s Peak, from which station thunder-storms are reported as hav-
ing occurred almost daily. Thunder or lightning, or both, were more
frequent in the Southern and Western States, especially the latter, than
in other stations.” (Page 276, Monthly Weather Review, report for
August, 1874.)

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY.

‘¢ Thunder-storms are reported as having occurred mostly in the South-
ern States and during the passage of general storms, viz:

‘*On the 7th in Georgia and Florida; on the 21st in Georgia, North
Carolina, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Texas; on the 22d in Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas; on the 24th in Alabama,
Mississippi, Louisiana, and North Carolina; on the 27th in Louisiana,
Indian Territory, and Texas; on the 29th in Georgia and Alabama.”

The following extract is made from the observer’s report at Santa Fé,
New Mexico:

“January 15, extraordinary electrical storm on (telegraph) line;
noticed first at 12 m., and lasted until 3 p.m. The current was so strong
the line could not be worked. The key was left open, and most of the
line was surrounded by a ring of fire. It was during the passage of low
barometer that this happened.” (Page 301, Monthly Weather Review
for January, 1875.) *

* By an examination of the appended papers it will be noticed that the military tele-
graph-line extending from Denver to Santa Fé and thence southward to Silver City
was disturbed by atmospheric electricity from July 18 to December 31, 1876—deducting
Sundays, when no continuous observations were made--10 times on the northern line,
14 on the southern line, and 22 on both lines out of Santa Fé; 46 days of disturbance
out of 147 days’ observations. No record was made of disturbances anterior to July
18, 1876.

In the year the wind traveled at arate amounting to 67,996 miles, being southwest
over one half the time and northeast or north about one-fourth the time. One hundred

JOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 337

The earth isa good conductor, and the “common reservoir” of electricity
dry air is a good insulator; but when the air contains moisture it con-
ducts electricity, and this, says Ganot, (page 610, Elementary Treatise
on Physics, New York, 1869,) is the principal source of the loss of elec-
tricity. In the same way that metals do not become electrified by fric-
tion on account of their great conductivity, animals do not exhibit this
property in a marked degree until comparatively insulated by a dry at-
mosphere. Animal bodies daily retaining, for any prolonged period, a
greater store of electricity, or using up this electricity as a force, may
be materially different from what they would be ina humid environment.

The electric tension and density of a metallic sphere is found to be
uniform over its surface. On an elongated ellipsoid it accumulates
at the most acute points, and the upheaved masses of mountains would
appear to us favorable points for a special distribution of electric force.

It is much to be desired that observations as to the amount of ozone,
of humidity, and atmospheric electricity be more generally made in the
interest of t hose seeking for climatic relief and to furnish data for our
guidance.

I have the impression that a moderate altitude should first be sought,
and, as convalescence and vigor are assured, a higher and more bracing
air could be borne with benefit.

In this country the statistician is at a disadvantage; there are no
boards of health, no registration of diseases.

The rector of the cathedral has been kind enough to give me the sta-
tistics of deaths among the Catholic population of the parish of Santa
I’é from 1869 to December 14, 1876, amounting to 1,005 deaths in eight
years in a parish estimated between 7,000 and 8,000. From this I esti-
mate the average yearly death-rate, 125, being about one death to 60
Catholic population, a mortality of 16 per 1,000 in the parish.

Of the death-rate in the Territory I have no information. Dr. Lewis
Kennon, (of Fort Selden,) as quoted by Mr. Brevoort, says: ‘‘The lowest
death-rate from tubercular diseases is in New Mexico.”

“The censuses of 1860 and 1870 give 25 per cent. in New England, 14
in Minnesota, from 5 to 6 in different Southern States, and 3 per cent. in
New Mexico.” (New Mexico, by Elias Brevoort, 1874, p. 27.)

Dr. Symington informs me that, in a residence of eight years in this
Territory, he has seen but two cases of phthisis among natives, and
they were young persons.

In Switzerland (according to Dr. Lombard, of Geneva, Gazette des
Hospitaux, of October 26, 1876; London Medical Times and Gazette,
and nine days were moist for a while from rain orsnow. It is proper, however, to remark
that in the rainy or wet season of the year sunshine and clear skies are noticed every
day, the rain coming in showers. The whole amount of humidity was only 15.06 inches
for the year; maximum velocity of wind, 38 miles per hour.

I take pleasure in acknowledging the prompt facilities extended to me by the United

States signal and military telegraph services in furnishing information and data as to
observations made by them.

22 §

338 NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

November 11,1876, p. 552) the mean mortality resulting from phthisis
pulmonalis is 77 per 1,000 deaths, being a much lower proportion than
most of the countries of Europe. Thus in Belgium this varies from 168 to
198, and in England is 124. * * * Two influences are brought into
view by Dr. Lombard’s investigations, viz: The deleterious effects of in-
dustrial occupations as compared to agricultural, and the benefit of high
altitudes, cases of phthisis being less frequent in proportion to the height
attained, so that it entirely disappears in high valleys.

The Medical Statistics United States Army—Abstract of Principal
Diseases—show a total of 8 cases (3 deaths) in an average mean strength
of 5,873 troops, from phthisis pulmonalis, in the six years from 1849 to
1854, For the same period, in diseases of the respiratory system, ‘“‘ New
York, New England, and the region about the great lakes exhibit the
largest ratios; and Florida, Texas, and New Mexico the smallest, being,
in the ratio of cases per 1,000 of mean strength, New England, 4.8;
New York harbor, 5.9; great lakes, 4.5; Atlantic coast of Florida, 2.3 ;
Gulf coast of Florida, 6.9; Texas southern frontier, 4.00; western
frontier of Texas, 3.9; New Mexico, 1.3.” The conclusions of Dr. R. H.
Coolidge, U. 8S. A., the compiler, (Medical Statistics United States
Army,) are, I believe, accepted to-day: ‘1st. That temperature, consid-
ered by itself, does not exert that marked controlling influence upon
the development or progress of phthisis which has been attributed to
it. * * 2d. That the most important atmospherical condition for
a consumptive is dryness. * * 3d. That next to dryness in im-
portance is an agreeable temperature—a temperature uniform for long
periods, and not disturbed by sudden or frequent changes. * * A
uniformly low temperature is much to be preferred to a uniformly high
temperature. The former exerts a tonic and stimulating effect upon
the general system, while the latter produces general debility and nery-
ous exhaustion. The worst possible climate for a consumptive is one
with a long-continued high temperature and a high dew-point.”

Confirmatory of all this, and the fact that ‘“‘New Mexico is by far the
most favorable residence in the United States for those predisposed to
or affected with phthisis,” may be consulted the testimony and experi-
ence of several medical officers of the United States Army. (Quoted
in Hammond’s Hygiene, p. 280.)

An examination of the sickness and mortality tables of the troops
serving in New Mexico from 1861 to 1865, published in the Medical and
Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion, Part I, Washington,
1870, pp. 138, 280, 436, and 588, Order V, Diseases of the Respiratory
Organs, shows the following cases:

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 339

Diseases, 1861-’62. | 1862-'63. | 1863-64. | 1864-65. Ganon Deaths.
PARED MB aicanincic.- fina a ciawiccesisecasisieasee Meal eeSSeasae 4 16 dint) Bi ereyaisiecic sala
Acutelbronchitis: «.\js: taccnn esis see 24 156 139 158 ATs Seer. 2
@nroniG PrOnchitis. sosese sees loses 3 5 13 30 51 1
@atarnbeet ss Sued giech peas nase ene OOH Ul epondactd| eaea snaarel asseocast BG 1 Aes oo Aes
Hemorrhage from nose...........----.-- 1 2 Ct SG See 7 1
Hemorrhage from lungs......-..-------- 3 4 6 6 SON Bee eee
DIRE VEN] OR GAG Oana adnodsonoeno cosded| bos doadaco lsederpodae. i Bee oeser 1 1
Inflammation of larynx................. 5 12 31 58 106 4
Inflammation of the pleura .......--.--- 23 28 61 38 150 3
Inflammation of the lungs ..-....-....-. 39 78 63 106 | 243 37
Other diseases of respiratory organs .... 9 1u9 103 | 39 260 2
Total of respiratory organs.......-- 461 398 437 443 il, 739° 49
Total diseases and injuries all kinds.| 6, 956 9, 144 8, 066 7245, || (alate
Total deaths all kinds........-...--. 72\ spe, 52 74 | 90) |:eere ee | 288
Manuiatrenmthiies poke chant wicks scwcee 3, 460 3, 762 4, 224 | 3, 866 | Tae Z | eee
J BERGE) oo ean conei6 boononScocuatdoude c sosecc doors sebSueccosocte 15, 312
Cuass IL.—Orpver II.
Tubercular diseases.
Consumption c= seciees sase cee sacericiae 10 13 8 10 41 8

List of cases of consumption and of diseases of the respiratory organs treated during the ten
years from January 1, 13867, to December 31, 1876, at Santa Fé, N. Mex.

Diseases. 1867. | 1868. | 1869. | 1870. | 1871. | 1872. | 1873. | 1874. | 1875. | 1876. oe Deaths
PASH. seas se ete 1b pgm Sic) |Accins|lGaddsallascocollosodecilosoces||coosec Ve eeoeee Pel ee Roe
OMIM Ee Case aRnenbaS EO |ncabosllaccase 1 4 15 3 10 34 35 LOQ become
Acute bronchitis ..... 3 ON PES. 2S Societe niog|anocho||koscas|/boscdc tp Seta Rn Sy eecoocc
Shronieibron ch ihis sss | eee | (ees semeeel eee tec: IW ehaobal sacoddl boot ollbanour pe eas
Inflammation of larynx]..-..-].----- 11 eel etal aadotdl 6oncon| Honea pdosd| Secke aU a Ue bo oe 4
inflammation ofl ONS. s<<—cl| cen ncs|accmee|asceael|eccces 1 1 Sse 1 2 5 2
inflammationoiplearal: 32-25. 2 -|ose2se|-s- eee |-scee = HL ieecopelisoocue |sooosc 1 Qi) Aecese

Total respiratory

organs ........- 8 9 1 1 4 18 4 10 37 38 126 2
Consnmptionyseee ces slaase so)leaaans gt ences gles e 2 fe | in see a | 520/05 2
Mean strength........ GE |p 20) | USO) |p ie sles | casey lat SDs 05 || 0 | eee

AM REIR EER) od SoC on onSbcoscgaetoogee cococitinasasonpanaepadene soopecesas 821

Many persons do well at home in summer who need in winter a milder
climate.

Europeans are wont to seek Naples, Malaga, Egypt, Algiers, Rome,
Florence, Mentone, or the West Indies. Recently the west coast of Ire-
land, made warm by the influence of the Gulf Stream, has been recom-
mended. For patients threatened with phthisis, Mentone, Malaga, and
Algiers are preferable. If they go to Jamaica, they should arrive in
December and go up at once to the hills. Such as are affected with
irritable bronchitis, asthma, and pleuritic tendencies, are recommended
to Madeira, and in the spring to Pau. (London Med. Times and Ga-
zette, November 4, 1876, p. 519.)

When the railroad shall have made this region (of New Mexico) of
easy access, the invalid may find a genial and proper climate. For
the weakest invalids the Mesilla Valley shouid be first resorted to, and

340 NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

thence the transit can be made to a northern and more invigorating air.
The summer in Mesilla is said to be quite hot.

Proceeding from Santa Fé, between Taos and Fort Garland, the miii-
tary wagon-road—conducted by Lieutenant Ruffaer—winds in the canon
of the Rio Grande and near its margin for miles. The river is narrow
and rapid, hemmed in by peaks and precipices, and rushes a foaming
flood over rocks and bowlders.

The Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, which will be extended to
Garland by May 1, 1877, will probably come down this cafion and open
out some magnificent scenery to the tourist. Arriving at Fort Garland,
situated in the San Luis Park, (8,000 feet above sea-level,) wehave a near
view of the Sierra Blanca, one of the highest of the Rocky Mountains—
14,404 feet—easier of ascent than Mont Blane, (15,784 feet,) the Jung
Frau, (13,671 feet,) or the Matterhorn, (14,570 feet.) A daily line of
stages passes Garland toward the San Juan mines, reaching the Rio
Grande River in 26 miles, in 60 miles La Loma and Del Norte, and in
about 100 miles the summit of the main divide, ‘‘among a mass of
snow-peaks, in groups connected by crests more or less high, from
which the waters flow radially, and is probably the highest portion of
the Rocky Mountains. This region, like that of the Yellowstone Lake,
seems to be one of the domes of the continent, as is shown by the fact
that the same rivers which eventually flow west flow at first east and
south, like Grand River and Lake Fork.” (Reconnaissance in the Ute
country by First Lieut. E. H. Ruffner, United States Engineers, Wash-
ington, 1874, p. 51.) Among those mountains whose heights have been
determined, we have Summit, 13,356 feet; Bristol Head, 11,814 feet;
King Solomon, 13,073 feet ; Engineer Mountain, 13,270 feet. The high-
est of all is Mount Chauvenet, altitude unknown to me. King Solomon,
in the Sierra La Plata, and Mount Galena (12,978 feet) are in the rich
silver and gold mining region, now rapidly filling up by immigration.

From Engineer Mountain ‘“ masses of snow-peaks rising a thousand
and two thousand feet above timber are seen, with sky-lines marvel-
ously bold and wiid. The peaks (says Maj. H. G. Prout) are seen at
distances of 10 to 30 miles around. I doubt if any other mountain re-
gion in the world displays so extensive a mass of increasing variety of
form so wholly grand.” (Page 24, ibid.)

The great overland California Railway passes over no country equal
to this, as it purposely and economically was located ata lower level.
Here, about latitude 37° 45’ and longitude 107° 28’, the Great Sierra
Madre rises to its greatest height, and thence flow the fountains of the
Rio Grande del Norte.

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXIco. 341
APPENDIX No. 1.

SANTA F, December 14, 1876.
Dr. MCPARLIN :

DEAR Sir: According to your request, I have the honor te send the
statistics of deaths occurred among the Catholic population of the par
ish of Santa Fé since [ have been the rector of the said parish.

The parish of Santa Fé, as it is now established, comprises, besides
the city, the towns of Agua Iria, Cienega, Tesuque, and Rio Tesuque ;
it is to say, a population of seven or eight thousand inhabitants.

Here are now the statistics of deaths:

Years Deaths. | Years Deaths

OUSTROY on o GR ete s Seems Rae ere eho BOER PEG ior erate te BOs ok yk 120
STOR see SE SHO OEE CC obocr QAR AS i Aare ak, vlc laren cep Sea ae 146
NOL soed see ee Meer er tae TEMS INI RGA(ESS eee ee ney AR 102
eden ore eps over cross c Ne tes arors 183 | 1876, up to this date.....-.... 131

As to the principal causes of these deaths I ought to confess my ig-
norance in the matter. I am not a physician.

Influenza and whooping-cough are sometimes fatal and very mortif-
erous, especially among children. In last January and February, as
you must be aware, we had many fatal cases of pleurisy. I buried 32
corpses, almost all of grown persons.

It would be an error to believe that there is no case of consumption
among the natives of this country. On the contrary, asthma, heart and
jung diseases are very common among them. I have actually some pa-
tients who suffer of such affections.

I think the principal cause must be attributed to the sharpness of the
air and scarcity of good clothes.

I am, very respectfully, my dear doctor, your most obedient servant,

J. A. BRUCHARD,
Parish Priest of the Cathedral.
A true copy:
T. A. McPARLIN, M. D.

NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

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ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

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ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO. 347

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NOTES ON HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW MEXICO.

348

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*‘penuryuoj—OOIXdN MAN TO ADOTOXORLANM

ON THE CHANGE OF THE are AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLY-
nN i AY

By Dr. AuGusT WEISMANN, Professor at Freiburg, Breisgau.
[Translated by Henry M. Douglass, Champaign, IIl.]

Since Duméril first announced the change of a number of Axolotls
into the so-cailed Amblystoma form, this Mexican fish-salamander has
been bred in aquariums at many European places, principally with a
view to determine the conditions under which that change occurs, and
then from that to draw further conclusions upon the real causes of this
exceptional and therefore so mysterious metamorphosis.

The creatures were easily propagated everywhere, and that in great
numbers. Yet not only did the cases in which the transformation
occurred remain exceedingly rare, but no one succeeded in answering
the first and most important question, whether this was called forth by
external circumstances or was dependent upon purely intrinsic causes.
Mueh less were any definite external influences found through whose
presence one could bring on the metamorphosis with certainty.

But until this point is decided, all attempts at theoretical interpre-
tation and use of the phenomenon must remain without any firm found-
ation.

To me this history of the Axolotl’s transformation always seemed to
be of quite a particular interest. I believed, indeed, that possibly this
one special case might be sufficient to determine the correctness of the
fundamental principles, according to which the origin of species is repre-
sented in the two hostile camps of development and heterogeneous or dis-
tinct creation. So 1 resolved to set about experiments with the Axolotl
myself, in the hope that perhaps it would be my good fortune to throw
some light upon this subject.

In the year 1872, Herr von Kolliker had the kindness to present to
me five of the Axolotls he had bred in Wiirzburg. In the following
year these produced an abundant brood. With them I tried to settle
the question, whether it was not possible to force all the larve to the
change, or at least the greater part, if they were brought into circum-
stances which rendered the use of the gills difficult, that of the lungs
easy. This, in other words, would be to compel them from a certain age
to live half on the land. It will be seen further on, what theoretical
grounds led me to this idea.

Meanwhile I reached no results that year. The most of the larve
died before the time for such experiments seemed to have come. The

349

350 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

few survivors did not make the change, but lived until the early part of
the next year, only to die one after another.

Evidently I had given them too little care and attention, being pre-
vented by a somewhat lengthened absence from Freiburg, as well as by
other labors.

I reached the conviction at that time that without the greatest care-
fulness and attention in the rearing no result can be obtained. This
conviction further experience only confirmed. One must just concen-
trate all his interest upon this one aim, and must not begrudge having
to devote considerable time every day for months to this work. That I
could not carry this on myself, without giving up other work for it,
seemed clear to me, and so I hailed it with joy when the opportunity
offered of seeing the experiments made by another person.

Miss von Chauvin, a lady well known to several correspondents in
this department by her beautiful observations on the Phryganide (alas,
not yet published), proposed the following year to take a number of the
larve just out of the egg, rear them, and make the attempt to bring
them, in a certain measure, by force into the Amblystoma condition. It
will be perceived by the following records of the lady herself how com-
pletely this attempt succeeded, and no less will it be seen that this suc-
cess was possible only with such carefulness in the treatment and deli-
cacy in the observation as were here employed.

EXPERIMENTS.

‘““T began the experiments June 12, 1874, with five larve about eight
days old, all that remained alive of the twelve delivered to me. On
account of the extraordinary tenderness of these larve, the quality and
temperature of the water, the kind and quantity of the food supplied,
especially in the earliest period, exert a great influence upon them, so
that one can hardly be cautious enough in their management.

“The little creatures were kept in a glass globe of about 30 centi-
metres in diameter; the temperature of the water was regulated, and
as nourishment Daphnida were furnished at first, afterward larger
aquatic animals in greater quantity. In this way the five larvex throve
exceedingly well. By the end of June the strongest larve showed the
beginning of the fore legs, and the 9th of July the hind legs made
their appearance. At the end of November I noticed that one Axolotl—
for brevity I distinguish it with I., and shall note the others with the
successive Roman numerals—kept constantly on the surface of the water,
which brought me to the supposition that the right time had come to
prepare for the change to a land salamander.

‘For this purpose, on December 1, 1874, I. was put into a considerably
larger glass vessel with a flat pattem; inch was so placed and filled with
water that only in one spot cou!d he dine quite under water, while every-
where else in his repeated creepings about the bottom of the vessel he
came more or less in contact with the air. On the following days the

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 351

water was gradually diminished, and during this time the first changes
in the animal appeared: The gills began to shrivel. At the same time
the creature showed a striving to reach the shallow places. The 4th of
December it betook itself wholly to the land and crept away into the
damp moss which I had placed on a bed of sand in the highest part of
the bottom. This was followed by the first molt. Within the four days
from December 1 to 4 a striking change took place in the exterior of L.;
the gill-tufts shriveled almost entirely together, the crest on the back
vanished completely, and the hitherte broad tail assumed a rounded
form similar to a land salamander’s tail. The grayish-brown color of
the body gradually changed to blackish; here and there white spots
came out, faintly marked at first, and growing more distinct.

‘¢ When, on the 4th of December, the Axolotl crept out of the water, the
clefts of the gills were still open, but they gradually closed, and in about
eight days they were no longer to be seen and were grown over with a
skin.

“Of the other larvae, at the end of November (that, is at the same
time when I. came to the surface of the water), three more were just as
strongly developed as I.—an indication that for them also the right
time had come for the hastening of the process. They were therefore
subjected to the same treatment. II. changed in fact at the same time
as I., and, precisely like it, had perfect gill-tufts when it was placed in the
shoal water, and after four days had almost completely divested itself of
these. Hewent upon the land ; and then followed, in the course of about
ten days, the growing over of the gill-clefts and the complete assumption of the
salamander’s form. During this last time the animal took food, but only
when he was urged.

‘With III. and LV. the change went on moreslowly. . They did not so
frequently seek for the drier places, and generally did not expose them-
selves so long to the air, so that the greater part of January passed
before they took wholly to the land. Yet the drying of the gill-tufts
required no longer time than I. and II. The first molt also followed as
soon as they crept upon the land.

“V. showed much more remarkable deviations in the transformation
than IIIl.andIV. As thisindividual from the beginning appeared much
more feeble than the others,and also staid behind remarkably in its
growth, this was by no means surprising. It required fourteen days
instead of four to carry the change so far that it could leave the water.
It was of quite peculiar interest to watch the condition of this individual
during this time. As may be inferred from its delicate nature, it was
more sensitive than the others to all outward influences. If it was ex-
posed to the air too long it took on a lighter color. Besides it gave
off a peculiar odor, similar to what salamanders diffuse when they are
alarmed or endangered. As soon as these appearances were noticed, it
was immediately put into deep water, where it dived under at once and
gradually recovered again. Then thegills always unfolded again. The

352 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

same experiment was made repeatedly and was every time attended by
the same result; from which it may well be concluded that through the
exercise of too energetic constraint with a view to hasten the process of
transformation a stoppage may be brought about, and death, indeed, by
continued constraint.

“Of Axolotl V. it remains to be stated that he crept out of the water, not
like all the others at the jirst molt, but at the time of the fourth.

‘‘All these are to-day alive, healthily and strongly developed, so that,
as regards their nourishment, nothing would stand in the way of their
propagation. The largest of the first four has a length of 15 centime-
tres. Axolotl V. measures 12 centimetres.

‘‘from what I have said must be established the correctness of the
view suggested in the beginning: most Axolotl larve, if not all, com-
plete their metamorphose, if, in the first place, they come out of the
egg healthy and are properly fed, and, in the second place, meet with
arrangements which force them to change from breathing under water
to breathing above the water. It will be understood that this compul-
sion may only be exerted quite gradually, and in a way which does not
draw too much upon the animal’s vital force.

‘“‘ Freiburg, Breisgau, July, 1875. ;

“MARIE vy. CHAUVIN.”

I remark upon the above records, that in all five cases the change
was a complete one, not to be confounded with that which all the Axolotls
confined in small glass vessels undergo more or less; namely,. there
are frequently variations which seem to advance toward the Amblystoma
form without reaching it. In the five full-grown Axolotls which I possess
at this very time, and of which two at least are four years old, the gills.
are all very much shriveled up, but tail and crest are unchanged. But
the crest may also disappear and the tail grow smaller without changing
to the Amblystoma, as shall be shown further on. As regards the time
used for the transformation, in Axolotls I. to V. it took 12 to 14 days.
Four days of that bring us to the first change, during which the animal
still remains in the water; the rest of the time is given to the comple-
tion of the change. Duméril gives the time of the transformation at 16
days.

From the experiments communicated the following seems to me espe-
cially noteworthy: The five Axolotl larvae, which alone can come into the
account, since the others died early, all without exception completed the
change and became Amblystomas. Only one of them, No. I., showed by con-
stant swimming on the surface, which was noticed at the end of the sixth
month, a distinct inclination to the change, a preference for breathing
with the lungs. Of this individual, therefore, it may well be assumed,
that also without artificial aid it would have come to the land and have
undergone the transformation, just as was the case in some thirty spec-
imens which Duméril observed.

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 353

For Nos. II., III., and LV., on the other hand, such a supposition has but
little probability. All three larve sought to keep themselves in deeper
water, avoided as long as possible the shallow places which compelled
them to mere lung-breathing, and only completed the change more than
a month later.

With No. V., moreover, it can scarcely appear doubtful that it would
not have made the change without the forcible habituation to abode in
the air.

From these results may well be drawn the conclusion, most Axolotl
larve change to the Amblystoma form if at the age of six to nine
months they are brought into water so shallow that they must chiefly
breathe with the lungs. The experiments in question are small in num-
ber, to be sure, but such a conclusion cannot be called hasty, when it is
considered that Duméril, among many hundreds (the number is not
given precisely) of Axolotls, obtained only some thirty Amblystomas;
that likewise, among several hundred Axolotls, von K6lliker bred only a
single Amblystoma.

It only remains doubtful whether every larva can be compelled to make
the change, and this question can only be determined by new experiments.
It had been my intention to defer the publication of those above given
until they were repeated in greater fullness by Miss von Chauvin. But
as my Axolotls have given me no young this year (1875), I had to give
that up for the time, and could do this the more willingly, since it is
rather irrelevant to the theoretical interest of the facts whether all or
only almost all of the Axolotls may be forced to make the transforma-
tion. On the other hand, I will not forbear to mention, that the curator
of the zoological museum here, Herr Gehrig, reared a considerable num-
ber of larvae from the same brood, with which Miss von Chauvin experi-
mented, and that of these larva six passed through the winter without
undergoing the transformation. They were always kept in deep water,
and therefore constituted the counter-experiment to those communicated
above, showing that this whole brood by no means possessed a predis-
position to undergo the transformation.

If, now, these new facts are to be made use of to clear up our conception
of the nature of this unusual process of transformation, we must, before
all else, bring to our aid the data already known.

In the first place, it is to be laid down that Siredon Mexicanus, in its home,
so far as we know, never undergoes the transformation. From that locality
it is known only in the Siredon form. The testimony which I find on this
point comes from DE SAUSSURE, * who himself observed the Axolotl in
the Mexican waters. This naturalist has never seen even a single Am-
blystoma in the vicinity of the lakes, and “yet the larva of the Axolotl
are So common there, that they are brought into market by thousands.”
De Saussure believes that the Axolotl does not make the change in
Mexico.

* Verhandl. d. Schweiz. Naturforsch. Gesellschaft. Einsiedeln, 1868.
23 8

354 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

Cope* asserts the same thing quite decidedly ; and individuals bred
by him in America from the Siredon Mexicanus, also in captivity, showed
no inclination to the transformation.” On the other hand, Tegetmeiert
saw the change begun in one of five individuals which traced their
descent to the Lake of Mexico and so the second fact is established,
that also the genuine and real Axolotl under certain circumstances changes
in confinement to an Amblystoma.

This remark would be superfluous, if it were, as was long believed,
true that the Axolotl of the Paris Garden of Plants, whose metamor-
phosis was first observed and excited so much attention at the time,
actually belonged to the species Siredon Mexicanus, the only Siredon
which in its home bears the name Axolotl.

In his first communication, Duméril himself was of this opinion; he
called the creature ‘‘Siredon Mexicanus” syn. Humboldii;{ but later, in
his detailed work § on the change of the Axolotl contained in the Gar-
den of Plants, he recalled this view, and, after a critical examination of
the five described Siredons, came to the conclusion that the Axolotls in
the possession of the Paris Museum were probably Siredon lichenoides
Baird.

So all the transformations of Axolotls observed in Europe were to be
referred to this species ; for—at least so far as is known—they are all
descendants of the Paris colony. Thence also, indirectly, came the sub-
jects of my experiments,

To be sure, now it does not agree with this, that the Amblystoma
form, which Duméril obtained from his Axolotls, corresponded with
Amblystoma tigrinum Cope, while we learn by Marsh || that Siredon
lichenoides Baird changes to Amblystoma mavortium Baird when it under-
goes the complete metamorphosis. Marsh found the Stredon lichenoides
in Alpine lakes (7,000 feet above the sea), in the southwestern portion of
the United States (Wyoming Territory), and by breeding in aquariums
obtained from it the Amblystoma mavortium Baird. Nevertheless, he holds
it doubtful whether the animal ever goes through the change in its
home; to be sure, without any sure foundation and on purely theoretical
grounds, namely, because in his judgment ‘the colder temperature
there is less favorable to it.” J

If I doubt the correctness of this last opinion, it is only because the
Amblystoma mavortium in a state of nature has been found in many
parts of the United States, namely, in California, New Mexico, Texas,

* Dana and Silliman, Amer. Journ., 3d series, i, p. 89. Annals Nat. Hist., vii, p. 246.

t Proceed. Zool. Soe. 1870, p. 160.

t Compt. Rend., tome 60, p. 765 (1865).

§ Nouvelles Archives du Muséum d’Hist. Nat. Paris, 1866. Tome ii, p. 268.

{| Proceed. Boston Soe., vol. xii, p. 97; Silliman, Amer. Journ., vol. xlvi, p. 364; a
reference to this in Troschel’s Jabresbericht for 1868, p. 37.

| Proceed. Boston Soc., vol. xii, p. 97; Silliman, Amer. Journ., xlvi, 364. I could not
examine these works myself, and quote from the reference in Troschel’s Jahresbericht,
1868, p. 37.

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 355

Nebraska, and Minnesota. Nevertheless, it is by no means incredible
that just in the Alpine lakes, from which Marsh obtained it, the species
oceupies a different position in regard to the transformation from what
it doesin other habitats. This will be seen from the observations on
the Triton adduced below. So, until further observations are made, I
believe we must suppose that the Paris Axolotls are not Siredon liche-
noides, but probably a new and very closely related species.

Meanwhile, there is not much depending upon this in the review of
the transformation, if it is only established that this Axolotl in its home
does not undergo the metamorphosis, or only does it as exceptionally
asin Europe. Unfortunately, there is in Duméril’s communications no
precise statement of the locality where this ‘“ Mexican” animal was
found; probably the locality was unknown to himself, and so I can
only assume on Cope’s authority that no Amblystoma has ever been
brought from south of the provinces of Tamaulipas and Chihuahua;
that is, from south of the tropic.*

Of that, however, there is no certainty. Much more important is the
fact adduced above, that the genuine Axolotl of the lakes around the
city of Mexico never makes the change to an Amblystoma, but that this
species also in isolated cases undergoes the transformation in confine-
ment. Now, from this and from the fact that the Paris Axolotls in con-
finement are only transformed to the extent of a very small percentage,
it may be concluded that also in its home it is either not transformed at
all, or only as an exception.

But still another series of facts comes very essentially into the account
in reviewing this history of transformation: I mean the existence of a
considerable number of species of Amblystoma in nature. In the ‘“‘ Revision
der Salamandriden-Gattungen” (Review of the genera of Salamanders)
which Strauch + gave a few years ago, there are represented, accord-
ing to the examples of Cope,§ twenty species of the Amblystoma Tschudi
living in North America. Now, although a few of these species are
based only upon one specimen, and, therefore, as Strauss correctly
says, ‘‘must be suppressed in time,” yet there is left a whole range of
species which certainly live and propagate as Amblystoma, and which
have their locality from the latitude of New York to that of New Mexico.
Hence there are certainly species of Siredon which, under their natural con-
ditions of life, regularly toke the Amblystoma form and propagate in it ;
while on the other hand there are at least two species which, under their
present natural conditions of life, only propagate as Siredon. It is only
another form of expression for this fact when one says the Mexican
Axolotl, and the Paris Siredon as well, be this latter named lichenoides
or something else, stands upon a lower phyletic stage of development than
the other species of Amblystoma which propagate in the salamander

* Dana and Silliman, Amer. Journ., 3d ser. i, p. 89; Annals of Nat. Hist. vii, p. 246.
t Proceedings Acad. Philad., xix, 1867, pp. 166-209.
§ Mem. Azad. Petersb., tome xvi.

356 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

form. No one can object to this statement ; while the other proposi-
tion, either expressed or tacitly held by all authors, includes a theory
which I regard as incorrect. That proposition is: The Mexican Axolotl
has remained upon a lower phyletic stage of development.

All zoologists who have expressed themselves on the transformation
of the Mexican Axolotl, and who are not, like its first observer, still
attached to Cuvier’s views on the immutability of species, took up the
matter as if here was a species which through some sort of special cir-
cumstances had remained behind on a lower stage of development, and
was now stimulated by some sort of influences to its advance to a
higher stage.

For a long time also I did not believe that the thing could be other-
wise understood, little as I was able to bring all the phenomena into
harmony with this view. Thus in 1872 I used the following expres-
sions :* “Why should not a sudden change in all the relations of life
(the removal from Mexico to Paris) have had a direct influence upon
the organism of the A xolotl, so that he suddenly attained a higher stage
of development, which many of his kindred species have long since
attained, which evidently lies in the nature of his organization, and
which perchance he also would have reached in his native haunts, though
at a later period? Or would it be too much to suppose that by the
sudden transportation from 8,000 feet above the sea-level (the Mexican
highland) to the altitude of Paris, the organs of respiration bad re-
ceived a shock which just brought them to the change already close at
hand? Soin all probability we have to do with a direct effect from
altered conditions of life.”

That the purport of the last sentence must also be held true to-day
follows as a matter of course from the experiments communicated above,
which surely prove that by the application of definite external influences
we have toa certain extent it in our power to call forth the transforma-
tion. Just in that fact lies the new light which these experiments have
brought.

But must we also understand the phenomenon in the manner above
indicated—that is to say, as a phyletic onward development of the species,
appearing suddenly and in a measure resulting from a shock? I believe
not. What tirst perplexed me in regard to this view was the sight of
my living Amblystomas reared from the larve of the Axolotl. These
creatures by no means show a variation from the Axolotl in single traits
merely, but they are distinguished from it in their entire habit; they
differ somewhat in all parts; although slightly in many, in others quite
decidedly; in short they have become entirely different animals. Corre-
sponding to this they also live quite differently ; no longer go into the
water, but prefer in the daytime to keep hidden in the damp moss of
their prison, and at night come forth to seek their food on the dry land.

*“Ueber den Kinfluss der Isolirang auf die Artbildung” (On the Influence of Isolation
upon the Formation of Species), Leipsic, 1872, p. 33.

9

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 357

To be sure I could have perceived the great difference between the
two stages of development from the anatomical data long familiar to
me which Duméril had given on the structure of his Amblystomas;
but the reading over of many statements in detail gives no living pict-
ure. At any rate the sight of the living animal first brought me to the
consciousness how comprehensive is the change we have to do with
here; that by no means does it merely concern those parts which are
directly affected by the alteration in the mode of life, but that most,
if not all, parts of the animal undergo a transformation, which can be
very well explained in part as the morphological adaptation to new con-
ditions of life, in part as consequences of these adaptations (correlative
changes), but cannot by any possibility be explained in a word as the sua-
denly appearing effect of these changed conditions of life. Such at least is
my view, according to which a sudden development of the species, such
as must have taken place here, is quite inconceivable. I willingly ac-
knowledge that a few years ago the question whether such sudden de-
velopment occurs was still an open one for me, but since then my invest-
igations have kept urging me to the conviction that it does not occur at
all, as I shall show in another place. Llere I have to confine myself to
the examination of this individual case; a case which appears to me—
as was above intimated—quite peculiarly suited to shed light decisively
upon the great alternative, about which at the present moment the war
of opinions is centered, in regard to the doctrine of descent.

I may well assume that hitherto it has been with most students in
regard to the metamorphosis of the Axolotl] very much as with myself;
it did not come to their consciousness how far the transformation goes ;
and so it may need to be made plain that the theoretical importance of
the case and its value as a basis of inference was not properly emphasized
by either side. But it is evidently a case of quite unusual significance
for the principles invelved. I believe it may be easily shown that the
hitherto pretty generally admitted explanation of the history of the
Paris Axolotl’s transformation includes at the same time the recogni-
tion of a very far-reaching principle, namely: if this explanation were
the correct one, then in my judgment would be at the same time demon-
strated as correct the opinion of those who, like KOLLIKER, ASKENASY,
NAGELI, and among the philosophers HARTMANN and HUBER, would
refer the transmutation of the species in the first instance to a motive
power dwelling within the organisms, to an active, 7. e. spontaneous,
‘law of development,” a “principle of perfection,” or, as I should pre-
fer to name it, a phyletic vitol energy, in contrast to the exactly corre-
sponding vital energy of the so-called ‘philosopher domain” in the
nature of ontogenesis.

If, namely, the Axolotls that have become Amblystomas are to be taken
as individuals which, stimulated by external influences, have hastened
on in advance of the remaining individuals in their phyletic develop-
ment, then this advance can only be placed to the account of a phy-

358 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

letic vital energy; for the transformation is a sudden one; it leaves no
time for gradual adaptation in the course of generations. Indirect influ-
ence of the external relations of life, 7. e. natural selection, is accordingly
excluded from the first; but direct influence of the altered circumstances.
of life does not suffice by a great way to explain the total transforma-
tion of the whole structure, as I have already intimated and will now
show more minutely.

The distinctions between the Paris Axolotl] and its resulting Ambily-
stoma are, according to DUMERIL, KOLLIKER, and my own observations,.
the following:

1. The gills disappear, the clefts of the gills close up, and only the
foremost of the arches of the gill remains in existence; the other arches
vanish. At the same time the Os hyoideum is changed (DUMERIL).

2. The crest on the back disappears entirely (DUMERIL).

3. The rudder-like tail changes to a tail like a salamander’s (DUMERIL),
which nevertheless is not quite circular in section as in the salamander,
but is somewhat compressed laterally (WEISMANN).

4, The skin gets yellowish-white patches, irregularly distributed on
the sides and the back (DUMERIL), while at the same time its former
ground color of grayish-black changes to a shining greenish-black (WEIs-
MANN), and, besides, the shiny secretion from the skin is lost and the
glands of the skin become indistinct (KOLLIKER).

5. The eyes become prominent and the pupils small (KOLLUKER), and
eyelids are formed which can close the eye completely, while in the
Axolotl only a narrow circular fold surrounds the eye, and it cannot be
closed (WEISMANN).

6. The toes diminish in size and lose their skin-like appendages (K6L-
LIKER), or, more precisely, the half web-membranes which unite the
inner ends of the toes on all the feet (WEISMANN).

7. The palatal teeth in this, as in all Amblystomas, stand in a diag:
onal row, while in the Axolotl, like the Triton larve, they stand at the
side of the palatal vault forming an arched band, with several rows of
teeth.* (DUMERIL. See his figure. Zeitschrift f. wissensch. Zool., xxv
Bd., Sup., p. 279.)

8. In the Axolot] the under jaw has, besides the teeth on the upper edge
of the bone, some very small teeth disposed in several rows; these latter
disappear after the metamorphosis (DuMERIL). Ladd that the permanent
teeth belong to the os dentale, the temporary ones to the os operculare.t

* DumErit has the teeth of the vomer separated fiom those of the 0s palatinum by a
gap. Probably this was an artificial one, as GAGENBAUR (FRIEDRICH & GAGENBAUR,
“Der Schidel des Axolotl”—The Skull of the Axolotl—Wiirzburg, 1849) figures the
rows of teeth without interruption, passing over from one bone to the other. The
same was true in three Axolotls which Il examined in regard to this point; moreover,
this little difference is quite unimportant in the question here treated.

t Sec O. Hertwia, “ Ueber das Zahnsystem der Amphibien und seine Bedeutung fiir
die Genesis des Skelets der Mundhoble.” (On the Dental System of the Amphibia, and

its Significance for the Genesis of the Skeleton of the Mouth.) Arch. f. Mikroskop.
Anat., Bd. xi, Supplementheft, 1874.

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 359

9. The posterior face of each vertebra is slightly hollowed out before
as after the transformation, but the anterior face is less concave in the
Amblystoma than in the Siredon (DUMERIL).

The details cited from DUMERIL under 7 and 9 I have not so far been
able to confirm by personal examination, as I was not willing to kill any
‘of my living Amblystomas, only for the purpose of verifying the details
of a naturalist in whom perfect confidence may surely be reposed. In
like manner, I have not yet seen the change in the arches of the gills.
All the other data given by KOLLIKER or DuMERIL I can corroborate
completely. ;

The differences in structure which exist between Axolotl and Am-
blystoma are considerably greater and more important than those
between neighboring genera, yes, greater than are found between
the families of the Urodela. The genus Siredin without any doubt
belongs toa different suborder from the genus Amblystoma, into which
it is occasionally transformed. STRAUCH, who has made the latest ar-
rangement of this group, separates the suborder of the Sulamandrida
from that of the Ichthyodea by the possession of eyelids and by the
position of the palatal teeth in a simple row on the posterior edge of the
palatal bone; while in the Jchthyodea the lids are wanting and the pal-
atal teeth either ‘ stand on the front edge of the palatal bone or cover
the whole surface of the palate as brush-like clusters.” How would it
be possible now to regard anatomical characters standing so far asunder
as transformations which had been suddenly called forth by a single
operation of varying conditions of life ?

Hand in hand with the falling out of the old palatal teeth and the ap-
pearance of new goes a change in the anatomical structure of the verte-
bral column, and, as we may conclude from KOLLIKER’s entirely ac-
curate observation on the stoppage of the slimy secretion from the skin,
in the histological structure of the skin itself.

Who would undertake to explain all these deep-lying changes as the
direct and sudden effect of any external influences whatever operating
but once? And even if any one had an inclination to explain them as
results of the loss of the gills, and therefore as correlative changes, what
would such a correlation be but the newly-christened vital energy above
spoken of? For if from one variation caused by direct influence of
external agencies the whole body can through correlation transform itself
in a couple of days just so in all its parts as it appears best adapted for
the new conditions of life in which it is henceforth to be, then the word
correlation is only a term, by which nothing is explained, but the
search for a better explanation is hindered. Then it is preferable that
we simply acknowledge our belief in a phyletic vital energy.

Moreover it certainly is not allowable even to wish to seek an explana-
tion of that sort (by correlation), for we know some Urodela in the adult
state have no gills, and yet possess all other marks of the Ichthyodea : lack

360 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSIOMA.

of the eyelids, characteristic type of the palatal teeth, and of the arrange-
ment of the lingual bones. Such are the genera Amphiuma L., Meno-
poma Harl., and Cryptobranchus v.d. Hoev. The first two genera, as is
well known, still have the clefts of the gills. Cryptobranchus, on the
contrary, has lost these clefts, which are grown over with skin as in the
Amblystoma, and yet, by the unanimous testimony of all systematic
zoologists, it is a genuine fish-lizard in habit, arrangement of the lingual
bone, palatal teeth,* &e. It must be added that even the Axolotl itself
may lose the gills without, on that account, changing to an Amblystoma. 1
have mentioued elsewhere that in Axolotls which are kept in water that .
is shallow and still, the gills frequently grow small; but it also happens
that they shrivel up entirely. I have an Axolotl preserved in spirits,
in which the gills are shriveled to little irregular bunches; at the same
time the crest on the back is so completely wanting that a longitudinal
furrow has appeared in its place, and on the tail the border of skin has
entirely vanished from the lower margin, and about half from the upper.
Nevertheless, the animal is widely separated in structure from the
Amblystoma: it has the arches of the gills, the palatal teeth, the skin,
&e., of the Axolotl.

This demonstrates, therefore, that the loss of the gills by no means must
always bring after it all the other variations which we see take place in the
metamorphosis of the Axolotl; that these, therefore, are by no means the
necessarily and immediately appearing result of that loss. Whether they
must necessarily appear after long successions of generations, whether
also the descendants of Cryptobranchus will some time in the future take
the structure of the Salamandrida, that is another question which I
should not like to answer just in the negative, but which does not come
into the account here, as we are considering only a possible sudden result
from the loss of the gills.

The question, therefore, seems to stand thus: Hither our apprehension
up to this time of the transformation history of the Axolotlas a further
development of the species is incorrect, or the existence of a phyletic vital
energy is demonstrated by the case of the Axolotl beyond the possibility of a
refutation.

Now the question comes up, whether the facts of this transformation
history do not also admit of another explanation. I believe that this is
at any rate possible and that another interpretation may be shown as
the correct one with a good degree of probability.

I esteem those Amblystomas which in individual cases have developed in
confinement from Siredon Mexicanus (syn. pisciformis), as well as from the
Paris Axolotl, not as forms of advancement, but forms of retrogression.
I believe that the Axolotls which to-day live in the lakes of Mexico were
already Amblystomas a geological (or better a zoological) epoch earlier, but

* See Strauch, Zeitschrift. f. Wissensch. Zool., xxv Bd., Suppl., p. 10.

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 361

that through alterations in their conditions of life they have sunk back to
their earlier stage of the Perennibranchiates.

Without doubt I was first Jed to this intepretation by the results I
had reached in my studies on the season-dimorphism of butterflies.*
There also we have the question of two different forms under which one
and the same species appears, and of which it may be proved as prob-
able that one is phyletically the older, the other the younger. The
younger summer form has in my view proceeded through the gradual
warming of the climate from the winter form that in an earlier zoologi-
cal epoch was the only one; but this latier, the primary form, has not
on that account ceased to exist, but to-day still alternates every year
with the secondary, the summer form.

Now it is easy with the season-dimorplous butterflies to make the
summer brood assume the winter form, and that by exposing their
pup rather a long time to a lower temperature; and it may be made in
the highest degree probable that this suddenly appearing variation or
transformation, often very far reaching, is sudden in appearance only,
and is but apparently the result of cold acting upon this generation.
Much rather in truth the variation depends upon a reversion to the
primary form of the species, and therefore the cold that appears but
once is only the impulse to the reversion, but not the true cause of the trans-
formation. This cause must be sought in the long-continued operation
of the cold, to which thousands of generations of the ancestors of our
living butterflies were subjected, and whose final result was just the
winter form.

If we now assume for a moment that my interpretation of the Axolotl’s
transformation-history as just given is correct, we have relations here
which are in many respects analogous to those of the season-dimorphism.
To be sure the two forms in this case no longer alternate regularly with
each other, but the primary form may occasionally appear in place of the
secondary, and this result from the shock of external circumstances.
As there we succeed in stimulating the summer brood by the action of
cold to lay aside the summer form and adopt the winter dress, so here
we are able to lead the Axolotls into the Amblystoma state by com-
pelling them at a certain age to breathe air.

Further, as in the season-dimorphism, it may be shown that this
transformation called forth by artificial means is only in appearance a
sudden new formation, but in truth a reversion to the much older win-
ter form, so here we also had to do, not with an actual new formation of
the species, but only with an apparent one, a reversion to the phyletically
older form of the species. To be sure that sounds very paradoxical if
here is a form that must have come by reversion, and yet it must
undoubtedly be accounted as the more highly developed. But I believe

*Studien zur Descendenztheorie, I. Ueber den Saison-Dimorphism der Schmetter-
linge (Studies on the Doctrine of Descent, I. On the Season-Dimorphism of Butter-
flies), Leipsic, 1875.

362 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

that on more careful consideration much of the paradox which seems to
lie in this view will disappear.

Before all else, it is to be considered that the phyletic development
of the species need by no means have always gone directly forward.
We have examples enough of development backward, although in
rather a different seuse, as in parasites and such forms, which have sunk
from free locomotion to the sedentary mode of life. I do not ignore the
difference which exists between this sort of development backward by
the pining away of certain organs or systems of organs, and proper re-
version. The latter is the return to an animal form already once existent,
but in the former case, in spite of all simplification of the organization,
something wholly new is always formed. But I am able to see nothing
absurd as to principle in the supposition that a proper reversion, also,
be it of a whole species or of the individuals of a species within a cer-
tain habitat, is thought of as possible, and I do not for the present demand
a further concession. Why, for example, should it be so entirely in-
credible that the Axolotl, in a time long past, was adapted to living on
the land, that it gradually, through direct and indirect cperation of al-
tered conditions of life, had acquired the salamander form, but that
later, by a new change of the circumstances of life unfavorable to its pres-
ent organization, it has again fallen back into the old form or one lying
near it? At any rate, such a supposition contains nothing which would
stand in contradiction with well-known facts, but can be sustained in
several ways; and finally, it recommends itself by furnishing, at least
in my opinion, the only possible explanation of the facts before us.

The above-mentioned existence of a whole group of species of Ambiy-
stoma shows at once that species of Siredon can rise to the salamander
form, and can regularly propagate in that form; and further, that this
phyletic advance has already actually taken place in very many species.
But that a sinking back from this higher stage of development to the
lower can also take place, several observations on our water salaman-
ders show.

It is well known that Tritons under some circumstances become, as it
is usually expressed, ‘‘ sexually mature in the larval state.”

In the year 1861 DE Finippi* found in a swamp by Lake Maggiore
fifty Tritons, of which only two showed the structure of the full-grown
water salamander; but all the others still had their gills, yet corre-
sponded to mature animals in bodily size and in the development of the
sexual organs, and that in both sexes.

IFILipPt determined the fact that these “sexually mature larvae” did
not merely resemble larve externally by the possession of gills, but that:
they also presented all the other anatomical marks of the larve; that
is, the characteristic clusters of palatal teeth standing on both sides,
instead of the later simple row, and a vertebral column, which still has
the Chorda dorsalis running through its whole lengtb.

*Salla larva del Triton alpestris, Archivio per la Zoologia, 1861.

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 363

According to my view this would be a case of reversion of the Triton
to the phyletic stage lying next behind it, that is, the Perennibranchiate stage ;
and in this case most zoologists who stand at all upon the footing
of the doctrine of descent will agree with my view. I at least would
count it a profitless playing with words if any one should speak here of
larval reproduction and believe he had thereby explained anything. In
any event the animal becomes sexually mature in the condition in which
it firstappearsasa larva. But we first get an insight into the nature of
this phenomenon by the reflection that this so-called “sexually mature
larva” has precisely the structure which the preceding phyletic stage
of the species must have possessd; that therefore we have a reversion
of the individual to the older phyletic stage of the species. I es-
teem it an error when DUM@ERIL puts this case of the Triton in par-
allel with the genuine larval reproduction of WAGNER’S Cecidomyia
larve. There it is certainly not reversion to an older phyletic stage
which makes the larve capable of reproduction ; for these larve present
no older phyletic stage of the species, but must have arisen at the same time
with the species in its present form. The vast difference in the structure
of the larva and the fly is not explained by assuming that the latter
has arisen from the former as from a finished given quantity, but by
this, that both at the same time have adapted themselves to conditions
of life further from each other.* Regarded phyletically, these larve are
not at all a necessary point of transit for the origin of the fly. They
could also be built quite otherwise, without the form of the fly needing
to be likewise changed ; for the stages of insect transformation vary
independently of each other, corresponding to the conditions of life to
which they are subjected, and exert no influence upon each other, or
only a very slight one, in the determination of form, as I shall attempt
to demonstrate in another place. At any rate, ‘“‘the ability of these
larvee (the Cecidomyia) to multiply asexually has first been acquired as
a secondary matter, as already follows from the fact that there are
numerous species of the same genus of flies which do not feed their
young.” ‘In the form which they possess to-day they can never have
played the part of the final stage of ontogenesis, and therefore also
cannot have possessed at a former time the power of sexual repro-
duction.t In short, we have to do here with genuine larval reproduction,
but in the Tritons with reversion to an older phyletic stage.

Nor can I agree with my friend HAECKEL, when he designates the
reversion of the Tritons as ‘adaptation to continued life in the water.” ¢

One would only be able to speak of ‘ adaptation ” in this case by tak-

‘ing the word in a sense quite different from that with which DARWIN

* Compare, also, LUBBOcK, On the Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects. London,
1874.

tSee my paper ‘Ueber den Saison-Dimorphismus der Schmetterlinge,” Leipsic,
1875, p. 60.

tSee HAEcKEL’s Anthropogenie, p. 449.

364 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

and WALLACE have introduced it into science. Those naturalists dis-
tinguished by the word a gradual remodeling of the body, taking place
in the course of generations, corresponding to the new demands of new
conditions of life; in other words, the operation of natural selection, but
not a result from causes of variation suddenly and directly acting once
and in one generation.

Just because the word “ adaptation” may, according to customary
use of language, be used in many different senses, it would be desirable
te take it only in one acceptation and to have that fixed exactly ; before
ul, not to speak of adaptation when there is no morphological change, but
only a sort of exchange of functions in DouRn’s sense.* Thus, for exam-
ple, when FORELt shows that fresh-water air-breathing snails, whose
organization is calculated for the direct breathing of the air, could
nevertheless pass to the greatest depths of the Alpiue lakes, while they
used their lungs as gills. That with this not the slightest change has
taken place in the lungs, is shown by the observations of v. Siebold.t

He saw the Pulmonates of shallow water use their lungs alternately
for direct air-breathing and for water-breathing, according as the atmos-
pheric contents of the water was less or greater. If with v. Siebold one
Should apply the word “adaptation” simply to such cases, it would
lose the special sense which was originally attached to it; as a technical
term the word would bave to be given up. .

At any rate, there is as little a case of genuine adaptation in the Triton
“Jarve” that were capable of reproduction as in the Axolotl exception-
ally changing to the Amblystoma. In both cases, also, the transforma-
tion in consideration is not at all indispensable Jor the life of the individual.
Mature Tritons (without gills) live, as I have witnessed, many months,
probably for years, in deep water, although they are fitted for simple
air-breathing; and Axolotls, asI have already stated above, can live quite
well for years in shallow and guiet water. If their gills shrivel, yes,
vanish entirely, this also yet is no adaptation in the Darwinian sense, but
a direct result of external influences, principally indeed of diminished use.

