Lenieys Bi sied ‘ al fy clan ie * ¥' yah t fy e By i te His ts a e sit sh i hiss ef att He vet e oi SEES ; pe fon ACs fe siete ish Ha split atres Paget ravines ys fer Ai a Bais ee ‘s, eS Roe se $ SASS = Seneese eats aoe: xe 5 = . mae oe i f iy , i) eae i} ¥ sees fate ‘s meetin ONS ix A i i as ii “i rie i He a ii y i ai oy Sd th Se sia chiar Sot hes ah Does Cee ahs seal ae Ais st SGA oe a i ys eA farsi ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTEPUTION, SHOWING THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION Hiei? £90: 4 <0 = S377 WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1891, FIFTY-FIRST CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION. Concurrent resolution adopted by the House of Representatives March 2, 1891, and by the Senate March 3, 1891. Resolved by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring), That there be printed of the Reports of the Smithsonian Institution and of the National Museum for the year ending 30th June, 1890, in two octavo volumes, 19,000 extra copies; of which 4,000 copies shall be for the use of the Senate, 6,000 copies for the use of the House of Representatives, 7,000 copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution, and 3,000, copies for the use of the National Museum. Il | Os ind Wad Aas FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, ACCOMPANYING The annual report of the Board of Regents of the Institution to the end of June, 1890. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, D. C., July 1, 1890. To the Congress of the United States: In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to subinit to Congress the aunual report of the operations, expenditures, and con- dition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 30, 1890. I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. Hon. Levi P. MorToN, President of the Senate. Hon. THOMAS B. REED, Speaker of the House of Representatives. iil ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION TO THE END OF JUNE, 1890. SUBJECTS. 1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January, 1890. 2. Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and re- ceipts and expenditures for the year 1889-90. 4. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera- tions and condition of the Institution for the year 1889~’90, with statis- tics of exchanges, ete. 4. General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous memoirs of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. lV CONT UND. Page Resolution of Congress to print extra copies of the Report....--. .----.------ Il Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to (COMGERET als dean oe sso anode sSsocou soscas PaSees Baeaos 6 8ba65 cocgUaescs sosessn4 III Generalisubyectsjot the Annual Report) -2222---- = 5-)--2- eae seen oe = IV Wontentsiof the Report .=- 6 sec 2-122) oi oes Baers Sle ete oe yeiatons ce wai cemiee Vv IL iiss Ge TUTE Ss Booaae Seeeeoss ahesseme Se Ade aes oenooe oe sooesucuessoacer VIII Members ex officio of the Establishment ....-....-...-..-..-------------+=---- IX Regents of the Smithsonian Institution ..---..-.--..--------. -----+-----+---- x JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF TIE BOARD OF REGENTS .....-.-------- axel SUG! mAs Jey 24 WER. 26 sess commas aoe soeoS- Eos Sean eoeaaecd s- xl REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMI TEE for the year ending June 30, 1890... XVII (Clevaraliign@nal ove zelavey noel Ihwlhy Wh, We ec ease caedes sasho5 boooos one cae cosdon se XVII Regerpts fOr Ge syearsac Ge. Je 2-2 oeeeiee Sees epee He = ann ese eees Soo XVII Pxpenditures for the. years... 25... 2st esos hee vee sae eo cise = Pann ss XVIIE Silla @haval 12) Ce AWENEMUIS S oe ado pea kes Se eeae oidbos eoeoSd cane Boseoecces vemSae XVIII Appropriations for international exchanges ..-...--.---------------+------ XOX Detailsof expenditures (Of SAme+.2--- 25-23. . sees cee nen == ee = =e IDX Appropriations for North American Ethnology. .-.--...-----.------------- IX Wetalsiotexpenditures|Of same mec. see se oe ole mel i lesa ae emia oo ele a OKSK: Appropriations for the National Museum... ........---..--------------=-- KON Devas Gf CXpend thAkes OC SAME. 2- oo soe asec nn oes, cm =o mca eenee se aee Oa Appropriation for the National Zoélogica!l Park -.........----.----------- XORGMT Weisor expenditures Of SAMC=— 025-4. 2... 8. Son - 2-2 cane seteaccoe sane XORXE SEGRE TS THOT) Ae, COCR Ere Sat aan Smee aie ra eee Se eee ie.O.©4 | Imncomerayaila DletonensuImonyeats sac). saee jee = ais cole comin in isi= emer XEKERIN e . \ . . . . ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS relative to the Smithsonian Institution, Nationale MinsemminehGr TObt S90) tenner eso cue eee teae « Mois sinicicieniwieisisa XXXV REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. MES MULE SONLAN, INSTITUTION {soc oso o fee eek sees s Sadie ovis cosldmiscle cs °-- 1 SRrem cpus tamMishmG rie: eee sate See sae ee re eee eee cinl Seictay ominiena see cie et i Ting) TOR VO, TES NS oe Sees ae Ose Boe sacl Soca o acd oes oocoonce 2 EDT aCe Rare eet pr peed ia oay ee eee: onigon Rie Oa) Bud ame tle Nar gc Soh, aes Bae 2 RLM petted Po cenenree ree Min nn Se eee tere ee 2 Bee casos te. cme ae eee 4 IVGSGARC ae ei e ue nen as en ae. CE REO AU uA eo. See ARI OL ziete at 10 IIL OLA TLOTIS ETE ee ner nD nena sunt dame cieeperme teens co Le aie Ane Men 2s ie FETA EEL TIS een ce ae pose aster eons eee ew ae et see te tie eo SR. 14 Lanch oritiper ds ey See ee abate ke Beco ee A gO ee rer 16 mates EE Pet rah it alg Sth aoe SME atte ae atak a des ocuc ae sta tetas 19 VI CONTENTS. Page. Tue SMITHSONIAN INsTITUTION—Continued. Miscellaneous 22-26. -. nnn ee eee eres tccwcs ccc wes cccisaean alt snla=> Alaa eeeiee 20 Statue of Professor Baird-.-.-. -----.---- 25. = pete wee ogee Sasso 20 Grants in aid of the physical sciences ...... 2.250. ---7 --00 ---- one onan 20 Assignment of rooms for scientific work -.......--.---s-- --------2+-- 21 Toner Jeoture fund... ....21..2855. 0000 oo cde eae eet scene eee ee 21 American Historical Association-....... 2:2. co tic} © i>) Fr ee) = o =) Ss re) =} & as 4 Ko} EA Plate IL-6. 52-33 0224-s eee Plate DU . 1.25 nceaen- ceeee Plate IV Plate V Plate VE 22h) 5202 one Progress of Anthropology in 1890: Plates I, II Figs. 1, 2 Figs. 3, 4 ee ee ee ee ee Primitive Uro Burial: Plates Ty EL o22-26e2 sees eee Technology and Civilization : Bigs: 1,2) 222-2.0c 2 ao eee |The Ramsden Dividing Engine: Big) o2.ce. 2 ccnence eee Plate ls Sas --c errr Plate IDs... 23 oe eee eee Plate Til). 5 S25 .cce- eee Page. 356 430 516 518 520 522 524 526 532 547 548 549 550 590 610 711 724 732 733 736 THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE “ESTABLISHMENT.” (January, 1890.) BENJAMIN HARRISON, President of the United States. LEVI P. MORTON, Vice-President of the United States. MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief-Justice of the United States. JAMES G. BLAINE, Secretary of State. WILLIAM WINDOM, Secretary of the Treasury. REDFIELD PROCTOR, Secretary of War. BENJAMIN F. TRACY, Secretary of the Navy. JOHN WANAMAKER, Postmaster-General, W. H. H. MILLER, Attorney-General. CHARLES E. MITCHELL, Commissioner of Patents. REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION. (List given on the following page.) OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION. SAMUEL P. LANGLEY, Secretary. Director of the Institution and of the U. S. National Museum. G. Brown Gooovnr, Assistant Secretary. WILLIAM J. RuEES, Chief Clerk. REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes, Title LXx1IT, section 5580), “The business of the Institution shall be conducted at the city of Washington by a Board of Regents, named the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the Vice- President, the Chief-Justice of the United States [and the Governor of the District of Columbia], three members of the Senate, and three mem- bers of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons, other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the city of Washington, and the other four shall be inhabitants of some State, but no two of the same State.” REGENTS FOR THE YEAR 1890. The Vice-President of the United States: LEVI P. MORTON. The Chief-Justice of the United States: MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancellor, and President of the Board Jan- uary 9, 1#89. United States Senators: Term expires. JUSTIN S. MORRILL (appointed February 21, 1883)....---.------ Mar. 3, L391. SHELBY M. CULLOM (appointed March 23, 1885, and Mar. 28, 1889). Mar. 3, 1895. RANDALL L. GIBSON (appointed Dee. 19, 1887, and Mar. 28, 1889).. Mar. 3, 1893. Members of the House of Representatives : JOSEPH WHEELER (appointed Jan. 5, 1888, and Jan. 6, 1890) .... Dee. 23, 1891. BENJAMIN BUTTERWORTH (appointed January 6, 1890)-.....-. Dee. 23, 1891.” HENRY CABOT LODGE (appointed Jannary 6, 1890)...........- Dec: 23, 1891. Citizens of a State: HENRY COPPEE, of Pennsylvania (first appointed Jan. 19, 1874). .Dec. 26, 1891. JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (first appointed Jan, 19, 1887)..Jan. 19, 1893. ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (first appointed Feb. 15, 1888).. Feb. 15, 1894. [ Vacancy ] Citizens of Washington: JAMES C, WELLING (first appointed May 13, 1884)...........--- May 22, 1896. MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS (first appointed December 26, 1885) .... Dec. 26, 1891. Executive Committee of the Board of Regents. James C, WELLING, Chairman. Henry Coppin. MONTGOMERY C. MgiGs. = JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. WASHINGTON, January 8, 1890. The stated annual meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smith- sonian Institution was held this day at 10.30 o’clock A. M. . Present: The Chancellor, Chief-J ustice MELVILLE W. FULLER; Hon. J.S. Morriuu, Hon. 8. M. CuLLom, Hon. JosSEpH WHEELER, Hon. HENRY Cabot LopGE, Gen. M. C. MEIGS, Dr. ANDREW D. WHITE, Dr. J. B. ANGELL, Dr. HENRY CopPpPEE, Dr. J. C. WELLING, and the Secretary, S. P. LANGLEY. An excuse for non-attendance was read from the Hon. BENJAMIN BUTTERWORTH, and the Secretary stated that he had been informed, unofficially, that Senator R. L. Grpson was detained in New York by illness. The following letter was read to the Board: NEw HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, December 31, 1889. I regret that I find it advisable, from considerations of health and prudence, to resign the position which I have held for so many years as a member of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. With the best wishes for the prosperity of the Institution and the as- surance of the highest personal regard for the members of the Board, Tam, Very truly yours, NoAH PORTER. To 8S. P. LANGLEY. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. On motion of Dr. Coppée, it was Resolved, That the Board having received the resignation of Dr. Noah Porter as a Regent, accept it with an expression of their regret and with assurances of their high personal esteem. The Journal of the Proceedings of the Board at the meeting of Jan- uary 9, 1889, was read and approved. The secretary announced the appointment (January 6, 1890) by the honorable the Speaker of the House of Representatives of the following members of the House as Regents: Mr. BENJAMIN BUTTERWORTH, of Ohio. Mr. Henry Casor LopGe, of Massachusetts. Mr, JOSEPH WHEELER, of Alabama. xi X11 JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. Dr. Welling, in presenting the report of the Executive Committee for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889, called the attention of the Board to the statement on page 5, under the head of International Exchanges (which sets forth that an amount has been expended in this department beyond the annual appropriation made by Congress, entailing annual loss upon the fund of the Smithsonian Institution) and to the recom- mendation that Congress be requested to make appropriations to reim- burse the Smithsonian fund. On motion it was— Resolved, That the Regents instruct the Secretary to ask of Congress legislation for the repayment to the Institution of the amount advanced from the Smithsonian fund for governmental service in carrying on the exchanges. The report of the committee was then approved. On motion of Dr. Welling it was also— Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiseal year end- ing June 30, 1891, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, to be expended by the Secretary, with the advice of the Executive Com- mittee, upon the basis of the operations described in the last annual report of said committee, with full discretion on the part of the Secre- tary as to items of expenditures properly falling under each of the heads embraced in the established conduct of the Institution. The Secretary, in presenting his report for the year ending June 30, 1589, referred especially to the fact that the Smithsonian Institution is now, and has been for some time, paying out an increasingly large por- tion of its annual income in service that inures either directly or indirectly to the benefit of the Government, rather than to its legiti- mate application for the immediate ‘‘increase and diffusion of knowl- edge;” and in this connection quoted the opinion of Professor Henry, expressed as long since as 1872, that the Government should then have paid the Institution $300,000 for the use of the present building alone. He did not ask for any immediate action, but invited the attention of the Regents to this condition of the relation of the Institution’s affairs to those of the Government, a general condition of which the loss of the rentof the building might be taken as a single example. The late Secretary had intended to provide an astro-physical observ- atory on a modest scale, the building for which would probably cost uot over ten or fifteen thousand dollars, and with the expectation that if this amount were contributed by private citizens and the building placed on Government land, Congress would make an appropriation for purchasing the apparatus, and also a small annual appropriation necessary for maintenance. This amount having been pledged by re- sponsible parties, the Secretary had ordered some of the principal pieces of apparatus which would take a long time to construct. A number of valuable pieces had also been loaned to the Institution, and to supply provisional needs, a cover for all these in the form of a small temporary JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XIII erection has been put up south of this building. This will enable the apparatus to be used, but it is not the “ observatory ” in question, which, if Congress makes the necessary appropriation, will probably be erected at some future time in some suburban site under the Regents’ control. In this connection he presented a copy of the will of the late Dr. Jerome H. Kidder, and letters from his executor, accompanied by a copy of an unsigned codicil. The Secretary stated that Dr. Kidder was a former officer of the U.S. Navy, who several years ago made a be- quest of $10,000 to the Smithsonian Institution to be employed for certain biological purposes. Dr. Kidder afterwards informed the Sec- retary that owing to changes in his domestic circumstances, he had reduced the amount to $5,000 and changed the purpose of the bequest, which ke was desirous to see applied to the astro-physical observatory in question. It appears however that though this was well known to Dr. Kidder’s family and friends to be his deliberate purpose, he did not actually execute this provision to his will, but having ordered a codicil to that effeet to be drawn, was stricken with so sudden an ill- ness that he was unable to sign it. (The Secretary read two letters from the executor stating, in substance, that the family would cheer- fully pay the $10,000, but that it earnestly desired to see this sum applied to the astro-physical observatory, in whieh Dr. Kidder’s whole interest was lately engaged.) After the clauses of the will and the codicil had been read a discus- sion followed, from which it appeared to be the opinion of the Board that if the Regents accepted, in accordance with the wishes of the family and the executors, the deliberate purpose of the testator in re- gard to the object of the bequest, they should be guided by this pur- pose also in regard to the amount which they should receive. Mr. Morrill then offered the following preamble and resolution, which was adopted : Whereas the late Jerome H. Kidder having, in a will drawn up some years before his death, bequeathed the sum of $10,000 to the Smithsonian Institution for purposes connected with the advancement of science, did in a codicil to said will, drawn under his direction during his last hours, but which his sudden death prevented him from execu- ting, reduce the amount of his bequest to $5,000, which he desired should be applied toward the establishment of an astro-physical obser- vatory: It is _ kesolved, That the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents be authorized to accept, as finally and decisively indicative of the wishes of the testator the provisions of the codicil bequeathing $5,000 for the _ purpose of an astro-physical observatory, and that they be authorized to decline to accept from his executors more than this sum; provided, however, that before doing so they can receive sufficient assurance that the Institution will be protected against any liability. The Secretary exhibited recently prepared sketch plans for a new Museum building, and called the attention of the Regents to their ree- ommendation to Congress, in January, 1883, of the need of enlarge- X1V JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. Since this resolution, the collections of the Museum have enormously increased, so that before a new building could now be completed the material pressing for display would more than cover the entire area of such a building as the present one. It seems absolutely necessary that the new building should contain, beside a basement, at least two stories, it being indispensable to have, apart from the purposes of display, upper rooms for the preparation of the exhibits below. The price of material has risen very greatly, so that, owing to these combined causes, the estimate of 1883 is not applicable to the wants of to-day. The Secretary did not conceive that any supplementary action on the part of the Regents was now needed, but submitted these plans and estimates that they might be advised of the probable very consider- able increase in the sum that it would now be necessary to ask of Con- gress. The Chi_. custice, being obliged to leave here, resigned the chair to Senator Morrill. The Secretary stated that in convection with this subject of the plans he would present a letter from Mr. Cluss, of the firm of Cluss & Schulze, architects, asking for ‘an equitable compensation” for pro- fessional services and expenses in former years, in connection with a proposed building for the Museum. On motion of General Meigs, it was Resolved, That Messrs. Cluss & Schulze be informed that the ques- tion of compensation to them for plans for a new Museum building will be considered when they shall present such a bill as can be sub- mitted for Congressional action. The Seeretary recalled to the attention of the Regents a statement made at their last meeting, to the fact that bills had been brought be- fore Congress Inaking an appropriation for the purpose of establishing a Zoological Park under a Board of Commissioners, of whom the Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution was one, and directing this Com- mission, after purchasing and laying out the land and erecting the necessary buildings, to turn it over to the Regents. The bill as since actually passed, however, only instructed the Commissioners to pur- chase the land; and, while declaring the Park to be for the advance- ment of science, gave no intimation of the intent of Congress about its ultimate disposal. This Commission has nearly completed the purchase, and the time has now arrived when the Park may advantageously be placed under scientific direction. He could not, of course, anticipate what the final action of Congress would be in the matter, but he was authorized to state that the Commission would feel satisfied if Congress should place the Park under the Regents’ control. There is an inereas- ing collection of animals already in the Regents’ care, and an appropria- tion of $50,000 has been asked for, to provide for its establishment in the newly acquired Park, which, within its large area, would also pro- vide suitable retirement for the small physical observatory already | JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XV alluded to. He expressed the hope that a bill providing for both meas- ures would have the support of the Regents in the Senate and in the House. After listening to statements by the Secretary relative to the esti- mates for the ensuing year, and also to the subject of the desirability of obtaining legislation relative to a statue of Professor Baird, the Re- gents cousidered the subject of a more convenient time for their annual meeting in January; and on motion of Senator Cullom it was— Resolved, That hereafter the time of the annual meeting of the Board of Regents shall be on the fourth Wednesday in January of each year. Mr. Wheeler called the attention of the Board to the death of their late colleague, the Hon. 8.8. Cox, and on his motion it was— Resolved, That a committee be appointed, of which the Secretary shall be chairman, which shall be authorized to preys: resolutions on the services and character of the late S. S. Cox, and to make the same of record. The chairman announced as the committee, the Secretary, General Wheeler, Dr. Welling, Mr. Lodge. The committee submitted the following report and resolutions, which were unanimously adopted : To the Board of Regents: Your committee report that the Hon. 8. 8. Cox was first appointed a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution December 19, 1861, and that he filled that office, except for intervals caused by public duties, to the time of his death. While he was a regular attendant at all the meetings of the Board, he was ever ready to advance the interests of the Institution and of science, either as a Regent or as amember of Congress; and although such men as Hamlin, Fessenden, Colfax, Chase, Garfield, Sherman, Gray, and Waite, in a list comprising Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Chief Justices, and Senators of the United States were his associates, there were none whose service was longer or more gratefully to be re- membered, nor perhaps any to whom the Institution owes more than to Mr. Cox. The regard in which his brother Regents held Mr. Cox’s accuracy of characterization, and his instinctive recognition of all that is worthiest of honor in other men, may be inferred from the eulogies which he was requested by them to deliver, among which may be particularly men- tioned the one at the commemoration in honor of Professor Henry in the House of Representatives; but though these only illustrate a very small part of his services as a Regent, your committee are led by their con- sideration to recall that his first act upon your Board was the prepara- tion and delivery of an address, at the request of the Regents, on their late colleague, Stephen A. Douglas, and that on this occasion he used words which your committee permit themselves to adopt, as being in their view singularly characteristic of Mr. Cox himself: “It was not merely as one of its Regents that he showed himself the true and enlightened friend of objects kindred to those of this estab- lishment. He ever advocated measures which served to advance knowledge and promote the progress of hamanity. The encourage- XVI JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. ment of the fine arts, the rewarding of discoverers and inventors, the organization of exploring expeditions, as well as the general diffusion of education were all objects of his special regard.” In view of these facts it is— Resolved, That in the death of: Hon. Samuel Sullivan Cox the Smith- sonian Institution has suffered the irreparable loss of a long-tried friend, the Board of Regents of a most valued associate and active member during fifteen years of service, and the country of one of its most dis- tinguished citizens. Resolved, That the Board of Regents desire to express their deep sympathy with the bereaved family of the deceased, and direct that a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the widow of their late associate. On motion of Senator Cullom, the Board adjourned sine die. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, (For the year ending 30th of Jane, 1890.) To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution : Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report in relation to the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Con- gress for the National Museum and other purposes, and the receipts and expenditures for the Institution, the Museum, ete., for the year ending 30th June, 1890: SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Condition of the fund July 1, 1890. The amount of the bequest of James Smithson deposited in the Treas- ury of the United States, according to the act of Congress of August 10, 1846, was $515,169. To this was added by authority of Congress (act of February 8, 1867) the residuary legacy of Smithson and savings from annual income and other sources, $134,831. To this $1,000 have been added by a bequest of James Hamilton, $500 by a bequest of Simeon Habel, and $51,500 as the proceeds of the sale of Virginia bonds owned by the Institution, making in all, as the permanent Smithson fund in the United States Treasury, $703,000. Statement of the receipts and expenditures Jrom July 1, 1859, to June 30, 1890. RECEIPTS. Cash on hand July 1, 1889. ...........--- fie Sout mae mee aoe $11, 757. 47 interestionstund July it AG80s 4. as eee cae eS $21, 090. 00 imterest:onfund January 1, 1890.20). ..2.<2...2.- 2. 21, 090. 00 eee 4o. 180.00 a $53, 937. 47 Cash from sales of publications.........--.......- 416. 01 Cash from repayments of freight, etc..-.......-.. 3, 489, 50 3,905. 51 Cash from executors of Dr. Jerome H. Kidder, for astro- PUNVSIC Ale OSOARCH sme eres isa e ako st ore woe Rcioe wale aes Seine. cke 5, 000. OU Cash from Dr. Alex. Graham Bell, for astro-physical research. 5, 000. 00 —— 13,905.51 “PETE OTIS GSI SS eS oe oe ae a 4 67, 842. 98 H. Mis, 129——11 XVII XVIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. EXPENDITURES. Building : Repairs, care, and improvements ..---.- ----. $1,976.97 Mnrniture and fixtures .. <2. s-c2.acceeecenr= 92, 21 ——-—— $1,669.18 General expenses : MGGbINDSs nea oe moe etn ene : sac paSoeo = See oo ees Seen tes se tone See es 262. 03 PORRIP RG wae Sacwaie aware hese ene wae sane nies pay yk eis 971. 97 : —— $1, 265, 02 Smithsonian Contrbitions:. 22.2.) se neecote se ote ee 115. 19 Mincellaneous Collections:~ 2. <2; 2.2 <<. 6 Se eck cctirce ce 273. 72 BRO DOLGS wos aoe ee lee ea a aa aoe onan nloemeiest aa oes eye eee -—— 413.01 PP MCMUUR, cet ee Soe cians cnet ines are se tte aoe C Ree eee oe eee 7.50 RVR PIOLAGLONE 2 aicc coos Cw ours be oe eee we ee ae ee ee CD Mschangeso2o5os5<- Goce oe eee eee age cei ee Sele eee one ee nr ———— $3, 905.51 The net expenditures of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 1590, were, therefore, $33,744.82, or $3,905.51 less than the gross ex- penditure, $37,650.33, above given. All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from interest, sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise, are de- posited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the Sec- retary of the Institution, and all payments are made by his checks on the Treasurer of the United States. “In addition to the above $17,683.77 paid for salaries under general expenses, $1,850.04 were paid for services, viz, $1,500 from the building account, and $350.04 from the library account. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XIX Your committee also presents the following statements in regard to appropriations and expenditures for objects intrusted to the care of the Smithsonian Institution by Congress : INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘‘ for expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States and foreign countries under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary em- ployés” (Sundry civil act, March 2, 1889. Public 154, p. 16)...-....--. $15, 000. 00 Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. Salaries or compensation : i eurator, 12 months,)at $208; 33-2... 5... -22-2.- $2,499.96 feclerkey ie monbisrab plo0m aoe eeeee =) —= seers 1 SO0LO0 olen smonchswal pile se = eee ees ool O20800 elev 12imonths;atigs0 peer. soos se ec 960. 00 ikclerks tmonths ati pdole. ces ---52- cscs cess 900. 00 ieelerk Mbimonthswatipios sess oss Sea 825. 00 Welerkest2 monthswatrwn(Oes tose - see om cere 840. 00 1 copyist; 4 months, at G30@--2.5....5.-2-2...- 120. 00 lecopyist. 6 months atimoo- ~2-ss ess] a5 eas sane 280. 00 1 copyist, 9 days, at $60. ...--....-.. Te cise sear 17. 42 WeGpPyIstnes Gays, A go. 2. 55.00. p.m sense 27. 86 ieopyist, 1) month, iat go0 - 2222. ol 22. te ts 30. 00 ispacker,12 montiis; ab G10 s.~--. ==. s..---= cen 900. 00 He packer, 1 2smonens au PIU. 2 ose e sc ae sealer 600. 00 filsboren, 12 months, abrgs0 os... 5 32-- 62.52 on 480, 00 (plaboOrer Ss daysdbr) O0ler ese eee ea: arm cee see 12. 00 Helabonery Oy ays ati Oren = ae ease see 9,75 il aborer, 4 dayssatioloOssccess a2: = toes 6. 00 telaborersos days catiplro0 moe em oer one = 5. 25 HPAbOrer ro Mavs alii O a ssc See 5. 25 1 agent (Germany), 12 months, at $83. 334. .-... 1,000.00 1 agent (England), 12 months, at $41. 663. .----. 500. 00 Motaltsalaries|or compensation =.-54--425- 252-4. 22-- « $13, 138. 49 General expenses: GRO D Mbyeee ee) Poe whores ar eae ke oe ae, toa sean ake ou asi Se 998. 67 Ae KANO DOKOS). 2. = lao seeise wees eee esd cee sae 443. 41 HOMUMG I Oye ae oe elsases Sais cinerea tye wens jcc eS cence es 146. 00 I OSbaAMOn tee cate) toe ee oe Sish mans pecmietas sess wet eee weceae oe 144, 52 SUN yan GsSUP PILES): see see a eee see ooo oe 116. 92 Total expenditure international exchanges ........-...-..--.....- NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘for. the purpose of continuing ethnological researvhes among the American Indians under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employ és.” Gundry civilact,; March 2. 1869: Pub. 154, p.16.) 22. -- 2.225. 22. PME at MORON Sot chs Listes. acted Ghose co oueeseedes Ser een Moe 14, 988. 01 115,99 40, 000. 00 13, 491. 22 53, 491. 22 XX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. The actual conduct of these investigations has been continued by the Seeretary in the hands of Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey. Ethnology—Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. Classification of expenditures (A). (a) Salaries or compensation : 2 ethnologists, at $3,000 per annum. ..-. ..---.-.---++ +--+ $6, 000. 00 1 ethnologist, per annum. ....--.-----------------+----- --- 2,400.00 1 archeologist, per annuin......---..----.----------++---- 2, 400. 00 3 ethnologists, at $1,800 per annum -...--...-----.--..--- 5, 400. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,500 per annum, 1 mMonth=s-ce- 125. 00 1 assistant archeologist, at $1,500 per annum, 3 months.. . 375. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,500 per annum, 5 months.... 375. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, per annum..--...-.--.------...... 1,400.00 _ 1 assistant archeologist, at $1,400 per annum, 3 onthe 390. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, per annum..-.-......-...-........ 1, 200. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at 1,200 per annum, 3 months 17 ee i ete Baie SDSS eeiccciamemnis“nn ote - 354, 84 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, 9 months .... 900. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, 9 mouths .... 900. 00 1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,000 per annum, 9 months .... 750, 00 Lprenographer, per ANNUM 2. -~ ean conve nie meeae een 1, 000, 00 Lassistant ethnologist, at $900 per annum, 5 months 25 OBYB 5... sStalet soe see ee doh) oe eet oe le ee meee 437. 50 1 assistant ethnologist, at $720 per annum, 6 months 6 days. 376. 00 1 ethnologie aid, at $900 per annum, 5 months 25 days. ...: 437, 50 1 ethnologie aid, at $600 per annum,7 months 5 days..-.... 308. 05 Lcopyish, per annumsss. 25. 5eo0 atte sac ee ee 900. 00 £ modeller, per annun:>..< =< -os.. 2-2 cesses Soe eee ee 720. 00 1 modeller, at $660 per annum, 6 months 6 days .....----.- 340. 65 1 modeller, at $600 per annum, 9 months...--............- 450. 00 1 modeller, at $660 per annum, 1 month..-.............-..- 5d. 00 1 modeller, 2 months, at $60, $120; 1 month, at $55; 9 months, af: $50, $450 22-2575. - sete eee ee eee 625. 00 1 modeller, at $720 per annum, 2 months......-........--- 120. 00 1 modeller, at $480 per annum, 3 months..............-.-- 120. 00 Weopyish, per ANNUM <.2. 5. cre eco seen Mee ee ee 720. 00 1 copyist, at $600 per annum, 9 months.............-.. ..-- 450. 00 2 clerks, at $600 per annum. =. 5. «05.2.2. ss see eee 1, 200. 00 A olerk, per annum... 06 ce sdso. 0s ee eee eee 720. 00 1 messénger, per annum. : 222 25)2 2) ee eee 600. 00 1 messenger, at $480 per annum, 1 month 23 days -.......- 70. 66 1 modeller, at $480 per annum, 3 months 24 days......---. 150, 97 1 interpreter, at $900 per annum, 3 months...............- 225. 00 Unelassitied or special jobs or contracts. .... .....--..---<- 875. 00 Total salaries or compensation .... ........-: «.---. occa coveee ee $33, 831. 17 (b) Miscellaneous: ‘Travelling expenses:...-:.2-t.. abcess ae eee 3, 958. 34 Transportation of property. ...--.,...-s25e.5s Lee 336. 43 Field supplies... 2.0.22... senses es cee 752. 84 Field supplies for distribution to Indians ...... ..--...--- 131. 36 Instruments . 5.18 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXI (b) Miscellaneous—Continued. PT RORGIMIA; DO UETIO! S455 a5 aod sans epecauicDoS Ho mnaoCeOSee gol. 28 BOOKS MOLLULALY Me relsiseyeciace: Gems 6 See eee ew sincs Sass 756. 12 Stationery and drawing material ......:.--..----------..- 330. 45 Illustrations for report....--...-- a Eee ee ne eR eee 637. 08 Office furniture ........ Sees bee elm Se 392. 38 Oiicosuppliesiand TEPAalts s--2 5252-5 ce =e os Ske Soe poo se 206. 76 US) GRRE) 5 co Sao Bo obiacedds Sasenocsae aon euEde Dee Tae st SHOECHING IS ek Be sae eS SSE ese Serene Eis ie Maes a eer 18. 00 = $7, 576, 92 MOTAVEXPeMMUGUNE senate eo a ee cas rae eines a eiyytie in ol msain = 41, 408. 09 Bonded railroad accounts settled by United States Treasury..---. --- 50. 05 Total expenditure North American ethnology ..----.---------. 41, 458. 14 Balance, July 1, 1890, to meet outstanding liabilities........-- 12, 033. 08 Expenditures reclassified by subject-matters (B). SionJlanguace and picttre writine 54 sa. cn 5 2 cee nlse isi ce meee = eee 4, 440. 81 Exploration of mounds, eastern portion of United States........-..--- 6, 258. 33 Researches in archeology, southwestern portion of United StaLOS Soe eine ae euee eee ats Saracens Sas as St ch eee we sce menamseeiyy tase 9, 028. 77 Researches, language of North American Indians........-...-------. 13, 783. 37 Salanrress OmiGe OlQiLeCtOl <2. tee ro as se.c sas aioe fej Ges sue ain eee amiss 4, 209. 64 trstrabions) for reportesses s-\seee. sisce oc ses tooo. ce a eee rae 2 673. 46 Contingent expense... .-..--- iehiei seis cuse cies Jeanie. Bee donoLe Sova 4 3,013.71 41, 408. v9 Bonded railroad accounts settled by United States Treasury..---..-.---- 50. 05 Rotalexp eng ijures ses i-soc kin == seme ois ale. 2 a)a oie ato cicaer cesleis wie secre 41, 458. 14 SUMMARY. July 1, 1889: IE ONES CVO OCH OG Les ene eee ee tebe an a ae pl3, 491. 22 Appropriation for North American ethnology, 1890..-....-- 40, 000. 00 —— 53,491.22 BX PEN OEEULEM ec ee ence Hae oa cvace ce toece swiss. oad eee hon tain Soe aeees 41, 458. 14 HAlLaHCevOMi andi lye LEO Ose 22 ee ae occ eh eeey es cm seats one 12, 033. 03 Which balance is deposited as follows: SE eeniticondishursing AYOMb . 2. <6 6s ote ca h «ace wore poe seetiesee ee 2,581) 38 BeHPCONEILOO SLALOS, I TOASULY: <=. 2< <,5 555-55 - -- 25-- es Shsa sel etinwect oe 9, 451. 70 12, 033. 08 NATIONAL MUSEUM. PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS JULY 1, 1889, TO JUNE 30, 1890. Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘‘ for the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the collections from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the Government, and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employés” (Sundry civil act, March 2, 1889. Public 154, p. 16).-..............-- 140, 000. 00 XXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. Salaries or compensation.” Direction: | Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution, in charge U.S. Na- tional Museum, 12 months, at $333.33........-..-.--.-------e2---. $3,999.96 Scientific staff: 1 curator, 12 months, at $200 --.. 22... 2-2 -c0ceen cco enn noc wwsles esha PegeeuOU { curator, 12 months, at $200.-.- 220. 20 soem ns sees cee ah ees ee ee ee 1 curator, 12 months, at $200... . -- 2. ccc. Lene 2 one wen nnn oem 2, 400. 00 Pieurator, 12 months; ab lio... . ss co- ence aol ae ee 2, 100. 00 Tiepnrator, 9 Months, Al $L70-<-~ os262-- oe enjo ose See a see Ree eee 1, 575. 00 i-cnrator, > months, at $176--52 ~~ - once esas acne ate ee eee 525. 00 Dicurator, 12 nionths, At $1506. 2. cees eon oe See aa eee eae 1, 800. 00 1-eurator, © months 11 days, at.$150. 2 2-2 eee ee ee 1, 253. 23 } earator, 12 months, at $125.29. =. ec one os een ee eee 1,500, 00 Louratoril.months, 2. $100.. 2 tec. se eee eee eee 1, 100. 00 ft acting curator, 12 months, at’ $150 -.: 2... os abe cs eu anes ep eae 1, 800. 00 1 asaistant curator, 12 months, at'$133.33:.2-- 2-- 2-5 «222. se eee ee 1, 599. 96 1 assistant curator, 12 months, at $133.33........-....----- -Sc0-----o-- 1, 599. 96 1 assistant curator, 9 months, at $50, $450; 3 mouths, at $125, $375 --. 825. 00 1 aasistant curator, 12 months; at $100:-5. 2-35. ase ee eee 1, 200. 00 1 assistant curator, 5 months, 19 days, at $100 ..............-...--..- 561. 29 bagout, 12 months, at $l00—. 2... . cace ss Gon etene Gene ee ee eee 1, 200. 00 icollector,12 months; at' $80)... 62: 332 2/.S2 2 fee 2 eee eee 960. 00 Vaid.12-months, abi Go0 022s. ~ coen oo he eee lee ene Cee eee 960. 00 1 aid, 6: months 18 days, at $80)... 0: ssi slo. ce oe oe eee 526. 45 Pid, 12 months, sbiO/o. 2-5-2 << Se eee ae eee ee eee 900, 00 Paid, 4 months 23 days, ati$75...2 -so25s Soke Cee eae oe 355. 65 Laid, 22 months, at 165.505. ole oc eo eea eae ecec eee oe eee 780. 00 Laid, 11 months 16'days, at $60. . 2.25.2. -ceee econ cen eee 690. 97 Paid, 8 months, 10' days; ati$55... 5.0505 kee ccc e en eee eee 457.74 31, 470. 25 Clerical staff: L chief. clerk, 12’ months; at $1752... . ccc. coc ecae eee ee ee 2, 100. 00 1 corresponding clerk, 12 months, at $158.33.........-......--------- 1, 899. 06 L registrar, 12 months, at $168,33)2. 22222. 6. oe 1, 899. 96 LE disbursing clerk, 12 months, at'$100 ....-.-. 52. es sees eee 1, 200. 00 Pdrafteman, 12 months; .at.$83.33' ¢ =... -. cee eee 999, 96 1 assistant draftsman, 12 months, at $40. ........-. -.---- ---- ene once 480. 00 Lolerk, 4 months 20 days, at $1952.22... 2. 0. shco.. deo eee 580. 65 Lolerk, 12 months, at'$115.........2 22. deee eee eee 1, 380. 00 i clerk, 12:months, at $1155. .22.coc cc ecu cos ee eee 1, 380. 00 Polerk, 12 months, at $100.2. «coc ce ee ee eee eee 1, 200. 00 A clerk, 12 months, at.$100):.. 3.003 cc eee 1, 200. CO L clerk; 12 months, at'$90.-.322... 0. 5 ie ee eee 1, 030. 00 i clerk, 12 months, at $90'.-....... 0 eee eee 1, 020. 00 i clerk, 11 months 22 days, at $83.33 22... ocuc cee a eee 969. 86 L clerk, 12 months, ‘at $75 .....6.2.- ceca (ee eee 900. 00 I clerk, 12 montha, at $70 22... bnetcb.tacee ee eee 840, 00 *“Notr.—The payments of salaries for parts of months in January, March, July, August, October, and December are made on the basis of 31 days, and for the other months (except February) at 30 days. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, Clerical staff—Continued. eter ies! Olmon bls), avs abcd G0 = a tarcisiererctonr ciate aereice aie eet ae ciete Sete 1 clerk, 6 months, at $55, $330; 6 months, at $60, $360...-...-.-.---- Helen oploeMoOn ghia sa ti GGis oe ae.c oma cpa eNotes wie ta creer enc ee cate 1 clerk, 3 months, at $45, $135; 3 months, 25 days, at $60, $228.39... lecleck=slamonuhe.dayssab pO0ramece snes soe nes nak caeiace eee aa oe HeClenicel2emont hs aAbipoores 2225 -ece sso sdeeinaejasccsem nace’ sau scscees Heclonkael months wai poo esas eaeascie ss oseieis so Somisencisrenciee merece BeeOUhh OPO OHS Weil) hoo = hase as secs oS am a Sa sieeslocsawlosectcecass banics lS MOULNS, du POU - mi oe Sowa: Seine Haeiews ais aaa nse ese wea Meleckel a MOnDUS jah POU Ls= 2< ios 4 5.c.q%.< months 8 days,at $40— .... soc ssc. 2 scp one icceee diet saee Meopyist, o months 19 days, at $40 2.2 22s sce S see seee teed seen Meapyintynl mou i nse at GA0K sos ot = Scie pee Sosa Ae eee ee eens copyist Sumonths L6days; at $402.2. sse4-6 a ocee cease cee ee po ae az Mcopyishial 2am onbhs, ab GAObes oa ois) oe robes eeieemeeeae eee 1 copyist, 7 months 16 days, at $40 .-..-.-..-.. peo Acebeaaeeels =. eee 1 copyist, 2 months 28 days, at $40, $117.33; 29 days, at $1.50, $43.50. Mcopyish: Lemonthsabigoom sss sae steee e ace) 2 oink otic cians eee oe heopyish, GO. months 9 days, at Geo 2.55. 2.2-<.c-se)- sae weep cs eee ae 1 copyist, 11 months 10 days, at $35 ..-..... PORE Yeh SR ACE SES A COpYASt eG MOMENSILS AVS saw G0 fai-iatee sees we sola ow nelnleeei seat AUCOpVISt ple months; ati poOlssse soso coe ec eeotmicua: Soest fo csceeiee IcoOpyist, oO MONS Ao daysepabigeo os. e echt soe wsieeete eas ceeere oes Preparatcrs : Ngecolanrist 12) month as ab wll Oe. .0 aac cae se ola a Maree oes SSais oer seis iephotoprapher, 12 months at Plo8.35 ...ce wacecssec5 ce ceen | Sosceis= = He ARICELMIShwele MONS: At plso ae 2 sscces vase en ce cscs ac secle seinimest 1 taxidermist, 3 months, at $115, $345; 4 months, at $40, $160; 5 months, ULM Sead ate a= Sele eee io os a Seeisia se sien is ae icis Seaiet hoe sme seme Pancinermishe 12 months, at; Goo. S22. 6.c62o. ees nine soe cane ee cheese 1 assistant taxidermist, 8 months, at $60.--......-......-.---------- iassistanp taxidermist, 12 months, at $60! ....2.. -2--. ..222--sceeee 1 assistant taxidermist, 10 months, at $60-..---.-- Sr se ect an et Psa ca 1 assistant taxidermist, 12 months, at $60---.....-.....--..---..---- 1 assistant taxidermist, 3 months 29 days, at $50 ..-..-. NEE ER pera pLOpILabOLels MOntHSs abrplOO!.2occmecoeeotecceniscaciccess aes eace HERE ArAlOrel months, av pol cess a eee te sens Seka secae eae ca ceeeee MBLURAEAUOr 1c MONtHG, Ab G1) -- 252.5252 weedee scne ce cece ccee ce XXIII 600, 00 450, 00 660. 00 600, 00 600. 00 186. 64 220. 16 396. 29 223. 00 360. 00 137. 90 34, 836. 83 1, 320. 00 1, 399. 96 1, 500. 00 196.77 1, 200. 00 960. 00 900. 00 SLY REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. Preparators—Continued. 1 preparator, 12 months, at $60 ...---- ------ +--+ eee ee eee ee eee $720. 00 1 preparator, 2 months, at $120, $240; 2 months, at $105, $210; 8 months, at $80, $640... 22. 2 ne ene eo wwe one wwe ww ces seamen cnicnes 1, 090, 00 i preparator, 179} days, at $4 per diem ...-.. ohvc Sole ee See ea eee ee 713. 00 14, 564. 73 Buildings and labor: 1 superintendent of buildings, 12 months, at $137.50. .... Be TE ater, 1, 650. 00 1 assistant superintendent of buildings, 12 months, at $90. ..-......- 1, 0380. 00 1 watchman; 12 months, at $65... «2.342.222 -5 ee oe ee 780. 00 1 watchman, 12 months,.at $60. os: --s oc cee on eee ee en reeuee 720. 00 i watohman, 12 months, at $60... = 2.6.25. oe se eee 720. 00 1 watchman, 12 months) at $50... .. .2.2 2c 2-28 jd. coe pans eae 600, 00 {‘watchman; 12 months, at $50)... 2. |e cea Se pets ee 600, 00 i watchman; 12 months, at'$50.-..<.25 S282 cee ene Beret ee eS 600. 00 i-watchman,; 12 months; at $50: -.2-.<2.<... 5255 Se eee eee 600. 00 1 watchman, 12 months, at $50........--... ee a a 600. 00 1 watchman, 12 months, at $50...........-.. sapien Pap elch, epee ae ee 600, 00 1 watchman, 12 months, at $50.............- on vcleSee en ees eae UScetes 600. 00 1 watchman, 10 months, at $507 225 .-.0 coe cen cee se Sateen eee ee 500. 00 1 watchman, 8 months 116 days, at $50 ... 2.4. 250. 2505 scccee cee we 593. 33 1 watchman, 1 month, at $40; 1 month, at $45; 8 months, at $50, $400 ; 19 days, at $50,;:$30.65 2.6.2.2 652s. sca S cactee ee re ee eer oerer 515. 