A case quite analogous to FILIPPI’S was observed in 1869 by Jullien.
Four female larve of Lissotriton punctatus Bell. (synonym for Triton
teeniatus Schnd.) were fished out of a swamp and showed themselves
sexually mature. In their ovaries they had matured eggs, ready for
laying, and two of them also actually laid the eggs. Four male larve,
which were taken in the same swamp, showed themselves likewise
developed in regard to bodily size, though they had no spermatozoa in
the testicles, but only sperm-producing cells.§

*“ Der Ursprung der Wirbelthiere und das Princip des Functionswechsels ” (The
Origin of the Vertebrates and the Principle of the Exchange of Functions). Leipsic,
1875.

tFaune profonde du lac Léman; Verhandl. d. Schweiz. Naturforsch. Gesellschaft
(Deep Fauna of Lake Geneva). Schaffhausen, 1873.

{ Zeitschrift f. Wissenschaftl. Zool. (Journal of Scientific Zoology), bd. xxiii, 1873.

§ Compt. Rend., t. 1xviii, p. 938, 959 (Proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences).

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 365

A third case of the same kind I find cited* by SEyYDIG, in his essay,
“Ueber die Molche der Wiirtembergischen Fauna” (On the Salamanders
in the Fauna of Witirtemberg), so rich in interesting detail. SCHREIBERS,
the former director of the Vienna Cabinet of Natural History, likewise
found “larvee” of Triton with gills well developed, but of the size of “ adult
males,” and, as anatomical examination showed, with well developed
sexual organs, as well as ovaries filled with eggs.

So, therefore, it is established that species which long ago attained
the stage of Salamandrida in the phyletic development may occasionally
sink back to the stage of Perennibranchiates. Evidently, this fact makes
my view of the Axolotl as a form of reversion appear much less para-
doxical. Indeed, the cases of reversion in the Triton are directly anal-
ogous to the transaction I suppose for the Axolotl.

We only need suppose Amblystomas in the place of the Tritons, and
consider the swamp in which DE FILIPPi found his ‘sexually mature
Triton larve” expanded to the Lake of Mexico, regarding, also, the un-
known, and perhaps in this case temporary, causes of the reversion as
permanent, and we have everything which is necessary to the restoration
of the Axolotl as we know it to-day, we obtain a Perennibranchiate popu-
lation of the lake.

It is not even yet determined whether, in that swamp of DE FILIPPI
the Perennibranchiate form of the Triton does not actually prevail per-
manently, for it has not, to my knowledge, been examined since in regard
to this subject.

But if we assume for a moment that it actually were so, that a colony
of Perennibranchiate Tritons lived there, carrying on reproduction sexu-
ally, should we wonder if occasionally, also, a genuine Triton came from
our brood, if we could succeed in stimulating most individuals of this
brood by removal into shallow water to the metamorphosis into Tritons ?
But just soit is according to my view with the Mexican Axolotl.

But I need not limit myself to support my hypothesis, but must also
directly assail the tenability of the one hitherto held, for it stands in op-
position to facts.

If we really had in the Axolotl a suddenly occurring phyletic further
development, then one fact would remain wholly incomprehensible,
namely, the sterility of the Amblystomas.

Of about thirty Amblystomas which Duméril had obtained up to the
year 1870, full sexual maturity had not appeared in a single one ; neither
copulation nor the simple laying of eggs had taken place, and the indi-
viduals that were examined anatomically showed the eggs immature and
the spermatozoa present indeed, but without the undulating membrane
belonging to all the Salamandrida. They were not destitute of all power
of motion, but as QUATREFAGES stated, only moving imperfectly.t

* Archiv f. Naturgeschichte (Archives for Natural History), 1867.
t Compt. Rend., t. lxx, 1770.

366 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

The five Amblystomas, on which I have reported here, have shown, up
to the present time, no appearances of reproduction.

It is evidently an objection that will very poorly stand the test when
Sacc * attributes the sterility of the Amblystomas reared from Axolotls
to ‘poor food.” Why, then, do the Axolotls reproduce so easily when
they are fed exactly the same? I can also state expressly that my Am-
blystomas are quite excellently fed. Tobe sure, these have hardly reached
the age of one and a half years; but the Axolotls propagate the second
year, and some of DUMERIL’S Amblystomas were five years old in 1870.

The fact of sterility stands in clear opposition to the view that these
Amblystomas are the regular advanced guards of the genus Siredon as
it moves forward in phyletic development. To be sure I will by no
Ineans maintain that my theory of reversion could actually explain the
sterility, but at least it does not stand directly in contradiction with it.
Mere forms of reversion may perish without reproducing themselves.
A new form called forth by the working of an unknown phyletic vital
energy cannot be a sterile one, because this directly destroys again the
“purpose” which the vital energy is pursuing. Tbe idea of the vital
energy includes that of teleology.

Moreover, from our stand-point the sterility of the Amblystomas may
be, if not completely understood, yet shown as a phenomenon that does
not stand quite alone. In the case of the Lissotriton punctatus, as quoted
above, the female “ larve” were at any rate sexually mature and Jaid
eggs, but at the same time the males had no perfected spermatozoa in
the testicles.

Other cases of the kind are not known tome. At the time when I made
my experiments with butterflies, as mentioned above, this point of view
was still unseen, and so I neglected to examine the artificially produced
forms of reversion in regard to their organs of generation. But general
principles also lead to the conclusion that atavistic forms may easily
remain sterile.

DARWIN* finds the most immediate causes of sterility, first, in the
operation of widely varying circumstances of life; and, second, in the
crossing of individuals with widely differing constitutions. Varying
circumstances of life are at any rate what induce the transformation of
the Axolotl, and from this point of view it could not be surprising if we
find those individuals sterile, which have precisely shown themselves as
especially affected by these altered conditions of life, since they have
reverted to the salamander form. In this reasoning it is by no means as-
serted that reversion always and without exception is accompanied by ster-
ility. Nor can it be objected to my interpretation of the Axolotl’s trans-
formation that through reversion a colony of Axolotls capable of reproduc-
tion never could have arisen. On thecontrary, JULLIEN’Ss female Triton

*Bull. Soc. Neuchatel, Bd. viii, p. 192, a reference to the place in Troschel’s Jahres-
bericht (Annual Report), for 1569.
* Origin of Species, 5th edition, p. 325.

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 9367

larvee that laid eggs exactly prove that even in reversion the power of
reproduction may remain complete. From the universal causes of ster-
ility mentioned above, it may be inferred that through those causes
fruitfulness may be lost in different degree; and, further, it may in a
measure be understood why the fruitfulness is more completely lost in
the reversion to the Amblystoma form than in the reversion of the Tri-
ton to the Perennibranchiate form.

Jf in these cases the reversion is called forth by altering the con-
ditions of life, one may perhaps imagine that the extent of this altera-
tion will also fix the degree of fertility which the atavistic form can pre-
serve; but still more will the fertility be influenced by the extent of the
morphological skip which is made in the reversion.

We know that the blending of widely varying constitutions (e. g., in
the crossing of different species) produces sterility. Something similar
takes place also in the sudden reversion toa stage of development widely
varying in its whole structure. Here also takes place to a certain extent
the union of two very different constitutions in one individual, a sort of
crossing.

From this point of view it may be, to some extent, understood why
sterility may be a result of the reversion, but, on the other hand, we ob-
tain no explanation why with the same breadth of morphological varia-
tion there occurs in one case complete sterility, in the other relative
fruitfulness. The extent of the morphological contrast is exactly the
same between Axolotl and Amblystoma as between Triton and its
‘“‘sexually mature larve.” The difference in the two cases of reversion
lies entirely in the direction of the skip, which in the first case is made
exactly in the contrary direction to that in the second.

Just in that I would seek the reason for the varying force with
which the power of reproduction is affected; not in the direction of the
leap in and for itself, but in the differences of the ontogenesis, which
are conditioned upon the direction of the leap.

The reversion of the Triton to an older phyletic stage coincides with
remaining upon a younger ontogenetic stage; or, in other words, the older
stage of phylogenesis, to which the reversion takes place, is still entirely in-
cluded in the ontogenesis of every individual. Every Triton is a Perenni-
branchiate for a considerable portion of its life; the individual that
makes the reversion simply reverts to an older phyletic stage by re-
maining in the larva stage of its individual development.

Quite otherwise with the reversion of the Axolotl to the Amblystoma
form, which had been once reached at some former time, but long since
given up. This is not included in the ontogenesis of the Axolotl, but has
entirely fallen out. For a long succession of generations—so we must
suppose—the ontogenesis has always proceeded only to the Perenni-
branchiate form. If now single individuals are made to revert to the
Amblystoma form, no greater leap in respect to morphology is made
than in the reversion of the Triton to the Perennibranchiate form. At

368 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

the same time it involves a leap in an opposite direction, namely, a leap
away over a long succession of generations, back to an animal. form,
which for a long time the species had not produced, which to a certain
extent had become foreign to it.

We should therefore have here also the coincident effect upon the
Axolotl’s constitution of a widely different constitution, or—if one pre-
fers—the blending of two widely varying constitutions.

Of course I am very far from wishing to give this explanation for an
exact one. It is nothing more than an attempt to point out the
force in which we are to seek for the cause of the varying extent to
which the power of reproduction is affected. To investigate more
deeply and to demonstrate specially in what manner this force comes
into operation must be left to a later time. For the present it must
suffice to have shown in this connection that in general an essential
difference exists between the two kinds of reversion, as well as to have
made it in some measure comprehensible that this difference may be
the motive force in relation to the question of sterility. Perhaps the
law involved here may some day be formulated thus: Atavistice individ-
uals lose the power of reproduction the more completely as the series of
generations of their ancestors is longer whose ontogenesis no longer contains
the phyletically older stage to which the reversion takes place.

Consequently our hypothesis, which regards the transformation of the
Axolotl as a reversion, offers us at once the possibility of learning to
understand the sterility of the Amblystomas produced from Axolotls.
So on the contrary the observed sterility of these Amblystomas is for
those who think that a phyletic vital energy was here exerted—let it be
named whatever it may—not only “a veritable scientific enigma,” as
DUMERIL expresses himself, but a complete parodox. Of such a design-
ing, impelling principle it ought to be expected that it would bring forth
new forms capable of life and not decayed to the point of dying out; and
this so much the more since there is concerned a combination of strue-
tural peculiarities, which, when it bas originated in another way (namely,
from other species of Siredon), has already long ago shown itself capable of
life and reproduction. Weknow species of Amblystoma which reproduce
as such, and every one of which comes from a larva like the Axolotl. One
cannot, therefore, explain the sterile Amblystomas which the Paris Axo-
lotl produces as an unsuccessful effort of the vital energy—-an explana-
tion, which to be sure, would be in and for itself sufficiently presump-
tuous.

But now it may be asked, What change in the conditions of life could it
have been which made the Amblystoma in the Lake of Mexico* revert to
the Siredon form? To be sure, I can only answer this question with con.
jectures, which can claim but a limited value so long as they cannot be
sustained by a more exact knowledge of the circumstances there and
the habits both of the Axolotl and the Amblystoma.

*As we do not know the origin of the Paris Axolotl, I must confine myself 1 the
following to Siredon Mexicanus Shaw.

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 369

In general it may be presumed that the same external influences
demanded the reversion which at an earlier time called forth the formation
of the Perennibranchiate stage.

In favor of this conjecture we may adduce the experiments here com-
municated, for evidently it is the stimulus of the air breathing which
brings the young Axolotls to the reversion to the Amblystoma form,
i. €., the same stimulus under whose dominating influence the Ambly-
stoma form must have arisen.

But the case is quite similar with the season-dimorphous butterflies.
There a reversion of the summer brood to the winter form is most easily
called forth by the operation of cold, 7. e., by the same influences under
whose control the winter form was developed. We know, at any rate,
that reversion may arise also from the crossing of races and species,
and I sought to show that reversion in butterflies may also be called
forth by other influences than cold. But the most probable presumption
is evidently the one that the reversion was induced through a recurrence
of the same cause which to a certain extent produced the Perenni-
branchiate form. That this form has been shaped under the influence
of life in the water admits of no doubt; and so my conjecture is that the
hypothetical Amblystoma Mexicanum, the supposed ancestral form of
the present Axolotl of the Lake of Mexico, must have been brought to
revert to the Perennibranchiate form by the circumstance that the possibility
of going on land was taken from it and it was constrained to stay in the
water.

I will not reject beforehand every other opinion. We must carefully
distinguish between the mere provocations which are able to produce
sudden reversion and actual causes of variation which have for their
result, directly or indirectly, the molding of a species. So it would
not be inconceivable a priori that reversion should occur through the
working of an impulse which has nothing to do with the origin of the
phyletically older form. Certainly temperature has had no share, or
only a very slight one, in the fashioning of the Perennibranchiate form.
Yet cold, in and for itself, might quite well be one of the provocations
which one day caused the Amblystoma form to revert to the Siredon
form; and one could not a@ priori contradict Dre SAUSSURE when he
expresses the opinion that the low temperature of the Mexican winter
must hinder the transformation (of the Axolotl to the Amblystoma)
which had taken place ‘in the hot reptile room” of the Paris Jardin des
Plantes. He supports his view by the fact that “TscuHunpr has found
the Amblystoma” (of course another species) “in the hottest part of the
United States.” “On the plateau of Mexico, however, it snows every
winter; and although the lake does not freeze, its temperature must sink
very low near the surface.”

But although no theoretical considerations oppose this view, yet I do
not think it correct. I question very much that it was the temperature
which induced the change from the Amblystoma back to the Axolotl,

248

370 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

or—according to DE SAUSSURE’s explanation—which at the present
hinders the transformation of the Axolotl in the Lake of Mexico. This
is the reason for my doubt: From all portions of the United States to the
northward of New York Amblystomas have been collected ; a proof that
even a much greater degree of winter cold than that found on the
plateau of Mexico is no hinderance for the transformation of the
Axolotl; that the genus does not prove more sensitive in this respect
than our native genera of Salamandrida.

More consideration seems to me to be deserved by the following
remarks of DE SAUSSURE, in which he points out the character of the
Mexican lake: “The bottom of this lake is flat, so that one comes im-
perceptibly from the lake to wide, swampy regions before he reaches
firm ground. Perhaps this condition makes the Axolotl unable to get
to the dry land, and so hinders the transformation.”

At any rate the Lake of Mexico offers very peculiar conditions of life
for an amphibious animal. My esteemed friend, Dr. V. FRANTZIUs,
called my attention to it that this lake, like many others also of the
Mexican lakes, is braciish. At the time of the conquest of Mexico
by Ferdinand Cortez this circumstance caused the final surrender, as
the Spaniards cut off the water from the besieged and the lake water
is not drinkable. The old Mexicans had already built conduits from
the distant mountains, and at the present day the city is still depend-
ent on the water brought in by aqueduets.

Now, this saltness, in and for itself, could be no cause for the falling
back to the Perennibranchiate form, but might be such a cause, in
connection with other peculiarities of the lake. The shallowest part of
the lake is the eastern, and only in this part does the Axolotl live. In the
winter violent storms from the east blow regularly and persistently, which
come down from the mountains and drive the water before them so power-
fully that it rises in the western part of the lake and frequently causes
overflows there, while from the flat eastern shore the bottom is laid com-
pletely dry for 2,000 feet.* Now if one puts together these two peculi-
arities, the salt and the periodical drying of a part of the lake-bottom by
continued winds, he gets at any rate conditions of life for the Axolotl
such as can be found in very few other places. ‘To be sure, one might
attempt to turn them to use just in an opposite sense, unfavorable to my
theory, for the withdrawing of the water from a great part of the lake
bottom ought—so might one think—rather to make easier the animal’s
trapsition to living on the land ; yes, just compel it thereto. But one for-
gets, however, that the bared lake-bottom is a sterile plain, without food
and without hiding-place; above all, without vegetation; and further,
that through the pretty considerable saltness of the water (specific
gravity, 1.0215) all the surface laid dry must be covered with a crust of
salt, a condition which will make feeding on the land just impossible.

* Miihlenpfordt, Versuch einer getreuen Schilderung der Republik Meijco, Hanover,
1844, ii, p. 252 (Attempt at a true Picture of the Republic of Mexico).

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 371

Chloride and carbonate of soda, chiefly, are dissolved in the water in so
sensible a quantity that they are regularly precipitated as a crust on the
shore of the lake, and this crust is gathered there during the dry sea-
son and comes into the market under the name of tequisquite.

So, therefore, there is no lack of points of support for the conjecture
that peculiar cireumstances made life on the land more difficult to the
animal than life in the water, and this alone might have been sufficient
to bring it back to the habit of water-life only, and with that also to the
reyersion into the Perennibranchiate or Ichthyodea form.

Yet a truce to conjectures. Wecannot lament that from the great dis-
tance and lapse of time, we are not in the condition to ascertain with
definiteness the causes which compelled the Axolotl to give up the
Amblystoma stage, so long as we are not able to solve the case of rever-
sion that lies much nearer to us in the Tritons of FILIPPI and JULLIEN.
Yet here, also, universal causes affecting the whole colony of Tritons
must have been at the foundation, since, at least in FILIPPI’S case, the
great majority of the individuals remained in the larva state. It must
be that experiments with Triton larve would bring greater clearness
here; they would have to determine, before all else, whether the rever-
sion can be called forth artificially, and, if this is the case, through what
influences,

According to the above-quoted experiences with butterflies, as well
as according to the results attained with Axolotls, we should have to
expect with the Tritons that the reversion to the Ichthyode form would
occur if one would continue the stimulus of the water bathing the gills
and the whole body, and at the same time would take away the stimu-
lus under whose operation the Salamandrida form has been fashioned—
the stimulus of the air bathing the gills, the skin, and the lungs. I
hope at a later time to be able to report on experiments of this kind.*

No one will wish to object to my hypothesis of reversion, that on one
side it opposes what it of itself postulates on the other side: a sudden

hange of structure. The characteristic of the reversion is precisely in

reaching at a bound an older, that is, an earlier existing phyletic stage.
That this occurs is a fact; while the reaching at a bound, to express
myself figuratively, of an aim (pardon the word) that lies forward has
never yet been proved or even made probable.

But as we succeeded in finding in the Axolotl’s present conditions of
life-forces which make its life on the land difficult or quite impossible,
and therefore show a motive for that return to the Ichthyodea form
which seems to have taken place; so can the other side of my hypothesis

*At any rate, SCHREIBERS seems, in his essay already cited above, to have communi-
cated experiments from which it follows,as Leypié recapitulates them in the place
referred to, that the last change, i. ¢., the loss of the gills, “may be delayed by forcible
means.” To be sure, it does not follow from this that the animals of the experiment
also became sexually mature at the same time. Unfortunately I could not myself ex-
amine the paper, as the volume of the Iris for 1833, as referred to, contains nothing
of the kind, and I have lived for a long time at a distance from any large library.

372 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA

be supported by facts, namely, the assumption that the ancestors of the
Axolotl had at an earlier time already been Amblystomas.

We know from HUMBOLDT * that the surface of the Lake of Mexico
once lay considerably higher than at present, and that in a time com-
paratively modern. We know, further, that the plateau of Mexico was
covered with forest, while now the forest has vanished where the settle-
ments of man, especially of the Spaniards, have reached. Now, if one
may suppose that somewhere about the diluvial epoch the mountain
forest extended to the edge of the lake, then still deep and with abrupt
shores and containing considerably less salt, we have indicated condi-
tions of life not only different essentially from the present ones, but also
such as were quite specially favorable for the shaping of a species of
the Salamandrida.

In the light of all this I believe people will not be able to cast upon
my attempt to explain the exceptional metamorphosis of the Axolotl
from the Lake of Mexico the reproach of being too free a flight of fancy.
At any rate it is the only possible explanation which can be opposed to
that other one which assumes that the occasional transformation of the
Axolotl is not reversion, but an effort toadvance. And this assumption
must, in my estimation, be rejected on purely theoretical grounds by
every one who thinks a sudden transformation of species inconceivable, at
least when it is joined with adaptations to new conditions of life. That as-
sumption must be rejected by every one who looks upon adaptations not
as the work of magic arising at a stroke, but as the final result of a long
succession of natural causes, though separately slight and imperceptible.

Should my interpretation of the facts be correct, this history of trans-
formation would not have a significance so far-reaching as if it could
have been taken in favor of heterogeneous creation, namely: in that
case, demonstrating the existence of heterogeneous creation, it would
have settled the question between that and transmutation. Now, on the
contrary, it brings no definite decision, because, strictly taken, the
refutation of sudden transformation in ene case only proves it as not
present for this one case.

But it is, after all, a contribution to the gradual and complete rejection
of such sudden transformation. Ifone case after another which seemed
to speak for heterogeneous creation is proved untenable on that theory,
the argument by induction must finally acquire sufficient strength to be
acknowledged as satisfactory.

If my view of the factsis correct, a few corollaries result from it ‘hitch
here at the close [ should like to lonbibe briefly.

First, a thing that is more external :

If the Siredon Mexicanus Shaw only assumes the Amblystoma form
by occasional reversion, but never reproduces as such, but only as Sire-
don, we cannot approve the action of the latest writers on systematic
zoology, who simply strike the genus Siredon out of the system, and

*See Miihlenpfordt’s book already quoted, vol. i.

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL 10 AN AMBLYSTOMA. 373

bring in the Siredon Mevxicanus as an unwelcome addition under the
genus Amblystoma. So long as there are not one only, but several species
of Siredon on the earth, which are regularly reproduced as such and only
as such, so long the genus exists. And if we would not quite rob the
systematic writers of the hope that some time these species of Siredon
would rise to be Amblystomas, yet it corresponds better to the state of
things now existing on the earth if we still allow the genus Siredonto stand
among the genera of fish-salamanders and reckon in it all those species
which, like the Paris Axolotl, the Siredon Mexicanus Shaw, and proba-
bly also Siredon lichenoides, only take the Amblystoma form as an excep-
tion or by artificial influences, but without reproducing themselves in it.

On the other hand, all those species may probably be added to the
genus Amblystoma which reproduce in this state, and in which the
Perennibranchiate siage appears only as a larval condition.

To make this distinction in the individual case will be chiefly the task
of the American naturalists, from whose ever-increasing activity we may
hope indeed for fuller details on the reproduction of the numerous spe-
cies of Amblystoma in their native land. I should rejoice if my expla-
nations here presented should give an impulse to such investigations.

The second corollary to which I referred is of a purely theoretical
nature. It concerns an addition to the “fundamental law in the genesis
of life,” first set forth by Fritz Miiller and Haeckel. It is well known
that this is stated in the following proposition : The Ontogenesis contains
in itself the Phylogenesis, more or less contracted, more or less modi-
fied. Although the proposition cannot be rigidly proved, because we
have no means of seeing the phyletic development directly unfolded be-
fore our eyes, yet its correctness and general validity can be made so
highly probable, in an indirect way, that few naturalists of the present
time doubt it who have occupied themselves with the history of devel-
opment and comparative morphology.

Now, according to this proposition, every stage of the phyletic devel-
opment, when it is displaced by a later one, must remain included in
the Ontogenesis, and therefore come to light in the form of an ontoge-
netic stage in the development of every individual. Now, with this my
explanation of the Axolotl’s transformation appears to stand in contra-
diction, for the Axolotl which had in former generations been an Am-
blystoma contains nothing of the Amblystoma in its Ontogenesis. Never-
theless the contradiction is only apparent. As soon as a further develop-
ment is actually in question, and therefore the attainment of a new stage
not yet realized, so soon the older stage is taken up into the Ontogen-
esis. Butitis not so when the new is not actually new, but has at a
former time presented the final stage of the individual development, or,
in other words, when there is a reversion, not of the single individual,
but of the species as such to the preceding phyletic stage, and, therefore,
a-phyletic sinking back of the species. In this case the final stage of the
Ontogenesis is simply eliminated, it falls out, and we can only recognize its

374 ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA.

presence by the fact that it may occasionally appear as a reversionary form.
Thus the Triton, under some circumstances, sinks back to the Perenni-
branchiate stage, but not in such a way that the individual would first
become a Triton and then be transformed back to a Perennibranchi-
ate, but, as I have already made prominent above, simply by no longer
reaching the stage of the Salamandrida and remaining upon the stage
of the Ichthyodea. ‘Thus, also, according to my hypothesis, the Sala-
mandrida that formerly lived on the shores of the Lake of Mexico, the
Amblystoma Mexicanum, has sunk back to the stage of the fish-salaman-
der, and the only trace which remains to us of his former height of de-
velopment is just the inclination, more or less present in every individ-
ual, to reach under favorable circumstances the salamander stage again.

But the third and last consequence which my explanation of the facts
brings with it lies in the altered part which would be assigned by it to
reversion in organic nature. Hitherto atavistic forms have been re-
garded only as isolated, exceptional cases, interesting, to be sure, in a
high degree for our knowledge, but without significance for the course
of development of organic nature. Now a real importance would have
to be allowed them in this latter regard.

I should assume that reversion may in a twofold manner be a con-
trolling power for the preservation or restoration of a form of life. In
one case, as in the Axolotl, where the newer form, standing organically
higher, becomes untenable from external causes, and now, as a further
development in the other direction does not seem possible, instead of
simply dying out, a reversion of the species to the older and less highly
organized step follows. But, second, in this manner, that the older phy-
letic form is not altogether given up, while the younger is developed from
it, but that tt alternates periodically with the younger, as we see in the
season-dimorphous butterflies. One will hardly urge any objection to
it if I regard the alternation of summer and winter form in these as a
periodically occurring reversion to the phyletically older form (the winter
form).

Though the total reversion of a species, as I assume it for the Axolotl,
may be a rarely-occurring case, the periodically or cyclically occurring
reversion surely is not; it certainly plays a considerable part in the
origin of various forms of the alternating or cyclical mode of reproduc-

tion.
POSTSCRIPT.

It was intimated in the foregoing discussion that the causes from
which I derived the reversion of the hypothetical Amblystoma Mevwi-
canum to the Axolotl of to-day, did not seem to me to suffice completely
for the explanation of the phenomenon. For one thing, they appeared
to me of too local a nature, as they could only be applied with certainty
to the Axolotl from the lake of the Mexican capital, while also the Paris
Axolotl, coming from another part of Mexico, requires an explanatién
that will apply to him. But, on the other hand, they did not seem to

ON CHANGE OF MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. 375

me cogent enough. Jor should we even learn at a later time that the
Paris Axolotl] also comes from a salt lake, which is exposed to winds
similar to those of the Lake of Mexico, yet there lies after all in these
peculiarities of the lakes only a force which renders difficult the meta-
morphosis of the larva and the gaining of a suitable new dwelling-
place on the land. The impossibility of attaining such a dwelling, or
indeed the total lack of it, does not necessarily result from them.
Evidently it would be a much more substantial support for my
hypothesis if I succeeded in pointing out forces in the physical relations
of the country which entirely preclude the existence of Amblystoma there.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

[Translated by CLEVELAND ABBE.]

CONTENTS.

A.—HANN.—On the Diminution of Aqueous Vapor with Increasing Altitude in the
Atmosphere.
[Zeitschrift Oest. Met. Gesell., 1874, ix, pp. 193-200.]

B.—-Hann.—On the Influence of Rainfall upon the Barometer.
[Zeitschrift Oest. Met. Gesell., 1874, ix, pp. 289-296.]

C.—Hann.—Additional Note by Hann. Atmospheric Pressure and Rain.
[Zeitschrift Oest. Met. Gesell., x, pp. 11-13.]

D.—Hann.—The Laws of the Variation of Temperature in Ascending Currents of Air.
[Zeitschrift Oest. Met. Gesell., 1874, ix, pp. 321-346.]

E.—Souncxe.—Additional Note by Sohncke.
[Zeitschrift Oest. Met. Gesell., x, pp. 56-58.]

F.—ReEyYE.—Additional Note by Reye. On Rainfall and Barometric Minima.
[Zeitschrift Oest. Met. Gesell., x, pp. 65-70.)

G.—Hann.—On the Relation between the Difference of Pressure and the Velocity of
the Wind according to the Theories of Ferrel and Colding.
[Zeitschrift Oest. Met. Gesell., 1875, x, pp. 81-106.]

H.—FERREL.—Reply to the Criticisms of Mr. Hann.
[Zeitschrift Oest. Met. Gesell., x, 1875, p. 254.]

I.—CoLp1nG.—Some Remarks concerning the Nature of Currents of Air.
[Oversigt d. K. Danske Vid. Sels., 1871, p. 89.]

J. —Cotpinc.—Abstract of Colding’s Second Memoir.
[Zeitschrift Oest. Met. Gesell., x, p. 141.]

K.—PEsiin.—Relation between Barometric Variations and the General Atmospheric
Currents.
[Bulletin International de l'Observatoire de Paris, 1872, May to July.]

AX.

THE DIMINUTION OF THE AQUEOUS VAPOR OF THE
ATMOSPHERE WITH INCREASE OF ALTITUDE.

By Dr. JuLius HANN.

{Translated by Cleveland Abbe from the Journal of the Austrian Meteorological Association, vol. ix,
pp. 193-200, July, 1874.]

Mr. Richard Strachey has published, in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, March, 1861, a valuable work ‘On the Distribution

of Aqueous Vapor in the Upper Parts of the Atmosphere.” In this, he
376

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOZICAL SUBJECTS. SE

shows, from the observations of Hooker and his own in the Himalayas,
as well as from those that Welsh made in four balloon voyages, that the
absolute humidity (or the vapor-tension) diminishes in a much more
rapid ratio with the altitude than would be the case in an independent
atmosphere of vapor subject to its own pressure only. He then further
shows that the existence of an independent vapor atmosphere is excluded
by the rate of diminution of temperature with altitude as deduced from
all known observations considered together with the vapor-tension
observed at the surface of the earth. This latter proposition had already
been mathematically demonstrated by Bessel in 1838.* Of course
Strachey concludes further that it is not admissible to subtraet the
vapor-tension from the barometric pressure in order to obtain the pressure
of the dry atmosphere.t By means of an estimate based upon Hook-
er’s and Welsh’s observations, Strachey finds that the actual pressure
of the vapor in the atmosphere is to the tension observed at the earth’s
surface as 1 to 4. Lamont arrived at the result 1 to 5, nearly agreeing
therewith, by making Glaisher’s observations the base of his computa-
tion.t

Strachey does not attempt to deduce a formula for the diminution of
vapor-pressure with altitude from the vapor-tensions at different alti-
tudes in the atmosphere, as communicated by him; and Lamont has, in
the above-cited memoir, expressed his conviction of the non-existence of
any regular change of vapor-pressure with altitude. This is, indeed, a
necessary consequence of the denial of Dalton’s vapor atmosphere;
according to this view, the atmosphere of vapor never arrives at that
condition of equilibrium which is assumed for it by Dalton’s proposition
of an independent gaseous atmosphere. At the earth’s surface, at higher
temperatures, aqueous vapors are developed of greater tensions than
would correspond to the possible vapor-tensions that obtain at the lower
temperatures in the higher strata of the air. The slow diffusion of
aqueous vapor in the air alone prevents its rapid continued condensa-
tion in the upper strata. By reason of ascending currents of air, as well
as any other cooling of masses of moist air, there occur, now here and
now there, condensations of vapor; and under such conditions the
existence of a state of equilibrium in the vapor atmosphere cannot
be assumed. Were oxygen and nitrogen continually produced, and at
lower temperatures again locally condensed in the same proportions as
is the aqueous vapor, then a barometric measurement of altitude would
be out of the question. We must then a priori refrain equally from the
deduction of any law permitting one to determine the vapor-pressure at
any higher or lower altitude from the vapor-tension observed in any

* Remarks on Barometric Hypsometry, Astron. Nach., Band 16, No. 356.

t We expressly say “atmosphere,” since it is of course permissible for physical pur-
poses to subtract the vapor-tension from the barometric pressure in order to obtain the
weight or the pressure of the dry air within a definite space.

¢ See this Journal, iii, 291.

378 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
atmospheric stratum, and from the deduction of a similar law for the_
temperature.

But if we examine the vapor-tensions for different altitudes as given
by Strachey, we are surprised at the agreement on the one hand he-
tween the results of the observations that Welsh made during his bal-
loon voyages and those that Hooker and Strachey made in the Hima-
layas, and on the other hand at the agreement of the latter among them-
selves, especially at the greater altitudes. This unexpected fact induced
me, following Strachey’s steps, to compute the observations of Glaish-
er’s balloon voyages; and since the figures thus obtained agreed very
satisfactorily with those of Strachey, I collected also the material known
to me relative to observations of humidity at fixed stations at greater
mountain altitudes. Thus the following table has resulted. Like
Strachey, | have expressed the vapor-tension at a given altitude ina
fraction of that simultaneously observed at or near the earth’s surface.

Since the altitudes for which observations are at hand seldom agree
with the intervals of the table, therefore the required quantities for the
nearest tabular interval were computed, by a formula, hereafter given,
from the observed values.

Diminution of Vapor-tension with Altitude.

Value of the quotient Es for each thousand English feet of altitude.
0
Series.
1 2 = 4 = 6 v| 8 10 2 | 14 16 18 | 20 Q2
I

Himalaya:

(OM eb setae 364 oaks 82 78 68 61 63 ati oy 42 35 29 25 20 AG ena

(Uh) AS 5 a S eaae [. 89] | .85 82 |[. 82]| . 72 63 62 | .54 43 36 14 WDM )asaec]eecs.

(OC) eeaonepaetcaos Beas! lscsee\ Seana SO9R|>sece Oiules.ccs BD Basel oeeia ascad Iscmrol Sess |eeecs bosons
Armenia

(2) eae ene etn sere Bic On aeasel aoe Aa}eh Beoe oAaaoe SOU hes byl BSmsal osne Be by dal eine cece ae
Teneriffe:

Cee she SEE Son laeenateesee ease tee 8 Later teres BG Ua lett aero Sore) Gamer lsaaas seca oc mos
Alps

(Ore mereteter coy ences Ole aerate 60 | .55 50 Li ee 29S ese oe ane seas laSocaitacroc| Goce
Balloons:

(Qe tees S82 dial seers HORM cous “byl ass |e 3tb) Qo) EB otk) leo alors

(2) aes See ete er 87 17 67 o7 Dos ool 44 37 | .26 Q1 22 17 17 11 07

(OQ) asacneodesoss 89 78 67 56 46 | .38 29 pS ees Pace eee ee spe one loceces

(Q)icceeerceeeeees 88 78 65 5 Sy ere . 69 30 41 33 TB a| tomer |e ecnleeeeolee esterases =
Means:

Mountains ...... [.85]| .81 | .80] .66] .61].58} .55]| .47] .36 E Sa fs) ph) Me bed Pai | esaine

Balloons! 22o-eee 288) | 800) 2166 | 261) 2505) 2540) 540 est), Sh | san eecl aime ddal eS Gr ise 07

PAN nee 87 £0 73 64 56 36 48 | .42 34 Q7 23 18 16 13 07

(The bracketed numbers have only one-half weight.)

The following are the observations on which are based each individual
series of the above table.

Himalaya.—(a) Observations by Hooker: ()) by Strachey, extracted
irom the above-cited memoir; (c) annual means of observation at Maha-
baleshwar and Bombay; at Darjeeling and Goalpara; at Dodabetta and
Madras.

Armenia.—Obdservations by Moritz during his ascent of the Greater
Ararat in August, 1850, published in Kupffer’s Correspondance Météoro-
logique, année 1858. Moritz took hourly observations of nearly all the

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 379

meteorological clements for four days at the altitude of 2,316 meters
(Sardar-Bonlagh), for ten days at 3,316 meters, and through nearly five
days on the summit of the Greater Ararat, 5,125 meters. During the
entire time, observations were regularly maintained at Erivan, Alexan-
dropol, Tiflis, Redoute Kalé, and Lenkoran. From these observations,
I have deduced the corresponding averages.

Teneriffe —Obdservations by Piazzi Smyth at Villa Orotava (374 me-
ters), Guajara (2,715 meters), and Alta Vista (3,264 meters), in July,
August, and September, 1856, and simultaneously at Santa Cruz.

The Alps.—Observations at the Theodul Pass, August, 1865 and 1866,
in connection with the Swiss system of observations; also the obser-
vations of Kimtz on the Rigi and the Faulhorn, referred to Ziirich.
(Kiaimtz particularly remarks, in his Vorlesungen, that in the dry year
1832 the ratio of the vapor-tensions at Faulhorn and Ziirich was 0.43,
almost exactly the same as the ratio 0.46 for the damp, cold year 1833.)

Balloon Voyages.—(a) Observations by Welsh, computed and commu-
nicated by Strachey; ()) observations by Glaisher during five trips in
summer time; (c} three voyages in late summer and fall of 1863; (d)
three voyages in the winters 1864 and 1865. On the ascension of 1864,
January 12, the temperature and humidity at first increased with the
elevation, and at a higher altitude first began to regularly diminish.

After a consideration of the figures in the above table, one must con-
fess that the attempt to represent these by any formula is quite as rea-
sonable as the establishment of any ratio for the diminution of temper-
ature with altitude. 'Che agreement between observations on mountains
and in the free atmosphere in balloons is much better for the humidity
than for the temperature. Only the Himalaya observations show for
small altitudes a materially greater quantity of vapor on the mountains
’ than in the free atmosphere; at great altitudes, there is scarcely any
difference. Had the vapor atmosphere of the earth attained to a con-
dition of equilibrium, and subject to its own pressure only, we could in
a simple manner compute the pressure corresponding toa given altitude,
since for every such gaseous atmosphere the equation

gala Ng Ae

P=Pore Colt) og)
must obtain. Here p and pp represent the pressures at the altitude h
and at the earth’s surface, measured by the height of the mercurial column
supported by these pressures ; eis the base of the natural logarithms; C
is a constant, and equal to the product of 0.760 into the ratio between
the density of mercury and that of the gas under a normal pressure of
0.76 meter at a temperature of 0° C. and with the intensity of gravity as
at the sea-level at 45° latitude. This constant corresponds to the alti-
tude of a column of gas of uniform density and at the uniform temper-
ature of 0° C., which exerts the same pressure as a mercurial column of
0.76 altitude. For another temperature of the gaseous column, and for
another value of the force of gravity, and one diminishing with the

380 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

altitude, the above altitude must be different; ¢(¢) and ¢(g) indicate the
correctional factors. For dry air, free from carbonic acid gas, C is 7,992
meters, and since the density of aqueous vapor may be assumed con-
stant at 0.623 for ordinary atmospheric temperatures, therefore for an
atmosphere of aqueous vapor C = 12,829 meters. We therefore have
the following formula for the computation of the pressure at any alti-
tude within an atmosphere of aqueous vapor, and omitting the small
corrections,

bors
12829 ’
or, multiplying by the modulus of the Briggs logarithms,

h

log p = log po 5535 °

nat log p = nat log po —

This formula can be used at once to compare the observed diminution
of vapor-tension with that which must obtain in an independent atmos-
phere of aqueous vapor. Up to an altitude of 20,000 English feet, or
6,096 meters, the correction ¢(g) can be neglected, and the introduction
of ¢(t)—1-+ at would have the effect of still further delaying the dimi-
nution of tension up to about 12,080 feet.

Theoretical and Observed Diminutions of Vapor-tension.

| Altitudes in thousands of English feet.

shee es e | 12 | 16 | 2

miconipubeds- esassa2 see beets dae te Pere ee eee eee | 1.00
Ponsa 5 55 a8 Sees Sk cesasacesstessscsscescssesess0s+

Whence the vapor-tension actually does diminish with the altitude
much more rapidly than would be the case if an independent gaseous
atmosphere existed.

As before remarked, Bessel had already, through a roundabout and
involved computation, proven that the slow diminution of vapor-tension
with the altitude, as is required in Dalton’s vapor atmosphere, can-
not possibly be reconciled with the known diminution of temperature,
for aqueous vapor has a definite maximum of elastic force for each tem-
perature. Our above-written formula must therefore also satisfy the
conditions

ay 7.4475 t
p= Po 10*°9 and p equal or less than 4.525 x 10234.69+¢,

The last member on the right is the formula given by Magnus for the

maximum tension of aqueous vapor for a given temperature t. Hence
follows

o LAATBS h
log po = or < 0.65562 — TL tet 99539.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 381

For an average temperature diminution of 0°.5 C. for each 100 meters,
the mean annual temperature will be —5°C. at an altitude of 3,000
meters above Vienna (—6°.6 is observed at the Theodul Pass, altifude
3,330 meters). If we substitute these values for / and t,, we find

leg po = or < 0.48342 and po) = or < 3.9 millimeters.

Therefore, even were the air, at 5,200 meters altitude, saturated with
vapor, the vapor-tension in Vienna would, at the highest, be only
3.9™™; in fact, however, it is observed to be 6.9™™. In order to make
this tension possible, the temperature at 5,000 meters altitude must be
+ 2°.4C., and therefore the rate of decrease of temperature would
amount to only 09.25 C. for each 100 meters.

If now we seek to represent the observed diminution of vapor-tension
by means of an empirical formala, we can either choose a simple expres-
sion of the form

p=pitah+odl),
or examine whether the observed values proceed in a geometrical pro-
gression, in which case the value of C is to be determined, which must
be much smaller than the above given theoretical value.

I first deduced, according to the method of least squares, from the
mean of the series Himalaya (a) and (b) and Balloon Voyages (a) and (0b),
the formula

p=po (1—0.078Sh + 0.00164 h7),

where i is given in units of 1,000 English feet each. If we use also the
observation of Glaisher that for h = 28,000 feet p is nearly equal to
zero, we find

P =Po (1 — 0.075 h + 0.001467), h in units of 1,000 English feet;
or

p =po (1 — 0.246 h + 0.01569 17), 2 in units of 1,000 meters.

These formule of interpolation represent, with almost perfect accu-
racy, the observations on which they are based, but are inapplicable to
altitudes above 7,800 meters, since for higher altitudes they give increas-
ing values of p (for h = 26,000 feet, the second formula gives p = 0.04).
But this does not prevent their application to all cases that actually
occur.

In order to express the definitive mean values of our table, the quan-
tities re by a geometrical progression, I have pursued the following

V0
method: The general formula is, for our case, converted into

log |= |= - Le whence C = — ac! met
Po C log (p: po)
I now computed the values of C for 14 of the intervals of the table

(excluding the last [22], because for this the 2 depends upon too few
Pp

382 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

observations); for the first intervals, from 1 to 8,000 feet, I united each
three into one mean value, and thus obtained the following :

Altitudes in | O in English |} Altitudesin | @C in English
English feet. feet. English feet. | feet.
|
2, 000 19, 707 12, 000 21, 103
4, 000 20,815 | 14, 000 21, 935
6, 000 21, 883 16, 000 21, 485
8, 000 21,515 18, 000 22, 616
10, 000 | 21, 344 | 20, 000 22, 576

The reduction of the observed values of the vapor-tension to the
nearest intervals occurring in the table was made by means of interpo-
lation after the values of C had been computed from every observation.
These numbers show an increase of the value of C with the altitude.
The method of least squares now gives us the expression

C = 20251 + 0.113344 in English feet,
or

C= 6172+ 0.11334h in meters,
where h is to be expressed in units of either English feet or meters
respectively. The mean value of Cas computed by this formula is
6,517 meters. Since small changes in C have but slight influence upon

the value of of we can also try the effect of considering C as a constant
0

equal to 6,517 meters.
The following table shows that in fact this is perfectly allowable:

Altitudes (in thousands of English feet)... 1 4 8 12 16) 20 24s 28
OBSEEVEO 7 ese: Ses at oow ee oeeee eee 0/87 164.42 227 8) Ae
Computed p (C increasing) .....----...---- 0/88 364 742 928 ~19” SIS 0on 06:
Computed p (C constant) .......--.....--- 0.90 © 365 = 42 27" 48) SR PaCS 05

Whence it appears that the observed values of vapor-tension at different

altitudes are represented with almost perfect accuracy by the formula
—h —h
P = Po 1017 = py € 2830

We must for the present leave undecided the question whether the
constant 6517 varies with the temperature, as may be suspected from
the slower diminution of the vapor-tension among the Himalayas, since
the observations are too few to determine such a coefficient with any
security.

From the expression just deduced empirically for the diminution of
vapor-tension with altitude, as compared with the formula previously
given, which would obtain for an independent atmosphere of aqueous
vapor, we conclude that the ratio of the weight of the aqueous vapor
actually present in the atmosphere, as compared with the weight result-
ing from the Dalton hypothesis, is as the ratio of the values of Cin both
formule, or as 2830 to 12829, or as 0.22 tol. Whence, the weight of the
vapor present in the whole atmosphere above the place of observation, according
to Dalton’s hypothesis, is 4.5 times greater than it is in reality.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 389

One can persuade himself of the correctness of this conclusion by the
following computation. The weight (in kilograms) of the aqueous vapor
having a tension p (in millimeters) in one cubic meter is found by the
well-known formula

So p 0.001058
q= 06237 a 760 = Tat?
where S, is the specific gravity of air at temperature 0° C. Hence the
weight of aqueous vapor contained in a stratum of air of differential

thickness dh and horizontal area unity is

—h
9° ———

== —es “Do 10°" dh.
The integration of this equation gives a formula for the total weight
of the aqueous vapor contained in the atmosphere up to any definite
height. The temperature ¢ is, strictly speaking, also dependent on the

altitude; but we will, in accordance with all experience, put
Ott

€=— =
9 ’
and thus find
—h
0.0010582
== eae Po Clog é G- te

or

=h
@= ae po X 2830 (a — 19°

For large values of h, therefore, by extending the integral to the
limits of the atmosphere, the negative member of this expression dis-
appears, and it is now quite clear that the actual weight of the aqueous
vapor in the atmosphere is to that resulting from Dalton’s hypothesis
as 2830 to 12829, or as 0.22 to 1.

For example, the mean vapor-tension at Vienna in July is 11 milli-
meters, the temperature 20°.3 C.; at the altitude of 8,000 meters, the
probable temperature is about —19°.7 C.; the mean temperature of the
whole atmosphere of aqueous vapor is therefore nearly 0° C. The
formula gives the total weight of aquecass vapor = 35 kilograms, corre-
sponding to a pressure of 523.5 = 0.0032 atmosphere, or a mercurial
column of 2.4 millimeters. If, therefore, the aqueous vapor contained
in July in the atmosphere above Vienna could expand according to
Dalton’s law, the vapor-tension at the earth’s surface would sink from
11 millimeters to 2.4 millimeters.

[Note.—The following equation resulting by integration from our
previously given formula of interpolation:

1.0582
eS (1- +a -at)
where the unit of h isa thousand meters, gives Q= 32. 6 kilograms, or
2.3 millimeters on the mereurial pavonioter) for h = 8,000 meters. ]

h po A — 0.123 h + 0.00523 h’),

od4 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

The formula for Q further teaches us that one-half of the whole quan-
tity of aqueous vapor is contained in the strata of air below the altitude
of 1,962 meters, or 6,043 Paris feet, and that only one-tenth of the whole
aqueous vapor in the atmosphere is above the altitude of 6,500 meters,
or 20,000 Paris feet. Strachey is therefore right in saying that the
mountain-ranges, however slight their altitudes are in respect to the
dimensions of the whole globe, yet must be of great influence in refer-
ence to the aqueous meteors. A mountain-chain of only 6,000 feet alti-
tude forms a dividing barrier for one-half of the vapor in the atmos-
phere; the Himalayas, with an altitude of about 15,000 feet, or 4,600
meters, cuts off eight-tenths.

In conclusion, 1 would expressly remark that the formula deduced for
the diminution of vapor-tension with altitude can only be applied with
security to the computation of mean ratios. It can also be practically
applied in barometric hypsometry, since all the more recent hypsometric
tables take into consideration the aqueous vapor of the air, but fre-
quently the vapor-tension is known for only one of the two stations
whose relative altitude is to be determined. The following example
shows that for this purpose the accuracy of the formula is quite sufficient.
Bauernfeind observed the psychrometer twenty-one times daily during
five days at five stations on the Greater Miesing, whose relative alti-
tudes were determined by direct leveling. (See Beob. und Unters. tiber
die Genauigkeit barometrischer Hohenmessungen, Miinchen, 1862, p. 132.)
The following small table contains the means of these observations, and
beneath them are given the values computed by our formula for the
other stations from the observations at station I:

NICATION 220 fo oo oii ee I, Tey EEL, ye Vise ie Wis

Altitude in meters ..... 816 1086 1356 1619 1884
p observed, Paris lines.. 5.16 4.30 4.02 3.79 3.54
p computed from I....-- — 4.69 4.26 3.88 3.54

We shall be perfectly satisfied with the agreement between observa-
tion and computation if we reflect that Baurnfeind’s observations were
not used in the deduction of our formula, because they appeared to us
to relate to far too slight an altitude.

[NorE.—The mean vapor-tension in Klagenfurt is 7.1 millimeters.
Hence, for the station Hoch-Obir, lying 1,603 meters higher, is computed a
mean vapor-tension of 4.03 millimeters. Prettner (lima von Karnthen,
p. 163) gives for Hoch-Obir a relative humidity of $2 per cent. and a
mean temperature of 0°.85 C., according to psychrometer observations,
for one year, 1852. To these figures there corresponds a vapor-tension
of 4.02 millimeters; therefore, exactly equal to the computed value.]

Notwithstanding the agreement between observation and computation
in these and other cases, no deeper theoretical meaning should be attrib-
uted to our formula. It is perhaps only a more exact expression for the
opinion expressed by Strachey, that the average degree of saturation of

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 385

the air remains quite uniform in different altitudes. Therefore, the
vapor-tension depends only on the diminution of temperature. If this
latter proceeds in an arithmetical progression, there follows, of course,
for the diminution of vapor-tension a geometric progression. Only the
demonstration may be new, that we can also, with so great accuracy,
from observations at one altitude, compute also the mean vapor-tension
at another altitude.

Bb.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF RAIN UPON THE BAROMETER,
AND UPON THE FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION IN
GENERAL.

3y Dr. J. HANN.
{Translated by Cleveland Abbe from the Journal of the Austrian Meteorological Association, 1874, pp.
289 et seq.

A more accurate knowledge of the influence which the condensation
of the aqueous vapor in the atmosphere exerts upon the disturbances
of its equilibrium and upon the changes of atmospheric pressure is at
present of special importance, since, in the theory of storms, we have
to a certain degree returned to the views of Espy.! This may be our
excuse that we once more return to this subject after having, in a pre-
vious volume of our periodical,’ given place to a discussion upon this
subject. At that time I had to refer to the contradiction that appeared
to exist between the theory and the computations of spy, Kronig, and

Reye and the observed facts. According to Espy and Reye, the con-

densation of vapor into cloud and rain produces a considerable fall in

pressure under the place where the rain falls. But every careful ob-
server knows, on the other hand, that the tendency of rainfall appears to
be rather to increase the pressure. The barometer rises during the rain,
and after the rain stands higher than before. If the rain had the effect
computed by Reye, to diminish the pressure, or even a much less effect,
then would the reverse take place. It, indeed, rains generally during
low pressures; but the lowest barometer precedes the rain;—if it were
a consequence of the rain, it would occur during or after the rainfall.
xeye has had the kindness to go into the discussion of this point, and
thereby has in great part removed the apparent contradiction between
computation and observation.2 He allows that, in the case where the
precipitation is produced by the inflow of colder air or by radiation or
conduction of heat, and where the latent heat of condensation is thus
neutralized, the pressure can rise during the rain; that equally, in the
case where new masses of air steadily flow toward the place of precipi-
tation (the rainfalls of a moist current of air blowing over a mountain),
the formation of a barometric minimum will be hindered. But if we
now consider the remaining causes of the formation of precipitation, we
25 8

386 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

find all are included in the preceding except the one case of a current
freely rising in a quiet atmosphere, and which, cooling by expansion,
precipitates its aqueous vapor. To this class especially belong many
of our summer rains, but especially the tropical rains.

But even our summer rains also behave, with respect to atmospheric
pressure, precisely as we have above described; and with respect to
the tropical rains, we read in general that they exert scarcely any influ-
ence upon the barometer, not even disturbing the regular diurnal oscil-
lation. But upon this point only a computation of the observations
which are the numerical presentation of the influence of rain upon the
barometer can decide. Observations in our climate are not convenient
to such a computation, since we cannot properly eliminate the precipi-
tation due to the inflow of cold currents. Hence, I have chosen Batavia,
a place in the tropics near the equator, for which I have before me the
three years of hourly observations of pressure and of rainfall published
by Bergsma.*

Before I proceed to communicate the results of my computations, I
must state that I cannot participate in the view expressed by Reye
(vol. 8, p. 180), who there says: ‘It can, indeed, occur that upon
mountain-tops, where the vapor condenses to clouds, the pressure may
also diminish; but, for all that, the barometer need not fall at the
place, 80 miles away, where the clouds discharge their rain.” The
clouds are not to be considered as magazines, in which the previously
formed rain is carried along to be discharged anywhere. There where
it rains is the location of an increased precipitation, and the pressure
must sink deeper there than where clouds only form without developing
into rain.