65 i watchman, ‘10’ months 19° days,at $505--~. 2. 225 2a eee 530. 65 1 watchman, 9 months 19 days, at $50.-...--- sel bnBLEle RES OR Ie Ses 481. 67 1 watchman, 12 ’months, at $45. .....6ccscecs casos. ne ee ee eee 540. 00 1 watchman, 11 months 27 days, at $45. - 5.500.222 02. ee eee ae 535. 50 i*watchman, 12 months; at.945 ..2.s.c22 20005 ssc0 se ee ee 540. 00 1 skilled laborer, 10 months,-at'$70. < «2352... 20 ee eae eee eee 700, 00 1 skilled laborer, 12 months, at $50-...... PS eee oigt he. Bee ee 600. 00 1 skilled laborer, 4 months 25 days, at $50. ..--. 5-22.02. 2c ceo e see 244. 64 1 skilled laborer, 6 months, at $50 ....- vi 2sie eo Ake 300. 00 1 skilled laborer, 3 months 25 days, at $10--.. /.-222 4.22.22 2eeseece 153.33 1 skilled laborer, 54 days, at $2.50, $135: 154 days, at $2, $308 ....... 443. 00 I skilled:laborer, 77 days, at $1.50 --22 2555 secu syns oee ee ieee Seis 115. 50 1 laborer, 6 months, at $45, $270; 169 days, at $1.50, $253 50......... 523. 50 Llaborer,; 10 months, at $45 ...2 4: 2.2... see co eee ee eee 450. 00 1 laborer, 4 months, at $45.......-...-.-.- Stees oes eee 180. 00 Miaborer, 9: months, ‘at $40... <2. eet oe eee 360. 00 2 laborer, 12 months, at $40 ...-2.'..-2cstcece. eee eee eee 480. 00 1 laborer, 9 months, at $40, $360; 2 days, at $1.50, $3...........-.--- 363. 00 Liaborer, 12 months, at $40... 2522 eee 480. 00 1 laborer, 64 days, at $1.50... 3.5 ee eee 96, 00 1 laborer, 11 months, at $40, $440; 19 days, o $47, $29.11; 35 days, at $1.50, $57.50 ooo wan ke cee cleiencn ue oeuu Dee eet eee 521. 61 I laborer, 312 days, at $1.50 ...... ..c2 2 hee eee eee 468. 00 1 laborer, 10 months, at $40, $400; 36 days, at $1.50, $54.........-..- 454. 00 1 laborer, 12 months, at $40, $480; 1 day, at $1.71, $1.71-.......----- 481.71 1 laborer, 10334 days, $1.50... ......2.. 5.85 on ee ee 155. 25 1 laborer, 12 months, at $40, $480; 3 days, at $1.50, 84. 50 Mere a8 484.50 1 laborer, 317 days, at $1.50 ........c...... epee, eee 475.50 1 Jaborer, 1264 days, at $1.50. ...... 42, co oo eee “ 189. 75 1 laborer, 12 months, $40, at $480; 1 day, at $1.50 ........-.....----. 481. 50 1 laborer, 100 days, at $1.50 150. 00 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE XXV Buildings and labor—Continued. femsbaroe aoa 8, ab ol. 50%. -5. 32-2 a-5cnos bess cides s-cees Saco a cee $493. 50 Miaverer, sin days, at. ol. o0 50. =... a2e- once oes Rah soe. Ree eee 472. 50 iplaborertolae days ab pl.00)25.2- 2225s. S2-ee cece 22cm oeee =. sme 476. 00 SES NGFar Ol Oaye, Abipl.n0 2.2225 2225 obas- dete e ie os seen ee ses 241.50 MPEGMMEDL OOMOAYS, Bi pL OU ee ono 8s 5a Dace BaeG, ene aie nee eel nee 381. 00 MeIOrer Sb aays, tb gl.to S252 --- 8 3o Saje dle tewonn Sep eine ole oo se cee= 89. 25 1 laborer, 12 months, at $40, $480; 1 day, at $1.50. ..---..--.-------- 481. 50 f attendant, 12 months less 1 day, at $40.-.... 0. --. .---- .--------- 478. 71 1 attendant 11 months, at $40, $440; 1 month, at $35........-...--.- 475. 00 feleaner, fo moOnbhs,abiool ---so22 - cn 222-5 o2d~ woe wees teen eno n- 360. 00 Meloaner lo GAVep Ab Pls sse ccs sa ese es chee ns ose] Soe 0 meee 155. 00 fecleaTion ae 10. GaySstab Oly a6 oes ca naa sis5- = we ciense ns ne) upeie aees 270. 00 Melee IMD uLHS Abpo0 cso 2c2! ocr. t 2 28. naka boos wela me va oelac me 360. 00 iueloaner iermonths, aiips0) oss MONUNG abipdon = can so sem aoc ecaelaae= Se celem/ne a 540. 00 mmessoncer, to months, ah gio .o 232 222 6 =~ 2 Sebe ecae cose cece eanees 540. 00 Pmessensersmoentlis, at pao. = -.-2----2 ---< 2-22 0-5 -e5ses- 222 2-2 105. 00 PNCESCN AOE el TMONLHS wb poo! 8-2-5 2 Saocsace Ones -0s5 22 - = 22 sse= 300. 00 frmessonoers ds monte, ab O20. o2.. 22.20 125 esac ssc e cl ee ene cons 300. 00 domessenver, O1MOLENS, Aliged o---co--=- 220 cose Se aee se s2 5 == +2 == 225. 00 1 messenger, 11 months 23 days, at $25. ........---..--------------- 293. 55 1 messenger, 2 months 2) days, at $20 ...-.-.---.----..------------- 59533 1 messenger, 8 months 4 days, at $20....---.-----..----- »- +--+ -- eee 162. 58 1 messenger, 12’'months, ab $20 ...-...-------- 22. ----2- weeeee ------ 240. 00 PMCSseH EE, SEW GAYS) Glee co cnc eta wie seeces verses won somes --e = s 388. 75 30, 985. 76 Temporary help. Scientific staff : 1 specialist, 26 days, at $150 per month. .........-.--.---- $125. 81 1 expert, 25.days, at $4 per diem --___...-2--.--------.-.. 100. 00 1 aid, 1 month, 25 days, at $55 per month.-........-..... 99. 35 Paid, 1A dave rat gal per month. ..-.- :22<<6 s2-s0-2--2- 23.33 —_—. 348. 49 Clerical staff : ieicrk month, atiip4o.per. Months. -w...cosecds--ece se. 40,00 1 typewriter, 17 days, at $60 per month..-.......-...---- 34.00 1 typewriter, 30 days, at $35 per month............-.-..- 34,14 iecopyisc pmonth at po0ss2.ss-2 2... een ees eee 60. 00 iccopyist, LP month 23 days, at $45. 22-2... 2... 5 .2e- 79. 50 eopyisg, mmonth, ab-p40°s 22s 2o2 sos Se ke eee 40. 00 PPeapyishe OG AVS Ab. O40) epee ec ace sae at ponerse = ea 41.78 334, 42 Preparators : 1 taxidermist, 2 months, at $50 per month............---- 100. 00 1 preparator, 24 days, at $40 per month ........---...---- 32. 08 1 preparator, 8 days, at $3.20 per diem ...-....-.-..-.-.--- 25. 60. ed 157. 68 Buildings and labor: 1 watchman, 1 month 15 days, at $50 per month.--..----. 74.19 1 skilled laborer, 2 months, at $45 per month. ..-.....---- 90. 00 ilaborer) 13 days, at $1.50 per diem. .---..:..---- -2-- Seu Ok50 Plaborer, 2) days, at $1.50 per diem..-.-. .----. .-.--..--- 31.50 XXVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, Temporary help—Continned, Buildings and labor—Continued. 1 laborer, 6 days, at $1.50 per diem........------------- $9. 00 1 laborer, 5 days, at $1.50 per diem...-....... ----.-+--- 7.50 1 laborer, 25 days, at $1.50 per diem........-..-.---.--- 37.50 1 laborer, 10 days, at $1 per diem.......--...-------25-2 10. 00 1 cleaner, 38 days, at $1 per diem.........-.-..-...----- 38. 00 —--— $317. 19 1, 157. 78 Special or contract work .... ......---- ---- -eece2 20+ 22-22 == 1, 363, 68 SUMMARY. Salaries, preservation of collections : PHOCHOM 2.2 a2 0 can 222 oce baa ocnen pe ce mewee ete eee 3, 999. 96 Barentino stafi-~. Sc. ssssn- sect eee a eee eee 31, 470. 25 Clerical stat :o5c.. 263 Sas osesc. eee see ee eee eee eee 34, 836. 83 PPODOTRLOLS = wie ence ce eas cea toe Sen oe enn tne 14, 564.73 Boudines and. labor:: - 2222525332225 Sc ceis won en eee aU oe: WEMNOLary NOlDe escars sneee se aien temas ante eee Us y Gils Snecial-or contract work <-520--sss. ees dees sees =. 1, 363:/68 Total salaries or compensation. --2. 25 +-ccce 22 - tee er ee 118, 378. 99 Miscellaneous : BUPPllCS a. cin n~ nsaw a sows nose o poate ee eitem ates eater 4, 952. 67 NGBULONGLY:. 22 osc caieincs Con oe tee sre ceere eae eee ee 2, 307. 60 Apeoimiens .<-2204- 5. ecense ds -cenee wear eee Sooner eo el ees ROOKS ANG NeShiodicals<'..2ss—3 = 5-0). 89..----- $18.71 From balance of 1838-89, July 1, 1889. ....-. 2, 823. 22 From appropriation for 1889-’90.....-....--- 30, 000. 00 PPOtAL< ce s- testes as Ree SAPO ce oe OSC ERD AEP Soak SaSr 32, 841. 93 Heating, lighting, ete.: From balance of 1837-88, July 1, 1889..-.---.. $3. 70 From balance of 1883-89, July 1, 1839...---. 1, 089. 33 From appropriation for 18¢9-’90..-..- eee 12, 000. 00 OMe cn ateae wee eee ate owtet ia rete ee ete ee onbo Ses 13, 093. 03 Postage: From appropriation for 1889-90 .... 4... 2-2. 56-. eee 1, 000. 00 Printing: From appropriation for 1889—90 -.- <-> 2222s see ee eee eee 10, 745. 16 National Zodlogical Park: From appropriation of April 30, 1890 ...-.....--.-.-.-.-- 92, 000. 00 ————— - $362, 434.17 Grand total... 122. .cccc. boss Jcee cece tne Sonne oe ee eee 454, 277. 15 The committee has examined the vouchers for payments made from the Smithsonian income during the year ending June 30, 1890, all of which bear the approval of the Secretary of the Institution, or, in his absence, of the Assistant Secretary as acting Secretary, and a certificate that the materials and services charged were applied to the purposes of the Institution. The committee has also examined the accounts of the ‘ Interna- tional Exchanges,” and of the “ National Museum,” and of the “ National Zodlogical Park,” and finds that the balances above given correspond with the certificates of the disbursing clerk of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, whose appointment as such disbursing officer was accepted and his bonds approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. The quarterly accounts current, the vouchers, and journals have been examined and found correct. The abstracts of expenditures and balance sheets under the appropri- ation for * North American Ethnology” have been exhibited to us; the REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXIII vouchers for the expenditures, after approval by the Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, are paid by the disbursing clerk of said Bureau, and, after approval by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, are transmitted to the accounting officers of the Treasury Department for settlement. The disbursing officer of the Bureau is accepted as such, and his bonds approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. The balance available to meet outstanding liabilities on July 1, 1890, as reported by the disburing clerk of the Bureau, is $12,033.08. Statement of regular income from the Smithsonian Fund to be available for use in the year ending June 30, 1890. EPP ERCOLOME NAN CeesUT eros sulle on eee eee cae ete Ce $30, 192. 65 Interest due and receivable July 1, 1890 ......-......-.....-. $21, 090. 00 Interest due and receivable January 1, 1891 .---.-.--...--... 21, 090. 00 —————- 42,180.00 Total available for year ending June 30, 1891 ..............-.-..-.-- 72, 372, 65 Respectfully sabmitted JAMES C. WELLING, HENRY COPPER, M. C. MEIGS, KHxecutive Committee. WASHINGTON, D. C., November, 1890. H. Mis. 129-—-111 abe a a ety “At al Be ah = Ain tt ride heart Shug i oe aie baa ai ee a te at aia) si, ce aie a _ ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, NATIONAL MUSEUM, ETC. (in continuation from previous reports. ) [ Fifty-first Congress, first session, 1889-90. ] Cuap. 156.—AN ACT to provide for celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus by holding an international exhibition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the product of the soil, mine, and sea in the city of Chicago, in the State of Illinois. Whereas, It is fit and appropriate that the four hundredth anni- versary of the discovery of America be commemorated by an_exhibi- tion of the resources of the United States of America, their develop- ment, and of the progress of civilization of the New World; and Whereas, Such an exhibition should be of a national and interna- tional character, so that not only the people of our Union and this con- tinent, but those of all nations as well, can participate, and should therefore have the sanction of the Congress of the United States; Therefore, Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That an exhibition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the products of the soil, mine, and sea shall be inaugurated in the year eighteen hundred and ninety-two, in the city of Chicago, in the State of Illinois, as hereinafter provided. Src. 2. That a commission, to consist of two commissioners from each State and Territory of the United States and from the District of Columbia and eight commissioners at large, is hereby constituted to be designated as the World’s Columbian Commission. Src. 3. That said commissioners, two from each State and Territory, shall be appointed within thirty days from the passage of this act by the President of the United States, on the nomination of the governors of the States and Territories, respectively, and by the President eight commissioners at large and two from the District of Columbia; and in the same manner and within the same time there shall be appointed two alternate commissioners from each State and Territory of the United States and the District of Columbia and eight alternate com- missioners at large, who shall assume and perform the duties of such commissioner or commissioners as may be unable to attend the meet- ings of the said commission; and in such nominations and appoint- ments each of the two leading political parties shall be equally repre- sented. Vacancies in the commission nominated by the governors of the several States and Territories, respectively, and also vacancies in the commission at large and from the District of Columbia may be filled in the same manner and under the same conditions as provided herein for their original appointment. XXXV XXXVI ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. Src. 4. That the Secretary of State of the United States shall, im. mediately atter the passage of this act, notify the governors of the several States and Territories, respectively, thereof and request such nominations to be made. The commissioners so appointed shall be called together by the Secretary of State of the United States in the city of Chicago, by notice to the commissioners, aS Soon as convenient after the appointment of said commissioners, and within thirty days thereafter. The said commissioners, at said first meeting, shall organ- ize by the election of such officers and the appointment of such com- mittees as they may deem expedient, and for this purpose the commis- sioners present at said meeting shall constitute a quorum. Sec. 5. That said commission be empowered in its discretion to accept for the purposes of the World’s Columbian Exposition such site as may be selected and offered and such plans and specifications of buildings to be erected for such purpose at the expense of and tendered by the corporation organized under the laws of the State of Illinois, known as “The World’s Exposition of eighteen hundred and ninety- two:” Provided, That said site so tendered, and the buildings pro- posed to be erected thereon shall be deemed by said commission ade- quate to the purposes of said exposition: A nd provided, That said com- mission shall be satisfied that the said corporation has an actual bona fide and valid subscription to its capital stock which will secure the payment of at least five millions of dollars, of which not less than five hundred thousand dollars shall have been paid in, and that the further sum of five million dollars, making in all ten million dollars, will be provided by said corporation in ample time for its needful use during the prosecution of the work for the complete preparation for said exposition. Src. 6. That the said commission shall allot space for exhibitors, prepare a classification of exhibits, determine the plan and scope of the exposition, and shall appoint all judges and examiners for the ex- position, award all premiums, if any, and generally have charge of all intercourse with the exhibitors and the representatives of foreign nations. And said commission is authorized and required to appoint a board of lady managers of such number and to perform such duties as may be prescribed by said commission. Said board may appoint one or more members of all committees authorized to award prizes for exhibits, which may be produced in whole or in part by female labor. Sec. 7. That after the plans for said exposition shall be prepared by said corporation and approved by said commission, the rules and regu- lations of said corporation governing rates for entrance and admission fees, or otherwise affecting the rights, privileges, or interests of the exhibitors or of the public, shall be fixed or established by said corpo- ration, subject, however, to such modification, if any, as may be im- posed by a majority of said commissioners. Sec. 8 That the President is hereby empowered and directed to hold a naval review in New York Harbor, in April, eighteen hundred and ninety-three, and to extend to foreign nations an invitation to send ships of war to join the United States Navy in rendezvous at Hamp- ton Roads and proceed thence to said review. Sec. 9. That said commission shall provide for the dedication of the buildings of the World’s Columbian Exposition in said city of Chicago on the twelfth day of October, eighteen hundred and ninety-two, with appropriate ceremonies. and said exposition shall be open to visitors not later than the first day of May, eighteen hundred and ninety-three, .ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS, XXXVII and shal be closed at such time as the commission may determine, but not later than the thirtieth day of October thereafter. SEo. 10. That whenever the President of the United States shall be notified by the commission that provision has been made for grounds and buildings for the uses herein provided for and there has also been filed with him by the said corporation, known as “The World’s Expo- sition of eighteen hundred and ninety-two,” satisfactory proof that a sum not less than ten million dollars to be used and expended for the purposes of the exposition herein authorized, has in fact been raised or provided for by subscription or other legally binding means, shall be authorized, through the Department of State, to make proclamation of the same, setting forth the time at which the exposition will open and close, and the place at which it will be helt; and he shall com- municate to the diplomatic representatives of foreign nations copies of the same, together with such regulations as may be adopted by the commission, for publication in their respective countries, and he shall, in behalf of the Government and people, invite foreign nations to take part in the said exposition and appoint representatives thereto. Sec. 11. That all articles which shali be imported from foreign countries for the sole purpose of exhibition at said exposition, upon which there shall be a tariff or customs duty, shall be admitted free of payment of duty, customs fees, or charges under such regulations as the Secre- tary of the Treasury shall prescribe: but it shall be lawful at any time during the exhibition to sell for delivery at the close of the exposition any goods or property imported for and actually on exhibition in the exposition buildings or on its grounds, subject to such regulations for the security of the revenue and for the collection of the import duties as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe: Provided, That all such articles when sold or withdrawn for consumption in the United States shall be subject to the duty, if any, imposed upon such articles by the revenue laws in force at the date of importation, and all penal- ties prescribed by law shall be applied and enforced against such arti- cles, and against the persons who may be guilty of any illegal sale or withdrawal. Sec. 12. That the sum of twenty thousand dollars, or as much thereof as may be necessary, be, and the same is hereby, appropriated, out of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, for the re- mainder of the present fiscal year and for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, to be expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury for purposes connected with the admission of foreign goods to said exhibition. Suc. 13. That it shall be the duty of the commission to make report from time to time, to the President of the United States of the progress of the work, and, in a final report, present a full exhibit of the results of the exposition. SeEc. 14. That the commission hereby authorized shall exist no longer than until the first day of January, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight. Sec. 15, That the United States shall not in any manner, nor under any circumstances, be liable for any of the acts, doings, proceed- ings or representations of the said corporation organized under the laws of the State of Illinois, its officers, agents, servants, or employes, or any of them, or for the service, salaries, labor, or wages of said officers, agents, Servants, or employes, or any of them, or for any subscriptions “9 the capital stock, or for any certificates of stock, bonds, mortgages, or obligations of any kind issued by said corporation or for any debts, AXXAVILL ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. liabilities, or expenses of any kind whatever attending such corporation or accruing by reason of the same. Sec. 16. That there shall be exhibited at said exposition by the Gov- ernment of the United States, from its Executive Departments the Smithsonian Institution, the United States Fish Commission, and the National Museum, such articles and materials as illustrate the func- tion and administrative faculty of the Government in time of peace and its resources as a war power, tending to demonstrate the nature of our institutions and their adaptation to the wants of the people; and to secure a complete and harmonious arrangement of such a Government exhibit, a board shall be created to be charged with the selection, prep- aration, arrangement, safe-keeping, and exhibition of such articles and materials as the heads of the several Departments and the directors of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum may respectively decide shall be embraced in said Government exhibit. The President may also designate additional articles for exhibition. Such board shall be composed of one person to be named by the head of each Executive Department, and one by the directors of the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum, and one by the Fish Commission, such se- lections to be approved by the President of the United States. The President shall name the chairman of said board, and the board itseif shall select such other officers as if may deem necessary. That the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized and directed to place on exhibition, upon such grounds as shall be allotted for the purpose, one of the life-saving stations authorized to be constructed on the coast of the United States by existing law, and to cause the same to be fully equipped with all apparatus, furniture, and appliances now in use in all life-saving stations in the United States, said building and apparatus to be removed at the close of the exhibition and re-erected at the place now authorized by law. Sec. 17. That the Secretary ot the Treasury shall cause a suitable building or buildings to be erected on the site selected for the World’s Columbian Exposition for the Government exhibits, as provided in this act, and he is hereby authorized and directed to contract therefor, in the same manner and under the same regulations as for other public buildings of the United States; but the contracts for said building or buildings shall not exceed the sum of four hundred thousand dollars, and for the remainder of the fiscal year and for the year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, there is hereby appropri- ated for said building or buildings, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of one hundred thousand dollars. The Secretary of the Treasury shall cause the said building or build- ings to be constructed as far as possible, of iron, steel, and glass, or of such other material as may be taken out and sold to the best advantage ; and he is authorized and required to dispose of such building or build- ings, or the material composing the same, at the close of the exposition, giving preference to the city of Chicago, or to the said World’s Expo- sition of eighteen hundred and ninety-two to purchase the same at an appraised value to be ascertained in such manner as he may determine. Sec. 18. That for the purpose of paying the expenses of transporta- tion, care, and custody of exhibits by the Government and the main- tenance of the building or buildings hereinbefore provided for and the safe return of articles belonging to the said Government exhibit, and for the expenses of the commission created by this act, and other con- lingent expenses, to be approved by the Secretary of the Treasury, upon itemized accounts and vouchers, there is hereby appropriated for the ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XXXIX remainder of this fiscal year and for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of two hundred thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary: Provided, That the United States shall not be liable, on account of the erection of buildings, ex- penses of the commission or any of its officers or employees, or on account of any expenses incident to or growing out of said exposition for a sum exceeding in the aggregate one million five hundred thousand dollars. Sec. 19. That the commissioners and alternate commissioners ap- pointed under this act shall not be entitled to any compensation for their services out of the Treasury of the United States, except their actual expenses for transportation and the sum of six dollars per day for subsistence for each day they are necessarily absent from their homes on the business of said commission. The officers of said com- mission shall receive such compensation as may be fixed by said com- mission, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, which shall be paid out of the sums appropriated by Congress in aid of such exposition. Sec. 20. That nothing in this act shail be so construed as to create any liability of the United States, direct or indirect, for any debt or obligation incurred, nor for any claim for aid or pecuniary assistance from Congress or the Treasury of the United States in support or liqui- dation of any debts or obligations created by said commission in excess of appropriations made by ‘Con gress therefor. SEc. 21. That nothing in this act shall be so construed as to override or interfere with the laws of any State, and all contracts made in any State for the purposes of the exhibition shall be subject to the laws thereof. Sc. 22. That no member of said commission, whether an officer or otherwise, shall be personally liable for any debt or obligation which may be created or incurred by the said commission. Approved, April 25, 1890. Cuap. 173.—AN ACT for the organization, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zoological Park. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the one-half of the follow- ing sums named, respectively, is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and the other half out of the revenues of the District of Columbia, for the organization, improve- ment, and maintenance of the National Zoological Park, to be expended under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and to be drawn on their requisition and disbursed by the disbursing officer for said Institution : For the shelter of animals, fifteen thousand dollars. For shelter-barns, cages, fences, and inclosures, and other provisions for the custody of animals, nine thousand dollars. For repairs to the Holt mansion, to make the same suitable for occu- pancy, and for office furniture, two thousand dollars. For the creation of artificial ponds and other provisions for aquatic animals, two thousand dollars. For water supply, sewerage, and drainage, seven thousand doliars. For roads, walks, and bridges, fifteen thousand dollars. For miscellaneous supplies, materials, and sundry incidental ex- penses not otherwise provided for, five thousand dollars. XL ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. For current expenses, including the maintenance of collections, food supplies, salaries of all necessary employees, and the acquisition and transportation of specimens, thirty-seven thousand dollars. Src, 2. That the National Zoological Park is hereby placed under the directions of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, who are authorized to transfer to it any living specimens, whether of animals or plants, now or hereafter in their charge, to accept gifts for the park at their discretion, in the name of the United States, tomake exchanges of specimens, and to administer the said Zoological Park for the ad- vancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the people. Src. 3. That the heads of executive departments of the Government are hereby authorized and directed to cause to be rendered all neces- sary and practicable aid to the said regents in the acquisition of col- lections for the Zoological Park. Approved, April 30, 1890. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES: For expenses of the system of inter- national exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, seventeen thousand dol- lars. NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY: For continuing ethnological re- searches among the American Indians, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all nee- essary employees, forty thousand dollars. REPAIRS, SMITHSONIAN BUILDING: For fire proofing the so-called chapel of the west wing of the Smithsonian Building, and for repairing the roof of the main building and the ceiling and plastering of the main Hall of the building, twenty-five thousand dollars, said work to be done under the supervision of the Architect of the Capitol, with the approval of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and no portion of the appropriation to be used for sky-lights in the roof nor for well-hole in the floor of the main building. UNDER THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AS DI- RECTOR OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. HEATING AND LIGHTING: For expense of heating, lighting, elee- trical, telegraphic, and telephonic service for the National Museum, twelve thousand dollars. PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: For continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the collec- tions from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the government, and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all neces- sarp employees, one hundred and forty thousand dollars. FURNITURE AND FIXTURES OF THE NATIONAL MuUsEUM: For cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, twenty-five thou- sand dollars. _ POSTAGE FOR THE NATIONAL MusEum: For postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum, five hundred dollars. PRINTING FOR THE NATIONAL Musrum: For the Smithsonian In- Stitution, for printing labels and blanks for the use of the National ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XLI Museum and for the “ Bulletins” and annual volumes of the “ Proceed- ings” of the National Museum, ten thousand dollars. EXCHANGES OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY: For the purchase of necessary books for the library, and the payment for the transmission of public documents through the Smithsonian exchange, five thousand dollars. (Sundry civil appropriation act, approved August 30, 1890.) MISCELLANEOUS: To re-imburse the Smithsonian Institution for ex- penses incurred in the exchange of the publications of the Fish Com- mission for those of foreign countries, being for the service of the fiscal year, eighteen hundred and eighty-nine, two hundred and fifteen dollars and twenty cents. To enable the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to purchase from Frederick 8. Perkins, of Wisconsin, his collection of prehistoric copper implements, seven thousand dollars. Preservation of collections, National Museum: To supply a deficiency in the appropriation for preservation of collections, National Museum, for the fiscal year eighteen hundred and eighty-seven, eleven dollars and forty-five cents. Claims allowed by the First Comptroller, Treasury Department: For international exchanges; Smithsonian Institution, one dollar and five cents. (Deficiency appropriation act, approved September 30, 1890.) APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. No. 23.—Joint resolution to fill vacancies in the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, etc.—That the vacancies in the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, of the class other than members of Congress, shall be filled by the appointment of Charles Devens, of Massachusetts, in the place of Noah Porter, of Connecticut, resigned; and by the reappointment of James C. Welling, of Washington City, whose term of office has ex- pired. Approved May 22, 1890. REPORT OF 8. P. LANGLEY, SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1890. To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution : GENTLEMEN: [| have the honor to submit herewith the report for the year ending June 30, 1890, of the operations of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, and of the work placed by Congress under its charge in the Na- tional Museum, the Bureau of Ethnology, the International Exchanges, and the National Zooiogical Park. The National Zoological Park has been formally placed under the care of the Board of Regents during this year,* although its establish- ment has been under consideration for some time and the preliminary steps connected therewith have been referred to in previous reports. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. VYHE ESTABLISHMENT. By the organizing act of Congress of August 10, 1846, sec. 1,1 it was provided that ‘The President, and Vice-President of the United States, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Postmaster-General, the Attorney- General, the Chief. Justice, and the Commissioner of the Patent Office of the United States, and the Mayor of the city of Washington, during the time for which they shall hold their respective offices, and such other persons as they may elect honorary members, be, and they are hereby constituted an ‘establishment’ by the name of the ‘Smithsonian Insti- tution,’” ete. In the Revised Statutes “the Governor of the District of Columbia” was substituted for the Mayor of the city of Washing- ton, the latter office having become extinct. Two members having been added to the cabinet of the President since the passage of the act, namely, the Secretary of the Interior, and _ more recently the Secretary of Agriculture, there appears no good rea- son why these should not be included in the list of officers of the estab- lishment. This would obviously be consonant with the original inten- tion of the framers of the act. though excluded by the phraseology actually employed. It may be worthy of consideration of the Board of Regents whether it would not be for the interests of the Institution to ask of Congress a re-construction of the section referred to, whereby *Act of Congress approved April 30, 1890, t Title Ixxiii, sec. 5579, of the Revised Statutes. 1 H. Mis. 129 if 2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the President, Vice-President, Secretaries of the several Executive Departments, and the Chief. Justice of the United States shall consti- tute the Establishment. THE BOARD OF REGENTS, . The stated annual meeting of the Board was held on January 8, 1890, at which the resignation of Dr. Noah Porter, presented on account of failing health, was accepted in the following resolution: Resolved, That the Board having received the resignation of Dr. Noah Porter as a Regent accept it with an expression of their regret, and with assurances of their high personal esteem. At the same meeting, the appointment by the honorable the Speaker of the House of Representatives on January 6, 1890, of the following members of the House as Regents was announced: the Hon. Benjamin Butterworth, of Ohio, the Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts, the Hon. Joseph Wheeler, of Alabama. The death of the Hon. Samuel S. Cox, for many years a Regent of the Institution, and its earnest friend and supporter, was referred to in my last annual report. By a resolution of the Board of Regents a com- mittee was appointed, of which the Secretary was made chairman, to prepare suitable resolutions on his services and character, and these formal resolutions, with a brief biographical sketch, are given in full in the “‘necrology ” appended. The institution is indebted to Mrs. Cox for a portrait of her husband, to be placed with the collection of portraits of past Regents. By joint resolution of Congress, approved by the President May 22, 1890, Dr. James C. Welling, whose term as a Regent had expired, was re-elected; and by the same resolution Judge Charles Devens, of Mas- sachusetts, was appointed a member of the Board to succeed Dr. Porter. I regret to say that Judge Devens has written to me to state that there is a provision in the constitution of Massachusetts in reference to judges of its supreme court, which it has been suggested would prevent any one of them from holding such a position. No action had been taken in the matter at the time of this report. FINANCES. The permanent funds of the institution remain as at the time of my last report, namely : Bequest of Smithson, 1846... 20202... cei cd leis cdeens ie eaeeneeesmeeee $515, 169. 00 Residuary legacy of Smithson;..1867/.... -..--. nino oe eee eee eee 26, 210. 63 Deposits from savings of income, ete., 1867 .....-...-. . eee cpm eee ees 108, 620. 37 Bequest.of James Hamilton, 1874.2... .5...-5 ce n2 2 =e eee es See ene 1, 000. 00 Bequest of Simeon Habel, 1880- aos mane bias nC ce? Coe ee Reenean ieee 500. 00 Deposit from proceeds of sale of beats 1881. winter aw On ok blak een een 51, 500.00 Total permanent Smithsonian fund in the Treasury of the United States, bearing interest at 6 per cent. per annum.. -...-.--.--.- 703, 000. 00 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3 It seems to me desirable in this connection to direct attention to the exceptional advantages offered in the organization of the Smithsonian Institution for the administration of funds intended for the advance- ment of science and the increase of knowledge throughout the world. The governing board of the Institution is composed of the highest offi- cers Of the United States Government, associated with some of the most distinguished men of learning in the country. The United States Gov- ernment is itself pledged to the security of the funds of the Institution, guaranteeing an interest of six per cent. annually. It is safe to say that no institution of learning is better known throughout the world, and I am impressed with the belief that were it also more widely known that the United States, in accepting the gift of Smithson, has signified a willingness to become thecustodian of further bequests for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, its permanent endowment would be constantly increased. The principal facts in relation to Smithson’s bequest have been stated in brief in my previous reports and elsewhere at considerable length, and need not be repeated here. At the beginning of the fiscal year the balance on hand of the in- come was $11,757.47. Interest on the invested fund, amounting to $42,180, has been received from the Treasurer of the United States, $5,000 have been received from the estate of the late Dr. Jerome H. Kidder, and a like amount from Dr. Alexander Graham Bell for the prosecution of special researches in physics, to which allusion is else- where made, and $3,905.51 have been received from miscellaneous sources, making the total receipts $67,842.98. The total expenditures have been $37,650.33, leaving an unexpended balance on June 30, 1890, of $30,192.65, or, deducting the donations for special researches noted above, amounting to $10,000, the balance available for general expenses on July 1, 1890, was $20,192.65. This sum, which is somewhat larger than usual, is in part held against cer- tain anticipated grants in aid of scientific investigation and the cost of their publication by the Institution. The Institution has been charged by Congress with the disbursement during the year of the following special appropriations: HOTANLeEnationallexchanres se. 45 cocGek ued scc ogoe 228s choses peoeionecees $15, 000 Beemrusinmlinoneal Tesearches\. 2 025.2. S2oe0s Sossasale 2 dt ecleekbs os 52 dadeust 40, 000 For National Museum : ETeESCLYA TLOULOMCOLECHOHS os). ease cee. cces ban et acne estes eee 140, 000 HOM ULOVAMCeXSLURES. © sees yokes Scam wes eit ee SOAS eed ts SUES Ss 30, 000 eee une ATG NONE RO 2S ia) 2s ae Soe to phere LE SES See LS 12, 000 Rare AOme Peer etn to Sein 8S ee heat pee eu Seta wat ators 1, 000 PPLE 7 ES OS et Ae a eee eee eee ee ees ee ee 10, 000 Spoeienional Zoological’ Park: - 20222 50.2.cehcsecchie. tsi. .coece sencse 92,000 The vouchers for the disbursement of these appropriations, with the exception of those for “ethnological researches,” have been examined by the Executive Committee, and the various items of expenditure, in- 4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. cluding those of the Burean of Ethnology, are set forth in a letter ad- dressed to the Speaker of the House of Representatives in accordance with a provision of the sundry civil act of October 2, 1888, while the expenditures from the Smithsonian fund, having likewise been examined and approved by the executive committee, are given in their report. The estimates for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, forwarded to the Secretary of the Treasury under date of October 1, 1&89, were as follows: Internationa) exchan fes-. 2-2 - (oe a - Ae crea eee eee ae ee $27,500. 00 Norp American etlinoloty 2-2 2c. oe eee ee een eee 50, 000. 00 National Museum : Preservation of collections':.--2 2-22 Shee eee eee eee 175, 000. 00 Heating and lighting 32222 Sn ea Soe ae a re 15, 000. 00 Purnitureiand. fixtures) J: 2154-22 aos eee ee eee eee 30, 000. 00 Living animals, in connection with zoological department...--..... 50, 000. 00 Punting and binding. 955 oo = arte eee ee eee ee 18, 500. 00 POStAL6 2... c. 220 oon wn oe oo Se bee E ee Sey Oot Ree ee eee ae eee 500. 