The hourly observations at Batavia show at once, even by a cursory
review, that in fact, as was expected, even the heaviest rains scarcely
disturbed the diurnal change in pressure, and this stands forth with
greatest clearness in the averages. I took for computing the corre-
sponding pressures only the rainfalls which gave at least 10 millimeters
in an hour. The pressures for one and two hours preceding and follow-
ing the rainfall (often of many hours’ duration), as well as the pressures
during the first, second, and third hours of rain, were extracted, were
separately reduced to the daily means by means of the mean diurnal
variation, and then united in a general average. I thus obtained the
following numbers, to which I have also added the mean rainfall for
each hour, so that one can perceive how intense these rains are. For
comparison, I add that in Vienna, on the average, an entire rainy day
in summer affords 5.0 millimeters of water, but in winter 2.7. The
mean of six of the heaviest rains during one hour from 1853 to 1871 is
20.5 millimeters.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. sho |

Influence of Rain on Pressure in Batavia.

I.—RAINS BETWEEN 9 A. M. AND 9P. M.5

3 Burometer 750 millimeters + Quantity of rain—
3
ad
Ss Year. Before— During— After— During—
3
A am, | ah | ah | oh | oh | ab | oh | ah | om | oh | ak | mm
a
mm. | mim. | mm. | MM. | IM. | MM, | mM. | mm. | mM. | mm. | mm. | mM,
PWT SGHi ce = ciccecesene ce 8.87 } 9.02 | 9.30 | 9.32 | 9.32 | 9.19 | 9.08 | 16.4] 13.6] 82] 10.6 4.23
Milt SUSE st wach cee 8.31 | 8.47 | 8.67 | 8.87] 877) 875) 280) 24.5] 7.6) 06) 0.7 0.3
2h a kets oomocteuerdcoces 8.51 | 8.72 | 8.82 | 8.88 | 8.70 | 8.65 | 8.56 | 13.4) 9.0] 20] 1.8 0.6
ZOE) WE cossod aoodehed 8.65 | 8.81 | 9.04 | 9.11 | 9.04 | 8.96 | 8.92 | 17.9} 11.1 Dei) Gs 4.3

8.26 | 9.00 | 9.00 | 8.72] 8.85 3) BO} 5.4] 5.6 5.0
9.41 | 9.48 | 9.58 | 9.51 | 9.53 | 11.2] 21.5) 9.6) 47 2.4
9.92 | 9.75 | 9585 |9.85 | 9° 7E | 15.91] 6.1 | 327) 029 0.2

Here also, during the rainfall, the pressure rises, and after the rain
stands higher than before. If we start with the pressure before the
beginning of the rain, and compute the hourly changes, we obtain the
following variations of pressure:

Before— During— After—
gh 1h, 6 jh gh, gh 14 oh
MavatiMOletesasacasas ocacs sais 7538.65} + 0.16] + 0.23) + 0.07} — 0.07} — 0.08 — 0.04
Wishtitinielc jie sccsscc- dens. BOMG ce ONOFl) Hfe40. 140] 12 0.03 | 1.0107 |p. 2.010, atts
MGaneossseisceaes cases 58,92 + 0.12} + 0.18] + 0.05 0.00 | — 0.09 — 0.01

The pressure rises at the beginning and during the first hours of the
rainfall by about 0.35; it falls‘ within the two hours following the rain
by 0.10, and therefore after the rain it always stands 0.25 higher than
before. The changes at night-time are somewhat smaller than during
the day-time. I have also combined in one average thirteen cases of
the heaviest rains (over 20 millimeters an hour) ; they give the following
changes:

Before rain. During rain. After rain.
Qh, 14, 1h Qh, 14, Qh
Heaviest rainsiecscradaeasseencacesceses 758.58 | + 0.14) + 0.17} +0.12] —0.16] —0.05

The barometer stands 0.22 higher after the rain than before it.

388 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

It we compare the mean pressure before, during, and after the rain
with the annual mean pressure, we obtain the deviations :

Before. | During. | After.

—0.05| +028] + 0.20

Since the mean daily range of the barometer in Batavia amounts te
2.7 millimeters, it follows that the influence of the rain is insignificant
in comparison therewith, and we have a plain confirmation of the state-
ment that in the tropics the rain does not disturb the diurnal oscillation
of the barometer.

I make the following extract from a letter of Blanford, to whom I
communicated the result of my computation of the Batavia observations
with the inquiry as to whether he could perhaps refer to opposing obser-
vations in India: ‘The result you have obtained from the Batavia obser-
vations, viz, that the barometer is lower before rain than during or after
it, is completely in accordance with my own observations at Calcutta.”

I consider the slight increase of pressure here demonstrated during
and after the rain not as a primary effect of condensation of vapor,
which therefore would be operating in a contrary direction to that as-
sumed by Espy and Reye, but only as a secondary effect due to the
cooling of the lower strata by the rain-drops descending from higher,
colder strata and by evaporation. Perhaps, also, the impact of the fall-
ing water and the air dragged down with it contributes somewhat te
the initial rapid rise of pressure, but a reason to be given later can alse
cause the barometer to rise somewhat before the rain.

We believe ourselves now to be justified in the conclusion that the con-
densatiop of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere has no appreciable influ-
ence on the change of atmospheric pressure. The low barometers of the
storm centers can therefore not be explained by the precipitations,
although these latter may probably be an occasion for their develop-
ment, to which point we will subsequently return.

We will next consider the solution of the contradiction that exists
between the theory which assumes a considerable fall of pressure under
a precipitation and the above-given results of observation, which re-
veal nothing of the kind.

The computation of Reye on the magnitude of the influence on the
pressure of the condensation of a given quantity of atmospheric aqueous
vapor is based upon the following train of thought: If the vapor in a
mass of moist air is condensed, the expansive force of the air, and there-
with its volume, is at first diminished, but the air is at once so strongly
warmed, and thus again expanded, by the liberated latent heat of the
condensed vapor, that the original contraction is many times exceeded.
Reye computes that the expansion at 30° C. is somewhat more than five
times the initial contraction; at — 10° C. it is somewhat more than six

‘

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 389

times as great. Imagine a vertical column of one square meter section
isolated from the atmosphere, and assume that a kilogram of water
falls therein as rain, so that the rainfall is 1 millimeter. The air there-
upon expands considerably, and at a temperature of 10° C. at the place
of condensation 7.3 kilograms of air, on account of this expansion, either
are pressed to one side or are pressed upward, where they can flow to
one side. The weight of the column of air, which on the average
amounts to 10,336 kilograms, or one atmosphere, has therefore
diminished by 8.3 kilograms, including the condensed aqueous vapor.
The average barometric pressure must therefore have diminished by
8.3 + 10336 x 760 = 0,61": therefore 2 of the depth of rainfall. This
makes the fall in the barometer about 7 lines, or nearly 16 millimeters,
for an inch of rain. Or course this computation gives only the maxi-
mum change in the barometer, which in reality is by far not attained,
for the outpressed air cannot immediately flow away, and, moreover, is
at the earth’s surface in great part replaced by colder air flowing from
either side (“Die Wirbelstiirme,” page 215, and Pogg. Ann., 1865, vol.
exxv). Kronig has in a similar way endeavored to prove, in opposition
to Mohr, that the expansion overbalances the contraction (Pogg. Ann.,
1864, exxiii). ;

By both physicists the computation is condueted under conditions
that do not occur in nature. Vapor condenses, not spontaneously, but
only when the air is cooled; and this cooling must be greater than the
hberated latent heat, or else it certainly cannot cause any precipitation.
There remains, therefore, no surplus heat that can expand the air to
more than its previous volume. The latent heat of the vapor has simply
the effect of diminishing the cooling; that is to say, it replaces a por-
tion of tiie heat that is lost. But a cooling must take place, and there-
fore, if we, in the above-imagined column of air, would bring a kilo-
gram of vapor to condensation, we must take away the whole of its
latent heat, and also deprive the air of so much heat as corresponds to
the contemplated reduction of the vapor-tension. The mass of air will
therefore contract ; consequently new air will flow in from above or from
the sides, and the barometer at the base of the column of air must rise.
This is the process which takes place in nature during the precipitations
that occur by reason of the inflow of a colder current of air, or by reason
of cooling in consequence of radiation and conduction.

In the precipitations of ascending currents, heat is consumed in the
expansion of the air, and any accompanying condensation of vapor and
liberation of latent heat has the effect of diminishing the cooling of the
air.

When we overlook this circumstance, we come, as Wettstein did, to
the question, Whence comes the heat rendered latent by the condensa-
tion of vapor? and to the opinion that a heavy precipitation is impos-
sible in the atmosphere if this heat is not immediately converted into
electricity’ (Die Bezichung der Elcktricitiéit zum Gewitter, Vierteljahrs-

390 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

schrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Ziirich, 14. Jahrg., 1869).
“The thunder-storm begins with a precipitation of vapor in con-
sequence of the cooling of the air; this precipitation is, however, ac-
companied by a development of heat, and this heat developed by the
condensation of vapor constitutes the chief difficulty in the explanation
of thunder-storms.” Wettstein now computes for a few cases the quan-
tity of heat set free by the condensation of vapor, and investigates
whether the cooling processes that occur in nature suffice to remove
this quantity of heat and to render possible the condensation of vapor.
We will delay somewhat over this chapter of the interesting work of
Wettstein, because the citation of his computations and the proof of
the errors that have slipped in will best lead to the recognition of the
important part that the ascending movement of the air must play in all
heavier processes of precipitation.

Wettstein first considers the cooling of ascending moist air. He
computes the diminution of temperature according to a well-known
formula of the mechanical theory of heat for the case where no conden-
sation takes place. Tor an ascent of 1,000 meters, there results a cool-
ing of 10° C.; for 2,000 meters, 20°; for 3,000 meters 29°; for 4,000
meters, 38°; for 5,000 meters, 479°. If, now, the air was originally 25°
C. warm, and saturated with vapor, then, by its ascent, vapor will be
condensed ; as, for instance, for 1,000 meters ascent, 22.83 — 12.74 =
10.09 grams per cubic meter; the latent heat thereby liberated is 10.09 x
0.590 = 5.96 units of heat, which suffices to raise the temperature of
the air and the condensed water by more than 18°.5 C. Since the cool-
ing due to expansion amounts to only 10° C., therefore Wettstein con-
cludes that precipitation is impossible. In a similar manner, he finds
for an ascent of 2,000 meters an excess of nearly 10° C. of warmth, for
3,000 meters nearly 6 ©., and for 4,000 meters, 09.7 C.

For a current of air rising up to 5,000 meters, the cooling is 479.2, and
the warming 41°.4; therefore the resultant cooling 5°.8; from these figures,
it follows, says Wettstein, that the lowering of the temperature of the
air, in consequence of its expansion, will, up to heights of more than
4,000 meters, be neutralized by the heating due to the condensation of
vapor, and that the ascent of warm moist air can be accompanied by
precipitation, first at very great altitudes, between 4,000 meters and 5,000
meters.

The vicious reasoning here presented consists in this, that an amount
of precipitation is introduced in the computation that cannot possibly
occur in nature. The air, by an ascent of 1,000 meters, will, indeed, in
consequence of vapor, cool by less than 10° C., but cool it will somewhat,
and consequently some precipitation must occur. Weshall subsequently
see that in the supposed case, air saturated at 25° C., the cooling amounts
to 09.4 for each hundred meters of ascent, and therefore for a thousand
meters amounts to 4°. This would give for each cubic meter a precipi-
tation of 4.66 grams. If the ascending current has the very moderate

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. oon

velocity of 2 meters per second, the precipitation on a base of one square
meter in one hour would amount to 33.6 kilograms, corresponding to a
depth of rainfall of 33.6 millimeters. This, therefore, would give a rain-
fall of greater intensity than has ever yet been observed at Vienna. It
is, therefore, certainly not necessary to take refuge in the assumption of
a conversion of heat into electricity in order to explain the heaviest rains
of thunder-storms by the ascending currents of moist air.

Wettstein then considers the mixing of warm and colder air. He as-
sumes that a cubie meter of air saturated at 25° is mixed with a cubic
meter of air also saturated at 0°; there result 2 cubic meters having,
if we at first neglect the latent heat of condensation, a mean tempera-
ture of 129.5. These two cubic meters contain 22.83 + 4.87 = 27.70
grams of aqueous vapor®; but at 129.5 C. only 21.92 grams can be
contained as vapor in 2 cubic meters, therefore 5.78 grams will be con-
densed. This condensation liberates a quantity of heat which is suffi-
cient to warm the air by 5°.6, so that its temperature rises to 189.1.

At this temperature, however, 2 cubic meters of air can contain
30.68 grams of vapor, or more than is contained in the two masses of
air together. It follows, thence, that precipitation can also not be pro-
duced by mixture.

Here again we have to do with the same vicious reasoning as in the
preceding case.? In consequence of the warming of the air due to
the condensation of vapor, 5.78 grams of the latter will not be con-
densed, but less. By trial we easily find that the mixing will bring
about a temperature of somewhat less than 149.9 C.; 2.44 grams of vapor
will condense, whose latent heat suffices to raise the temperature of the
air by not quite 2°.4 C. above that which would have been given by a
mixture of dry air. The case here assumed of the combination of masses
of air saturated at 25° and at 0° certainly occurs very seldom in nature;
even differences of 10° in the temperatures of currents of air are not
frequent. We assume, however, now the very favorable case of a mix-
ture ofasaturated stratum ofair 1,000 meters deep with a saturated current
15° colder throughout its entireextent. In its lower portions, the warm
air has a temperature of 25°,its upper portion 20°; consequently the
cold current has, respectively, 10° and 5°. Since each cubic meter of
warm and of cold air mutually interpenetrate each other, there will be
condensed from every pair of cubic meters in the lowest strata about
1.0, but in the highest strata 0.8; on the average, therefore 0.9 gram
of vapor. This gives for the entire depth of the stratum of air 0.45
kilogram of water per square meter, therefore a depth of rainfall of 0.45
millimeter. The mixed stratum has now attained a mean temperature
of about 16°, but since the cold current continually supplies new masses
of air averaging 7°.5 C., the precipitation continues with diminish-
ing intensity until the temperature has sunk to 10° at the bottom, but
atthe topto5°, The maximum quantity of waterthat can altogether fall
for a cooling of 79.5 would be about 11.9 kilograms per square meter,

392 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

or a rainfall of 11.9 millimeters; but since at least 4.05 kilograms
of air at 10 ©. must be mixed with each kilogram at 25° in order to lower
the temperature to nearly 10°, and to absorb the latent heat of the
13.47 grams of vapor that will thereby be condeused, therefore it is im-
probable that this maximum will ever be attained. This quantity of
water will [most probably] be distributed over a large extent of surface.

By the flowing of warm and cold currents over each other, notwith-
standing the slight depth of the stratum in which the mixture of the
air and condensation take place, there can fall, in the course of time, a
considerable amount of water upon aunit of surface, but the density
of the precipitation in this case will be less than in the foregoing.

From this exposition it appears to me to follow that the mixture of
masses of moist air of different temperatures cannot produce any very
intense or heavy precipitation, and that the ordinary presentation of
Hutton’s rain theory leads to an overestimate of the quantity of pre-
cipitation due to this source. The frequent occurrence of heavy precip-
itation on the occasions of inflow of colder currents of air we explain to
ourselves by the co-operation of an ascending current in connection
therewith.

The cooling of the air at the earth’s surface [itself cooled by radia-
tion] can cause only local precipitation confined to a thin stratum of
air. In this manuer originates the ground fog, which is with us most
frequent in the early spring, and also the ground fog of the Polar Re-
gions, often extraordinarily dense, but reaching only to a slight altitude,
of which Middendorf, in his volume of journeys in Siberia, has given
grapbie descriptions. The radiation of heat from the moist air itself,
even if we, with Tyndall, ascribe to it a great power of radiation, can
certainly only produce a relatively thin covering of clouds, whose for-
mation must in great part or entirely hinder a further loss of heat from
the lower strata.

The ascending movement of moist air must therefore be considered
as the most fruitful source of precipitation, a result which was long since
ascertained by observations, but is in the preceding now also deductively
established. We will in our next article turn to the consideration of the
causes of the ascending movement of the air, concerning which subject
in recent times exhaustive works have been published, which have not
yet reccived corresponding notice in this journal.

NOTES.

No. 1. Zeitschrift, vol. ix, page 245.

No. 2. Zeitschrift, vol. viii, pages 102 and 177.

No. 3. Zeitschrift, vol. viii, page 177.

No. 4. We take this occasion to emphasize the importance of the publication of
hourly observations of all the meteorological elements for at least one normal station
in each country of average magnitude. That which at the present seems superfluous

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 393

will certainly in the fature be felt as a disastrous neglect, which in most cases can never
be made up.

No. 5. This limitation was selected with reference to the diurnal turning-points of
barometric pressure ; it also agrees well with the time during which the ascending cur-
rent of air is ac‘ive. Cases of rain continuing more than three hours are so rare that
no averages are to be taken.

No. 6. Properly this is the hour between which and the following that rainfall is
measured which has been entered under the first hour of rain.

No. 7. Even J. Miiller, in his Cosmical Physics, has taken no notice of the necessary
cooling, and, moreover, has introduced into the computation the latent heat of a kilo-
gram instead of a gram of vapor (3d ed., page 678).

No. 8. Wettstein has used somewhat different numbers for the maximum weight of
aqueous vapor in a cubic meter of saturated air. I know not whence they come; they
are neither the ordinary numbers nor those given in Zeuner’s Grundziige, table I, page
8. For the sake of uniformity with subsequent computations, I have throughout sub-
stituted the values given by the ordinary formula

So é
Gan eae 60"

No. 9. Espy, also, in his Philosophy of Storms, guided by similar computations,
has, like Wettstein, rejected Hutton’s theory of rain.

C.

In reply to some remarks by Captain Hoffmeyer, Dr. Hann publishes
the following additional note:

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND RAINFALL.

{Translated by Cleveland Abbe from the Journal of the Austrian Meteorological Association, x, p. 11,
1875, January 1.]

Captain Hoffmeyer criticises a partially unjustifiable generalization
from the result of observations, which in strictness only holds good for
localities on the north side of the Alps. To this note, Captain Hoff-
meyer adds a series of remarks and conclusions that are the more valua-
ble in the theory of storms, inasmuch as they rest upon the unprejudiced
daily study of facts, which at present are scarcely found collected to-
gether and collated at any other place in such abundance as at the
Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen.

I can almost perfectly accede to the views of Captain Hoffmeyer, and
this will be evident to every reader of my essay published in vol. ix of
this journal; but my objection to the theory of Espy and Reye, that the
ascending current of air is the only or the chief cause of the barometric
minimum at the storm center, seems to me not thereby disturbed. Ac-
cording to my way of thinking, the position of the question is at present
as follows: Observations show that the heaviest rains in the tropics
have so slight an influence on the atmospheric pressure that they are
unable in the least to disturb the regular diurnal variation of pressure.
Now, it seems to me illogical to assume that the same cause can under
quite analogous conditions be accompanied by opposite consequences.

394 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

The objection that the tropical rains (and the summer rains) are of
much more local nature than the winter rains of temperate and arctic
latitudes I can only designate as a make-shift, for the great intensity of
the tropical (and summer) rains must make up for their slight extent
at least so far that a tendency to a fall of the barometer must be evi-
dent in the observations. The demonstration that the tropical rains
always have a less extent than the precipitations accompanying the
storms of higher latitudes must at any rate be first produced,* and after
that the proof will still have to be given showing why the heat liberated
by the ten and twenty times heavier equatorial rains cannot cause an
ascending current intense enough to cause a depression of even 2 or 3
millimeters in the barometer at the earth’s surface, while our winter
rains are accompanied by depressions of 30 or 40 millimeters.

We have, on the other hand, no observations that would, beyond doubt,
prove that the formation of clouds and rain is alone able to sensibly

*T am persuaded that in many tropical countries, especially in the equatorial zone
itself, during the rainy period, precipitation occurs simultaneously over a region which
is at best as large as that which corresponds to the last half of our own revolving
storms. It is a rather widespread error that the rainfall in the tropics always occurs
in the form of local thunder-storms. There occur equally uniform and constant rains
there, as is the case with our own general rains. On this point, I refer only to the
Reports of Frantzius on the Atlantic Coast of Central America (“ Zeitschrift fiir Erd-
kunde,” 1868), of Humboldt and of Bates (‘‘ Der Naturforscher am Amazonenstrom”)
on the region of the Amazon; e. g., Bates says: “ From the 14th to 18th January the
weather was bad; it rained sometimes twelve hours in succession, not heavy, indeed,
but steadily drizzling, asin England.” As soon as we approach the equator within 3° of
latitude, we seldom find opportunity to observe sun and stars. The missionary in San
Antonio de Javita assures us, says Humboldt, that he has often seen it rain here four
or five months without cessation. These are certainly no local rains, for these remarks
refer to the uniform lowland of the Middle Amazon and to the Rio Negro. Even in
Vienna it is seldom that rains continue twenty-four hours or more. According to the
five years of registers of arain-autograph, there occur on the average in a year only 4.3
precipitations that last over twenty-four hours. (See Hann, Met. Windrosen fiir
Wien, Sitzb. K. Akad., 1867.)

By reason of the great attention that travelers have given to the regular daily changes
of the barometer, it would be highly remarkable if any connection between the rain
and the barometric depression had escaped them in a climate where there are no irreg-
ular changes of pressure in consequence of changes of wind-direction. And yet one
finds no note as to the presence of any such relation between rain and pressure—the
remarks express themselves directly against such connection. I will here quote only
one passage from Herschel’s Meteorology, page 163: “Colonel Sykes remarks (Phil.
Trans., 1850) that, among many thousand observations taken personally by himself on
the plateau of the Deccan (1825-1830), there was not a solitary instance in which the
barometer was not higher at 9 or 10 a.m. than at sunrise, and lower at 4or 5 p. m. than
at Jor 10 a.m., whatever the state of the weather might be.” Humboldt also observes
(tome 1, p.308): “This regularity is such that, in the daytime especially, we may infer
the hour from the height of the colamn of mercury without being in error on an aver-
age more than 15 or 17 minutes. In the torrid zone of the new continent I have found
the regularity of this ebb and flow of the aérial ocean undisturbed either by storm,
tempest, rain, or earthquake, both on the coasts and at elevations of nearly 13,000 feet
above the level of the sea.”

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS, 395

diminish the atmospheric pressure. But when now we see that the
pressure in the center of a whirl sinks very low so soon as these rains
fall in consequence of a rotatory motion of the air, must we then not
conclude, not that the rain, but more probably the whirl itself, is the
cause of the barometric depression, especially as mechanical principles
teach us that in the midst of a rotating mass of air the pressure must
decrease toward the axis of rotation? I therefore believe that in the
present state of our knowledge of the phenomena of storms we must
seek to explain the barometric minima of the storm centers by dynami-
callaws. A step in this direction has keen made by Ferrel (see * Silli-
man’s Journal,” January, 1861; and “ Nature,” July, 1871).* I will re-
nounce this view whenever any one shall have completely demolished
the objections that can be raised against the origin of barometric minima
in consequence of an ascending air-current without rotatory motion.

I have acknowledged that I have, in fact, expressed myself too gen-
erally in reference to an observation that one can with us note at any
time, and Hoffmeyer remarks that in Denmark also the heaviest rains
mostly occur during the lowest pressures. Of course, however, this does
not prove that therain must be the cause of the low pressure. This, and
the justification of my statement, at least for all places that are pro-
tected from the south and southwest winds, will be shown by the follow-
ing collation of the results of observations.

Wind-roses for Barometric Pressure and Percentages of Rainfall.

: : : ; les Z | s

i gt | RHE pl b= aR: ca Po ge" Fs RE [al Je oS

a a a =| =| a = = o © = =| 2

m S 5 Ee = A] 8 I 2 5 5 a Be)

aa) N ioe) N e = faa) | | =) aa) A =)

Number of years of observation.
11 | 10 12 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 13 | 6 | 5 | 13 | 13 | 5 | 13
Barom. |Rain. | Barom. Rainfall. Barometer.

755. 1 2 746. 6 3 9 6 5 759.3 | 763.0 763. 2
TOL. 7 1 745. 0 6 5 2 3 758. 8 760. 9 762.3
750. 0 5 744, 2 4 15 4 tt 754.7 | 760.1 760. 0
749. 7 3 742.5 7 10 12 17 W951: 3 |, 57.3 157.9
749.5 4 WA1.3 | 25 36 36 29 192.6 | 573 758. 5
71.7 )] 33 742.9} 40 13 27 19 756.0 | 759.0 760. 0
752.8 | 44 744. 8 9 10 10 14 757.6 | 760.8 761.3
754. 7 8 746. 7 6 2 3 6 758.7] 762.8 762.8

On the lee side of the Alps (as at Vienna) and of the Riesengebirge
[= Giant Mountains between Bohemia and Prussian Silesia] (as at Bres-
lau, Zechen, and Gdorlitz), the greatest precipitation occurs with W. and
NW. winds, but on the North German slope with SW. winds. Even here,
however, the lowest pressure does not perfectly coincide with the max-

[*NoTE BY THE TRANSLATOR.—Mr. Ferrel’s first memoir, Nashville Journal of Medi-
cine and Surgery, xi, 1856, and his elegant mathematical paper published in The

Mathematical Monthly, 1859 and 1860, vols. ii and iii, appear not to have been accessi-
ble to Professor Hann.]

296 SHORT MEMOIRS ON- METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

imum rainfall, and the wind-roses of Zechen and Vienna show that in
fact it cannot be dependent upon the latter. The distribution of pres-
sure in the wind-roses shows no dependence upon the distribution of
rainfall, and this is further testimony that the rain cannot be the cause
of the low pressure during 8S. and SW. winds. If we unite into one
mean the corresponding values for the places having similar distribution
of rain, we obtain the following more general series of figures:

| NE. | ke. | se’ ys. | sw. l ow.) ww. | oe
Breslau, Zechen,Gor- § Rain. - 3 2 4 8 12 26 33 12 ; x
litz, and Vienna. ; Barom; 750.8 748.4 747.1 746.1 745.4 747.3 748.8 750.7
Berlin, Elstleth, and § Rain.. 5 4 5 12 30 28 1l 5 }
Utrecht. ¢ Barom| 761.8 760.4 758.3 755.5 736.1 758.3 759.9 761.4

If we start with the lowest barometric reading, and form the changes
of pressure by passing from one wind-direction to the next, we obtain
the following series of numbers:

SERIES A. SERIES B.
Maximum rain with NW. winds. Maximum rain with SIV. winds.
SW] Wie, UNI) GN S. |SW. | W. | Nw.
Rain percentage.........| 12 26 33 12 Rain percentage........| 12 30 28 11
Pressure changes...-....- 0 |-+1.9] +1.5} +41.9 |) Pressure changes....... 0 +0.6 | 42.2] +1.6

Therefore, in spite of the increasing rainfall, as the wind veers from
SW. to NW. the pressure increases by 3.4 millimetersin series A. If the
rain caused the slightest sensible fall in pressure, then in the wind-roses
for Vienna, Breslau, &c., the minimum of pressure would change from
the south to the west side. But notwithstanding that only little rain
falls with S. and SW. winds in Vienna, Breslau, &c., still the atmos-
pheric pressure is lowest with these winds, precisely as at those places
for which the maximum rainfall and the minimum pressure nearly
coincide,

Since on the north slope of the Alps* and on the northeast side of the
Riesengebirge, the heaviest precipitations occur on the southwest side
of the storm center, therefore the latter should receive a tendency to
remain stationary or even to retrogress. This deserves a further exam-
ination.

* Especially in the valley of Vienna. In Munich and Kremsmiinster, the maximum
rainfall appears to occur with west winds; but Vienna is also protected on the west
by spurs of the Alps.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 39%
D.

THE LAWS OF THE VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE IN
ASCENDING CURRENTS OF AIR, AND SOME OF THE MOST
IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCES DEDUCIBLE THEREFROM.

By Dr. J. HANN.
{Translated by Cleveland Abbe from Zeit. Oest. Gesell. Met., 1874, ix, pp. 321 et seq.]

Only in the Jast ten years have we really begun to fully credit and
establish physically the great importance of the ascending movement
of air for a whole series of atmospheric phenomena. This, for instance,
ean be clearly seen when we seek to collect the sentences relating to the
ascending currents in the carefully and comprehensively compiled Lehr-
buch of E. E. Schmidt, Leipsic, 1860. Notwithstanding that the cool-
ing of ascending air in consequence of expansion could long since have
been computed by means of an equation deduced by Poisson, still we
have made only fruitless efforts in its application to atmospheric phe-
nomena, and, for instance, have sought to explain the precipitation on
the flanks of a mountain over which a warm current is blowing mostly
by the contact of the rising air with the cool earth, also by the mixture
of the air with the higher colder strata. Evidently, it has been con-
sidered not quite certain how far the equation of Poisson is applicable
to the processes in the free atmosphere; for there was no appropriate
example at hand by means of which to demonstrate quantitatively the
diminution of temperature with altitude in accordance therewith. The
minute study of the FOhn phenomena first led to such knowledge, and
showed the difference of temperature demanded by the theory between
the lower and upper strata of a descending current of air and the cir-
cumstances which enforced the recognition of the connection between
cause and effect... The theory of ascending movements of air has, how-
ever, experienced a very important advance through the labors of cer-
tain physicists (W. Thomson, Reye, Peslin), who have deduced from the
principles of the mechanical theory of heat the laws of the variation of
temperature in ascending or descending dry or moist masses of air.

In our Zeitschrift we have as yet presented no report on these important
labors, and as they have also not as yet been presented in the physica!
or meteorological text-books, we consider it proper here to explain and
to deduce the most important propositions in the simplest manner pos-
sible.

di

The Amount of the Diminution of Temperature in Ascending Currents of
Air in which no Condensation of Vapor occurs.

Let dQ denote a very small quantity of heat imparted to or abstracted
from a unit weight of air;
c, the specific heat of air at constant pressure = 0.2375;

398 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

dt, the slight change of temperature which is produced by dQ;
J, the mechanical equivalent of a unit of heat = 424 kilogram-meters ;
Po Vo
273?
and where po is the pressure of one atmosphere upon a square meter =
10,333 kilograms ;

v is the volume of a unit of weight of air at the pressure pp and tem-
perture 0° C.;

273 is the zero-point of the Celsius scale according to scale of abso-
lute temperatures ;

T, the temperature measured from the absolute zero-point = 273° + ¢;

t, the temperature according to the Celsius scale.

We now have the equation?

Ky, the constant quantity which for the atmosphere equals 29.3,

If the mass of vapor rises, and if, as is the case in nature, heat is
neither added nor taken away, its temperature will change, since under
diminishing pressure p its volume increases. In this case, dQ = 0, and
the connection between the temperature and the change of pressure is
given by the equation

6 cata 2,
op

For the slight elevation dh, the diminution of pressure dp is given by
the equation
—dp=pdh,
where p is the density of the air under the pressure p.
From pv = & T it follows, since ;
C=-,

that

=? and —dp=

P= sop dh;

p
RT
whence

O=cdt+ 5 dh,

or, when the values of J and ¢ are introduced,

dt iL 7
i a ae 0.009907 ;
dt
dh
perature and of altitude, and therefore gives the change in temperature
or the cooling of the rising mass of air for an ascent of one unit of length;
that is to say, for one meter. Consequently, the cooling of the ascend-
ing air amounts to almost exactly 19 O. for every 100 meters, and
remains the same no matter at what level the ascent begins’ or what the

the quotient represents the relation between the variation of tem-

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 399

initial temperature may have been. Conversely, a descending current
of air grows warmer at the rate of 1° C. per 100 meters.

If the rising air contains aqueous vapor, and if the latter is not con-
densed because the air remains relatively dry, and its ascent has not
continued sufficiently high, then will the diminution of temperature be
somewhat slower, since the specific heat of aqueous vapor (0.4805 accord-
ing to Regnault) is somewhat higher than that of the air, but toso slight
an extent that we can entirely neglect this retardation, and be entirely
satisfied with the above adopted value of 1° C. per 100 meters. The
weight of vapor contained in one kilogram of moist air is at the atmos-
pheric temperatures so slight in comparison with the weight of the air,
that the somewhat greater specific heat of the damp air can exert but
little influence.

If q represents the weight of aqueous vapor contained in a kilogram
of moist air;

1 — q= the weight of the dry air:

c' = the specific heat of the moist air, will be given by the expression

ce = 0.2375 (l—q) + 0.4805 ¢ = 0.2375+.0.2430 q.
The value of qg, which always remains a very small fraction, is found
from the following equation: +
— 0 G22 e
q = 0.623 pase’
or very nearly ;
— () G93 -
O rena

where ¢ represents the tension of vapor, and p the total pressure or height
of barometer when both quantities are measured by the height of a
column of mercury. For instance, if the ascending air has at 30° C. a
relative humidity of 60 per cent., for which e = 18.9 millimeters, then
will g = 0.01564 ; whence c’ = 0.2413, and the quotient

dt 1 ae

Tey | 0.009751.
The change in temperature is therefore, for every 100 meters, only 0°.016
smaller than for dry air. The entire error introduced by extending the
computation to 900 meters above which condensation follows amounts
therefore only to 0°.14 C.

We may be allowed here to add some further remarks upon the rela-
tions between the temperature and pressure of the air. The formula
previously found gives directly the change of temperature as dependent
upon the change in altitude of a mass of air; we will now seek for a
relation which expresses the change of temperature dependent upon a
change of pressare. From the fundamental equation first laid down, it
follows directly, if dQ = 0, that—

ai.2 iia aig
ap od D — oF

if for R, c, J, the values already given be introduced, and for 7 the value

400 SIIORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

273. From this equation, it follows that at the surface of the earth, or
p = 760 millimeters, a change of temperature of 09.104 C. corresponds
to a change of pressure of 1 millimeter, so that a barometric fall of 20
millimeters corresponds to a cooling of 29.1 C. But since such a fall in
pressure requires with us, under the most favorable case, an interval of
twenty-four hours, therefore are the changes of temperature resulting
from this cause completely hidden by greater changes due to other causes,
and I do not think it will be possible to demonstrate them. When,
therefore, Sir John Herschel considers the rapid fall in pressure as a
very frequent inducement to the formation of precipitations, which latter
he calls barometric fogs, and minutely characterizes them at page 93 of
his Meteorology, he therein evidently overestimates the fall of temper-
ature due to this source. On the other hand, in the tropical cyclones,
in which the air flows into a space wherein the pressure has been dimin-
ished by from 40 to 60 millimeters, sensible precipitations due to this
cause can occur. The fundamental equation on page 23 can be written
thus:

7 as «7

The integration of this equation gives, if by p, 7, and by p’, 7’, we

designate the values of pressure and absolute temperature that belong
together,

or

bbe eer
p a ,

Ph cee
then is
Caer k
7 TEE fore 2 ibe
where
Cc
Das:

or the ratio of the two specific heats of air; therefore,
k
p Tk=i
ee

k
z -( Sart: pe ye =i
273° + I-at}) ~

But this is the ene equation of tensions deduced in an entirely
different manner by Poisson. The value of

= 3.444, or le — dale

or

k
k—1

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. AOL

can be deduced from the above given values of c, I, and J. Observa-
tions on the velocity of sound in the air give

eeoaoe or Ra

k—17~
Inveresly,
K= 1 — 0.2907 or 0.2857,
and with this we have
Y ps D 0.29
U P) )

From Poisson’s equation we can also directly, and therefore without
the assistance of the principles of the mechanical theory of heat, deduce
the expression for the diminution of heat with altitude given on page
24, and may therefore represent it as a simple function of the density or
the pressure of the strata of air at different altitudes. If we combine
the equation

k
per iNrr1
pl PRN

with the self-evident relation

‘po Ge ee
ao Te
we obtain
UNE TP
and thence

peloiatcy:

If in the equation dp = 6 dh we substitute for dp the differential of

aes
p=r(G)

integrate, and consider that

Coe
we find
' Vi pT
— —. Stacy eo Ried SS aad
Te . kK p :

(William Thomson on the Convective Equilibrium of Temperature in the
Atmosphere, Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Manchester, 3d series, vol. ii,
1865, read January 21, 1862.)

In this equation, 7", 0’, and p’ are the values of temperature, density,
and pressure that obtain at any moment in the initial stratum of air.
For the surface of the earth,

p’ = 10333 kilograms,

26 8

402 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

where J) = 273°, corresponds to the zero-point of the Celsius scale.
Since, therefore, we can now introduce Celsius’s degrees instead of abso-
lute temperatures, we find

t = t! — 0.009932. h,

therefore again the constant diminution of temperature of 19 C. for
every 100 meters, if we omit the consideration of the correction of the
density for variation of gravitation.

2.

Determination of the Diminution of Temperature in an Ascending Current
of Saturated Moist Air which continually condenses a Portion of tts
Vapor.

If, while the mass of air rises through the slight elevation dh, the
small quantity dq of vapor be condensed, then will the quantity of heat
x dg be liberated, if 7 represents the latent heat of aqueous vapor at the
prevailing temperature ¢ For moist air far removed from the point of
saturation, we have found the equation

c dt = dh,
in which
A dh
are v

represents the equivalent of the quantity of heat which is abstracted
from the mass of air, and goes over into the work of expansion, whereby
the temperature sinks by dt degrees.

This quantity of heat drawn from the mass of air will now only in
part affect it, since the liberated latent heat of condensation takes up
the other part. Therefore the equation must now stand

édt+rdq=— 5 ah,
Irom
q = 0.623 5
there follows
log q = log 0.623 + log e — log p,

daa a2
aie ads Gk
whence
de dp
dq a q e re p?

and, by substitution in the original equation,

de ap. 3
/ 7, ae ald ae pa
edi + rq — Ca
Since now
dp =—p dh,

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 403

whence
apn
Pp rep

Cah,
then will
ee pel 1 ah =
ce dt+ rq Bd es
v Bs 1 Pp
/ _— —— — — —_— .
(¢ + Bip li) dt + (5+ re) dh =0;

and hence

‘ p

dt mag are
dh ; Pe rrieroek:
cd +rqd— ae

This derivation of the law of cooling of moist air is due to Peslin,
who first gave it in his memoir “Sur Jes Mouvements Généraux de l’At-
mosphére; Bull. Hebd. de Association Scientifique de France, tom. iii,
1868.” Even before him, Sir William Thomson, in 1862, deduced a very
similar relation, but the derivation given by Peslin is somewhat shorter
and more elegant.

at
The quotient an represents the diminution of temperature in the

ascending moist mass of air for an elevation of one unit of length. The
diminution of temperature is now dependent upon the quantity of vapor
contained in the air, and is therefore variable according to the tem-
perature at which the air is saturated with vapor. For r= 0, that
is to say, in case no condensation occurs, the equation resolves itself
into that already above given for dry air, as it should do.

In order to attain a more accurate insight into the changes of tem-
perature of moist ascending air at different initial temperatures and
different altitudes, it appears to be most convenient to compute and pre-

dt
sent in one table the values of — an for various values of e and q, which

latter quantity also depends upon the pressure of the air. Previously,
however, we must more closely consider the quantities that enter into
the composition of the formula. The product 7.qJ represents the me-
chanical equivalent of the latent heat of all the aqueous vapor contained
ina kilogram of moist air, and its computation is subject to no difficulty ;
5 is a constant; if the density at the temperature 0° and at the normal
ie of one atmosphere (10333) is denoted by D = 1.29277, then, since

p = D >is 6.09730 the value of the logarithm 5 Finally, the factor

ia
le
5 ar is computed most simply by means of the formula given by Magnus
he the maximum tension of vapor for any temperature ¢. This for-
mula reads:

at
e = 4.525 x 10°+*

404 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

where
N= 7.4475

and
b = 234.69.

If we take the logarithms and differentiate, we obtain
de 1 ab
— 6 => == M. ee
ies Saas
and after introducing the numerical values

de 1_ [3.60472]
Te Cony cen a
where the number inclosed in brackets is the logarithm of the product
of Mab (°), the latent heat r of aqueous vapor at different temperatures
is computed according to the formula of Clausius,
ry = 607 — 0.780 ¢.

For the temperatures below 0° is still to be added the heat liberated on
the passage of water from the fluid to the solid condition: it amounts to
80 calories. Since, however, at 0°, vapor can be condensed in a fluid
form, I have computed the diminution of heat without including this
additive heat for 0°. The differences are, however, quite unimportant,
since, for 760 millimeters, we have dh = 0.63 for t = — 0°, but = 0.65

fort = + 0°; for 200 millimeters, we hay = 0.38 for t= — 0°, and =

0.40 for t =+ 09°.
The table thus computed is as follows:

Diminution of Temperature for each Hundred Meters of Ascending Saturated Air, in Centi-
grade Degrees.

Initial temperature. =
Initial pressure. = S

—10°. | —5°. 0°. 5°. 10°. 159. 20°. 25°. 30°. =
Millimeters. ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ah ° Meters.
MOO Se cme ste eeminteste 0. 76 0. 69 0. 63 0. 60 0.54 0. 49 0. 45 0. 41 0. 38 20
WOOD. soi3anashees 74 - 68 .62 ~o9: ~ 93 48 44 . 40 ~3t 620.
OU Secseceaeoas tacoc cit . 65 98 Shi) 49 44 - 40 Fel \bSssoo3e 1, 910
OEE tecicies ae oe 68 . 62 55 toy . 46 41 Sth leone ace)! tio acacec 3, 360
BOs piso stele sicsa= <2 . 63 “Ob .o0 47 . 42 Retell lepeicee sa lsscascas |baasascs 5, 130:
BUDE a aeoescee sone oot won ~ 44 2D), pe Ae aoe kamal lS - PASE acer ack o leasdoscc 7, 430
2WooaesoeaeOoEeeDe .40 . 43 BG. |e neal eteet-ee |= = ase cee | oes eee Se temectm ; 10, 670

|

Value of q in grammes or the weight of the aqueous vapor in a kilogram of saturated aw.

Grams.| Grams.| Grams.| Grams.| Grams.) Grams.| Grams.| Grams.| Grams.| Meters.
: : 5. = oottt 4

2.6 3.8 4 7.6 10.5 14.4 19.5 26.3 20
3.2 4.6 6.8 9.6 13. 3 18.3 Pee teh llRincee ice 1, 910
4.3 (or 10.3 14.4 PAU) NA Se Sea oS oceoSor)aaous2< 5, 150
Cy A Re Sea 4 pocoe sad ecinpeo ac |lSacacans|SseaaoorE loosecofalcSnade: 10, 670

Value of ie a in units of the fifth decimal.
€

6721 6455

| va | 7628 7306 | 7005 c20t | sr | ora |

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 405

The preceding tables give in a convenient manner answers to all ques-
tions that relate to the temperature of an ascending saturated current
ofair. If the ascending air is not saturated with moisture, its cooling
follows at first the laws for dry air, and the figures of the above table
first come into application when the cooling has reached the dew-point.

But before we draw any further conclusions, we must first refer to the
equation for the expansion of saturated moist air which Reye has de-
duced (see “ Die Wirbelstiirme, p. 215, or Schlomilch, Zeitschrift Math.
und Physik, 1864). It is the analogue of Poisson’s equation for the
elasticity of dry air. If we designate by # and «’ the specific quantity
of vapor for the absolute temperatures Z and 7” (that is to say, the
maximum weight in kilograms of the vapor contained in one cubic
meter), by » the initial pressure in the atmosphere, by r and r’ the
latent heat of aqueous vapor at the temperatures 7 and 7”, and, instead
of the numerical coefficients, write their logarithms within brackets, we

obtain the following oe
8.25 /
fea (« ht tity )
Dp

log( t) A (3.4438 4 [8.6141

This formula enables us, for a given initial and final temperature and
a given initial pressure (in atmospheres), to compute the pressure cor-
responding to the final temperature. For instance, the initial tempera-
ture of a moist current of air which rises from the earth’s surface, where
n = 1, is 20° C., or 7’ = 293°; and if we desire the pressure, or the alti-
tude at the moment when the temperature has sunk to 10° C., or 7’ = 283,
then we have 2’ = 0.01715, x = 0.00956 kilograms, rp = 592.6, r = 599.5,
and there results

log = 0.23660 + 0.1002 3 FE,
by means of many trials, we find from this,

P = 0.780,

p'

or a barometric pressure of
0.780 x 760 = 593 millimeters.

This for a mean temperature of 15° C. corresponds to an altitude above
sea-level of 2,105 meters. The average diminution of temperature of
the Pecnies current is therefore 0°.47 C. per 100 meters. Using our
table, page 29, we should, starting first with 20°, have found 0°.45 C.
per 100 meters, or approximately 10° in 2,200 meters, therefore at a
pressure of somewhat less than 600 millimeters. Since now for 10°
and 600 millimeters, according to the table, the diminution of tempera-
ture is 0.49 per 100 meters, therefore the mean diminution is 0.47, and
the exact elevation for a cooling of 10° is given, as above, almost with-
out computation.

If, however, we inquire with what temperature a saturated moist cur-

406 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

rent of air arrives at a given altitude, and this is the usual question in
meteorological investigations, then we cannot use the above equation,
because it already assumes a knowledge of the final temperature; on
the other hand, our table gives at once abundantly sufficient informa-
tion. The initial temperature of the current of air may, for instance, be
10° C., and the altitude to which the air must rise = 8,000 Paris feet
= 2,600 meters. The table first gives approximately the cooling = 09.54
x 26 = 14.0, therefore a final temperature of —4°. At the altitude of
2,600 meters for —4°, the temperature diminution is 0.61. The mean
temperature diminution is therefore 0.57 per 100 meters, and at 8,000
Paris feet, or 2,600 meters, the temperature is —4°.8 C. The error
that we introduce would be quite unimportant if for such slight
altitudes we only used the initial rate of diminution of temperature.
While a moist current of air cools by only 14°.8 C., a dry current would
cool 26°, and therefore show a temperature of —16° C. If now the
air sinks on the other side to its original level, it is warmed by 26°,
whether dry or moist. The temperature of the dry current of air is
therefore the same on both sides of the mountain, that of the moist cur-
rent, however, 21°.2 C., that is to say, by more than 10° C. higher on
the lee side. Since the air is only saturated with moisture at —4°.8 C.,
it must possess a great relative dryness. Thus, as is well known, is
explained the warmth and dryness of the Féhn.

We will now append some general conclusions to the derivation of
the law according to which a mass of air changes its temperature when
the pressure acting upon it, and therefore its volume experience a change.

For a moment imagine the attraction of the earth upon its atmos-
phere to cease, and the latter to be a uniformly dense gaseous envelope,
having a constant temperature at all distances from the earth’s surface.
This gaseous envelope contains no aqueous vapor, and the influence of
every cosmic or telluric source of heat is excluded; then let the force of
gravity come into existence: the lower strata of air are, by the weight of
the upper, compressed together, and the density of the strata diminishes
with the altitude, and, according to Mariotte’s law, in a geometrical pro-
gression. The temperature also can now no more remain the same at all
distances from the earth’s surface, but must be highest in the lowest
strata, which are strongest compressed, and must diminish upward. The
law of this upward diminution of temperature is expressed by the
equation of Poisson, above given, which presents the relation between
the temperature and the pressure of the gas to which no heat is com-
municated from the exterior, and from which no heat is abstracted, and
we have shown, page 25, that the amount of this diminution of tempera-
ture is 1° C. for 100 meters difference of altitude. In the gaseous enve-
lopes of other celestial bodies, a diminution of temperature outward
must take place in a similar manner, which, so far as it is a function of
the gravitation toward the ceuter of the mass, can be computed accord-
ing to one of the formule given on pages 23 and 24. The amount of this

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 407

diminution of temperature depends therefore on the specific heat of
the gaseous envelope and the magnitude of the force of gravitation on
the surface of the body in question.?

The equilibrium of heat that obtains in the atmosphere under such
a distribution of temperature will best be especially understood by the
consequent deduction, that any mass of air transferred from one altitude
to another will, in consequence of the compression or the expansion that
it experiences, there attain exactly the temperature of the surrounding
region, and will therefore have no tendency to leave its new location.
This is a state of indifferent equilibrium. If the diminution of tempera-
ture were less than 1° C. per 100 meters of ascent, then would the equi-
librium be “stable”; were it greater than 1° per 100 meters, then would
the equilibrium of the superposed strata be “ unstable.”

If now we let the sun act as the source of heat for our atmosphere,
and assume that the latter is perfectly diathermanous, so that it absorbs
absolutely noheat-rays, and therefore receives the solar heat only through
the medium of the heated surface of the earth, the stratum of air
directly resting upon the earth becomes heated by conduction, specifi-
cally lighter, and ascends, a process that is continually renewed. Since
now, in ascending masses of air, a cooling must take place at the rate of
1° C. per 100 meters, therefore the already existing law of the diminu-
tion of temperature with altitude cannot be altered by this method of
warming from beneath. The assumed premises are, however, only in
part fulfilled in the actual atmosphere, and its heating takes place by
no means in such a simple manner. First, the atmosphere is by no means
perfectly diathermanous, but directly absorbs about one-fourth of the
solar heat-rays. Moreover, for the higher strata an important source of
heat is the aqueous vapor, which, carried up with the ascending air or
cooled from any other causes, condenses and gives its latent heat up to
the air, and in this way diminishes its cooling. The table on page 29
shows to what a great extent the cooling of moist ascending air is
retarded. A further [third] source of heat is the radiation from the
heated surface of the earth, a considerable portion of which may be
absorbed in the lower strata. Inversely, the surface of the earth cooled
by radiation of heat at night and in winter has a cooling influence on
the lowest strata of air. All these circumstances bring it about that
observations give a diminution of temperature with altitude varying
according to place and time, and which cannot be expressed by any
law. Observations agree only in showing that on the average in the
lowest strata, which alone are accessible to us, the temperature diminu-
tion is considerably slower than 1° C. per 100 meters, and that the annual
average in the tropics, as in Europe, lies between 09.5 and 0°.6 C. The
few observations made by Glaisher above 20,000 feet give a still slower
temperature diminution at that altitude.

A temperature diminution as rapid as ascending currents of dry air
must show has only been found in summer time during fine weather.

408 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

quite near the earth’s surface. Glaisher’s observations, during numer-
ous balloon voyages, gave, for the free atmosphere, the following ratios
for the diminution of temperature with altitude (Report of the British
Association, 1864) :

Diminution of Temperature per 100 meters in Celsius degrees.

Altitude in thousands of English feet.

Weather.
0-1 1-2 | 2-3 | 3-4 4-5 5-10 | 10-15 | 15-20
leat ccema «-nlos eee reeeese sen nee eee 0.98 0. 71 0.55 0. 55 0. 55 0. 46 0. 39 0. 30
Clon Gyre sateen taco coc ee aerate 0. 86 0. 73 0. 73 0. 56 0.55 0. 45 0. 40 0. 25

This gives for the summer season, up to an altitude of 5,000 English
feet (1,500 meters), an average diminution of temperature of 0°.68 C.,
very nearly equal to that observed in the Alps. The observations
therefore show the mean condition of the atmosphere to be that of stable
equilibrium. The diminution of temperature with elevation is slower in
winter (in Switzerland it is 0.45) for two reasons: First, because then
the earth’s surface exerts a cooling influence on the lower strata, and
often so intense that the temperature increases upward; to a less
extent this is also the case at night. Secondly, because the condensa-
tion of aqueous vapor takes place during this season most frequently
in the lower strata; often, indeed, at the surface itself of the earth. But
of most importance is the first-named circumstance, for on clear days
and in clear winter months the diminution of temperature with the alti-
tude is slower than during cloudy weather or precipitation. The differ-
ence of temperature (8° C.) between Geneva and St. Bernard (difference
of altitude 2,070 meters) is in December less than it would be in a cur-
rent of moist air, saturated at 20° C., blowing from Geneva to St. Ber-
nard. The slight difference of temperature can therefore not be
explained by means of the heat of condensation; it is in by far the
greater part to be ascribed to the greater cooling of the lower strata by
the earth’s surface and to the underflow of the air cooled upon the
mountains.

In summer, the diminution of temperature is more rapid, because
then the heated surface of the earth acts more powerfully by conduction
and radiation upon the lowest strata of air. Since this stratum for the
same reason is at this time relatively drier, wherefore the first conden-
sation of vapor occurs at higher altitudes, the ascending air can show a
diminution of temperature nearly the same as for dry air.

We ought, however, not to represent to ourselves the warming of the
atmosphere from below on calm, clear summer days as taking place by
means of a continuous ascending current. Above limited localities,
such a process certainly occurs, and the cumulus formations are a proof
thereof. But, in general, the warming proceeds gradually from below
upward, through the rising of warmer and sinking of ccoler air and
their intermixture, and the work of one day is continued on the next

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 409

after the nocturnal interruption. During the night-time even warmer
strata can float above the lower ones, cooled at the surface of the earth,
until the insolation is again active. In this manner, during calm, clear
summer weather, the entire lower portion of the atmosphere is quite
uniformly warmed and stirred up.

If the ascending masses of air reach that altitude at whieh their
temperature agrees with that of the stratum attained, then should we,
during beautiful summer weather, observe a diminution of 1° C. per 100
meters. This, however, is not the case, and the observations show, on
the contrary, that, at least in mountainous countries, the temperature
diminishes with the altitude slower during fine weather than during bad
weather. This has already been proven by Kiimtz from the tempera-
ture differences between Halle and the Lrocken. In order to attain a
better insight into this relation, I have deduced the following numbers:

An excellent monograph has been published by Billwiller in Ziirich
ou the thunder-storm of 28th July, 1872, in Northern Switzerland
(Schweiz. Meteorolog. Beobachtungen, Jahrg. 1872). It therefore seems
to me most instructive to investigate the diminution of temperature
with altitude for the period immediately preceding this storm. Up to
the 19th July, the weather was cloudy and rainy ; the last rain fell on the
19th, and on the 20th there began a period of beautiful hot summer
weather, which experienced its first interruption on the 28th by heavy
thunder-storms in the afternoon.

Daily Mean Diminution of Temperature in degrees Celsius per 100 meters.

Date, July, 1872. ae

aq

Station. ZS Ga

15-19. | 20-24. | 24-28 | 29. 30. | SF

Meters
Iii vor MAMWATE TH 5 dor omeRotncan Sab eCenOece 1374 0. 73 0. 43 0. 34 0. 51 0. 53 0. 60
Chanumont- Neuchatel? 723. sete. esas oe 664 0. 74 0. 54 0. 56 0. 94 0. 64 0. 68
Gotthard-Alitdorfi. 23-22 base see case 1639 0. 64 0. 47 0. 46 0. 54 0. 63 0. 60
St. Bernard-Montigny ..-.............. 1920 0.72 0. 60 0.55 0. 53 0. 63 0. 66
Moga eet yin Bess See. Luk 0.71| 0.51) 0.48] 0.61] 0.61| 0.63
—— —— SS FS ———_————— | ———
MeaNTOlOUdINGSS I-25: 52-tcseceeeeseaslace=sotesr 6.8 1.8 dE Gael eet a Aes te 4.7

Weather .s=22 0.5.2 PROB OM CODEC OL Iad | SSOenn oror Rainy, cool!| Hots Hotsa-|-eeceecalaeeee eee eoeeeee

During the rainy period, therefore, the upward diminution of temper-
ature was very large; on the advent of clear hot summer weather, it be-
came smaller, and, in fact, the diminution progressed quite regularly
from the beginning of the fine weather to the outbreak of the thunder-
storms, for instance:

July.
Station. SSS SSS SSE
19 20. 21. 27 28
IPTV LZ AU eae eelnwe eee wale me's aia cian Steele ecteae ace Reena eae 0.63 | 0.45 | 0.35 | 0.29 | 0.30
Gotthard-Adtdont: isto ee ste eis ck coe ccles sees Se tee ee eee ee oe 0.67 | 0.53 | 0.51 | 0.49 | 0.46
Ls BELNALA VON UeN Yew see sh ancen < nicine ce atianenas poeeeeeeeen ees e nals 0.75 | 0.54 | 0.63 | 0.56 | 0.52

COC See

410 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

'The rapid rate of diminution of temperature during the rainy period,
which was also accompanied by strong winds, is a consequence of the
ascent of the air on the flanks of the mountains. In the free atmosphere,
the air at the same altitudes is certainly somewhat warmer and the tem-
perature diminution slower. Ido not, however, think that in the sub-
sequent slower rate of diminution the radiation of heat from the surface
of the earth exerted any disturbing influence. Such radiation acts
upon the thermometer more at the lower than at the upper station, and
must therefore tend to increase the differences of temperature. It ean,
however, not be denied that the true temperature of the air in the neigh-
borhood of a mountain is somewhat higher than at the same level in the
free atmosphere. But the observations of Glaisher up to 5,000 feet ele-
vation have given during fine weather an average rate of diminution of
only 0°.67 C. per 100 meters. Even during the afternoons, the diminu-
tion of temperature with altitude does not reach the degree that cor-
responds to that of an ascending current of air.

Rate of Diminution of Temperature at 1» p. m.

July, 1872.
Stations.
q 15-19. | 20-24. | 24-28.
Rigi Viiznaw-GCLsallleacas<isles-seises nie <a eel sie acies ee eeee een ee ees 0.79 0. 53 0. 49
Chaumont-Neuchatel. .. 2. oo lic-t se ccs coc nas seccswiecs camnoe seen oeenetemseead 0,81 0. 81 0.72

Thus it seems that the warming of the lower strata of the atmosphere
by the heated surface of the earth takes place mostly by the gradual
mixing of the lowest strata with the higher, whereby the ascending:
columns of air with a slower movement gradually equalize their temper-
ature with that of the surrounding air without reaching those altitudes
to which a continually ascending current of air of equal temperature
could attain; the heating of the air by the radiation from the earth’s
surface must also come into consideration. Thus there is formed a stra-
tum pretty uniformly heated up to a certain altitude above the earth’s
surface within which the diminution of temperature takes place slowly,
but above which it probably takes place rapidly. So long as the dry
winds which bring clear weather blow strongly, the upward diminution
of temperature is rapid, because the particles of air warmed below must
attain their appropriate altitude; but as soon as the dry winds diminish,
and calms finally ensue, the above described overheated stratum of air
develops itself continually more and more, and with it first an indif-
ferent, then, finally, perhaps, an unstable equilibrium between this
and the higher strata. From the 20th to the 28th of July, 1872, the
warming from below had gradually extended above the level of the
highest station in Switzerland, and, therefore, before the outbreak of
the thunder-storm no unstable equilibrium is demonstrable. But on the
28th, when the stronger west wind first prevailed high above Switzer-

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. All

land, the stagnating overheated stratum of air could no longer remain
in equilibrium, and a stormy mixture of the lower and upper masses of
air, which of course was accompanied with precipitation and thunder
and lightning, precipitated itself mostly from the upper strata in special
localities downward to the earth’s surface.

The occurrence of unstable equilibrium in strata of air lying vertically
above each other after a period of sunny and calm weather is facilitated
by the fact that the inflow of a strong wind almost always first occurs
in the upper strata, whose temperature thereby rapidly sinks, while in
the lower strata, it perhaps still rises. Since the flow of the air near the
surface of the earth is much obstructed and delayed by friction and other
obstacles, the cooling is completed more rapidly in the upper strata and
the inflowing colder air surrounds from above the warmer lower Strata,
which then must break through with violence.®

In a sinking and warming current of air, no condensation of aqueous
vapor can take place, therefore in it the increase of temperature of 1° C.
per 100 meters, as required by theory, must clearly stand forth. In fact,
the Féhn wind shows this rapid increase of temperature between the
summit and base of the mountains over which it descends. In general,
descending masses of air can have only a warming effect upon the earth’s
surface, since their increase of temperature is more rapid than the average
upward diminution of temperature. If, for instance, in summer the
strata in which float the ice crystals of the cirrus clouds at altitudes of
6,000 to 7,000 meters had a temperature of even — 30° C., still would they
by sinking to the earth’s surface have a temperature of +50° or +40°C,
Only in the case of a diminution of temperature of more than 1° C. per
100 meters, which can, however, only be local and occur in summer, but
never in winter can it happen that masses of air descending from the
upper regions to the earth’s surface arrive there cooler than the air
that they displace.®

One of the effects of descending currents of air must consist in clear-
ing up the sky, and dissipating the precipitations, instead of causing
them. Now, however, we still observe precipitation on the advent of an
upper current of air that slowly descends to the earth’s surface and then
brings warmth. When, after clear weather, the increasing cirrus clouds
announce the speedy advent of foul weather, one can often enough clearly
observe how the layer of cirro-stratus sinks, and is thereby thickened,
and gradually merges into a rain-cloud. Often after a hot summer day
I have seen thunder-storms form in this manner; the formation of the
lower layer of cumulo-stratus unmistakably proceeded from a layer of
sinking cirro-stratus. In this case, however, the upper current of air
could be relatively so cold that even after sinking it could cool the lower
strata. In winter, such an assumption would not be allowable; we must
assume that the upper warm current increases in volume, continually
extends into deeper strata (but does not form a descending air-current),
and by mixing with the lower strata produces a precipitation continually

412 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

increasing with the depth, but still, as is well known, always of slight
intensity; (the precipitation on the east side of the windrose, where the
polar current merges into the equatorial).

At least, this much is clear, that the view now very prevalent that the
upper trade-wind or the SW. currents of our hemisphere bring a large
part of its aqueous vapor from its place of origin, the equatorial calm
zone, is not tenable. At the low temperature that it must have in the
high region above the trade-wind, it can, even if saturated, only contain
so little water, that, sinking down to the earth without the addition of
water from below, it can only arrive with a great relative dryness.
Thus, for instance, the observations of Piazzi Smyth on the Peak of
Teneriffe, at the lower limit of the return trades, at an altitude of 326+
meters, gave the average tension of vapor for August and September
at 4 millimeters, therefore a dew-point of —29 C. This current could
therefore first produce a precipitation in regions whose temperature lay
below —2°C., and therefore it is impossible that our summer and
autumn rains come from this source. Karl vy. Fritsch confirms the slight
amount of moisture in the anti-trades upon the Peak of Teneriffe, and
says that the higher SW. wind has a cooling, not a warming, effect 1°
{probably on account of its greater violence). Muhry imagines the
water contained in the anti-trade to be in the solid form of the ice
spicule of the cirrus clouds, and, indeed, the upper SW. current could
carry with it some water in solid form. But if the material for the
abundant precipitation of our SW. and W. winds comes in this manner
from the zone of calms, or from any part of the tropical zone, then the
upper west current above the zone of trade-winds must cover the sky
with a thick dark cirro-stratus layer, while to tbe contrary the zones of
trade-winds are the clearest regions of the earth.

Therefore the rains of the anti-trades and of the west winds of higher
latitudes do not originate in the tropics, but the anti-trade receives its
moisture anew first from below, and can take up much water since it is
warmed by descending, and can again condense it so soon as it is cooled
in its horizontal progress or by ascent upon mountains.

If no aqueous vapor could condense in ascending masses of air, then
must their ascensive power be rapidly paralyzed, since the cooling of the
asceading air is much more rapid than the usual upward diminution of
temperature. Therefore dry ascending air-currents could only under
rare, specially favorable circumstances attain to great altitudes. So soon,
however, as vapor is condensed, the temperature diminution of the
ascending air is so delayed that its ascensive power becomes very pow-
erful, and since thereby again the intensity of the precipitation increases,
the upward impulse remains in power until the aqueous vapor has nearly
exhausted itself. Since now the diminishing pressure of the air partly
compensates the diminution of the quantity of vapor (see table, page 29),
therefore the buoyancy diminishes only slowly. The ascent of the damp
air is finely displayed in the rapid growth of the cumulus clouds, which

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 4138

often rise like columns in the blue sky of summer, and plainly grow out-
ward from the interior. The warmer the air, or the higher the tem-
perature at which it is saturated with vapor, by so much the greater is
the upward impulse it experiences on the occurrence of precipitation.
Therefore the precipitations of the ascending currents in summer, and
especially in most tropical climates, occur under the most favorable cir-
cumstances. When, during calm, sunny weather, the above-described
overheating of the lower strata of air, which is always accompanied by
abundance of aqueous vapor, has been brought about, and there arises,
if only in the highest strata, a disturbance of the equilibrium already
stretched to its utmost limit, and thereby a small initial condensation
of the vapor, the air immediately receives a strong upward impulse, and
draws the lower strata rapidly with it in motion. Hence the numerous
thunder-storms in calm, hot summer weather, and in the tropics on the
cessation of the regular trade-wind. These thunder-storms do not indi-
cate a change in the weather: they only restore the equilibrium of the
atmosphere disturbed in a vertical direction. The lower atmospheric
strata are cooled by evaporation and by the cooler rain-water; the upper
are warmed, and thus the equilibrium becomes again stable.

The formation of hail is, as Reye has shown, most easily explained
by such ascending moist currents of air. The occurrence of hail in the
hottest time of the day and the year and the prevailing calms point
directly to the superheating of the lower strata as their immediate
cause. But the chief difficulty consists in the question, Whence comes
the cold that is necessary for freezing the precipitation, and how ean it
be due to the high temperature of the lower strata of air? Mohr
assumes a descent of higher cold air. We have previously shown how
seldom this process can occur, and that it can produce no considerable
cooling, because the air is greatly warmed in its descent. Most natural
jS it to assume with Reye, inversely, that the lower, moist, hot air is rap-
jdly carried upward. We have previously explained that on the ocea-
sion of irruption of cold winds the upper strata rush ahead of the lower,
so that the stagnating lower, hot, moist air is equally surrounded by the
upper cold air. The former thereby acquires an especially strong up-
ward impulse, which is increased by the intense condensation, so that
it must soon arrive at altitudes where the precipitation freezes. This
explains the fall of hail on the advancing side of a thunder-storm or
tornado; its recurrence in bands; its dependence upon local peculiari-
ties (broad river valleys are more intensely warmed, and have no equal-
izing currents of air, such as in narrow mountain valleys; therefore
hail is more frequent in the former, as has, for instance, been demon-
strated for Carinthia by Prettner); the descent, by way of compensa-
tion, of the cooled air; finally, the maximum of hail in early summer,
at which time the upward diminution of temperature is most rapid, and
the greatest difference of temperature exists between the earth’s sur-
face, warmed by the high sun, and the upper strata of air, that still
retain their winter cold.

414 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

Since moist air, so soon as precipitation occurs therein, must almost
always experience an impulse upward, because the upward diminution
of temperature is seldom so slow as to correspond to that of an ascend-
ing moist current of air, therefore it seems to me that in all precipita-
tions the ascending movement of the air plays an important part and
increases its intensity. When a cooler air-current begins to flow over
warmer air, there first occurs at the surface of contact a slight precipi-
tation, above which then the air breaks with strong ascensive power
upward into the upper cold air, in consequence of the continually
increasing difference of temperature, and thereby loses almost the
whole of its aqueous contents. On the other hand, if a warmer current
flows above a cold one, this process must be feebler; and therefore the
precipitations are less intense when warmer air approaches.

Since the effect of the precipitations of the rising moist air is to ele-
vate the temperature of the upper strata, but to lower that of the lower
Strata, it follows that a barometer at the earth’s surface can remain
quite unaffected by this re-establishment of the equilibivum in a vertical
direction of the temperature; but ata certain altitude, the barometer
must, before the rain, stand higher than afterward. The diminution
of pressure caused by the abstraction of the elastic force of the aqueous
vapor is compensated by the inflowing air of the neighborhood. In ex-
tended rains, a relatively warmer air collects above the rain-clouds, but
an active ascension of this air can only take place at the edges, where
the difference of temperature produces a strong upward impulse, and
the cooler air of the neighborhood can rapidly flow in after. Also, in
the case of a condensation of vapor over an extended area, the barome-.
ter will sink somewhat only in the central portions. We have no ob-
servations of this, because any such precipitation must immediately
produce currents of air from the sides inward; but with the accession
of cooler air, the warming of the higher strata is again compensated,
and the barometer will rather rise than sink. The causal relation
between the precipitations and the origin and the progress of storms
can therefore only consist in this, that the condensation of aqueous
vapor gives the air a more or less decided upward impulse,!! and
thereby produces and continually maintains a flow of air from all sides
toward the rain-cloud. But so long as no whirl is produced thereby,
this process causes no notable change in atmospheric pressure in the
horizontal strata of air. Therefore the heaviest rainfalls are, in the
equatorial zone, accompanied by no low barometer, nor in our latitudes
either, so long as the causes leading to the formation of a whirlwind are
wanting. The pressure sinks decidedly only when an extended whirl
has formed, in whose center probably the air is rising with increased
violence. I therefore believe the diminution of pressure in the center
of a storm-area to be a mechanical effect of the whirling movement of
the air. This whirl, however, continually receives new force, and is con-
trolled by the process of precipitation. I therefore agree with Reye

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 415

when he says that in the whirlwinds the moving force is the latent heat
of the condensed aqueous vapor.*

The results of the investigations of Ley and Blanford into the origin
of whirlwinds agree, as I believe, entirely with the preceding presenta-
tion of the case, that the barometric minimum at the center of a cyclone
is primarily a consequence of the whirling movement of the air; for it
does not happen that in consequence of extended heavy precipitations
a decided barometric depression forms over a region about which then
the air begins to circulate, but it is only after the whirl is well devel-
oped that an area of low pressure forms, which then progresses further.
I'rom the weather prevailing over the Bay of Bengal previous to the
Caleutta cyclone of 1867, Blanford has drawn the conclusion that the
cyclones originate in a region of calms and variable winds between the
northeast monsoon and the retreating southwest monsoon. Their pri-
mary cause consists in local accumulations and condensations of aqueous
vapor in a calm region above the ocean. Many days elapse before the
whirlwind has developed itself (Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1869).
Similar are the conclusions of Ley as to the origin of whirlwinds in
England.”

There still remains unexplained, so far as I can see, the cause which
determines the different intensities of the barometric minima in the
centers of storms in the tropics and in our latitudes in the summer and
winter. If the intensity of the precipitation determined this, then would
the barometric minima of the summer exceed those of the winter," but it
seems more promising to seek for the cause of the greater intensity of the
barometric depressions in winter in the greater differences of temperature.
The air over the warm Atlantic Ocean, strongly warmed by frequent
precipitations, is then bounded on both sides by very cold dry air. This
must give rise to decided disturbances of equilibrium and to storms;
but, on the other hand, in the tropical cyclones the temperature differ-
ences can have no relation to the intensity of the storm.

That in the condensation of aqueous vapor in winter the latent
heat of fluidity is, in the case of the freezing of water, to be added to the
latent heat of vaporization, can only make a slight difference, because
the former amounts to only a little over one-eighth of the latter (see
page 29). The ratio of the liberated heat at 15° C. to that at —5°
C. is as 596 to 690 or as 1 is to 1.16. Herein, therefore, the expla-
nation cannot lie, as Espy, and in part also Reye, assumes. Rather
could we think that the circumstance that in winter the condensation
takes place in lower, denser strata of air, and at lower temperatures,
should increase the upward tendency. In fact, this must be the case,
but, as a simple computation shows, the buoyancy of a mass of air is,
for the same temperature differences, only about one-fifth smaller when
the pressure is 600 millimeters instead of 760 millimeters, and only

ea ae ee ee
[* Nore By THE TRANSLATOR.—This theorem will also be found accepted by Ferrel:
Mathematical Monti.ly, ii, 1858. ]

416 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

about one-tenth smaller when such temperature differences occur at
15° C. instead of 0° C. Even if we consider also the greater latent heat,
this still does not compensate for the differences in the intensities of
precipitation, and suffices not for an explanation of the whole of the dif-
ference of the barometric depressions of the summer and winter, so long
as we consider the intensities of the whirlwinds proportional to the
intensities of the precipitations.

NOTES.

No. 1, p. 22. See Zeit. Oest. Gesell., vol. x, p.573. The Siroccos of the Southern Alps.

No. 2, p.23. For those of our readers to whom this important equation seems strange,
and who have neither time nor inclination to look up its demonstration as derived
from the fundamental principles of the mechanical] theory of heat in the treatises of
Clausius or the text-book of Zeuner, we will endeavor to give in the following as sim-
ple demonstration as possible.

A mass of air, as is well known, needs a smaller quantity of heat to raise its tem-
perature by 1° when we prevent its expansion than when it is allowed toexpand. We
will denote by cy the quantity of heat which a kilogram of air requires in the first
case, that is, when the volume v is constant; and by ¢ the quantity required in the
second case, when the pressure p remains constant, and equal to that of the exterior.

The difference between ¢ and c,the latter being the greater, arises from the fact
that in the case of expansion by heat there is also exterior work performed, which con-
sists in the pushing back of the exterior pressure p through the small space dv, which
is the extent of the expansion.

The amount of this work is pdr, and the quantity of heat which is thereby con-

sumed is +P dv, where a= = is the equivalent of heat for the unit of work. Con-

sequently the quantity of heat dQ which is communicated to the mass of air is
divided into two parts; the one is the equivalent of the increase of temperature of the
kilogram of air, the other is the equivalent of the work of expansion, as is expressed
in the following equation:

dQ = Cy at-+ © paw.

The combined law of Mariotte and Gay Lussac reads, as is well known,

where a = 0.003665 = os is the coefficient of expansion of the air. If we divide the
d

denominators of both members by a; put T= 273+t, and for the case when t’/=0
put k= ee we obtain the simplest form of this lawin the expression pv=f 7,
whence follows

pd+vdp=f dt,

pdv=Ldt—vdp;

Fat

dQ =cy, dt + — tv ap,

dQ= (c un 7 tae.

According to what Las been above said, the difference cp — ¢y is equal to the quantity

/

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 417

of heat consumed in the expansion (a v) of the air for an elevation of 1° of temperature ;
that is,

1 1 topo

= Xav Do (OT = ee eo

7* 0 X Po 7° 70?
whence

ee Pele De ug

c Cy as SG TR

or
R

Cy 3 —=Cp;

whence

1
dQ =c,dt— —vdbp.
OG, zue

Since, however,
R T

=x ——
p
and for c» generally ¢ is written, there results the important equation given in the
text.

No. 3, p. 23. So far as the change of the intensity of gravity with altitude can be
neglected, J is, indeed, an absolute constant; but the unit of weight, the kilogram
with which we measure //, needs a correction for gravity.

No. 4, p. 24. The weight P of dry air in a cubic meter is

= So b—e,
Pe ath nG0ls.

where S) is the specific gravity of the air, b is the barometric pressure, e is the tension
of vapor. The weight of the aqueous vapor is

= 0.623 | oD
eae mya " 760

The sum of both weights gives the weight of a cubic meter of moist air:

So b— 0377 e

Le at cis a ra

The volume of the unit’s weight (kilogram) of this air is therefore And since

1
P+,
in the unit of volume (a cubic meter) there are contained p kilograms of aqueous vapor,
therefore in the volume occupied by a kilogram of moist air there is contained

a a = 0.623 oes kilograms of aqueous vapor.

No. 5, p. 29. Zeuner, in the second edition of his “Grundziige der mechanischen

Warmetheorie,” gives a table of the values of | = 5 (Table I a, column 5) for each 5°,

and computed by Regnault’s formula. For the ace that we here have to do
with, the formula of Magnus agrees completely with that of Regnault, but the latter
gives a complicated and inconvenient expression for our quotient.

No. 6, p. 30. I have given a slightly different form to this equation, and have
introduced the constants used throughout this essay. I consider it unnecessary to
give the process of deduction of this formula, since the work of Reye, ‘‘ Ueber die Wir-
belstiirme,” is easily accessible to every reader, which is not true of the treatises of
William Thomson and Peslin.

No. 7, p. 32. This conclusion is limited by the limit of applicability of the Mariotte
law at high and low pressures. Since by the recent investigations of Liljestrém and
others it is made probable that the Mariotte law loses its rigid exactness at low press-
ures, it follows that we ought not to apply to very low pressures any formula that is
founded upon it. Ali theoretical conclusions as to the height of the atmosphere and

27 8 i

418 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

the temperature of the upper strata must for the present be suppressed until the be-
havior of gases under very low pressure has been sufficiently studied.

Moreover, in any case, we must introduce into the above-mentioned formula the
correction for variation of gravity, if we would extend its application to great dis-
tances from the earth’s surface. We thus find arate of diminution of temperature
outward continually slower and slower, which, like the attraction of the earth,
approaches the limiting value zero.

No. 8, p. 36. I have observed, in the case of the thunderstorms approaching Krems-
miinster from the west, that their violence was almost always less; indeed, they gen-
erally did not come to a discharge [of lightning ?] if the storm began before the cloud
was near the zenith.

No. 9, p. 36. We do not here consider the descending winds in valleys between
mountains, which, indeed, owe their origin to great differences of temperature.

No. 10, p. 37. Petermann’s Geog. Mitth., 1866, p. 220.

No. 1i, p. 39. To avoid the mistake that we have previously shown to be very
widespread, we should not say “the condensation warms the air,” but “it diminishes
the cooling.” The latent heat will not be liberated without a cooling takes place;
nor can it ever be sufficient to even compensate for the cooling [much less to over-
compensate and warm up the air] to a sensibly higher temperature.

No. 12, p. 40. Also what Jahncke says upon the weather preceding the West India
hurricanes agrees therewith. (Quarterly Journal of the Met. Soc., vol. ii, p. 89.)

No. 13, p. 40. Also the summer season has extended precipitations of similar great
intensity. I recall, for instance, the uninterruptedly rainy period of August 15 to 19
of this year (1874), whose extent and intensity caused the extraordinary floods in all
the rivers of Central Europe. A barometric minimum preceded this. During the rain
the pressure rose.

EB.

THE LAW OF THE VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE IN
ASCENDING MOIST CURRENTS OF AIR.

Letter of Prof. Dr. L. Sohncke, of Carlsruhe.
[Translated by Cleveland Abbe from the Zeitschrift fiir Met., 1875, x, pp. 56-58.)

By your memoir on ascending currents of air, &c., published in the
Zeitschrift for last October and November, you have, as it seems to
me, rendered a great service to the friends of a genuine scientific
meteorology. Sir Wm. Thomson’s and Peslin’s labors on this subject
appear to have been known to a very limited extent. They were
unknown to me, and are not even accessible to me here in Carlsruhe.
Especially important is your development of Peslin’s formula for the
diminution of temperature in the ascent of a saturated current of air,
for the table, page 29, has a fundamental importance in all questions
bearing on this point. Under these circumstances, it seems proper that
I should call your attention to a mistake which has slipped into the
computation of the table, affecting the last decimal of many of the num-

bers therein. On page 28 you say, let 5 be a constant, since p= D#,

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 419

&ec., although it follows from the law of Mariotte and Gay Lussac that

fe
Furthermore, in the deduction of the formula of Peslin, the approxi-

mate value of q, 0.623 is used, whereas the introduction of its true

1 :
a has the value = as you yeurself* have used it, page 23.

value offers no difficulty. Considering these two circumstances, the

expression for - receives a somewhat different form, which I will here

deduce.
In the equation that applies to a change of condition of any gas,
RT dp
dQ=cdt — Hori

the left-hand side is 0 if dry air changes its condition without addition
or subtraction of heat. But if it is moist saturated air that ascends
without receiving heat from the outside, then we can use the preceding
equation by putting for dQ, not 0, but that heat which is liberated by
the condensation of the elementary quantity dq of aqueous vapor. Let
the specific heat of moist air be c’; for moist air the constant R can very
approximately retain unchanged its former value 29.3; the equation
then becomes

(1)

The left-hand member has the minus sign, because it represents a
positive quantity of heat, and dq is a negative quantity, namely, the
diminution of the quantity of vapor there present. To this we add
the equation

(2) dp = p.dh,

which expresses the diminution of pressure with altitude. In case that
the ascent of a moist current in dry air is considered, then for p the
specific gravity of dry air is to he taken, since in a narrow, slightly
rotating current the pressure can differ only extremely little from the
pressure at equal altitude outside.

Since now

— 1 —
ETAT Ee

*T have, in fact, on page 28, put
i lag sat 1
RT 29.3 X 273’

oe

Pp
whereas it should have been

a
PISS (Orme e

where ¢ is the temperature in Celsius degrees. Since, however, ¢ is always small in
comparison with 273, this assumption of 7, instead of 7, has only a very slight influ-
ence upon the result. The introduction of an approximate value for g materially sim-
plifies the numerical computations.—J. Hann.

420 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
there follows, from equation 2,
(3) Me ro Ea),

Further, the quantity of vapor q¢ present in one kilogram of saturated
air, or

gives the equation

Ne Nited Oe Ge 1 0877 —
p
de dp
Whe) aS pP
Loan
P
= ide dh
& Ce apie
edt RT
(4) ===
1 Z.0i5nn
Pp

By means of equations (3) and (4), equation (1) now becomes

—rg¢ Ge 1 de | dh a le
es eae Pe fe It + at air aays
1— 0.377 e\e at‘ 5 ia &
whence—
a Olan : rg
; dt Fr an
(f) ah

1
This formula differs from yours in the introduction of RT instead |

of ; and also by the occurrence of the factor(1 = (Olot7 ) in both the

numerator and denominator. If, according to this formula, we com-

+= 100:

it
Teoma)» We find = — 0.00534, whereas

at
pute dh for the case e pa

your table gives — 0.0054.
In case the problem concerns the ascent, not of a narrow current, but
of a great mass of air, it is questionable whether it is not more correct

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 421

to substitute for the density p in equation (2), which determines the
diminution of pressure with altitude, the specific gravity of moist air, or

pane (41-0877 5),

where p is expressed in kilograms per square meter. By this step, the
only change in the preceding equation is that dh everywhere receives

the additional factor (1 — Oot 5) Therefore in this ease the dimi-

nution of temperature is that given by equation (I) multiplied by the
same factor, or,

dt dt —
(BE) Gi) = TN eee is):
The introduction of the specific gravity p’ of moist air instead of dry
in this case is analogous with the consideration of the moisture of the
air in barometric hypsometry, and means the ascent of moist air in the

midst of air equally moist, providing that under these circumstances an
~ ascent on a large scale actually occurs.

In the preceding example - = ee ate we find by formula (IL)
dt\ %
a= = — 0.00532,

or scarcely an appreciably different result.

B:
RAINFALL AND BAROMETRIC MINIMA.

By Pror. Dr. THEO. REYE.
{Translated by Cleveland Abbe from the Zeitschrift d. Oest. Gesell. Meteorologie, 1875, x, p. 63-70.]

From one of the recent memoirs of Dr. Hann I perceive, to my delight,
that in the most important points our views as to the cause of whirlwinds
already agree. [Hann’s memoir was written in December, 1874, before
the publication of his review of Ferrel’s theories.| We both recognize
the latent heat of the condensed vapor as the moving force in whirl-
winds; this gives to the air a stronger or weaker ascensive force, and
thereby causes a continuous inflow of air toward the rain-cloud. In
general, I agree with what Hann says: ‘The atmospheric pressure sinks
first when an extended whirl has formed in whose center the air proba-
bly is rising with increased vehemence.” For I also am persuaded!

[Nore BY THE TRANSLATOR.—As there is frequently much confusion of ideas as to
the part played by aqueous vapor in storms, the translator hopes to contribute some-
what toward clearer views by adding to the present collection this paper of Reye’s with
Hann’s foot-notes. ]

1See my “ Wirbelstiirme,” page 138.

422 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS,

that the rotatory motion contributes considerably to the increase of the
central depression, and that only through it does the duration of the
barometric minima, often for weeks, become possible ; and in my opinion
the fact that no cyclone has ever yet been observed in the neighbor-
hood of the equator finds an equally simple and sufficient explanation
in the absence of any motive toward a rotatory movement.

Only in one not unimportant point do our views still differ. I think:?
‘The ascending current of air can only continue so long as its tempera-
ture, in consequence of the liberated latent heat of the vapor, exceeds
on the average that of the neighboring air-strata. But, on account of
this higher temperature, the pressure under the ascending current must
be less than that on the borders of the cyclone.” On the other hand,
Hann says: “The condensation of the atmospheric aqueous vapor has
no sensible influence on the change of atmospheric pressure; the low
barometer in the storm-center can, therefore, not be explained by pre-
cipitation.” Mohn’s theory of the advance of cyclones toward their
rainiest side is therefore reliable or not, according as mine or Hann’s
view is correct.®

Hann establishes his principle chiefly upon his reduction of 146 heavy
rainfalls in Batavia, that are recorded in the three-years’ hourly obser-
vations of Dr. Bergsma. The barometer rose at the commencement,
and during the first two hours of the rainfall, on an average about 0.35
millimeter, but fell again about 0.1 millimeter within the two hours
following the rain, and therefore, after the rain, stood always 0.25 milli-
meter higher than before it. ‘‘This slight increase of pressure,” Hann
very correctly thinks, ‘is a secondary effect of the condensation of the
vapor; that is to say, it is produced by the cooling of the lower air-
strata by the raindrops that fall down from higher, colder strata, and
by the cooling due to evaporation. Perhaps, also, the concussion of the
falling water and of the air dragged along with it contributes somewhat
to the initial rapid rise of the pressure.”

To these purely local observations at Batavia we can now oppose a
longer series of observations, that embrace an extended country, and lead
to opposite conclusions, namely, the daily observations that were made
about 1850 in the United States by numerous naval and Army officers,
and by 163 private individuals. James Espy for years entered these
upon synoptic charts. From more than 1,800 such charts he draws, prin-
cipally for the winter months, the definite conclusion: 4 “ In all great and
sudden depressions of the barometer there is much rain and snow, and
in all sudden great rains or snows there is a great depression of the
barometer near the center of the storm and rise beyond its borders.”

Loomis, whom we also thank for other very important works on tor-
nadoes and storms, has lately discussed the weather-maps of the United

3 See, on the other hand, ix, pp. 344, 345, and x, p. 69.

4Espy, Fourth Meteorological Report. Washington, 1837. p. 10, Generalization No. 9.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 423

States for 1872 and 1873 with special reference to storms. The paths
of the storms during 314 days were examined; the mean direction of
their progress was very nearly from west to east. ‘One circumstance
seems to have a decided influence upon the modifications of the storm-
paths—this is the rainfall. Every considerable barometrie depression
is accompanied by rainfall, and the area over which the rain occurs
generally extends much farther on the eastern or forward side of the
central depression than on the western.” And the farther the rain-area
stretches on the east side of the storm, so much the more rapidly does
the storm advance in this direction. By separating the cases in which
the storm-track had a direction more to the north or south, Loomis
further found that the direction of the storm-path in 24 hours very
nearly agreed with that toward which, in the preceding eight hours, the
rain-area had extended the farthest. If the greater axis of the region
of rain was directed toward N. 53° E. or N. 118° E., then the mean
direction of the corresponding storm-tracks was N. 40° E. or N. 116° E.
‘The agreement would certainly have been still greater if we could have
made the comparison with the direction of the storm-tracks in the next
8 hours instead of 24.”

Since the beginning of 1867, in the Norwegian Meteorological Insti-
tute, the most important meteorological observations at 210 European
stations have been, day by day, graphically presented upon a chart. By
these charts, Mohn establishes the fact that on the front or east side of
the storms the tension of the vapor and the quantity of cloudiness in-
creases, and that there heavier and longer continued rain or snow pre-
vails; on the hinder or western half, however, the vapor-tension falls,
the cloudiness diminishes, and the rain is light.

The barometric minima of the Torrid Zone are regularly accompanied
by the heaviest rains, and, according to Thom,’ the condensation of vapor
stretches much farther on the front than on the hinder side of the cyclone.
The island of Mauritius, to which numerous vessels repair after every
great storm, afforded for many years a very favorable position for the
study of tropical whirlwinds to Thom and to its meteorological society,
still flourishing under Meldrum’s guidance. Thom explicitly says that no
phenomenon accompanies these storms so regularly and is so astonish-
ing as the enormous mass of water falling from the moving masses of
air. ‘Hundreds of miles distant, on all sides of the whirlwind, extends
a thick stratum of clouds that pours out rain in torrents and unceas-
ingly. This process continues week after week, and is apparently char-
acteristic of a hurricane in all its stages. The approach of such a storm
can almost be predicted from the unbroken layer of clouds that slowly
covers over the heavens, at first at a great altitude, gradually, however,
descending to the lower strata and accompanied by increasing darkness,

®Loomis. See Zeitschrift, Bd. i, pp. 245-251, and American Journal of Science, 1874.
Thom, An Inquiry into the Nature and Course of Storms in the Indian Ocean, South
of the Equator. London, 1845. pp. 202, 206.

AQ4 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

until at last it rests upon the earth and begins to rain. These signs are
recognizable at a distance of 200 or 300 nautical miles from the hurri-
cane.”

These accordant results of extended systems of meteorological obser-
vations in America, Europe, and the South Indian Ocean, especially the
important fact that the barometric minimum advances toward the side of the
heavier precipitation, plainly show the appreciable influence of the con-
densation of the atmospheric aqueous vapor upon the change of atmos-
pheric pressure. Furthermore, the known laws connecting the tension
and temperature of aqueous vapor and of the atmosphere force us to
assume some such direct influence. Local observations like those at
Batavia can, in my opinion, not prove the contrary, since they leave us
entirely in ignorance as to the extension of the rainfall and as to the
simultaneous meteorological phenomena of the surrounding portion of
the globe. The enormous rainfall of 2d and 3d December, 1872, which
overflowed the whole of Carinthia, Carnatia, Gérz, Northern Venetia, and
Southern Tyrol, has shown in what distant regions many times we must
seek the prime cause of very heavy and extended rains.* Certainly at
that time no one on the south flank of the Alps suspected that this rain
was caused by a barometric minimum on the coast of France; and even
to-day it would be inexplicable to us why that enormous precipitation
did not at least cause a secondary minimum,® unless we had an accurate
knowledge of the configuration and the atmospheric conditions of half
of Europe.

So far as concerns the 146 heavy rainfalls a Batavia, these appear,
so far as concerns their duration and geographical extension, to have
had the characters of local thunder-storms; for among them those of
more than three hours’ duration were so infrequent that Hann could not
give any average for the fourth hour of rain. Now, in the case of local
storms, even when they are accompanied by heavy precipitation, the
accompanying rarefaction can very rapidly be restored, because the
region of condensation occupies a relatively very small space in an im-
mense atmosphere. Moreover, the process of condensation, 7. ¢., the
formation of the storm-clouds, begins at least in our latitudes, generally
a considerable time before the outbreak of the storm; and if during the
subsequent rain the pressure rises a little by reason of the cooling of
the lowest stratum of air, I therein find nothing contradictory to the
theory. ?

7Compare this, Zeitschrift, vol. viii, pp. 103, 179.

8If a sensible barometric depression could be caused by rain, then certainly here
at least a secondary minimum must have been formed !—J. Hann.

*To this I remark in brief only as follows, but in general refer to pages 11 and 12 of
this present volume x [see the preceding translation (C) of Hann’s teply to Hoff-
meyer’s remarks ].—J. HANN

In reference to the rains - Batavia, I have submitted the heavier short rains to com-
putation, because these must best represent the effect of an ascending current of air,
and because an examination of the whole series of observations showed me at once

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 425
My own and Hann’s views as to the part played by aqueous vapor
in meteorological processes differ from each other, as I believe, much
less than they appear to do. I also, for partly well recognized reasons,
attribute no special importance to precisely the same results of my com-
putation that Hann opposes. On this point allow me to make the fol-
lowing remarks: My computations ‘On the Expansion of the Air of the
Atmosphere in the Formation of Clouds,” as I first published them eleven
years ago [‘‘On Vertical Currents of Air in the Atmosphere,” Schlomileh,
Zeitschrift fiir Mathematik und Physik, 1864, Bd. 9, pp. 250-276; also,
Reye, ‘‘ Wirbelstiirme,” Hannover, 1872], had for their immediate object
the overthrow of Mohr’s theory of the formation of hail. Mohr main-
tained that because saturated steam has a much greater volume than
the water from which it is formed, therefore by the condensation of the
vapor at any point in the atmosphere there must be formed an “immense”
diminution of volume; this ‘‘ formation of a vacuum” is, however, fol-
lowed by a strong indraft, an inrush of air, especialiy from the upper
strata, which then, by reason of their own cold, cause a new condensa-
tion, etc. In opposing this theory, it was sufficient for me to assume
that the air in which this condensation occurs loses no heat during the
process. 1°
With the same assumption, at the end of the chapter, I compute, inci-
dentally, the quantity of air that will be pushed out of a vertical column

that in no instance, not even those of longer duration (and there occur many of twelve
hours and over), did a sensible influence of the rain make itself apparent. The phe-
nomena are here precisely the same as Sykes gives for the Dekkhan (see Zeitschrift, x,
p. 12). There are, indeed, no data at hand relative to the extent of these rains, but we
know that at the rainy season, for instance in January, there are on the average of
seven stations in the Sunda Islands 21.3 days, and there must be a truly wonderful
arrangement if it does not occasionally rain simultaneously over nearly the whole Archi-
pelago, the more so since the rains occur very nearly at the same time of day. And
yet there is no disturbance of the diurnal period of the barometer! And what rains
were those compared with ours! On the 10th January, 1867, there fell in one hour at
Batavia 97 millimeters, that is to say, only 3 millimeters less than falls with us in three
months, from December to February, when we have the lowest barometric pressure.
In this case, no minimum occurred, even at a great distance, that one could quote asan
excuse for any decided diminution of pressure.

The facts quoted by Espy, Thom, and Loomis prove uothing against my assumption,
because the influence of the rain can only become prominent in the case of rainfalls
without an accompanying rotatory motion of the air, but where there is no whirl
there is also no notable barometric minimum. On this is founded the inductive por-
tion of my reasoning. On the other hand, I will readily allow that small differences of
pressure (I have expressly said “no notable influence”) can, perhaps, be brought in
agreement with the results of the observations in Batavia; the land and sea breezes of
the tropics show that quite unnoticed barometric differences can bring about very
active currents of air. Such slight differences of pressure as these are quite sufficient
to cause the continued flow of air toward that place in the whirl where condensation
takes place, and to explain its continuance and the direction of its progressive move-
ment, as I have already indicated on pages 292 and 344, vol. ix [see page 13, § B, and
page 39, § D, of the preceding translations of Hann’s articles ].—J. Hann.

10 Then, however, no condensation could occur ; therefore, also, no evolution of heat
and no expansion ; and all further consequences likewise fall to the ground.—J. Hann.

426 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

of atmosphere by the condensation of one millimeter of rain; and, under
the further assumption that this excess of air can be immediately
removed, and is not replaced at the earth’s surface by cooler air flowing
in from the side, I arrive at the theoretically not uninteresting result,
that a barometer under such a column of air must fall to the extent of
three-fifths of the depth of rain fall. In all this, however, I was per-
fectly aware, and have even so stated, that the assumed conditions do
not occur in nature. Therefore have I, also, at no time, neither in the
text of my book on ‘“ Wirbelstiirme” nor elsewhere, referred to this
result of computation, and readily acknowledge with Hann, who assails
it, that it has no practical importance. Still I believe as before, ‘not-
withstanding perhaps this computation throws some light upon the low
barometer that is so often observed in connection with the revolving
storms that are accompanied by heavy rain.”

In fact, the assumptions in question are approximately fulfilled in the
case of the precipitations accompanying revolving storms; at least, far
more nearly than in local thunder-storms, or in quiet, uniform, general
rains. Since the air rises very rapidly in the interior of a whirlwind,
therefore it and the aqueous vapors or cloud-fog that are carried up with
it cannot lose much heat, either by conduction or by radiation; at the
same time, however, the inflow of the lower mass of air from either side
is hindered by the centrifugal force and the outflow of the upper layer
is facilitated. But this theoretical result is not applicable without
further considerations, even to the revolving storms ; for, even if in these
we have accounted for the heat which is consumed in the expansion
corresponding to the latent heat liberated by the vapor, still there
remains unnoticed that quantity of heat which is equivalent to the
living force of the whirling mass of air and to the work of expansion
performed in consequence of the ascension. For this reason, in my
theory of whirlwinds, besides the very complete collection of observa-
tions, I refer only to the law of tension of saturated air and to the com-
putations in reference to the unstable equilibrium in the atmosphere.

G.

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN THE DIFFERENCE OF PRESS-
URE AND THE VELOCITY OF THE WIND ACCORDING TO
THE THEORIES OF FERREL AND COLDING.

By Dr. JuLius HANN.
{Translated by Cleveland Abbe from the Zeitschrift of the Austrian Meteorological Association, 1875,
vol. x, pp. 81-106.)
The historical developments of scientific theories, like those of political
questions, have their reactionary periods, which, in both cases, are gen-
erally called forth by an excessive one-sided pursuit of some principle

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 427

which in itself may be correct. One of the best examples of this is
found in the history of the geological views current in Germany in the
course of the nineteenth century; but I believe that also the develop-
ment of the theory of storms can be considered as a similar example. I
will not here give a history of storm theories, but only briefly sketch, so
far aS it seems important for my purpose, the two opposed views;
the older, which is still found almost exclusively in our German text-
books of meteorology, and the newer, which, proceeding in the begin-
ning from America, and recently from the most northern states of
Europe, has also already found influential supporters in Southern
Europe.

The older theory considers the storm-whirl, if I may so express it, as
purely mechanical, arising from the meeting of different currents of air.
The centrifugal force arising in consequence of the rotatory movement
ef the air was held to be the cause of the low barometric pressure in the
center of the whirls. We have lately heard this theory more fally
expounded by Dr. Wittwer in this journal [vol. x, pp. 1-6]. The new
theory, which I would designate as the physical theory, finds in the
formation of some local diminution of pressure the first cause of an
inflow of air from all sides and the attendant formation of a whirl in
consequence of the influence of the earth’s daily rotation. The baro-
metric depression itself is viewed as a consequence of the condensation of
the aqueous vapor over an extensive portion of the earth’s surface [see
this journal, vol. vi, pp. 209, 246, and vol. viii, pp. 109, 177].

As we perceive, the difference between these views consists, besides
the diverse explanation of the origin of the whirl, also in this, that the
older theory explains the differences of pressure as due to the wind;
the new theory, on the other hand, deduces the direction and strength
of the wind as phenomena resulting from the previously existing differ-

ences of pressure.

Both theories cannot stand together. It is, however, not therefore
necessary that the one should be absolutely false and the other thor-
oughly correct. There may be in each correct and incorrect views min-
gled together. Wherefore we will examine them in reference to this.

No one can deny that whirls can arise by the conjunction of currents at
an angle with each other. But how in this manner the invariable rota-
tion from right to left in the northern and inversely in the southern
hemisphere should arise, it would be difficult, indeed impossible, to
explain. Still more difficult is it to explain, according to this theory,
the fact that the whirl, once formed, pursues a path of hundreds of
miles through the atmosphere, in the course of which it continually
draws new masses of air into motion, overcomes a great amount of fric-
tional resistance along its entire path, and exerts powerful mechanical
effects. This would be physically impossible, and surpasses even the
‘‘perpetual motion” without a constant accession of force. It must, on
the other hand, appear to every one asa pure play of the imagination to

428 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

assume a perpetually renewed conjunction of winds in the necessary
direction continuously along the whole length of the storm-path through
the most diverse systems of currents.

The new theory of the origin of the rotatory movement through the
’ deviating influence of the earth’s rotation upon the air currents flowing
toward the area of least pressure fully explains the invariable direction
of rotation from right to left in the northern and from left to right in
the southern hemisphere. It also satisfies us especially in that it points
to the source whence the whirl when once formed steadily derives new
force. To this end it utilizes the fact that every great whirlwind is ac-
companied by an abundant condensation of aqueous vapor. The latent
heat liberated by this condensation causes a more rapid ascent of air
over the whirlwind and thus induces beneath it an inflow of the air from
all sides. We now see that the whirl can progress, indeed, that it must

progress if it is to have duration. The force that it needs to overcome’

the frictional resistance, to draw in hitherto quiescent masses of air, to
bring about its powerful mechanical effects,—this force is already stored
up above in the atmosphere in the neighborhood of the path along which
it will pass. It remains latent until the approaching storm liberates it.
The whirlwind must quickly come to a stand when it does not find suf-
ficient aqueous vapor in the atmosphere and at the same time has great
frictional resistances to overcome.

Since in this way this newer theory affords us a sufficient physical
reason for some of the most important phenomena observed in connec-
tion with storms, I have allowed myself to briefly call it the “ physical
theory.”

We must, however, consider the explanation of the barometric minima
as due simply to the condensation of. aqueous vapor as not to an equal
extent satisfactory. I have already in this journal sufficiently fully
expressed my views as to the reasons that necessitate the rejection of the
view that by means of the condensation of aqueous vapor any consider-
able diminution of pressure at the earth’s surface can be produced.
{See vols. viii, p. 102, ix, p. 259, and x, p.11.] A principle correct in
itself has been pushed to extreme conclusions, to which the theory gives
no foundation and facts afford no agreement. Whoever desires to see

this one-sided application pushed to its extreme, may read the work of

Hopkins “On the Atmospheric Changes,” and Laughtou’s * Physical
Geography.” With many meteorologists at present the aqueous vapor
is the great resort in every time of need, as was electricity, under the
influence of Volta’s ideas.

When one thinks himself obliged to reject a theory that appears to
explain satisfactorily one group of phenomena, he also to a certain ex-
tent assumes the duty of offering a better one. I have, however, just

as I was forced to think of attempting this duty, had the happiness’

to find that this is no longer necessary; that in fact other and better
men have already done this.

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SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 429

I have already remarked (vol. x, p. 12) that I believe that the greatest
part of the barometric depression in storms must be explained in some
mechanical way. This is a return to the older theory, and one could in
this respect consider me as reactionary.

It is remarkable that the newer theory of storms no longer utilizes
~ the centrifugal force, and that it entirely overlooks a further influence
similar to centrifugal force, although it perfectly recognizes its necessity
in deriving the direction of the wind. The older theory utilized the
centrifugal force to explain the diminution of pressure in the center of
the whirl; but as yet I have nowhere found, at least in German writings,
that any one has shown us, not even approximately, how great the baro-
metric differences resulting from the centrifugal force of the rotating
masses of air can be, or whether it suffices to explain the greater part
of such depressions as occur in cyclones.

It is here the place to promptly say that one should never attempt to
explain all barometric differences as consequence of the movement of the
air. This extreme isto be avoided precisely asis the other. Our view is
only that the larger part of the observed great differences of atmos-
pheric pressure in a whirlwind, or even in a directly progressing current
of air so far as any exist, is a consequence of the movement of the air.
This latter movement is, however, itself the result of an original slight
but more general variation of pressure.

We have quite recently heard Reye defend the view that a con-
densation of aqueous vapor over an extended portion of the earth’s
surface must cause a fall in the pressure of the air in consequence of
the increase of temperature that takes place at the place of condensa-
tion. From a theoretical point of view, but little objection can be
brought against this view. But it is impossible even te estimate how
great the consequent actual fall in pressure may be even under any given
circumstances; and since we know from observation that where the most
rain falls the irregular variations in the barometer are not great enough
to disturb the regular diurnal period, whose amplitude in favorable cases
amounts to 3 millimeters, therefore we may conclude that the influence
under discussion must have a less effect than this. On the other hand,
from known principles of mechanics, we must necessarily conclude that
the movement of the air once set up must of itself bring about differ-
enees of pressure that are ten or fifteen times greater. We can there-
fore scarcely be in doubt as to how we are to explain the great variations
of pressure observed in the extra-tropical regions.

At the same time that I was writing out for this journal my thoughts
adverse to pushing Espy’s theory too far, Professor William Ferrel, of
Washington, published a memoir (American Journal of Science, vol.
viii, Nov., 1874) in which he endeavored to express mathematically the
variations of pressure occurring in storms as a consequence of the centri-
fugal force and of the earth’s rotation. In this memoir, however, he
merely especially elaborates and accommodates to the present state of

430 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

our knowledge of storms an idea that he had already, in 1861, published
in more general form in Silliman’s American Journal of Science.*

In reference to the currents and pressures of the air in cyclones in low
latitudes, we possess an excellent mathematical investigation by the
genial Danish engineer Colding, well known as one of the founders of
the mechanical theory of heat. Since, however, his work appeared in
the Danish language, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Copenhagen,
certainly but few meteorologists outside of Scandinavia will have become
acquainted with it, and we will, therefore, pretty fully reproduce it in a
later number of this journal. [See Paper I, which translation was made
in 1873 directly from the original, with but few corrections, suggested by
a subsequent comparison with Hann’s German version.—C. A.] Colding
considers the tropical cyclones as true whirls, in which the air rotates
about avertical axis, and the differences of pressure from the center to the
edge of the whirl computed by him under this assumption agree perfectly
with the observed values.

Of course we cannot assume that there exists in our whirlwinds any
rotation of the mass of air in the sense that it several times or even once
revolves about the center: the air moves apparently in spiral paths to-
ward the center. This, however, is no reason why, even in the smallest
portions of the curved path, the centrifugal force should not have its influ-
ence according to the prevailing radius vector and velocity- [Buchan is
therefore in error in denying the influence of centrifugalforce. Hand Book
of Meteorology, 2d edition, p.281.] The analogous influence of the earth’s
rotation is to be added thereto, and the consequence of both these in-
fluences is that the atmospheric pressure at the earth’s surfacé dimin-
ishes toward the center of the storm-area. Especially does the influence
of the earth’s rotation explain simply and naturally the frequently im-
mense extension of the area of much diminished pressure in the higher
latitudes, while it is impossible to explain barometric minima of such
extent by means of an ascending current of air or by precipitation.t

In order to make somewhat clearer the influence of the rotation of the
earth upon the origin of barometric differences in a mass of air in mo-
tion, I will assume a definite case, and for simplicity assume a storm-
wind advancing in a straight line.

Let us assume a southwest storm, extending from Northern Scotland
to the foot of the Alps, or over about ten degrees of latitude, as often
occurs. The velocity of the wind at a short distance above the earth’s
surface will, at 30 meters per second, not be assumed unusually great.

*[Nore BY THE TRANSLATOR.—See some account of Ferrel’s works in the note on
page 72.]

t In reference to this see R. H. Scott’s memoir “ On Recent Progress in Weather Knowl-
edge.” The magnitude of the depressions affords an argument against their being
simply due to the condensation of vapor, for on November 22, 1869, barometrical read-
ings were reduced to the extent of nearly an inch from what they had been on the 21st,

over an area of about 200,000 square miles. On January 20, 1873, the deficit of atmos-—
pherical pressure amounted to about #5 of its total amount over the United Kingdom.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. A431

The earth’s rotation will exert its influence upon this current of air; and
under the simultaneous influence of gravitation and the deviation to the
right in consequence of the rotation, the level surfaces, or surfaces of
equal pressure, can no longer remain parallel to the earth’s surface, but
must ascend toward the southeast.
If we designate by
n the angular velocity per second of the rotation of the earth,
2D
—~ 8616.4 ?
g, the geographical latitude; then will
n sing = the deviation to the right, or the apparent turning which a
moving particle experiences, as is shown in elementary
physics ;
~nsin g will therefore be the linear deviation where
v is the path described in the unit of time, and consequently
2vunsin ¢ is the corresponding acceleration [ Beschleunigung|.
If we designate by
h the ascent of the level surfaces for a breadth b of the current
of air, and by
g the acceleration [Beschleunigung] due to gravitation, the fol-
lowing equation must then obtain :

n

iw *
Bae a MAU

or
_ 2bexnsin¢g

kh = ———__——_
g

From this equation (which has already been previously applied to the
computation of the elevation of the water on the right bank of our rivers
in consequence of the earth’s rotation, and which must also hold good
for currents of air) can be computed the ascent from northwest to south-
east of the level surfaces in our current of air. If we take for ¢ its mean
value 53°, and for b 1113 kilometers, we find

h = 396.5 meters.