00 BUILDINGS. I regret that I am unable to report any immediate prospect of relief from the over-crowded condition of the Museum building. The Re- gents nearly eight years ago, (at their meeting of January 17, 1883,) recommended to Congress the erection of a new Museum building, and the previous steps taken in pursuance of their instruction have already been laid before the Board. Since 1883, the collections of the Museum have enormously increased, so that before a new building can now be completed, the material pressing for display or even for storage, will demand a considerable part of a building as large as the present one. Sketeh-plans for a building that would meet the wants of the Museum for the immediate future were laid before the Board at their meeting in January, 1890. These plans contemplated a building of two stories and a basement, it being indispensable to have rooms for the preparation and study of material apart from the rooms used purely for the purposes of exhibition. A bill appropriating $500,000 for a building was reported by Sen- ator Morrill on February 19, 1890, from the Senate Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, and passed the Senate on the 5th of April, 1890. It was referred in the House to its Committee on Public snildings and Grounds, from which it has not as yet been reported. The following letter in relation to the subject transmitted to the Hon. Leland Stanford, chairman of the Senate Committee on Public Build- ings and Grounds, sets forth at some length the urgent need for fur- ther accommodation: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 [Senate Mis. Doc. No. 116, Fifty-first Congress, first session. ]} LETTER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN RELATION TO A BUILDING FOR THE ACCOMMODATION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM, Washington, January 21, 1890. Sir: I send you herewith a set of sketch-plans intended to show, in a general way, the extent and character of a building such as would seem to be necessary for the accommodation of the Museum collections in the present and immediate future, and respectfully request for them your attention, and a recommendation to Congress of the necessary means for such a building. These plans and sketches are provisional, but although not presented in detail, they represent the results of studies, extending over many years, of the plans of the best modern museum buildings in Kurope and America, nearly all of which have been inspected by officers of the Smithsonian Institution. The proposed building covers the same area as that finished in 1881. It is intended to consist of two stories and a basement, except in the central portion, which consists of one lofty hall open from the main floor to the roof, the height of which will be 90 feet, galleries being placed on the level of the second floor in other. parts of the building. Itsinte- rior arrangements are, as you will see, different from those in the actual Museum, all the changes having been planned in the light of the expe- rience of nine years’ occupation of the present building. It will afford between two and three times as much available space for exhibition and storage under the same area of roof. The fifteen exhibition halls are completely isolated from each other, and may readily besubdivided, when necessary, into smaller rooms. The lighting will be as good as in the old building, and the ventilation perhaps still better. The sani- tary arrangements have been carefully considered. The necessity for a basement is especially great. In this, place has been provided for many storage rooms and workshops. The existence of a basement will promote the comfort and health of visitors and em- ployés, and by increasing the dryness of the air in the exhibition halls, will secure the better preservation of the collections. These proposed changes in the internal arrangements will not interfere with conformity with the other points of the present Museum building in the essential features of exterior proportion. The total capacity of this present building in available floor space is about 100,000 square feet; that of the new building somewhat exceeds 200,000. The present Museum building contains about 80,000 feet of floor space available for exhibi- tion. That proposed will contain about 103,300 square feet for exhibi- tion. The space devoted to offices and laboratories would not be much more, but the area available for exhibition halls, storage rooms, and workshops far greater. The appropriation for the construction of the present building was $250,000. This sum was supplemented by several special appropriations: $25,000 for steam-heating apparatus ; $26,000 for marble floors; $12,500 for water and gas fixtures and electrical apparatus, and $1,900 for special sewer connections, so that the total cost was $315,400. The structure was probably completed for asmaller sum of money than any other similar one of equal capacity in the world, at an expense ralative to capacity which the present prices of material make it certain can not be repeated. The estimates of cost on this building vary greatly with regard to 6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. details of construction on which I do not here enter, further than to say that the whole should be absolutely fire-proof throughout, and in view of the further great variation of the cost of building materials within the past two years, I am not prepared to state the sum which would be necessary for its completion. It is certain, however, that $500,000, if not sufficient to complete it, would be all that would be required to be expended during the present year, and I would respect- fully represent the desirability of an appropriation of this amount for the purpose in question. Your attention is directed to certain facts in regard to the character of the materials for the accommodation of which this building is desired. The collections of the Smithsonian Institution and of the Government are especially rich in collections of natural history, which may be grouped in three general classes: The zoological collections; the botan- ical collections, and the geological collections. including not only all the geological and mineralogical material, but the greater portion of that belonging to paleontology, the study of fossil animals and plants forming an essential part of modern geological work. Besides the natural history collections, there are equally important anthropological collections which illustrate the history of mankind at all periods and in every land, and which serve to explain the develop- ment of all human arts and industries. In everything that relates to the primitive inhabitants of North America, Eskimo as well as Indian, these collections are by far the richest in the world, and with the nee- essary amount of exhibition space, the material on hand will be arranged in a manner which will produce the most impressive and magnificent effect, the educational importance of which can not be over-estimated. Again, there are collections of considerable extent which illustrate the processes and products of the various arts and industries, as well as what are termed the historical collections, which are of especial interest to a very large number of the visitors of the Museum on account of the associations of the objects exhibited with the personal history of repre- sentative men, or with important events in the history of America. The collections illustrating the arts and the art industries are rela- tivelysmall, and although in themselves of great interest and value, not to be compared in importance with those in natural history and eth- nology. In a letter addressed on June 7, 1888, to the Hon. Justin S. Morrill, and which will be found in a report of June 12 of the same year from the Senate Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, I made astate- ment of the rapidity of the recent growth of the Museum, mentioning that in the five years from 1882 to 1887 the number of specimens in the collection had multiplied no less than sixteen times, and endeavored to give an idea, though, perhaps, an inadequate one, of the extent to which the pressure for want of space was felt. The evil has grown rapidly worse, and as I have had occasion to mention, it has been felt in the last year in @ partial arrest of the growth of the collections, which empha- sizes the demand for more room. The present Museum building is not la: ge enough even for the natural history collections alone, a number of Which are without any exhibition space whatever. The proposed build- ing will afford accommodations for the ethnological and technological material already on hand, and for a large part of the natural history material also. The collections are still increasing, and the number of specimens, as estimated, is now not far from 3,000,000. The appended table (A) shows the annual increase since 1882. The increase during the last year was 4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. t comparatively small. This may be accounted for by the fact that our exhibition halls and storage rooms being filled to their utmost capacity, it has seemed necessary to ceasein a large degree the customary eftorts’ for the increase of the Museum. Unless more space is soon provided, the development of the Govern- ment collections will of necessity be almost completely arrested. So long as there was room for storage, collections not immediately re- quired could be received and packed away for future use. This can not longer be done. The Armory Building, since 1877 assigned to the Museum for storage and workshops, is now entirely occupied by the U.S. Fish Commission, with the exception of four rooms, and by some of the Museum tax- idermists, who are now working in very contracted space, and whom it is impossible to accommodate elsewhere. Increased space in the exhibition halls is needed, the educational value of the collections being seriously diminished by the present crowded system of installation. Still more necessary, however, is room for storage, for re-arranging the great reserve collections, for eliminating duplicate material for distribution to college aud school museums, and for the use of the taxidermists and preparators engaged in preparing objects for exhibition. Space is also required for the proper handling of the costly outfit of the Museum cases and appliances for installation, of which there is always a considerabie amount temporarily out of use or in process of construction. The appended table (B) shows the amount of floor space now assigned to the various collections and the amount required for the proper dis- play of material already in hand, making a reasonable allowance for the expansion during the three years which would probably pass before a new building could be completed and provided with necessary cases. The appended table (C) shows the number of feet of floor space (the average height being 10 feet) required for laboratories, workshops, and for the several departments. This isin addition to storage space under the cases in the exhibition halls, and a considerable portion may be in cellars and attics. In summarizing what has just been said, it may be stated in general terms that the amount of space already required for exhibition pur- poses alone, being (table B) 207,500 feet as against 100,675 now occupied, and this being exclusive of the (table C) 108,900 square feet needed for other objects, the accumulations have now reached such a point of con- gestion that the actual space needs to be doubled, even independently of future increase; and I beg to repeat that, unless more space is pro- vided, the development of the Government collection, which is already partly arrested, will be almost completely stopped. Your obedient servant. : S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary. Hon. LELAND STANFORD, . Chairman Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, United States Senate. 8 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. TaBie A.—Annual increase in the collections. Name of department. | 1882, | 1883, 1884, | 1885-86. 1886'87. | 1887-"88. | 1488-89. = SY es | ae Shik See ES NATURAL HISTORY. | Zoology: | Mnnigih < 220. 13, 634 14,640 1) 14, 640 Ee Sperpretss ee tices pied aly | Me fs 1, 055 pauueical Instrumente’ 2:52.) |hswe eset | eee eee ee ee 400 417 427 6497 Modern pottery, porcelain, and bronzes ............... | fave eugs Uusera ken eeereeee 2, 278 2,238! 3,011] 3,011 Paints and dyes ............. Ete eee [ances Sea hoes 17 100 | 1100 109 “The Catlin Gallery”. ...._.. | suc benios ae] bie'a Come Sal eee 500 500 500 1500 PbSsical apparatas 2.2... 4|\os.. co le eee 250 | 251 | 1951 11251 ISON TINE pou pee ea lee cone hee ee || eee 8197 | 198 11198 213 Chemical products...........|......... wee g ra . 8659 661 1661 688 Potel e. 22h Be 193, 362 | 263,143 1,472, 600 2, 420, 944 2, 666, 335 |2, 803,459 2, 863, 894 12,235 are nests. ? Catalogue entries. 2 Including cenozoic fossils. * Katimated. 6 Professor Riley's collection nambers 150,000 Specimens. ® Exclusive of Prof. Ward's collection. 7 In reserve series. § Duplicates not included. * Including paints, pigments, and oils. '© Foods only. '’ No entries of material received during the year have been made on catalogue. N. B.—No estimate of increase of collections taken in 1885, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. TABLE B.—Exvhibition space. GOL ee Floor | Department. svn SaMiPA: Department. co) ees NATURAL HISTORY COLLEC- | NATURAL HISTORY COLLEC- | TIONS. | TIONS—continued. | | Zoology: Sq. feet. Sq. feet. 1 Paleontology—continued. | Sq. feet iene Mammals<=-<- 525-2. .<< 6,500 | 12,000 Mertebrate)sicsncoccsece 1, 500 10, 000 INI acces Se codcheceabos 6,000 | 14, 000 | Mineralogy and geology . 12, 000 17, 009 Reptiies and batrachians. | 1, 000 3, 000 AN THR OLOLOGIGAI, COLLRG Fishes and fisheries..-... 7, 600 | 14,000 |) eae, MOUTSK Bue cece cee ies oe 3,500 | 5, 000 | Re oe aes | Prehistoric archzology ----. 10, 000 10, 000 (other than mollusks)..| 3,000 | 5, 500 || General ethnology ....-----. 10,400 | 40, 000 Tene nee ee ee 1, 600 4. 000 || Arts and industries..-..-.-.-.. 22, 000 40, 000 Comparative anatomy ...| 4,500 | 10, 000 History ---- 20e-n~ nanan on 3, O00 | ee Botany : He cuune ile assesses sail 4, 575 eee 500 Systematic and economic | Motals seesss ese --=-=--| 9100) 6755 )|) 207; 500 (including forestry) .. -- 1, 000 4, 000 Paleontology ; Invertebrate (including Paleozoic, Mesozoicand Cenozoic) ........-..-- 2,500] 7,500 | | TABLE C.—Slorage, workshops, offices, laboratories, etc. Miers Square | : | Square partment. (5k. | Department. | cents NATURAL HISTORY. | NATURAL HISTORY—continued. | Zoology: - | Geology: IMA MIN AIS ese see oes See ann ceesce cas | 3, 000 i Mineralogy and geology (including | BINUR eam ne Joctaeces toe) ecko ese acces 4, 000 || WODKSHOPS) eo a2 os een ee 4, 000 Reptiles and batrachians .........--. 2, 500 } Anthropology : ISN OS esate eats eh ee ol 5, 000 | Prehistoric archeology -.-.----.----- 2, 000 SiG TUR) ee a ee eee aes 4 000 i General ethnology ...---..---2----2--- 6, 000 Marine invertebrates (other than Arts and industries (several divis- THONUSKA Pessoa ee ta eee oe eet 4,000 | HONS) Soot aes 2 SRE ate oc eee | 15, 000 WI BGCLS were es eee eee et 2, 400 Taxidermists, osteologists, modelers, Comparativeanatomy..... ....-..--- Se C000 |“ hpreparatorais s+ fee. Seach secok sees Ee 10, 000 Botany : Mechanics :.22262----ce ss sah neeneees se 5, 000 Elem parities te cos ccc saee has eet 4,000 || General storage rooms, for cases not in Paleontology : use, duplicates, unelaborated material, Invertebrate: OLONE Sse he oe ase ssieweeeecacses sas 15, 000 TECTIA 1) (ee a ee ae ee 4, 000 | ere | ee Sa oan Se 108, 900 Mico ata se 4, 000 WenOZOie nase ceee ae ee See 4, 000 Tetris (COSSil) pe Veet sce cows lee Leek 2, 000 | WG Ot ee eee ee 6, 000 | | In compliance with the requirements of the sundry civil bill approved March 2, 1889, an examination was made of the National Museum by the Architect of the Capitol for the purpose of estimating the cost of constructing a basement story under that building. The only portion 10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. of such a basement suitable for workshops and storage would be a cel- lar running around the outer walls of the building and extending in- wards 30 feet, so that the rooms thus obtained might have light and air. Provision was also made to floor with tiles all the rooms under which these basements come. ‘The total expense it is thought would be $57,675, but by reason of the peculiar construction of the present building the Architect has expressed the opinion that the work esti- mated for would be one of unusual difficulty, and that a site for a store- house and workshops required might be purchased in the neighborhood of the Museum and a fire-proof building erected thereon for a less sum. The improvement of the Smithsonian building proper has been the subject of careful consideration, more especially the fire-proofing of the west wing, the urgent need of which has aiready been brought to the attention of the Regents. A bill was introduced in the Senate on Jan- uary 15,1890, by Senator Morrill, providing for an appropriation of $45,000 for fire-proofing the roof of the main hall and that of the so- called chapel in the west wing of the Smithsonian building, putting in a sky-light and well hole for lighting the east wing, and making certain changes which would add greatly to the space available for office rooms in that part of the building, as well as adding to the facility with which the large amount of exchange publications could be handled. This work was to be done under the direction of the Architect of the Capitol with the approval of the Regents. The bill passed the Senate on Feb- ruary 10, 1890, and was favorably reported on in the House March 3, 1890. The matterrested here at the close of the year. The temporary wooden building for the protection of instruments for astro-physical investigation, which was referred to as contemplated in “my last report, was begun on November 30, 1885, and was completed about the 1st of March, 1890. This building is of the most inexpensive character, and is simply intended to protect the instruments tempora- rily, though it is also arranged so that certain preliminary work can be done here. Its position however immediately south of the main Smith- sonian building, is not well suited to refined physical investigations on account of its proximity to city streets and its lack of seclusion. The needs of this department are referred to more at length under the fol- lowing head of research. RESEARCH. I take pleasure in reporting that the Institution has been able to do rather more for the encouragement of original research than it has done for several years past. Referring to my two previous reports in regard to the project of Professor Baird for securing an astro-physical observatory and labora- tory, lam able to say that this object has assumed definite shape in the construction of the temporary shed, which has just been mentioned. In this shed there have been built, as the most expensive part of the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 11 structure, a number of brick piers required for the firm support of the delicate apparatus emploved. In connection with the construction of this building, I desire to ex- press my thanks to Col. O. H. Ernst, U.S. Army, in charge of public buildings and grounds, for the supervision rendered by his office of the work of excavating, etc., for the necessary sewer and water connections. The principal instrument consists of a siderostat constructed by Sir Howard Grubb, of Dublin, Ireland, for the Smithsonian Institution, to meet my special requirements. This arrived in March, 1890, and has been mounted and put approximately into position for use. Another impor- tant and novel instrument, a spectro-bolometer, was made under my directions to meet new and unusual demands, and has also been received and put in place. A third piece of apparatus, a special galvanometer, also designed for the particular class of work in view, has been received ; and the only considerable instrument now required to complete the out- fit is a resistance box, which has been ordered and is expected from London before the end of the calendar year. The siderostat is probably the largest and most powerful instrument of its kind ever constructed. The spectro-bolometer is the largest in- strument of its kind, and with this improved apparatus it is hoped that interesting investigations begun several years ago, will be continued. Supplementary to these principal instruments is the Thaw collec- tion of physical apparatus loaned by the executors of the late Will- iam Thaw, of Pittsburgh, and there are a few pieces of apparatus, the personal preperty of the Secretary, so that at the close of the year it might be said that the Institution was in possession of the nucleus of a modern astrophysical laboratory. With this apparatus temporarily mounted, researches have already begun, and one of a scientific and economic character upon “The Cheapest Form of Light” has been the subject of a communication to the National Academy of Sciences. This work is mentioned as indicating my intention to give greater place to one of the chief objects of the Institution, the direct addition to knowl- edge by original research,—which, at least as regards the physical sciences, has received comparatively little attention since the time of Professor Henry. The prospects of renewed contributions to physical science by the Institution in the field of original research are happily now better than for many years past. The late Dr. Jerome H. Kidder, formerly an offi- cer of the U. S. Navy, and later attached to the U.S. Fish Commission and to the Smithsonian Institution, had bequeathed to the Institution, in a will made several years ago, the sum of $10,000 to be employed for biological researches. Dr. Kidder, having become especially interested in the proposed astro-physical observatory, had the intention of trans- ferring this bequest, or at least a portion of it, to such an end, and he even ordered that a codicil giving $5,000 to the Institution for an astro- physical observatory should be added to his will, but he was stricken 12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. with so sudden an illness that he was unable to signit. In view of these circumstances and after careful deliberation upon the matter, the Regents decided to accept as finally and decisively indicative of the wishes of the testator the provisions of this codicil bequeathing $5,000 for the purpose of an astro-physical observatory, and this sum was therefore paid by Dr. Kidder’s executor to the Institution. A further sum of $5,000 was likewise generously presented by Dr. Alexander Graham Bell to the writer individually for the prosecution of the researches in astro-physies, to which he has devoted much of his life, but it has seemed proper to him, under the circumstances, that this sum should be placed to the credit of the Smithsonian Institution upon the same footing as the Kidder bequest, and with the consent of the donor it has been so transferred. I am therefore desirous of here ex- pressing my own personal as well as my official obligation to Dr. Bell for this gift for the increase of knowledge. The initial step for the establishment of an astro-physical observa- tory under the National Government thus having been taken by private individuals, it is hoped that Congress will see fit to place it upon a firm footing and to make a small annual provision for its maintenance. And it seems proper to mention that the field of research to which such a department of the Institution would be devoted has been considered of sufficient importance by the legislators of leading foreign nations to justify the erection of costly special observatories and to provide for their maintenance with a staff of astronomers and physicists of wide reputation. The class of work here specially referred to does not ordinarily in- volve the use of the telescope, and is quite distinct from that carried on at any observatory in thiscountry. It would in no way conflict with the work of the present U. S. Naval Observatory, being in a field of work that the latter has never entered. sriefly stated, the work for which the older Government observa- tories at Greenwich, Paris, Berlin, and Washington were founded, and in which they are for the most part now engaged, is the determination of relative positions of heavenly bodies and of our own place with ref- erence to them. Within the past twenty years, all these Governments but our own have established astro-physical observatories, as they are called, that are engaged in the study of the constitution of the heav- enly bodies as distinguished from their positions; in determining, for example, not so much the position of the sun in the sky as the rela- tion that it bears to the earth and to our own daily wants; how it effects terrestrial climate; and how it may best be studied for the purposes of the meteorologist, and so on; and it is an observatory of the latter kind that the donors just mentioned appear to have bad prominently in view, and which it is proposed to conduct (though on an extremely modest scale) under the auspices of the Institution. In connection with this renewed revival in the line of physical re- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 13 search, I may state that steps have been taken to give effect to certain resolutions expressed at a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science several years ago, in regard to the establish- ment of standard screw threads and standard diameters of tubing for astronomical and physical apparatus. The introduction of such stand- ards in mechanical work of all kinds has proved itself of such great value that its usefulness need not be dwelt upon. As a preliminary step looking to the establishment of this desired uniformity on the part of scientific men, a conference has been had with the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, and it is proposed to invite the co operation of other Government bureaus, and to give effect to their conclusions by ordering and establishing, on behalf of the Institution, recognized standards for the use of scientific instrument makers in all parts of the world. I have here referred to researches in physical science alone, the work of the Institution and of individual members of its staff and others in natural history being given at some length under the head of the Mu- seum. EXPLORATIONS. The work of exploration by the Institution has been carried on through the Bureau of Ethnology and the National Museum, and to the Reports of these departments reference should be made for details. In my report for last year, mention was made of a trip to Africa by Mr. Talcott Williams, and of the interesting results that had been se- cured by him. A valuable collection of specimens that he obtained is still unpacked and a complete description of them can not be given until they have been thoroughly examined. He was fortunate enough to secure five sheets of anextremeiy rare Ber- ber manuscript, made probably in the thirteenth century ; a botanical collection of about three hundred plants, of which all except four or five are phenagamous fossils from a hitherto unexplored region; a valuable collection of ethnographic material from Morocco; villager costumes of men and women, representing both the Berber and mountain vil- lages, and a collection of pottery made with the special design of in- cluding all the wares in ordinary use between Tetuan and Fez. Arti- cles illustrating light, fire, and the industry of comb-making and num- erous household utensils were also secured. It may safely be asserted that this collection, taken as a whole, is one of the most interesting of the kind that the Museum has ever received, and the thanks of the Smithsonian Institution are due Mr. Williams for the manner in which he has accomplished his mission. Mr. W. W. Rockhill, whose explorations in Thibet were also referred to in my last report, has spent a large part of the year in Washington, engaged in preparing an account of his remarkable travels, and he has loaned to the Museum, in addition to his large and almost unique col- lection of Thibetan material, a most valuable lot of cloisonnés, bronzes, and carved lacquers collected during his residence iu Pekin. 14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. I may also mention here collections of unusual interest and value, made by Dr, W. A. Abbott, in the region of Mount Kilémanjaro, avd of those by Mr. William Harvey Brown, of the National Museum, while attached to the United States Eclipse Expedition to the west coast of Africa, under the auspices of the Navy Department. Grate- ful acknowledgments are due Dr. W. H. Rusb, U. S. Navy; Mr. J. P. Iddings, U. 8S. Geological Survey; Mr. E. M. Aaron, of the American Entomological Society; Mr. C. R. Orcutt, of San Diego, Cal., from whom specimens secured in their travels have been received or are expected. Mr. Henry W. Elliott, who is now visiting the Seal Islands of Alaska on United States Government business, is expected to secure for the Mu- seum specimens of fur-seal, fishes, and other zoological material. In the Bureau of Ethnology I would refer to the mound explorations that have been conducted under the immediate superintendence of Prof, Cyrus Thomas, by Mr. H. L. Reynolds, Mr. J. D. Middleton, and Mr. James Mooney; and to the general field work, chiefly among the Indian tribes, of Mr. W.H. Holmes, Dr. W.J. Hoffman, Mr. Victor Mindeleff, Mr. James Mooney, Mr. Jeremiah Curtin, Mr. J. W. B. Hewitt, and Mrs. T. E. Stevenson. PUBLICATIONS. With regard to the character of the works issued by the Institution during the past year, little is to be added to the general statements made in my last report. In each of the three classes of Smithsonian publica- tions, to wit, I, The Contributions to Knowledge; II, The Miscellaneous Collections; and III, The Annual Reports, about the same amount of productiveness has been maintained. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—An original memoir by Prof. Alpheus Hyatt on the “‘ Genesis of the Arietide,” illustrated with numer- ous plates, has been published during the year, and this has permitted the completion of the long-delayed twenty-sixth volume of the quarto series. Two other memoirs, relating to the solar corona, have been pub- lished in the same quarto form, but will not probably be included in the volumes of the * Contributions.” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.—W hile the number of separate titles under this class has been considerable, many of them are the separate issues of articles contributed at the expense of the Institution to the Annual Reports. It is in contemplation to devote a larger space in the ** Collections” than of late to publications connected with the physical seiences ; in which direction may be mentioned as one of the more important issues of the year, an ‘ Index to the Literature of Ther- modynamies,” by Mr. Alfred Tuckerman. The demand for copies of the exhausted fourth edition of Guyot’s Meteorological and Physical Tables, published in 1884, has been deemed sufficient to warrant the revision of the work and the issue of a new edition, which has been for several years under consideration. After obtaiving the views of prominent me- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. #5 teorologists the work was placed in the hands of Prof. William Libbey, jr., of Princeton, New Jersey, with the expectation that the new edi- tion will be ready for the printer during the coming year. Among the publications of this series mention may be made of the tenth “ Toner Lecture,” by Dr. Harrison Allen, on “ A Clinical Study of the Skull.” A revised catalogue and index of all the Smithsonian publications to the middle of 1886, occupying 385 pages, prepared by Mr. William J. Rhees, the chief clerk, has also been published. No completed volume of the Miscellaneous Collections has been issued within the year. Smithsonian Annual Reports.—The annual report of the Regents to Congress for the year ending June 30, 1887, in two parts or volumes, has been received from the Public Printer and has been widely dis- tributed. The annual report for the succeeding year, 1888, although printed, has not yet been received ; but is daily expected. A detailed account of the several publications of the Smithsonian Institution for the year, under each class, will be given in the Appendix. Other publications.—The publications of the National Museum com- ' prise the “ Proceedings of the National Museum” and the *“ Bulletins of the National Museum,” and are maintained by an appropriation an- nually made by Congress. As stated in my last report, ‘ It has been decided to hereafter omit these publications from the series” of Miscel- laneous Collections issued by the Institution.* Of the publications of the Bureau of Ethnology the sixth annual report has been issued dur- ing the year. The edition of Swan’s paper on “The Indians of Cape Flattery” having become exhausted, a new edition of 250 copies has been printed. The Anuual Report of the American Historical Association, which by the act of incorporation the Secretary of the Institution is directed to communicate to Congress, has been printed as Senate Miscellaneous Document No. 170. In October, 1859, final arrangements were made with Prof. Edward D. Cope, whereby it is expected that his important work upon *“ Rep- tilia,” undertaken several years ago at the request of the Secretary, will be ready for the printer by the end of December, 1890. Except in the case of the Annual Reports, the publications of the In- stitution are generally issued with satisfactory promptness. The An- nual Reports, which have been for some years so seriously behindhand as to materially affect the value of the reviews upon scientific progress, are, it is hoped, to be brought up to date during the coming year. To avoid any possible delay on account of lack of legislation, the at- tention of the chairman of the Committee on Printing of the United States Senate has been called to the desirability of having the bill pro- *A full account of these productions will be given in the second part of the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1839-90. 16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. viding for the printing of the Annual Reports so worded as to allow for the printing of future reports without special legislation each year, at the some time increasing the number of copies to 19,000. An act of Congress in the following terms would probably accomplish all that is desired : That there be printed of the Reports of the Smithsonian Institu- tion and of the National Museum, for the years ending June thirty, eighteen hundred and eighty-eight, and June thirty, eighteen bun- dred and eighty-nine, and annually thereafter, in two octavo volumes for each year, nineteen thousand extra copies, of which three thousand shall be for the use of the Senate, six thousand for the House of Rep- resentatives, and ten thousand for the Smithsonian Institution. THE SMITHSONIAN INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE. At a meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution on January 8, 1890, it was— Resolved, That the Regents instruct the Secretary to ask of Congress legislation for the repayment to the Institution of the amount advanced from the Smithsonian fund for Governmental service in carrying on the exchanges. In connection with this resolution the following outline of the history of the exchanges is important: Under the act of Congress accepting a donation from James Smith- son “for the increase and diffusion of knowedge among men,” and ‘ giving effect to this trust by the foundation of the Smithsonian Insti- © tution, the Board of Regents in 1851 established a system of interna- tional exchanges of the transactions of learned societies and like works ; but, in addition to such publications, it voluntarily transported between 1851 and 1867 somewhat over 20,000 packages of publications of the bureaus of the National Government at an estimated cost to the pri- vate funds of. the Institution of about $8,000. This, however, was understood to be a voluntary service, and no request for its re imburse_ ment has been made or is contemplated. Congress, however, in 1867, by its act of March 2, imposed upon the Institution the duty of exchanging fifty copies of alldocuments printed by order of either House of Congress, or by the United States Govern- ment bureaus, for similar works published in foreign countries, and especially by foreign Governments. The Institution possessed special facilities and experience for such work, the propriety of its undertaking which, in the interests of the Government, is evident; but it was hardly to have been anticipated that the Government should direct this purely administrative service aud make no appropriation for its support. Such, however, was the case, and with the exception of a small (presently to be noted) sum, returned by some bureaus, it was almost entirely maintained during the next thirteen years, or until the first appropriation to the Institu- tion for exchanges in 1881, at the expense of the private fund of James Smithson. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. FZ From January 1, 1868, to June 30, 1886, 292,483 packages contain- ing these official Government publications, having little to do with the object to which Congress devoted the Institution’s private funds were transported by the Exchange Bureau at a pro rata cost of $92,943.36 of which $29,706.85 accrued between 1881, when the first specific appropriation was made, and 1886. Of this $92,943.36 $19,302.35 was returned from various Departments and bureaus, leaving a balance of $73,641.01 expended in carrying exclusively Governmental publica- tions. What has preceded refers to the transportation of official documents, and not to that of transactions of learnéd societies and other like works; but it is now necessary to mention that in 1878 the honorable the Sec- retary of State designated the Smithsonian Institution as the special agent for the United States Government for carrying out the provisions of an international convention at Paris, which made the respective Governments assume the cost, not only of the transportation of official documents, but of scientific and literary publications, between the states interested, and it would seem that Congress itself adopted this view of its responsibility, for from July 1, 1881, to June 30, 1886, while the Congressional and bureaucratic exchange represented a pro rata cost of $29,706.85 and the scientific publications $39,034.90, Congress ap- propriated directly $35,500, somewhat more than the cost of the Govern- ment exchange, but leaving a balance of $3,534.90 for scientific and literary exchanges unpaid. This latter sum, $3,534.90, added to the 73,641.01 mentioned above, makes a total of $77,175.91, for which, in equity, repayment might be requested. In 1886, on the 15th of March, plenipotentiaries of the United States and various other nationalities signed a convention more formal than that at Paris, by which the respective Governments definitely assumed the exchange of official documents and scientific and literary publica- tions between the states interested. Adopting, then, the year 1886, rather than the earlier date, 1881 (though, as mentioned in the report, equity would seem to allow the Institution the entire sum expended in exchanges, at least since its official recognition by Congress in 1881 as the Government exchange agent), it appears upon deducting the amount appropriated by Con- gress, $35,500, from the balance shown in the preceding paragraph, $73,641.01, that we have $38,141.01 as the amount due the private fund of James Smithson from 1868 to 1886. ‘ ~ Considering separately the period from Jnly 1, 1886, to June 30, 1889, we find that theamount expended in these years under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution on account of international exchanges was $47,126.56; of this sum $37,000° was paid by Congressional appropria- tions, $3,091.75 were paid by Government departments and others, and the balance, $7,034.81, by the Smithsonian Institution. To recapitulate briefly it appears, then, that the following sums lave ‘H. Mis, 129 2 18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. been expended from the Smithsonian funds for the support of the inter- national exchange system in the interests and by the authority of the National Government, namely, $38,141.01 in excess of appropriations advanced from Jauuary 1, 1868, to June 30, 1886, for the exchange of official Government documents, and $7,034.81 in excess of appropriations from July 1, 1886, to June 30, 1889, advanced for the purpose of carry- ing out a convention entered into by the United States, or an aggregate of $45,175.82, A memorandum setting forth the above facts and requesting that steps be taken to procure the return to the Smithsonian fund by Con- gress of the sum last mentioned ($45,175.82) was transmitted on the 20th of May, 1890, to the Hon. Benjamin Butterworth, of the Board of Regents, to be laid by the latter before Congress in due form. The exchange work has shown the usual increase, no less than 82,572 packages having been handled during the year, or 6,606 more than during the year immediately preceding. The number of societies and individuals for which exchange accounts are kept is now 16,002. The actual cost of the exchanges for the fiscal year, taking in ac- count bills rendered and moneys received up to September 21, 1890, for services rendered between July 1, 1889, and June 30, 1890, was $17,401.23. Of this sum $15,000 were appropriated directly by Con- gress, $1,986.14 were repaid by several Government bureaus to which appropriations had been made for the purpose, $28.40 was received from State institutions and other sources, leaving a deficiency of $386.69, which was paid from the Smithsonian fund. In my report for last year I had the honor to submit detailed esti- mates showing the necessity of larger appropriations by Congress if the Exchange Bureau is to be placed upon a satisfactory footing. The chief increase in outlay would be to secure a more prompt service and to increase the number of exchanges that are received for the Li- brary of Congress, in return for the Government exchanges sent abroad. Itis probable that the number of the latter would be largely increased if special efforts were made to that end. An improvement in the promptness of transmission to Europe has taken place within the last few years, but packages are still unduly de- layed by reason of the fact that we are not able to pay for rapid trans- mission. The exchange boxes go by slow freight and we are in most instances dependent upon the courtesy of the steam-ship companies for free freight. The greater number of the publications now transmitted are for the benefit of the Government and it seems unjust to continue to make use of such privileges originally granted in the interests of of science. The entire sum asked forewas $27,500. Our exchange relations with foreign Governments have undergone no material change on account of the treaty at Brussels proclaimed January 15, 1889, to which allusion has been made in previous reports. iu order to carry out in good faith, as far as our own country is con- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 cerned, the convention relating to the immediate exchange of parlia- mentary journals, a communication was directed to the honorable the Secretary of State under date of December 12, 1889, stating the neces- sity of procuring from Congress an appropriation of about $2,000 to meet the expenses of transmitting abroad copies of the Congressional Record and other published documents pertaining to the daily routine of Con- gress; and a joint resolution introduced at the instance of the honorable the Secretary of State was promptly passed by the Senate, appropriating the sum named, $2,000. I regret, however, that at the close of the fiscal year no action had been taken in the matter by the House of Repre- sentatives, and in consequence no attempt has been made to give effect to the treaty. Tables showing in detail the transactions of the year will be found in the report of the curator of exchanges appended hereto. The progress of work on the new exchange list is mentioned under the head of the library. LIBRARY. The accessions to the library have been recorded and eared for as dur- ing the last fiscal year. The following statement shows the number of books, maps, aud charts received from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890: Octavo | Quarto or or Total. smaller. | larger. ‘Waite oe ee oe eee eee AeA SES Aas Se eR 1, 236 | 527 1, 763 SPEnths. Gi (OMNIS) Soee55 sense den ceecosS6o donee oe SSnnoScCEecseHoaeas 5, 202 | 8, 256 13, 458 TEOTIGUS 256cehecben JeSn6o S560 0Sn 0b pb SOREN OS AG uEO SACS ROOsE SUE HSeee 3, 776 | 554 | 4, 330 WUDIDD Scancsarssonseteoas cosy cotds docstoc JS ciueseeseees sa ost Seo sosebee Ae seSosliseeassgSe 636 TGiHll -se et Steed Sa5 Lateat Sa SSeS acne Oee EE CAGE Aer eee Bene SABE Spel Pe ecseec 55) ea boos coc 20, 187 Of these accessions, 8,695 (namely, 785 volumes, 6,900 parts of volumes, and 1,010 pamphlets) were retained for use at the National Museum library, and 1,059 medical dissertations were deposited in the library of the Surgeon-General, U.S. Army; the remainder were promptly sent to the Library of Congress on the Monday following their receipt. The reading room is now almost filled with periodicals. There are at present displayed the current volumes of 468 journals. The con- struction of shelves above the cases in the reading room has rendered it practicable to withdraw from the Smithsonian deposit in the Library of Congress the complete series of the large quarto Transactions or Memoirs of most of the great European academies; the Librarian of Congress kindly viving every facility for this transfer.* *The publications now deposited in the reading-room are as follows: The ‘‘ Hand- lingar” of the Royal Swedish Academy; Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin- burgh; Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy; “Skrifter” of the Royal Danish Society of Sciences; “ Denkschritten” of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Vienna; Memoirs of the St. Petersburg Academy; ‘‘ Atti” of the two Academies of the Lincei at Rome, the royal and the pontitical; Noya Acta Academiw Cwsarea Leopoldino- 20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. In my last report, I referred to the commencement of the work of increasing the library by exchanges. This work has now been carried on for a year with fairly promising results. The labor of assigning the different journals recommended as desira- ble to the four classes mentioned in my last report—namely, (1) journals which receive no Smithsonian publications, and which are not to be found in the library of the Institution; (2) journals which receive Smithsonian publications, but which make either no return or an inad- equate return for these; (3) journals which regularly exchange with the Institution, but of which the files in the library are for any reason defective; (4) journals which regularly exchange with the Institution, and of which the library possesses a complete file—occupied the time until January 18, 1890. The writing of letters asking for exchange or calling attention to deficiencies was then commenced systematically. Up to the close of the fiscal year, 1,601 such letters had been written. In response to these letters, 201 new exchanges were received and 360 defective series were completed, either wholly or as far as the missing parts were still in print. A list of the new exchanges is presented in the Appendix (Report of the Librarian) where will also be found a list of the most important accessions outside of the regular serials. The work of re-organization of the library under the regulations which I had prepared upon my appointment as Assistant Secretary, and de- scribed at some length in my report for the years 1887—88, has been efficiently carried out by the librarian, Mr. Murdoch. I may also men- tion that a plan is under consideration for the further extension of the usefulness of the library, by establishing as a part of it a collection of books on general literature for the use of the employés of the Institu- tion and its dependencies, although in its present location its growth is impeded for lack of room, owing to the pressing demands of the Gov- ernment business in the Exchange Bureau. MISCELLANEOUS, Statue of Professor Baird.