Therefore the surfaces of equal pressure are elevated by 396 meters
from northwest to southeast, which corresponds to a difference of press-
ure of 37.7 millimeters of mercury. In our present case, therefore,
simply in consequence of the influence of the earth’s rotation upon the
southwest wind, the pressure must diminish by 38 millimeters from the
northern slope of the Alps to the northern portion of Scotland. I
see no way by which we can evade this conclusion. Owing to the rota-
tion of the earth, a current of air must always, in the northern hemisphere, be
accompanied by a diminution of pressure on its left side, But this diminu-
tion of pressure corresponds to a condition of equilibrium so long as the
movement of the air, or the quantity v, remains the same. There are,
therefore, barometric depressions (and so-called barometric gradients),
and very large ones too, that are the consequences of air currents which

432 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

were themselves first produced by the depression. The diminution of
pressure at the earth’s surface is increased when the air moves not in
rectilinear but in curvilinear paths, since then the ordinary centrifugal
force also comes into play. Itis now customary, as is well known, todesig-
nate by the term “ barometric gradient,” or ‘the gradient,” the differ-
ence of pressure for a given amount of distance, and ia issuing ‘storm
warnings” one deduces the strength of the future wind from the magni-
tude of the gradient. We have just shown that the greatest part of an
observed gradient is not the cause but the result of the violence of the
wind. For practical storm predictions, however, this is, of course, im-
material. In general, the so-called “ Buys Ballot’s law” is only the
shortest expression for the facts graphically presented upor the synop-
tic charts, and it is therefore not affected by the vagaries of the theories
of the origin of areas of low pressure.

We believe we have now reached a point of view from which the labors
of Ferrel and Colding gain an increased interest; from which also, at
the same time, the limits of their applicability may be perceived, and we
can therefore proceed to their memoirs.

The title of Ferrel’s memoir reads: “ Relation between the Barometric
Gradient and the Velocity of the Wind” (Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. viii, 1874).

The following is not a translation, but a sort of working over of Fer-
rel’s text. Especially have we deduced equation (I) in a more elementary
way, and also given it a somewhat different form.

When water has a motion of rotation in a stationary basin, the cae
fugal force produced by the rotation causes the water to retreat from
the center, and to acquire a funnel-shaped surface ascending toward the
edge of the vessel. In consequence of this, the pressure on the bottom
of the basin increases from the center toward the circumference. If

r is the distance from the center of the basin,

u the angular velocity of the rotation,
then will

yr wu? express the magnitude of the centrifugal force.
But in ease the basin itself has also a rotatory motion in the same direc-
tion, whose angular velocity we designate by w, then will the expression
for the magnitude of the centrifugal force be

riotur=r(e+2ou+u’?)=ro*?+2o0v+ur,

because r wu is the linear velocity of the movement of the water relative
to the basin. Now the increase of pressure or the gradient in the direc-
tion from the center toward the circumference depends on this quantity
ir uj. If, however, we refer the gradient to the surface of the water
when at rest with respect to the basin, which latter, however, itself bas
an angular velocity w, then in the above expression we must omit the
term 7 w”, which depends simply upon », and the expression for the
centrifugal force becomes

2wv4+uv= (20+ U4).

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SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 433

In the case of a cyclone on the earth’s surface of comparatively slight
extension, and for which therefore the curvature of the earth’s surface
can be neglected, we have a phenomenon quite similar to the preceding.
In addition to the rotatory movement of a cyclone relative to the earth’s
surface there is also to be considered the proper motion of the latter,
one component of which corresponds to the turning of a disk about a
center. In the elementary text-books of physics, in connection with the
explanation of Foucault’s pendulum experiments, it is demonstrated
that the magnitude of this horizontal component of the daily rotation is
expressed by n sin ¢ for the latitude g, where n is the angular velocity
of the earth’s rotation. We have therefvre in the above expression to
substitute 2 sin g for w in order to find the magnitude of the centrifugal
force effective in a cyclone. The term 7? sin? 9 must be omitted as
before, because we refer the difference of pressure or the barometric
gradient to the elliptical surface of the earth and not to the surface that
would be if there were no rotation about an axis.

Let

b — b’ be the difference of pressure, expressed by the height of a
column of mercury, for a unit of distance in the horizontal direc-
tion along the normal to an isobar upon the earth’s surface ora
surface parallel thereto, and let

o be the specific gravity of mercury,

then will the pressure of the unit volume of air in the direction of the
normal and toward the side of lower pressure be equal to (b—D’) a.
The pressure in the opposite direction of the unit of volume resulting
from the centrifugal force of the rotating air is, according to an element-
ary proposition in mechanies, expressed by

2
~ Y w? 3

Q1o&

where

6 is the specific gravity of the unit volume of air,

g the acceleration of gravity,

v the linear velocity of the air in its path,

w the angular velocity of the air in its path,

r the radius vector of the air in its path.
In our case,

yw is (2n sing + u) v.
If, therefore, the air neither approaches nor recedes from the axis of

rotation, the following equation must obtain:

(b—V) o=Z2nsing + w) U.

If further we designate by

4B the “ gradient” or the barometric difference for a definite dis-
tance 1 (the London Meteorological Office assumes / = 50 nautical

or geographical miles = 92.76 kilometers),
28 §

A34 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

then from this definition follows

dW) =28,

and by substitution of this value we find

(ie) :
ee Se :
AB= > a nsing+u)v
Let
B be the barometric pressure at a given place,
T the temperature expressed on the absolute scale, that is to say,
PT = 273° 4- t,

then we have
Pa tee B 10333

0” 70° RT?
where 10,533 kilograms is the pressure of one atmosphere.

If we substitute this value of 56,and insert the numerical values of
g =9.806 meters (for g = 45°), o = 13596 kilograms, & = 29.3, then we
find

pt kiss :
AB =j57 q+ p(2nsing + u)v. (I) |

In this formula, J is expressed in meters, B in millimeters, 2» and u
in terms of the radius, v in meters per second of mean time; 2 nis a
constant whose numerical value,

Ar
36164 = 0.0001458, |
we have not inserted in the formula merely for typographic reasons and
convenience.

The equation (I) represents the gradient 4B as a function of the
velocity of the wind in case that the air describes a purely central move-
ment, and has therefore no frictional resistance to overcome, as, also,
that no new masses of air are drawn into the movement.

We will now illustrate the use of this formula by two numerical exam-
ples, whereby, however, it must be remarked that it is only as a first
approximation that it can find an application to actual conditions. For
numerical computations, our formula first acquires a more convenient
form when we put B= 760™, and 7 = 273°, or t equal to 0° Centigrade
or Réaumur, which is always allowable, since the inaccuracies that result
from these assumptions are smaller than those that attend the imperfect
theory itself. We will put the distance / equal to one German mile, or

2271 =

; c v
7.42 kilometers. Finally, if we consider thatwv = >? Where r represents

the distance from the axis of rotation, then the formula becomes
2
JB = 71.875 (0,0001458sin g.0 +~ ).

If we desire to refer the gradient 4B (which will be given in milli-
meters) to the English unit of 50 nautical miles [instead of one German

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 435

mile], then must the value given by this formula be multiplied by 12.
(or 42). .

In the night of January 26-27, 1874, we experienced in Vienna the
most violent storm (from the WNW.) since the establishment of the
hew anemometer. The maximum velocity of the wind attained 31
meters per second (see this Journal, vol. ix, p. 62). The mean velocity
between 7 a. m. and 8 a.m. was 27.5 meters. The synoptic charts of
Captain Hoffmeyer show that on this morning an area of low pressure
(720 millimeters) existed in the neighborhood of St. Petersburg, and that
the gradient toward this point was, in the neighborhood of Vienna, 0.22
millimeter per German mile.

If we put g = 48°, v = 27.5, and r = 1630 kilometers, or about the dis-
tance of Vienna from St. Petersburg, then we find from the preceding

formula:
4B resulting from the earth’s rotation = 0.214

4B resulting from the centrifugal force = 0.033
Therefore the whole 4B = 0.25

We see clearly from this that even the imperfect theory affords a very
approximate value for the barometric differences. It further follows that
the influence of centrifugal force may be neglected in the storms of our
latitude, which generally extend over a very great extent of surface, and
in which the greatest velocity of the wind does not commonly occur in
the neighborhood of the storm-center (or rather of the lowest barome-
tric pressure). For comparison, I will add that the greatest gradients
known to me directly from our telegraphic weather-reports are the fol-
lowing:

1869, November 14, 7 a.m.—Wind WNW., force 10 at Vienna. Gra-
dients: from Vienna to Cracow, 0.22; Vienna to Ischl, 0.28 millimeter
per German mile.

1869, December 2, 7 a. m.—Bora of hurricane force in the Gulf of
Trieste and in the Adriatic: The gradiént from Klagenfurt to Pola was
0.31 millimeter.

We will now consider a tropical whirlwind, and choose that which
devastated the island of St. Thomas on the 21st August, 1871. The
observations show that at distances of about 57 and 111 English miles
from the central point of the whirlwind the pressures were respectively
10 and 17 millimeters higher than in the central calm space, whose radius
was 3.6 English miles. This gives gradients of 0.86 millimeter and 0.60
millimeter for one German mile. If we substitute in the formula the
numerical values g = 28°, vy = 30, r = 57 English miles = 91.7 kilome-
ters, we find

4B as the effect of the earth’s rotation = 0.10
AB as the effect of the centrifugal force = 0.71
4B the total of both influences = 0.81

Therefore, a wind-velocity of only 30 meters suffices to explain the
observed extraordinary difference of pressure, 4B = 0.73, in a distance

436 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

of 57 miles. We further learn from this example that in whirlwinds of
smaller dimensio::s the influence of the centrifugal force many times
exceeds that of the earth’s rotation, so that in these cases the latter, in
low latitudes, may be neglected without great error.

Consequently, in our storms [latitude 50°] the barometric depressions
are principally a consequence of the influence of the earth’s rotation upon
the moving masses of air; in the tropical cyclones, on the other hand,
the depressions are a consequence of the centrifugal force.

Professor Loomis has endeavored to prove that the centrifugal force
can produce no sensible barometric depression. (See his memoir “On
Certain Storms, &c.,” page 24, Smithsonian Contributions.) He computes
for the storm of the 25th December, 1839, in Central Europe, that at a
distance of 400 miles the centrifugal force was, in round numbers, only
sooo Part of gravity, and concludes thence, further, that therefore the
pressure could, on that account, only sink about the 535 = 73%; of an
inch. That this conclusion is wholly erroneous need scarcely be re-
marked, had not the result been quoted in an excellent English hand-
book of meteorology.

In nature, the conditions are not so simple as we have hitherto intro-
duced in our computations. The air does not move in a circular orbit
about the storm-center, but flows toward it in spiral paths. Ferrel
seeks to introduce this spiral movement, and also the frictional resist-
ance, into his computation. We give in the following his presentation
of the subject, but can, for several reasons, not consider it as correct.

When the air flows in toward the center of the cyclone (or in the upper
strata flows away from it), we must in. equation (I) introduce in the
right-hand member another term, /’, which shall represent the resistance
to the movement. Similarly the entire centrifugal force of the curvilin-
ear movement is not now active, but a less force, whose amount we
find by dividing the actual velocity, ru, into two components, one in
the direction of the tangent and the other perpendicular thereto.

If we indicate by 7 the angle between the actual direction of motion
and the tangent, then will the first of these components be represented
by ru cos 4, or v cos i, and the centrifugal force depends only upon this.
We have therefore, now, as a new equation for spiral movements, the
following, in which the value of F remains still to be determined :

(I’) sBazgrq: pe {[2nsing + uocosi4 Ft.

According to the principle of the conservation of areas in the case of
purely central forces, the following equations must obtain in all parts of
a cyclone:

r?(n sin g + uv) = Constant ;
and therefore
—rdu=2(nsin g + u) dr.

The second member of this last equation is the expression of the force

which would strive to preserve a rotatory motion about the center. In

ae eee ee ee eee rc er-

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. AA

case of the absence of every frictional resistance, this entire force will be
applied to the acceleration or retardation of the rotatory movement of
the particles of air according as these are respectively approaching to
or receding from the center. When, however, any friction exists, this
force will be almost exclusively used to overcome this frictional resist-
ance. If, now, we designate this frictional resistance by F’, which acts
in the direction perpendicular to the radius along the portion vcos4
of the path, as we have previously designated by F the resistance

acting in the direction of the radius along the portion a then the

following relations hold good:
dr .

Fis very nearly = 2(n sin ¢ + 2) rt

9 7 9), 5 2
2n sin o 2u
a ¢ ats we do ;
q © COS 7 dt

This latter expression is always positive, and attains its greatest value
in the neighborhood of the earth’s surface, where the frictional resist-
ance is the greatest. With increasing altitude, where only swiftly mov-
ing air rubs against more slowly moving air, the friction rapidly dimin-
ishes, while the angle 7 also approximates to its limiting value of zero.

If, now, we substitute this value of F in the equation (I’), after we
have previously multiplied numerator and denominator by v cos i, we can,
with slight error, eliminate the common factor v cosi (2 nsin ¢g + 4),
whereby the equation acquires the following form:

dr\2

Dagon ; Ga
“Bima . = (2 sin ¢ + w#) v cost ] baN dt ee
j (vcost)?

But since, according to the definition of 7, the ratio a v cost = tangt,

therefore the definitive expression for the gradient in the case of a
spiral movement of the air is as follows:

(11) U B (2nsin g+u)v

; . | BR iE COS 7 2
in which

In reference to this equation (II), we must make the following remarks:
First, that part of the gradient that results from the term 2 nvsin g is
really entirely independent of the angle ¢ or of the direction of the currents
of moving air, but the formula allows it to increase with increasing values
of 7, which must be incorrect. Secondly, the second term which repre-

438 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

sents the influence of the centrifugal force appears to be independent
of i, since the development shows it to be equal to - ‘ 3 = (or, as
P ww cosisect
TP’ * 83000007
the same, excepting, of course, the constant), but in our storms [latitude
50°| almost the only term of influence is the first; therefore from Ferrel’s
formula we should find too large a value for the gradients.

In the latest number of Symon’s Meteorological Magazine (March,
1875), STRACHAN has applied Ferrel’s formula (II) to Toynbee’s charts of
the 5th February, 1870. These latter give the gradients 4B as = 0.114
English inch for each 100 miles; v was estimated as equal to 56 miles
per hour, and since g = 45°, r = 350 miles, i = 45°, therefore the formula
gives 4B = 0.320 which is nearly thrice too large. But if we compute
according to our formula (J), and neglect the centrifugal force, as is
allowable in this case, we find 4B=0.156 inch. Had weused the formula
(I’), and neglected F’, it would have given 4B = 0.160 inch. Therefore,
in both eases, we obtain much more correct values than according to
Ferrel’s formula (II).

We give now in abstract Ferrel’s discussion of formula (II). We have
designated by wu the angular velocity of the rotating mass of air. Be-
sides this rotation, however, in general there is also a movement either
toward or from the center of the cylone; the former occurs in the lower
portion, the latter in the upper portions of the cyclone. The value of 2,
therefore, has opposite signs above and below, and somewhere in the
middle i must entirely disappear, the movement being assumed purely
circular.

The value of i depends mostly upon the friction, but to a certain
extent also upon the inertia of the mass of air in those cases in which
the movement is increasing or diminishing, as in the beginning and end-
ing of the cyclone. It is therefore also greatest over the land and near
the earth’s surface, and comparatively slight at sea, and especially so
in the upper strata of the atmosphere. It further depends on the geo-
graphical latitude, and at the equator we have 7 = 90°, for there can be
there no rotation, but the movements are directly toward or from the
center of a region of expansion or condensation.

The greater the value of #” for the same value of v, so much the
greater will be dr, and therefore also 7. When for different velocities
the friction increases in proportion to the velocity, then must dr increase
in the same proportion (since J” = 2 (nsin g + u) dr) and é remains con-
stant for all velocities as long as w can be neglected in comparison with
n sin ¢, that is to say, for large distances from the center. But nearer
to the center of a cyclone, where w is very large in comparison with
n sin g, dr is very small, and, under the same circumstances, therefore
also the value of 7. For all ordinary winds, the value of 7 is probably
nearly constant for all velocities, and therefore observations for a given

given in the second page of the original, = , which is

A i

ee

—E—————— ee er CC CC

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 439

sort of surface (land, sea, &c.) suffice to determine a value of 7, which

can then be applied to all cases of cyclones of every degree of severity
above a surface of the same kind.

These conclusions agree very well with the results of the investigation
of Clement Ley into the inclination of the wind to the isobars (see this
journal, vol. ix, p. 95). The observations at the English stations gave
a larger value of 7 in the interior of the country than on the sea-coast
and in the upper regions of the atmosphere. Ley further found that
the inclination was the greatest for the ESE. winds, and least for the
WNW. winds, while the mean direction of progress of the cyclones was
from SW. to NE. The inclination, therefore, appears greatest in the
front portion of the cyclone, where masses of air previously at rest must
be first set in motion, and perhaps this is a general law.* It also agrees
with the theory that in the interior of a continent the strong winds
should have a less inclination to the isobars than the weak ones, and
that the inclination is much more constant for strong than for weak
winds, for the strongest winds are to be found in the neighborhood of

2 .
the center of a cyclone where ig large in comparison with vmsin ¢.
Fe

Professor Loomis found the value of i in the United States under north
latitude about 45° much greater than Ley found it for Great Britain

-under north latitude about 50°, This agrees in general with theory.

The somewhat too rapid increase of 7 is, according to Ferrel, to be
ascribed to the greater resistance due to friction in a less cultivated,
wooded country.

The trade wind at a mean latitude of 20° gives an inclination 7 = 20°,
which is very much greater than Ley found at coast stations in England.

In the case of violent tornadoes and waterspouts, where the rotation
takes place very near to the center and with the greatest violence, u is
more important than msin g, and this term can be entirely neglected,
especially in low latitudes. On the other hand, in extensive cyclones and
at a considerable distance from the center, sin g is more important than
u, and the value of 4B depends principally upon the effect of the earth’s
rotation, and only in slight degree upon the centrifugal force that is
called out by the rotation with reference to the earth’s surface of the
mass of air about the center.

In the center of a cyclone. the pressure of the air must be a minimum:
therefore 4B =0; whence also v = 0; and a calm must prevail at the
center.

In large cyclones, up to considerable distances from the center, 4B
attains no great value, and therefore the calm region must have a con-
siderable diameter. In many cyclones, the area of perfect calm attains
a diameter of 30 miles.

In the outer portion of a cyclone, the rotation must necessarily be in

ER IE SS ad TE sn ea eee ee
* But Loomis found the greater inclination in the rear in the American storms (see
this journal, vol. ix, p. 249).

440 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

the opposite direction, and the component v cos ¢ of the rotatory move-
ment must be negative, and therefore 4 B wiil be also negative. Ata
certain distance from the center ot a perfect cyclone, between the center
and the extreme limit, the pressure will bea maximum,and 4 B=0. At
this distance, » = 0, or calms must also prevail. Therefore an area of
high pressure must, in general, be attended by calms. An easy compu-
tation shows that for the same gradients the wind-velocity must sensibly
diminish toward the center. Unfortunately, the observations at hand do
not suffice to test the relation between observed gradients and velocities.

The empirical law of Buys Ballot is, says Ferrel, included in the pre-
ceding expression for 4B. This expression is, however, correct for all
latitudes and inclinations of the wind to the center, where Buys Ballot’s
law no longer applies. With reference to the force or velocity of the
wind, we perceive by a simple inspection of the formula that the velocity
in all parts of a cyclone, for the same constant geographical latitude, is
not alone proportional to 4B, and, further, that in different latitudes
the value of v for the same gradient is nearly inversely proportional to
the sine of the latitude, especially at a considerable distance from the
center. Hence, also, for the same gradients the velocity of the wind is
much greater in the tropics than in higher latitudes. We may add
that Toynbee (see this journal, vol. ix, p. 79, and vol. x, p. 63) had
also previously called attention to this fact, and Blanford had drawn
the same conclusion from the isobars for India. The form in which
we have presented Ferrel’s equation further shows that for equal wind-
velocities the gradient diminishes also with the temperature, but to a
very slight degree. The same result is furthermore brought about to
a very considerable extent in the higher regions of the atmosphere by the
diminishing atmospheric pressure, indeed, the barometric variations
actually do diminish with the altitude, while the wind-velocities do not.

All irregular barometric variations depend almost entirely upon
cyclonic action and are in general caused by the passage of a cyclone
near the place of observation ; hence, at the equator, where no cyclone
can be formed, the irregular barometric variations are scarcely sensi-
ble. On this point, Ferrel quotes the same evidence from Sykes and
Humboldt, as given in Herschel’s Meteorology, that we have ourselves
reprinted on page 12, volume x, of this journal. At the equator, no
cyclone can arise; and therefore in storms the movement of the air at
the earth’s surface is directly toward the center of the area of dimin-
ished density of the atmosphere, and the inertia of the air, as well as the
friction, both overcome by the force that results from an almost imper-
ceptible gradient. Hence, Ferrel also considers that his neglect of the
inertia in the deduction of his formula for the gradient can in any case
only give rise to a very slight error. In a cyclone, the force that results
from the gradient is almost entirely held in equilibrium by the centrifugal
force that arises in consequence of the rotatory motion and the earth’s
diurnal rotation, and so great is the mobility of the air and so slight the

eat yn te

ap

en Le te

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. A441

influence of friction that only a very small part of that force (due to
the gradient) is applied to the preservation of the movement of the air
between the inner and outer portions of the cyclone.

If the friction is proportional to the first power of the velociiy, then
it results from the equation for EF’, that the rotatory movement of the
eyclone, and consequently the value of v, is proportional to the sine of
the latitude, whence the entire difference in pressure between the inner
and any definite exterior portions of the cyclones, or 4B, must be pro-
portional to the square of sin g. Therefore, the mean monthly range of
the barometer must increase with the latitude, and nearly in the ratio
of sin’ g. This also corresponds very well with observation. If we put
the mean monthly range at the poles at 1.6° = 41™™, we obtain the fol-
lowing comparison of the observed values (according to Loomis’s Mete-
orology) and the computed values :

ga 09 309" F450" "650" = 78°
Computed ranse 022 1022" 202 ggnm) gon
Observed range 3 10 25 34 31

A more complete agreement is not to be expected, since other matters
come into consideration besides the influence of latitude. The violence
of the rotation in a cyclone, and consequently also the extent of the
central barometric depression, depends to a very large extent upon the
amount of aqueous vapor that is conveyed into the cyclone, and this
diminishes from the equator toward the poles. On the other hand, the
great cyclones that advance from the lower to the higher latitudes
increase steadily in diameter, and hence the amount of depression at
the center and the amount of the barometric oscillation at any one place
are always greater as we approach the Poles. These two effects mutually
enfeeble each other to a certain extent. In the slight variation of 3
millimeters at the equator is included the diurnal period, which has
exactly this amount. In fact, after eliminating this diurnal period, the
irregular variation becomes equal to zero, corresponding to the theory.
We have here a complete explanation, which has hitherto been wanting,
of the [irregular] barometric variations, and their dependence upon geo-
graphical latitude.

These are the most important consequences in reference to cyclones
that Ferrel (Amer. Jour. Sci., Nov., 1874), in his above mentioned
memoir, deduces from his formula for the gradient. Ie, however, further
applies the same equation to explain also the general distribution of
atmospheric pressure under different latitudes on the earth’s surface.
Wherever in the atmosphere, from any cause whatever, arotatory motion
is set up over a large portion of the earth’s surface, this motion furnishes
a value of uw and of v in the expression previously given for 4B. The
term that depends upon w is, in such a case, very small in comparison
with that which depends upon 2 sin ¢g, and can be neglected. Equally
ean i be put =0, and therefore, also, v be put =ru. A positive v cor-

442 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

responds to a rotation from right to left in the northern hemisphere,
but the contrary in the southern hemisphere. In our hemisphere, 2,
and therefore 4B, will be negative for a motion from left to right; that
is to say, a higher pressure prevails in the center. Ferrel now explains
by his formula the diminution of atmospheric pressure toward the
poles, in that he treats the prevailing easterly movement of the air out-
side of the tropics as “‘ polar cyclones.” In a similar manner originates
the low pressure at the equator and the high pressure in the neighbor-
hood of the tropics between the two great cyclonic movements of the
atmosphere.

We refer those of our readers who are further interested in this part
of Ferrel’s deductions, besides the memoir just reviewed, especially to
the memoir in the number for January, 1861, of Silliman’s American
Journal, 2d series, vol. xxxi, entitled “‘The Motions of Fluids and Solids
Relative to the Earth’s Surface.” We find therein a complete theory
of a new, somewhat complicated, system of atmospheric circulation.*

From this latter, earlier memoir of Ferrel’s, we will here quote some
additional paragraphs having reference to storms, because they present
his views in reference to the origin of storms, which are scarcely to be
inferred from the memoir just reviewed. In the third chapter, “The
Motions of the Atmosphere arising from Local Disturbances,” are found
the following remarks:

Excess of heat or increased amount of aqueous vapor is the first
cause of the ascent of air and the influx from all sides. The inflowing
air ascends, condenses its aqueous vapor, whereby its ascensional power
is further increased, and from this cause the disturbance can continue
for some time. Jor reasons previously given, this process can, in the
equatorial regions, give rise at the most to tornadoes only, and in fact
Reid’s charts show no cyclone traced back to 10° latitude, no typhoon
traced beyond 9°. The greater expansion of the air in consequence of
higher temperature and greater quantity of vapor must without doubt
exert an influence upon the barometric pressure. Notwithstanding this,
that theory is untenable which ascribes all barometric variations to the
condensation of cyclonic vapor, for according to it the variations of
atmospheric pressure would be greatest at the equator. The atmosphere
is exceedingly mobile. Every disturbance of equilibrium will be quickly
restored by an inflow of air, provided no whirl arises. If, therefore, the
earth had no rotation about an axis, then would the non-periodical

* Our author has apparently not had access to the more important and earlier memoir
of Ferrel “On the Motions of Fluids and Solids, &c.,” in “Runkle’s Mathematical
Monthly,” volumes i, ii, and iii; Cambridge and New York; 1857 to 1859. These
volumes, although rare in Europe, are, however, still easily obtained by American
students from Sever & Francis, of Cambridge, Mass., and should be consulted. Copies
of a subsequent separate reprint of this fundamental memoir were published by Ferrel
in 1860. The memoirs referred to by Hann in Silliman’s Journal are to be considered

as elementary expositions of the rigorous equaticns published in the Mathematical
Monthly.—NOTE ADDED BY THE TRANSLATOR,

PQ ess -----_

a ee 5

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 443

barometric variations nowhere be greater than they at present are at
the equator.

When the disturbance of equilibrium is large, but only extends over
a small area, then is the centrifugal force greater than in the case of
extended cyclones. The rotations are then very rapid and close to the
center, as in tornadoes. These occur at times of great heat and calms,
whereby the equilibrium in vertical direction is disturbed. The lower
strata rise upward, a rapid inflow takes place from all sides; and when
the sum of all the initial moments of rotation is not equal to zero, which
will seldom be the case, then must the mass of air near the center exe-
cute rapid rotations, and a tornado is the result. We can well represent
this by the flow of water out of a basin through a hole in the bottom.
When, at the beginning of the motion, the fluid is in perfect rest, the
efflux takes place without rotation; but when the slightest initial rota-
tion is present, then the outflow is accompanied by rapid rotations.

In tornadoes, which are always of small dimensions, the influence of
the earth’s rotation upon the production of rotation is very slight in
comparison with the influence of the initial condition of the atmosphere.
Therefore the direction of the rotatory movement in a tornado is some-
times from right to left, sometimes the reverse. Therefore at the equa-
tor tornadoes can occur, but no great cyclones. In these latter, the initial
condition of the atmosphere is of little consequence in comparison to
the influence of the earth’s rotation, and this latter is constant, while
the former is easily nullified by resistances. Therefore the great cyclones
have a long existence, while the tornadoes, depending principally on the
initial intensity of their rotation, are soon brought to rest by the resist-
ances.

In consequence of the great centrifugal force near the center of a tor-
nado, caused by the rapid rotation, almost a vacuum must exist there.
When, therefore, a tornado passes over a building, the exterior pressure
is suddenly removed, and the air within presses with nearly 10,333 kilo-
grams per square meter; hence is produced a destruction as if by an
explosion.

The progressive motion of cyclones can be explained by the inequality
of the centrifugal forces on the polar and equatorial sides of a cyclone.
The term of the gradient depending on 2 nm sin ¢ is greater on the
polar than on the equatorial side, while the other moments remain the
same. The cyclone, therefore, moves toward the direction of the greater
diminution of pressure or toward higher latitudes. It is therefore not
necessary to assume that a real transfer takes place from the equator to
the pole of the mass of air that forms the cyclone. The deviating force
and the motions are greater on the polar side of the cyclone, and on this
side new portions of the atmosphere are continually drawn into the
movement, since on this side sin ¢ is increasing steadily, while on the
equatorial side the motion ceases by reason of the frictional resistance
and the inertia of the air. Thus the center of the cyclone is continually
being formed anew during the progress toward higher latitudes.

444 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

At the same time, the cyclones in the region of the trade winds follow
the general movement of the atmosphere in these latitudes from east to
west, and similarly in the extropical region they move from west to east.
From the resultants of the two constant forces, the polar tendency of the
cyclones and the influence of the prevailing movement of the atmos-
phere, there result the parabolic paths of the cyclones or their recurving
when they pass from the trade winds into the region of the west winds.

Thus far FERREL.

The influence that a prevailing general current of air exerts upon the
progress of a whirlwind that has entered into it evidently consists in
this, that the masses of air drawn into the whirlwind have to follow two
impuises: one, that which is due to the whirl; and the other, that which
is due to their original movements. Therefore, in the region of trade
winds and on the northwest side of a whirl, the motions are most accel-
erated, but on the opposite side are most retarded, and thereby the
whirl must receive a tendency to progress toward the northwest. I
believe that in its principal feature this agrees also with LOMMEL’S
theory of the recurving of the paths of cyclones on their leaving the
trade-wind region (see this journal, vol. ix, p. 270). The expression,
‘*Stauung der Luft” stowing away or damming up or banking up of the
atmosphere, seems to me also not well chosen. I say also, for one of
the most competent authorities in the study of the theory of storms
writes me in reference to Lommel’s views as follows: “I cannot under-
stand this theory. The northeast trade does not blow when the cyclone
wind prevails. Therefore they cannot bank each other up. It would,
however, be interesting to know whether the tropical cyclones have not
always a maximum of temperature or aqueous vapor on their right-
hand or northeast side. Thisisan anomaly in the distribution of these
elements in the tropical regions, but the cyclones, also, are infrequent
phenomena.”

It would certainly be of the highest interest to know the distribution
of temperature in the trade-wind region during a cyclone, for this would
afford an important test of our storm theories. I believe, however, that
the author of the preceding quotation will find fewer difficulties in my
presentation of the influence of a general atmospheric current upon a
cyclone entering therein. Ido not think that everything is explained
by this and by FERREL’s “ polar tendency,” but certainly both views
ought to be taken into consideration.

[NoTE By THE TRANSLATOR.—Having, in 1865~-’66, had occasion to personally explain
the views of Mr. Ferrel to several astronomers and meteorologists in Europe, and hav-
ing, in 1869-70, delivered popular expositions of the same subject in connection with
the publication of the Daily Weather Bulletin and Forecasts of the Cincinnati Obser-
vatory, the author was peculiarly gratified to be able to present these views to a still
larger circle by the publication, in May, 1871, of his notes on the use of the tri-daily
weather maps of the Signal Service, and would refer American students to the “ Monthly
Weather Reviews” and other publications of that office for innumerable illustrations of
the application of Ierrel’s theory. See also the recent publications of Loomis and Fer-
rel.—C. A.]

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 445

Ee

REPLY BY MR. FERREL TO THE CRITICISMS OF MR, HANN,
[Zeit. Oest. Met. Gesell., x, p. 254, August, 1875.]

In the presentation of Ferrel’s formula (vol. x, Nos. 6 and 7) we have
made certain objections to his method of introducing the friction therein,
to which Mr. Ferrel replies from Washington as follows, in a letter of
the 27th April:

‘“‘The resistance of the earth’s surface to the rotatory movement of
a cyclone can only be overcome by the force that according to the prin-
ciple of the conservation of areas results as soon as the air is constantly
drawn by a centripetal force toward a center. If ata distance of 400
miles from the center of a cyclone the air has no rotatory movement
relative to the earth’s surface, nevertheless, it still has a rotatory move-
ment about the center of the cyclone in consequence of the earth’s rota-
tion, the expression for which is rn sin ¢; or, at the parallel of 45°, a
linear velocity of about 74 miles per hour. Were there no friction, then
would the air when it arrives at a distance of 100 miles from the cen-
ter have a rotatory movement of 4 x 74 = 296 miles; and if we now
subtract the rotatory motion in this distance due to the earth’s rotation,
that is to say, 15.8 miles, we obtain 277.5 miles for the velocity of rota-
tion relative to the earth’s surface, and perpendicular to the radius.
The force which overcomes the inertia and produces this motion is ex-
pressed by

Now, in the case of friction, we have, instead of a rotatory movement of
277.5, one, say, of 40 miles; so that in this case over { of this force is lost
in overcoming the friction, and this gives an approximate measure of
the amount of the frictional resistances.
‘The inertia, like the friction, opposes the force due to the centripetal
movement; therefore, its expression is
pee 3 Raat:
R= '—'9 Th
and we thus obtain the expression for F’ as it is given at the bottom of
p. 99, vol. x.* It must certainly be considered, however, that this is only
an approximate presentation of the frictional resistance, including the in-
ertia of the fluid, in case there occur changes in its velocity; but this latter
isin general only a very small part of the total resistance to movement.
‘‘ As the two components of the friction in the direction of the tangent
and of the radius, we now have
Po: R= = : 0 Cosi,
and this gives F, as at the bottom of p. 99, vol. x,* as an approximate
expression for the effect of friction in the direction of radius. In order

* See page 62.

446 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

that these components may be overcome, there is necessitated an in-
crease in the gradient, and therefore, 4B increases. Substituting the
expression for F, gives the definitive formula for 4B as it is presented
on p. 100, vol. x, and which therefore must be nearly correct, since the
whole effect of the friction upon the ratio between gradient and velocity
is, in general, not-very large, and therefore a part of it can have only a
very slight influence.

‘‘ In the case of spiral movement, 4B diminishes in the ratio of unity to
cosi; but since the expression for F, as we have deduced it, increases
in the ratio of cos’7 to unity, therefore 4B will, in consequence of the
friction, increase more than it diminishes, and therefore cos 7 appears
in the denominator of equation II.

“4B will only be independent of 7 in case that we can show that the
true value of Fis a function such that, being substituted in equation IT,
it causes 4B to increase precisely in the same ratio in which cos 7
diminishes.

“The formulacannot be rigidly tested by comparison with special cases.
For the determination of the gradient we can only use observations at
distant places, which do not allow the consideration of the influence of
numerous local disturbances of slight extent. However, I quote here
certain relations between the gradients and wind velocities from Pro-
fessor Loomis, in American Journal of Science, January, 1875. Each of
these numbers represents the mean of a copsiderable number of obser-
vations. The velocity of the wind is given in English miles per hour;
the gradient in English inches of the barometer per 100 miles of dis-
tance:

Wind-velocity observed .... 10 15 20 25 30 35
Gradient observed ..-...-... 086° “096 "105 2105 124 roe
Gradient computed ........ 043° "067" 092" “1S” Vette ee eae

‘The mean inclination of the wind-direction to the radius is assumed
at 45°, the mean distance from the center of the cyclone at 350 miles, and
the mean geographical latitude at 45°. We see that the observed
gradients, in a slightly regular manner, increase with the velocity of the
wind, because the influence of abnormal disturbances and of other
causes are not completely eliminated. We further see that for a velo-
city of 22 miles the theory agrees with observation. For lower velocities
the theoretical gradient is too small; for larger velocities it is too large.
But in the computation we have assumed that 7 is constant for all velo-
cities. If we assume that for velocities between 10 and 35 miles the
value of 7 is respectively 60° and 35°, then the computed and observed
values agree within the limit of the probable errors of the latter. This,
however, gives a mean value of 7 that is greater than 45°. The theory
cannot be rigidly tested until, by means of observations, the connection
between the wind-velocity and the angle? is established. If we put
cos i = 1, and thus make the gradient 4B independent of the angle 4,
then will all computed values of the gradients be too small.”

ee

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 447

is

SOME REMARKS CONCERNING THE NATURE OF CURRENTS
OF AIR.

By A. CoLpING.

{Translated by Cleveland Abbe and H. L. Thomas, from the Oversigt over det K. Danske Viden-
skabernes Selskabs.... Aaret 1871, page 89, with occasional reference to Hann in Zeitschrift Oest.
Met. Ges., vol. x.]

These remarks are based mainly upon the results of certain investi-
gations into the movement of water in currents* which I had the honor

* [NOTE BY THE TRANSLATOR, FEBRUARY, 1878.—The article G of the present col-
lection gives some idea of the results of Ferrel’s dynamical theory of the winds and
currents on a rotating globe, but as the writings of Colding, Peslin, and others have
considerable merit as being the best that can be done with the purely kinematic theory,
the translator takes pleasure in also presenting their memoirs to American students,
and as a corrective to these would refer to Mr. Ferrel’s criticisms in “ Nature ” for 1871
and 1872, as well as his memoirs of 1856, 1859, and 1877.

The general problem of movement on the earth’s surface was treated of in an imper-
fect way by numerous authors from Hadley and Newton to Laplace and Poisson. The
latter in 1837, in his memoir on the movements of projectiles, among other things,
mentioned the deviation of the projectile to the right produced by the rotation of the
earth, but appears to have overlooked its importance as a dynamic law and to have
derived it from geometrical or kinetic principles.

In 1832, Professor Johnson published, in the American Journal of Science, a memoir
upon his rotascope. In 1851, Foucault presented to the Academy of Sciences of Paris
his famous pendulum experiments, and subsequently his gyroscope. Both these authors
explained the phenomena in question on purely kinetic principles, or on the presumed
law that a rotating body tends to preserve its axis of rotation. Hereupon followed a
long discussion in the Paris Academy (fully reported in the Comptes Rendus, tome
xxxii-li, 1851-1860), in which many eminent men took part. Poinsot and others would
explain the phenomena by the purely geometrical laws of the composition of rotations;
but the dynamics of the problem were exposed by Birnet, C. R., 1851, xxxii, pp. 157 and
197; by Babinet, C. R., 1859, xlix, pp. 638, 686, and 769; Delaunay, C. R., 1859, xli, p.
688; and Poncelet, C. R., 1860, li, pp. 467 and 511.

Meanwhile the gyroscope also was exciting renewed attention in the United States,
and an original and satisfactory investigation of its phenomena (the first that I know
of based on correct general dynamical principles) was published by Ferrel in 1856 in
the ‘“ Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery,” vol. xi (see also in “ Gould’s Astron.
Jour.” and in “ Runkle’s Math. Monthly”). Of other investigations I note only one
(kinetic and not dynamic), by General J. G. Barnard, in Am. Jour. Sci. (several papers
from 1855 to 1859), see also his ‘‘ Problems of Rotary Motion” in the Smithsonian Con-
tributions, xix, and his article “Gyroscope” (where fundamental principles are intro-
duced) in Johnson’s Cyclopedia, N. Y., 1877; also, Snell on the “ Rotascope” in Ann.
Rep. Secretary of the Smithsonian Inst., 1855.

Mr. Ferrel’s paper on the gyroscope was immediately preceded by his first essay
(1856) on the winds and oceanic currents, an elementary paper published in the same
volume of the Nashville Journal. His more elaborate mathematical memoir was fin-
ished in 1858, and published during 1859 and 1860, as ‘‘ The Motions of Fluids and Solids
Relative to the Earth’s Surface,” in the Mathematical Monthly; separate copies, with
a few additional words, were struck off in 1860. This memoir of 72 pages has been
further elaborated into “ Meteorological Researches, Part I,” published by the United

448 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

to lay before the society in the year 1869, and which may now be found
among the memoirs published by the Danish Society, 5th series, vol. 9,
part III. In that dissertation I showed that if a current of water moves
on a cylindrical surface perpendicular to its rectilinear elements, the
current of water having the depth H, and the surface of the current
moving with the velocity V, then the velocity of the current at the
depth a, beneath the free surface of the water, may be represented by

(1) v= rq: — 0.433 é )

when the resistance to the motion of the water is of the same magnitude
as that which would be offered by an underlying mass of water to the
current running above.

In the present case, we will assume the cylindrical surface in ques-
tion to be a vertical surface of revolution, A X Y B, Fig. 1, within which
the current of water moves in the FIG. I.
direction indicated by the arrows.
Let C Z be the axis of the cylin- A
der, and aa, b, b be the free sur-
face of the current, which is at
the distance aZ =a,C = a from
the axis, and at the distance
Aa=Xa,=H from the exte-
rior surface A X Y B, upon whicb
the current rotates. If itis now
assumed that the free surface
aa, b,b rotates with the velocity
V about the axis C Z, then any
element of the current which is at the distance m Z =m, C =r from
the axis, and at the distance m a = m, a, = x from the free surface of the
current, as I have previously shown, will move with the velocity v, as
determined by formula (1), when the rotating current is surrounded by
an exterior mass of water which resists the rotation. It can then be
further shown that within this rotating volume of water there is a funnel-
shaped surface a a, b; 2, bounded within by the inner cylindrical surface
aa, b, b, and without by the outer cylindrical surface A X Y B, in which
the pressure at all points is equal; but, beside this level surface, there
is an endless number of other level surfaces in the fluid, both above and
below the surface «a,b, All these surfaces are, meantime, so situ-

States Coast Survey, 1877. For other papers on this subject by the same author see Am.
Jour. Sci., 1861, 1874; Nature, 1871, iv, p. 226; 1872, v, p. 384; 1872, vi, p. 432. Of
additional recent literature relating to motions upon the earth we will only mention
Hansen, Theorie der Pendelbewegung, 1856; E. Thomson, Rep. B. A. A. S., 1857; D.
Vaughan, Rep. B. A. A. S., 1859; Everett, L. D. E. Phil. Mag., 1871; also in his trans-
lation of Deschanel’s Philosophy; Colding, Danske Vid. Skab., 1863, 1871; Nature,
Ic71, v, pp. 71, 91, and 112; Schmidt, Vienna Mitt. Geog. Gesell., 1877; Finger, Vienna
Monatshefte, 1877; Guldberg and Mohn, Etudes sur les Mouvemens de )’Atmosphére,
Christiania, 1876; Zeit. Oest. Met. Gesell., 1876, 1877.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 449

ated that, by moving from the level surface a a, b; 8 upward parallel with
the axis of rotation C Z, we intersect the entire series of level surfaces
which is formed in the rotating volume. For each of these level sur-
faces, the pressure upon a unit of surface is constant; but when we go
from one level surface to the next, the pressure diminishes as we go
upward, while it increases as we go downward toward the ground
plane XY.

In order to prove the correctness of this statement, we will consider
an element of the rotating fluid, which is at the distance r from the
axis of rotation, and which moves with a velocity of v. If we consider
the direction C Z as positive, we shall, as is well known, have, since p
indicates the pressure upon a unit of surface for the element in ques-
tion,

dp =p ( —gdz+ 7 ar),

where p indicates the density of the fluid and g the force of gravity. For
each of the level surfaces of the fluid, the pressure p is constant, and
dp = 0, therefore

2
g dz =H. dr, or 9S (2)

independently of the density ». From this equation, together with
equation (1), are deduced, directly, the above-stated propositions con-
cerning the level surfaces of the rotating volume of water. If the
expression for the current’s velocity v, as given by equation (1), is sub-
stituted in equation (2), and this equation is then integrated by making
yr =a-+ 42, and, for the sake of brevity,

x=[1 0.188 (4,) |nat log (1+5)
3 = aE
ro a 2 f sieeest a x
1a (4) fEsoatt JF (8-H)
ox & LIN? eh Sih d G 2
+ 0.0025 | (gr) —Sant 2 Gr) |

72
=a t see (3)

we obtain

in which the arbitrary constant 2) represents the value of 2 for x = 0,
so that formula (3) is the equation for any plane surface in the rotating
fluid.*

If we now consider formula (1), which is applicable to water, together
with formula (3), which is based upon the same, while formula (2) is of
general application, we shall see that in a rotating volume of water the
velocity of the rotation increases from the exterior surface of such vol-

* NOTE BY THE TRANSLATOR.—The above formule neglect the influence of the rota-
tion of the earth, and are therefore applicable stric‘ly only to tornadoes and small
cyclones, or to cyclones within the tropics.—C. A.

29's

450 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

ume toward the center, but ceases just at the inner cylindrical surface
(since the velocity becomes imaginary) for all values of 7 < a, to which,
also, according to (3), correspond only imaginary level surfaces. By
passing crosswise through such a rotating volume, one therefore meets,
as is easily seen, with conditions which harmonize with what is known
concerning hurricanes in the tropics, since the velocity of rotation in
the hurricane increases from the exterior inward toward the axis up to
a certain distance a from the same, where the hurricane reaches its
greatest violence, but beyond which even the most violent hurricane
is thereafter suddenly succeeded by an absolute calm, which continues
until one has passed to an equally great distance « beyond the axis. At
the instant when that distance is passed, the hurricane recommences
with the same violence as at the moment preceding its cessation, but
from the opposite quarter, and from this time forth the force of the
hurricane decreases in the same ratio as it had previously increased.
But in another respect also a remarkable agreement is found between
the rotating volumes of water under consideration and the rotating vol-
ume of air ina hurricane. It appears, namely, from formula (3) that
since the pressure upon a unit of surface of cach level surface is equal
at all its points, and the pressure upon every point of the surface a a, 0, f,
for which 2 = 0, is equal to tho pressure at a, b; in the ground plane XY,
therefore the pressure must increase as we move over the ground plane
XY from the surface a, b; toward the extericr surface XY of the rotating
volume. If we are at the arbitrary distance C m, =r from the axis CZ,
we have above us, beside the pressure at the point a,, the pressure of a
column of water of the height m,o = 2, and it is therefore evident that
the excess of pressure at the distance r=a-+t # from the axis above
the pressure in the calm space in the center of the rotating volume is
expressed by the weight of a column of water of the height z, as deter-
mined by formula (3).

As now it is known, from the observations which have been made dur-
ing the prevalence of hurricanes, that conditions are met with in these
rotating masses of air which correspond exactly to those which I have
pointed out in rotating masses of water, and as, moreover, I have shown
in a former paper, which will be found at page 1 of the Selskabets
Oversigter for Aaret 1865, that the laws of the movements of aériform
bodies may be said, within the limit of accuracy with which the experi-
ments on the movements of fluids have hitherto been made, to be identi-
cal with the laws which govern the movements of liquids, if only the
diminution of pressure that occurs is represented by a column of the
fluid under consideration ;—I, therefore, believe that there is ground for
the assumption that formula (1) will hold good not only for water, but
also for the movement of gases when the rotating mass is surrounded
by an exterior mass of air which resists its rotation. Experience must
decide whether I am right or not in basing my theory upon this hypothe-
sis. For the purpose of examining at once how far this theory of atmos-

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. A51

pherie whirlwinds harmonizes with nature, I will compare its results with
the phenomena that were observed at St. Thomas, August 2, 1837, when
the so-called Antigua hurricane, which is described by Professor Dove
in Poggendorfi’s Annalen der Physik, vol. 52, passed over the island,
causing fearful havoc both there and on the island of Porto Rico, which
is situated at a distance of 20 Danish miles* from St. Thomas.

The phenomena observed as prevailing during the hurricane were,
according to Professor Dove, as follows:

1837. St. Thomas. 1837. Porto Rico.

Time. Direction of wind. Time.

Barometric
pressure.
Direction of

wind

Barometric
pressure

eS
3
=

SCOOOOWMDOOMDODD GMs as IIAAAMINEWWWa:
cs
uo

PATIO USE essen cea ee ya
INURE asso seoposbeeoe =e E

on
nN
ic]

=
-
wo
oO
wo

20
Nea;
ori
72]
&

~~
S
So
Ss
a)
os
co
ia
ci
iva
le>/e|
:
‘
'
'
'
‘
'
‘
‘
‘
‘
'
m
oO
r—)
S
~
_
ca
‘
'
‘

* Hurricane.

In view of the above data, we may consider that the hurricane raged
from the northwest until the calm space reached the island, and that it
again suddenly burst forth from the southeast after its center had passed
St. Thomas. The progressive movement of the hurricane, which, from
general experience, we may consider as having been uniform during the
time of its passage over the island, may therefore be assumed to have
been in a west-southwesterly direction toward Porto Rico. If we now
observe that in such a rotating mass the pressure of the air must be
considered as equal at all points that are equidistant from the axis of

* The Danish mile is equal to about 4} English miles.

452 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

rotation, and if we next observe that at the time when the center of
the hurricane passed over St. Thomas, at about 8 o’clock, the pressure
of the air there was 316 lines, while at Porto Rico it was 333.3 lines, we
shall see that. at a distance of 20 (Danish) miles from the axis of the
hurricane, the pressure of the air was 17.3 lines greater than at the cen-
ter. But if we farther consider the foregoing table of air pressures, it
will be seen that, while the hurricane was approaching St. Thomas, the
pressure of the air there was, at 4.15 a. m., equal to the pressure at Porto
Rico at 8 o'clock, and that this pressure of the air was again reached at
St. Thomas at 11 a. m., when the hurricane was leaving tbe island. In
the course of 62 hours (from 4.15 until 11 o’clock) the hurricane moved
about 40 miles (Danish). Its velocity was, therefore, about 6 miles per
hour, and this agrees, in a measure, with an observation made on the
island of Porto Rico at 12 o’clock, according to which the center of the
hurricane seems to have traversed a distance of 20 miles in about four
hours.

In the annexed Figure 2, I have, according to the foregoing table of

|
i Ps: Coe
sala
2 |
roy 4 i SEE COEESEAEESL
reo PtH WANN OSKEG CEAREY SERENS NREEEOEEEED
ana PONT oA RPRKEGHAYGKT GEAEEGHGRERUGEAKEGESUL
225 PeeeeeCeeee eee PE ry SEREES LENEOS REE POOLE A apg
LO HINAIALU ABBE N I MARU Un UDOT GRERERGHEREOAESRORGRORGT
Meee ort roo oi MY MEARRUHENEOD SRRREN OR OUEL HEE
MEAEH EBLE CoCo eNO aS FUNG LG Coo er
Seer HURUUELEAUREAGHUH | BUBUAEAGRBRE HEARD CHEEEAAEEERY CREEEE
sah CH Peo Poon ERE THE Choo HaunEE Ct Ha9q
ro HANEAGHEECREN SL BUNIRGy SRUBRUEENFRUURE UDELL OED AEH LE
HeCHEEEHEErHE Cre BRARESORSGNSERREAEERL IMRGERERE AUREL RECCHECEEEeE EEC Ht
PP ABR GO AEOBADG RARE HBA cl CNREUNE AESNGEAERERR RARER CTT Hag
MIDNIGHT AUG.2.1837, 5 = ; 2 = NOON = a *

atmospheric pressures, observed on the island of St. Thomas during
the hurricane, represented the time of observation, expressed in hours,
as the abscissa, and the observed pressure of the air, indicated by
the height of the mercury, expressed in lines, as the ordinate to a
curve, corresponding to the pressures of the air prevailing during the
hurricane. By the aid of the points thus designated, I have subse-
quently drawn the two branches of the curve as given, which, judging
from the entire series of observations, may be considered as correspond-
ing to the pressures of the air which were really exerted during the hur-
ricane; and since I have commenced with the lowest pressure (316 lines)
that was exerted while the center of the hurricane was passing over St.
Thomas, it is evident that the curve thus constructed may be compared
with the previously mentioned curve «a a, b, &, fig. 1, the equation of
which, with rectangular co-ordinates, is:
2
ao NE (4)
g

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 4538

As we have seen that the progress of the hurricane may be computed
to have been equal to six miles per hour, I have divided the hour into
six parts; each of these parts, therefore, corresponds to a length = 1
mile, and the given curve may thus be considered as representing the
atmospheric pressure across the entire mass of air composing the hurri-
cane. With reference to the curved line thus constructed, I will remark
that the curve everywhere lies within the limits of the probable error,
since it is expressly stated in Professor Dove’s description that the
barometer was in such a state of agitation that the mercury, at every
violent gust, suddenly fell two lines, but rose immediately afterward to
its usual height.