—I desire to call the attention of the Re- gents to the fact that the bill introduced in the Senate and passed by that body on February 10, 1888, making an appropriation for the erec- tion of a bronze statue in recognition of the distinguished services to the country of the late Professor Baird, has failed to reach final action by Congress. I earnestly hope that steps will be taken to secure for this measure the attention it merits, and I continue to give it my per- sonal care. Grants in aid of the physical sciences—In accordance with an early established precedent, though one of late in disuse, some small grants, Carolinw Germanice Natur:e Curiosorum; ‘ Abhandlungen ” of the Berlin Academy; “‘Nova Acta” of the Academy of Upsala. In addition to these the Philosophical lransactions of the Royal Society, and the ‘‘Comptes-Rendus” of the French Aca- demy of Sciences have been deposited in the office of the editor. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21 ‘from the Smithonian fund, commensurate rather with the abilities of the Institution than with its wishes, have been made this year to aid in physical science in addition to the aid so largely given to bioloigeal and ethnological science through the Museum, Bureau of Ethnology, and Zoological Park. The subscription of twenty copies of the Astronomical Journal, which are distributed abroad as exchanges of the Institution, has been continued. To the Lick Observatory, through its director, Professor Holden, a small grant has been made for the purchase of photographie plates and apparatus to be used in securing photographs of the moon, and es- pecially of certain regions on a large scaie, the results of the work be- ing available for publication by the Institution. Aid has also been promised Prof. Albert A. Michelson, of Clark University, Worcester, Mass., in his important investigations for the determination of a standard of length that shall depend upon the length of a wave of light. A small grant has been made to Mr. F. A. Seely, of the United States Patent Office, for the purchase of certain objects of archeological in- terest, during the course of a contemplated journey in Spain. Assignment of rooms for scientific work.—A room in the basement, which is specially suited for delicate physical measurements, on account of its freedom from tremor, has been continued at the disposal of the U.5. Coast and Geodetic Survey for pendulum experiments, and two office rooms have also been assigned to the temporary use of the Zoological Park Commission. The Regents’ room, in the south tower, was granted for a meeting of the American members of the committee on the “ International Standards for Iron and Steel” on February 19, 1899. Facilities for study in the Museum have been accorded to a number of students, as stated in describing the Museum work, and under special conditions instruction has been given in taxidermy and photography. The lecture hall in the Museum has been used by authority of the Exec- utive Committee for the meetings of the National Academy and other scientific organizations and for the Saturday lecture courses. Toner lecture fund.—This fund, which hasan estimated value of about $3,000, is in the care of a board of trustees, of which the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution is ex officio chairman. No lecture has been delivered this year under the auspices of this fund. The lecture de- livered by Dr. Harrison Allen, on May 29, 1889, on the “Clinical Study of the Skull,” has been printed. American Historical Association.—A bill to incorporate the Ameri- cau Historical Association, which provided that the Association should report annually to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and that the Secretary should communicate to Congress the whole of such re- ports, or such portion thereof as he might see fit, finally became a iaw on January 4, 1889. 22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. In December, 1889, the annual meeting of the Association took place in Washington, the morning session being held in the lecture hall of the National Museum and the evening session in the Columbian Univer- ity. The proceedings of this meeting are printed in the annual report of the association, which, in accordance with the provisions cited above, was submitted to me on January 14, 1890, and on June 18 was commnu- nicated to Congress and ordered to be printed as Senate Miscellaneous Document No. 170. This report included, in addition to the proceed- ings of the annual meeting, a number of historical papers of a high order. The provision by which the Regents are authorized to permit the deposit of the collections, manuscripts, books, pamphlets, and other historical material of the Association, has been met as well as our pres- ent accommodations will admit, and in making an estimate for repairs to the Smithsonian buildings arrangements were made for a suitable and safe place in which such valuable records might be stored. Bureau of fine arts —The desirability of having in connection with the Government a suitable depository of works of art has presented itself so forcibly to Members of Congress, and without suggestion on the part of the Regents, that a bill was introduced in the Senate by the Hon. Wilkinson Call, on December 4, 1889, providing for the establish- ment of a bureau of fine arts in the Smithsonian Institution. This was referred to the Committee on the Library, but has not been reported. The wording of the bill is as follows: Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there be, and is hereby, created in the Smithsonian Institution a bureau called the Bureau of the Fine Arts, the management of which is entrusted to the See- retary of the Smithsonian Institution. Sec. 2. That the purpose and duties of this bureau shall be to aid in the development of the fine arts in the several States and Territories of the United States, by the re-produetion, for the use of art schools and academies, of casts of statuary and other objects used in giving instrue- tion in art; by preparing and distributing plans for the construction of buildings and the adaptation of rooms suitable for use as art schools, with printed plans for the organization of various grades of art acad- emies and classes; by causing to be held annually in Washington, Dis- trict of Columbia, a public exhibition of works of art, open to all desir- ing to exhibit, in which the fairest possible opportuuvity for exposition shall be afforded all contributors; and by the publication of an annual register containing an account of new discoveries, inventions and meth- ods of instruction useful to students of art, together with a report of the progress of the fine arts in the United States. Sec. 3. That the re-productions and publications of the bureau shall be distributed among institutions of art, under such regulations as the Secreti wid of the Smithsonian Institution may establish. ‘Serco. 4. That the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution’ shall pro- vide suits able quarters for the holding of the annual art exhibition. — Seo. 5. That for the purpose of carrying on the operations of this bureau there be and is hereby appropriated, for the fiscal year begin- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23 hing July 1st, eighteen hundred and eighty- , the sum of dollars, to be paid by the Secretary of the Treasury out of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Capron collection of Japanese works of art.—A_ bill appropriating $14,675, introduced by the Hon. Daniel W. Voorhees on December 4, 1889, was referred to the Committee on the Library, was reported favor- ably, and passed the Senate on March 29, 1890. It was also, on May 19, 1890, reported favorably by the House Committee, but was not reached on the calendar at the close of the year. The World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1892.—The act of Con. gress approved April 25, 1890, which provides for celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, by holding an international exhibition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the product of the soil, mine, and sea in the city of Chicago, states in section 16: That there shall be exhibited at said exposition by the Government of the United States, from its Executive Departments, the Smithsonian Institution, the United States Fish Commission, and the National Museum, such articles and materials as illustrate the function and administrative faculty of the Government in time of peace and its resources as a war power, tending to demonstrate the nature of our insti- tutions and their adaptation to the wants of the people; and to secure a complete and harmonious arrangement of such a Government ex- hibit, a board shall be created to be charged with the selection, prep- aration, arrangement, safe-keeping, and exhibition of such articles and materials as the heads of the several Departments and the diree- tors of the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum may respect- ively decide shall be embraced in said Government exhibit. The Pres. ident may also designate additional articles for exhibition. Such board shall be composed of one person to be named by the bead of each Executive Department, and one by the directors of the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum, and one by the Fish Commission, such selection to be approved by the President of the United States. The President shall name the chairman of said board, and the board itself shall select such other officers as it may deem necessary. Under the authority conveyed by this act I have designated as the representative upon this board of the Smithsonian Institution and Na- tional Museum, the assistant seeretary of the Institution, Dr. G. Brown Goode, who has already devoted considerable time to the subject of the proposed exposition in addition to his other official duties. In connection with this requirement that an exhibit shall be made by the National Museum, I beg leave to recur to the fact that it has been the experience in connection with previous expositions on a smaller ‘Scale, that the routine work of the Institution is seriously interfered with by thus throwing upon its regular employés the great burden in- volved in the preparation, packing, and displaying of Museum mate- wial without adequate assistance by an increased appropriation during this time of unusual effort. The impairment of specimens by frequent transportation should also be borne in mind, and in justice to our per- 24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. manent exhibits provision should be made for repairing any damage incurred. Stereotype plates.—All the stereotype plates belonging to the Institu- tion are now stored in the basement of the building, and some progress has been made in examining, re-arranging, and where the boxes have become worn out, in re-packing plates. Owing to the limited amount of time that can be devoted to this work, however, it will be some months before they can be put in a thoroughly satisfactory condition for ready reference. A request from Messrs. Lee & Shepard, of Boston, for the use of plates from Professor Hyatt’s ‘Genesis of the Arietidz” has been cheer- fully complied with. Correspondence.—I have given much attention to the improvement of the methods of handling the correspondence of the Institution, which is constantly growing and has already assumed very considerable propor- tions. A simple but effective means of recording letters, showing at a glance, what letters remain unanswered each week, has been intro- duced, and as a result few letters remain long without reply. It should be borne in mind, however, that the character of the cor- respondence, except such as relates to business routine, is quite differ- ent from that of Government bureaus. Constant inquiries are made from all parts of the country for information on almost every conceiva- ble topic, and requests for statistics and for information on the most varying scientific subjects. It is intended that all of these inquiries should receive acknowledgment, and,wherever possible, that the infor- mation desired should be sent, thoughin many eases itrequiresan amount of time and labor on the part of curators and other officers of the Insti- tution wholly out of proportion to the merits of the case. As properly coming under the head of “ diffusion of knowledge,” it does not seem proper to neglect such inquiries, and it is intended to give encouragement and advice wherever possible to all interested in the ob- jects of the Institution. The course taken by an incoming letter is now as follows: The mail is opened each morning in the chief clerk’s office, and all letters addressed to the secretary or the Institution, with the exception of those on printed forms, purely routine matters, and applications for Museum publications, are placed on the secretary’s desk at 10 o’clock, together with letters for signature. Having been acted upon, the date stamp of the secretary’s office is affixed to each communication and the letter is then returned to the chief clerk’s office. Should the secretary have written in his own hand the name of any em- ployé or officer of the Institution upon a letter, such action means that the letter is to be referred to the person named, who is expected fo prepare a reply thereto for the secretary’s signature. The one exception to this rule is whenthe secretary refers a letter to the assistant secretary, who exercises his discretion as to whether the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 letter should be answered at all or not, and if so, whether he or the secretary should sign the reply. In case no comment has been made by the secretary, the disposition of the letters is left to the chief clerk, who assigns them to the officers or clerks having in charge the matter treated of. The letters are then sent to the registry clerk, who affixes the registry number and records the letter in a book suitably ruled with the following columns: 1. Registry number of letter. 7. By whom referred. 2. Name of writer. 8. When referred. 3. Address. 9. Date of answer, or indication no an- 4. When written. swer required. 5. When received. 10. Synopsis of contents. 6. To whom referred. A special form is sent with letters referred to the Museum, by means of which an accurate record of the disposition of the letter may be kept, and a similar form is used for letters referred to employés of the Smith- sonian Institution proper. The object of this system is, as above stated, to insure that each let- ter requiring an answer Shall receive it with all attainable promptness, or that a record shall be made of the fact that no answer is required, and, as a rule, it is believed that letters are now being answered on the day after receipt, except in the case of the somewhat numerous class referred to, upon which the report of an expert is first necessary. In the latter case, a limit of six days has been fixed upon from the date of receipt in which to answer ordinary routine letters. A report is rendered each week of the letters that are then unanswered. This system, while entailing some additional labor, appears to be fully justified by the results. Representative relations.—In response to an invitation from Dr. Henry Schliemann, forwarded through the Department of State, to designate a representative of the Smithsonian Institution to participate in an International Conference, held on the ruins of ancient Troy during the latter part of March, 1890, Dr. Charles Waldstein, director of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, was requested to act as representative of the Institution, and he has most kindly complied with this request, transmitting an interesting report of the proceed- ings of the Conference. Prof. H. Carrington Bolton courteously represented the Institution at the installation of Dr. Low as president of Columbia College, New York, on February 3, 1890. Prof. Otis T. Mason was appointed as the representative of the Insti- tution upon a joint board composed of delegates from different bureaus of the Government interested in the subject to consider and decide questions of geographical orthography and nomenclature. This board met for organization at the office of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey on the 18th of March, and its work is one 26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. that has already proved to be of great value to the Government and to others interested in geographical matters. I take oceasion to express to the Director of the Mint, the Hon. E, O. Leech, my acknowledgments for bis kindness in having prepared an intaglio head of the late Professor Henry for certain official correspond- ence,—an excellent work of art. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. The operations of the National Museum are fully described in the separate Report of the Assistant Secretary, in which are included (1) the report of the Assistant Secretary in charge of the Museum ; (2) the reports of the curators of the scientific departments of the Muse- um; (3) special papers based upon and illustrative of collections in the Museum ; (4) bibliography of the publications of the Museum and of papers published by Museum officers and other collaborators; (5) a list of the accessions to the Museum during the year. Increase of the Museum collections.—A small number of specimens were purchased during the year. The necessity of expending a considerable sum of money in the purchase of new material becomes every year more apparent. The donations of friends of the Museum are to a large ex- tent miscellaneous in character, and they frequently duplicate, rather than enlarge and complete, the various series of objects already in the collections. The Museum has now reached a point Where the complete presentation of subjects by means of full suites of specimens is of the highest importance, and this can be accomplished only by purchase. The increase in the number of accessions during the year has been less than in the preceding year by nearly 200 numbers. This is not surprising, since no special efforts have been made to secure new material, excepting in certain directions, in which the completion of special series of objects was desired, in view of the crowded condition of both the storage and exhibition space. This matter has repeatedly been referred to in the more recent reports of the Institution and of the Museum, and efforts have been made to obtain an appropriation from Congress for the construction of a new Museum building. The Senate has acted favorably in regard to the matter, but its action has not received the support of the House of Representatives. The contributions during the year, although less in number than in the previous year, are, taken as a whole, equal in importance. Espe- cially is this true in the case of material acquired from foreign countries, and of collections received through the assistance of the Departments and Bureaus of the Government. The extent and character of the accessions during the year and each year since 1881 is shown in the appended table. The total uamber of specimens received during the year covered by this report is estimated at 81,992. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 21 Name of department. 1882. 1883. 1884. |11885~’86.| 1886—-'87. | 1887-’88. | 1888-89. | 2188990. Arts and industries: | | Materia medica .......|.--..-- | 4,000! 4,442] 4,850| 5,516] 5,762| 5,942| 25,915 Tina Sah pone eete senna Baeerene 1,244} 1,580 822 877 877 911 1,111 Textiles ..-.....--...-.|--------|-------: 2, 000 3, 063 3, 144 3, 144 3, 222 3, 288 DAY KISS = sebeeocl| eeoooool|scsonose 5, 000 9, 870 10, 078 10, 078 10, 078 10, 080 Animal products. .-.--.|--------|-------- 1, 000 2, 792 2, 822 2, 822 2, 948 2, 949 Graphic arts..-...-----|--------|+--- +22]... cc. ele eee eee [ene cena e [eens eens | -2e-- ee: 4600 Transportation and en- . gineering .-..-.------|------+-]--------|.2 2222 e eee] ene eee ee feet eee fee eee eee] eee eee 4], 250 Naval architecture .-.-..|----.--.]-------- iNllaasesseaclscosacboullseoteece 600 5600 Historicalirelics) 422. -|/-=-22 eli -- sso be eee oe 1, 002 |} Coins, medals, paper \ 13,634 |] 14,640 14,990 20, 890 NOMENA GUO Caoeae sacs) || ocr oon HUG comn| (ae se ata 1,005 J Musical instruments ..|----.--.|--------|.....2..2. 400 417 427 | 427 447 Modern pottery, por- | celain, and bronzes. -.|-------.]----+---|....-...-. 2, 278 2, 238 3, 011 3, 011 3, 132 Rainispandidy estpeeeee ase. |o= ap ame eee 17 100 100 | 109 197 “The Catlin Gallery” .| ---.--.]------=-) ......... 500 500 500 500 | (6) Physical apparatus ....|------+--|--------|.......--. 250 251 251 251 | 263 Qils ‘and gums ...-..--.|-----.-.|------=.|....-- es 197 198 198 | 213 Chemical’ products... -.|-<-----.]-------|........-- 659 661 661 688 ; he IDG ESO Ey Eeemeal cooccod Be ass en Seenminee = alle ene | ee ana RAP eee cprc | 66 THC OAy. oc e esa aseueced |parhodna|lsendsass 200, 000 | 500,000 | 503,764 | 505,464 | 506,324 508, 830 American aboriginal pot- | | | | SISA 5 Saas See Bee eae 12,000 | 25,000 | 26,022 | 27,122] 28,222 29, 269 Oxentall anbiquitiesss er 26 (seer ere | eeee aan beens gl ee eae Pace | camer | 850 | 3, 485 Prehistoric anthropology -.| 35, 512 | 40, 491 45, 252 | 65,314 | 101,659 108, 631 | 116, 472 | 123, 677 Mammals (skins and alco- | | ‘Veet eae Sees | 4,660; 4,920 5,694 | 7,451) 7,811] 8,058) 8,275) 8, 836 Diniiee seats eee noes 44,354 | 47,046 | 50,350 | 55,945 | 54,987 | 56,484 | 57,974 | 60, 219 Birds’ ergs and nests --.---|--------|..-..... 40,072 | 44,163 | 48,173 | 50,055 | 50,173 51, 241 Reptiles and batrachians ..|.--. -- |......-. 23,495 | 25,344 | 27,542 | 27,664 | 28,405 29, 050 Te STS ae nae eng 50,000 | 65,000 | 68,000 | 75,000 | 100, 000 | 101,350 | 107,350 122, 575 W aigimanG esi) 442 6s Sen||Seeco S54 hoondad Ha Seee Shen eacorscealesoras se dagoo se S5q|loencenane | 7512 Mp ISIS ee os see neie'sce Bayo TON |e crayeerere 400, 000 | 460,000 425, 000 | 455,000 | 468,000 | 471, 500 Tinie ee ee RAN || pce aeee 151, 000 | 500, 000 585, 000 | 595,000 | 603,000 618, 000 Marine invertebrates ....--. 11,781 | 14,825 | 200,000 | 350,000 | 450,000 | 515, 000 | 515, 300 | 520, 000 Comparative anatomy: Dateclosyca-eities*2- Be mesa PAO a Aa * 10, 210 | 31,022 | 11,558 | 11,753| 12, 326 ANEW? Seek ooeescenne 70 103 3. 000 | Paleozoic fossils. ........-.|.------. 20, 000 73,000 | 80,482 | 84,491 | 84,649 | 91, 126 92, 355 IMGEROZOICMOSSILS mcs eerie selsiocia seein = are 100,000 | 69,742 | 70,775 | 70,925 | 71, 236 71, 305 1 No census of collection taken. 2The actual increase in the collections during the year 1889-90 is much greater than appears from a comparison of the totals for 1889 and for 1890. This is explained by the apparent absence of any increase in the Departments of Lithology and Metallurgy, the total for 1890 in both of these depart ments combined showing a decrease of 46,314 specimens, owing to the rejection of worthless material. 3 Although about two hundred specimens have been received during the year, the total number of specimens in the collection is now less than that estimated for 1889, owing to the rejection of worth- less material. 4The collection now contains between 3,000 and 4,000 specimens. 5 No estimate of increase made in 1890, 6 Ineluded in the historical collection. 7 Only a small portion of the collection represented by this number was received during the year 1889-'90. 28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Name of department. | 1882. | 1883. | 1884. | 1885-86. 1886-'87. | 1887-'88. | 1888-89. 1889-'90. Cenozoic fossils........-.-- (Included with mollusks.) } iieet IBN staan ic. Lea 4, 624 7,291 | 7,429] 8, 462 | 10,000 | 10,178 10, 507 eacent plantats.<....4..% 25). -scnces|es ender Jeseeee--- 30, 000 32,000 | 38, 000 38, 459 39, 654 MUNOYUIA: cast seee anes Cadresia. neem 14,550 | = 16,610 18, 401 18,601 | 21,896 | 27, 690 | 37, 101 Lithology and physical ge- DIOR Y) -nsn>- Fe Ae 9,075 | 12,500 | 18,000 20, 647 21, 500 22, 500 27, 000 Metallurgy and economic | | 232, 762 PRULOUT Seca os ornare Hs 30,000 | 40,000 | 48,000 | 49,000 | 51,412 | 52,076 TAVIN ANIMAIBS =~ ams 0 - sal oom see =. oe en ee eee ete ale ann a 220 94915). Soe teen Mtg eek 1193, 362 263, 143 1, 472, 600 |2,420,944 2,666,335 |2,803,459 [2,864,244 | 2, 895, 104 ! These numbers have reference ouly to speeimens received through the Museum, and do not include specimens received for the National Herbarium through the Department of Agriculture. 2 Collections combined in October, 1889, under Department of Geology. The apparent decrease of more than 50 per cent. of the estimated total for 1889 is accounted for (1) by the rejection of several thousands of specimens from the collection, and (2) by the fact that no estimate of the specimens in the reserve and duplicate series is included. Of the total fur 1890, about 16,000 specimens consist chiefly of petrographical material stored away for study and comparison in the drawers of table cases. 3 Transferred to the National Zoological Park. Catalogue entries.—The number of entries made in the catalogue of the several departments of the Museum during the year is 28,293. The number of boxes and packages recorded by the registrar as having been received during the year, and entered upon the transportation record of the Smithsonian Institution, is 52,079. Of this number 827 contained specimens for the Museum. Although the total number of packages received is more than three times as great as that for last year, the number of packages containing specimens for the Museum is only a little more than one-third of the number received during 1889. Co-operation of the Departments of Government.—The friendly interest displayed in the work of the National Museum by officers of the De- partments of the Government has been continued. In no previous year has the Museum had occasion to acknowledge more gratefully the cour. teous assistance rendered by the Secretaries of the Departments and the chiefs of many of the Bureaus. Through the medium of the Department of State, several United States ministers and consuls have brought their influence to bear in obtaining for the Museum representations of the fauna and flora of the regions in which they are residing. The Secretary of the Treasury has extended the usual courtesies in connection with the free entry of specimens. Special facilities have been afforded in connection with the visit of Mr. Henry W. Elliott to the Seal Islands of Alaska, which, it is hoped, will result in the addition of several specimens of fur-seal, fishes, and other natural-history objects to the collections. The Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Revenue Ma- rine Division, the Life-Saving Service, and the Light-House Board have assisted collectors for the Museum in special ways. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 Several officers of the U.S. Army have made valuable contributions. The Quartermaster’s Department has extended important assistance in connection with the transportation of bulky material for the Museum. From officers of the U. S. Navy many collections have been received from foreign countries, including the West Indies, Liberia, the Samoan Islands, and Mexico. Through the courtesy of the Secretary of the Interior, the Museum has received a very valuable collection of ethnological specimens from the Indians of the Tulalip Reservation, Washington. The material transmitted to the Museum by the U.S. Geological Survey is large in extent and quite equal in importance to the collections received from that source in previous years. From the Divisions of Animal Industry, Entomology, Botany, For- estry, and Ornithology and Mammalogy, in the Department of Agricul- ture, numerous contributions have been received. Distribution of Duplicate Specimens.—Collections of ethnological, zoo- logical, botanical, and geological specimens, contained in two hundred and one packages, have been distributed during the year to about one hundred and twenty educational establishments at home and abroad. A large number of duplicate sets of minerals and marine invertebrates were included in these distributions. Numerous applications for duplicate specimens, chiefly minerals, still remain unfilled. It is hoped that during the next fiscal year it will be possible to send out bird-skins and rocks also. Museum Publications.—This department of the Museum work has been unusually active during the year. The Museum Reports for 1886 and 1887 have been published. Each of these volumes contains several papers based upon collections in the Museum by Museum officers and other collaborators. Volume XI of the Proceedings of the National Museum, for 1888, has been issued. This contains xi+703 pages, 60 plates, and 122 text fig- ures. It includes eighty-five papers by forty-three authors, nineteen of whom are officers of the Museum. The papers composing Volume XII of Proceedings of the National Museum, for 1889, are twenty-nine in number (Nos. 761-789); and were all published as separates dur- ing the year, although the bound volume has not yet been issued. Commencing with this volume the system of issuing sixteen pages at a time—forming a signature—as soon as sufficient manuscript had accumulated, has been discontinued. Each paper is now printed separ- ately, in advance of the bound volume, and is immediately distributed _to specialists. Five numbers of the Bulletin have been published (Nos. 34-38, inclu- Sive). Bulletin 34 relates to “The Batrachia of North America,” by Prof. E. D. Cope. Bulletin 35 contains a “ Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of North American Lepidoptera,” by 30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Mr. Henry Edwards. Bulletin 36 is entitled “Contributions to the Natural History of the Cetaceans, A Review of the Family Delphinide,” by Mr. Frederick W. True. Bulletin 38 has the title: ‘*Contribution toward a Monograph of the Insects of the Lepidopterous family Noc- tuide of Temperate North America,” and is a revision of the species of the genus Agrotis. This Bulletin, by Mr. John B. Smith, of Rutgers College, New Jersey, was not actually published until after the close of the fiscal year, although it was put in type during the year covered by this report. The manuscript for other Bulletins relating to deep-sea fishes, by Drs. G. Brown Goode and Tarleton H. Bean, and to a descrip- tion of the metallurgical collection in the Museum, by Mr. Fred P. Dewey, has been transmitted to the Government Printing Office. A large number of papers upon scientific subjects have heen pub- lished by officers of the Museum and other specialists. They are re- ferred to in the bibliography of Museum publications, constituting See- tion Iv of the separate report of the Assistant Secretary. Assistance to students.—The usual facilities have been granted to stu- dents in the various branches of natural history, and several collections have been lent to specialists for comparison and study. Dr. Rk. W. Shu- feldt, U. S. Army, requested permission to study bird-skeletons. Mr. Bashtord Dean, of the College of the City of New York, received fishes for study; a collection of bats from the British Museum was furnished to Dr. Harrison Allen, of Philadelphia, for comparison and study; a part of the Museum collection of Coleoptera was sent for a similar purpose to Capt. T. L. Casey, of New York City. Several persons have received instruction in taxidermy and photography. Special researches.—Several of the curators in the Museum are pre- paring for publication in the Museum Report for 180 papers which are the result of special investigation and research. Among these may be mentioned a hand-book of the geological collections, by Mr. George P. Merrill; a descriptive paper relating to the collection of humming-birds in the Museum, by Mr. Robert Ridgway; papers relating to Japanese religion and Japanese burials, by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock. Other gen tlemen, not officially connected with the Museum, have also prepared papers for publication in the same volume. The Museum Report each year contains a number of descriptive papers of the kind alluded to, and the interest which they have excited among all classes of people has been very great. During this year sev- eral hundred copies of papers of this character, printed in the more re- cently published reports of the Museum, have been distributed free of cost. Among these may be especially noted the ** Hand- Book and Cata- logue of the Building and Ornamental Stones in the National Museum,” by Mr. George P. Merrill,* and the paper entitled “The Extermination of the American Bison,” by Mr. William T, Hornaday.”t * Printed in the report for 1836 and also separately, t Printed in the report for 1887 and also separately. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31 Museum library.—The number of publications added to the Library during the year is 12,437, of which 1,479 are volumes of more than 100 pages, 2,250 pamphlets, 8,672 parts of regular serials, and 36 charts. With the exception of the charts these numbers are more than double the receipts of last year. The most notable gift was a nearly complete set of Kiener’s *‘ leonographie des Coquilles Vivantes,” illustrated with very beautifully colored plates. This was presented by the Wagner Free Institute of Science, in Philadelphia. Museum labels.—During the year 3,920 forms of labels have been printed (twenty-four copies of each form) for use in connection with labeling the collections of ethnology, geology, mammals, comparative anatomy, porcelains, oriental antiquities, graphic arts, foods, textiles, and materia medica. Meetings and lectures.—The use of the Lecture Hall has been granted for lectures and meetings of scientific societies, as The Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, November 12-15, 1889, inclusive; the American Historical Association, December 28-31; the American Institute of Mining Engineers, February 18, 1890; Memorial Meeting of the Academy of Sciences, March 27; the Geological Society of America, April 17; the National Academy of Sciences, April 15-18, inclusive; Meeting of the Committee on Arrangements of the Geological Congress, April 18; The National Geographic Society, May 2. The course of Saturday lectures, ten in number, beginning February 1, and ending April 3, was delivered under the direction of the joint committee of the scientific societies of Washington. A course of four lectures relating to the anthropological exhibits at the Paris Exposi- tion in 1889 was given in May by Mr. Thomas Wilson, curator of ar- cheology. A lecture, under the auspices of the National Geographic Society, was delivered on April 11 by Ensign J. B. Bernadou on the subject of ‘Corea and the Coreans.” Visitors.—The number of visitors to the Museum building during the year ending June 30, 1890, was 274,324. The number of visitors to the Smithsonian building during the same period was 120,894. These fig- ures are considerably less than during 1889, when, on account of the inauguration ef President Harrison, immense numbers of people visited the Museum. On March 5, it may be remembered, more than 56,000 people visited the Museum and Smithsonian buildings. The total num- ber of visitors since 1881 to the Museum building is 2,111,949, and to the Smithsonian building, 970,012. Extension of hours for visiting the Museum.—On December 20 a bili was introduced in the House of Representatives by the Hon. W. H. Crain, having for its object the opening of the Smithsonian and Museum buildings during extra hours, Mr, Crain also introduced a bill later in B V4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the session to provide an electric plant for lighting the buildings. Neither of these bills has been reported from the committees to which they were referred. Museum personnel.—Mr. George P. Merrill has been appointed Curator of the Department of Geology, which combines the functions of the previously existing departments of Lithology and Physical Geology, and of Metallurgy. This change in the administration of these depart- ments was made upon the resignation of Mr. Fred P. Dewey, who for several years had been in charge of the metallurgical collections. Mr. William ©. Winlock, of the Smithsonian Institution, was appointed Honorary Curator of the Section of Physical Apparatus in the National Museum. Mr. William T. Hornaday, perhaps the first taxidermist in the coun- try, through his extensive knowledge of the habits and natural atti- tudes of animals, in a very wide range of travel as a field naturalist, has elevated the standard of his art by the fidelity of his groupings and his skill in the representation of life-like aspects in the plastic form. He had rendered valuable service to the National Museum as its chief taxidermist, and subsequently as Honorary Curator of the Department of Living Animals, which led to his appointment as Acting Superinten- dent of the National Zoological Park. From this position he resigned on the 15th of June last. Dr. Frank Baker was, in June, appointed Honorary Curator of the Department of Comparative Anatomy in the Museum, though as it has been found necessary to assign Dr. Baker to temporary duty as Acting Manager of the National Zoological Park, Mr. F. W. True con- tinues to fill the position of acting curator of that department. A detailed statement relating to the work of the administrative offi- cers of the Museum will be found in the volume containing the report of the Assistant Secretary. Kxplorations.—In connection with the expedition sent by the United States Government to the West Coast of Africa to take observations of the eclipse of the sun, the National Museum obtained the privilege of sending a naturalist for the purpose of making collections of ethnological and zoological objects. Mr. William Harvey Brown, of the National Museum, was detailed to accompany the expedition. Early in June, 1890, the first collections were received as the result of his explorations. They included mammals, fishes, insects, plants, reptiles, birds, shells, rocks, and ethnological objects. Additional collections will doubtless soou be received; and will be referred to in the next report. As an outcome of Mr. Brown’s exploration work, collections have been re- ceived from Rev. G. H. R. Fisk, Mr. J. H. Brady, Mr. P. MacOwan, director of the Botanical Garden at Cape Town, Mr. Frye, of Cape Town, and others, The thanks of the Smithsonian Institution are especially REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 due to several of the officers and sailors of the U.S. 8S. Pensacola for assistance rendered Mr. Brown in his work. Dr. W. H. Rush, U.S. Navy, has kindly offered to collect marine in- vertebrates during his expedition to the Azores, Madeira, and the En- glish Channel. Mr. J. P. Iddings, of the U. 8S. Geological Survey, has expressed his willingness to bear in mind the requests of the Museum during his ex- pedition to the volcanic regions of Europe. Mr. E. M. Aaron, of the American Entomological Society, has kindly offered to be of service to the Museum in collecting entomological ma- terial during his visit to Jamaica. Mr. C. R. Orcutt, of San Diego, California, has announced his inten- tion to visit the Colorado desert and the Gulf of California, and to allow the Museuin to share the results of his expedition. Mr. Henry W. Elliott, formerly of the Alaska Commercial Company, is visiting the Seal Islands of Alaska on business connected with the United States Government, and hopes to be able to secure for the Mu- seum some fine specimens of walrus, fur-seal, fishes, and other zoolog- ical material. Department of living animals.—Upon the passage of the bill placing the National Zoological Park under the care of the Board of Regents, the department of living animals of the Museum was merged in the new park and the necessary transfers were made from the Museum rolls. For convenience, therefore, the report in regard to the principal accessions to this department have been included in the report of the acting manager of the Park. The animals are retained for the present in their sheds in the Smith- sonian Grounds for the reason that during the fitting up of the Park they can there be cared for at a much less expense; for instance, two watchmen are now required instead of twenty that would probably be needed at the Park, where each group of animals will be placed in a center from which to grow, a plan that involves the necessity at first of spreading the collection over a considerable area. The interest in this small collection has constantly increased, and has been manifested by numerous offers of valuable gifts, most of which it has been impossible, through lack of space and immediate accommoda- tions, to accept. H. His. 129——3 34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. NATIONAL ZOULOGICAL PARK. In the early part of this ceutury a naturalist traveling in Siberia stood by the mutilated body of a mammoth still undecayed, which the melting of the frozen gravel had revealed, and to the skeleton of which large portions of flesh, skin, and hair still clung. The remains were excavated and transported many hundred miles across the frozen waste, and at last reached the Imperial Museum at St. Petersburg, where, through all these years, the mounted skeleton has justly been regarded as the greatest treasure of that magnificent collection. Scientific memoirs, popular books, theological works, poems—in short, a whole literature—has come into existence with this discoy- ery as its text. No other event iv all the history of such subjects has excited a greater or more permanent interest outside of purely scien. tific circles; for the resurrection of this relic of a geologic time in a condition analogous to that in which the bodies of contemporaneous animals are daily seen brings home to the mind of the least curious observer the reality of a long extinet race with a vividness which no fossils or petrifactions of the ordinary sort can possibly equal. Now, I am assured by most competent naturalists that few, if any, of those not particularly devoted to the study of American animals realize that changes have already occurred or are on the point of taking place in our own characteristic fauna compared with which the disap- pearance from it of the mammoth was insignificant. That animal was common to all northern lands in its day. The practical domestication of the elephant gives to every one the opportunity of observing a gigantic creature closely allied to the mammoth, and from which he may gain an approximately correct idea of it. But no such example is at handinthe case of the bison, the prong-horn antelope, the elk, the Rocky Mountain goat, and many more of our vanishing races. The student of even the most modern text-books learns that the characteristic larger animals of the United States are those just men- tioned, with the moose, the grizzly bear, the beaver, and if we include marine forms and arctic American animals we may add the northern fur-seal, the Pacific walrus, the Californian sea-elephant, the manatee, and still others. With one or two exceptions out of this long list, men now living can remember when each of these animals was reasonably abundant within its natural territory. It is within the bounds of moderation to affirm that unless Congress places some check on the present rate of destruc- tion there are men now living who will see the time when the animals enumerated will be practically extinct, or exterminated within the lim- its of the United States. Already the census of some of them can be expressed in three figures. The fate of the bison, or American buffalo, is typical of them all. ‘Whether we consider this noble animal,” says Audubon, “as an ob- REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35 ject of the chase or as an article of food for man, it is decidedly the most important of all our American contemporary quadrupeds.” At the middle of the last century this animal pastured in Pennsylva- nia and Virginia, and even at the close of the century ranged over the whole Mississippi Valley and further west wherever pasturage was to be found. At thepresent time a few hundred survivors represent the millions of the last century, and we should not have even these few hundred within our territory had it not been for the wise action of Congress in providing for them a safe home in the Yellowstone Park. Now, for several reasons it has been comparatively easy to trace the decline 6f the buffalo population. The size of the animal, its prefer- ence for open country, the sportsman’s interest in it, and its relations to the food-supply of the Western Indians, all led to the observation and record of changes; and accordingly I have made special mention of this animal in representing the advantages of a national zoological park where it might be preserved; but this is by no means the only characteristic creature now threatened with speedy extinction. The moose is known to be at the present time a rare animal in the United States, but is in less immediate danger than some others. The elk is vigorously hunted and is no longer easily obtained, even in its most favored haunts. The grizzly bear is believed to be rapidly ap- proaching extinction outside of the Yellowstone Park, where, owing to the assiduous care of those in charge, both it and the elk are still preserved. The mountain sheep and goat, which inhabit less accessi- ble regions, are becoming more and more rare, while the beaver has retreated from a vast former area to such secluded haunts that it may possibly survive longer than the other species which I have just enu- merated, and which are but a portion of those in imminent danger of extinction. Among the marine forms the manatee still exists, but, although not exterminated, it is in immediate danger of beecomimg so, like the Cali- fornian sea-elephant, a gigantic creature, often of greater bulk than the elephant, which has suffered the fate of complete extinction within a few past years; at least it is uncertain whether a single individual actually survives. The Pacific walrus, upon which a large native popu- lation has always in great part depended for food and hides, is rapidly following the sea-elephant, and so on with other species. This appalling destruction is not contined to mammals. Disregard ing the birds of song and plumage, to which the fashions of the milli. ner have brought disaster, nearly all the larger and more characteristic American birds have suffered in the same way as their four-footed con- temporaries. The fate of the great Auk is familiar to all naturalists ; but it isnot so well known that the great Californian \ alture and sev- eral of the beautiful sea-fowl of our coasts have met the same fate, and that the wild pigeon, whose astonishing flocks were dwelt upon by Au- dubon and others in such remarkable descriptions and which were long 36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. the wonder of American travelers, with the less known, but magnificent ivory-billed woodpecker, and the pretty Carolina parrakeet, have all become, if not extinct, among the rarest of birds. Apart from the commercial value of its skins, the tax upon which has paid for the cost of our vast Alaskan territory, the singular habits and teeming millions of the northern fur-seal have excited general in- terest even among those who are not interested in natural history. In 1849 these animals abounded from Lower California to the lonely Alaskan Isles, and it has been supposed that the precautions taken by the Government for their protection on the breeding-grounds of the Pribilov Islands would preserve permanently the still considerable remnant which existed after the purchase of Alaska and the destruction of the southern rookeries. But it is becoming too evident that the greed of the hunters and the devastation caused by the general adop- tion of the method of pursuing them in the open sea, destroying indis- criminately mothers and offspring, is going to bring these hopes to naught. For most of these animals, therefore, it may be regarded as certain that, unless some small remnant be preserved in a semi-domesticated state, a few years will bring utter extinction. The American of the next generation, when questioned about the animals once characteristic of his country, will then be forced to confess that with the exception of a few insignificant creatures, rankivg as vermin, this broad continent possesses none of those species which once covered it, since the present generation will have completed the destruction of them all. The Yellowstone Park is doing excellent work under the present management, and too much can not be said in praise of the action which has given it to the country. It is, however, also desirable and necessary that, if these vanishing forms are to be preserved, there should be some zoological preserve or garden nearer the Capital, where representatives of all these races, not only of the land, but of the water also, may be preserved under the care of those permanently interested in their protection, in the charge, that is, of men who not only have special professional knowledge of their habits and needs, but who may be considered as having an unselfish interest in looking to their preser- ration, and who may act as scientific advisers, whenever such advice is deemed desirable by Congress or by the heads of Departments. Is it realized that nearly all the principal animals indigenous to the United States are either substantially extinct or in danger of becom- ing so and is it sufficiently realized that, once extinct, no expenditure of treasure can restore what can even to-day be preserved by prompt action of a very simple and definite kind ? It is such consi.’erations as these that have induced me to ask the earnest attention ot the Regents, of Congress, and of the country to the immediate necessity for action. The trust is unquestionably for the ad- vancement of science as well as for the instruction and recreation of REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37 the people, and thus becomes a fitting object for the care of the Smith- sonian Institution. In my Report for last year the preliminary steps for the establish- ment of a Zoological Park in the District of Columbia were detailed. The District of Columbia bill, which received the approval of the Presi- dent on March 2, 1889, contained an appropriation of $200,000 for the purchase of the land and established a Commission, composed of the Secretary of the Interior, the President of the Board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia, and the Secretary of the Smithsonian In- stitution, for the purpose of selecting and acquiring a suitable site upon Rock Creek. The utmost care was exercised to keep within the limitsof this appro- priation, and the Commission is even able to turn into the Treasury a small balance upon the completion of its work. To accomplish this, however, it was necessary to leave out a strip of land of about 8 acres on the east side of the creek, which it seemed to the Commission very desirable to secure, and I venture to express the hope that Congress will see fit to make special provision for the purchase of the property at an early day. From a commercial point of view the enterprise has already proved a most successful one, the land having risen in value since its condem- nation from 200 to 300 per cent. At the beginning of the fiscal year the ground had yet to be acquired. A careful consideration of the property in the neighborhood of Rock Creek, described in the act of March 2, 1889, had been made and an area of 166.48 acres selected.* The difficulty of establishing the bound- aries of certain tracts described in the older deedscaused a long delay, but the survey was finally completed on the 21st of November, 1889. * The following list shows the tracts in detail and the amount eventually to be paid for each: Land for the National Zoological Park. Owner. Acres. ae | How obtained. Miss A.E.J. Evans......-.-..----- so Bante etl a ee 94.050 | $94,860.00 | By agreement. PD SWralride Gre coss sneer cee sca ee arcs. eeece ees c 14.450 | 14, 450. 00 | Do. Woodley Park Syndicates -: co. 255.s.5-05 26. csese@icccce cc 7.453 5, 875. 00 | Do. TAEDEAG SISO eles ge ne 13.360 | 40,000.00} Do. TOPREL LUSESAT dk Se ae se 1.440 | 3,000.00) Do. UES ON Opa OTE AC Leto beac IES SO OCe IE Ee eae ee ae . 392 170. 76 Do. PACINO S ONO eee Sates eae ak soe elas oe ociainigocaa cede ee 24.570 | 16,836.48 | By condemnation. ‘Li, JE STEED Ss Beto e esos os 2a Re ea 6. 180 9, 270. 00 Do. Wnion Benevolent-Association ..2-..(..<:--:----<-c6+se-se- 1. 700 3, 000. 00 Do. 1). Bb, 1B EDC (Sh aVraer ke Sac en ee Sa a RE .670 | 1,897. 00 Do. Wii Hersomy cov bine ya sas ee acne sae cabs cudisecccts man eee 315 1, 372. 00 Do. UUETEN DS LESSEN IE ls age eR ea le ee 1. 060 233. 10 Do. United States (part Quarry road).....- PU) aaet SSE ae SSSOn eee nee te Do. UDI CSS AR eg oe Le ee Re eee ta 166. 486 | 190, 964. 34 38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. A map of the park, showing the location and quantity of each lot, was filed in the public records of the District of Columbia. On exam. ination of the list it will be seen that for 131.14 acres an agreement was effected with the owners as to the sum to be paid. For 34.49 acres no such agreement could be made, and the Commission therefore took the course prescribed by the act of March 2, 1889, for this con- tingency, and petitioned the Supreme Court of the District to assess the value of the land. This was done by three appraisers appointed by the Court, and the finding of the appraisers was approved by the President of the United States. At the close of the year title deeds had already passed for the greater portion of the property. - The site thus selected is, it is believed, admirably suited for the purpose for which it is designed. Situated at a convenient distance from the city in a region of remarkable natural beauty, it has a surface of great variety, offering unusual advantages of varied exposure for animals re- quiring different treatment. While some portions still retain the origi- nal forest, others are cleared or covered by a dense second growth of pine, excellent for cover and prodacing conditions similar to those of the natural haunts of many of the animals it is proposed to preserve. An abundant supply of water is furnished to the lower portions by Rock Creek, a small perennial stream that during freshets swells to consid- erable size, and at intervals of years, to rare but destructive floods. A number of small runlets or “ branches ” fall into the creek giving an effective drainage to all parts of the park. The system of water ways has for the most part been cut by erosion, so that the hill-sides and valleys usually present smooth, rounded slopes, practicable for roads and walks; yet this isagreeably varied at several places by an outcropping of the underlying rock, giving a somewhat bolder character. In the Appendix will be found a map showing the situation of the Zoological Park with reference to the city of Washington, and follow- ing if a second map giving, on a somewhat larger scale, the outline of the park and its principal topographical features. Having obtained the site it became necessary to procure means for the organization and maintenance of the park. The Commission ac- cordingly, under date of January 16, 1890, addressed a letter to Con- gress, concluding with the following words: Before the expiration of the present fiscal year the Zoological Park Commission will have completed the duties with which it was charged by the act of Congress which called it into existence, and the title to the lands it has purchased will be vested in the United States. Pend- ing the completion of the condemnation proceedings now in progress, and the submission of a final report, it is extremely desirable that Con- gress should enact further legislation in regard to the park. The Com- mission has no authority to put up fences and lay out roads or grounds, or to erect buildings, nor is it even certain that it has the right to ac- cept donations. The park is declared by Congress to be ‘“ for the ad- vancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the people.” In the construction of ponds and lakes, and the erection of inclosures REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 and buildings for the purposes of zoological science, a stage will soon be reached where scientific direction seems obviously desirable; and it is respectfully represented to Congress that any means for laying out and improving the grounds can be most advantageously used in view of the purpose of Congress as to the ultimate disposition of the park now when the foundations of its future usefulness are being laid. If the very considerable collection of living animals now in the custody of the Smithsonian Institution is to form the nucleus of the zoological park collection its transter should be eftected by legislative enactment and suitable measures taken for its maintenance. The Commission is of the opinion that the collection referred to should, with the consent of the Regents of the Institution, be transferred to the Zoological Park as soon as possible after the Government takes full possession of the site. JOHN W. NOBLE, Secretary of the Interior, _J, W. DOUGLASS, Prest. Board Com. Dis. Col., S: PF. LANGEEY, Secretary Smithsonian Institution, Commissioners for the establishment of a Zoological Park in the District of Columbia. After thorough consideration the following act was passed placing the park under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institu- tion, and transferring to it the collection formerly under the charge of the United States National Museum: AN ACT for the organization, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zoolog- ical Park. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the one-half of the fol- lowing sums named, respectively, is hereby appropriated out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and the other half out of the revenues of the District of Columbia, for the organization, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zoological Park, to be expended under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, and to be drawn on their requisition and disbursed by the dis- bursing officer for said Institution: For the shelter of animals, fifteen theusand dollars. For shelter-barns, cages, fences, and inclosures, and other provisions for the custody of animals, nine thousand doilars. For repairs to the Holt mansion, to make the same suitable for oceu- pancy, and for office furniture, two thousand dollars. For the creation of artificial ponds and other provisions for aquatic animals, two thousand dollars. For water supply, sewerage, and drainage, seven thousand dollars. For roads, walks, and bridges, fifteen thousand dollars. For miscellaneous supplies, materiais, and sundry incidental expen- Ses not otherwise provided for, five thousand dollars. For current expenses, including the maintenance of collections, food supplies, salaries of all necessary employees, and the acquisition and transportation of specimens, thirty-seven thousand dollars. Sec. 2. That the National Zoological Park is hereby placed under the directions of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, who are author- ized to transfer to it any living specimen, whether of animals or plants, now or hereafter in their charge, to accept gifts for the park at their 40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. discretion, in the name of the United States, to make exchanges ot specimens, and to administer the said Zoological Park for the advance- ment of science and the instruction and recreation of the people. Sec. 5. That the heads of Executive Departments of the Government are hereby authorized and directed to cause to be rendered all neces- sary and practicable aid to the said Regents in the acquisition of col- lections for the Zoological ¢Park. Approved, April 30, 1890. As it seemed desirable to have at once expert advice on the subject of laying out and improving the park, Mr. I’rederick Law Olmsted, a distinguished landscape gardener, was requested to make a preliminary inspection of the ground and to express an opinion as to what, under the conditions imposed by the primary objects of the law, would be the best general disposition to make of it. Itsoon became evident that a further survey was necessary in order to fix the boundaries of the maximum rise to be expected from Rock Creek. This stream, ordina- rily small, drains a water-shed having an area of some 83 square miles, with a slope so considerable that after copious rains the water rapidly rises far beyond its usual limits and becomes destructive to any build- ings or other fixtures situated along its course. A remarkable inunda- tion of this character occurred in June, 1889, the extent of which was noted at several points along the creek. It would be evidently im- practicable to place any buildings of importance within the area sub- ject to these heavy floods, and the suitable locations and plans for the bridges to be constructed could not be prepared until their height and span were determined with reference to the maximum rise of water. The survey of the creek was not completed at the close of the year, but it has since been finished as shown in the map previously referred to. Having once secured the picturesque features of the land from oblit- eration by the rapid encroachment of the city, it has been the policy to proceed slowly with improvements and to utilize the natural advantages of the location, interfering as little as possible with its original aspects. Even with these economical principles the cost of converting the tract to the uses of a park is far beyond what would ordinarily be imagined, for it should be remembered that the cost of improving Central Park, New York, has already been not less than $14,000 per acre, and that of Prospect Park, Brooklyn $9,000 per acre, while that of the large Frank- lin Park, Boston, is estimated at $2,900 per aere. In following this policy and keeping within the limits of the appro- priations, no immediate provision has been made for the considerable expense involved in opening at once to the public the entire area of 166 acres. The complete establishment of the park in a manner befitting its national character will be a work of considerable time, and for the present it has been deemed advisable to set aside nearly 40 acres, se- lected on account of accessibility and moderate elevation, as well as on account of its being adapted to the purposes of the park without great expense, while a further tract of some 15 acres will be so arranged that REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al it can be opened to the public, though it may not have a strictly park- like cultivation. There will thus be free to the public, it is hoped by next year, between 50 and 60 acres, an area larger than that of the Zoological Gardens in the Regents Park of London, or the Jardin des Plantes of Paris. A distinct area of some 10 or 15 acres will be reserved in another portion of the park for administrative and other purposes requiring seclusion, and will contain a lodge for the resident superintendent, offices, stable, infirmary for animals, and a proposed laboratory. It should be remembered that a most important feature of this under- taking is that it is not only a place for public resort and amusement, but it is also intended to furnish secluded places for the breeding and restoration of the various animals indigenous to this country. At London and Paris the zoological gardens are chiefly for the amusement of the people by the exhibition of curious and foreign ani- mals, and for the benefit of the naturalist; our paramount interest is to preserve the indigenous animals, and then to provide, in the words of the act, for the instruction and amusement of the people. Though anticipating the report for the coming year it does not seem out of place in the present connection to allude to the fact that the See- retary, in his private capacity, has been appointed by the Presidentone of the commissioners of the more extensive national park upon Rock Creek, contiguous to the Zoological Park, a charge which he has accepted with some reluctance on account of the pressure of present official duties, but with a feeling that by reason of the necessary inti- mate connection between the two national parks the public interests will be subserved by this action. I can not close the report in relation to this new undertaking of the Institution without reference to the loss we have sustained in the death of Senator Beck, who, though not upon the Board of Regents, took a lively interest in the Institution, and a special interest in establishing and placing under its care the preservation of the natural scenery in the neighborhood of the Capital. I regret, also, to report that near the close of the year, the Institution was reluctantly obliged to accept the resignation of Mr. W. T. Hornaday, curator of living animals in the National Museum, who, having been as- signed to the duty of superintendent of the park under the Commission, it was hoped would be able to accept the position of seperintendent of the park uponits transfer to the Board of Regents. His efforts assisted the Commission greatly in the selection of the land, and did much to insure the success of the measure before Congress. Dr. Frank Baker honorary curator of the Department of Comparative Anatomy in the Museum, was appointed on June 1, 1890, acting mana- ger of the Zoological Park. 42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. Ethnologie researches among the North American Indians were con- tinued by the Smithsonian Institution, in compliance with acts of Con- gress, during the year 1889-90, under the direction of Maj. J. W. Pow- ell, Director of the U. 8S. Geological Survey. The work of the Bureau of Etbnology during the year has proceeded along accustomed lines. Investigations in relation to the Sign Lan- guage and Pictography of the American Indian, preliminary reports of which subjects have appeared in annual reports of the Bureau, have been discontinued and the final results of this study will soon appear. Investigations of the Mounds of the eastern United States have also been practically brought to an end and the final discussion of the subject will speedily be published. The archologie researches which have been inaugurated in the vicin- ity of Washington have already been fruitful of results of more than local interest. Excavations into the quarry sites and workshops of ihe district have shown that the class of archeologic objects from this vicinity, which have hitherto been assumed to be palolithie and to represent the rude implements of primitive man, are in fact nothing but the ‘“‘rejects” of much more recent times; and that however far back in point of time some of them may date, they are not separable from the rejects of the historic Indian. As usual, considerable attention has been paid to the collection of linguistic material, both because it is thought that languages form the only safe basis for classifying peoples, and because no material relating to our Indians is vanishing with such rapidity. The latter reason has also impelled the collection of Indian mythology. Myths are hardly more enduring than the languages in which they are preserved. Though they may persist to some extent after a language decays and falls into partial disuse, it is only in a degraded and emasculated form that de- prives them of their chief value, as embodying the religious ideas and the philosophy of primitive peoples. The medicine practices of the Indian have also received much atten- tion and a large number of the plants used in the Indian Materia Medica have been collected, preserved, and their Indian and botanical names obtained. In addition, the formulas and secret practices attend- ing their use have been carefully recorded. As was to be expected, it has been found that so intimately interwoven are the Indian systems of religion and medicine that it is practically impossible to say where the one ends and the other begins. It has also been demonstrated that contrary to popular belief, the chief and almost sole effacacy possessed by so-called Indian medicine lies, not in the inherent virtue of the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 plants used, but in the mystic properties imparted to them by the sor- cerers or professional ‘“* Medicine men.” During the year one of the Bureau assistants visited Casa Grande, in Arizona, with a view to determining the best method to give effect to the act passed by Congress for preserving the ancient ruin. The preservation from the hand of the vandal and the effects of time and exposure of the more important Indian mounds and ruins which are situated within the national domain, is one that may well receive at- tention. The land upon which many of them are situated is of little value for economic purposes, and the comparatively small outlay re- quired for their restoration, when such is necessary, and for their pres- ervation, is Small when contrasted with their historical and archzologi- cal value and their popular interest. No phase of tribal life and society presents a more curious and inter- esting study than that exhibited by the Pueblo Indians, who, in many respects, were far in advance of less sedentary tribes. Study of one of them, Sia, was begun during the year, and other Pueblos will be visited and studied in succession. Further details respecting the work of the Bureau will be found in the report of its director, Major J. W. Powell, given in full in Appen- dix I, NECROLOGY. SAMUEL SULLIVAN Cox. I am called upon to record here the death of one of the most public- spirited and versatile members of Congress that have served upon the Board of Regents, the Hon. Samuel Sullivan Cox, a member of the House of Representatives, who was born at Zanesville, Ohio, Septem- ber 30, 1824, and first elected a Regenton December 19,1861. He died at his home in New York on the 10th of September, 1889. At a meeting of the Board, held on the 8th of January,. 1890, a com- mittee was appointed to prepare resolutions on the services and char- acter of Mr. Cox, consisting of the Secretary, Hon. Joseph Wheeler, Dr. Welling, and Hon. Mr. Lodge, and they subsequently reported as follows: To the Board of Regents: Your committee report that the Hon. S. 8S. Cox was first appointed a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution December 19, 1861, and that he filled that office, except for intervals caused by public duties, to the time of his death. While he was not a regular attendant at all the meetings of the Board, he was ever ready to advance the interests of the Institution and of science, either as a Regent or as a member of Congress; and although such men as Hamlin, Fessenden, Colfax, Chase, Garfield, Sherman, Gray, and Waite, in a list comprising Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Chief-Justices, and Senators of the United States, were his associates, 44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. there were none whose service was longer or more gratefully to be re- membered, nor perhaps any to whom the Institution owes more than to Mr. Cox. The regard in which his brother Regents held Mr. Cox’s accuracy of characterization and his instinctive recognition of all that is worthiest of honor in other men may be inferred from the eulogies which he was requested by them to deliver among which may be particularly men- tioned the one at the commemoration in honor of Professor Henry in the House of Representatives. But though these only illustrate a very small part of his services as a Regent, your committee are led by their consideration to recall that his first act upon your Board was the prep- aration and delivery of an address at the request of the Regents on their late colleague, Stephen A. Douglas, and that on this occasion he used words which your committee permit themselves to adopt, as being in their view singularly characteristic of Mr. Cox himself: . ‘It was not merely as one of its Regents that he showed himself the true and enlightened friend of objects kindred to those of this estab- lishment; he ever advocated measures which served to advance knowl- edge and promote the progress of humanity. The encouragement of the fine arts, the rewarding of discoverers and inventors, the organiza- tion of exploring expeditions, as well as the general diffusion of educa- tion, were all objects of lis special regard.” In view of these facts it is— Resolved, That in the death of Hon. Samuel Sullivan Cox the Smith- sonian Institution has suffered the irreparable loss of a long-tried friend, the Board of Regents of a most valued associate and.active member dur- ing fifteen years of service, and the country of one of its most distin- guished citizens. Resolved, That the Board of Regents desire to express their deep sympathy with the bereaved family of the deceased, and that a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the widow of their late associate. Mr. Cox was descended from a long line of distinguished ancestors. His father, Hon. Ezekiel Taylor Cox, who moved from New Jersey to Zanesville early in the century, held the position of State senator and clerk of the supreme court of Ohio; his grandfather, General James Cox, was an officer in the Revolution, speaker of the New Jersey assembly, and member of Congress at the time of his death; his great- grandfather, Judge Joseph Cox, was a distinguished man of his time, as were his great-great-grandfather, James Cox, and his great great- great-grandfather, Thomas Cox, one of the original proprietors of the province of East New Jersey. Upon the completion of a classical course Mr. Cox studied law, and at the age of twenty-five, turning his attention to journalism, was the editor of the Columbia Statesman; at twenty-nine he was the chairman of the committee of the Democratic party of Ohio. When scarcely more than thirty he was offered an appointment as secretary of legation to Great Britain, but declined the honor, though he afterwards accepted & similar position and represented the United States at Peru. At thirty-two he was elected to Congress aad continued as a member of that body, almost without interruption, for a period of over thirty years. He was elected Speaker pro tempore of the House of Representatives REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45 in 1876, and was minister to Turkey during the first part of President Cleveland’s administration, receiving from the Sultan shortly after this mission the degree of the order of the Mejidieh. Of Mr. Cox’s political career it is unnecessary to speak. The unani- mity with which his fellow-Congressmen hastened to pay tribute to his memory, in terms most glowing and affectionate, attests his esteem in the House of Representatives. No one upon the floor of the House of Representatives in late years has appreciated more fully or has cham- pioned to such an extent the cause of science. To him the scientific departments of the Government looked for assistance and appreciation ; as a member of the Board of Regents he was a firm supporter of the liberal policy laid down for the Institution by Professor Henry. Respectfully sabmitted. S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. po tl a. APPENDICES TO SECRETARY’S REPORT. APPENDIX I. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. Str: I have the honor to present the following report upon the work of the year, dividing it for convenience into two general heads, viz, field work and office work. FIELD WORK. The field work of the year is divided into (1) mound explorations and (2) general field studies, the latter having been directed during the year chiefly to archexology, language, religious practices, and pictography. Mound explorations.—The work of exploring the mounds of the eastern United States was, as in former years, under the superintendence of Prof. Cyrus ‘Thomas. During this year he discontinued explorations in person, being engaged almost the entire time upon the preparation of the second volume of his report and of an ad- ditional bulletin, with accompanying maps of the archzologic localities. Mr. Henry L. Reynolds, however, was employed during the summer in exploring the works in Manitoba and the two Dakotas with special reference to their types and distribution. The results of this investigation proved very satisfactory, as the types within this area are found to be unusually well defined, according to physical struct- ure and contents. While thus employed other archxological remains were noted and examined, such as the bowlder outlines of circles and animals and the ancient village sites on the Missouri River. A full report concerning these investigations will ap- pear in the forthcoming report of Professor Thomas. Mr. Reynolds also made a visit to certain earthworks in lowa and Indiana for the purpose of ascertaining their types. In the autumn he was employed in South Carolina and Georgia exploring the mounds of that section, about which little was known. Two mounds—a large one on the Wateree River, below Camden, South Carolina, and one on the Savannah River, Georgia—proved of special interest. The contents of the latter consisted of as fine specimens of every class of primitive art as have been found in mounds. Mr. James D. Middleton, who had acted as a regular assistant from the organiza- tion of the division, wasengaged during the month of July, 1889, in surveying and making plats of certain ancient works of Michigan and Ohio. At the end of the month he resigned his position in the Bureau. Mr. James Mooney, although engaged in another line of research, obtained impor- tant information for the Mound Division, in reference to the location, distribution, and character of the ancient works of the Cherokee in western North Carolina and adjoining sections. General Field Studies.—In the autumn of 1889 Mr. W. H. Holmes was directed to take charge of the archeologic field-work of the Bureau. In September he began exca- vations in the ancient bowlder quarries upon Piney Branch of Rock Creek, near Washington. A trench was carried across the principal quarry, which had a width of more than 50 feet and a depth in places of 10 feet. The ancient methods of quarrying and working the bowlders were studied and several thousands of specimens were col- 47 48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY, lected. Work was resumed in the next spring and five additional trenches were opened across widely separated portions of the ancient quarries. Much additional information was collected, and many specimens were added to the collection. In June work was commenced on another group of ancient quarries, situated north of the new Observatory, on the west side of Rock Creek. Very extensive quarrying and implement-making had been carried on in this place. The conditions and phenomena were almost identical with those of the Piney Branch site. Subsequently an ancient soapstone quarry near 'lenallytown was examined. The ancient pitting corresponded quite closely with that of the bowlder quarries and the condition of the pits indi- cated equal age. Dr. W. J. Hoffinan proceeded early in July to White Earth Reservation, Minnesota, to continue the collection and study of mnemonic and other records relating to the Midé’ wiwin or “ Grand Medicine Society ” of the Ojibwa Indians. He had already spent two seasons with this tribe, and having been satisfactorily prepared, was initiated into the mysteries of the four several degrees of the society, by which means he was enabled to record the ceremonials of initiation, which was desired by the Indians, so that a complete exposition of the traditions of the Ojibwa cosmogony and of the Mide’ Society could be preserved for the information of their descendants. Through intimate acquaintance with, and recognition by, the Midé’ priests, Dr. Hoffmann secured all the important texts employed in the ceremony—much of which is in an archaic form of speech—as well as the musical notation of songs sung to him for that purpose; also the birch-bark records of the society, and the mnemonic songs on birch- bark, employed by the Midé’ priests, as weli as those of the Jé’ssakki’d and the Wa- béno’, which represent two other grades of Shamans. The so-called cosmogony charts, four versions of which were secured, had not pre- viously been exhibited to a white man, nor to Indians until after the necessary fees had been paid for such service, preparatory to admission into the society. He also secured, as having connection with the general subject, a list of plants and other substances constituting the materia medica of the above-named locality, the method of their preparation, administration, and reputed action, the whole being connected with incantation and exorcism. Mr. Victor Mindeleff made ashort trip (from December 7 to January 20) to the ruin of Casa Grande, in Arizona, visiting also the sites of Mr. F, H. Cushing’s work while in charge of the Hemenway expedition. Plans and photographs were secured on this trip, and fragments of typical pottery were collected from the principal ruin visited. Casa Grande was found to be almost identical in character with the many ruins scattered over the valleys of both the Gila and Salado. On July 3 Mr. James Mooney started on a third trip to the Cherokee reservation in North Carolina, returning November 17. During this time he devoted his atten- tion chiefly to the translation and study of the sacred formulas used by the Shamans, obtained by him during a previous visit. In this work he employed the service of the most prominent medicine men, among them being the writers of some of the original formulas, and obtained detailed explanations of the accompanying ceremonies and the theories upon which they were based, together with descriptions of the mode of preparing the medicine and the various articles used in the same connection. He was also permitted to witness a number of these ceremonies, notedly the solemn rite known as ‘‘ going to water.” About three hundred specimens of plants used in the medicine practice were also collected, with their Indian names and uses, in addition to about five hundred previously obtained. These plants were sent to the botanists of the Smithsonian Institution for identification under their scientific names. The study of these Cherokee plant names, in connection with the medical formulas, will throw much light upon Indian botanic classification and therapeutics. The study of the botany is a work of peculiar difficulty, owing to the absence of any uniform sys- tem among the various practitioners, Attention was also given to the ball play, and several photographs of different stages of the ball dance were secured. One of the REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. . 