The first thing that we now perceive, when we cast a glance at the
two branches of the given curve, is that these may be considered as
symmetrical curves with reference to the vertical line C Z, which passed
over St. Thomas at 7" 52™; and this symmetry therefore authorizes us
to consider the line C Z as the axis around which the rotation took
place. In view of this, we may assume that the radius of the circum-
seribing cylinder of the calm space in the middle of the hurricane was
_ a@=0.4 hours = 2.4 miles. And if we next suppose that the rotating
mass proper extended over the entire space, in which the pressure
decreased proportionately inward toward the eenter, and especially
that the rotating mass reached outward to the point where the pressure
of the air was only two lines less than the normal pressure (336/’), we
may make the radius of the exterior circumscribing surface of the
rotating mass (4 + H) = 4.4 hours = 26.4 miles; and, as a consequence
thereof, the thickness H of the rotating mass = 24 miles. During the
prevalence of the Antigua hurricane, the radius, therefore, of the space
where there was no wind was a = 0.1 H. And since the radius of any
element of the rotating mass is designated by r =a + a, it will further
be easy, according to the constructed curve, to determine the amount
of pressure that was exerted at the places in the hurricane which cor-
respond to values of x equal successively to

01H; 02H; 03H; 04H; 0.5 H; 0.75 H; and H.

By seeking in the figure the corresponding pressures given by the
curve for the increasing hurricane, we find the heights

z= 6.0; = 10.3; = 13.0; = 14.8; = 16.0; = 17.5; = 18.4 Paris lines.

And by looking for these pressures in the curve of the abating hurri-
cane, we find

2 = 6.65 = 10.6; = 13.4; = 15.2; = 16.2; = 17.5; = 18.2 Paris lines,
from which are obtained, as mean numbers,
2 O.03— 10.45 —= 13.25 <= 15.05 — 16M: 317.5; — 18.3, Paris, lines.

If we now consider the formula (4), in which X has the value deter-
mined by the formula (3), which value is seen to be a real number, we

454 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

may, in like manner, easily compute the pressure 2, corresponding to
the above given values of « and a. Computing the value of z, we get,

72 2
ai O65 est) 0b Uo ueeetias a. senate
g 9 J 6
72 Vi2 2
LD pga Ve geepmnt 2 4\qy Meat
J 9 J

If we now institute a comparison between the computed and the
observed values of z, it becomes evident that the computed values stand
in a constant ratio to the observed values, as would be the case if the
theory which has been advanced concerning atmospheric whirlwinds is
correct. If we therefore make the computed values of ¢ equal to the
corresponding observed pressures 2, we get several equations, which

2
may serve to determine the constant (}) , and thus we obtain, as a

72

mean number: V = 9.76 Paris lines. If this mean value is substituted

72
in the formula (4) for 7 it is easy to compute the pressures which cor-

respond to the distances

e=0;0=01H; = 02H; 03H; 0.4 7; = 0.5 Bs 07D Oe
These computed pressures are thus found to be:

2=0; = 6.34; =10:35; =12.98; = 14.745 — 16.015) — 7.80) nee

while the above observations gave

2=05— 6.3; =10 4; = 15.2; = 19.0; — 164 io, — 6-0, ons
So complete an agreement is therefore seen between the observed and

the computed pressures at every place in the hurricane that we may

draw the conclusion that the formula (4) is correct, and that the correct-

ness of the theory is confirmed by nature. But if the theory is correct,
and we therefore, for the hurricane now under consideration, have the

9

jm

pressure = 9.76 Paris lines = 22.0 millimeters of mercury = 710 feet

of air, it then further follows that the greatest velocity of the hurricane
was: V = 149 feet (47.6 meters) per second, or something’ near to the
greatest hurrieane velocity of which we have any knowledge, which also
agrees with the violence with which the Antigua hurricane raged.

We are now further able to determine the limits of the hurricane
proper, a term which is usually considered to apply to winds that have
velocity of 120 to 150 or more feet per second; for if in formula (1) we
make v=120 feet, and V=149 feet, we find the required distance
v= 0.53 H =12.7 miles. The hurricane proper began, therefore, at about
half past five o’elock at a distance of about fifteen miles from the axis,
and ceased at half past ten o’clock, or two and one half hours after the

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 455

axis of the hurricane had passed St. Thomas. In Professor Dove’s
paper, the statement is made that the hurricane began at 53 o’clock
and ceased at 114, which statement, however, is supposed to have
been made only by estimate; at all events, experience in this matter
seems to correspond pretty well with what is obtained by computation.
If, in conclusion, we seek the velocity with which the outer portion of
the mass rotated, we find, according to formula (1), by therein making
x = H, that the required velocity was 84.5 feet = 27.4 meters per sec-
ond, or 12.6 miles per hour. If this velocity is compared with the pro-
gressive velocity of the hurricane, which we have found to be about 6
miles per hour, it is seen that the rotating mass advanced with a rapid-
ity which was about half as great as its exterior velocity of rotation.
This circumstance points to another which we may observe when a cur-
rent of water runs, for instance, through the arch of a bridge into some
still water below the bridge. In such a case, I have had occasion to
observe that, between the current and the still water, eddies are formed,
which move forward, as if rolled by the passing current of water toward
the still water, and I have found that the advancing velocity of the
mass was pretty nearly half as great as its outer velocity of rotation,
which latter was about equal to the velocity of the passing current of
water.

I have, unfortunately, not been able to study the movement of
rotating masses of water more thoroughly; but since it seems that the
laws governing their movement harmonize with those which govern the
movement of atmospheric whirlwinds, I think that a careful examina-
tion of rotating masses of water would, in all probability, throw much
light upon the movements of hurricanes.

Let us now consider a fluid, water for instance, which is considered as
rotating uniformly around a vertical axis; but let us disregard the rota-
tion, just as we usually disregard the rotation of the earth with which
we move. There will then be an equilibrium at each of the level
surfaces of the fluid, and each particle that is upon such a level surface
will, when no other forces disturb the equilibrium, be at rest, independ-
ently of the rotation. If we now imagine ourselves to be sailing in a
boat upon the free surface of the water, or upon any level parallel
thereto, for instance, upon the level which is designated in Fig. 1 by the
letters aa, b, 2, while the boat is supposed to rotate with the velocity of
the water, it is clear that, since the level surfaces are, normal to the
resultant of the acting forces, we may sail over the level surface in ques-
tion just as easily as we can sail upon a horizontal surface of still water,
which is acted upon only by the force of gravity.

If this is the case, and if we next consider a body of water which,
being contained in a reservoir, has a horizontal surface, upon which only
the force of gravity is uniform, and imagine a new mass of water to be
let into the reservoir at a certain point, the previous equilibrium is
destroyed by the entering water, and does not return until the water

456 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

has become uniformly distributed under a new horizontal surface lying
somewhat higher. If, on the contrary, a permanent stream flows into the
reservoir, the conditions are changed, since the surface of the water does
not come to a permanent stand until the influx and the efflux hold each
other in equilibrium; then, however, the surface of the water in the
reservoir, as well as every other level surface, has a descent toward the
efflux, which descent will then obtain over the upper surface of the
whole reservoir when the latter is full to the brim, and the point of
influx is, for instance, in the middle of the bottom of the reservoir. In
perfect accord with this also must be the condition in a permanently
rotating fluid, when a constant influx into it is taking place; for if a
permanent influx goes on from without at any point of a rotating mass
of water or other liquid, the pressure in the rotating mass will be
increased at all points, since the surface of the water, and, at the same
time, all the parallel level surfaces of constant pressures, must neces-
sarily take a higher stand, and an inclination to the original surfaces of
equilibrium corresponding to the influx from the point of influx outward
in all directions in which the fluid can flow away.

If this is correct, however, and we further consider that a rotating
mass of air can resist the external atmospheric pressure only when the
velocity of rotation is of a-determined magnitude, it will also be readily
seen, both that a great quantity of air must flow from without to the
rotating mass along the surface of the earth, and that this permanent
current of air must again flow away to the outside in the direction of
the level surfaces. When, furthermore, such a rotating mass of air
moves over the surface of the earth, it meets with manifold resistances,
which diminish its velocity of rotation, and give rise to those violent
gusts that are observed during the prevalence of hurricanes. The
diminution, thus occasioned, of the velocity of rotation at the surface of
the earth, then gives the superiority to the external pressure, and this pro-
duces both the aforementioned afflux of external air and the compression
of the air in the lower parts of the mass, whereby, on the other hand, the
air is again gradually driven away toward the exterior along the level
surfaces in proportion to its inflow below toward the center of the whirl.

This explains the screw-shaped formation which is very often observed
during the prevalence of small whirlwinds, water-spouts, &c., siace the
mass of air which rushes in from without along the surface of the earth
must, while so rushing in, be set into rotatory motion by the whirlwind.
It hereby also becomes evident that in a whirl the direction of the wind
along the surface of the earth cannot be perpendicular to the radius of
rotation, but on the contrary, and its inclination has been quite correctly
adduced by some meteorologists as a proof that an influx of air toward
the axis does occur in whirlwinds. It is manifest that the masses of
air which rush in along the surface of the earth must have, as is actually
observed in nature, a tendency to diminish the velocity of rotation and
to increase the diameter of the rotating mass.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 457

After having shown, as I have previously done, that the same laws
that govern the movements of water in general also govern the move-
ments of currents of air, and, after having shown in this paper, that the
same laws that govern the movements of water in canals and free cur-
rents in the sea also govern the movements of the large masses of air
which form hurricanes, I consider it almost as a necessary consequence
that currents of water in the sea aud currents of air in the atmosphere
are subject to the same natural laws. Basing my theory henceforth
upon the correctness of this assumption, I shall now endeavor briefly to
point out how the great currents of air, which are subject to the same
laws as the corresponding currents in the sea, move in the atmosphere.

Just as I endeavored, in my former paper on marine currents, to show
that the first cause of those general currents must be sought in the faet
that the tropical heat, by warming the water of the sea, diminishes its
specific gravity to such an extent that its surface is forced to rise toa
greater height in the tropics than can be consistent with the equilibrium
of the water, thus I also believe that it is proper, generally, to assume
that the main currents in the atmosphere are caused by the fact that
the air, by reason of its diminished density under the equator, is forced
to rise to a considerably greater height than can be consistent with
equilibrium in respect to the masses of air which are outside of the
tropical regions. Because the height of the atmosphere within the trop-
ics is greater than it is elsewhere, the level surfaces in the upper por-
tions of the atmosphere of the northern hemisphere have an inclination
toward the north, and since the air must follow the inclination, this
upper portion of the atmosphere must move in a northerly direction in
the northern hemisphere. In this manner is produced an equatorial
current of air, which is called the anti-trade-wind; but, during the move-
ment of this current toward the north, the force of the earth’s rotation
makes itself felt and carries the movement more and more over in an
easterly direction. While the air under the equator thus rises and
rushes away toward the north pole and south pole in the upper portions
of the atmosphere, the colder and heavier masses of air, impelled by
the force of gravity, rush from the north and south along the surface of
the earth toward the equator, because the level surfaces in the lower
portions of the atmosphere have an inclination toward the equator, since
the pressure of the air is greater outside of the tropics than under the
equator; but of course the rotation of the earth again exerts its influence,
and gradually changes the north wind, which seeks its way down toward
the equator, into a northeasterly wind, which we call the northeast
trade-wind, and concerning which I will here remark that it is probably
this colder current of air that, by its contact with the ascending calm
damp masses of air within the tropics, produces the violent hurricanes,
with their frightful electric discharges and immense falls of rain, which
occur in West Indian waters.

As the upper currents of air in the atmosphere get beyond the tropics,

458 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

the air grows heavier, and gradually (in the northern hemisphere) breaks
its way toward the north, alongside of the cold currents of air which
move toward the equator. On account of the force of the earth’s rota-
tion, the equatorial current of air thus appears as a southwesterly wind,
while the polar current of air appears as a northeasterly wind in the
northern hemisphere; and thus we see both of these currents are deflected
by the force of the earth’s rotation, as is the case with the currents of
the sea. On both sides of any equatorial current there naturally runs a
polar current of air in a southerly direction, and on both sides of every
polar current in like manner an equatorial current in a northeasterly
direction, and so on round the entire globe.

If we now direct our thoughts to two of these neighboring currents,
which move side by side in diametrically opposite directions, and if we
suppose that the polar current moves upon the west side of the equa-
torial air-current which is under consideration, it is evident, from what
I have elsewhere previously shown in relation to the Gulf Stream and
the polar current which runs west of it, that both the currents of air in
question are constantly tending to separate from each other. Since they
do not separate, however, the consequence is that while this tendency
exists, a rarefaction of the air takes place between the two currents, and
in consequence thereof the pressure of the air diminishes toward the
dividing surface between these currents, whereby, at every point of the
currents referred to, precisely that reaction is caused which is required
for the preservation of equilibrium with the force of rotation. From the
dividing surface between the aforesaid currents of air, the atmospheric
pressure must therefore increase toward both sides, if the currents are
to continue their course in their diametrically opposite directions, and
the increase of pressure in air-currents for any transverse distance J from
the dividing surface can, if it is measured by a column of air = h, be
computed according to a formula previously given, as applicable to
ocean currents, viz: *

h_sindsin?w.v -

lag iq ISHOU ane? (°)
in which v denotes the velocity of the air-current at the latitude 0, and w
the angle which the direction of the current forms with the east point
of the circle of latitude, — the whole in accordance with the formula (70)
in my dissertation upon marine currents.t What has been stated shows
that the atmospheric pressure in these currents, when they are of the
same density, must diminish toward the common dividing surface of the

* NOTE BY THE TRANSLATOR.-—This formula should have been
h a
g ae 2nvsin ¢,

as has been pointed out by Ferrel and Hann. Colding’s error resulted from having
considered but a portion of the effect of the earth’s rotation—an error that also pervades
his elaborate memoir on ocean currents. See Ferrel in ‘ Nature,” 1871, iv, p. 226, and
1872, v, p. 384.

t{An abstract of this memoir is given in ‘‘ Nature,” vol. v, p. 71 et seqg.—C. A.]

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 459

currents, and that the level surfaces of these currents must necessarily
have an inclination toward the common boundary, quite in accordance
with what takes place in marine currents ; hence it further follows that
since the magnitude of the gap formed between the level surfaces of
the two currents is dependent upon the velocity of these currents, any
chance stoppage of one of these currents will cause it to impinge against
the other, either from the NW. or the Sli., thus producing an eddy
which moves “against the sun.” It is evident that so long as the cur-
rent in question continues its motion, the force of the earth’s rotation
maintains equilibrium with that force which corresponds to the inclina-
tion of the level surfaces toward the dividing surface between the two
currents; but, as soon as the motion is diminished, the force of gravity
gets the upper hand, and an eddying movement is inevitable. It must
now be considered, however, that the density is usually different for the
two currents under consideration, since the polar air-current is generally
of greater specific gravity than the equatorial current, and the relation
between the two air-currents is therefore, in all respects, quite in
barmony with the relation which I have pointed out between the Gulf
Stream and the polar current along the coast of America. Since, namely,
the pressure in the upper part of the atmosphere for the two currents
cannot be very different, the pressure in the lower part of the atmos-
phere must be different for air-currents of different specific gravities;
and since two essentially different pressures cannot exist by the side of
each other, the consequence is that the current baving the greater spe-
cific gravity must flow sidewise into the current having the less specific
gravity, in proportion to the excess of pressure. Since now, as has been
said, the polar current usually has the greater specific gravity of th»
two currents, it follows that, in proportion to the excess of pressure of
the polar current above the equatorial current running east of the same,
under otherwise undisturbed atmospheric conditions, a considerable
portion of cold air will rush from the northwest into the equatorial cur-
rent, whose air-pressure is thereby increased as far as the cold air pene-
trates. It is, however, at the same time, evident that the cold air which
thus penetraies will, as soon as it penetrates into the warm air, which
is full of aqueous vapors, produce a condensation of these vapors, from
which a cold rain from the northwest or west will result. It must also
be evident from the foregoing that under disturted atmospheric condi-
tions eddying winds may likewise be formed, which, under extraordinary
circumstances, may increase to tornadoes or hurricanes, with all the
corresponding natural phenomena.

We have now considered the natural conditions that must present
themselves upon the west side of an equatorial current when a polar
current runs alorg it toward a southwesterly direction, and we will now
proceed to examine what must be the conditions upon the east side of
such an equatorial current when a polar current runs alongside of it in
an opposite direction toward the southwest. In the first place, it is

460 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

clear that since the equatorial current moves in a northeasterly direc-
tion, it will be affected by the force of rotation; and therefore this cur-
rent, as already remarked, cannot pursue the given direction unless the
air-pressure increases from west to east right across the current, as for-
mula (5) requires. But, on the other hand, it is also evident from what
has been said that the polar current running east of the same is like-
wise unable to pursue the given direction unless the air-pressure in this
current similarly increases from east to west, according to the law laid
down in formula (5). Ifor these two currents, therefore, the level sur-
faces have an ascent toward each other, and hence it results that both
currents are kept braced against each other by the force of rotation,
while each of them seeks to crowd the other out of its place. If cur-
rents of air are of different specific gravities, the one having the greater
specific gravity must, as in the foregoing case, penetrate into the other;
and since it is generally the polar current whose specific gravity is the
greater, this stream will usually penetrate from the southeast into the
equatorial current, and give rain from the southeast or south. An
essential difference between the conditions upon the east side of the
equatorial current and the condition upon the west side of the same is
that while the air-pressure upon the west side of the equatorial current
is always relatively low, the pressure upon the east side of the same
current is always relatively high. The most remarkable difference, how-
ever, is perhaps this, that although in the region between the equatorial
current and the polar current which runs east of it calms may occur
similar to those which the great air-whirls produce upon the west side
of the equatorial current, yet a whirlwind of any magnitude can never
be formed upon the east side of the equatorial current, because the force
of gravity here works in the same direction as the centrifugal force, thus
tending to scatter the masses of air, while upon the west side it works
against the centrifugal force and holds the masses of air together. If
we now further consider that, in the very nature of the case, the rota-
tory movements that take place upon the east side of an equatorial cur-
rent must be “against the sun,”-while those which occur upon the west
side of such a current must be “ with the sun,” the reason is at once
seen why all revolving tornadoes and hurricanes must rotate against
the sun in the manner which experience has shown.

If we now imagine ourselves to be in a polar air-current, and moving
under normal conditions across it in a westerly direction toward the
equatorial current, we shall, according to the preceding, from a relatively
cold and dry northeasterly wind, with a high barometric pressure, grad-
ually find the wind, under a rising air-pressure, changing to an easterly
direction, and afterward, under a slightly diminishing air-pressure,
changing into a rainy but somewhat milder southeasterly wind. Under
a constantly diminishing air-pressure, with milder and moister air, the
wind passes through the south over to the southwest, and we then find
ourselves in the southwesterly equatorial current, in which the state of

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 461

the barometer is low and the temperature relatively high. If we now
go farther toward the west, the pressure of the air diminishes con-
stantly, but no change takes place in the direction of the wind. Gradu-
ally, however, the pressure of the air begins to rise, while the wind
shifts round more to the west and grows somewhat colder. During a
constantly rising atmospheric pressure, the wind passes through the
west, and becomes a cold, rainy, northwest wind. If we continue our
progress toward the west, the pressure of the atmosphere rises still
higher, the wind shifts round more to the north, the air becomes clear,
and we come at last, under a constantly rising atmospheric pressure,
through a northerly wind into the next northeasterly polar current. If
we move in the contrary direction, ¢. e., from west to east, these phe.
nomena will, of course, be reversed. What I have desired hereby te
show is, that if we travel from east to west, when everything is ina
normal state, we shall see the direction of the wind gradually change
in the manner stated by Professor Dove in his well-known law of rota-
tion, according to which the wind most frequently turns in a direction
with the sun, and that by traveling in an opposite direction, from west
to east, we shall see the direction of the wind change according to the
opposite law. Now, since Dove’s law of rotation has been confirmed, in
the main, by the observations which have been made in various coun-
tries,* one is led to assume that the atmosphere has a movement some-
times from west to east, and sometimes from east to west around the
earth, which seems in itself to be quite probable, but one is led, at the
same time, to the conclusion that the easterly movement is the pre-
ponderant one. That this, moreover, is really the case, I hope the fol-
lowing will plainly show. From what I have said in the foregoing, it is
evident that if the moving masses of air which are conveyed from the
lower to the higher degrees of latitude by the equatorial air-currents
were of the same magnitude as the masses of air which are carried back
by the polar air-currents from the higher to the lower degrees of lati-
tude—which would, of course, necessarily be the case if the air from the
lower to the higher degrees of latitude did not bring with it moisture,
which is thrown off on the way—then, for each separate degree of lati-
tude, it would be necessary that the sum of all the pressures which the
force of the earth’s rotation would exert upon the masses of air impelled
toward the poles from west to east should be equal to the sum of all
the pressures which the same force would exert from east to west upon
the masses of air which moved from the pole toward the equator. In
such a case, taking all things together, there would have to be an equi-
librium between the forces which would respectively move the atmos-
phere in an easterly and westerly direction. The case is, however,
different in reality, since the mass of air which moves toward the poles
brings with it a considerable quantity of aqueous vapors, in consequence
of which the mass of air which rushes toward the poles is always con-

*See Professor Holten’s paper in the Videnskabens Selskab Oversigt for 1865, p, 113.

462 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

siderably greater than the quantity of air which, at each separate degree
of latitude, returns toward the equator. Hence it evidently follows that
the atmosphere in its entirety, with the excess of pressure which takes
place from west toward east, must move from west to east around the
firm surface of the earth; and hence, again, it follows that Dove’s law
of revolution for the wind must be a natural law.

I shall, for the present, not consider further the conclusions which may
probably present themselves, and that may be deduced with regard to
the phenomena of wind and weather. It seems, however, to be pretty
clear that these deductions may be more important than anything that
we have hitherto known on the subject we have been considering.

J.

ON THE WHIRLWIND AT ST. THOMAS ON THE 21st OF
AUGUST, 1871.

[We here append a translation of Hann’s extracts (Zeitschrift, x, p. 141), from a see-
ond memoir by Colding, entitled ‘‘On the Whirlwind at St. Thomas on the 21st of
August, 1871,” and which is published at page 10 of the volume for 1871 of the “ Pro-
ceedings of the Danish Academy.” ]

On the 21st of August, 1871,* a whirlwind passed over the West
India Islands in the direction from ESE to WNW. The reports show
the average velocity of its progress to have been 12 English miles per
hour. The center of the hurricane passed directly over the city of
St. Thomas about 5 o’clock p.m. During the whole day before the
outbreak of the hurricane the wind blew from NNE to ENE. The
barometer before noon stood at 765.5 miilimeters, and fell about 1.5.
millimeters from morning to evening. The pressure continued falling
throughout the night, and the wind increased in force. About 4a. m.
of the 21st, the barometer stood at 763 millimeters, and remained sta-
tionary at this point until 9 a.m. The wind blew in gusts, with squalls.
from the east and northeast, and heavy rain fell. At 12.30 p. m., the
barometer stood at 760; the wind was more northerly, and blew in fear-
ful gusts. At 2.30 p. m., the pressure was 755.5 millimeters; the wind
veered to northwest at 3.30 p.m., and blew with terrific power. The
heaviest winds, which caused great damage, occurred about 4.30 and 5.
p. m., and came from the northwest. At 5 p. m., it suddenly became
still, as the center of the hurricane drew near. The city was enveloped
in a thick, dark fog, and the air was unnaturally quiet. During this
calm, the pressure reached its lowest point, 727.5 millimeters. After an
interval of 35 minutes, the hurricane began anew with heavy squalls

* The subsequent path and other phenomena of this hurricane, which passed over
Punta Rassa on the 23d, were successfully predicted from day to day in advance by
the present translator in the tri-daily weather probabilities of August, 1871, as pub-
lished by the Army Signal Office.—C. A.

a

Ca

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 4o

from the southwest to southeast; at the same time the barometer began
to rise. Five series of meteorological observations during this hurri-
cane are at hand. The observed values of the atmospheric pressure for
three of these are graphically presented in Fig. 3.

FIG. 3.

Sa a Sens See a eee ae DIAMETER OF CYCLONE_________________.
BAROMETER

az
Sz
|
—
i
|
poe

;

———==.
a —
== FS = ee
Zi = ——
SS

SS

Se

——— _——
od ee
I ———al
730 a ———
——— = 3
—— =————
‘= ==

x") : 3 10 iT]

The most complete observations, corresponding to the curve through
the simple points (.), were made on the French steamship La Ville de St.
Nazaire, Captain d@’Etroyat. The points enclosed in circles are entered
according to the observations on the ship Tyne, Captain Taylor. Both
these series of observations were instituted in the harbor of St. Thomas.
The curve designated by Caravelle is drawn according to the observa-
tions on the steamer of the same name, which was 4 or 5 miles north of
Porto Rico, at a distance of 54 nautical miles from St. Thomas.

The whirlwind began at St. Thomas about 12.30 p. m. and ceased
about 9.30 p.m. Its duration was therefore 9 hours. The central calm
passed St. Thomas in 0.6 hours. As in the previous case, we designate
the radius of the calm space by a = 0.3 hours = 3.6 miles, since the
velocity of its progress must, according to the observations, be taken at
12 miles per hour; therefore the radius of the whole whirl (adopting
the previous notation) isa + H=4.5 hours = 54 miles, and therefore

H+4 _45 and 7 = 14,

a
If we substitute these values in equation (3), we obtain—

L316 7 )- 9 gf Ee 1] 2 (0.2 -F)
X=23log(1+ 147 0.032 tang-1,/ 147, + 0.5774) 4 ( 0.214 —

Dy bait (4) - oh rR
+ 0.0625 + { ay) — 0-107 + 0.015 ne

Whence for the following values of i we obtain the corresponding

values of X and 2:

a= Ort tr 0.2011) 0.308 OEP 05a ns OG Ro OSH Nr O:Gr 1.0

0.
MOS? 1.3L. 1089 Lis Les 20f 2.12 2.19 2.24 227
210.0: 17.0 ¢21b 245. 27.0) 285 29:5 30:5 31.0 31-7

464 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

The values of the pressure z given in the lowest line are those which,
according to d@Etroyat’s observations, belong to the corresponding
values of x = 0.1 H, &c. But, according to equation (3), we can deter-

2
mine the constant — by means of each pair of X and 2 We have for

this purpose the ten numerical equations

V2" Os ae 2b
19) ECT > el 8 a?

and as the mean of these ten values we find

2
7 = 13.7™™ of mercury, according to d’Etroyat;
similarly,
V2 :
Gi = 13.2™™ of mercury, according to Taylor.

By using these constants, we can now, for each value of « = 0.1 H, &c.,
compute the corresponding value of z. This computation, executed for
both the series of observations by @Etroyat and by Taylor, gives the
following result:

a= O4 02 08. 04.05.06. 0.7) 08 | 09s 0

D’ETROYAT.

2 observed... 10.0 17.0

21.5 24.5 27.0. 28.5 29.5 30.5. 31.0 S17
2 computed. 11.9 17.9 21-7

24.4 ‘26.0 (28:2) 294 30d Sovak
TAYLOR.

z observed... 10.0 16.5 21.0 23.5 25.5 27.0 28.0 -29.0 29.5 30.5
zcomputed. 11.5 17.2 20.8 23.4 25.4 27.0 27.9 28.8 29.5 \29.9

The agreement is therefore almost perfect. D’Etroyat’s observations
2
give for - the value 13.7 millimeters of mercury, or 460 feet of air;

Taylor’s observations give 440 feet of air. From these it follows that
V = 120 feet or 39 meters and 117 feet or 38 meters. Since the velocity
of the forward progress of the whirlwind was 12 miles, or 20 feet per
second, therefore must the greatest velocity of the wind on the right
side of the whirl, where the rotatory and the progressive movements take
place in the same direction, be considered to be 140 feet or 45.5 meters ;
but on the left side, where the inverse is the case, it becomes 100 feet or
32.5 meters. Forx = H the equation (1) gives in our case v = 68 feet as
the velocity of rotation at the outer limit of the whirl. This would give
a velocity of 83 feet on the right and 48 feet on the left-hand side.
Therefore between these limits ranged the velocity of the wind within
the cyclone of the 21st August, 1871.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 465

K.

ON THE RELATION BETWEEN BAROMETRIC VARIATIONS
AND THE GENERAL ATMOSPHERIC CURRENTS.

By Mr. PESLIN, MINING ENGINEER AT TARBES.

[From the Bulletin International del’Obs. de Paris et de Obs. Phys. Cent. de Montsouris, 1872, May 26
to July 7, inclusive. Translated by Cleveland Abbe.]

(1) The Laws of the Winds given by the Synoptic Weather Charts.

If we study the synoptic charts that the Imperial Observatory at
Paris has collected in the “ Atlas of the General Movements of the
Atmosphere,” we are struck by the generality of a fact which, at first
thought, seems contrary to the laws of mechanics. The atmospheric
currents never move in a direct line from the region of high barometric
pressure toward the region of low pressure; but, according to the numer-
ous observations recorded in the synoptic charts, the direction of the
wind is more often nearly that of the tangent to the isobarometric
curves. One might conclude from this that the variations of atmos-
pheric pressure have little or no influence upon the direction of the
wind; that the movements of the terrestrial atmosphere are regulated
by some foreign force, which has no relation to the pressure indicated
by the barometer. |

However, a more thorough examination of the synoptic charts enables
us to recognize a certain co-relation, on the one hand, between the
direction of the atmospheric currents and the direction of the baro-
metric variations, counted normally, to the current, and, on the other
hand, between the force of the wind and the rapidity of this transverse
variation of the pressure. For the sake of clearness, let us personify
the wind, and suppose that Eolus faces always toward the point of the
horizon toward which he blows. We shall perceive, in the first place,
that in the synoptic charts the high barometric pressures are always on
his right hand, and the low pressures on his left hand. In the second
place, we shall see that when the synoptic chart shows regular and vio-
lent winds over a certain extent of country, the isobars cross over this
region, and traverse it in parallel lines close together.

According to the examination that we have been able to make of the
published synoptic charts, the preceding laws are very general, and
can be safely applied to the whole temperate zone of our hemisphere;
they are a simple extension of known laws of the movements of the air
in cyclones and tempests. We shall now seek to give their explana-
tion according to the principles of mechanics.

(2) Mechanical Conditions of the Existence of an Atmospheric Current.

I assume that some cause initiates in our hemisphere a general
atmospheric current; that is to say, a current of air following a con-

stant direction over a large extent of country. I will now seek the
30 $s

466 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

conditions that the constitution of the atmosphere imposes in order
that this current may be maintained for an indefinite length of time,
and in order that the diurnal rotation of the earth shall not modify the
direction which the current has at the surface of the globe. Let A be
one of the points of the region over which the atmospheric current pre-
vails. Let BA be the direction of the current, V the velocity with
which the air moves. Let A y be the meridian of the point A; A a the
perpendicular to A y, or the tangent to the parallel through the point A.
2x
86400!
the angular velocity of the diurnal rotation of the earth. The curve
really described in space by a particle of air is obtained by compound-
ing the apparent movement of this particle on the surface of the earth;
that is to say, the translation corresponding to the velocity of the cur-
rent, with the movement of the terrestrial surface, or the translation
corresponding to the diurnal rotation.

I decompose the diurnal rotation into two component rotations, the
first having for its axis that radius of the earth which passes through
the point A, the second having for its axis the terrestrial radius perpen-
dicular thereto and in the plane of the meridian of the point A. The
angular velocities of these component rotations will be, for the first,
83 sin 4, and for the second &2 cos A.

Let us first consider the effect of the first rotation. The apparent
trajectory of the particle of air which passes by A being the line A P,
the real trajectory will be a curve A M, determined in polar co-ordinates
by the equations AM=AP=Vt. AnglePAM = 8 ¢sin 2, where fis
the time employed by the particle of air in describing the are A M.

The trajectory described is a curve. Consequently the particle of air
is subject to the action of a force whose value depends upon the curva-
ture of the trajectory, and is easy to calculate according to the princi-
ples of mechanics.

The tangent to the trajectory at A is A P, for the limit of the angle
PAM is 0 fort =0. The velocity at A is V, for this velocity is the
limit of the ratio of the arc A M, or of the chord A M = Vz, to the time
¢ required to describe it. Consequently, the effect of the force that we
desire to calculate, acting through the time ¢ upon the particle of air,
is to produce a deviation, represented in our figure by the line P M.
Let m be the mass of the particle of air and m F the force that acts
upon it. We shall, according to mechanical principles, have

Pitt 2am lc
=L.—.
2

Let us represent by 2 the latitude of the point A, and by 2 =

‘he figure gives us the geometrical relation
PM=AM.2.sin ——
83 ¢sin 2

Wy

ee P M=2Vésin

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 467

Comparing these values, and passing to the limit by making ¢ dimin-
ish to zero, we shall obtain, for the value of the force F,

F=2VQ2sin2.

As to the direction of the force, it is that of the deviation P M per-
pendicular to the Jine bisecting the angle P A M, and passing to the
limit we obtain a direction A F perpendicular to A P, or the direction
of the current at the point A.

The foree m F, whose direction and value we have determined, is that
known in mechanics as a composite centrifugal force. We will now
apply to our special case the general theory, by means of which we pass
from forces of apparent movement to real forces.

We will now determine the effect of rotation about the terrestrial
radius passing through the point A. The second rotation, that which
takes place about the radius perpendicular thereto, will give to the real
trajectory a new curvature, and consequently we should have to con-
clude the existence of a new corresponding force; but this second com-
posite centrifugal force is feeble relatively to the first, and does not
seem to manifest itself in existing meteorological observations. In order
to simplify our formulas, we shall, in what follows, neglect it as being
insensible.

A calculation analogous to that which precedes shows that if the air
moves parallel to the terrestrial surface, or if the level of the particle of
the air m does not vary, the second composite centrifugal force is ver-
tical and has for its value

2m V sin ¢g 8 cosa

(¢ being the angle that the velocity V makes with the meridian).

This force having the same direction as the force of gravity, and ex-
tremely feeble in comparison with it, should exert an influence propor-
tional to its value. We do not think its effects can be clearly distin-
guished from those of the weight of the air. When the air is animated
by an ascending or descending movement, such that the velocity V of

: dr : :
the particle m has a vertical component We the composite centrifugal
force that we are studying has a second component

dr
2m di 8 cos2,
which is horizontal and perpendicular to the meridian. It is possible
that this second component produces some appreciable effects in meteor-
ological phenomena when the vertical movements of the air become im-
portant, as, for example, in storms and hurricanes.*

* NOTE BY THE TRANSLATOR.—It will be perceived that in these formule Peslin treats
of the rotation of the earth to the neglect of the rotation of storm-winds about their
centers,

468 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

(3) The Law of Variation of Barometric Pressure within Atmospheric
Currents.

We shall show that when any region of the earth is traversed by a
general atmospheric current which preserves its direction notwithstand-
ing tbe diurnal rotation, one can conclude with certainty as to the ex-
istence of horizontal forces perpendicular to the direction of the current
and affecting every particle that is in motion.

The forces which can affect any particle of the earth’s atmospbere may
be divided into two classes: First, the internal forces, or those exerted
by neighboring particles—in other words, the pressure; second, the ex-
ternal forces, or those exerted by exterior bodies. The external forces
can be reduced to, first, the attraction exerted by the earth, or the
weight of the particle; and, second, the action of the solar heat. But
even this last is not a force, properly so-called, for it does not tend to
displace the particle of air or make it to move in one direction rather
than the opposite. Its only direct effect is a variation of the internal
living force, and consequently of the density.

If, then, I neglect the problematic influence of the moon and of other
celestial bodies, and if, moreover, I expressly leave out of consideration
the forces due to atmospheric electricity, I shall find no exterior force
that has a horizontal component. There will remain then to me, in
order to take account of the forces m F' which solicit the particles of the
current, only the variations of atmospheric pressure in a horizontal diree-
tion.

Let us imagine a parallelopipedon cut from the mass of moving air,
and having a base whose surface is S, in a vertical plane parallel to the
direction of the current, and a height equal to 4dr. The volume of the
parallelopipedon will be S 4r, and the total mass of particles of air

which it contains JJ = 3 S 4r (where p is the density of the air, and

g = 9.8088 is the value of gravity.

The forces exerted upon the mass M due to the particles of the sur-
rounding fluid have, for resultants, pressures upon the faces of the par-
allelopipedon. As these pressures are normal to the faces upon which
they act, the pressures upon the horizontal faces and upon the vertical
faces normal to the direction of the current give no components having
the direction of the forces m F. We have then to take account only of
the pressures p and p+ 4p exerted upon the two vertical bases of the
surface S; and recollecting that the resultant of all the forces m # which
affect the particles contained in the parallelopipedon ought to be equi-
valent tothe difference between these two pressures in opposite directions,
we Shall have the equation*

Sp—S(p+4p) = mF;
* The theory that we shall here develop in order to obtain the law of pressures is

identically the same as that which, in mechanics, serves to establish the fundamental
equation of the motion of fluids.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 469

whence, substituting the value of M and dividing by S,
p
Ap = — — F4r.
ip ral

We can also replace # by its value determined previously, and the
formula then becomes

4p=—~— -2V+ Qsind dr.

(4) Application to the Synoptical Charts.

It is easy to apply these theories to atmospheric currents, and to show
that they give the same laws that we have deduced from the examina-
tion of synoptic charts.

The forces m F have no components in the direction of the current;
consequently, the pressure ought not to vary in this direction: in other
words, the direction of the wind ought to be tangent to the curve of
equal barometric pressure. The direction in which the pressure
increases transversely to the current is opposite to that of the forces
mJ, It should change when the direction of the current changes; and
in our hemisphere, considering the direction of the terrestrial rotation,
we recognize by the examination of the figure which gives the force /
that the highest pressure should always, on the synoptic chart, be to

4
the right of the current. Finally, the coefficient a which measures the

rapidity of the transverse variation of the pressure increases propor-
tionally to the force F; that is to say, increases on the one hand as the
velocity V of the moving air, and, on the other hand, increases in pro-
portion to the sine of the latitude of the region under consideration. If
any region of the earth is traversed by a violent atmospheric current,
the curves of equal barometric pressure ought, in traversing this region,
to draw closely together, and so much the more for a given violence of
the wind in proportion as the region is further removed from the equa-

tor.
(5) Extension to the Case of Rotatory Movements.

These laws are those that relate to atmospheric currents of constant
direction and intensity ; when the movement of the air is not rectilinear,
these cease to be rigorously applicable. It is necessary then to com-
bine the composite centrifugal force with the forces which correspond
to the apparent movements of the particle of air. These forces are:

adv. : f ee ; ;

m ~7¢ in the direction of the current, and m—>- in a direction normal to
the current, R being the radius of the curvature of the apparent
trajectory. Consequently the formule which give the variation of
barometrie pressure become

apna Pes OVE
Siva OG dte
i) ae ond

Se Rees eal i
ie ae ; V 8 sin 2.

470 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

These are the formule which ought to be applicable in studying the
rotatory movements of the air in cyclones and storms. We have already
stated, at the beginning of this memoir, that the laws which we have
previously enunciated apply to the movements of the air in tempests,
and that they have been already recognized and formulated by numerous
observers. We must, then, conclude that, even in meteorological phe-
nomena, where the apparent movement of the air is most irregular and
violent, the composite centrifugal force retains a preponderating influ-
ence, such that the variations of barometric pressure are controlled
principally by this force, according to the laws that we have developed.

But if our formule give the laws of tempests as a particular case, it is
important to remark that they are more general still, and that they are
applicable to all the movements of the air in our hemisphere. It is not
necessary that there should be a storm (that is to say, a rotatory move-
ment of the atmosphere accompanied by rain) in order that the direction
of the winds should obey the preceding rules. Every terrestrial region
where a barometric depression is produced will be surrounded by winds
circulating in a direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch; and
conversely, if the barometric pressure is high over any region, the winds
prevailing upon the borders of this region will circulate in the same
direction as the hands of a watch. It is only necessary to glance upon
the synoptic charts in order to ascertain how fully these rules as to the
direction of the winds are confirmed by the observations that are therein
presented.

(6) Explanation of the Variation of Barometric Pressure with the Latitude.

Our theory permits us to give an explanation of some of the facts,
generally accepted, relative to the variations of barometric pressure
upon the surface of the earth.

The barometric pressure reduced to the level of the sea is not con-
stant, but varies with the latitude. Its mean value at the equator is
about 758 millimeters. It increases from the equater to a parallel be-
tween 30° and 40°, and there attains a maximum value of 762 to 764
millimeters. If we proceed to higher latitudes, the pressure diminishes,
and in the polar regions it is probably less than 756 millimeters.* This
variation of pressure with latitude is also easily confirmed by the syn-
optic charts. On each chart we see designated a region of high pressure
whose center is generally in the middle of the Atlantic near the parallel
of 30°. The pressure at the center often attains 775 millimeters, and
sometimes 780. '’he winds are feeble near the center, but on the borders
of this region they become stronger. On the east and south borders,
they blow from points of the compass comprised between north and east,
and constitute the trade-winds. On the northern border, the winds blow
very generally from the west, and are connected with the anti-trade
currents.

—_——

* Kimtz’s Meteorologie, Martin’s edition, p. 238.
8 ? ? j!

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 471

According to our theory, the existence of these winds on these borders
suffices to explain the high pressure that is experienced in the central
regions; it seems to us, then, very probable that the variation of the
pressure with latitude ought to be attributed to the permanent currents
that the earth’s atmosphere presents. The pressure should increase
then from the equator to the parallel of 30° in the whole region where
the trade-winds of the equatorial zone prevail; it should decrease from
the parallel of 409 to the pole over the whole region where the return
current or the contra-trade of the temperate zone prevails.

It is on the parallel where the interchange is made of the second cur-
rent for the first that the pressure attains its maximum value.

(7) Explanation of the Increase of the Monthly Oscillations of the Barome-
ter from the Hquator to the Pole.

One of the most prominent facts that is presented by the observation
of the barometer is the rapid increase of the irregular oscillations in
proportion as we go away from the equator. The difference of the
monthly extremes, which at the equator scarcely surpasses on the
average two or three millimeters, is ten millimeters at the parallel of
30°, and becomes thirty and even forty millimeters in the polar regions.*
This enormous variation of the monthly barometric oscillation was indi-
cated a long time ago by De Saussure, who has said that any hypothe-
sis destined to explain the barometric oscillations ought first of all to
take account of their increase with the latitude. Let us see if our theory
gives any Satisfaction as to this point.

In the formula which gives the transverse barometric variation for
an atmospheric current of the velocity V, and which is

dr
the sine of the latitude enters as a factor. An atmospheric current of
constant intensity produces, then, on its borders variations of barometric
pressure which are very unequal, according as it is developed near the
pole, or near the equator. If we represent by unity the variation of the
barometer in the polar regions, it becomes 0.71 at the latitude of 459°,
0.50 at the latitude of 50°, and 0.26 at the latitude of 159,

Let us apply to the numbers cited by Kémtz a correction for the lati-
tude calculated according to these considerations; in other words, let
us divide by sin A the monthly oscillation of the barometer in order to
reduce it to that which would have been produced at the pole of the
earth by a current of the same intensity. We shall obtain a series of
numbers which increase with the latitude, but in a much less rapid
degree than previously. The monthly oscillations reduced to the pole
become ten to fifteen millimeters for the equatorial regions, twenty
millimeters for the parallel of 30°, and thirty-five to forty millimeters
for the polar regions.

AB 9 Y Bsa;
9

* Kamtz, Meteorologie, p. 281.

472 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

It remains to be shown whether the irregular atmospheric currents
and storms which produce in each month the extreme variations of the
barometer increase in intensity with the latitude; whether this intensity
doubles as we pass from equatorial regions to temperate zones and
trebles when we pass to the polar regions.

A precise verification cannot be made at present. We possess no
direct observations upon the mean velocity of the atmospheric currents
in different latitudes; but we can assert that the ratios of the intensities
to which our theory leads us do not differ very much from the reality. It
is well established that, as the regular winds diminish, the frequency and
the violence of the irregular currents and of the tempests increase in pro-
portion as we depart from the equator. The reason would seem to be
that indicated by Kimtz.* The first cause of every current in our atmos-
phere is an irregularity of temperature. Now, in proportion as we
proceed from the pole toward the equator, the thermometric variation
for any change in latitude becomes more rapid; the distribution of tem-
perature upon the same parallel becomes more irregular. In general,
we think it certain that our formula suffices to explain the enormous
variation of the monthly barometric oscillation as one passes from the
equatorial to the polar regions.

(8) Calculation of the Velocity of the Wind from the Variations of
Barometric Pressure.

The relation that we have found between the velocity of the air in
any atmospheric current and the variation of barometric pressure in a

direction transverse thereto should permit us, inversely, to calculate the

velocity of the air when we know the law of the variation of the
pressures. The synoptic charts, by giving us for every day the law of
the distribution of pressure over a certain region of the earth, enable us
to deduce the mean velocity that should be presented by the atmospheric
currents prevailing over this region. To this end it suffices to resolve
the equation

4p = —22V 8 sina 4r
g

with reference to the velocity V cousidered as an unknown quantity:
thus we obtain
o gap
Ye & sind dv"

In the synoptic charts the isobars are traced for pressures differing
by five millimeters. For the value of the arbitrary distance 4dr, I take
the distance of the two isobars which include the point under considera-
tion. The corresponding value of 4p would be equivalent to a height
of 5 millimeters of mercury, and we consequently have

Ap _ 0".005 x 13.596
p 9 P 1
0.001293 x 77g * 7 at

* Kiimtz, Meteorologie, p. 281.

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. 473

(where p is the pressure and ¢ the temperature of the air whose density
is represented by p).

Upon the synoptic chart, the natural unit of length is the degree of
the meridian, which is represented at any point by the distance between
the lines corresponding to the terrestrial parallels. I will call 6 the
value of the distance 4dr expressed in this unit. As our formula sup-
poses that the meter is taken as the unit of length, the value of 4dr that

we shall use will be
Ay — 19.000.000"
ag
(90° of the meridian of the earth are equivalent to 10,000,000 meters).

We have, finally,

Qa 2 x 3.1416
= 9", 8: ee re
CS eran 36400

After all substitutions have been made, the formula which gives the
value of V becomes
Vo 0.005 X 13.596 X 9.8088 X 86400 x 90 LeU pal
2 X 0.001293 X 2 x 3.1416 x 10000 0007p dsin A’
whence, by making the caleulations ae Si
(SoS ENG ys: Wana De iat
_ 6 sin d-

In this formula, there enter four elements—the barometric pressure p,
the temperature ¢, the distance of the isobars 6, and the latitude 2; but
the daily variations of the two first elements exert only a feeble influ-
ence, which may be neglected ina first approximation. The pressure p
in the synoptic chart has reference to the level of the sea, and veries
between the limits 715 and 785 millimeters; consequently, the factor
0.760 remains always comprised between the limits 0.907 and 1.06. As
to the temperature ¢, its variations have a greater importance; but, as
they are not given upon the synoptic charts,* we are obliged to neglect
its daily variation, and can take account only of the mean temperatures.
In order to simplify the matter, we have assumed that this mean tem-
perature, supposed to be reduced to the level of the sea, depends only
upon the latitude 24, and we have formed a table of double entry giving
the values of the velocity V corresponding to various values of 2 and 6.
This table has been formed especially in reference to the zone covered
by the synoptic charts, that is to say, the regions of the North Atlantic
and of Western Europe comprised between the parallels of 30° and 60°
of north latitude.

ay A= =55 =60
p=0.76 t =20 =17,5 =i5 = a5
™m. ™m. m. ™m. K i. m.

lone te. <2)s v=cn.5 | v=502 | vaso4 | vara -| y—a.2 | v—40.0 | vo3zs
lean 45.6 39.5 35.0 31.5 28. 8 26.7 25.0
Shi eee eae 34.2 29.6 26.2 23.6 21.6 20. 0 18.8
Ai Cae O7. 4 23.7 21.0 12.9 17.3 16.0 15.0
Zl ae 92. 8 19.7 17.5 15.7 14.4 13.3 12.5
re a 11 14.8 13.1 11.8 19.8 10.0 9.4
Fi) es 13.7 11.8 10.5 9.4 8.6 8.0 7.5

* Those, e. g., of the Paris Observatory.

ATA SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS,

The application of this table to the synoptic charts is easy. Thus, let
us suppose that we are studying the charts of the last ten days of June,
1864, and that we desire to find the average force of the trade-wind
which, during those days, prevailed upon the Atlantic along the coast
of Portugal. By comparing the barometric pressures noted by the dif-
ferent ships that passed out a short distance from this coast with the
pressures observed at Lisbon, which remained very nearly constant dur-
ing the ten days, we find for 6 very accordant values, varying only
between 3.0 and 4.0. The latitude is 40° north, since the parallel of 40°
cuts the coast of Portugal between Lisbon and Oporto. From this we
conclude, by means of the above table, that the force of the wind must
have varied between 13 and 17 meters per second, and that its mean
value was very nearly 15 meters per second.

Let us take a second, more complicated example, that of a whirling
movement of the air. The synoptic chart of the 14th of January, 1865,
shows that on this day a storm raged upon the coasts of Trance and
England. Let us seek the force of the wind which blew over the cen-
ter of France, between Paris and Bordeaux. The barometric pressure
at 8 o'clock in the morning was 738.6 millimeters at Paris and 753.6
millimeters at Bordeaux and Toulouse. The difference, 15.0 millimeters,
corresponds to a distance which, reduced normally to the direction of
the atmospheric current, is 4°.5 of the meridian.

We have, then, to take from the table that value of V which corre-
sponds to

a Ser OLR
‘= 3 = 19.5

at latitude 45°. This value is V= 31.5. Such would be the force of the
wind if the atmospheric current were [linear?], but as the air in the storm
has a turning movement, we can accept this figare only after having
applied to it a correction. I do not think it would be useful to enter into
the details of the calculation of this correction. It is made by applying
the formula that we have given for the turning movement, and the value
of the correction depends essentially on the ratio of the curvature of the
trajectory [with reference to the distance of the point considered as the
center of depression about which the wind rotates] and the velocity of
progression of the center. In the present case, the value of the correc-
tion will be found equal to 5 or 6 meters, and we are led to adopt the
figure 26 meters per second as representing the average force of the
wind that prevailed between Paris and Bordeaux.

The synoptic chart gives, indeed, the force of the wind at every point,
but the sign [or figure] representing this force corresponds to an indefi-
nite epithet which cannot be translated into precise figures. We can,
therefore, not verify the exactness of the result which our formula gives
for the force of the wind; we can only state whether there exists a gen-
eral accordance between the results of the calculation and those of the

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. AT5

observation ; and it is easy to assure ourselves that this is, in general,
very satisfactory.

But we ought not to conceal the fact that some discordances present
themselves when we enter into details; that our theory does not explain
certain observations of the force and direction of the wind recorded
in the atlas. These exceptional facts, it seems to us, ought to be ex-
plained either by local influences, such as the attraction of coasts, of
valleys, of mountains, or by periodical or accidental meteorological
phenomena, such as the morning breezes, gusts of wind, thunder-storms,
&e. The proportion of discordances to the accordances is too small te.
throw any doubt upon the exactness of the theory.

(9) Application of the same Theory to Ocean Currents.

I will terminate this memoir by an application which does not directly
refer to meteorological phenomena, but which has a certain interest in
reference to the general physics of the globe. Let us consider a grand
ocean current, as for example, the Gulf Stream along the coast of North
America, A particle of the surface moving with the velocity V is sub-
ject to two forces: gravitation, a vertical force whose intensity is m 9,
and the composite centrifugal force, a horizontal force whose direction is
normal to that of the current, and whose intensity ism #=2m V & sina.
In order that the particle of water should not deviate, but continue to
progress in the same direction with the same velocity V, it is necessary
that the free surface of the sea should be, at this place, not horizontal
but normal to the resultant of the forces m g and m Ff’; that is to say,
that in a section taken normal to the direction of the current the free
surface presents an inclination, J, to the horizontal plane whose value
satisfies the equation
Me
mg

Thus, in the same way that the trade-winds and the anti-trades are
the cause of the increase in the barometric pressure toward parallels 309,
in precisely the same way the Gulf Stream, which reproduces at the sur-
face of the sea the circulation of the general currents of the atmosphere,
gives rise to an elevation of the level of the sea at the center of the
Atlantic, or to an accumulation of water in the region about which the
current circulates. Let us calculate the inclination J and the difference
of level to which this inclination gives rise.

If in the formula which gives tang J are substituted the values of

83
tang I F V sin 2.

"7 _ 2x 3.1416
g = 9.8088 and of 8 =—se400
we obtain
4 x 3.1416 : :
FS ESS rs —
tang I = Fp 3c 9 susg V Sin? = 0.00001483 V sin 2,
whence—

=3'06-V sin A.

A76 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

This inclination Z is very feeble, but as the breadth Z of the current
of the Gulf Stream is very considerable, the difference of level between
the two borders of the current 4 = Z tang J attains a considerable value.
Thus, let us take as the base of our calculation the figures given by
Kiimtz in his Meteorology, or those published more recently by A. D.
Bache, Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey. We shall
find—

First. At the latitude of 26°, between the coasts of Florida and the
Bahamas, Z = 90 kilometers, V = 3 to 4 nautical miles per hour;
whence results a difference of level of from 17.00 to 17.20.

Second. At the latitude of 33°, between Cape Henlopen, near Charles-
ton, and the Bermudas, LZ = 230 kilometers, V = 24 nautical miles
hourly; whence results a difference of level of 2.40 meters.

Third. At the latitude of 42° south of the Banks of Newfoundland,
near the point where the current turns toward the east, Z = 470 kilo-
meters, V = 1.5 nautical miles hourly; whence we calculate the differ-
ence of level to be 3.60 meters.

These figures are probably a little too large; the velocity of the cur-
rent grows feebler on its borders, and the inclination of the surface of
the sea experiences a corresponding reduction. But after all corrections,
these data remain important, and we are forced to admit that the
surface of the sea, even in an ocean as open as the Atlantic, is not
rigorously horizontal; that over very extended regions it presents
inclinations that can amount to many seconds, and a level differing
from the mean level of the sea by several meters.

We know that the operations recently conducted for a general level-
ing of France have indicated differences between the mean levels of the
sea in different parts of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. It is pos-
sible that this singular result ought not to be attributed simply to the
complexity of the calculations and the observations, but that it may be
the expression of a general fact, and that this fact is explained in part
by the general oceanic currents which prevail around the coast.

(10) Supplementary Note.

My memoir was addressed to the Academy of Sciences of Paris in
the latter part of 1869. Toward the end of the following year, we
received a copy of the ‘Atlas of Storms of the Norwegian Meteorologi-
cal Institute” that Mr. Mohn, director of this institute, has done us the
honor of presenting to us, and where we find the following lines on
page 11:

“The force of the wind depends on the magnitude of the variation in
the pressure of the air experienced from place to place at the surface of
the earth, or on the magnitude of the barometric gradient. The greater
the variation of pressure from one place to another, the smaller is the
gradient and the stronger is the wind.

“This will be seen upon any one of the charts of this atlas. The

EE -_

SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS. ATT

more the isobars are crowded together, the more numerous are the
pilings of the wind-arrows. In an earlier initial memoir, entitled ‘On
the Thunder-Storms of Norway in 1868,’ I have attempted a determina-
tion of the numerical relation between the magnitude of the gradient
and the force of the wind, with the following results:

“Gradient.......:... 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 kilometers.

“Force of wind ..--.. AD F397 SL 2:3" 1:8) 2:0) 1b) 18h Anon aiscalerotG:

‘By a graphie interpolation, we deduce from these numbers the de-
grees of force of wind on the scale employed and the corresponding
barometric gradients, as is shown in the following table. The approxi-
mate velocity of the wind, expressed in kilometers, per hour, which cor-
responds to the figures of the scale of force, are also added.

marcereteinde Hourly velocity Barometric

of wind. gradient.

G4 VAG) 0 ha GaSe CG AOE SAAR OS SO LCRA CER SC Ee SE Ace CECH Een Se eee aare .---| Over 100 kilo- | Less than 17
meters. kilometers.

SRBRTOSAOLU See eee ee tates cee eee ee ea tome asiece as coisas tonttecnce 70—100 23

ARM ONGH oe fase ejcececm cea eaw elses ce Seetee AAS SOF Spee cinoscmocsoocsapncccs 40—70 23—34

SEBACHEZ MOL) ob cease coeat awctsaat cccltine toed Sceas acbecisde weeiclonaecacets 25—40 34—50

MOU OLG: cascmcic = cae soma cn oo cenia sale ecaisiaie a cisicmaceca/amseceisicecicesess 14—25 50—100

SECM RIDIEF se a sce scion waits estan se aa ee aailels ole bianlaicis clete'cieleivisieisela oe SOOsee 4—14 Above 100.

“The force of the wind depends so strongly upon local causes that a
table like this can have only a general value. We can deduce an
inverse ratio between the gradient and the wind-velocity, such that
their product is equal to 1460 (Barometric gradient X wind-velocity
= 1460). On the sea, the force of the wind will be for the same baro-
metric gradient much greater than in the interior country, where the
wind finds far more impediments to its movement over the surface of
the earth.”

We see that Mohn, in a work independent of curs and probably an-
terior thereto, has recognized the law of inverse ratio between the
velocity of the wind and the distance of the isobars.

Let us compare the numbers resulting from his observations with
those that our theoretical formula gives. Mohn measures the velocity
of the wind in kilometers per hour; we have taken for the unit the me-
ter and the second. In order to pass from these latter units to the first,

60 x 60 ,
000° = 3.60 is to be used.

The barometric gradient is defined by Mohn, page 15, as “the number
of kilometers that it is necessary to go in the direction of the gradient
in order that the pressure of the air may diminish by one millimeter.”
Our units for 6 are a degree of the meridian, or 111 kilometers, and a
barometric variation equal to five kilometers. Consequently, the value

the coefficient

P oo Lh : ss
of the barometric gradient is 5 and its product by the velocity of
the wind, 3.60 V, in our system of units, will have the value

M1 x 3.60 V=80V 0.
J

478 SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.

Our table of corresponding theoretical values of V and 6 gives for the
latitude of Christiania, or 60° north, the constant product V 6 = 37.5,
whence 80V 6 = 3000. Mr. Mohn gives as the result of observations on
the force of the wind in Norway the mean product 80 V 6 = 1460; that
is to say, very nearly one-half of our theoretical result. It is easy to
recognize the reason of the apparent discordance of these two results.
Mohn, in the passage that we have cited, says that “upon the sea the
force of the wind will be, for the same gradient, far greater than in the
interior of the country.”

It is, on the. other hand, certain, according to all the observations
made both on mountains and in balloons, that the force of the wind
increases considerably as we ascend in theatmosphere. And these facts
relative to atmospheric currents conform entirely to that which has been
established for liquid currents: the velocity at the base or near the
borders is notably feebler than the mean velocity of the current.

There is, then, no reason for surprise that the velocities observed by
Mohn at the surface of the earth are feebler than the velocities deduced
from our theoretical formula, which should give us the mean velocities
of the atmospheric currents. The figures that he cites show that, in
order to pass from the latter to the former or from the theoretical to the
observed velocities, it is necessary to apply a coefficient of reduction,
which is 0.40 for the smaller velocities, and which, increasing in pro-
portion as the velocity increases, can become 0.60 for the very greatest
velocities.

CONTENTS.

Page.
Order of Congress to print extra copies of the report .........-.....---.------ 2
Letter from the Secretary, submitting report to Congress ...-....--...----.-.- 3
List of Regents, committees, and members ex officio of the Institution.......... 5
Officers of the Institution and National Museum...-............--...--22------ 6
REPORT OF PROFESSOR HENRY, SECRETARY ......-....---.-csee vineeaee eee 7
Meetineotine GstADliSMMONG Joniccc..a5 acjccc ces sscince «sx casinwn oc seeseue 11
IDTDGNCRS -coong conden Ob SS6 GIDE ESE EOS Onna GNSS Bane cos crbdas Sesolbbes LaGeHE 11
ABS tai ahha erste steerer siete oiciaieln noma tnl a aiclatalelsisielsin'e “incase cane onion mac cesiceriece 12
Publications ......-...-....-. 6 deed csitiose Soto te Sosa pococo nese ebibSaece. Sees 12
JAG OF CA CLOPAT ESSE Gage SREr S650 GSSE SES OSe nC HEE CoCo Ren ree eee eee E ieefeistate 22
UBIO? Goe6 pono coas One Cad ee cC Ce Goer spre o§200 S800 SeSeea ONS OGOOnE 24
GINO OS 5 ose Chaco cos one case BDOU SUI Ene O50 LOE SE Ue COC bO NE OeBBEEComese 25
COvVGEMEI Mba ORCMMMRPS ee <a) ob ola cies facia aaalsijainis csicelsinuigsa caeeiscacien Ti
ScUULAL ertncias nasal meee veaen seo eens 2555 Un oe, vant cvaianmseeece ofecc 28
ShemieallaAnorwvenyre.. ce ameesscs ae saa tea ns <iaslttseke sees se Soewouccs 30
National Miurseum sapere s.3n cs ocean ea cise i= Sa:s\-ac oS cmaicearmaeste ce Sapoce 36
Report of Professor Baird on the National Museum...--..........---- 36
Imexease ofthe. Museu. «ay oasis, n'a a0, o wine sms steal wemuyseies Seis 36
Scientific investigation of the collections....-...-...--........-.-- ne 45
Mork, done in) thowMinseumies: ents 18 - ofel ao aise sie y-jctety ash sce) daa siecle 46
Distribution of duplicateispecimense.-. = ---)s55- 2-5 ate eases ee 47
Fish culture .....-- Sc toS Och cocd cane Sede Bact boGene SSE Hncosso osoees 47
Investigations on sound and fog-signals ......--+...---..----.-.-.-..--- 51
APPENDIXGTO) THE REPORT OV THE SHCRETARY -sscms «oss celesisiae see ee 6 daasee 55
Government exploratlons Mpls stereeclohinicinis/=\-/2)=,1</) sence ioe aeioaieeere 55
United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories,
Broke hiv. tlaydemminuchargvenccac cscs css come onecoe sees elem ee ane 55
Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, by
Prof droWreOWOll ice sa cscs sas se ohas Scola cc cate comes eee meee 67
United States Geographical Surveys West of the 100th Meridian, in
charge of First Lieut. George M. Wheeler,’U. 8. A.............-.--- 87
Statistics of exchanges........---.----..- BOpSaae aSbodd cesoqhouse casas coéc 92
Ponations to the Natronal Museum: 25. 2c-2c25-)--+ ese sces-- eee eemeena ee 94
List of explorations and expeditions, the collections of which were de-
posited in the National Museum .... ........---. 22-2 -2-- o-ee Sabon e 105
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE .......---.--0 seeens piste oonithss 2 = 118
Statement of condition of funds ..............-.-.-.206 Spe eee ee 118
INGGETOUS csoceQ ep eOOGOOEDCC SooeadeSocue donSoT. Boecce naoee Peon cece eee 119
EIPOMCUGULOS| sas 555/ssoseccosseceeteseen coe eee ee GO dC COREE BAC RO emo 119
Islavemilinoe (CS teseroococaue sacoseooctoecccs AO COC, CORSO U Rep oS smads, yall)
Statement of expenditures in detail...... pe tmaamstanver acteee «6 eaubideeoe 120
PS TIMEE eis ose /a ae aeis/cmets cere wiais vin winlelelalalal sete ciateyatceman ae lsiaie.al c= oe sreascenses © 120
General expenses...-.....-.. sheiatnlatn ctintaleterate eometre ae ois wis ow'a gis seul oracles ate 120
Publications and researches... .. Rislaltiele aateic el aicierasietel ee caus c.caisicitelcieets wise 121

480 CONTENTS.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE—Continued.

IME ANIS MIS) Gaon Gone cqocse,. cocoa. Gee eee pinineiaalsicio'a = eiwinnin tiepejee emma e ceteerate Ee
FSTIMATES: See econ wie steelers see SRD ann ROCAdd Deo bod Goa oss asonbe.cSacks cébood
Estimated receipts 25.25: ss ces. ianins ecient es secs ce see coisa eee eee
Provisional appropriations .2. ow. ss] ese soe ein =o cee se neeee coe eeeeee
National Museum: 3-2 <.o.52 cnc eaptecetiece ae consiwesme ee sees eee

Appropriations by Congress. cists eas mine) saeeee aie

Preservation of; specimens... .s-scessee aie ee = <4 2 o= mecienele seer mae

ATMOLY DUNG #: <i ince ee eee aes sic Jo =k = inc erst eae eee
Rxeaminatbion of VOUCHeLS).s2-).4---eeeae eee ceriscieel sce = Sasccs EAOOSE aieeae

JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS .....---00-ecceeeeeee
Meeting of January 16,1876 ioe ooeaee as otmeserersa(,2 cnn) «eon a eeeeeee .
Meeting or Januanys03,lSvereece se tonemoce mater cces cise. sen ceetee =
Report of. committee on portrait of Secretary ...... ...-...-.-.2 -ee0 eencee
Memorial relative tora new boiling: «Soccer paeeemtee ona -aae cates ace ce
Meeting of January 26 S75 eno. cccnmcncns steeds sleet asians seciwes cane

GENERAL APPENDIX.

COLOR-BLINDNESS IN ITS RELATION TO ACCIDENTS By RaIL AND Sha, by Prof.
SE. Holimpren’s. 5-2 s. 5-2. nna bess ecicseaee Cases eee eee eee
COLOR-BLINDNESS, by Joseph Henry 23-5.2--.2-- steerer ee eee
REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND
NaturRaL History, by E. Plantamour, president, from June, 1874,

Uo bess Mele aca 6 AOCGO BS aga bad a5 Bano coQOCd beds Ascmes aces Seer

REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND
NatTurat History, by Dr. J. Miiller, president, from June, 1875, to

JUNnes S71 sso Sorse aeons wees see e ee eee See eee ae

REPORT ON THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE GENEVA SOCIETY OF PHYSICS AND
Narurau History, by Adolf Favre, president, from June, 1876, to

June; 1877.28 ce tess csee Soc ckis one dew ieecerscsihesis ae eee ee aoe aeee

ETHNOLOGY :

Antiquities of Jefferson and Clear Creek Counties, Colorado, by George L.

Cannon). ccccece seco osmetmerinneemiasce cme e een asaisee SHapoticosss
Antiquities|in Wisconsin, by Moses Strong ----..-.-...--.-. .----- -=-- «=--
The mounds and osteology of the mound-builders of Wisconsin, by J. N. de

Hart. (M.D aa So sore ses anaemia Spo anne Secoceadonccessoosne
Pits at, Embarrass; Wiss, by, Hii breedias- ase nnee seemieeeeeeee aaiee ee eneee
Mounds in Delaware County, Iowa, by M. W. Moulton .....--....--..-----
Earthworks on the Arkansas River, sixteen miles below Little Rock, by Mrs.

Gilbert, Knapp 2sea:/-s ac copece see cee eae san ieee eee eee eee
Antiquities of Kansas City, Mo., by W. HOR. Ly kinsy.7s's-sesceese 25226
The mound-builders in the Beek River Valley, Illinois, by James Shaw....
Antiquities of Mason County, Illinois, by J. Cochrane..........-.-.----.--
Ancient earthworks of Ashland County, Ohio, by George W. Hill, M. D .-..
Flint implements in Holmes County, Ohio, by H. B. Case ..-..-.-.---.----
MoundiinvErambull County, Ohies by she Milleress-seeaeeenee a. aes
Antiquities of Hancock County, Kentucky, by Joseph Friel......--...-----
Antiquities‘ofilennessee, by W..M. Clarksesseee ener eee een eee eee
Aboriginal structures in Georgia, by Charles C. Jones, jr ......-.----------
Antiquities of Spalding County, Georgia, by W. B. F. Bailey ...-........--
Shell-heaps on Mobile River, by A. 8. Gaines and K. M. Cunningham ....-.
The stock in trade of an aboriginal lapidary, by Charles Rau.-....--.-.----

Observations on « gold ornament from a mound in Florida, by Charles Rau-
* .

131
196

201

214

225

236
239

246
250
200

251
251
253
260
261
267
268
268
269
278
289
290
291
298

|

CONTENTS. 481

ETHNOLOGy—Continued.
On a polychrome bead from Florida, by Prof. S.S. Haldeman..... ateeiesta ses 302
Colored bead dug from a mound at the extreme north end of Black Ham-
mock, three miles west of Mosquito Inlet, eastern coast of Florida,

Dy Ae MS. Harmison fo scstaccocc.s soles acon cwisienaimtomtc ans acie/oeas (acest 305
Shell-heaps at the mouth of Saint John’s River, Florida, by S.P. Mayberry. 305
Ancient mound in Western Pennsylvania, by William M. Taylor..... S076ab 306
Deposit of arrow-heads near Fishkill, N. Y., by Edwin M. Shepard......... 307
Stone celts in the West Indies and Africa; extract from a letter of George
Je Gibust=seceas= Maeineraa esc cce Cacsiacesoeecdescmccscciceciccene sss - 308
Dheandiansyol Peru wb yn. le Galts Ms Diss ace ce secaieccceces eines seine se - 308
Santa Rosa Island, by Rev. Stephen Bowers ...... .-.--------- s-ceee ceceee 316
NoTES ON THE HISTORY AND CLIMATE OF NEW LES, by Dr. Thomas Mc-
JEEVAN, caged SUE CCl SOO ROE BABE Renn Dem OeU NGOS HOSED CeODOERe Cone Conoueec 321
ON THE CHANGE OF THE MEXICAN AXOLOTL TO AN AMBLYSTOMA. Dr. A. Weis-
PAM Goede adoolguSede adeedh ondSod ddg Hod doéced sd0e08 dented Mees Goo5c 349

SHorT MEMornrs ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS, translated by Cleveland Abbe. 376
On the diminution of aqueous vapor with increasing altitude in the atmos-

phere. Dr. Julius Hann: -.---. .2.-. 5 HoSeSsS HoOeSSS SODDOY coo Osacad 376
On the influence of rain upon the barometer, and upon the formation of pre-

cipitation in general.” Dr. J. Hann. --.....--. 22. ococe S568 GaSe 385
Atmospheric pressure and rain-fall. Dr. J. Hann .................---2 ose 393
The laws of the variation of temperature in ascending currents of air. Dr.

ib JEG, Sei Se ees ano BOE SDICOOOS BORO DOROEE Ee DECEE en Rcoo RA noae 397
The law of the variation of temperature in ascending moist currents of air.

Prof. L. Sohncke ....- SAcooad cooseo codes 5 AO SaNC6 00004 Seoosceccsa = Hs
Rain-fall and barometric minima. Prof. Theodore Reye.........- Bo souoneC 421

On the relation between the difference of pressure and the velocity of the

wind according to the theories of Ferrel and Colding. Dr. J.

Je Bac Gan cnesen Datose Conu 5 paccos nocdss s5ed66 sane enecessscee 426
Reply to the criticisms of Dr. Je Hants Mr. William Hone! S60ci00 seceseasve: 440
Some remarks concerning the nature of currents ofair, A. Colding.-.-...2 447
On the whirlwind at St. Thomas on the 2ist of August, 1871. A.Colding... 462
On the relation between barometric variations and the general atmospheric

currents. Mr. Peslin........ ec odone siosigaa'enca sem Pero nae soeseas a

31s

PhS Oe PL EUS TRA Brose

COLOR-BLINDNESS.

Page
Fig, 1. Thenormal'sense of colors... ......2,coce cs cscs sUbSceo seco cces cscs 149
Dap AMMCSN MUBLGR nim tclae a Sana ciale cn cints we cieaeie ewes eaeecoimase cee 151
See DLUINANCRSROEOMCCM a oe oni 0(o so aatesieion a sjes aivaw se osaeacie cu siodieerreccls 152
AME linednessntOMvaOle tone cose cicie)scisiceelvacies Ses cie AGmosese 5 capdoe sa6eer 153
5. Total color-blindness ............. b donobo abedos Goséee cactec sobooc 154
ETHNOLOGY.
ANTIQUITIES IN WISCONSIN.—Mosss Strona.

Fig. 1. Mound west of Orion, Richland County, Wisconsin..............-- 240
25 Mound an Waseconsink == 2 casas. cccee ecstemnees cc came sivaceowceue 240
3. Mound near Wauzeka, Crawford County, Wisconsin............... 241
4. Map of mounds at Hazen’s Corners, Wisconsin.................--. 242
5. Sketch taken from N. E. + of sec. 21, T. 8, R. 6 W., Wisconsin ...... 242
6. Man-shaped mound in N. W. + of sec. 21, T.8, R. 6...-...........-. 242
dmthreoeiioies ina plowed diel dvacesssclacseselcmciane sieciee selesecite ene 243
Seelhrecenicies im a) plowed Meld’... ccc) eceecls ean cicece ce saci seae 243
Gh Ailes) Gir esate iY TO Gu il Bee eeen posbonoccEonneacooideecos Sen. 243
10. Bird-shaped mound in S: E. ¢ of sec. 19, T. 8, R.6 W ...-.......-.. 243
Tilo IIRC ne TeG! WGN leocoKs csanks os0cn9 CoE DecOnoden D6bOs6 Nene BESEOS 243
12. Mounds on Black River road on S. E. $ sec. 24, T. 8, R.6 W..------ 244
13. Drawing from a field sketch....- pooooog cong HocSac escnD sScSe Bote 244
14 Mounds2pteet Sh Of Db lAaGkyhiVveli ssi sscestesecciete see ieaesaateee 244
1. FS VAYo de Glee USE Mts eh din Gs WVoescos d605 6650 coDtod GaoSab oSdeso sa6ceC 244
Gre Moundsriny Sm We ses cose 9, cbva ON Wiesseloscisieateemale elses see 245

17. Man-shaped mound on west fork of the Kickapoo River, in N. W. 4
SEG BG IN IB I, B WY coach ceca eecass 6500 Cosa asbO0S HSS6008 5555 6080 246
Fig. 1. Bird-shaped stone-mound in Putnam County, Georgia... .......-.. 280
2. Bird-shaped stone-mound in Putnam County, Georgia.....-...--.. 281
Fig. 1. Ancient tumuli on the Savannah River, map ...-.....--...-------- 283
2. Ancient tumuli on the Savannah River, map .-.-.-.....-....---...-- 284
3. Ancient tumuli on the Oconee River, map ..-....--.-. ----.- cco 286

STOCK IN TRADE OF AN ABORIGINAL LAPIDARY.—CHARLEs Rav.

Big, 1. Jasper ornaments from Mississippi. - -. 2-22 0 oo ve cease canes on sone 295
Qe Jasper Ornaments romp VSS ISS Up Dleesaaaeeeaeeaeee ee eee same eee 295
Sy Jasper ornaments frompMississipploscesseeeetsee et eee ceicesies «ieee 295
4; Jasper ornaments from) Mississippi. 65 ~ 2c. coerce cco cen core cess 295
5a Jasper Ornaments from) MisSsissipPleaaese cee eele a= sec e<s cee cecaecee 295
65 Jasper ornaments irom) Mississip pleas sa seelsee l= = s-\-c- =e aie eeiee 295,
Zo Jasper ornaments front) MISsissI ppl momacic cmos, sc 6 ened cee neec= ses 295
8; Jasper ornaments from Mississippi... 5<. 5. - 2. oe cece coe nen cen n soos 295
On Jasper Omaments front Mississip Dlleseeetee se epee = <oie's saieiinnee sees 297
105) Jasper ornaments from Mississ) ppl sapere crise co-lclcelsoeis/- cele sae 297

484 LIST GF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

Bice ll. Jasper’ ornaments) from Mussissip pices ac\s oniwiin ais sete aes see eeeiaene 297
12) Jasper ornaments) trom) Mississippies+o=-1- =o ies le= ete eee 297

13, Jasper ornaments from Mississippless--. s-- -- js Santee aa eee cena = 297

14. Jasper.ornaments trom > Mississipples.----~ ---- «seen eee eiee sate 297

15; Jasper ormmaments from Mississippleess]--- 6-6 ese see arene 297

16. Jasper ornaments from Mississippi... ---. --- <<< w2<..65 eseece concen 297

OBSERVATIONS ON A GOLD ORNAMENT FROM FLORIDA.—S. 8. HALDEMAN,

Fig. 1. Gold ornament from mound in Florida, and head of the ivory-billed |
WOOdPOCKEL. cc owes een <n nie eeeene ee nee bone stones eines 299

ON A POLYCHROME BEAD FROM FLORIDA.—S. S. HaLpEMAN.

Fig. 1. Polychrome bead trom Hlonda ease tesserae ccie~enccleseele= jee 302
2. Polychrome bead from Mlorida. oo. .c-cteree > - =< oc0 -- aoe oe ana OUe

METEOROLOGY.
SHORT MEMOIRS ON METEOROLOGICAL SUBJECTS.
Fig. 1. Nature of currents of air. ....-. 2-22. enne eo ee enon ne o-oo e ones eee - 448
2. Curve of atmospheric pressure on the island of St. Thomas...--...... 452

& Curve of atmospheric pressure on the island of St. Thomas..... --- 463

EIN Se

Page

Abbe, Cleveland, translation of meteorological memoirs by......-..---..----- 376
Aboriginalvlapidary, StockainpimadelOL aN). sass-\odcclsainloooelesceees~ sce aslosl= 291
SULUCHULER MEG CONG esc cc coca aaicic seis sameciociencelcsceisclscinal=emels 278
Adams, Dr. W., lecture by, on subcutaneous surgery .... ..--.0 .----- o--- ones 18
Aire CODD)esnd00 coesco soo con demons SOO600 055000 SODOEd BOSSES Goes 0gebaD E5666 54
ATrICS, RUE Celts Witeaemeiserares === see eela=sines a ===) cominw) nnoso cons coed 308
Agriculture, Department of, articles transferred to.-......-..---....-..----- 4G
AIT Nature Ol. CULTENts Ole A. COMMING. ccucciskvesiace sascec vecsecssseacecee 447
variation of temperature in ascending currents of. J. Hann ....-.-..... 397
variation of temperature of ascending moist currents of. Prof. L.Sohncke- 418
Ataskarcolleetionsninomp seer eerie tects elesieis oc siaisis ceeiaicivisie-iniciecaisels eelwccie se sooo, OO s40
Commercial/Company, explorations by.--------------++------6 «=. 115
Alans PLresenoede Dyer selsaeisincivncasisiea see ees coe 39
Thanks ue wOmseeesisioeecisera ca cteidsise cis esicc cls 43
Allen J tAc ne lassiication Obs Mamm sa lSimeccoeossisseaiae science ccioseseceeecee « 45
Altitude, diminution of aqueous vapor with increase of. Julius Hann....-... 376
Amblystoma. On the change of the Mexican Axolotl to an ...........-.--.- 349
American Board of Foreign Missions, acknowledgment to .........--...----. 26
American fisheries, information regarding .... ...-2. 20. 222-00 cone ees o ee aon 49
ANALY SCS Re HeMical, TOlES) TOSPeECUIN Meee leecieleaiee\oie ia sicieiamieloe sine sl once seine 35
AT Chor: Steamship) Company, UnanKs) bOr 5 <<< cen oeeleiaciseienisciee seein «seen 25
Ange PislanG PAtIZOnI ani Ne PUES ON sa5 secieisisiecla's cise ae ee sales) ele snieaiee seteeaiots 21
ANI OUARCOMECHONSE LO Ms scoycncseetsacicnciconisew ice cicecimcce Hececoseeeeenos 39
GEqOlOR HON NES S68 soo ose copCD OnE oEeO DoS abo cone Canede oaSciedess 45
PAUL MELES ITs © OLOTAG Obarasals tae etnies eioe aul iaia esl aicteininctesicinwistenicicteeemeinenmes 236
al \WAIEORS I 666 EcbOn SOON OH OGGS0U CODOSE COSC OC OOS0 Beon conemr 239

GP Liha s| (Cliliiy, WW ehcoeo babebo GNOOrG. DOpeoa Donde DecHeduase aacc 251
ofMasom County. Ulin os) oes mace cies os os eatin cis eniseeei see seeiee 260
ORONO seem aeeciseeseceesciecinamcincciacts ace cae ance selene celeneieenies 267
Ombancocky County Wentuckyjnaas ccc ce esicescelsacieceleseceuess 2 268
Orr WermMae 2) seq booood moo nud Hoceon Dodead Soo S ban oaoDDoEas GodonoH 269
iniSpaldingi@ounby,|Gearslaeecccissa2 jaccaececeee see earieceseeee 289
ot-NashvillewMenne acc) cccesendetsaciey sais ce) Velsiocters steel seme ceen eee 276
J RTUSOT TE HY epee be noe She CL 0 Selocsecr Soocct pop EE OM Seb bocc Screen mace Gree 22
APPLOPPiALONG LOM aocpac acne wclecise «oe mod om see aero ees 23
Gr nly EA Sec ops coco mods cao Ude6cs Gace neeoss adiecen tasG6e 23
pUblicationiOMssserceesesee elas occisc sale cae cecieeeeecece ears DBwavi
showers, Mri, explorations’ ---~~-.ss.0) so ceiccneceecaeneies vevneecce 23
collections ans. ssssiscscleceaasesie senescence iCaenieerc saesiosae 37
AD PALATUBLISEOGIN: HSNCTY cici-\< 2's seincn wccklsnenlnsceeeMeeeineeeis ace soccecie ase 51
AppendixatoyammuUal IROPOLrts = ca secre ciscieleacene cue siecoete aber ciek cers ccisiesienen 129
Appropriation for anthropological research. ..-- 2. 0. 2cc occ coe wenn eons seccce 23
APPLOPLAIONSHOly MUSEUM) 22201 c's scjanccoenlace acer seeeee aietas den ecaclcemereans 36, 46
Archeolopicalbmapiot North America ..2 sc ce <seecewecss + sacese cancue/askiae 23
AHO OLS eIMUICLOSI ON: 2 ca..<n.0.cs cococslice trace eeaeee aes wees osceneGucs ces 236
RESCATC HES. AN; DY, DL, HaDOl.sqcet orsesieer aoe va econ seen omecce. 13, 14, 15
RTI ZONA OLE MEO Secs dis oan. vec eels bance iareiielnie nie miaie ner isin cinin sce'e a oleidisislsicrsa.e 43

486 INDEX.

Page,

Arkansas, collections from ....-. --26 22022 enee -200 vane cone cone cone oc mone 38

Arkansas River, earth-works on the ...--. .-- 22. 0-220 ene ene ewes cone oneness 251

Armory: buildin gee. cce secee se see sete eee a elie = sie) ~)a (atom alate m mean a alale le 122, 123

Arrow-heads, deposit of, near Fishkill, N. Y......... ---- eoee cone eee ene cones > 307

AS tronomicalydIsCOVOLlesieeee seen eins eiee cmaieeteeeeteeieielelasialeleleteateterate aoe cose 25

Atkins, Ch. G., collection of fishes.... ....---.---- +2 e222 ee 22e one 36006 5 41

Atmospheric currents and barometric variations. Peslin....-... sososasocesc 465

Atmospheric pressure and rain-fall. J. Hann............-..-.-- 4 cood ssacocie 393

Australia, salmon-e¢gs Sent tO. oc. one ie oc woe cece cone wane wane =ane 50

Axolotl, Mexican, change of the, to an amblystoma ............------------ 349

Bahamas, explorations WM ec cet ele eleeelaaele ieee lelemielsielel-t= =| 6-1 Spa5s0 Gs0nse0C 45

Bailey, W. B. F., antiquities in Spalding County, Georgia........--...------- 289

Baird, Professor Spencer F., Assistant Secretary ..--....---.---------------s 5,6

United States Fish Commissioner ............-.. 47

attendance at International Fishery Commission. 48

InformatlonicollectedDyesealaa ie o-leeee oe eol- ess 49

operations at Salem, Mass ........-....-.....-.. 48

report on National Museum..................--0 36

collection of fishes .-..........-........ Roedodas 41

Bancroft, Hon. George, member of executive committee........---.---------- 5, 124

TNO OSS =45 casso0 goSSou hOSHoe SSOdSs casese seca sen0 126

Regent. << comin weceee vein om =lmmmialmls) e\n\=lnlm l=) (alni~)= ein le ieleinie 5

Barbuda, explorations in -.....---- e200 --- eee eee eee ne cee e ee ene renee: aaee 45

Barnard, General J. G., paper of ...-<. .. 2.2. oon ccen wwenes Sess secwencces cece 17

Barnes, General J. K., paper of McParlin, communicated by.. ...--.----..--++ 321

Barometer, influence of rain-fall upon. J. Hann.........----- +--+. -220 eee 385

Barometric minima, rain-fall and. Dr. Theo. Reye.... .... ....... .... -2-- ween 421
Barometric variations and general atmospheric currents, polation between.

Peslin 2c oe coe e oe wo cee clan cate clcioialsiecion cle oe alelaietate\ereteletets ein «=tnlalntateie tera late 465
Bartram, William, tumulus visited by ...-...-----------+-+++- neaSdeo Oseece SE 283
Bassett, Mr., presented fish....-- .----- ------ 0+ +--+ eee e ee cee ene cece ee cee enee 41
Batut, de la, M., letter and relics of Smithson from ....-...---+---+--2------ 9, 127
Bead from HlOridaeees = sees eee ee oer eee ce ies cieaelaeinicinelel-\s\elee'« 5.600055 e---- 802, 305
Bean, Dr. T. H., assistant, ichthyology.----.------ ..---+ es-e0+ eeeeee cB Soce 6

assistant United States fish commission..-...--- -------+----« 49

relative tO TSHES «acc. eonces ence ccccee encece smeecs woes eels 46

Berlandier, Dr., works Of ...--2 -----2 ---- 22 eee ee cece ne neces cone cone coeeee 44
Berlin, Mr., collections by -.---. .----- -----+ eee nne cee n ne teens ene eee tecenee 38
Bermuda, fishes from .... 2.2 2222-22 eee eee ene eee eee conn nee ene cece ee cee eee ee 42, 44
Bibliography of diseases, appended to Dr. Keen’s lecture ....-.--...-------- Z 18
Biddle, Henry J., explorations by ...--. .-- 200 see ene eee ene eee nee ween cee nee ee 38
Birds, collection of, in Museum ...-.. 222. 2-22 enn ween ee cee cece e cn ee cone 39
Blackford, E. G., contributions by...--..----- ---.------ ------ 2-202 ene oon 41
Black Hammock, Florida, mound at, bead from .......----. .----+ ---+------- 305
Black Hille tossils)-= so. <s- sen cece ce cece Saeals aie sels ciseleleinteineDieetiete= = (>= ssl 42
Bland, Thomas, acknowledgment to ...--. ---. ----2+ ee0e eee ene eens cee eee eee 26
mollusca Submibieds toweees eoealesee es cises eee ae erea ss em a 45 46

Board of Rerents: os 's= +s -2 2. See soe tes eociece once oneaiesse eee == nee naeee 125
journal of proceedings Of ..---. .-- 2... .-20 ceenee ceceee cece ones teen 125
MIGCUIMPSOLic cos wis wlcnee ccee see cent seme ceine =p heen aie nee 125, 126, 127

Waite, Chief Justice, member of ...--. .... e200 ee-0 2+ 20-0 =n = o= ane 125, 127
Wheeler, Hon. William A., member of.........----+ ---- +--+ +--+ ---- 125

Withers, Hon. Re E:, member of /-.. <0 222. cence se === ae tetentecen!= 125, 127

Clymer, Hon. Hiester, member of... ...--. 122-20 coos nee cece ee eerees 125

INDEX. 487

Board of Regents—Continued. ee
Garfield; Hone. J..A., MOMDEr Of. ..ncs soe qacicieacae's Saddo.ce Neosac e- 125, 127
Macleans ener Tr PHEMIDOD OF 2). cao besiswieeltasnisinae <a/ae «aceite 125
Gray pe rolwAsa sMOMD CMO lan so <1 sais wicisleacsinacelseesicsisenacenacsiseiss 125, 127

Coppéeverotek member Ole. -so-c.sc% eicieselenocicelaclocaecicisss alos mec oled
Parken) EOnei. pIMOM DOR Ol ce. o.. s)-m care ccs aisacoceasimecaaseeelicoeled

RODOEO bese s<\c).sa\seisl sscregsivne ome ogee ei snis 5006 126

Henny,) Professor osep hy SeCrebaryconnin= ceciecise i cisaice ce enccicsiecieei Loo, len
Sievenson Lon yi LCLIONOXPILEG «-cinna/selcle ce) scinieisilesealence sete 125
Stephens, Hon. A. H., appointed member of .... 2.2... 200 eee nce cone 125

Dang Perot sees peesionin oy MeEMbershipmes- as aciecules ss sneees cane 125

Porter, President Noah, appointed member of.......... -.20 ees ee ne 125
Atatementioftunds presented, tO)... 2-/-cms sec vecine debnicesesceccacee 125
Warpiniai bonds (Considered DY 5.226. .e0s9 =i) cine nicin si daesibeindceyceue 125, 126

portrait of Professor Henry, report on, to -..... .- 220 wecnce coccccce 126, 128

FEPOUb OLSXECUUIVE COMM GtCO se scien enc icel-.cle wale cncisninascasisiceecns 126, 127
PEsOlutiONs DY sce sec ese So nobCes Bocas 5 boonoo opsead CoDSODeS=6 127, 128

portrait) of Smithson; presented) tol. <2). <2. ceccieacicmewccces scce cous 127
memorial relative to the new building ...-.. 1.2.20. .cs00 occee scene 127

portrait of Colonel Dickinson presented to .........00..----2----e-- 127
Professor Henry, report to, relative to the personal effects of Smithson 127

life of Smithson and history of the Institution, ordered by.......... 127

@XCUSeS LOT MON-ALLENG AN COmaeecteisiceiacs see ceteaaeiemisem aael eee eeies 125, 127
Professor Henry, annual report tO. .)<c<ocets so <2 aeiaeisisciee sales eee 127
Boardman. Geo. A. dOnaiony Dye acelaciciineisaciciaelasisel alamo eat anceioceneceeee 40
Bolivia, copper ores from..-.-....... s6ecce Heeao sone sabsco bo dack seston sodesse 43
POT GGG WHE RT ioe gd ca ncnci a SSO BOO EOC GOD IUE EE COMODO TOSEaT EoEniaec a 11, 12, 125, 126
lseesnyas) (Ge, Pipi ma ENE eee pecans ooere se nso COME EO Cae OC eee poche nce : 26
Boston Natural History Society, explorations by .....---..........- BOonaS Lies 115
Botanical index, by Prof. S. Watson............... Staseste tetas eeueteates iyi
Professor Gray’s proposition respecting ............-.-.-... 18

Bowers ovephen collections) by,.+-csapacea ise -fociis-}5aii= elenee eleencieaeeee 37
explorations |\s< si.) i sic a0142ntsyonisimee sees ots Seeamesieepocineee 235/00, 516

Brace Mire Teo lec hlonuO fhapildSemscisiciccet ac ciscisiecicis cel deine sfuctee enna aciesaeee 45
IBTACHIOPOd a, MNASXALO MD Vaio te AL eeciofacisisne feiss onl -teieieinnepeiasonis aaeieceis 21
Th. Davidson relative to ..--..........---- sosssoooresags9cgs6 21

racket. Colonel collections Yq. ac es< melt se safe serte elon ee ees ieee eine cero ere 40, 44
Brain, dual character of, lecture on, by Dr. C. E. Brown-Séquard..........-. 5 18
breed. bs. E.,,0n) pitsiat Embarrass; WAS -iaicnie e111 = <n) olsnieeiel ss oeine) <iesleeeieiserene 250
prodnaxs Mr. Collect ONS) DYyieeamaleele see aamla sel eens easel eee siemiese nae 38
Brown-Séquard, Dr. C. K., lecture by, on dual character of the brain......... 18
WH e G. Clerk, TranSpOrsgilO Moco scaicids)eaininiasis,s aceon ee aeoioesaistain © : 6
Bucksport.Me,. fish establishment) ati. <\<--<)o<i-\seiciele sete maeieeiianeleiaceicss 50
Building of the Institution, cost $500,000.22... 0.222. -22 2 oe own ee cee eee coweee 9
COMIN) tenacoUE Boocés GoSsSdos nodece HoSeaoneGes > Sado anno ooBpeaoe 12

EXPOSES 10D 2. o cces csccce Seco es Desslemepesinsn/ meee eeacei ce aice ce 119, 120:
APPUOPTAlION FOL! ss. < ccelssie eles vee facies oie cee s(eenicionie wie ide Smee 122

Pier GGL OL < oslo 2. ule bia cielejenantanatle atts seeps wets's\ a'cl ser See 12

NMOw asked tor by, board of Regontsisasessceeeeaiescswesiciss oolene ee Se aa ploa
Bulleuins.oteNmaiionall eM iUSCUMl2~c.coce ol eon ree eee erence eee eee 19, 21
Calitonniacollectionrof£ fishes from n-s<loeee meeiseeeiecinecice sis ecies dicecinioate 41
COUPCINONG ATOM 55 5 <)225c.n6 <deoee sae E ERIE E et <inis wan Sencienuyelste 37
Gultrot,cuano deposits in). --ct.-ceeleneeieice cel sclsce sisiciteiowee ews 21

Lower, contributions to natural history of ....... 2.00 e-e0secece 19

488 INDEX.

Page.
Canada, geological survey, agent for exchanges. .........--. .----6 secees anne 26
salmon 6g Ps Sent GO sooo sons ar gueeee= asee ao oes seeins eee Ae eeeeee 50
Cannon; 'Georsed., antiquitiesun Coloradoseeesseees 2 - aes e sienna eee eee eee 236
Carib'tribesiin Domini¢a:.2 22 Ges we one ss eleceeecies =cce soe ensseeoeeeere ° 45
Carp; Kuropean, introduction\Of£.-<-\sc- een eee se coc} eee eeere sence 48
Carpenter; BP. monopraphiof the Chitomidarssec asocc «csecineeelicee encore 17
NOticeyor death of os se eee eae as sou seco aera en nese as

Carpenter, Rev. R. L., assistance in completion of monograph of the Chito-

NIG ise sate awinve se sive —ciciavs else were wloveeniote -eieteemteiscietateisia < cic.a'cale samgsteclevessteree 17
Case, H. B., flint implements in Holmes County, Ohio....................--- 267
Caswell, Professor Alexis, observations by, printed.............---..-...---- 24
Catalogue of the Royal Society, of scientific papers........-......- aaceetterse 19
Cave near Hagerstown; Mdstcts.-cecsswece cet wcecieaieciecton acces eels cents 38
Celts'stone; inthe West indiesandsAtricaj-ce essere ese cess] cee ces coeciesee 308
Centennialsexhibit ofS wedentete.cosec conse siseclesstiociee ce cielsecies cecac cece 43
Central*Ameri¢a, researches in sbyslabelcaaceeses ene eeesiceceeseeecinces cece 15
Chemical analyses; rules respecting sea. ccecies ase ces ee omociees ae encieee eseeee 35
Chester, Capt.sk.1 Cy collectionbymeces anaseieceneaisce oasis] see eeeereeiesnerme 41
Chili Untversity olfapents..0s sce cass ace cece e eee aeeeeeasecer tee eeecrere 26
Chinayclaystromibneland’t<icsiccemce sence cca cciear season sate cnc cela creer 3
Chitonidss; monosraph of the, by BP. P.iCarpenter.--+e.c- ene eee eens eee : 17
Christmassland: researches til. cases coc ec cee secs cere eee eee oe eeteoe eerie 20
Chrysovelonié& Co; acknowledgments)t0;~-c-'e-- > +s secs see ecieeeaee ccenieeee 26
Clark, EHenry:d:,jonvkiucernariny-- ash cies cielate Cee ac cle clataiete eicetieten niente 16
Crarkyd « His works Of-20.29t7.e er tees oe SS tcc es eee er eee eres 44
Clark; W.-M antiquitiesrof Kentucky. stot cnn ee ec ae eee ee eeiece mor 269
Ciaysfrom: Pnsland@--<-7 tec. NE Set ccs coraeceee chemne secre cen ee creas 43
Climate of New Mexico, notes on the history and.........---....---..--.---- 321
Clymer; Hon; Hiester; member-/of ‘Board+of Regents. .--.-..-.2--+---4 sees see Oy Led
Coast:Survey,explorations Dy ticccs cece cores oes ooeee see ee eee eee eee 114
Cochrane, J., antiquities of Mason County, Illinois ..........-..-2. ....---s- 260
Colding, N., relation between pressure and velocity of wind...-.........-.--- 426

on ‘whirkwindsof Sta Lhoniasst.c ee. oes eee eee eee eee 426
MAvULE OL -CUITENtSOL (AIT aoe ee tselsfere See asee eee oem emeee 447

Collections. (See Museum.)
Color-blindness, Professor Henry relative to ..... sranmeeie esas ua ee aereetee ee eee 196
HS Holmerenirelative to sccse see eee eae eee 131
Duncan, M.L., translation of article on......-.........-<--- 131
Colorado, antiquities. 3. <a eee eee ee eee oon ae eee eee CeCe eee 236
SilVer-Ores {LOM sec sc oec eee eee cee ee eee Noo ha cee eee ze 43
Colombia; researches in; by Habel <.2c 222-2 oa- cesses cee eeeeee Cee eeeeeeeees 15
Congress,action of;relative to new building --5.<2-- se-2+«-sscseneeeeee =e. - 127
petitioned fora new building <2. .Sccicc. ences states ceo eee occas 7
Contentsrotereport see eee eee ee eee een eee eee ene a caee 4
Contributions'to Knowledge.2 2.22222 ae wees eee nee cone eee eee acne eaas 12 ee
Cope Protek aD investi gabvlon ot repiiles! byaserrere see eneee eee eee ne eeeee 46
Coppée, Prof. Henry, member of Board of Regents ............-..----. ---- 5, 125, 127
MOTION DY see eet se eee eens a bincee unsmeseess = csseeeese 127
Copper ores fromybolivia vis. oo. Stec een cen eee en eee eee Ree ate eee eens 43
Corals from Bermudar-te...'. 2. vs. bees cece oer eee eee eat ee eee 4
Correspondents of the Institution in foreign countries .........-.--.-------- 26
Costa Ricasresearchesnn by Habel cen cees cere eee cee nee eee eee 14
Costa Rican Government; explorations by...... 2.2 ccc esecee ones eoee eeeea- 115

Couch,, Lieut:4DieNiworkiofeee oo too a ae eee 44

INDEX. 489

Page.

Coues, Dr. Elliott, classification of mammals .......... 2... 2-2-2 e020 eee ee 45

Wobsa,6xp]lorationa iM jer evecetetccee ers c= uc wierelc te waver olla elicineys leis nts, ole ctereinierere ais 45

Canard Steamship Company .bhanks)-t0! (sere crocicwtom wie oloeiere le see lonie nla ste sais 25

Cunningham pK Me exp] OLALONS| DY) e-t-ciilowlorslo= rate leielelawes cei eaeisiceaisise nicl 38

on shell-heaps on Mobile River.-.....-...---0- ---s0-- 290

Currents: Of ail, NALULE: Of eh-twictorsto oissn eretaratewistclsrwieyalatarara sleisio a eelsa sleacweeece 447

ascending, laws of the variation of temperature of .-.....--. 397, 418

and barometric variations ..... ae ates eieicicinerseine cist eee 465

‘Cushing, b.-H.y assistant «ethnology:.)--1. i. mn ciccstsccieweisotccs coce secicitenesiecis 6

OXPLOTVUTONS Dist loteroeiecorsrele epee nines ieietree ah sae ae eas PHS ee 38

study of ethnological specimens ....~....-.--- ---s+. cece n-ne 46

Da Costa, Dr. J. M., leeture by, on strain and overaction of the heart.......-. 18

Dall) Want. charge of Mollusca... ce .cescs on cese sc ecsmeeessaseccce ease 46

COMCHODS O57 codSadmo6a0 coho CooUnS SoSH cece Geno SuaCoH GaDbCn 37

Indoxsto-Brachiopod a) s-225.0be sh cas cos'ccsissccee lace cs vaceeenis 21

The Davidson.relabivertOmesices dsc soc ee eee eee ce eeeeee pail

revision by, of monograph of the Chitonide ..-........-..---- 17

Dana, Prof. James D., resiguing membership of Board of Regents.........-.. 125

LD mga re alle Wibess OlWOANA ON a Boo cone Saneso.coeo R6Ob Hedueo God0 SOOO Dneses corde 43

Davidson, Thomas, relative to index to Brachiopoda ..............----..---- 21
De Hart, Dr. J. N., on mounds and osteology of the mound-builders of Wis-

CONS IM eeereyarse raterate tare ateter tatelatoctetalatel o afalofisietatetctatocle’eteintels aio) stelle ele veisin cl siciiaieisicts =, 246
Welawarovhiver, Salmonvtromlra sete scre esate cle ie tae el sleet nsitata cael eeete se 42
Denmark, Royal Society, -arent-F case seis sacs cote sictw ws sfolacinie! siolssin'w wiaisfalasiaa/s 26
Derry. Crows, Presents Sil Vers OLedinna./ocaeis ota'aeiatatny tle elalieialaicinte! tate sees oieee els 43
Wevenss Che sjmMempers Gl Opt CLO et 1aaret rt otitis versie le clon icle ccs cis sea einen = clei 5,11
Dickinson; Colonel; portrait Of sss aco secs se hess seccee wai oes Sseclss cel wacees 9) 127
Diebitsch> H.,-clerk, -foreigm exchan ess. ose cs clo cislene icieivivs Saw cele eis 6
Dominica lslandof, collections romeo. sce ome elon-s coscissen =~ ce clscisceeic 40

CaribrTiDesaM srssctercsaciiewlsoet scene sie co olsesieleise ates cinisetneme\ainereisie 45
WonaldsonweFhomas; Services) Of = asco eoe at sare hescarwinets Solsclaneeie see aes cee 43
WonahOnstor Nationale Nl ASeUM tascasercises) oar sister oe else caes ee eene eee ees 94
MouslAss pHEnE ye Men TRANS laAblON DY sao ierssieers<\celelee s/clelsicioaleioimin acieialeisietecieteeine 349
Druid Hill Park, Baltimore, carp placed in.......-........ ....-+--- 5.4000 206¢ 50
WincansMeslin tEARS AnlONS DYiees sects aa tantetal cin alo etnfela\elareial ona eee taretar= 131, 201, 214
Wonni cee brothers, COMA hlom Ole Clay DYacscc/es cleleninicic a ciaisicieiste sic crelsisioleisteineer= 43
ID DINOR ie) DEO TTS gan ceo mocabe pono caecob GonOSd bono boooed cass coad canecac 47
Earth, internal structure of the, by General Barnard ........ 2... 2.20 ---2---- 17
Earthworks of Ashlang County, Obio ...-....-2.- 222-2. 2 ene cnne ca enee weno 261

on the Arkansas River............. Sj ooningond doriaas soSoaD CaDenOs 251

Heaador, researchesin, by Habel ss c2ortscee doe ccc ccc deeusecaeceseces aaee 15
aBdwards,v.N:., collectionof fishes 2222s. 2ccsce ces sewscionel ss cece cerca cess 41
HersTcouechion) Of, n= MuseuMeacacc soos caecelceeesieccieeice em ea ceemertense = 39
WMPALLASS ANVIS:,| PLS Abi sesacsesse ae cde cisce sen e mesa se terete teeter. 250
Engineer: Department, explorations: by .<.--<5-6<-2< otecSesesccecn sace sees 115
Hndlich Ss Orsbeev assistalb, mMInerglooy srccerssicisscmceeaeeoeeeccescs oscars 6, 35
England, salmon-eggs sent to ...-...---...--- 2 he ee cd gle 50
SIH a MT CIENT USO” DY sccsc onc ores ces eee okieeeeete tos sec ce ocle sea 38
Hstablishmenttymrembers Of 2: 326 ssc cscseslscieie sens ceeehtee es canes sc co ccelcaes 5
PUBEAATPSTOL sce a ca a cem st asinine ee em eeneme teen a aie ete renee 11

HAbIMAlesMOn Sims sac sac cece oles cclteeeneeeemee eeteneaes oe sonics eecisc ss 121
Hthnolosyresearches? in» by, Dr: Habelesssccesseseeeteeec cs ccce ce ecetee se 13; 14515
HuLopewCenp Miro uOtON: Of 23.5 .522 secatee seem eeies = ce accces nase cee note 48

alivants Honmweevl.meom ber ex: Oficio's:scccs stan. a= scr 2c esac bosenn cece 5, ll