49 oldest men of the tribe was also employed to prepare the feather wands used in the eagle dance, the pipe dance of the prairie tribes, and the calumet dance spoken of by the early Jesuit writers, which has now been discontinued among the Cherokees for abont thirty years. These wands were deposited in the National Museum as a part of the Cherokee collection, obtained on various visits to the reservation. A considerable amount of miscellaneous information in regard to myths, dances, etc., was obtained, and a special study was made of their geographic nomenclature for the purpose of preparing an aboriginal map of the old Cherokee country. With this object a visit was made to the outlying Indian settlements, especially that on Cheowah River, in Graham County, North Carolina, and individuals originally from widely- separated districts were interviewed. ‘Lhe maps of the Geological Survey, on a scale of 2 miles to an inch, were used in the work, and the result is a collection of probably more than one thousand Cherokee names of localities within the former territory of the tribe, given in the correct form, with the meaning of the names and whatever local legends are connected. In North Carolina practically every local name now known to the Cherokees has been obtained, every prominent peak or rock, and every cove and noted bend in a stream having a distinctive name. For Georgia and a por- tion of Tennessee the names must be obtained chiefly from old Indians now living in the Indian Territory. It may be noted here that asa rule the Cherokees and some other tribes have no names for rivers or settlements. The name belongs to the dis- trict and is applied alike to the stream, town, or mountain located in it. When the people of a settlement remove, the old name remains behind, and the town in its new location takes the name attached to the new district. Each district along a river has a distinct name, while the river as a whole has none, the whole tendency in Indian languages being to specialize. The last six weeks of this field season were spent by Mr. Mooney in visiting various points in North and South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabama, within the former limits of the Cherokees, for the purpose of locating mounds, graves, and other antiquities for an archeologic map of their ter- ritory, and collecting from former traders and old residents materials for a historic sketch of the tribe. Mr. Jeremiah Curtin spent July, and until August 28, 1889, at various points on the Klamath River, from Orleans Bar to Martin’s Ferry, Humboldt County, California, in collecting myths and reviewing vocabularies of the Weitspekan and Ehnikan lan- guages. From August 30 to September 10 he was at Blue Lake and Arcata, Hum- boldt County, California, engaged in taking down a Wishoshkan vocabulary and collecting information concerning the Indians of the region thereabout. Arriving in Round Valley, Mendocino County, California, September 16, he remained there till October 16, and took vocabularies of the Yuki and Palaihnihan language. From Round Valley he went to Niles, Alameda County, California, where he obtained partial vocabularies of three languages formerly spoken in that region. Of these one was spoken at Suisun, another was kindred to the Mariposan, a third was Costanoan. On October 27 he arrived in Redding, Shasta County, California, where he obtained a considerable addition to his material previously collected in the form of myths and additions to the Palaihnihan vocabulary. During this work he visited also Round Mountain. On January 10, 1890, he returned to office work. From July 10 to November 9, 1889, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was engaged in field work. Until September 7 he was on the Onondaga reservation, near Syracuse, New York, where legends, tales, and myths were collected and recorded in the vernacular; also accounts of the religious ceremonies and funeral rites were obtained, the terms form- ing the Onondagan scheme of relationships of affinity and consanguinity were recorded, and valuable matter pertaining to the league and its wampum record was also collected. . From the last mentioned date to the 9th of November he was engaged on the Grand River reservation in Canada, where he successfully made special effort to obtain the chants and speeches used in the condolence council of the league. The religious doc- H, Mis. 129-4 50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. trines and beliefs of the pagan Iroquois were recorded; plant and animal names were collected; many religious and gentile songs were secured, and accounts of the prin- cipal Troquoian ‘*medicines” in the vernacular were obtained. A Wyandot vocabu- lary was also recorded. Mrs. T. E. Stevenson left Washington in March, 1890, to study the Sia, Jemez, and Zuni Indians. She made Sia her first point of investigation, and found so much of ethnologic interest in this Pueblo that she continued her work there to the end of the fiscal year engaged in making a vocabulary and studying the habits, enstoms, mythol- ogy, and medicine practices of these people. She has been admitted to the cere- monials of the secret societies and has made detailed accounts of them, the altars being photographed by Miss M. 8. Clark, who accompanied her. Her investigations so far have resulted in a clear exposition of the religion of the people. OFFICE WORK, The Director was engaged during the year, when his other duties would permit, in the preparation of a work on the.characteristics of Indian languages. Col. Garrick Mallery, U.S. Army, was oceupied in continued study of sign language and pictography with the collection and collation of additional material obtained by personal investigation, by correspondence, and by the examination of authorities. This work was performed with special reference to the preparation for early publica- tion of a monograph on each of those subjects, that on pictography to be first pre- sented. The re-arrangement and revision of material already published in the pre- liminary papers on the sign language and on the pictographs of the North American Indians which respectively appeared in the first and fourth annual reports of this Bureau, and the insertion of matter obtained later by exploration and research, have been conjoined with discussion and comparison. By this treatment it is hoped that the monugraphs on sign language and pictography, having as their text the attain- ments of the North American Indians in those directions, may contribute to the understanding of similar exhibitions of evanescent and durable thought-writing, whether still employed in other parts of the world or now only found in records of material remains. During the fiscal year Mr. H. W. Henshaw was engaged, in addition to his admin- istrative duties, in assisting the Director in the final preparation of the linguistic map of North America north of Mexico, and the accompanying report, which is now completed and in the hands of the printer. He also began the final revision for the printer of his dictionary of Indian tribal names. Rey. J. Owen Dorsey completed his editorial work in connection with the publica- tion of Riggs’ Dakota-English Dictionary. He wrote articles on the following sub- jects: Measures and valuing ; The Dha-du-ghe Society of the Ponka tribe; Omaha dwellings, furniture, and implements; Omaha clothing and personal ornaments; Ponka and Omaha songs; The places of gentes in Sionan camping circles; Winne- bago folklore notes; Teton folklore; Omaha folklore; The gentile system of the Siletz tribes; and a Dakota’s account of the sun-danee. He revised some of his Omaha and Ponka genealogical tables and began the arrangement of Kansa tables or a similar character. He continued the elaboration of his monograph on Indian per- sonal names, and completed the following lists in which the Indian names precede their English meanings: Winnebago, 383 names; Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, 520; Kwapa, 15; and Kansa, 604. Dr. Dorsey finished the preparation of his texts for Contributions to North Ameri- ean Ethnology, Vol. 6, The Vegiha Language. Part 11. Additional myths, stories, and letters, and corrected proof for the volume as far as page 651. He prepared « manuscript of other Omaha and Ponka letters, to be published as a bulletin. He began an article entitled “A study of Siouan cults,” for which over forty colored illustrations were prepared by Indians, under his direction; and of this article he ‘ 2 a? i REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 completed four chapters, treating of the cults of the Omaha, Ponka, Kansa, Osage, Iowa, Oto, Missouri, and Winnebago tribes, and half of a fifth chapter that describes the cults of the Dakota and Assiniboin. When not otherwise engaged, he was occu- pied in making entries on slips for the Gegiha-English Dictionary. From September to December, 1889, he obtained from George Miller, an Omaha, who came to Wash- ington to aid him, additional myths, legends, letters, folklore, and sociologic material, grammatical notes and corrections of dictionary entries, besides genealogical tables arranged according to the subgentes as well as the gentes of the Omaha tribe. During the year Mr. Albert 8S. Gatschet was wholly engaged in office work. He finished his last draught of the ‘‘ Klamath Grammar,” a language of southwestern Ore- gon, making numerous additions, also appendices, as follows: Idioms and dialectic differences in the language; colloquial form of the language; syntactic examples; complex synonymous terms; roots with their derivatives. The typographic work on the grammar was terminated, the proofs and revises having all been read by the au- thor. The last portion of the entire work, being the ‘ethnographic sketch of the Klamath people,” was then re-written from earlier notes while consulting the best topographic and historical materials obtainable. Mr. Gatschet also drew a map of “the headwaters of the Klamath River,” the home of the tribes, being on a scale of 15 miles to the inch, which will appear as the frontispiece in Part 1. The “ethnographic sketch” is now in the hands of the printer. Mr. Jeremiah Curtin was engaged from January 10 to June 30, 1890, in arranging the myth material collected by him in the field and in copying vocabularies. The Hupa, Ehnikan, and Wishoshkan vocabularies were finished and the Yana partly done on June 30, 1890. The office work of Dr. W. J. Hoffman consisted in arranging the material gathered by him during the preceding three field seasons and in preparing the manuscript for publication, which has been completed. During the first three months of the year 1890 a delegation of Menomoni Indians were at Washington, District of Columbia, on business connected with their tribe, and during that period Dr. Hoffman obtained from them a collection of facts relating to mythology, social organization and gov- ernment, the gentile system and division of gens into phratries, together with many facts relating to the Miti’wit, or ‘‘Grand Medicine Society” as they term it. These are interesting and valuable, as some portions of the ritual explain doubtful parts of the Ojibwa phraseology, and vice versa, although the two societies differ greatly in the dramatized portion of the forms of initiation. On his return from the field in November Mr. James Mooney devoted his attention to the elaboration of the sacred formulas already obtained. Two hundred of these formulas, being about one-third of the whole number, have now been translated. In each case the translation from the original manuscript in Cherokee characters is given first, then a translation following the idiom and spirit of the original as closely as possible, and finally an explanation of the medicine and ceremonies used and the underlying theory. About one-half of the whole number relate to medicine. The others deal with love, war, self-protection, the ball play, agriculture, and life-con- juring. A preliminary paper with a number of specimen formulas will appear in the seventh annual report of the Bureau. The whole collection will constitute a unique and interesting contribution to the aboriginal literature of America. All the words occurring in the formulas thus far translated have been glossarized, with grammatic notes and references from the original texts, making a glossary of about two thousand words, a great part of which are in the archaic or sacred language. Several weeks were also given to the preparation of an archeologic map of the old Cherokee country from materials collected in the field and from other information in possession of the Bureau. During the year Mr. W. H. Holmes has been chiefly engaged in the preparation of papers on the Arts of the Mound Builders, to form a part of the monograph upon the Mound Builders, by Prof. Cyrus Thomas. Four papers are contemplated ; one upon 52 REPORT OF TME SECRETARY. Pottery, a second upon Art in Shell and Bone, a third upon Textile Fabrics, and a fourth upon Pipes. Three of these papers are well advanced towards completion. In addition to this work he has prepared papers relating to his field explorations. These include a report upon excavations in the ancient quartzite bowlder workshops and the soapstone quarries of the District of Columbia, and a rock shelter in West Virginia. Portions of these papers have been published in the American Anthro- pologist. Mr. James C. Pilling has continued to devote such time as he could command for the purpose to the preparation of bibliographies of the languages of North America. At the close of the fiscal year 1888-89 the proof-reading of the Bibliograpby of the Muskhogean Languages was completed, but the edition was not ready for delivery. It was delivered August 8, 1889. After the Muskhogean Bibliography had been finished, work was at once begun on the Algonquian, by far the largest of those yet undertaken. Much of the material for this was already in hand, the collection having been gradually pursued during several years preceding, and the greater part of the work remaining consisted in assembling, arranging, revising, and verifying that material. August 16-22 were profitably spent by Mr. Pilling in the Lenox, Astor, and New York Historical Society libraries, at New York City, and the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston Athe- neum, and Boston Public libraries, at Boston, chiefly in verifying and revising the material in hand. The first portion of the manuscript was transmitted to the Public Printer November 15, 1889. At the close of the fiscal year final proof had progressed to the two hundred and fifty-eighth page, carrying the work approximately half way to completion. From the 1st to the 10th of July, 1879, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was engaged in collat- ing and recording Iroquoian proper names, both of persons and places, as they occur in the narratives of the early explorers and historians of the pristine habitat of the Iroquoian peoples. Afterwards, to the 9th of November, he was employed in field work. Upon his return to the office and until the end of the fiscal year he was engaged in translating and annotating the myths, legends, tales, and all of the other matter which he had previously collected in the field; and in translating and recording for easy reference, for the purpose of verification and exposition of the matter so col- lected, the mythologic, ethnographic, and other anthropologic data found in the early French narratives of the New World, and especially that which is found in the works of Champlain, Lafitau, Charlevoix, and in the Jesait Relations. Much linguistic material has been obtained from the translation8 of the matter which Mr. Hewitt per- sonally collected while engaging in field work. Prof. Cyrus Thomas was personally engaged during the entire year on the prepara- tion of his report on the field work and collections of the preceding seven years. A bulletin giving the archeologic localities within the mound area, together with a series of accompanying maps, was completed for publication. It will form a closely printed octavo of about two hundred and fifty pages. His report, which requires much comparison and reference as well as study of the works explored and objects obtained, 1s progressing as rapidly as is consistent with proper care and due regard for details, and will be completed and presented for publication during the next fiscal year. Mr. Henry L. Reynolds, on his return from field duty, assisted Professor Thomas in the preparation of tlat part of his report and bulletin relating to those archxo- logic districts the works of which he had visited. He then resumed the preparation of his paper on the aboriginal use of metal. In May he made an examination of the metal specimens in the private and public archeological collections of New York City, and in June visited Providence and Boston iv search of certain rare historic data relating to the early life and customs of the Indians, both in respect to the use of wetal and to other matters. He was engaged in the office upon this work at the close of the fiscal year, REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53 During the year Mr. Victor Mindeleff was engaged upon a report on the architect- ure of Tusayan and Cibola. This work was interrupted by a short field trip to the ruin of Casa Grande, as mentioned under the head of field work, and was resumed on his return from that trip. The report, toge'her with the data for its illustrations, has been finished for publication. A report was also prepared on the repairs and protection of the ruin of Casa Grande, on the Gila River, in Arizona. This report was accompanied by diagram, plans, and a series of photographs. He also was occu- pied in an architectural discussion on this ruin, together with one on the ruins on the Rio Salado, excavated by the Hemenway expedition, which were visited by him. During the first four months of the fiscal year Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff was engaged in revising manuscript and otherwise assisting Mr. Victor Mindeleff in the prepara- tion of a report on Pueblo Architecture, his own portion of the report having been previously finished. The report was handed in for publication in December, 1889. He then commenced the preparation of a series of maps, upon which the location of all known ruins in the ancient Pueblo country will be plotted, in order to show their distribution. The maps were partly done and the plotting of the ruins was com- menced. When completed the maps will show the location of all ruins mentioned in literature or known to explorers and will be accompanied by a card catalogue con- taining a description of each ruin and reference to the literature relating to it, the whole forming a valuable record. It is intended that a résumé of this shall be pub- lished. During the year the work of the modelling room was continued under the direction of Mr, Cosmos Mindeleff, and was confined almost entirely to the enlargement of the “duplicate series,” referred to in previous reports. The large model of Penasco Blanco, one of the Chaco ruins, reported last year as commenced, was completed, cut into sec- tions for convenience of shipment, and boxed. A duplicate of a model of the Pueblo of Tewa, the original of which was made in 1883, was finished and exchanged for the original in the National Museum. The original was condemned and destroyed and another duplicate was made for the duplicate series. A duplicate was also made of a model of Schumepovi, and the original was put in order and added to the series. A duplicate of a model of the Pueblo of Shipaulovi was also finished and added to the same series. The original model of Casa Blanea cliff ruin was withdrawn from the Museum, and a number of duplicate casts were made, one of which was finished and re-deposited in the Museum. Duplicates were also made of models of Great Elephant Mound, Great Etowah Mound, and two others. In the latter half of the fiscal year work was commenced on the duplication of two very large models, one of Walpi and the First Mesa, the other of Mummy Cave cliff ruin. The original models had been very hurriedly made for the New Orleans Exposition, and, being cast in plaster of paris, had suffered considerably in transportation. An attempt was made to cast the models in paper, and in both cases the attempt was very successful. The first dupli- cate of the Walpi model was completed and deposited in the National Museum, to replace the original which was destroyed. The finished model weighed about 500 pounds, instead of 2,500 pounds, the weight of the original. The model of the Mumniy Cave was cast, but was no‘ finished at the close of the year. A second dupli- cate of Walpi, for the duplicate series, was cast, but not finished, at the close of the year. It will be divided into sections for convenience of shipment. Toward the close of the year work was commenced on two new models which will be used to illustrate a report of Mr. Holmes, upon his work of the Archeology of the District of Columbia. But one demand was made during the year upon the duplicate series. This was for a number of transparencies’ to be exhibited as a part of the display of the United States at the Paris Exposition. Sixty of these large photographs on glass were sent and two grand prizes were awarded them. Upon the conclusion of the exposition the transparencies were returned, and some damage suffered in transportation was made good by the United States Commission. 54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. During the year nine models, ranging in size from 2 feet square to 14 by 5 feet, were finished; twelve models, including duplicate casts, were finished but not painted ; and four models were commenced and not finished. Mr. De Lancey W. Gill during the year succeeded Mr. Holmes in the charge of pre- paring and editing the illustrations for the publications for the Bureau. The fol- lowing list shows the number of drawings that have been prepared under his super- vision for actual publication during the year : Architectural drawings, drawings of mounds, earthworks, ancient ruins, etc.... 102 Maps, diagrams, and Sections ~.~. 2222 re cee come enon see ae cee ape eel ee eee 64 Objects of ‘stone, wood, shell, bone, ete s....25 --52- 2 eae. seo wena basSce wean 377 otal. iis esos ® Se ee Sg 21 Gan oe INS SEIS OS Oe Ee EEE ee ee 543 These drawings were prepared from field surveys and sketches, from photographs, and from the objects themselves. No field work has been done by Mr. Gill’s divis- ion during the year although many valuable drawings and photographs were pro- cured in Arizona by Mr. Victor Mindeleff and in the District of Columbia by Mr. W. H. Holmes. The photographie work remains under the able management of Mr. J. K. Hillers. The following statement shows the amount of work done in the laboratory: Negatives. Prints. Size. | Number. | Size. Number. 28 by 34 12 28 by 34 36 20 by 24 6 20 by 24 26 14 by 17 2 14 by 17 | 6 | Itby te | 20 llby14 | 128 | 8bys | 90 Sby10 | 529 5 by 8 14 5by 8 | 66 | | Photographs were obtained of Indians from sittings as follows: Tribe. Number. a a ee | SDalkota-seeceee. | 82 | Sac and Fox ..... | 5 Pp 'Otoe shins Seon | 4 MOK es Jeceuse ses 5 Umatilla........- 5 During the year the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Sec- retary of the Smithsonian Institution was issued. It contains the introductory re- port of the Director, J. W. Powell, 35 pages, with accompanying papers, as follows: Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui, Colombia, by William H. Holmes; a Study of the Textile Art in its relation to the Development of Form and Ornament, by Will- iam H. Holmes; Aids to the Study of The Maya Codices, by Prof. Cyrus Thomas ; Osage Traditions, by Rev. J. Owen Dorsey; the Central Eskimo, by Dr. Franz Boas. The work forms a royal octavo volume of lviii ++ 657 pages, including a general in- dex, and is illustrated by 546 figures in the text, 10 plates, and 2 maps in pocket. Very respectfully, J. W. POWELL, : Director. Prof. 8. P. LANGLEY, Seoretary of the Smithsonian Institution. APPENDIX II. REPORT OF THE CURATOR OF EXCHANGES FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1890. Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report of the operations of the Bu- reau of International Exchanges for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890. This report has been prepared in a form somewhat similar to the reports of previ- ous years, being for the sake of convenience divided into the following headings : Tabular statement of the transactions of the office and comparison with the work of previous years. Expense. Number of correspondents. International exchange of official documents, etc. Efficiency of the service. List of transportation companies. TRANSACTIONS OF THE BUREAU OF INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE DURING THE FISCAL YEAR. 1889-90. | | July, |Aug., Sept.,, Oct., | Nov.,| Dec., | Jan., | Feb., Mar., prone ream June, 1889. | 1889. | 1889. 1889. | 1889. | 1889. | 1890. | 1890. | 1890. | 1890. | 1890. | 1890. | al | Number of packages re- | | Meier sake te 8, 711| 4,565] 8, 049) 2, 029/10, 94v| 3, 395] 6, 692) 2, 299/13, 745] 5,505, 4, 304/17, 338 Weight of packages re | | cae Ve ee 9, 655/13, 289|14, 331| 6, 365|29, 409| 8, 624/12, 458 10, 480/35, 521/13, 802,13, 909)34, 814 Entries made: | | Woreion..=----.<26-o-. 4, 893] 2, 887] 1,015] 2, 694| 5, 549| 4, 762] 6,742, 3,730) 8, 325| 6,689) 4, 612| 8,220 Momestic..--22-.=+--- 1, 208) 3,112 724 1,016) 1,214 838) 2, 126 462) 1, 582) 1, 882) 1,138) 1, 050 Ledger accounts: | | LIDRGHEn Saree aaa fe be We ced sane | Reaanel bsesed || Saeed lsesbecl secesec tcbeac) ese 5e6l icosee 5, 131 MIGMESHIC SOCIOMES sa) I iGOD |e sae | sere ome Sse eel ele ge mi lelsceis,| cme iats | Seats esl olor alcdseicicleas ses 1, 431 Moreen: InGivia mals 4: GOO e ce lle ag call eater oie staf ce oil sicleroletn| sien aie [ee mele eee) lac ame 6, 340 Wameshicundividnals:|P2 1610): aa. |bonecal 2 ss- ac |lo- 2-5] [-o os o0)| amen min ee cetn| aie ==] |Seeeeta||a cima. 3, 100 Domestic packages sent.| 1,193) 2, 036 573 605) 1, 084 686) 1,760 287} 1, 946) 1, 611) 635) 800 Invoices written......... 871] 528 451 427| 1, 443) 1, 563 608 2, 921, 1, 962) 1, 513) 1, 006) 3, 655 Cases shipped abroad....| 33] 16, 61) 14) 115) 46) 31) 107; 125) 40| 66| 219 Acknowledgments re- corded : MOTO eccce se cee sse 810} 793; 428] 760! 860} 210) 222] 686 799] 477] 1,453/ 900 WOMESUIClos54 2525-5 FBG BS ae BE OO) eects Resses| Mecosc bases leceede| Scnocs *6, 2C6 Letters received......... 119 90 84) 108 87 91; 110} 125) 174) 149) 195] 182 Letters WLIttOMs..22ss0= 96 41 164 67 171 82 108 192) 217 102 118 267 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. qn lop) Recapitulation. | Increase Tnerease | Total. | over Total. over | | 1888-'89. 1888-89. Pe : | Le Number of packages received | 82, 572 6,606 || Domestic individuals ......-. | 8,100 490 Weight of packages received | 202, 657 22,729 || Domestic packages sent. ----- | 13, 216 t4, 002 Entries made: Invoices written.......--..-.. 16, 948 2, 850 MONGMONc ae pam sade ces sre eiron | 60, 118 13, 976 || Cases shipped abroad........ 873 180 MOMGwiGeosecacccresewaRs| nO, 0s t1,924 | Acknowledgments recorded: Ledger accounts : Morelonssccessecnoescer= 8, 398 956 Foreign societies ..-...... | 5,131 665 | Momestic:-o--ee-see sees 9, 026 2,144 Domestic societies.....--. 1, 431 76 || Letters received........-..«- 1, 509 205 Foreign individuals....... 6, 340 1, 641 || Letters written.--....-...--- 1, 625 +425 | | *From December to June inclusive. t Decrease. An idea of the growth of the service since 1886 is conveyed by the annexed sum- mary: Comparative statement. Packages. 1886-'87. | 1887-88. | 1888-'89. | 1889-'90. TRGCOLV GUL fcc owe wan = ales nn ols ioe eels See ea eRe Aer eines 52, 218 75,107 | 75, 966 82, 572 Shipped: | DOMESIGe oee se acn na can aaleencianice moana pie Se Seeeeennie 10, 294 12, 301 17, 218 13, 216 ONO) SU eee e aac alawisie wes loiaiataleetaieie = ain nie eee ele et eee 41,424 62, 306 | 58, 035 69, 036 EXPENSE. The expenses of the Exchange Bureau are met in part by a direct appropriation made by Congress in the following terms: “For expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, fifteen thousand dollars.” This is supplemented by appropriations to several Government Bureaus by which they are enabled to pay a portion of the cost of the exchange of their documents at a rate of 5 cents per pound weight as established by the Board of Regents. Smaller sums have been received from State institutions desiring to make use of the service, and the deficiency is paid from the Smithsonian fund.* The receipts and disbursements by the accounting officer of the Smithsonian - Institution on account of the international exchanges, as shown in his statement for the fiscal year, dated July 1, 1890, were as follows: Receipts. Direct appropriation by Congress ....-.....2- secceccences scercc cence dees cncucat es eke aeee an UO CUULOO Repayment to Smithsonian Institution : United States Government Departments ...... .cc00..eenn= sence encenecncnes 1, 771. 53 Societies ahd other courses: .0.occ ks ce wee edandsasmec ace we -caeer eee ene eenee 18.45 BEES OEE We i “The actual cost of the exchanges from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890, compiled from the accounting officer's books and including the receipts and disbursements for the fiseal year, entered up to September 24, 1890, was $17,407.30. Fifteen thousand dollars of this sum ($17,407.30) were appropriated by Congress directly to the Smithsonian Institution, $2,009.34 were repaid to the Institution by Government Bureans, $28.40 by State institutions and the deficiency, $369.56, was met by the Smithsonian fund. _—_ — REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. at Disbursements. Brom Cou: gressiona appro- Repayments. priations. Salaries and compensation of employés.-..---.....-.-----.s20+--ce0-eecees= $11, 638. 49 $142. 00 HUlariesi Of toveig nN ALONG =< seisisse icine csace sacs kee ose ecanssacinesscuons T,900:\008| eros etme ees = POL OM ine erae teat eee anes sia ais ea aevemiojaiccine saiaieis sem oma iP ewe ec se eGawaisere cece 998. 67 1, 113. 06 PACKING DOKGS tee cmarene ue lenemnesoains ince ache aicatsem nce cece cc cecaswidcs ons 443. 41 222. 50 Printing stationery, POStage, CtC.'s-- vemicice eisieiarisiseieemsicise ences sseiee oni ecieciacem eee cis | 5, 131 1, 431 MNGi MARS tera sees cclebes ceee ce ce witommibcteh emesis ce Batediccamasidessoseetesk weae 6, 340 3, 100 Hi Raye IL eS Bee a ALS meee) iy ORRtE Ts moi Foes MSS SINE BS eset ee 3 11, 471 4, 531 ~ A comparison with similar figures for last year shows a net increase of 2,572. INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS. The exchange of official documents between the Government of the United States and that of foreign countries has been carried on through the intermediary of the Smithsonian Institution, though this exchange has only been placed upon a defi- nite diplomatic footing since January 15, 1889, the date upon which the convention signed at Brussels on March 15, 1856, was proclaimed by the President of the United States. This convention, the text of which was given in fullin Dr. Kidder’s report on exchanges for the year 1887~’88, provided that there should be established in each of 58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY the contracting countries a bureau for the special transmission of the publications of its Government, the transactions of its learned societies, etc., to foreign governments and individuals, and for the receipt from the similar bureaus of other countries of the publications of their government and scientific and literary societies. This in- volves, as will be seen. but little or no modification of the present long-established Smithsonian Institution exchange system, and it is hoped that the official recognition of the value of such a service by so many governments will result in extending the scheme that has been in operation here for the past forty years, the expense of which has been borne largely by the funds of James Smithson. in accordance with a provision made in the Brussels Convention the Governments of the Argentine Republic and of Paraguay have signified their adhesion to the con- vention, the former on September 3, 1889, and the latter on December 10, 1889. The countries therefore included in the international agreement are:—The United States of America, the Argentine Republic, Belgium, Brazil, Italy, Paraguay, Portu- gal, Servia, Spain, Switzerland, Uruguay. While neither England nor Germany appear in the above list, both of these countries have addressed inquiries to this institution through diplomatic channels with regard to exchanges with our Government, and it is most gratifying to report that the Brit- ish Government, through Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, has presented to the Govern- ment of the United States, for deposit in the Library of Congress, an important col- lection of the publications of the parliamentary and executive offices from the years 1882 to 1889, constituting a most valuable series of documents and forming apartial return for the series of publications issued by our own Government since 1868 and sent regularly to the British Museum. Moreover we have the assurance that this valuable series will be continued in annual shipments. The Government of Germany has also expressed its appreciation of the international exchange service in such a way as to lead us to expect that it will in due time make fitting acknowledgment of the series of United States Government publications pre- sented to the Royal Public Library, and to the Library of the Imperial German Par- liament at Berlin. A second convention made at Brussels, and also proclaimed by the President on the 15thof January, 1889, provided for theimmediate exchange of Parliamentary journals and the like, but it had not at the close of the fiscal year been set in satisfactory operation. An effort was made by a letter addressed to the Department of State on December 12, 1859, to carry out the stipulations of this treaty as far as the United States Government was concerned, and upon the recommendation of the Secretary of State a joint resolution appropriating $2,000 for the purpose was passed by the Sen- ate on January 22, 1890, but it has not yet been acted upon by the House. EFFICIENCY OF THE SERVICE. An inspection of the tables presented at the beginning of this report bears suf- ficient evidence that the Bureau has not decreased in efficiency during the past year, especially when it is considered that the increased number (6,606) of packages was handled and accounted for with a decrease in the clerical force during eleven months. At the close of the year there were but 321 packages on hand and the record work was tolerably well up to date. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 59 The distribution to foreign countries was made in 873 cases, representing 355 trans- missions, as follows: Cases. Argentine Republic .22.0. 2.2.5 ses. 12 PANIES DEI area eee eee Shenae oma ev ccics 4 Bad ensipaaeene es = 28 so hecSecter ese wie 4 aN ALIA tae ee eas coisas ne Te eee 4 OU onTE mseye ace osc oetosicle! oer 'sio= i2 Oliva aera ne esate ote coe ee 1 Canadate aoe sstee Con oe aseces wees 8 Chinen Saat ee pice ian camows 3 (City: Steak A Oe ee pee eee eee 8 Colombiaee sa sees = wies boa eee once 6 Costaphica teens eres eee aeimeee 2 (CRULO SSE 22, eI Sas eee eet 3 WMenmiankapeaaces ot a heer eas weenie eis 9 Duchy Guilananess oe aetoteete otaieeee aici 1 HM Cudd Ores a0 = = saet oa eee eae 2 ny Pins ests saci se Se lees eo te 2 LAN CG ast Se aces ee ete cee eee 23 Germaniy......2- S282 2S See ees 25 GreateBritain: ss226 ness eel eae 30 ree COere tree ote aaicee coceae cet es 6 Guatemalayaesacte ooo caehe ecto. s 2 Palais beetorseee elt e aie tin cels wec Sr aiersie 6 Ishi TyEPIAy? seeahc daaecc Geee Gesunde Spee 4 LENCE oe SORE See eles ees ee 5 Wttalliviss Saceeat cise oe ae wis Socom Beck 18 TV ADAMe eesio os tances Se Soci ceveb eases = 10 MGI DELI Ab mers ae eo oe ete ete eee 2 Cases. Mex COlssaanstnc ss ol aoe nnisio oe cena of Netherland sie mere ssemseeee ese 12 INGwa SOubhaWiales) sacee-meneaseoeeee 9 News Zealam dre se. «ste cece oes 8 Nieardowa).s2ooss ss2sc52a-cleae cleats 2 NOT Way csicscsteade hoSeee pote eee 8 iParagUaye. a= sar ssccceescesccee sees 1 Benue secon ste. see seit sete meee 6 Polymesiajses. ane ceee cence oe see ses 2 IPOUUUEEN sono k a SkGeen codba Baeeeseee 7 AGI SStae Bice enter ene Sat eee ee 4 Queenslanidis senna a 9 RUNISRT ate Sho coe tence ee eet 18 SanySalivyad bees ccen ces oat ote eee 1 Saxony, * oct <2r Geese beets Se sseweets 4 SonthvAustralliagces sec aecse ee eee 8 Spainz 2. Seca WER ee eae else eee 8 Swed 6ntt- 2st ce See sae eee 9 Switzerland 724255 soo eee ces eee 15 FASMani avis sesceessteces cose eee 6 Murkey Wass see comes ses aia sereeiels 6 Wirmis nays cia seer ceccimeaae taeerinnee 2 Wienezuelag e220 toe conc eccinenesces 7 Witte tora es cie ae ne 5 nate sere sie at 8 Wrest: Indies.2...2. aca mtecees ese 8-(02)) A Arne feyanl of) Po! AER Sane ong OSOL Gbdc 4 * Miscellaneous exchanges included in transmissions to Germany. +In addition to a large amount sent by mail. t By mail. The entire number of publications sent abroad during the year under the pro- visions of the act of Congress of March 2, 1867, has been 27,300, and there have been received in return but 1,820 packages or volumes. The United States Govern- ment Departments have forwarded to their correspondents abroad through the Bureau 16,496 packages or volumes, and have received in return 8,886. The total, then, of the exchanges for the enrichment of the Government libraries has been 10,706 pack- ages received and 43,796 packages sent abroad, a total of 54,502 packages, or 66 per cent. of the total number of packages handled. 60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Statement of Governmental exchanges distributed during the year 1889~90, Packages. | Packages. hz=e= || a ¢ aed au | acted nent for. ; | for. y American Ephemeris ..---------- | ) Bl Rees Library.of Congress). --s.--= seeeeeeenuae See 3 Clarke’s Nut-cracker (Picicorvus colum- OVANUS) WAUS:) ccc ose cate ao mais camies 6 Long-crested Jay (Cyanocitta stelleri Macrolopha, Baird): 2 <2 .a-aeeme ans 2 Carolina Paroquet (Conurus carolinensis, DA) Nodes = ina, Sec ee poe eee eee tee Houdan Chickens (Gallus bankiva)...... 2 Frizzled Chickens (Gallus bankiva)..... 2 Bronze Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo, L.) 2 White Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo, L.). 3 Canada Goose (Branta canadensis, L.) - 2 Night Heron (Nycticorax mnycticorax Neos; DOUN:) 5. - tunes enon eecuee 3 Turtle Dove (Zenaidura macroura, L.).- 6 REPTILES. Black Snake (Bascanion constrictor, L.) - 1 | Hog-nosed Adder(Heterodonplatyrhinus. TAUPO IA eran ove eicee we cneeuaeein bs gnts 4 Elephant Tortoise (Testudo elephantopus) 2 Galapagos Tortoise (Testudo nigrita) . ... Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis, ATCT) tose eect eee e ees aoe} thence 17 Bull-frog (Rana catesbiana, Shaw)....-. a IWGLOL AL MCUCH ere oc tecdarspemaewscns a se POtALy sauce dene Dienst 'siwislce tains ESET E: 186 | | lee Ter Jee] oe] or Te Tee or is [ew [Tv Toe] Lan) Weal oe Lee Fe ST al Sa | ee mana Blo Ven oss pei! TER RMSCCIEGIOE Sao Sani) cr MUR ooO ree caee: See fat = SER ome (SOROS A El \ DNS ce CITE, aE eae: EPS ZS Leander arte ICI Sy = CII eB SESE SS a aes 2) EIB a WARSI H nonin roCD AAD VW ls Reine ie gi a ore POmy files ase a FAI SES p SG: Mea: zz vast WHE " ay ee MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. OD ANTASOS S e a MOVTa FHT i a r = a - *) ENGI ey -_ are Pact mend 1 AS | at i ie vet pele is ae ees ia) Ui 8 AL wal Codd SS BE faa) Cee) Biel ae lee, Pra h ae a _ ———— OE met ceo ne ly Race es yee atitzble woe pam > Seger meade . Ting, Lo aha ; - iE aah pout to gine thems ate confoed cither ia ak ‘mes woustrutt lne-areqie >" a sapien sxiaais kept, Tappily, a be Unngrees hea proviied fur the cate and (aan Watiesa Boolegiea) Park. i; oMlogio: bag ti 4 } Fer bees glace] in a site ac eo tladaetory th sian | eghaaa baige shou} y Kf hes Térger tian any codlogical garien fo thie seudiry peared from tengie aot the size of iuoat of the pandoosof Sagept. Ts in Within Em Ahoct Fags, Daing bat tthe: mver tented ile from ie Tiedt (oem ap es. $F) ite by eseelivas raad ; bebe (ict dnd erebnelodl ie © ptrich- Wildin, its | vay of sight expoesyte is” 1 ates ot hills corer icine g7ee ts. sutteble ior sningls growl shale, tu the euawy ecuthers agycts Sas tepécal ann) eal be natural variety of eurfone te aloo gest. Gockes her, uetacal SPYeuj ci goats car fump aod olimh; doneeiz wagdel portions f ¥ wf far shy ani anid = large epen Beid clawg the etenk afania Ff /scoiteos grasiog gromuile, Toe creck aelt —T erihialy Ant tably reared,- We tursqdencs of sre region in inte shower br the tetra give fee it Of it it) the prensa had ar ; og intl cmtey There Miata considerehly part sf tie ye a ied 3 Pregan4.” ht Ttoek-hf Dunwharion,” + a S ha yh ia at = Meese Bee Pioneant Migiue.” he of oge oe wt eine Tesi ived. aes abiwh en jd : fad ‘ob ct it run hy Seba Quite’ Ad / ss ad two lite aay ycare past a Piece. ey). ee ew anne g A : idinge s(Ul rac a J ; pable Sv iiddi fa fs “| | a ae ‘» sey Detk { Hapa “to Labret — ‘mh Lee pale ay prem oad for hae atiges Mir anke, mokorteu, srt de jitebably emis: peted eiitias af Opes @ b heed of wets of athena) preecsl, tip Uiedht pedatiorte Bx iawn, —* ee rs x ra ri i ? ~ Ailiz r vie ~~ a 7 ‘ Pos J.P.Klingle. 6.l\8Acres OT Miss A.E.J.Evane. 94.05Acres H.C.-Holt. 13.36 Acres geo ~The Messrs Wa ov THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK AS BURVETED AND PLATTED BT THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, AND RECORDED BY THE ZOOLOGICAL PARK COMMISSION, NOVEM@ER a1, 1880. Seale: 1 inch = 300 feet S, . a. 4 Pica e Area: 166.48 sores. Redrawn and engraved to accompany the report of the Commission. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65 It has hitherto been impossible to give suitable housing to these animals, most of which are gifts tv the Government, and many of them are kept ina long, low shed, imperfectly lighted and heated, wherein animals accustomed to the most diverse cli- _mates are of necessity indiscriminately placed, the common Virginia opossum receiv- ing the same heat and treatment that serves for the parrots and cockatoos. In an annex to this shed the monkeys are placed, and it has been possible to give them somewhat more suitable protection. The larger animals are confined either in sep- arate out-door cages or in shelter-barns and pens, but these constructions are un- suitable and insafficient even for the small number of such animals kept. Happily, this condition is not a permanent one, as Congress has provided for the care and maintenance of the collection in the National Zoological Park. No zoological collection has ever been placed in a site so satisfactory. It is ample in extent, being about four times larger than any zoological garden in this country and from ten to fifteen times the size of most of the gardens of Europe. It is within a short distance of the city, being but little over one-half mile from its limits (see map No. 1) easily accessible by excellent roads; yet it has all the quiet and seclusion of a remote country district. Within its bounds every variety of slope exposure is found, from the north sides of hills covered with dense growth, suitable for animals requiring coolness and shade, to the sunny southern aspects for tropical and sub- tropical species. The natural variety of surface is also great. Rocks form natural cliffs where wild sheep and goats can jump and climb; densely wooded portions form an excellent cover for shy animals, and a large open field along the creek affords an opportunity for excellent grazing grounds. In the creek itself aquatic animals and birds may be suitably reared. That the picturesqueness of the region is notable isshown by the names given to different parts of it in the grants and early deeds of the eighteenth century. There it is found that a considerable part of the park was known as ‘‘ Pretty Prospect,” also as ‘‘ The Rock of Dunbarton,” while other parts are from the tracts of ‘‘ Mount Pleasant” and ‘‘ Pleasant Plains.” The actual owners from whom the site was im- mediately derived are shown on the accompanying map No. 2. Morus rubra, L. Buttonwood or plane tree.......-..-------------- Platanus occidentalis, L. ‘White heart hickory ..........0.-.--0--oeceeneny Oarya tomentosa, Nutt. Pignut hickory....-------- -20-0+eeeceeenen neces: Carya porcina, Nutt. Swamp hickory.-.--..--------++---++ee0--2eeeeee Oarya amara, Nutt. Bigg WelNth .cn- cccenncbweswtwmelulsivioey vunminnienin = Juglans nigra, L. Butternut.......---.-..-- oD SESE SSE Juglans cinerea, L. River or red birch ..----------------+------+----- Betula nigra, L. Hornbeam or water beech ......--..------------- Oarpinus Caroliniana, Walt. Hop hornbeam. ..--------.-----+-0+-2ee--+ee0e ee: Ostrya Virginica, Willd. White oak .....2 5-5... eecceed eee wcsnncnccccosene- Quercus alba, L. Postioaks 225 29 ete ons cenewise ove seapasenrecn- = Quercus stellata, Wang. Chestnut oak ......-------0++----- ann cecleiecen= Quercus prinus, L. Red oak -....2--2- snenee een neem sence nen sceen ans Quercus rubra, L. Scarlet oak ..-..-.0 200-20. cn cn ence wen ewe nnn ennnns Quercus coccinea, Wang. Yellow barked or black oak ..........--..---.--. Quercus coccinea, Wang, var. tinctoria, Gray. Pin or swamp Spanish oak.....-..--------------- Quercus palustris, Du Roi. Spanish oak -.. 2.0... - esses weer cence enesensenns Quercus falcata, Michx. Black jack or barren oak ............------------ Quercus nigra, L. Willow Ofk. 2... 2. cncnncnnnncn cence cewscen-enee Quercus Phellos, L. ROMGSUNIG aac oc cue ccna «a enieiowa ceiene crenata ace eeys . Castanea sativa, Mill, var. Americana, Gray. PAMIOLIOAN DEOO Ns eaten csr cee cewenmes + senseaiceenee Fagus ferruginea, Ait. IDE bh ibe aoace a one o soc esdo aeons | Salix nigra, Marshall. RGU GOURE sods ea ei 39:21, -Spain \...+2. --2eaee ee eee 3 BOMAMNOLICR Gate coe eee eee ces 39: | (22, Siam-:22 2.22.25 ssc ceeaee eee ees 2 OMATIAIM ACES ee c- Base iweeee cose 864" 23. (Greece: a. . 2 sae eee eee eee 2 BOs SParkOiy Ss. . Sassen acon tach ew nae 28° 24. “Abyssinia 22+ we. see eter L DI ERISS ace ee eee ates eee 26) 25 Brazile ts. 52 Rees eee 1 TPS TPO dig atari ae eg are 19" 426" Colombia ascsa= eee eee reese ee 1 [SS Obs baer ecaoameaSpatsnad 2 139 |) 275 (SOLVIde soerekaw oe eee cee ee 1 1) Halts WO Ras aeetecsee cece poo ace it” | PesieRoumaniaies-+ ss e-oee eee eee 1 If arranged according to the number of members present the order would be: TaGiwedentll: « eats eee ees G0w) 16igBoyptt 22.0 ee. at ae eee 4 m Puglsnd ios. 1s25- giGiameaee 58,7. chobtugali-yes. Veeee eee 4 A, GAMER j=22 2: s.ocl-ece eee 20) LS eS wibzerlan diese seeeeeeeeee es 4 ey BIPaneey.atae-tees qa see eee 19) |;L9nTapaneeseecesana eto scee sees 2 G. oenmiark Jo. 2.6 Joss eee 18 |\ 20. oredéer. geet = sts eee eee 1 Mam EQULSSIQ) - 2 eels ecto efeteete tte alae 18!)| View Beloit ums ee settee eee ee 1 8° Holland <.6..csceo ee wertecnae 17:99 Siam! oe oo ee 1 OVA MORICS f36-- 2 = to5.t 2 eee 15 (| 23ieAlbyssmias.coseieeece a seen sone 1 LO; wbinland’s5<5--0e esas eee Tl, |}245 Brazilet. ices osetia 1 0 ee Ne pee eer erie 9) 25.0 ColomDia-c-2 255, e ae a PO PNODW SY CE) oes sere ieae eee eee 6 1)26. Servialsc: -.c on Jae ee eee 1 Liste d Mh ieee Beeb SeSmogpoodse 5) | (27). RONDO RNTD pts aye nese eee eee 0 PAG AMOI «cco sin meee ames ante BO) eee PEIN ate ee ee ler 0 Comparing these figures with those of the preceding Oriental congresses it would seem that there is an increase of devotion to Oriental studies among European schol- ars. At the Seventh Congress, held at Vienna in 1886, there were 414 subscribers and 228 members present; at the Sixth Congress, held at Leyden in 1883, there were 453 subscribers and 219 members present; at the Fifth Congress, held at Berlin in 1881, there were 296 subscribers and 189 members present. The following table indicates the number of subscribers and members present at each of the eight international congresses of Orientalists: Subscri- | Pres- Subseri- | Pres- bers. | ent.” bers. ent. | — Br PATIG (NOLO) co < cas 9c 1,063 |} (tT) D>. erlin (18st) = 22---2- 1,296} 189 2, LIONGOD ICLSVA) e5ce kc sme 1,491 | (t) || 6. Leyden (1883) .-....-. L453) a2 3. St. Petersburg (1876)...| 1,507 | (t+) || 7. Vienna (1886) ....... 1,414 | 228 4. Florence (1878)......-- 1,218 | 127 || 8. Stockholm (1889).... 1,710 | 493 * Bighty-nine foreign members attended. t Not recorded, The increased interest is even more marked on the part of Americans, ‘To the Vienna congress there were eleven American subscribers of whom five (Briggs, Le- land, S. A. Smith, Thatcher, and Whitehouse) were present. To the Stockholm congress there were forty American subscribers, of whom sixteen were present. A list of the American subscribers is herewith subjoined : REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87 1. Dr. Cyrus Adler, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. 2. Dr. W. M. Arnolt, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. 3. Prof. Charles A. Briggs, Union Theological Seminary, 700 Park avenue, New 4, Prof. Francis Brown, Union Theological Seminary, 700 Park avenue, New *5, Prof. Thomas Chase, 50 Barnes street, Providence, Rhode Island. 6, Rev. Lysander Dickermann, Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts. *7, Prof. Richard T. Ely, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. *8. Prof. Richard H. Gottheil, Columbia College, New York. 9. Rev. J. T. Gracey, 202 Eagle street, Buffalo, New York. *10. Prof. William R. Harper, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. *11. Prof. James Taft Hatfield, Northwestern University, Naperville, Illinois. *12. Prof. Paul Haupt, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. *13. Mrs. Paul Haupt, Baltimore, Maryland. *14, Prof. Henry Hyvernat, Catholic University, Brookland, District of Columbia. 15. Prof. A. V. Williams Jackson, Columbia College, New York. 16. Prof. Morris Jastrow, jr., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsyl- 17. Dr. Christopher Johnston, jr., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Mary- *18. Rev. S. H. Kellogg, D.D., 86 Charles street, Toronto, Canada. *19. Prof. Charles R. Lanman, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 20. Charles G. Leland, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. *21. Mrs. Charles G. Leland, Philadelphia. *22. Joseph Moore, jr., 1821 Walnut street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. *23. Dr. Ed. Olsson, president University of Dakota, Vermillion, Dakota. 24. E. D. Perry, New York. *25. Prof. Samuel B. Platner, Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio. 26. Prof. Robert W. Rogers, Dickinson College. *27. Mrs. Karl Rydingsvird, Boston, Massachusetts. 28. David Sulsberger, 1220 North Twelfth street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 29. Mayer Sulsberger, 1303 Girard avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 30. S. M. Swenson, New York. 31. Seymour D. Thomson, St. Louis, Missouri. 32. Dr. William H. Ward, 251 Broadway, New York. 33. Prof. R. F. Weidner, Augustana Theological Seminary, Rock Island, Illinois. 34. Dr. Charles EK. West, 138 Montague street, Brooklyn, New York. 35. Captain Whitehouse, 15 Fifth avenue, New York. 36. Prof. W. D. Whitney, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. * 37. Prof. Alonzo Williams, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. *38. Prof. Robert D. Wilson, Western Theological School, Allegheny, Pennsylvania. 39. Johns Hopkius University, Baltimore, Maryland. 40. The Newberry Library, Chicago, Illinois. * Present. 88 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. The following table indicates the number of American subscribers and members — present at the Eight International Congresses of Orientalists: American Americans subscribers.| present. PPATIAWIBVO) cee fotos eich cee wen es eae ees eatin es ] 138 52 2 ondon (1874) ccs os cows eeseeone Bayete Sa Se A ik 29 | (®) Da OG. F Oberg bUTE (1876) caekyc wee ee meee eee eee AE (°) A. Florence (1878) 62. diet etnieepiarite eee eee 43 2 De, DELUMCLSSL)) Sack coca eniee Senn nese sere ete cia eee eer 6 71 G; Josyden (1883): J... v2 sous. we csce ne ewe erecae meee em eee 8 Jil 4. Vienna'( 1886)... 3 eh ete SE eae eee 11 5 8. stockholm (1889). 5,.. coes san see ere ee eee 8’7.809 05 -+- 0’’.005 67. Isanar: parallax. 3222 osecee se wmeenien see Corser 3 422! 542 16 +0/.125 33. Constant'of aberration:..c2. 22.2 s.2- one ae sae 20.454 51 + 0.012 58. The mean distance of the earth from the sun, with the above value of the solar parallax is 92,796 950+59 715 miles, or 149,340 870+. 96 101 kilometers. | STAR CATALOGUES. The star catalogue of the Astronomische Gesellschaft.—The first parts of the great catalogue of the Astronomische Gesellschaft appeared in 1890. They are the volumes containing the catalogues of zones ob- served by Krueger at Helsingfors and Gotha, by Boss, at Albany, and by Fearnley and Geelmuyden at Christiania. The two first mentioned volumes contain respectively the positions of 14,680 and of 8,241 stars for the equinox of 1875. It may be worth while to recall here the origin of this great under- taking, now nearing completion. The zones of the Histoire céleste JSrangaise, published by Lalande comprise about 50,000 stars from the first to the eighth magnitude, but they were not catalogued till nearly half a century after theircompletion. Those of Bessel, observed at Koenigsberg from 1821 to 1833, contain 62,600 stars from the first to the ninth magnitude between —15° and 4+ 45° declination; the two cata- ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 125 logues of Weisse appeared in 1846 and 1863. From 1841 to 1852 Arge- lander continued his work at Bonn, and his northern zones (published in 1846) contain 22,000 stars between +45° and +80° and the southern zoues (published in 1852) 17,000 between —15° and —319, catalogued by Oeltzen (1851 to 1857). The positions in these different catalogues depend upon meridian observations. In 1852, having finished his zones, Argelander conceived the plan of a work of much greaterextent. It was to fix approximately the positions of all stars to the ninth magnitude, and perhaps a little below (9.5), visi- ble in our Jatitudes. To accomplish this the plan was to employ simply a small telescope, the observer, with his eye always at the telescope, to call out toa recorder, who sat close by with achronometer. The preliminary trials, by J. Schmidt, being successful, the work was begun, and, with the help of Krueger and Schoenfeld, on whom the greater part of thela- bor fell, the revision of the northern sky was finished in 1859; and this is the work that we know as the “‘ Bonn Durchmusterung.” The Durchmusterung,published between 1859 and 1862 in volumes 3, 4, and 5of the Bonn Observations, contains no less than 324,198 stars, lying between 2° south declination and the north pole, the zone between +819 and the pole being a revision of Carrington’s catalogue. Volume 6 of the “Bonn Beobachtungen,” contains futhermore 34,000 positions, deter- mined by Argelander with the meridian circle. The stars of the Durchmusterung are plotted on a series of charts published in 1863. Since Argelander’s death Schoenfeld has completed a similar piece of work for oursouthern sky, the “ Stidliche Durchmusterung ” (1886), con- taining more than 133,000 stars, between —2° and—23°, and Gould at Cordoba has extended the zones to the neighborhood of the south pole. Upon the organization of the International Astronomische Gesell- schaft in 1865, the question at once came up of undertaking, by the co-op- eration of several observatories, the exact determination of the positions of all these stars provisionally catalogued in the Durchmusterung. A programme for the work, prepared by a special committee, was. finally decided upon at the meeting in Vienna in 1869. The new revision was confined to the limits of —2° and +80° declination, the positions of the circumpolars seeming to be sufficiently well known from the work of Carrington and that of the astronomers at Hamburg and Kazan. The zones were at first assigned as follows: 80° to 75° Kazan. 30° to 30° Leipzig. 75 to 70 Dorpat. 30 to 25 Cambridge (England), 70 to 65 Christiania. 25 to 15 Berlin. 65 to55 Helsingfors. 15 to 10 Leipzig. -55 to 50 ? 10 to 4 Mannheim. 50 to 40 Bonn. 4 to 1 Neufchatel. 40 to 35 Chicago. +1 to —2 Palermo. Pulkowa undertook the determination of 539 fundamental stars eare- fully selected by Dr. Auwers, which should form points of reference. In the 20 years that have elapsed since the great catalogue was 126 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. decided upon several changes have been made in the original pro- gramme, the work being eventually divided up among the following observatories : 80° to 75° Kazan. 35° to €0° Leyden. 75 to70 Dorpat. 30 to 25 Cambridge (Eng.) 70 to65 Christiania. 25 to15 Berlin. 65 to 55 Helsingfors-Gotha. 15 to 5 Leipzig. 55 to 50 Cambridge (U.S.). 5 to Ll Albany. 50 to40 Bonn. +1 to—2 Nicolaief. 40 to 35 Lund. The work of observation is now finished, Some of the zones have been published (Kazan, Christiania, Helsingfors, Lund), others are in press, and the catalogues have been begun. Three of the catalogues (Aibany, Helsingfors-Gotha, and Christiania,) have just appeared. Meanwhile the zones have been extended to the southern sky, the fol- lowing being to a greater or less extent under way: —2° to— 6° Strasburg. —14° to—18° Washington. —6 to—10 Vienna. —18 to—23 Algiers. —10 to — 14 Cambridge (U.S. ). The positions of the 303 fundamental southern stars are furnished by observations undertaken at the Cape of Good Hope, Madison, Annapolis, Carlsruhe, Leiden, and Strasburg. Gould’s southern zones extend from —25° to—80°, and it is to be hoped that before long we shall have a catalogue embracing the whole sky, the value of which will be in no wise diminished by the photographic chart which is about to be begun. The observations for the Helsingfors-Gotha catalogue were made al- most entirely by Dr. Krueger with a0". 15 (5.9 inch) Reichenbach merid- ian circle. The star positions are for the epoch 1875, and besides the right ascension and declination, the precession and secular variation, and wherever possible the proper motion are given. The observations forthe Albany zone were made by Professor Boss with a 0™. 20 (7.9 inches) Pistor & Martin’s meridian circle, the transits being recorded on the chronograph, while Dr. Krueger used the “‘eye-and-ear ” method. The probable errors come out: In right | In decli- ascension. nation. ts Be 3 | Helsingforsay. ceca oe acseeee +0%.101 | +0”.51 | lnGothians.ce cose ee ee ee sabes! 76 | Albany: DODECIVAtIONA. = eee eeeee . 025 39 SiODSSErVStlONs ao ees ewes . O21 sie 4 observations:...2....02-5 .018 cel Experiments were made with wire-gauze screens by Professor Boss to determine the effect of difference of magnitude upon the observa- tions, his result being that a change of one magnitude produced a change of 0°.014 in the personal equation in observing a transit, ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 127 A third installment of the catalogue, that containing the stars from 4+-64° 50/ to +70° 10’, has also appeared. The observations were made by Professors Fearnley and Geelmuyden with the Ertel meridian circle of the Christiania Observatory, of 48 lines aperture. The prob- able error of a single observation is given as + 08.054 in right ascension (405.02 in a great circle) and + 0’.54 in declination. Yarnall’s catalogue—A. third edition of the catalogue of southern stars observed with the transit instrument and mural circle at the U. 8S. Naval Observatory from 1845 to 1877 has been published, the work of revision having been conducted by Professor Frisby. Great pains have been taken to eliminate all errata detected in the previous editions, both by the careful examination of published lists of correc- tions and by comparisons with other catalogues. The whole number of stars in the new edition is 10,964. Munich catalogue.—Band 1 of the ‘* Neue Annalen der k. Sternwarte in Bogenhausen bei Miinchen” contains a catalogue of 33,082 stars down to the tenth magnitude inclusive, between —32° and +24° decli- nation, reduced to the epoch 1880.0. The observations were made with a Reichenbach meridian circle of 109™™ (4.3 inches) aperture and circle of 0.95™ (37.4 inches) diameter. Second Melbourne catalogue.—This catalogue contains the results of observations made with the old transit circle of 5 inches aperture from the beginning of 1871 to the end of August, 1584; places of 1,211 stars are given for 1880. Brussels catalogue.—The Brussels catalogue contains 10,792 stars for the epoch 1865, observed with the Brussels transit instrument and mural circle in the years 1857—1878; the general catalogue is preceded by the positions of the fundamental stars used in the reductions. A supplement is to be published giving corrections to the catalogue due to a number of inaccuracies detected in the reductions. The Williams College catalogue of north polar stars.—Professor Saf- ford has published a catalogue of right ascensions of 261 stars, mostly within 10° of the north pole, and observed by him with the 44-inch Repsold meridian circle of the Field Memorial Observatory at Williams- town. The results have been reduced to the epoch 1885.0. Professor Safford characterizes his catalogue as an ‘‘attempt to strengthen the weak point of all our standard catalogues—the right ascensions of polar stars,” and he draws the following conclusions from his work. “First. Thatit is highly conducive to accuracy, systematic as well as in detail, to base a catalogue of polar right ascensions upon standard places in all hours of right ascension, rather than upon double transits alone. “Second. That the introduction of meridian marks according to Struve (long-focus object glasses, also suggested by Rittenhouse) is a great advantage to the primary catalogues, 128 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. “ Third. That the eye-and-ear method should be retained as the stand- ard within a narrow rather than a wide range of polar distance. ‘“ Fourth. That modern meridian instruments are subject to irregular small changes of position, which are not direct functions of the tem- perature; so that in all differential work it is better to keep a close watch upon clock rate and instrumental adjustments rather than to trust the instrumental zero points for more than 2 hours without rede- termination of the most essential. “ Fifth. That the right ascensions here given are reasonably accurate- “Sixth. That a thorough comparison of the chronographic and eye- and-ear method within a wide range, both of magnitude and declina- tion, is desirable.” Greenwich 10-year catalogue, 1877 to 1886, published in the volume of Greenwich Observations for 1887, contains 4,059 stars for the epoch 1880.0. The catalogue of 303 reference stars for the southern zones of the Astronomische Gesellschaft has been published by Dr. Auwers, and although the material accumulated since 1880, when the provisional list was issued, is not sufficient to give places of a thoroughly satisfactory degree of accuracy, the final corrections will probably be extremely small. . A collection of all available meridian observations of stars that wil] be within 1° of the north pole in 1900 has been prepared, under the direction of Professor Pickering, by Miss Winlock and published as the ninth memoir in volume 18 of the Harvard Observatory Annals. STELLAR PARALLAX. Professor Pritcoard intends to examine for parallax, by the aid of photography, all stars of the second magnitude suitably situated for observation at Oxford, in the hope of contributing to our knowledge of what Herschel called the “ construction of the heavens.” With refer- ence to the differences in the results obtained by different observers, Professor Pritchard says: ‘Guided by the suggestions of recent experi- ence, [ now think that such differences of ‘ parallax’ might very reason- ably have been anticipated and may probably be accepted as matters of fact without in any degree impugning the accuracy of the observa- tions. For in process of this work on parallax, and also from the gen- | eral history of similar inquiries, it has been made abundantly evident that no necessary connection exists between the brightness of a star and its position in space, or distance from the sun. Nevertheless it is this very difference of brightness mainly which guides us in the selection of comparison stars. The ‘parallax’ is, in fact, and is becom- ing more and more generally recognized to be, a differential quantity, fainter stars being in very many instances much nearer to us than others possessing incomparably greater brightness. In passing I may here instance a Lyrw as compared with 61 Cygui; 7 Centauri as ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 129 compared with « Indi. In fact, the position in space of the faint com- parison stars in relation to that of the star whose parallax is sought is, if not a matter of accident, at all events wholly unknown until the ob- servations and computations are complete.” Professor Pritchard’s results for stellar parallax, as published in the third volume of the Oxford Observations, are as follows: Macni- Proper Star. ind. pts Parallax. a Vi =Soh | hee a GIE Cy oni =. aces tsce 4,98 5. 16 0.44 GIA Cye nig ene ee 4.98 5. 16 0. 44 je Cassiopeize .... ---- 5. 40 SnD 0, 04 Pollan. oe oe 2.05 0.05 0,08 a Cassiopel@ -.-.=--- 2.4 0.05 0.04 fiCassiopeiwe == os" 2. 32 0.55 0.16 y Cassiopeia -2.. --:. 2.19 0, 02 0.01 | aa Cephely se peserisa: ay | 0.16 0. 06 The greater part of this volume is devoted to « discussion of the parallax of 61 Cygni and the results seem to justify his remark that “the four comparison stars probably belong to a remote system not containing 61 Cygni.” The probable errors deduced are small. At the annual visitation to the Oxford Observatory on June 12, 1890, Professor Pritchard announced the results of the determination of parallaxes of six more stars by the photographic method, as follows: | Parallax. | fee Z Bi ae Fe | ‘Mf | “i ECO VOR LIS. soccett er + 0.115 | + 0.034 PO vOMe = tae 9 040 | . 029 f Anudromede ...---- + .092 | - 023 GENTICHIB, Ate he ses + .080 | . 027 | EVASION pe Sees Sess a + 0.74 | . 029 f Ursx Minoris -.- 5 ws 022m . 030 | The subjoined table forms a summary of a paper published in the Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos. 2915 and 2916, by Dr. Oudemans, in which he collects the seattered results for stellar parallax obtained in the past sixty years. Dr. Oudemans concludes that “stars with proper motions greater than 6.05 have probably an annual parallax of 0.”10 to 0.50. Distance No. of Proper Annual lintn tehg . istars: motion. parallax. | cP aRES | | years. | | | WW | ul | 9 led OR te iO Soba 10 9 Ree ISS . 20 16 9 1.00 erat Y 16 sy) 0.38 18 18 10 0,05 16 20 H. Mis. 129——9 130 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. PROPER MOTIONS. Professor Boss has published in the Astronomical Journal the proper motions of 295 stars of the Albany zone (+ 0° 50’ to + 5° 10’), In the Bulletin Astronomique for March, 1890, is a most useful cata- logue, compiled by Bossert, of all stars whose proper motion is known to exceed 0,50. They are thus distributed : : | Proper motion 0. Ors s. . N f stare greater than | 5 5.0 4 4.0 6 3.0 9 2.0 11 15 30 12 15 | 1.0 38 | 0.8 77 0.6 73 | 0.5 DOUBLE AND MULTIPLE STARS. Some very elegant and simple formule for determining the true orbit of a binary star, originally published in Russian, have been brought out by Professor Glasenapp. £ Scorpii.imHerr Schorr has made a study of the motions in this triple system by methods similar to those employed by Dr. Seeliger on *‘ Cancri. The star is known as ¥ 1998, the magnitudes of its compo- nents being A=3.9, B=5.2, C = 7.2. 7 Ophiuchi has been divided into two nearly equal components by Burnham with the 36inch Lick telescope,and he thinks that it will prove to be a binary of short period. He has also found companions for Aldebaran, 7 Cassiopeizw, and 0 Cygni, and has been able to sepa- rate and measure a companion to the principal star in the pair « Hydre, the existence of which was suspected by previous observers. Photographs of the spectrum of Spica have put beyond question the reality of its motion in the direction of the line of sight. Dr. Vogel has deduced from observations of 1889 and 1890 a period of revolution of about 4 days. PHOTOMETRY. The results of observations made with the meridian photometer of the Harvard observatory by Prof. E. C. Pickering and Mr. Wendell during the years 1882-1888, have appeared as volume 24 of the Harvard Annals. The principal work done with this instrument was ‘the de- termination of the magnitudes of a sufficient number of stars con- tained in the Durchmusterung, and distributed with approximate uni- formity, to serve for future estimates or measures of maguitude, and to enable previous estimates to be reduced to the photometric scale,” ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 131 The number of stars of which observations are recorded is 20,125; 30 that when the stars enumerated in volume 28 of the Annals are reck- oned, the total number of stars observed reaches 20,982. Measures have also been made of 166 variable stars and of several planets and satellites. In the ‘Harvard Photometry” the brightest stars were com- pared solely with Polaris. In the present observations 4 Urs Minoris was selected as the standard star, but the results are made to depend upon a series of 100 circumpolar stars, the magnitudes of which were frequently determined with the smaller instrument. Photographic photometry.—The readiest and most effective means of determining the magnitudes of stars from an examination of the disks impressed on a sensitized film is a problem that has received much attention recently, and contributions to the literature of the subject have been made from the three observatories of Harvard, Stockholm, and Potsdam. Professor Pickering gives in volume 18 of the Harvard Annals three catalogues of magnitudes, embracing, on the whole, some 2,500 stars, the first catalogue giving the photographic magnitudes of all the stars brighter than the fifteenth magnitude within 1° of the pole; the second, the magnitudes of many of the stars in the Pleiades; and the third the magnitudes of 1,131 stars generally brighter than the eighth magnitude near the equator. The contribution from the Potsdam observatory is confined to the discussion of the magnitudes of stars in the Pleiades as impressed on plates taken with a chemically corrected object-glass by Dr. Scheiner, and with the reflecting telescope of the Herény observatory, supple- mented by some photographs of the artificial stars in a Zollner photom- eter. The principal results of the inquiry are twofold: first, that the inerease of the diameter of the star disk varies as the square root of the time of exposure ; and secondly, that a simple linear relation exists between the observed diameter and the magnitude. The third contribution to this subject is from Dr. Charlier, of Stock- holm, who deduces a formula which expresses the connection between the photographic brillianey of a star and its photographed image in such @ manner as to insure a coincidence as far as possible between the pho- tographic and photometric magnitudes. VARIABLE AND COLORED STARS. Chandler's catalogue of variable stars.—Chandler’s admirable cata- logue of variable stars has been adopted by Schoenfeld in the ephemer- ides published in the Vierteljahrsschrift, and it also furnishes the data for the ephemerides of the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes and the Observatory, and is thus formally recognized as the standard authority ou variables. Mr. Chandler publishes in the Astronomical Journal (No. 216) three tables supplementary to the catalogue, containing (1) a list of new variables arranged as in the original catalogue ; (2) a list of 132 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. additions and corrections to the elements of the catalogue; and (3) a list of stars probably variable, but whose variability needs further con- firmation before definitive letters can be assigned. The attention of observers is directed to this list. Taking his catalogue of 1888 as a basis, Mr. Chandler has made an investigation of the relation existing between the lengths of the periods and the number of the variables; their color, range of fluctuation, forms of light curves, irregularities of periods and of light variations. Periods under 20 days predominate, while for the long-period stars a well-marked maximum is indigated about a period of 320 days. With regard to color, the redder the tint the longer the period; and with regard to range of fluctuation, while it is probable that there is a de- pendence of range upon the duration of the period, the relation is not one of strict proportionality of range to period. It furthermore appears that the average ratio of increase to decrease for stars with periods less than 100 days is about 0.65; between 100 and 200 days it is slightly in excess of unity ; it then declines as the periods lengthen ; at first, grad- ually, but in the neighborhood of a year, with extraordinary sudden. ness, recovering as quickly until it again exceeds unity in the group of extremely long periods. In the case of the numerical laws of the per- turbations of the periods, Mr. Chandler remarks that his researches are not yet complete, but that, broadly, in the case of long-period vari- ables, the irregularities are periodic in their nature, and in the case of | those of short period, secular and exceptional. Algol.—Prof. H. C. Vogel, of Potsdam, has published the results of some interesting observations of the changes in the spectrum of Algol at the times of the diminution and recovery of its light. These, whilst fully confirming the view originally suggested by Goodricke, that the periodic variability of this star is caused by the revolution of a dark companion cutting off part of its light in the manner of an eclipse, and the calculation of Professor Pickering that the diameter of the compan- ion amounts to about eight-tenths of that of the principal star, have enabled Professor Vogel to obtain approximate values of the mutual dis- tance and actual sizes and masses of the two stars, as well as of their orbital velocities round their common center of gravity. He finds, in fact, that their diameters are probably about 1,080,000 and 850,000 English miles respectively; that the distance of their ceuters from each other amounts to about 3,290,000 miles, and that the orbital velocity of Algol is about 27, whilst that ofits companion is about 56 miles. The mass of the former he determines to be about double that of the latter, the one being approximately four-ninths and the other two-ninths of the sun’smass. It is not necessary, he remarks, to suppose that the com- panion is absolutely opaque, but only that its light is very much feeb- ler than that of the principal star. It may be added tnat the Greenwich observations confirm Dr. Vogel’s conclusion of the motion of the star in a small orbit, ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. ie A remarkable star of the Algol type, having the shortest period known, was discovered in 1888 by Prof. H. M. Paul, of the U.S. Naval Observatory. The star is 12 Antliv of Gould’s Uranometria Argentina, a=9» 26™ 508, 0= — 28° 4.7 (1875.0). The range of magnitude is 6.7 to 7.3, aud according to Chandler it goes through its changes in 3® 20", From an examination of one of the photographie plates taken by the Harvard observatory party, at the Chosica station in Peru, Professor Pickering has announced the discovery of a long-period variable in Cezlum of the same class as O Ceti, R Hvdre, and R Leonis. The spectra show bright hydrogen lines. A number of other new variables have been detected in the exami- nation of the photographic plates taken at the observatory, and have been announced by Professor Pickering in the Astronomische Nach- richten. Some attention has also been paid to this subject by Dr. J. C. Kapteyn in measuring the plates taken at the Cape of Good Hope for the formation of Dr. Gill’s photographie southern Durchmusterung, and also by Mr. Roberts in the prosecution of his work in astronomical pho- tography. A general index to observations of variable stars, prepared under the direction of Prof. E. C. Pickering, forms No. 8 of Vol. 18 of the Har- vard Annals. A large number of unpublished observations are referred to, particularly three extensive series of observations by Argelander, Heis, and Schmidt, to wbose manuscripts access was given. A new edition or rather revision of Birmingham's Red Star Catalogue has been printed in No. v of the Cunningham Memoirs of the Royal Irish Academy. The work of revision was undertaken by Rev. T. E. Espin in 1886, with the 174-inch equatorial reflector, and in the course of the work a number of new red stars, new variables, and stars with bright lines in their spectra were discovered. There is also an addi- tional list of 629 *‘ ruddy stars.” STELLAR SPECTRA. Spectrum of € Urse Majoris.—Professor Pickering has reported a re- markably interesting peculiarity in the spectrum of this star. It was noticed that the K line was double in the photographs taken March 29, 1887, May 17, 1889, and August 27 and 28, 1889, while on many other dates the line appeared hazy as if the components were slightly sepa- rated, and at other times the line was well defined and single. It was concluded that the line was double at intervals of 52 days beginning March 27, 1887, and it was predicted that the doubling would occur again on December 9, 1889, and this prediction was confirmed by each of three photographs on the latter date. Professor Pickering says: “The only satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon as yet pro- posed is that the brighter component of this star is itself a double star having components nearly equal in brightness and too close to have been Separated as yet visually. Also that the time of revolution of the sys- 134 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. tem is 104 days. When one component is approaching the earth all the lines in its spectrum will be moved toward the blue end, while all the lines in the spectrum of the other component will be moved by an equal amount in the opposite direction if their masses are equal. Each line will thus be separated into two. When the motion becomes per- pendicular to the line of sight, the spectral lines recover their true wave-length and become single.” From the amount of separation of the lines Professor Pickering con- cludes that the relative velocity of the two components must be about 100 miles per second. If the orbit is circular and its plane passes through the sun, the distance traveled by one component, regarding the other as fixed, would be 900,000,000 miles, and the distance apart of the two components would be 143,000,000 miles, or about that of Mars and the sun. The combined mass would be about forty times that of the sun to give the required period. Several other stars have been found from the Harvard photographs with a similar doubling of the lines, among them / Aurigz and b Ophi- uchi. For ¢ Aurigz Professor Pickering deduced a period of 4 days, and his results have been fully confirmed by observations made with quite different apparatus by Dr. Vogel at Potsdam. A doubling of the K line in several photographs of the spectrum of Vega taken by Mr. A. Fowler, apparently indicating that Vega was a double star of the ¢ Urs Majoris type, has not been confirmed by the photographs of Pickering, Vogel, and Henry. The Henry Draper Memorial.-—The third annual report of Professor Pickering announces the practical completion of two branches of the work undertaken, the photographic survey of the spectra of all stars north of — 25° declination having been effected on a twofold scale, the one survey including all stars brighter than the seventh magnitude, the other including stars two magnitudes fainter. The Bache 8-inch doub- let employed in this work has been transferred to a station near Chos- ica in Peru and similar surveys for the stars down to the south pole have been commenced. The fourth annual report of the Henry Draper Memorial contains as a frontis piece an engraving showing the periodical duplication of the K line in the spectrum of 3 Aurigze, the study of which, with other similar cases has been the most important work of the 11-inch equa- torial at Harvard. The spectroscopic survey of the brighter stars in the northern hemisphere (to — 25° declination) is nearly printed and the work on fainter stars is being satisfactorily pressed. Besides the spectra, charts of the entire sky are being formed with the same telescopes. A photographie map of the sky will thus be provided, ap- proximately on the scale of the Durchmusterung, but including fainter stars; so far as it has been completed it has proved very convenient for studying suspected variables and in detecting errors in star cata- logues. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 135 Reference should also be made here to the lists of stars with peculiar spectra detected upon the Harvard Observatory photographie plates and published from time to time by Professor Pickering in the Astro- nomische Nachrichten. A spectroscopic survey of the southern heavens by direct observa- tion has been undertaken at the Melbourne Observatory. An 8-inch refracter and the 4-foot reflector will be used in the work. MOTIONS OF STARS IN THE LINE OF SIGHT. The foilowing is a comparison of the results for motion in the line of sight obtained by Dr. Vogel at Potsdam with a photographic telescope, and those obtained by Maunder at the Greenwich Observatory by eye observations. The motions are given in geographical miles, + repre- senting recession, and — approach : Vogel. | Maunder, | 4.22, Capella 225... +17.1 5 Aldebaran.....-..| +30. 3 +31.6 GAR EYSel: some feecsl| — 7.2 —22.5 IEPOCY OMe see eae | — 7.2] + 3.8 Dr. Vogel’s interesting results with regard to Algol and other stars have been alluded to elsewhere. : Bright lines in stellar spectra.—Mr. Espin has detected bright lines in the spectra of a number of variables when near their maxima, among them R Leonis, R Hydra, 7 Cygni, R Andromedie, and S Cassiopcize all of Secchi’s third type. Similar lines in the spectra of U and V Cygni, of the fourth type have been suspected by the Lick observers, and when these stars were far removed from their maxima. Mr. Keeler also finds that he is able to break up the apparently continuous spectra of stars of the type of the Wolf-Rayet stars in Cygnus into an extremely complicated range of absorption bands and faint bright lines. A remarkable form of spectrum has been discovered by Professor Pickering in that of the star Pleione, for the F line consists in this case of a narrow bright line superposed on a broader dark line, the other hydrogen lines showing some indications of a similar character. ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. The photographic chart of the heavens.—The permanent committee appointed by the Astrophotographic Congress at Paris, in 1887,as noted in the Review of Astronomy for the years 1887-88, held their first meeting at the Paris Observatory in September, 1890. The results of the seven séances are contained in a series of twenty-eight resolutions, some of the most important of which are mentioned below. 136 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. The zones were assigned to the several participating as follows: NORTH. Latitude. Zone. | / Oo } HelsiInetorse- so. eee eee +60 9 90 to +70 Potsdam?-222: 2 ee Daneel 70 58 | OXTGTH eee Pe Aen 51 45 58 48 Greenwich .-2... <----eeee soe dl 28 | 48 40 Parise serge eee 48 50 | 40 32 Viena, S252 .s2 -p-cie eee 48 13 32 24 BORGBANX Ss eee ew we cee eee 44 50 24 18 | Toulouse hah 084 ees ae 43 37 18 12 Calan. 22 c ~ aac ie See ee 37 30 12 6 | APIONSe ee to eee nee eis 36 48 | + 6 to 0 San: Hermano: 2) -seee ee eeeee S6.270) 0 to — 6 | Chanuilltepecy +=. eae eee 19 26 | — 6 to —12 PaCwDAya ceancte oo ee eee +19 24) —12 to —18 SOUTH. RIOWMe SaAVeinos see eee —22 54 —18 to —26 San Havoc ot ide sees ees —33 26 26 34 Sydne ye -- cess oo eee | —33 51 3 42 Cape.of Good Hope:----_ :... | —33 56 | 42 ay Ris aba ee ee alee ee | —d4 55 | 52 70 Melbourne: 2225) see | —37 50} —70 to — No observatory in the United States appears on this list. A bill was introduced in Cengress making an appropriation to enable the United States Naval Observatory to undertake a share of the work, but the bill failed to become a law. Lhe committee decided that the field of the telescope available for measurement should be 2° square; that the photographic plates em- ployed (which are to be of plate glass) should be 160™™ (64 inches) square and the series of reference lines 130™™ (5¢ inches) square with the lines 5™™ apart. Twelve test objects were selected, all of which are situated near the equator, at intervals of about two hours of right ascension. In addition to these, the Pleiades, Praesepe, and a group in Cygnus were selected for the use of the more northern observatories. To fix the time of exposure so that the plates shall contain stars to the eleventh magnitude, it was decided to determine first the time nec- essary to photograph a star of the 9.0 magnitude of Argelander’s scale, and thereby multiplying by 6.25 the time of exposure for magnitude 11.0 will be obtained. Three more numbers (3, 4, and 5) of the Bulletin du Comité Interna- tional permanent pour lV Exécution Photographique de la Carte du Ciel have been published. Among the many papers contributed to these ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 137 bulletins which have a very important bearing upon astronomical pho- tography, may be mentioned one by Dr. Bakhuysen on the measure- ment of the plates by the method of rectangular coérdinates, in which he obtains star-places comparing favorably with those from meridian observations. Dr. Vogel contributes one or two papers on the “ rés- eaux ” and the measurement of the plates, and Professor Kapteyn sug- gests the expediency of taking the catalogue plates with three exposures at intervals of six months, for the purpose of determining the stars’ proper motions and parallaxes. Dr. Scheiner has an important paper on the application of photography to the determination of stellar mag- nitudes. ‘In the fifth number of the Bulletin, Professor Holden has two papers on the photographic magnitudes of stars, and Mr. Schaeberle one on the same subject. There is also an abstract of Dr. Lindemann’s photo- metric determination of the star magnitudes of the Bonn Durchmus- terung, and a paper by M. Trépied on the necessity of coming to some understanding as to what is meant by stars of the 9th, 11th, and 14th magnitudes on the photographic plates. The question of the reproduction of the plates and of the publication of the map has been left open, but it is probable that one or more bureaus will be established for measuring the negatives obtained at observatories not provided with special apparatus for the purpose, and photographie copies of all plates will be preserved in selected places in case of accident to the original negatives. A meeting of those interested in the various branches of astronomical photography other than the chart was called by Messrs. Jaussen and Common in September, 1889. The chief matters for discussion being a complete photographie record of solar phenomena, including solar spectrum photography; a systematic description of the lunar surface by photography on a large seale; photographs of pianets and their satellites, of comets, meteors, and particularly of nebule, clusters, and of stellar spectra. In discussing the theory of the photography of a star projected upon a bright background, Professor Holden cails attention to the fact that the most important factor is the ratio of the focal length to the aperture of the objective; generally speaking it would be an advantage to dia- phragm the objective during the day. This is also true with regard to ordinary observations during the day, a point of particular importance in connection with meridian observations. Authoritative testimony as to the value of photography for obtaining accurate measures of star clusters is given by Dr. Elkin, who has com- pared Dr. Gould’s reductions of Rutherfurd’s photographs of the Plei- ades taken over 20 years ago, with the heliometer measures made at K6nigsberg and New Haven. The smallness of the probable error Dr. Elkin regards as proof that in photography we have a means of in- vestigation for micrometric work at least on a par with any existing 138 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. method, and doubtless far surpassing the present methods in ease of measurement and output of work. The Henry Brothers are reported to have made a decided advance in lunar photography in the plates taken with the equatorial of 0™.32 (12.6 inches) aperture intended for the chart work. The improvement is attributed especially to the process of enlargement employed, which makes the diameter of the moon about 1™ (39 inches). This photographic work is to be continued with the great equatorial coudé, which is soon to be mounted and provided with a photographic objective. Mr. Roberts has devised a machine, which he calls a ‘“‘ pantograver,” for measuring the magnitudes of the stars depicted upon the photo- graphie plates and transferring them to metallic plates for printing. COMETS. The origin of comets.—Dr. Bredichin, the present director ef the Pul- kowa Observatory, who has devoted much time to the study of comet- ary phenomena, has expressed the opinion that periodic comets owe their origin to the segmentation of ordinary parabolic comets, having been thrown off from the latter by an eruption such as it is generally sup- posed we have witnessed in the great comet of 1882, and earlier in Biela’s comet. Dr. Kreutz’s monograph on this great September comet of 1882 forms one of the most important of recent contributions to com- etary literature. The formidable obstacles to an accurate determination of its orbit presented by the disintegration of the nucleus into several points of condensation seem to have been most skillfully surmounted by the computer. His final value for the period of revolution is 772.2 years. Dr. Holetschek claims that the systematic grouping of cometary peri- helia in certain directions (270° and 90° of heliocentric longitude) has no connection with the general motion of the solar system in space, but is due to the position of the earth at the time that such discoveries are most readily made. An important paper on the capture theory of comets will be found in the Bulletin Astronomique for June, 1889, and in the same journal for December, 1890, M. Tisserand has a further contribution to the same subject. The Observatory for August, 1889, has a useful table of the approxi- mate positions at the time of discovery of all comets seen since 1869, with brief notes on the physical appearance of each. Mr. Denning, who has compiled this table, proposes to supplement it by one with similar data for the comets from 1840 to 1868. Brorsen’s comet.—A careful search for Brorsen’s comet, which passed perihelion in 1890, was made by Brooks and Swift, but without effect. This comet was discovered in 1846, and was last seen in 1879; it could not be seen at the return in 1884. Tempel’s second comet, and Bar- nard’s comet 1884 II, were also expected to return to perihelion in ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 139 1890, but were unfavorably situated for observation and escaped de- tection. Comets of 1889 and 1890.—W. R. Brooks reported the discovery, on the morning of January 15, 1889, of a faint comet in Sagittarius, and to it the designation Comet a 1889 was given, as the first comet discovered during the year. A careful search for the object was made by a num. ber of observers, especially by Barnard and Swift, but without success. As the three observations necessary for determining the orbit were not secured, the comet is not catalogued with those of the year. A comet announced by Swift on July 15, 1889, is also omitted, as it proved to be identical with the comet discovered by Brooks on August 7, 1888. (1888 IIT). A phenomenon reported at Grahamstown, South Africa, on the 27th of October, 1890,should be mentioned in connection with the notes on comets. It was described as a bright band one-fourth of a degree wide and 30° longitude, afterwards increasing to 90°. At one end it looked like the head of a comet, while the other end faded out gradually. Its motion was extraordinary, as it swept over more than 100° in less than 1" 15", The comets for the years 1889 and 1890, with their final designations, in the order of perihelion passage are as follows: Comet 1889 I: | The first comet of 1889, in the order of perihelion = Comet e 1888. passage, was that discovered by Barnard at the Lick Observatory with a 4-inch comet-seeker on September 2, 1888, or the morning of September 3. It was also independently discovered by Brooks, at Geneva, New York, on the following morning. At the end of November, and as late as January 4, 1889, it was visible to the naked eye. Perihelion was passed on January 31, 1889, and by that time, the comet disappeared in the sun’s rays. The first observations after conjunction were made about May 24, and it was followed till its light was again overpowered by that of the sun, Jate in October, 18389, its appearance being about the same as before perihelion, small, round, quite bright, and with a short tail. The orbit seems to be hyperbolic. Barnard remarked on June 3 that there was an anomalous tail directly following the comet, about 1° in length and some 2’ or 3’ broad, a phe- nomenon which, according to Bredichin, was probably an effect of per- spective. The comet was observed again at the Lick Observatory by Barnard August 17, 1890, although its distances from the earth and sun were then, respectively, 6.0 and 6.5 in terms of the earth’s mean distance. ‘The later observations confirm the hyperbolic character of the orbit. Comet 1889 Il: | On the evening of March 31, 1889, EK. E. Barnard = Comet} 1889. | discovered, with the 12-inch spmenal of the Lick Observatory, a very small and slender comet, with a tail 15’ long. By the end of April it was lost in the evening twilight, reappearing again, with extremely slow geocentric motion, about July 25, and remaining visible to November 21. The great perihelion distance of this comet is 140 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. . especially noteworthy, amounting to 24 times the distance of the eartb from the sun, a distance which seems to have been surpassed in the catalogue of comets only by comet 1885 IT, with a perihelion of 25, and the comet of 1729, with perihelion distance 4. Comet 1889 IIL: Mr. Barnard discovered another comet at about = Comet ¢ 1589. 