490 INDEX.

Page.
Executive,committee, report of". 22. J. sce sdaaeaeees 2oe Sole eee ee 118, 126, 127
Exchanges, literary and scientific .........-. Se ein cn oSennn enna sek See eeees 25
EXPONSCS TOR. - se sce ee cesses ese ane ety ae = teen eee 119, 121
appropriation for... -tiwa~siaces creer ese Joe eee Rein Se aoe ee 122
BhabistiCs Of poc<ss.n06nswed So neeeie anes ce oe eee eee ee eee eee 27, 92
roles relating t0 coo ceseeee5 eset eee nes SOnmeasoed Saas Soa25 G00 27
infernabional \emesieiqeckiceantade peers be sae 22 6e aeeeneaee oe cees 27
Expenditures) in 1877, soc.ne sadness csne cep ee Cok hosl) ences Baise sie 119, 125, 126
Exploring: expeditions, list.of <2 222-2 cose seeseeeeeeetas ads ee ene eee 105
bx plorationg; expenses for. 5-2 acca nee pe eee ee noes wos Coe eee eee 119
appropriation: for, .. <5.) aoe ee sole sciayocaclecoseenendeces seas 122
ACCOUNT OF & an see emacte tees Soe ee eee a woe USSé cc boddonleckelee 55
Fanning Islands, natural history of, contributions to. ...... 2... ..2.---2seeene 19
Favre, Adolf, report on transactions of the Geneva Society... ...........----- 225
Ferguson, 'T. B., took.chargeof Huropean:Carp.c...seae. a. s6 esa an teee < 22 50
new: systemofishad-hatchime eer seee peices eciec sec emacs 49
fish. commissionemof Maryland... c2ns ccc decektucascces. 49
Perguson, SN. collectionsyby# a. sa.0- bs enebesea enc tee oon oad eee eee 40
Herre! W.., reply coreriticigm ot Hann, vesecccs epee s ae eae eee eee 445
relation between difference of pressure and velocity of wind ...... 426
Hever, leoture ion ;ibytDr: BO. W00d -). s305\ secon Howe cscs meene aes cee hese 18
1D RG Bp) ke) Cs aaeeaapeoicesa ode coos case sede nsones 18
PUNANCES TOPOL ON...- snip ces ce a-aaGesere ree seer ke oe eee eee eee 11
Hirsh culture... ...--csa<25ce seep cask ope ce Reh nec eee e ee Oe eee 47,50
Fish, ‘collection Of... sch ese ower pe coese as pencke aoe aeaee eee eee 40, 41, 42, 45, 115
Fish Commission of the United States..............-.--- eseeseeoet40, 47, 4849550) 51
Fish establishments at Havre de Grace, Md. ...-.. 22.202 eececscacccc cece cece 49
‘Bucksport;. M6 .~ =. ..5. care satbrote aie meetsee ce eee eee 50
McCloud River, Cal...<- < .assdeamece eae mect me eemerne 50
Holyoke, Mase 5... 50: /ssieo=</consce, sete Mantes sean 50
Mishes, Jordan’s paper om - << <...-o- .2ccee cee ea ecles sacee eee eee ees 21
Hishkill, N. Y., deposit’ of arrow-heads near... ---.1.-s.- ee emsciits Ses etee ee eees 307
Fire-proofing of Smithsonian, building —\. <.. 2252-0 Jexiseeeeees ee eeaeeee 12
Flint implements in Holmes County, Ohio.... .......0..02-cceeee sevee arontte ts 267
Blorida;: bead trom ssec. oow cece sccale tc hoe elon be ee 302, 305
fishes from «(o-oo soi sno sees spanner sepell aeeeei tae ee ee een 41
mound'in, gold ornament from)... = ccc. cee sos aee cenentie aeeeeeeeee 298
shell-heapadm 2.2 5 _/4)s22 a dineree et een Bee ea enien cia eee tee 305
Bhigel, Dr. Felix, agent in Melpzig 5c. ct «2oe- cence e ees sere ete eee Ree 26
Bog-signals;“Professor Henry’ on)... 5c. secsescucs auatencneetee: Se eee 51
Food ‘fishes, propagation of .5 2.8) oo5.c<c.c etee cane Hadad eee eee 49
Horeman, E., assistant, ethnology (5.522... nc<+ «apermace ieee eee eee 6
Korests, rain-fall affgeted by clearing of’ ,. 2: .: -2-0--saasceeesaseaee eee nacs 24
Fossil invertebrates submitted to Prof. C. A. White......-.......----.------ 46
Mogsils collection /of 52.2 So Sasa se bec cee eee ee ee ee oe ee 42
Branco, salmonzeges sent'to...ccssneccweice cece neon ee Eee eae 50
bree ireight companies furnishing: |. .--- ssce cous ses eae sere ees oer eeee 25
Friel, Joseph, antiquities of Hancock County, Kentucky........--.-.-.------ 268
Frith, Mr., collection presented by ..2- co ycleuncenocneesel senate neue Le eee 39
Haller, Captain: collection by’. ....: =. desecsn ss ec eee eee er eee 39, 42, 45
Fands'of the Institution; condition of...c.. 22 226 Seace acne cee. ee ee aos
Fur-bearing animals, monograph on 2... cnjeus eee s eee eee eee 45
Gabb, Dr. W. M., collections presented by........--.- SS ae A 55 39

Gaines, Colonel, explonvtions | REESE Oe eDOO DS AboapasoaanS cae epee see sects 38

INDEX. 491

Page
Gaines, A. S., on shell-heaps-on Mobile River...--. 2. ..222. see cone woes ce coee 290
Gallery of-.art,.expenses for... c.2et.(oss2 elec ee est ee eee eA 119, 121
Galt, Dr.-F. -L.,:on-theIndiansiof Peru 225222 25)-52252'- 55 eee Me See asec 308
Garfield, Hon. James A., member of Board of Regents.........--.....0----- 5, 125, 127
Geolovist to.Guatemala-appointed:-~< =... 5s. tc cece sacle ee «ciencicericeteccicie 16
Geneva. Society, transactiongOfiese.s.-2.\ceve ess ce sect oe ce conc as weisjicies'e 201, 214, 225
Georgia, aboriginal:structunes mn. 22s 6.5.2 .occte secs. 22 ese clemecceicccsienss 218
Spalding County, antiquities in ....-....-....----. -.- Petjecwencleses 289
collectionstirompusmemere siaclaisc= 22 csicinl selenite) a eiciaieistars apoeaccaad. 5008 08
Germany, salmon: esostsentpOmnas = acs se csicites\sclsicie ccletoe eelecie a iciaeciainalasicieles 50
Gibbs, George J., on stone celts in West Indies and in Africa ................ 308
collection presented by.--....---- SiGe MEOCO GEO DObOS eseSo at
ethnological instructions reprinted...-......- alesesecaeies 5 24
Gill; Prof..Pheodorestelativeto fishes: 2252 (ce oSe W Shs. Sl aoss wes coe ciscin deme 46
Nam Edn OW, SPECIES Hasso Se sice ole cc bine eioaesiscicics epiccee 41
Gold ornament from mound in Florida ..--......-...--- aaeeeetic seine se eee 298
Goode, G. Brown, assistant, United States Fish Commission .---......---.---. 49
ASSISUATE ZO OLONyfemeeie wala see sateisiain ciate cleanse eee seteiceeree ae 6
relative toOvlishes.2-c2:thetss cameos se bes tises sacoce cceese 46
Collectionsots sess scacscasseecoeaace oe oecenes cece ee cseeare 42,44
Government exchanges: =:i2-.5 2-6 .osce6 secs Seis remedsleces pelea ceees 198
Gray, Professor Asa, member of Board of Regents.-.--..--------------- -.-« 5; Ro m27
relative to Watson’s Botanical Index.-..........--..... - 18
Griffin, M. E., clerk, distribution of publications...-.. BpOIoco Soocno Haduou.cEcs 6
Cuanoidepositsin’ GuitvoteCaliformia a .seness access scence aes ieee eee 21
Guatemala, Government of, request of, for geologist ...-.. .-..-..----..----.- 16
researches in, by Habel....--...-:..---. Bene euctdasietesan ee een ars 14
Habel; Dr:,researches of =<; ss. ~s-s26 ss a das aciseoe ciciisselshesc sieccimecies cers 13, 14, 15
publications of..... RONDO COOC GE BIE BoO COBDINOoSSORECe ecowemsiscce 13, 16
Marerstowiy Mo. Cave Meatlece sacle es -nlecine a eaela= pnodocoIdaod sSdocscoad 38
Hague, A., nominated geologist for Guatemala.......... 2.00. 22 eeeeee cen ene 16
Haldeman, Prof. 8. S., on polychrome bead from Florida................--... 302
Halifax, intermational- fishery convention ab... .--- 5. ses soos ete ccleae ees 48
Hamburg-American Packet Company, thanks to...-....... stemueieaeaeersa ames 25
Flamilconmbequestessmecccmsesmere seen neon ea cose osiece ee siemare wiectoes 12, 118, 119, 120
SINT IB ery LElag HA BERS END! ao gon cogGae SOEBOa COCeO0 OSO0E0 cece aa0q casa.Sade senc 5
Hann, Dr. Julius, atmospheric pressure and rain-fall .......--.....---- asec 393
diminution of aqueous vapor with increase of altitude -.... 76
influence of rain-fall upon barometer ........ .--... -...--. 3&5
laws of variation of temperature in ascending currents of air 397
relation between pressure and velocity of wind .... .----.. 426
CRITICTSMNOL Aas eo eS es accion Cone caetsce eta cee eerie 445
Hardenburg, surveyor-general, contributions by..-. ....---. ---22. w---00 --6- 43
Hartord pwieiGr W:, collections *by taeas¢/-essice esses nce ceeieree cence see cote ce ss 37
Harrison, A. M., on colored bead from mound in Florida...-..-.........-----. 305
ISRO ONG Herl, OVEN A EMCUGHA OA se se os50 qe50 doGOCD Coen DoGcod cto sooNscasosHEC 49
Havre de Grace, fish establishment at..-.-- anacksee en teeta eceteccccis ese 49
Hawaiian Islands, natural history of, contributions to.................----- 19
Play d ene LOtewhem Vien COllECHLIONS Dy ==aa2 cecscerececeemetsceecs coc cone scese 40
explorationsiny charce Ofea-.ceeceee cs -\ere ose cesiece ees 55
models presented Dy -<-ce.reeceeesecs ces cece SB SEOSEC Sac 38

SULVEVA, DUbLICAOnS! Olnssseemecescices cies ise ciaincice st 45
Hayes, Hon. R. B., ex officio president of the Institution ............-....---. 5

VASID LOL LO HO MnS bIbUb OMmeeeeee aise ce aes cic cieia ce a sidate de il

492 INDEX.

Hayti, explorations in: .--22 02 enc. ececls comands eae eee
Heart, strain and overaction of the, lecture on, by Dr. J. M. Da Costa........
Henry, Professor Joseph, letter to Congress accompanying report...---..-.-..
Secretary: 's<<ct sche pees ae =~ bs poneasls eee eee

light-house duties). 225.).-<s02 <s2dese atest eeeeee eee

secretary of Boardiofokerents| --pssesmeeeer eee eee

statement of receipts and expenditures. ............

portralt Of oc soem Cie. ccs oa bees ae ee

relative to memorial of the Board of Regents .......

presented elics tennessee = shee = Me een ao ecn

account of personal effects of Smithson..........-.-

directed to prepare memoir of Smithson ...-........

directed to prepare history of the Institution ...--..

presents report to the Board of Regents.........-..

relative to/color-blindmess@ eo—--ssseene-- once=s sos

Henry, M. A\; translation (byc-=-e.cee ooo. 2 Pee eee “eee sar ae fee eee ee
Herron; Josephs] anitor. 2 e-jeme oe seis aaieeme ee eae oho ewis Selmer cleo oe
Herschel, Sir William, classes of nebulz, index to.---.. ...... <<<. .--.-----
Vessel ple. |SCLVICES Otte ne an cieiete es cieinie sere eee eateters lela ovat siti wine [dmioptste| we be seein
Heyward EW)... donabion 60M =. <<< 2n2 2 cone sence eeecienaceeisceeer seen
Hill, Dr. George W., earthworks of Ashland County, Ohio..................-
Ee BISCO CCHIONS DY sce = oleae las ayeiare\a Se /arainleaiseyenieie estate eo lee eel eee eee
History afl climate of New ined: MOLESLODE foeimclele see em eee ee see ee ete
Hoepli; Ui, agent for Italy. joo. -\ecies em ecto eee eee ee eee eee eee
Holden, Prof. E.S., index to books relative to oe and star-clusters .-....
Beineren, B., paper on color-blindnessi oe s.tec se <oencis ioe alae o ls eeetsesie eee
Holyoke, Mass., fishvestablishment)at <-2--2 ---c-+-e ene connie eee ee
Honduras, researches in, iby Habel... :----<---< snnies enisjoeinsienisceee ee nie ee oee
Hudson Bay Company, explorations by -.-....-..--....--..------ USGS nO Oroe
Hulbert; Captain; collectionsitrom ss... - cee ee ee eee eee eeerEe
Hantineton; portrait of Professor Henry, Dyecc=-i4ae-eeseee eae eee
Eyatt, Erofessor, sponges Su bmilbied th0js ase reeset a) in chemi aes eee eke ince
Ichthyology, North American, contributions to, by Prof. D. S. Jordan......-.
Digg, Mr. collections DY:.<cea, cacicsapicyoicsioiseec winecion cele set lenes oeieeee eee
Hilinois collections fromises << src cscle css se ee cnieeceiecenienetecesisee seis eer
fossilafrom. «cae ss sone ae Sistascs pene Se eeleeen cece near nee eee

Mason) County, anblquitiesiOt men.iceleoeieee eaeeeene cee eae eee

Rock River Valley, mound-builders)inessessiccccoee cleo asec eeeeeee

Index to Sir William Herschel’s classes of nebulw ...--..----...---.---.----
botanital, by. Prof.S. Watson) eerie ceieeraen isis soles eee eee eee

of star-clusters, by Prof. E..S. Holden. 3.2. sa. p teeta eee eee

to Brachiopoda, by Wi. EL. Dalle. oo. o2ee)- = aa ein niece eee Aobonsdds

Th. Davidsony TrelativewtOm-e. ses oes ose eee eos

Indexes:of special subjects... 2cj-cnice-aj0 steno a reiance nee =a 4098
Indian} Bnreau, explorations by,2---e8 <-eseee seen ees eee ee eeeeiee ace eae
Nerds casts Of. s...o-2 sceoeese oe ne eae eee eee eee
VOCADUIATIES| =... c's 25 seinen Seem ceo. Sean Meee eee ee ee eae eee
Indians; thevotseerus.- 22. is. sete nese eee
Inman; Steamshipi@ompany, thanks toe ssss5see- eee eee ee aeeee eee ee eee eee
Institution; separation of, from) Museumisscsss ee. eee eee eee eee
Interior Department, explorations by <2... --c-aeasseeanesseeewee s cee eee
International exchanges

Invertebrates

125, 127
125
126, 128
127
127
127
127

115

INDEX, 493

Page.
iowa, Delaware County, MOUndS WN) occ oe ce msieanlcscelemciniosslelscicere song accc 250
Irony, SpeciMensOfjsease <-2 sec ssce essa -soscceces Se hpoumsconaod BooaoyS meteeers 42
Jamaica, ex ploraviOns mM wacsesrsesicieie= (=o loa carscie el cetnele einlcisic cls ae loleise ate oiniet= 45
James, Dr, collections) Dyp-s-seeeeaee se ceisae lacs es seeiceasise ee seleciastajeaee 0
Japan, Museumiot collachlOns tro myersie. o0 ies ctosetenelo emis esol eaeiee setae ieee 39, 42
Jewett; Col. s:,,collectionsibypessass s~- sence cole so cpaciee careers Welseec es cisisisinate= 42
Jones, Col. Charles C., aboriginal structures in Georgia........---..----. 26 278
Jordan, Prof. D. §., contributions to North American Ichthyology ...-. scoste 21
WEAR) 11) WISIN) Ka peariboESdG GadeCo COCO So05000 056 5 ooa06 46
explorations! Dyij2sc2 scs5. sane cose weiss sa soe reeeeaclacss 42
collectionsiof fish’ DY:.sos2<-<=2e;s-cccnio- sc csicicostecieec cess 42
Kansas! City, Mos antiqimitiestots. 3 520ci 1s «cm selsi-= -lasiloe seileain veieisiceteiste eee 251
Keon; Dr Wo Wisy 16Cture bya Ont fOVeL ssc sts aise ois slats soe iia cele se cecoeces 18
Kellogg, A. G., lieutenant-commander, commanding the Speedwell.........-. 48
Kentucky, Hancock County, antiquities of .........-. Sosces 5 B0bGeS Bneeeste 268
University, explorations by -...-..--..--...---. 5 dong odoedC cooScS 114
Kersnelen Islands, collectionjof fishes from: ~---\.< 1-- 5) ---s'socececccc ese ce- 42
Collecivonsiromepecesesees oe eceeacissseelense Sioen6o0 Scoc 45
iIKeyeelons DMs mem PeCrier O[fiC10 =a oo sis -lnlnjnin ilo sie cislelcieicie'=') <sloea sheets i,
Kidder Drab. collectrons|Dyecce eects -eee ees ee esceeRoce ic wlstecistise 45
Kiteseverslade; tromy Homa tress s.tss- sealers a csc cealoe else aicices ste snie<'= 40
Knapp, Mrs. Gilbert, earth-works on the Arkansas River.......---..-----.--- 251
Kohn Mr: donation froms--322s/s2ssc2 sheen ce acess coesced set esnesis sas eeeeeeros 40
ILA TOAD: GS50 oncpenecoeuandes aannooe a oneso0 cane coc sonoos G BOdsdo Doon Geaar 30
Land Office, explorations by..---....-- 6.5606 dnedos SnOaU AaGccE DdoTaO acdc bane 115
itapidaryaboriginal, stockc initrade)|ob ans... ss/sc secs on aloees oon oceees close 291
Weatimenicollechionwesee tessa sales so etecie = in ieee a SPcinisicists tet Dialitee a dreSeclaome 39
Wen GS PAT Ne ON ALON Dynes ose nese ae Seale otaeiein atelier os aloetsiaineoete 39
Mawreoncey George) Ne, classiticabion Ofjscsceclsecicien se clocsiseeiencciseeciaasiceciee 45
Ta@mias,, IMME 150500 Soon00 sone soese3 055050 SusosaSESS o5C Sadodacesossoocoer 18
He Clair, portrait of Professor Henry, by .-..-.-..+----. s--006 so-5 22 cons oss 126
Leech, D., clerk, correspondence.-............-.. pebesis seeeae maGcobe oticcec es 6
Letter of transmission of report to Congress ..---. .....----- o2-- seceee scone 3
Library, list of valuable books received in 1877................-...---.----- 28
SiMISiGSOi ea receie oe cee lca coin serseieiel saeiel si stael ove ale/ setae) serateretotee 28
Light-House Board, Professor Henry’s services to......-..------ sealeeceloees 51
Moan Collections seacs stecece cs oecie we cals aoa iecilocwine case Soc mecise rece wesneniee 38, 39
Mucermaria, Honryid . Clark(oneeas saaeiocscieacie cl sssteciecaatecscnelse ser lesa 16
THMIIMORNTONN Mi Se nsosas BeeEeso5 cone seo sa.coun SABeHC Godt temars 16
printing: of, supervised by Prof. A. HE. Verrill’.--. .-.. -522 2522 5-2- 16
Lykins, W. H.R., antiquities of Kansas City, Mo......... sisiduisleciocietheacaceree 251
Mackerel, stomachs of, collection of .........-.-. BOOS OSES DboO Sood cobs Sep Bdee Al
Maclean, Dr. John, member of Board of Regents .......--...- Socosuoucs sons 5, 125
member of executive: committees. 4. acces enelcienecee cco ea! » Dykes
MATION! RVceaoecas ooOncC CODD GadeSoocC Decree oats sem sats 127
HEROD Seo oaed coos onc ooKco CoCmIe pitleccneesese ee ree 126
Maine, salmon from .....-.--- Gooes Gsccee Coco ogds CEmcce ee eteneeaicisee) Sis ccilae 41
Mammalscollectionyot, in Museums=-2s cers s--o seceiceateeecelss es sscisclenmee 3 39
Map, archeological, of North America... ........ 2.222. -2220- Seles easeuee 23
Manineiimvyeriepzates) collection) Of... s-eanasssseniseeaieeee ceive seo essai 40, 42, 46, 49
Maritime work of United States Fish Commission ................--------- 48
Maryland, cave in, near Hagerstown -.--.. ---.---- ---..---- b God pooso soboct 38
Mason, Prof. O. T., relative to the Latimer collection ..... Jat Seas seen’ 39, 46

study of ethnological specimens.. .......---. .--s0. 2220 -- 46

494 INDEX.

Page
Mason; Prof/0..T.,.archmological map... esespemi 4s een a aeons 23
Massachusetts, fishes from << 3252 cboccueseeiecs ccc cic es ccsle clowns ecee 41
Matteson, E20:, skin/of bearspresented by--see-< «-- 6 esos aeee es seeiseeeeeieoee 39
Mayberry, 8. P., shell-heaps on Saint John’s River, Florida..........--...--. 305
McAdoo; Colonel, collections by. -..\oses=4 eae ee Soasle aeloweeeeteas poet. 6250 38
Me Cloud BRiver-fish.establishment< << <2 scieeemiase te occ nism secre ecite = sie eeiee 50
MeCrary,. Hon. G.. W., Mlember, 6xO/fi0l0l- saceteniciele==\alo sles an aelectacies acts siete se iets 5, 11
MeKinley;Mr;, collectionsibysie. soccics ceremene =i voles is claclocioeteievert-wrnicterters 38
McParlin, Dr. Thomas, history and climate of New Mexico.........-.....-.. 321
Moek, F'3,.decease .0f 422. o— Soot ga eerste ete os alee ae on aaree see 9
biography, Of sence cece eee eee an) tee cle sated tae istaes 10
Meetings.of the.establishment.........--..--------0-- pe ee See eee 11
Meigs, General, prepared plan for a new building ........-.. 2-202 .-22seccee 7
Members\ex oficio.of the Institution ace secios seeeee ees s es se ice roe ce Temi 5
Merrill; Dro James. J donation Dyn sc s2 3-0 weenie ess oae eee cese ae 40, 44
MeLGorology, jaosta ncaa asa eels oan tacos date poten selec ee seein es coset 24
work, performed, 1 voaseracrosearsstals oceeeieunies welts ected aeaelee foi 24, 25, 121
publications esse stecwo ck ecncce ssc attieciee acme conse ot stacs aaa 24
translations .of. essay8.0N.. 6.2.0. scces coos onccn Sotceeeenees cele 376
Mexican axolotl, change of, to an amblystoma ........---. s2s--0 eo sce eeeces 349
Mexico; musenmyoft collectionsmrom.----)2-+..2554- soceiee eee eee sieeeeeoee 39, 40
Society of Geography and Statistics, agent........--.. .--2-2---- 22. 26
Muller. mound ini crombuall/ County, Ohiomscseescercsesse setae aerate 268
Mills Clank prepared castsot lndianses.-\es-se oo Se 2 alae alee eee ee eee 39
BMulner, J. W.., collection.Gf fishes. <0 soe io wer-t oscar ce ate eee nee eet eee 41
Assistant United States Fish Commissioner ....-...-..-....--- 50
transferred toy Holyoke, Mass. - 522.) sosac nse ae senior eee 50
Minerals}: collection voi... 6 vjecic cel ctanle cles onic vcleretsielnaio cana Meee eee 42
Miscellaneous collections ....-. side leisi'e side! eels cis! sinle Sole) ce Sante eee sees 12,18, 19
Missouri} Kansas City, anulgiities:0f-ecs so ve scenics ose cece onsees senators 251
Mobile, shell-heans’ of. 25-5 jo 2 cco < cco cose soap eelnece scemeeness tsetse 38
Mobile-River,shell-heaps! On, s2.--oas ces asa aarceciomerdacoeeke pe meele a are neates tae 290
Molluscs tise sc iec'veiciceis) tate de ct csc culm DASE CaS cree eee ee eee eee 46
Monoliths, Drotlabel’saccountiof 25.224 noee eee ee ten meres eae ee eee 15
Morrill, Hon. Mr., presented bill to Congress for new building ...........--- J 7
Moulton, M. W., on mounds in Delaware County, Iowa .........-...--.------ 250
Mound, ancient, in Pennsylvania’. -1sce .2 ac ome tes cetes so efe aa eee 306
in Trombull .Caqunty, Ohio... 2.2227) sasne se ese ae aoa ke ann eee ee 268
Mounds inpDelaware County, owas. .sasas-leces ences coc ste aeeisae cee eens 250
of. Wisconsin... 24-2225 oe ace h bes cece tee ee eee Per aeemeeepeee 246
Mound-builders in the Rock River Valley, Illinois............-.---. 2-2 ---6- 253
Mound-builders of Wisconsin, mounds and osteology of the...--....--..----. 246
Maller, Frederick, a@ent in, Amsterdamic.2: 22. tcc LyeSeth Ak Seccaseeeeeees ecu 26
Miiller, Dr. J., report on transactions of the Geneva Society...--..----.------ 214
Murphy, Mr., collections presented. by. ~..<s.<=+s2)-esaas dee ceueeeen os owe ree 39
Museum National... 2-5 35. c-c hese eee eee ee ee eee 36
objectiofs..o56 2. es = ere eee 5
officers Of, . ..siiwagaas'eandeecea eens ateeee Hse Luetiaes F 6

separation of, from Institution... ...... .... -2-.------ veces - 7
functions of, . ...4-...00jscsa=snaeiete eee meee Seen eaeeeem 8

support, of,.appropriations ford Gsc4 eee dew acls) es ceeear 8
occupation of Smithsonian building -....--....--..----.-- 8
Ballepias of . ..nciscpld ac eadelbaue Gehioae aateleaee ye ae 19

History, S iaegasrasee dese deat poseaneee en eee eee eee 36

INDEX. 495

Page.

Museum, National, Professor Baird’s report -.-.-.-- Bi cmisicc cele aetre a ceion> Serctefeteics 36
addifions toss ssce eaee6 Bleciscsjcceaseoae 9 (OOEGO D20CAS sei 36, 37
appropriations tor = <-<apyseee res eect lee leniaafen ato tee LO, ee, Os
scientific investigation of the collections in.......--...-..- 45
WOR CONOH IM Ave coe seis ap gapse © cy aoeyols a ae eyaer igs aoe 46
distribution of duplicate specimens ....-.........-. Seetaieil = 47
necessity for increased accommodations.... ....-..--.-.-.- 47
labors of United States Fish Commission...-. ieee mye sent= 47
as an educational establishment --.. .....----...---- ---0-- 51
number of entries in record bOOKS |.....0-..<.00 .-ec0s ---0ee 93
distribution of duplicate specimens ........-....---.--..-- 93
donationswin: 1807. wosse asa cie sso S ojapernnesen cee enaete - 94

list of exploring expeditions having deposited their collec-
HONS With si Jassie esos Seas oops s See weet meses 105
TEPAVINEMUSHD Yas cose se taise seeievels tere tateiseer= OBehod eaDOOC 119, 121
OxpensesMones so pesca selne sales vo .cesasie<ajeobisjeeeiayeeevaes 119, 121
I CHALS EOL INS tIbULION = 2(26 422s Seed t ac) wepicieec ee ae 122
advances made by Institution to --.....-. edeisicta t= spr tebe 122
TECOIpPts OL NUL Zien ness] ceeee Jwulsjgeicicalsae aie Remreteeeetes 123
OXPENAILUTES: OF IMMVO Whee weiseeiacee ices oleeee viswielemderrciaw ste 123
PayMentspm Aad eyoYiere oem oe seras sei stacts seisletielose eee yercere 124
examin atlonOf vOUChers LOR sa sesle mince ace eeeliaccemeeeal 124
cashybalanceyin favor Ofeeceseses ec clcine cisise ecieeve= -lekeeteats 124
new bull dungeon ac soes sel noSoo0 coSoco nese oeScS Se6ocee 127
MiyersiGenerglAc ys-.-<ureig on cise gie'sin eeieie Sona weige’s sec ace Ooea-baeiea- eee 43
Narragansett, United States steamer, surveys by.----. .----. ---. -----02+---- 20
Nashville, Tenn., antiquities of. .........--. Bote Cees Oo COoe SB bE bE Boe ajonse 276
Namy, Department, explorations Wc <)5- 54) <2) ont a)<in «a\seniel eee baeoe al 115
Nebulz, classes of, Sir William Herschel’s index to...........-.....---.----- 19
and star clusters, index to books relative to...........-.....--.---- 19
Nelson, E. W., observer at Saint Michael’s, Alaska ...... ..--2. 2-20 s200---- 44
Collecbions Dy isecs sm «scien siremeiys Seen tacooke seb eee a eeee 40, 44
Netherlands, salmon eggs sent t0.....0.2.. 0. ---0cceees nes jeoccucogat00eT 50
New Mexico; climate, of, notes on)... 52.2 --0. -osescinre joe HS seo0tseo sagesas 321
Newton; ror, Henry, collection of fossils) -2..)--.s2.)seeieeeee eee seeoeeicinsee 42
New York and Brazil Steamship Company, thanks to.--.............---..--. 25
Mexico Steamship Company, thanks to ..................-.-. 20
depositio£ arrow-heads near Mish kwlli os = loca. acts ceisinem ceelanicicne 307
New Zealand, salmon eggs sent to...--.---.---- Sab ade odad coon Saco besd Hdocdd 50
Nicaracua, researches, in, by Wabelec es qecs octet osay tec sree isicie w/cieisiele emiewnas 14
orth America; archeological map Ofu. secfac's ste ee wotiaGe tap eiowaeeene does 23
North Baltic Lloyd Steamship Company, thanks to .....-......s20-sce0e---- 25
North German Lloyd Steamship Company, thanks to.............-....-.---- 25
Nonway,enoyal University Of, agentes. ca. <os-\-ce ss «se tocteeee eee ee <iesee 26
Nutation, precession and, phenomena of, paper on, by General J. G. Barnard. 17
Shere Ae ee NechlONs: DY... <5 s/e<;- 04 <sqaioacn see niase <amereeiaiadonrefdre se ar 39, 40, 45
OxMI GIAO SoscoogsonaT coobed Goddcn Case nc race csoho" SOS COSC 23, 40
Officersiofitherinshitnbion..-..6.-4 -ceucses ce Ho (disiwioialo Wejselelsin dis Suleeois ceveuics 556
National Museum): . 22 <5 acs sto a oninaa apart oo) is sine dimwiieyeeted 6
Qhio; Ashland: @ounty, earthworks of. ype cces,-- se cctawaupesbosnicae ok eee 261
Holmesi@ounty, flint) implementspinike see eeeeeenees swucissleveceeee 267
Erambull County, Mound inj sj. .<ceiens se) co so ceemot es awe's 2 Seer woeceoe 268
OhiowRiveryshadetrome i. 3s soo zisicisielcinae\ee eels eee On cear ar ste alee oa oneraetays 41

Oregon, collection\of fishes from) ..< ae mercies aie Jou widicaicatwnist| 0s cee 41

496 INDEX.

Page.

Ores; copper; from Boliviat. sho sos5 Jitoscise ee ees J Sone co eeeatelee sentences 43
from “Arizona -2 22 cs2scesie sesso nese 22 see eee ee eee soneeee 43
Osteology of the mound-builders of Wisconsin ........ 2.2. 200-2. cece eee nn ee 246.
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, thanks to ...-. Ss Bo0gnedoes soo osSaS Sacceec 25.
Steam Navigation Company, thanks to........-.- SECTS 2 ia eames 25.
Palmer, Joseph, taxidermist s:2 22.22 Sacieene sea 5 5. eee ee se eee ee ences 6
Palmyrarisland; researchesin=--2. see ee eeeeeree cree ee etere ees noes 20
Panama Railroad Company, thanks to.........-...----- ----- SeDORS BESO SINC 25:
Parker, Hon. Peter, member of Board of Regents..--...-....-...-.---- sce 0) Loomer
member of executive committee... <2. <<... ------ Scce cccccs cece 5, 124

Tporbiof sj2sss42 Ssee css esse ee ee See sice os eeeNemeeine rere 126

Peabody Museum, explorations by ...--. STN. hE SI crate etgie 115
Pennsylvania, ancient mound in ..... Se haels olde E ebckw swede 306
collectionsfromiasce.-22-lae se eeteemenieees - eee ctescea pisood aboc 38

Perrine, M:; collectionatbysessasscses sss. cencoooeeeeee ec eees aisie's tesa s Soe - 38
Peru; thedindianssofasesasaaee eases sciece ahscueteisirrscetiek Seton ticles 253 clams 308
researches in, by Habellssa-c 1. sous sioe ee ene ee eee SSE SOSDSOBAC 15
Peslin, relation between barometric variations and atmospheric currents. .... 465
‘Pits at imbarrass, SWis\s ssa goss cos ie cs dees aca cote sla se cee oe eee newos Sone 250
Planets discovered sn 1877 sos5h 5 stesso sae Sosa nee ee ee eiivesBenteee 2d
Plantamour, E., report on transactions of the Geneva Society..--..-----.---. 201
Plants, collections Of sass. 220s 25 Aree ee ee eae eee eee eee 42
Plaster Casts: s523.c02600 seis Bs rts basa ane e ciel e eae Oe eee en ee nee 38
casts Of fish 22x. ccesceeSceisasissecescccweecme os eens oe One aaese eee 51

Posy, Dr. Felipe; agentforiCabajssasasssacaieiacrsoas cecielse clela eons ele ee eee 26
Polychrome: bead from-Mloridassco.wecess eee oede ee ote ees cae oo mere eaeneee 302
Porter, President Noah, member of Board of Regents -........---..--------- 9, 126N127
Portrait: of -ProtessomHenry sac osocse ws eweeto- ce leee eeeeieee iS2 clsette sees 126, 128
OF SMibhson «ss rshesisasae bo cew cee cece dedaMecbeeceeee eee eee eetee 127

of: Colonel-Dickingon sate; Geese SR Oe Renee eee eee 127

Porto: Rico;explorations inn: qsss0o 82 son eee been eee oe eeee a Boma tenesas 45
Portsmouth, United States steamer, surveys by....--....--------- o---0. 20
Portugal, Polytechnic School, agent for exchanges .......-..-----+ «--e0- «--- 26
Powell Professor S§:, collectionvoftishesseacere ese eee eee eee een ee tee 41, 44
Powell, Maj. J- W..,\collegtions! byise-s2ess seer cere re ee cae aoe sw Baba eeeeeeee 43
ethnological, publication see op esclsscccceeiee= seat lactose 24

explorations) by S222. eens cee sace ese centcleste ieswelesee 23, 37,115

Indian vocabularies transferred to -.........- feabo onder 23

proposed publication by2ssaeccese acess ees eaeces eee 37

Pratt, Captain, assistance in procuring plaster casts of Indians .....--...---. 39
Precession and nutation, phenomena of, paper on, by General J. G. Barnard... 17
Pressure of the atmosphere, proposed work on ........---. ---.-+---- Bema aie 24
Providence, R.-L.; rgin=falli dmesess eee seed wee eee ee nee ee eeer eens 24
Publications.of the Institations.c=.sssans dooce so eee ee eee eee 12
distribution Of ise sei ee ee ee ee ence cee eee 13

OXPONses fOr ioc cee SSeS sont re Ee Te eine aero ea LLO on
appropriation for sactrs acctsaaerecgooer seacoast Sse 122

Rafinesque on North American fishes, review of..-.....---.-----+ .----+ o eee 21
Rain-fall affected by clearing of forests: «5-s-c2 soca soe eases co eeecebeaeee A 24
tables;newiedition of iscsscasocetsoccnee see eee saee ieee ‘ 24

in: Providenees Rel «5.562222 aS ae ies wees 24
inflnenee of, on ipressure 7.2% Soe Has oeee se ee eee oe bisa cmegor 385, 393, 421

Rau, Charles, assistant, archeology .......-. 2 Sono Sabena onecoe coDosb aSsaessan 6

supervision of archeological work... .....ecece ence ac ccerces : 23

INDEX. 497

Page

Rau, Charles, study of ethnological specimens ..---....--..----- --<- +--+ ---- 46

stock in trade of an aboriginal lapidary..---...-.--.-----.---. 291

observations on a gold ornament from a mound in Florida... --. 298

Receipisiml 7 (ese sone see oe eenaena's < a5 cesar ne aaece Geese Receeeaeaes 119, 125, 126

Redding sb:ebssishespresenteds Dy--<---1cncielseeeae eae cecesieeeeseees 41

Reeder: H.. Js .supplied: salmon\ee a. + s252 aeaece co See oc esteem etieecepeeeeee 42

ecents ofithemlnstitutloneesss-y-cs- 22 o. sass aca eseeat saecelee eoesceeeeees 5

TROPA MGNUS\ eer eee pee Ae acs 2m 3) Sale Smid We aceite seater eine ona meee che ee 119) 121

Reply tol criticismlom Hannweeeees cc aclsce caseioosecn cole ios ecee pares AM5

HLEPOLts.| aN Male. a eee eisai ics Se seice se caacose eect sme weceeeceeee eee 13, 38

letter to Congress accompanying..-.-.-...---.----------.----- 3

CONLEMUS Oleeses -cacisti ae anaes ccs Sep etr Omen oaccre suchen 4

TOPE TUSHO) ese po OR BEBE BOOS DEO SCOURS SN ORAS Ear DHHB DS SUEmGaDe 21

CONCERTS Ol, appPenGLxs tobe cease ease ceiacee eee as 22

extra copies ordered by Congress .----..--.--.------- 21

presenteds bys LrOfessOL Hey; scs5< cece see sac saiie eee 127

OLexecutive COMMItLeO sw se oa serie sic aces oclemelsccses voce een OG Omlog

Repinles ATi Zzonian. on) Angel leland) . 5. \cewijs-<ciac saicceciseomensa-- imesceincds 21

CoOlleGtioniGhs- ass. eases e 5. sisi seia) aS scisccepsecicces ee eeyeceideceicccte 40

Huesearc hes nexsp en SOs Olea 52 clacwereeacies osu isiee.e) soe a sinlesan aeleclasice Seisinisce soe 119

ApPPropriavion fOr ss ah-., scan s-soseio-ce eeie/aaseis deseo Go0a00 6ec6 122
RESOLUTIONS :

order to print memoir and papers of Smithson..---...---.--..-..-...... 127

order to print history and origin of the Institution..---..---.......---.- 127

MGIOMING WENO oooc]e saGaeb esa0 sadade Soaeso pooEdS Scndusa GecocoeeoobSeC 127

ACCepiUN oe VOLsralol OLutOe SCCLOLALYeotes see seer eeiscee sce sole eine eee 128

oynolds, Hon, Mr: copper ores from: Bolivia, <--.,2 -o-<j<--css<ccces eons saccee 43

ees aWilliam’ ds; Chienh Clore. soccsces sence se iene les sinciero ona eciw see eeeeies 5,6

RichardaMre sd onavion trom so seacrecse csc aisaae asec ciseeelnies save cesses 40

Ridgway, Robert, assistant, ornithology .-...-....-....-.--.---.---- -----.-- 6

collections) by =22- 52-1. + socse a eels wice/ ecm ecmeyenicieiste 40

INVES LIS ALLONGE DY jesetia se minelsele stacteainaleaeineclos es oteiomioeiaees 45

EiolGuande xcollechionsirome) csseeiccciscc a= leas alsne se les alae tela ales Oa

Robertson, R. 8., antiquities of Nashville, Tenn...-....-..-...-..-.--.------ 76

Rock River Valley, Mlinois, mound-builders in.--.-=.......--..--.-----..-..- 253

Ieyaoksyonne), may A yt! @MSs A 3 epson beep oboobs doobed Jeupeadobans s8ccee accede 45

Royal Society’s catalogue of scientific papers....-.--..----.-----------.---- 19

Rules Or Gishributlon of publicahiOnstses ease sesies oe acim ieee ae 13

SaintevMichaels Alaska COUCCHONS MOM) soem aatercine Salsa seleeeiyaeeemisneieee 38, 40

Dalmons Collection Olean ssels sees eeme else re seeiseelaesaieselsel eee eee iseeiee 41

egos, Canning and distibUbiOn) Ob os. ncens)seees sles ee ea ee 50

AM TrOCUCHOM Of seen a> loe casa se emleneaiae ae een eee a ae eee eee 48

Hain IDE ETE PANG e eso soos Genoco beso po5ade HoSEoo DaneE SecEee Babe 42

(QUES EB E eSB COO RCEC 0 OSE OFC MORESO bs 66 Hhoe bolo nb sOs OSeSeE 42

Sandwich Islands, salmon eggs sent to.... .-- 22. 0-5 eee e one o-oo oo = - ees 50

HE Mab HO ee Sapde S5obbo, oobobe S560 Horn oc hoseidensed cacbee 41

Santar Barbara, Gal. collections from >= -2242- eee enone ease denw o—~-cneu 37

Cruz, explorations in ...--. 22... --- <0 nanan nn nweeien meme anna ne ans wane 45

Lucia Cosumalwhuapa, researches in, by Habel..............---..---- 13

Rosaelsiand exploration Of 2205.6 sees eee eee cman ce siss esse maccesics 3516

SEipuero, Tio AM, Jon IRL MU eperoo Saeceo.ocog 56 79n0 Sth6 SSQUSCmOnA obo DICOCE 5, 125, 127

Selah. ANH oie. Wraitlie Glog sean Sisoecos oo0d asc. at oo GosccS SoS h re SmeSSEoES So oDCe 44

Schumacher; Panl collections Dy-»-ccc. -ooem-a- =o aoa -aaires onecreecess == 37

(Soi, Bow O.,, wasn MRO IEE) s460 coo5 Sooo soos 566000 SGU DSee a0 S6be J6ossE Lissa lil

32 8

498 INDEX.

Page.

~Sennett, George B., assistance given by--: 5... -- -.-- -s05 cw cece wesc cee coae 44
Shadifrom Ohio"River’ s22ocfedcewcaaceles ce toeew ents. sen cence. Sea we cee esas 41

Nhad-hatching, new system Of *5.o 2 202 2 cseete=< 6 <cec eamteealeneeee eens 49

Shaw, James, mound-bnilders in the Rock River Valley, Ilinois.--.....---.. 253

Sheil-heaps, exploration of.----. SSnbe Go Dono cSodo0 Sao SE SEIY Gse0dasb cose cece 38

/ on MobilevRivers.2f30 02 a se eeeenac oo oe cee eee a meaner 290
Saint: John’s River, Ploridascee sss. /---- 425 see eee eee es 305

Shepard, Edwin M., on deposit of arrow-heads near Fishkill, N. Y ....---..-- 307
Sherman Lon.) OHN sMemMpCr Ex OHiCi0 eee ee ete eS = an eee neces tere 5, 11
Signal Service, United States Army, assistance rendered by-..-.-.--.---------- 48,44

Signal Office; explorations by 2202 ees eaee coer eteoce ees oes os cee eases e eee 115
Silver ores from Colorado.-...--- Dejotusesceeceeentes 22 soss cosceeSeesieeecee 43
Siren, living-speciiion Of <o os ete eee es 2 cee eee eee 40
Small, Ma:-donahionsbyeees see oe see. oo cee eee epee ee ee ene ays eee 39
Smillie, TF. Wj; photographer’. 2222.52.22 cocceeee cs sense opiecs ec cee 6
Smith, Prof. Sidney I., assistance of .......--..---.. -- a ecuisaccatee note cemicies 46
Smithson equests-- scl sees - ts scenes poste on ete eee ee eros Senicee aBSbbASosS 11, 12, 118
Smithsonian tun dees eee ee whee ee ee ee eee eee ee ee cere ae nee 118
WOMAS Stes et TCeee Cleese ESSER See ee eee es Seema see area 118
Varcinia bonds:-t 22st ict sete cc sheets tae eee eee 118, 119
expenditures: 245 C4500 0: 2aAe eestor cece eee 119
TOCOLPUS: 22225 escce Coe aes maceee catees emeeSee eee eee eee (119
expenses for publications----as- oases eee eee 119
researchess.2 cance. see cas voesesee cece ese eee 119
explorahions-t2t2<ee tt ctasteiceec ee eect eee 119
CXCHANPOS=6e sures ote ee ene eee eee eee 119
gallery of arte. 2252. <= 2s ecsseteeees ec oeeaes 119
repayMentsitOsescs- cae san Seer eae cooineeees 119, 121
fund; balance’in treasury.<.22% setts sseces peso eee ee eeeeeeee 124
Institutions objechsOheees- snc cee see c soe cane Seeley e pete eaten 8
TUNEULONSIOL eae seciee selene oe eee eee serten ena 8
SUPPOLttOl cesccoet es tone eee eee enone aera 8
Smithson/oames, Wikenesssol esas secweeas ve ae eos se eases saiiee = eeten en eiee eat 9, 127
personal’ effects of S255, .222 soe eae ete os cocee eee eeeeeeeee 9, 127
memoir of ordered: -t22on cesses eases ee ote nae eee 127
MANDUSCHIPis Oh A= -2 jae ee eee tee eee cece aite ence eee meee 9
library of, consists of 123 volumes..--.. -- muses a date wees 9
SCIeNtINC Papers OL sense seer ee se see ee a eee rene eae loeeea §)
Will of, dratthiofc. ttt tec cee semeaces sous ceeecas eee eaters 9
notes addressed to scientists by....--.....------ ------ s«-- 9

Sobhneke, Prof. L., law of variation of temperature in ascending currents of
UND S a ase = Sn eae e eae age ea ee ee ee ah oir ae ye ae 2 418
Sound) mesearches OMees. oo cccse.ce stesso ce a Sonne ee eee neem nerm ete came 52
Spain, Royal Academy of Sciences; avent-2--2- 2. 22.2.2 co -nc. ea eeee eee sone == 26
Spangler; George, collectionvoftossils: 22222. .42 ceases se ecee eeeeee ees == — see 42
Spear, Hon. Ee member ex 0ficiosscenconnee cccs =o eee wane} =e eeeeee = omeeee 5
Speedwell, tug, at disposal of United States Fish Commission...-...--..----- 48
Sponges submitted! to Professor Ey attessss.: aces caer. ees eee sie eee 46
Star clusters and nebula, books relative to, index to......-.---.------------ 1
State Department, explorations by....-...-....---.---. ---- Fen bh atteh eee 115
Steamer at disposal of United States Fish Commission ..---...---- ---------- 48
Steel, specimens of tos fee 3-6. 2 226 SESS See eee 42
Stephens; Hon: AyHs'Rement o2 boc0 2h sn Sasa eee eee 5, 125, 127

Stevenson; Hon: J; W:, term expired $52... Sdec8 ssicsce- toe nn sone eee 125

INDEX. 499

Page.
aint DomingcowexplOLanlOUS iM sste = aele cats rietels at aia natal oee at ate ete lele = etait = 45
Saint John’syRiver, florida, shell-heaps On Uato.t-ot~- se oreelaieie + ciseleelamd celeela 305
Sait homas exploraonsiMessaes<cieecattaaaen emesis scale ae) ae minisa satiate oe 45
whirlwind! sess ares 2 Sos sae sas cose Se 462
Stock in tradeofan aboriginal lapidary sass2< s52cs5 voce cclse eee ea eeee sees 291
Stone, Livingston; collecttoniof 2422... icc. ssa s scons esones aeee eeeeteneeas 41,44
Stone celts in the West Indies and in Africa .........-.--.-2------ ---- ------ 308
Streets, Dr. T. H., surgeon United States steamer Speedwell... ..-..--------- 48
natural history of the Hawaiian and Fanning Islands and
owenCaliiorniacs sess eset Se csleeee oa ccs om enisivenisiaicincss 19
Strong, Moses, on antiquities in Wisconsin ...--....--. Waso wasicisteasicoeememene 239
SIVAN, JAMES Gay CONCCMONSMD. . - - o tatin wa elacica Usa stoe a name sesh anbaracemme 42, 44
Subcutaneous surgery, lecture on, by Dr. William Adams.-...........-------- 18
PULcOny ISU C UhateOUs el CUNO OD seme eae sie aa atta Solsiote late 2 selena neiaioeiaere 18
Sweden, Royal Academy of Sciences, agent --.. -.-. ---. --2+- 222-20 secon eee 26
Gentennial-exhibibtok: 2: Seeee eee eee Se ee roses 43
TOMA GUSveGlspVECIMeENS TLOMsss esse ssa cess sete ea o-oo el See ate 42
PASM ania 8 PECIMENS LLOM saa acs cceieaacieslscclacn es comccs saceee scclc cee ccccee 39
PLaylory reds Wis OCCU PlEd M1 ADOLALOLY sooo aan celcis selene sainoas con sscelces < 35
ayvior, Walliam!) Mon mound in Pennsylvania..--c-e+ -42---/--see----< ecco 306
Technological collection. ---- Asses stesavaasetacee pees Seek ee aioe) Soe 47
‘Telegraphic announcements of astronomical discoveries..-.-..----.--------- 25
Temperature in ascending currents of air...--.-------------.-----.--------- 397, 418
Mennessee; aAnviquibies Of L252 Foose ss sem oslss cece ass ce see cles eels ace aeeees 269
Nashwvaillesrantiquitiesiot tse es a-iesacee assets ce ctesi es seiciasieeeeae 276
Thompson; Hon. R-W, member ee officio 5-2-5 ..5 cesta soo oseecceecasiene es fs 5
Pbhomas: back, presented fishit 3 232 e seas soo e ee sous Solel ca staet ci snore ee 41
thoner, Dr o-,.tund establishedsby tsa- ss2s2-acsseeiswsosavsseceeels-eeemence oe 18
account: of purpose Of-s.5)5 canisescne eee see sesacelsems ae 18
shranslatvOns): S255 sSocs odesch cess ssg252 sates ole osetia eee as 131, 201, 214, 225
Wreasury Department, explorations) by: -. =. --3-/scbi-escsescee cs eeceee eee 115
Tumors, cancerous, lecture on, by Dr. J.J. Wiesdiward ns erett Bee ieac ote Sees 18
urmulusvisited by William: Bartram) s2s.-2s-- ses -.csecteess + aoe seen eeeeee 283
PurnereMass/ oe A, Clonk. library & 2-sscnossciat = is seccsiceeieciescies paaamsies 6
Turner, Lucien M., observer at Saint Michael’s, Alaska ........ .....----. -<-- 44
collections! by! 23-252. 2ssssscsncs does ee ceeeeceeeae seas 37, 40
Van Vilets Stewart; General,-workof-s2s-. 22 -n\ns een san et esieace eo eereee 44
Vapor of the atmosphere with increase of altitude...-.....--.---.------..--- 376
VENUS; “ULANIBLG/ OL as mieop)aeisal-idaie laisis) Se wice sai Be sercsis ocieces acieaeeteneel eoee secemeee 45
Verrill, Prof. A. E., assisted United States Fish Commission..............---. 49
MATING INVELUG DALES! oosarisincs os wnociesae Cotame ores se aoee 46, 49
supervision of printing of Clark’s Lucernaria .....--...-- 16
War omiaibOnds = 5s <<jcse sts pene ee snes cee ieee eeeeees 11, 12, 118, 119, 125, 126
Wocabulamesiof Indian lancuages.-~-s5.22e6. eas acaae cscoeeecese esos ase 23
Von Baumhater, Professor, agent for Holland... .... ...2.. 20. ---- --02----- 26
Witte on viedh.. chancelloreeass. sac cspant eee cee anee seen ee ee ion soca 5
president of Regents... i Ae ae Se 5, 125) 127
MEM DEWiEN-O NiO = Haae sina oar eens ale ME eee eels ae ciclo eee 5
War Department .explorablonaybyinece na. seeee aesee ce oerees - sascicns eo cnee 115
Washington; or; New) York Island! so 2255.22 sssceniensceeees~ S.Soce a oeeeeee 20
Wasson, Surveyor-General, contributions by .-...--..-.<c. .--------e-cne ono 43
Watkins, i, é& Cor agentsiini St. Petersbule) soe. cee sce secs onncccescesecuce 2
Wistson Erol... Dotamical andes Dyeicssc ecto sae oes oc< ctcnlncccweleese 17

Wiciype bliss CON anLONErONl: soe ates em ee emis acre epee ote arc, cniciacic mee nese eee 40

500 INDEX.

Page.

Weisman Dr: Mexican axolotl: cas.c2-))- sae see eee ee eee ee eee 349
Wiesley,, Win. acentiin london’ ese ws- 4 seeeeeme ne tee sae eee on ee ee 26
WiesleyantUniversity,,explorations) Dycceseemeeeeries soles ee oan ee eee 115
Wrest India, collections! trom 2.2.2. c+ cose sense cine. Seen eee nee 39
special investigation of ci... possesses ce fscciseee pecan ae eee 44

West Indies, stone:celts in: — 2-2 yecc. -pesoecen-ee cees aces eee eee eee 308
Western Union Telegraph Company, exploration by...........-.---.-------- 114
Wiheeler, Hon: 'W..A;, Regent<22..5¢ coo oe. =a eens <= ose cee eee eee 5
MEMDEEEL-O fiona ees = = snes eee eniee 5

member of Board of Regents -.-.--.----..----.- 125, 127

excused for non-attendance -.........--..----.--- 127

Wheeler, Lieut. G. M., explorations in charge of, account of-.-----.---------- 87
collectionsiby. -=3 aesacios seseee-<0ieeaas cacao eieee 40, 42, 43

SULV CY ice cc ieee -aiaeen a meeee ieee cose one icee eer : 37

Whirlwind: at/St. Thomas. oo. 222 s5, cco eee eee eee cn oe cece ten nee 462
White, Prof. C. A., investigation of fossil invertebrates .....-...----.-------- 46
Whitney; Prot. .Wo D*sassishanee Of: soe cen ae cane eee eee renee enioe 24
reportion Dr. Habel’s' work <es-- --2-->)s-oec=-sieceese 16
Wall;Smithson’sydrathot <S-j-25,c2- «see eee ee eee ee ae ae eee 9
WilliamsiCollege explorations by -- co c-.8-22 sasces sos fee case ee Somes ee 115
Wailmot.1s., Suppiued Ontario salmonees- sees cence eee eeeee eee eee eeeeee 42
Wilson, E. B., assisted United States Fish Commission ......---...---..----- 49
Wind;“pressure and velocity ...2-c(-2-.-5,: dacwce ep cone seems. eee aeie eee 426
Withers, Hon. R. E., member of Board of Regents...-.....-...--------- ---- 5, 125, 127
relative to) Virginia bonds-.---5ssss-e)-- 3-2 : 126

MOtiOn Dye c2 ss osc cs cele Memeo eee cece c See oeeieee eee 126

Wisconsin, mound-builders of, mounds and osteology of the.-......---..----. 246
antiquities: of -25).-<.o2-5, 22 serene Sas sweep estes sceieen See eee 239

pits\at imbarrass 2. ~c2s oace ees oriaces oneoe eee saneses ee eee 250
W.ood})Dr-sH.1C> lectmresby,ionilever gan a- neces see ree eee cece staat 18
Wood, specimens of, presented jby Japan <->. --- 2. s-celere ae ne eso ee eee 42
Woodward, Dr. J. J., lecture by, on cancerous tumors.........---- .--.------ 18
Wrork;donean National Museum... cs cece can ce oes eemteeciesen ee ianetineees 46
Wyomine; ‘collections from, -22= 2-722. soccer eee ce es eeeeenee Sse eae 40, 44
Yates, Dr. L. G., assisted Mr. Stephen Bowers in exploration ......--...----. 316
Youno Crib clerk, aCcountg esses = stem metas se aie mete erates Ya Pareteeae tet 6
Yucatan Government, explorations by: ---- --- <<< 2-2-5 soe coon encase cece ee 115

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