2 o’elock on the morning of June 24, in the cen- stellation Andromeda, At the time of discovery the comet was only three days past perihelion. It was then very faint and rapidly became still fainter, being last observed on August 6. The elements computed by Berberich show considerable ellipticity in the orbit, the period of revolution being 128 years. Comet 1889 IV: A tolerably bright comet was discovered with the =Comete 1899. | naked eye by Mr. J. Ewen Davidson at Brans- combe, Mackay, Queensland (latitude — 21° 9/ south), on July 19. It had a sharp, stellar nucleus, and a tail 30’ long; in a photograph taken by Barnard at the Lick Observatory on July 30, the tail could be followed still farther, to a distance of almost 1° from the head. A second tail was reported by Kammermann, of Geneva, on the 17th of August, and a segmentation of the nucleus by Riccd about a week earlier. Professor Holden finds that the brightest part of the tail was ;), of the brightness of the brightest part of the solar corona during the eclipse of January 1, 1889, and goodou0 that of the full moon. The comet was followed in the northern hemisphere to about the end of the year. The spectrum according to the Lick and Palermo observations in July and August showed no peculiarity; the carbon bands, and the continuous spectrum of the nucleus, alone being recorded. Comet 1889 V: | William R. Brooks, of Geneva, New York, while » } . - - =Comet d 1589. sweeping in the southwestern sky on the morning of July 6, 1889, detected a suspicious looking nebulous object, the com- etary character of which he was able to confirm on the following morning; it was then faint, of about 11th magnitude, a diameter of 1, stellar nucleus, and tail 10’ long. The comet attracted no especial attention from astronomers till August 1, when Barnard discovered that it had two small and nebulous companions, and on the morning following it was evident that these two objects were moving with the parent comet through space. Mr. Barnard says: ‘On August 3 they were examined with the 36-inch equatorial, which showed the whole group very beautifully. Each of the companions had a very small nucleus and condensation in a very small head and a short faint tail, presenting a perfect miniature of the larger one, which was pretty bright and well developed, with small nucleus and slightly fan- shaped tail 4° long. There was then absolutely no nebulous connection with the larger, nor has there been at any time since, either in the 12- inch or in the 36-inch telescope. Nothing whatever has been seen here of the nebulous envelope spoken of by the Vienna observers as appar- ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 141 ently inclosing the whole group (A. N., 2914). I have from the first carefully looked for a nebulous connection. Under unfavorable circum- stances the tails of B and C might be imagined to be a connecting neb- ulosity, but the tail of B falls short of A, and that of C does not nearly reach B. Each comet is in appearance absolutely independent of the other. The tails of all three have lain in the line of the nucleus of A, and therefore have not sensibly deviated, from the position-angle 241°.” ‘On August 4, two other companions were detected with the great telescope, one of which was measured, the other being too elusive to set the wire on. I have numbered these four companions Bb, C, D, H, in theaorder of increasing right ascension, A being the larger comet, D and E being the two last discovered. D has been seen several times since the moon withdrew, but has always been too faint to observe. It has not sensibly changed its position. E has only been seen onee. Its position angle referred to C would be the same as that of D, and its distance twice as great. Four or five other nebulous bodies observed near the comet, August 2, have not since been seen, and were probably nebulous. ‘¢The results of the observations of the two brighter companions are extremely interesting. Measures of B have been made on eighteen, and of C on seventeen nights. These two have almost exactly the same position-angles, which have been sensibly constant. Their distances from the main body have, however, been increasing. At the last ob- servations, B seems to be stationary, the distance from A remaining constant, while C continues to recede.” Mr. Chandler’s investigation of the orbit of this comet has devel- oped a strong probability that it is identical with a comet discovered by Messier in 1770, often called Lexell’s lost comet, because that astronomer calculated that it was moving in an elliptic orbit with a period of about 54 years, though it was not seen afterwards. itis now well known that this was due to the fact that at the return in 1776 its position was such as to render any observation impossible, and before another return could take place the comet made in 1779 so close an approach to the planet Jupiter as completely to change the nature of the orbit. Mr. Chandler finds that Brooks’s comet also made a near approach to Jupiter, so near, in fact, on May 20, 1886, that it was only about nine diameters of Jupiter distant, or only a little outside the orbit of his third satellite. Calculation of the elements of the comet orbit before this appulse leads to the conclusion that they present a great similarity to those of Lexell’s comet after its approach to the planet in 1779, rendering the probability great that the bodies are identical. Mr. Chandler shows that no similar serious disturbance willoceur again until 1921, so that appearances may be looked for in 1896, 1903, 1910, and 1917, at each of which return the condition of visibility will be favorable, giving opportunities for further investigations into the motions of this interesting comet, which, it appears, narrowly 142 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. escaped being converted into a fifth satellite of Jupiter. Mr. Barnard succeeded in finding and observing the comet again, on the night of November 21, 1890, with the 36-inch Lick telescope, eight months after it had been given up as beyond reach ; and when its distance from the earth was 3.09, and from the sun 3.55. Comet 1889 VI: Swift, at Rochester, discovered a new comet on —Comet (1859. November 16, while searching for new nebule; it was a faint round nebulous mass, without tail, and it remained ex- ceedingly faint during its entire period of visibility; being seen in only the most powerful telescopes about the middle of January. The orbit proved to be elliptical, and with the remarkably short period of 8.8 years, according to Searle’s computation. Comet 1890 1: | A faint comet was discovered by Borelly at the __ =Comet g 1889. | Marseilles Observatory on December 12, 1889, this being the first comet, after an interval of three years, discovered in Europe. On January 8, 1890, it appeared in the finder of the Munich refractor like a faint star of the seventh or eighth magnitude. Comet 1890 II: | Discovered by W. R. Brooks at the Smith Ob- _ =Comet a 1890. servatory, Geneva, New York, March 19, 1890. A small comet with stellar nucleus and short tail. It was still observable about the middle of October. Comet 1890 III: | Discovered by Coggia at the Marseilles Observa- = Comet b 180. tory, July 18, 1890. It was quite bright, round, with central condensation comparable with a star of about tenth or eleventh magnitude. Its light rapidly diminished and it soon disap- peared below the northwest horizon. Parabolic elements represent the observations quite accurately, though they show some resemblance to those of the comet of 1580. Comet 1890 IV : This comet was discovered three months and a _=Comet ¢ 1890. | half after perihelion passage by Zona at Palermo, November 15, 1890. It was at first quite bright, but grew fainter rapidly, though it was still observed after the close of the year, Comet 1890 V: | -An ephemeris for d’Arrest’s periodic comet = Comet d 1890. had been prepared by Leveau, and the comet = d’Arrest’s comet. was looked for without success for some time, and it was feared that it had gone by undetected, when it was picked up by Barnard at the Lick Observatory on October 6, as an entirely unexpected object. On the first few nights the comet was extremely faint and diffused, but it was seen later with a 34-inch finder. Comet 1890 VI: | Discovered by W. F. Denning at Bristol, Eng- _=Comet 1890. | Jand, July 23, with a 1u-inch reflector, a faint, round nebulosity, about 1/ diameter with faint central condensation, and quite near # and © Urs Minoris. It moved directly towards the equator, and was visible till November, having a small stellar nucleus of the thirteenth magnitude, and a faint diffused tail. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 143 Comet 1890 VIL: This comet, the most interesting perhaps of those = Comet f 1890. found during the year, on account of its short period, was discovered by R. Spitaler at Vienna, November 16, 1890. Dr. Spitaler, in looking for the comet discovered by Zona, turned the 27-inch telescope towards the place which it should occupy, according to the dispatch received by him, and immediately perceived a very faint comet, but concluding from the description that Zona’s was brighter, by turning the telescope a little he found the latter, physical connection between the two being excluded by the slower motion of his own. The period appears to be about 6.4 years. Approximate elements of the comets of 1889 and 1890. * Perihelion=T Designation. Greenwich Oe as i q e mean time. 1839. oe. oat Oey bell) UU ose cncdec chscce Jan, 31.21 | 357 25 | 340 29 | 166 22] 1.815 |........ LUG ee ears Bee meg ens = ae June LOFS2 | 30) 42 | 236 6) } 16325) |) 25256), 2-22: &- RS terse Sec thee June 20.78 | 270 58 | 60 8] 3113) 1.110 0. 957 Waste sec eno eer sce 2 Uy PAGE 27 286) Ue | 345) 525 6557 | OAOG oes 2 Wheteccecesscetecs cts Sept. 30.01 | 17 58 | 343 28 ye) TE 0) Secs Gace Al See ee eee Nov. 29582) | 330 25°) 70 1) «10 15 |) 1354 0. 6833 S90 eee ee sete ae oceans Jan. 26,48 Seo 99 F 52556. 4) 08270) |e oee = re eye eee June tA o2OP 21s G8) 54) 1201345 G0nn eee eee Te ere sais tevcce ees dimly ~ tenes) || ie) 2) tes ys} | Gs} I |) 5 2G coon 2 TU WViies eecreyse eae ce Aug ZoW) |) Sts) |) SIL IG) pale ale} || OW ieee oe Ws as eA as leads bee Sept. 16 (AGI Om 2053 i aloua3 5 eee 9), 627 WA sa eas ec eee septs (24. 48) |/ 100" 77) 163.00) 9856) 4. 260)|2. 0 WG ae Sites eee aoe Octane cO.cOu som On elieD lal ovoln alasls 0. 472 Designation. Discoverer. eee Synonym. Remarks. 1888,’9. TGs) 5 oll Se eee ano Nooncetre Barnard. ..-. Sept. 2 1888 e ees aes es asta = c= FeO! 2 city Mar. 31 18389 b OU Se Ses eee ae dome eas June 23 1889 ¢ | Elliptic ? MV a Sake atthe er a Davidson..-..| July 21 1889 e \ SS Sn eene eee eee Brooks ...--. July 6 1889 d | Lexell’s? WAL Secistccrncaceelsce ois Siwittiess—ses Nov. 17 1889 f TCO) BSS eee eee eae Borrelly.....| Dec. 12 1889 g 1890. 1 pie Sper Rare cee Brookst2---- Mar. 19 1890 a | HI eacsuaidsesoeea seer Coggia ..---- July 18 1890 b WWWieere cso Oeste ate AONB eee ne Nov. 15 1890 e Wier asco anso ee ebarnard ster. Oct. 6 1890 d | d’Arrest’s. QOS GABE iene tates ee Denning ..-.| July 23 1890 ¢ ‘YALU es Se Sea Ee Teg he We Spitaler -....| Nov. 16 1890 f | Period 6.4 years. * See Astronomical Journal, Nos. 212 and 238. METEORS. A valuable résumé of meteoric astronomy has been published by Prof. J. kk. Eastman in the Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washing. ton, (Vol. XI.) Abstracts of the various theories propounded in ex- 144 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. planation of meteors are given, and extensive catalogues of observed meteors and meteorites. Mr. Denning pointed out several years ago that there were a number of meteor streams in which the meteors seemed to radiate from the same point in the sky for a period of three months or more. The only expla- nation of this phenomenon seemed to be that the meteors were moving with frightful velocity through space, but M. Tisserand, from a mathe- matical study of the problem, shows that these meteors do not all come from the same stream; they may perhaps belong to a family pre- senting certain common characteristics, but they are in reality different streams accidentally falling together, a not very improbable assumption considering the great number of meteor streams and the difficulty of determining the radiant with any degree of precision. Mr. Denning does not, however, admit that an accidental coincidence of radiant points of different streams is a sufficient explanation of the phenomena he has observed. THE ZODIACAL LIGHT.—Prof. Arthur Searle, who has made a special study of the zodiacal light, finds that the permanence of the ordinary western light, subject only to slight variations in the degree of visi- bility, isconfirmed by the observations of the last 50 years at the Hanaud Observatory. The zodiacal bands, which are said to form a prolong- ation of the ordinary zodiacal light, were not seen, though stellar or nebulous bands, one extending from Aquila to the Pleiades, and the second from Prasepe to Coma Berenices have been notieed and perhaps offer an explanation of the zodiacal bands. The Gegenschein, it is sug- gested, may be due to a maximum of light reflected from the meteoric matter scattered in the solar system. The observations of Prof. C. Michi Smith, carried on at intervals since 1875 indicate a periodic appearance of the line at wave-length 553 in the zodiacal light spectrum ; a line differing but little in wave-length from the auroral line (wave-length 556.7). PLANETS. A very laborious work is being carried on in the office of the Ameri- can Ephemeris, under the superintendence of Professor Neweomb—the re-determination of the elements of all the larger planets. Professor Neweomb’s plan includes the re-reduction of the older planetary obser- vations and the discussion of the later ones, with a view of reducing them all to a uniform system. Another branch of this planetary work is a determination of the mass of Jupiter from the motions of Poly- hymuia, and a comparison of Hansen’s tables of the moon with observed occultations since 1750. The first volume of this series of memoirs upon the theories of the major planets has appeared in the ‘¢Astronomical Papers,” of the American ephemeris, being a new diseussion of Jupiter and Saturn by Hill. He has determined the complete analytical expressions for the ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 145 coordinates of these two planets, giving also a provisional comparison of his theory with observations. The method followed is in general that of Hansen. In commenting upon recent determinations of planetary masses from the motions of comets, Professor Hall says “The objection to deducing values of planetary masses from the motions of comets consists, I think, in the fact that apparently other forces than that of gravitation act on these bodies. As a comet ap- proaches the sun it changes form, disintegrates, and matter is thrown off to form a tail. Until we know more of the theory of these changes the computation of masses from the motions of comets and inferences about the resisting medium in space must be uncertain.” MERcuRY.—The observations of Schroter early in the present cen- tury indicated that Mercury had a motion of rotation about its axis of _ about 24 hours. Subsequent observers failed, however, to confirm his ) 5 ‘ . . / observations, and the question of Mercury’s rotation has generally been | Y epg oy regarded as one of the unsettled problems of astronomy. M. Schiapa- relli, taking advantage of the clear sky of Milan, has observed Mercury since 1881, obtaining about one hundred and fifty sketches, showing quite well-marked spots, from which he has deduced a rotation period of 83 days, the same, in fact, as the period of rotation of the planet around the sun. Schiaparelli also concludes that the axis of rotation must be nearly perpendicular to the orbit of the planet, the rotation \ being uniform. Dr. von Herdtl has obtained the following values for the mass of Mercury : I. Mass of Mercury, 1: 5,012,842 from Winnecke’s comet. II. Mass of Mercury, 1: 5,514,700 Le Verrier’s equation modified. III. Mass of Mercury, 1: 5,648,600 Encke’s comet, 1819-1868. IV. Mass of Mercury, 1: 5,669,700 Encke’s comet, 1#71-1885. VENUS.—Schiaparelli has concluded, from an exhaustive rediseussion of all the older observations, combined with his own observations of 1877 and 1878, that Venus rotates upon its axis in 225 days, or the same time that it rotates about the sun, contrary to the Sonera received hypothesis that its rotation period is about 23 hours. Venus, then, as well as Mercury, would seem to turn always the same face to the sun, as the moon furns the same face to the earth. THE HARTH— Variation of latitude.—The subject of the change of ter- restrial latitudes, to which allusion has been made in previous reports, continues to receive considerable attention from astronomers and geographers. The following results have been obtained by Dr. Kiist- her, in continuation of his former researches, from 7 pairs of stars at three different times of the year: Epoch. Latitude of Berlin. 1884. 32 +-52° 30’ 16".73—0.82 4 A 1884. 70 16.964 0.83 4 A 1885. 31 16/7.52—0.55 4 A H. Mis, 129 10 146 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890 where J A represents the correction to the assumed constant of aber- ration. The direct inference from these figures is that in 7 months the latitude of Berlin deereased 0.44. Pulkowa showed about the same time a similar change: Epoch. Latitude of Pulkowa 1882. 51 +59° 46’ 18/’.52 1883. 51 18.54 1834, 70 18” .63 1885. 23 18.31 1885. 31 18’’.30 a decrease of 0/.33 from 1884.70 to 1885.31. The general agreement of these results certainly calls for further investigation ; and to test the matter Mr. Preston has been sent out by the U. S. Coast Survey, and Dr. Marcuse by the International Geodetic Commission, to Honolulu, which is at the opposite end of the earth’s diameter from Berlin, and by simultaneous observations at these two statious it is hoped the question will be settled. It is quite possible that the origin of the apparent change at Berlin in 1884-1885 is meteorological, a view to which Dr. Foerster inclined in bringing the matter before the Association Géodeésique in 1888, The whole question is, then, whether there are changes in the disposition of atmospheric strata sufficient to account for the facts observed, or the axis of rotation and the axis of inertia of the earth are not sensibly coincident, A complete résumé of the subject is given by M. Tisserand in the Bulletin Astronomique for September, 1890. Mr. Ricco has experimented with a somewhat novel demonstration of the rotundity ot the earth. At the observatory of Palermo, which is situated at a distance of 14 miles from the Mediterranean and 236 feet above its level, a great number of photographs of the sun reflected from the surface of the water have been taken afew minutes after rising or before setting. and they show that the diameter in the plane of reflee- tion is less in the reflected image than in thedirect. This deformation is due to the facet that the surface of the water forms a cylindrical mirror, with axis horizontal and normal to the plane of reflection. The amount of the observed flattening accords well with that demanded by theory. Standard time—The introduction of the system of standard time, which has been found of such practical usefulness in the United States, has been quietly agitated in other countries for several years past, and a well-written article upon the subject by Dr. Robert Schram will be fonnd in the Observatory for April, 1890. The adoption of a uniform time system, the time of the fifteenth meridian east of Greenwich, has been very favorably looked upon in Austria and Germany for railroad purposes, ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 147 Of the proposed change of the beginning of the astronomical day from midday to the preceding midnight nothing has been heard since the original agitation of the subject at the time of the Meridian Conference at Washington in 1884. The moons physical libration.—Dr. Julius Franz of the K6nigsberg observatory has done an excellent piece of work in bringing to light and discussing (vol. 38, Kénigsberg Beobachtungen) the observations of the moon made by Schliiter, an assistant of Bessel’s, in 1841-1843, the work having been undertaken by Schliiter under the immediate supervision of his distinguished chief. The observations were continued by Wichmann after Schliiter’s death, but Wichmann was never able to do more than to reduce his own observations for preliminary results to. be used in a discussion of all the material available. Dr. Franz recommends the substitution of observations of the spot Mosting A for those of the limbs, in determining the moon’s place, a method upon which a report was published by the late Dr. C. H. F. Peters in the U. 8S. Coast Survey volume for 1856. Temperature of the moon.—A memoir ou the temperature of the moon by Mr. S. P. Langley forms a part of the fourth volume of the publica- tions of the National Academy of Sciences, and is re-published in a some- what abbreviated form in the American Journal of Science for Decem- ber, 1889. The paper may be regarded as the completion of a piece of work commenced in 1883, and represented by papers read in 1884 and 1886, as well as the present one. The principal conclusion drawn is ‘‘that the mean temperature of the sunlit lunar soil is much lower than has been supposed, and is most probably not greatly above zero centi- grade.” The principle by which this temperature is estimated is that the position of the maximum in a curve, representing invisible radiant heat of different wave-lengths, furnishes a criterion as to the tempera- ture of the radiating solid body. In the lunar speetrum two distinet heat maxima are found—one corresponding to radiation reflected from the soil, the other to that emitted by it (when warmed by sunshine). The determination of the second inaximum with accuracy would give an accurate value for the temperature of the sunlit soil; but, unfortu- nately, the absorption-bands produced by the earth’s atmosphere ob- scure this maximum, and render the conclusions somewhat uncertain ; so that Professor Langley is compelled to state his principal conclu- sion in a guarded manner, as above quoted. The Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Beenen: (vol. 24) contains an account of some measures of lunar radiation made by Mr. C. C. Hutchins, by means of a new thermograph which he has devised. This instrument consists of a single thermal junction of nickel and iron placed in the focus of a small concave mirror, and is found to be much more sensitive than a thermopile of forty-eight couples. The measures of lunar radiation were made with an arrangement similar to that of a Herschel’s telescope with the thermograph in place of an eye 148 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. piece, the conclusion reached being that the heat which the earth re- ceives from the moon is to that from the sun as L is to 184,560, From observations during the eclipse of January 28, 1588, Mr. Hutehins infers that all but a minute portion of the rays from the lunar soil and rock are cut off by our atmosphere, as it seems impossible that a surface like that of the moon, upon which the sun has been shining for many days, should suddenly cease to radiate when the sun’s light is with- drawn. MaArs.—Durin gthe opposition of 1890 Mars again received special attention from the Lick observers. Experiments were tried with colored glasses, with diminished apertures, ete., all with small suecess. Many photographs were also secured, but none that were pronounced satis- factory. The mystery of the ‘“canals” is still further increased by the fact that while Professor Holden and Mr. Keeler always saw the canals as dark, broad, somewhat diffused bands, and Mr. Schaeberle saw them in the same way when the seeing was bal, but under good condi- tions described them as narrow lines a second of are or so in width. On April 12 Mr. Schaeberle saw two of the canals doubled, thereby verifying Professor Schiaparelli’s observations. The positions of most of the canals have also been verified by some of the Lick astronomers. JUPITER.— Mr. J. I. Keeler pablishes in the monthly notices for No- vember a drawing of Jupiter made with the Lick 36-inch on the night of August 28,1890. The great red spot is described as being of about the same dimensions as in 1889, with a dark shading at its following end, but the middle whiter and the arrangement of belts somewhat different. ‘It would seem, on the whole, that the surface features of Jupiter in- dicate less activity in the internal forces of the planet than was man- ifest a year ago.” Barnard and Burnham have reported a very curious doubling of the first satellite as seen with the 12-inch equatorial of the Lick observ- atory. Of this phenomenon there seems to be but two possible explana- tions: either there is a white belt on the satellite parallel to the belts of Jupiter or the satellite is actually double. M. Belopolsky has brought out from an examination of drawings of Jupiter a peculiar variation in the time of rotation (first noted by Cas- sini) with the latitude. A velocity of 9" 51" was found in the zone 0° to 5° in both hemispheres, and a time of rotation of 9° 55.5" for the re- mainder of the surface, both hemispheres, except between 5° and 10° of north and south latitude, where the two velocities appear to oceur with equal frequency. SATURN.—A peculiar white spot on the rings of Saturn attracted con- siderable attention in the early part of 1889. This spot was first seen by Dr. Terby, of Louvain, on March 6, 1889, who reported it as adjacent to the shadow of the ball and similar to the white spots sometimes seen upon Jupiter; on March 12 it was again seen with an 8 inch Clark tel- escope, but on the Ldth, 20th, 22d, and 25d, and on April 2, it was ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 149 invisible. While several observers confirmed Dr. Terby’s discovery, nothing to correspond sufficiently with his description could be made out by others, though provided with much more powerful apparatus. Professor Hall has expressed the opinion that it was an optical effect of contrast. oF The very fine division of the outer ring detected with the 36-inch Lick refractor early in 1885 was again seen in 1889 at a distance of about one-sixth of the breadth of ring A from its outer edge. A dark shad- ing extended inwards from the new division almost to the inner edge of thering. Professor Holden has noted also an extremely narrow brighter polar cap about 5 seconds ‘of are wide, in a direction parallel to the equator, and perpendicular to this about the width of the Cassini divi- sion at the anse. An interesting monograph on Saturn, the result of fourteen years work, is contributed by Prof. Asaph Hall as Appendix I1 to the Wash- ington Observations, 1885. The characteristic of this memoir is great caution, and the three drawings of the planet, where a few scanty markings represent all that Professor Hall can certainly see with a fine telescope, should re-assure those who have been dissatisfied with their modest instruments beeause they could not therewith recognize the elaborate detail described by more imaginative observers. To quote the author’s own words: ‘‘The appearance of Saturn in our 26-inch refractor undergoes great changes from night to night, and sometimes even from hour to hour during the same night. Probably these changes are due to variations in our own atmosphere and in the action of the objective, and they do not therefore indicate real changes in the planet. Whenever we have a steady and transparent atmos- phere, the outlines of the planet, the faint belts and markings on the ball, the shadow of the ball on the ring, the dusky ring, and the Cassini division are clear and distinct, and the abnormal phenomena sometimes seen are not visible. Without exception, my experience is that on good nights the planet always has this natural appearance. But on poor nights, when the image is blazing and unsteady, one can see and imagine many strange things about this wonderful object.” Professor Hall finds for the rotation period of the planet from obser- vations of the white spot (1876, December 7 to 1877, January 2) 10" 14™ 238.8 + 2°.3 mean time (see Astron. Nachr. No. 2146). Careful discussions are also given of the position and dimensions of the ring. The notch in the outline of the shadow was never seen at Washing- ton, either by Professor Hall or his assistant. ‘The curvature of the outline of the shadow presented an anomaly in 1876 when the convexity appeared to be turned towards the ball, contrary to what we should expect from geometrical considerations. The notes show that some- thing of this kind was seen after the re-Appearance of the ring in 1878. After the ring was well opened, the curvature of the outline always appeared natural or turned away from the ball.” (Observatory.) 150 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. The last determination of the thickness of Saturn’s ring, as Professor Hall has pointed out, was made in 1848 by W. C. Bond, who found that it was less than 0.//01; Duséjour estimated its thickness at 0./’2, and Schroeter at 0.13. At the disappearance of the ring in Septem- ber and October, 1891, the conditions of observation are not very favorable, a better opportunity occurring in 1892. In connection with the approaching disappearance of the ring, an account of observations made by M. E. lL. Trouvelot upon the passage of the sun and earth through the plane of the rings in 1877~78 is of especial interest. Saturn’s satellites—Dr. Hermann Struve has published the second installment of his work on the theory of Saturn’s satellites. In this he discusses the orbits of Mimas and Enceladus, and their connection with the other satellites, and he has been able to account satisfactorily for the large corrections to the computed position of Mimas required during the past few years. In his previous paper Dr. Struve was led to assume a sensible mass for the ring-system of Saturn, but he now concludes that this hypothesis must be rejected, the mass of the ring being so small that the terms to which it would independently give rise in the disturbing function are as yet undetected by observation. A determination of the orbit of Titan and the mass of Saturn, the result of several years’ work with the Yale observatory heliometer, is published by Mr. Asaph Hall, jr., in the Transactions of the Yale Observatory, 1889. His value for Saturn’s mass is 1:3500.5 + 1.44, agreeing well with Bessel’s value 1: 3502, and that obtained by Struve 1:3498. UrANuS.—Dr. Huggins has found evidence of solar lines in the photo- graphic spectrum of Uranus, with an exposure of two hours (June 3, 1889). All the principal solar lines were seen, but no others either bright or dark. Mr. Taylor, on the other hand, has reported bright flutings seen with a direct vision spectroscope attached to the five foot reflecter of Common’s observatory, Ealing, and if this observation is confirmed it will of course prove that the planet is at least in part self- luminous. THE MINOR PLANETS. The discovery of additional members of the zone of asteroids goes on without the least signs of abatement, and the number has now reached 301, no fewer than 6 having been found in 1889, and 14 in 1890, Twice during 1890 (April 25 and September 9) two were discovered on the same evening by the same observer; and the two discovered by Palisa on April 25 were independently discovered by Charlois on the following evening, April 26. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 151 List of minor pianets discovered in 13839 and 1890. c= —— ~ a Date of Num- : ver Name. Discoverer. discovery, 1889 Demet a OlOLING a) secs < scram s/o xis CharloisyabyNicen erst ete cleincecere Jan. 28 Pee IIMA Pye. ean) Wels chiscislevela ataett | sisic = (Co eite aah es es teas eh ea a PERE Feb. 8. Diehl aos sls LATS) IG ie eee eee nace ee ae oes Oe yes seo See seneesioe May 29. oor eve CUMS ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 155 of iron found also in the solarspectrum. Iron is followed by nickel, titan- ium, manganese, chromium, cobalt, carbon, with decreasing frequency of coincidences, ending with lead and potassium, for which but one line is found in common with the sun. The full list of elements in the sun, arranged according to the inten- sity and the number of lines in the solar spectrum, is as follows: Elements in the sun, arranged according to the intensity and the number of lines in the solar spectrum. According to intensity. According to number. Calciam. Zirconium. | Iron (2,000 +). Magnesium (20 +). Tron. Molybdenum. | Nickel. Sodium. Hydrogen. Lanthanum. | Titanium. Silicon. Sodium. Niobium. Manganese. Strontium. Nickel. Palladium. Chromium. Barium. Magnesium. Neodymium. Cobalt. Aluminium (4), Cobalt. Copper. Carbon (200 +). Cadmium Silicon. Zine. Vanadium. Rhodium. Aluminium. Cadmium. | Zirconium, Erbium. Titanium. Cerium. Cerium. Zine. Chromium. Glucinum. Calcium (75 +). Copper (2). Manganese. Germanium. Scandium. Silver (2). Strontium. Rhodium. | Neodymium. Glucinum (2). Vanadium. Silver. Lanthanum. yermanium. Barium. Tin. Yttrium. Tin. Carbon. Lead. Niobium. Lead (1). Scandium. Erbium. Molybdenum. Potassium. Yttrium. Potassium, | Palladium. Doubtful elements. Iridium. Platinum. Tantalum. Tungsten. Osmium. Ruthenium. Thorium. Uranium. Not in solar spectrum. Antimony. Cesium. Rubidium. Arsenic. Gold. Selenium. Bismuth. Indium. Sulphur. Boron. Mercury. Thallium. Nitrogen (vacuum tube). Phosphorus. Preeseodymium. Substances not yet tried. Bromine. Todine. Oxygen. Gallium. Thulium. Chlorine. Fluorine. Tellurium. Holmium. Terbium, ete. Professor Rowland says: ‘ With the bigh dispersion here used the ‘basic lines’ of Lockyer are widely broken up and cease to exist.. Indeed it would be difficult to prove anything except accidental coinci- dences among the lines of the different elements. Accurate investiga- tion generally reveals some slight difference of wave length or a com- mon impurity. furthermore, the strength of the lines in the solar 156 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. spectrum is generally very nearly the same as that in the electric are, with only a few exceptions, as, for instance, calcium, The cases men- tioned by Lockyer are generally those where he mistakes groups of lines for single lines or even mistakes the character of the line entirely. Altogether there seems to be very little evidence of the breaking up of the elements in the sun, as far as my experiments go.” M. Janssen, in August, 1590, repeated the observations that he made in 1885, upon Mont Blanc, this time ascending to the summit. He confirmed completely his former result that the lines of the spectrum due to the action of oxygen in our atmosphere diminish with the alti- tude, indicating that at the limit of the atmosphere these rays would disappear entirely and in consequence that oxygen is not actually present in the sun’s atmosphere. This conclusion had already received confir- mation from a series of observations of the spectrum of an electric light placed on the Hiffel Tower, as viewed from the observatory at Meudon. ECLIPSES. Eclipses of 1889, and 1890.—During the year 1889, there were five eclipses, three of the sun and two of the moon; and during 1890, three eclipses, two of the sun and one of the moon. ‘Two of the solar eclipses of 1889 were total, and one of 1890 was total over a portion of the central line. The Almanac records also a lunar appulse on June 2, 1890, the near- ness of the approach and the uncertainty as to the effect of the earth’s atmosphere rendering it doubtful whether the moon would actually enter the earth’s shadow. Of the eclipses of the moon nothing of especial interest has been reported. A brief summary of the observa- tions of the solar eclipses is given below: Total eclipse of the sun January 1, 1889.—The event of chief astro- nomical interest in the year 1889, was the eclipse of the sun on New Year’s day, the last total solar eclipse visible in the United States in this century. The line of central eclipse crossed California, Nevada, Idaho, Wyoming, Montana, and Dakota, the width of the belt of totality being about 96 miles in California; the partial phases of the eclipse were visible over the greater part of North America, first contact being observed at Washington a few minutes before sunset. Ample prepa- rations were made for utilizing the less than two minutes of totality, and printed circulars suggesting to amateur observers the most efficient inanner of employing the means at their command were widely circu- lated. The most thoroughly equipped party in the field was that from the Harvard observatory under the charge of Prof. W. H. Pickering, at Willows, California. This party alone secured between 50 and 60 photographs taken with 14 telescopes or cameras and 8 spectroscopes, one of the telescopes being of 13 inches aperture, the largest ever used in observing a total solar eclipse. A party from the Lick observatory “ASTRONOMY FOR. 1889, 1890. Ly under Mr. Keeler was at Bartlett Springs; one from Washington Uni- versity observatory, St. Louis, under Prof. H. 8S. Pritchett at Norman; one from Carleton College observatory under Professor Payne at Chico; and many other available points were occupied by individual astron- omers or photographers. At Cloverdale the Pacific Coast Amateur Photographic Association was represented by 30 cameras. Professor Holden has published a full report of the Lick observatory party and its coéperators—the frontispiece being an admirable photo- graph of the corona by Barnard, taken with a telescope of 3} inches aperture stopped down to 1}inches. Professor’s Holden’s ‘‘ conclusions” in which he summarizes the observations are as follows: J. That the characteristic coronal forms seem to vary periodically as the sun spots (and auroras) vary in frequency, and that the coronas of 1867, 1878, and 1889 are of the same strongly marked type, which cor- responds, therefore, to an epoch of minimum solar activity. II. That so-called “polar” rays exist at all latitudes on the sun’s surface, and are better seen at the poles of the sun, simply because they are there projected against the dark background of the sky and not against the equatorial extensions of the outer corona. There ap- pears to be also a second kind of rays or beams that are connected with the ring-like extensions. These are parts of the “ groups of synclinal structure” of Mr. Ranyard. III. The outer corona of 1889 terminated in branching forms. These branching forms of the outer corona suggest the presence of streams of meteorites near the sun, which, by their reflected light and by their native brilliancy, due to the collisions of their individual members, may account for the phenomena of the outer corona. IV. The disposition of the extensions of the outer corona along and very near the plane of the ecliptic might seem to show that, if the streams of meteorites above referred to really exist, they have long been integral parts of the solar system. V. The photographs of the corona which were taken just before con- tact II and just after contact III prove the corona to be a solar append- age,and are fatal to the theory that any large part of the coronal forms are produced by diffraction. - VI. The spectroscopic observations of Mr. Keeler show conclusively that the length of a coronal line is not always an indication of the depth of the gaseous coronal atmosphere of the sun at that point, and hence to indicate the important conclusion that the true atmosphere of the sun may be comparatively shallow. VII. Mr. Keeler draws the further conclusion in his report that the “‘ polar” rays are due to beams of light from brighter areas of the sun illuminating the suEooa Le of the sun’s gaseous envel- NotTr.—The Patoiusiona IIl a Iv appear to he contre tne to that Be = in ]. The electrical theory announced by Dr. Hygius in the Bakerian lecture for 1885 seems to reconcile the conclusions I, III, and IY. 158 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. opes. In order that the conclusion may stand it is necessary to show that all these ‘‘ polar” beams are composed of rectilinear rays. - - - An important conclusion from [the photographic and photometric] measures seems to be that it is impracticable to photograph the corona in full sunshine with our present plates, and that a photographic search for Vulcan is hopeless. The Smithsonian Institution has published a series of photographs of the corona of this eclipse made by different observers and reduced for convenience to a uniform scale, and has also published a suggestive paper by Prof. F. H. Bigelow tracing a close agreement between mag- netic lines of foree computed for the san and the curves of the polar filaments shown upon the Pickering photograph. Eclipse of the sun 1889, June 27.—An annular eclipse visible in the southern part of Africa. Dr. Auwers and Dr. Gill obtained a number of measures of the cusps with the Cape heliometer. Eclipse of the sun 1889, December 21-22.—Three principal points were available as observing stations: the southwest corner of the island of Trinidad totality lasting 1™ 46°; Cayenne on the coast of French Guiana, totality 2" 3°; and Cape Lado a point on the western coast of Africa just south of St. Paul de Loanda, totality 5™ 12°. Two expedi- tions went out to Africa, one sent by the United States Government under Prof. D. P. Todd, and provided with most elaborate apparatus, and the other from the Royal Astronomical Society of England under the direction of Mr. A. Taylor. Cloudy weather prevented both of these parties from securing observations. Another party from the Royal Astronomical Society under Father Perry, at the Salut Islands, was par- tially successful as far as observations go, but resulted most disastrously in the death of Father Perry from dysentery within a few days after the eclipse. M. dela Baume Pluvinel was also at the Salut Islands and secured a number of photographs. The Lick observatory party at Cayenne, Messrs. Burnham, Schaeberle and Rockwell, were successful; securing good photographs. Eclipse of the sun 1890, June 17.—The annular eclipse of June 17, 1890, was central over portions of Northern Africa and Southern Asia, and was visible as a partial eclipse over the whole of Europe. In the southern part of Italy three-fourths of the sun’s disk was covered by the moon. Observations partially successful were obtained by Profes- sor Ricco at Palermo. At Canea, M. de la Baume Pluvinel secured several photographs of the partial and annular phases, and also of the spectrum of the annulus, the latter proving to be the same as the ordi- nary solar spectrum. Eclipse of the sun 1890, December 11.—A total eclipse of the sun occurred on December 11, 1890, the central line being confined to the ocean south of Australia. In consequence of the earth’s globular surface, the eclipse was annular at the beginning and end, and total between 13° 55™,3 and 16" 20",5 Greenwich mean time. In portions of ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 159 Australia, and in Tasmania, and in New Zealand, it was visible as a par- tial eclipse. No observation of special interest was reported. Mr. J. M. Schaeberle has published in the Monthly Notices a theory of the solar corona, in which he concludes that the corona is due to the light emitted and reflected by the filaments of matter thrown out by the sun, the corresponding forces being variable and with a period about the same as the sun-spot period. The rays of double curvature are explained by the rotation of the sun, and the apparent changes in the general form of the corona by the position of the observer with reference to the plane of the sun’s equator. The Smithsonian Institution published in 1889 a series of re-produc. tions of a number of photographs of the eclipse of January 1, 1889, sent from various stations on the Pacific coast. The photographs are for convenience of comparison reduced to a uniform scale of about 1 inch diameter. Explanatory notes and remarks suggested by a study of the photographs are added by Prof. David P. Todd. Mr. H. H. Turner in the Philosophical Transactions (vol. 180, p. 385- 393) discusses the observations of the eclipse of August 29, 1886, made at the island of Grenada. SOLAR PARALLAX AND THE TRANSITS OF VENUS. Transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769.—A thorough, and probably the final, re-reduction of the observations of the transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769 has been made by Professor Newcomb in volume 2, part 5, of the astronomical papers of the American Ephemeris, a primary ob- ject being the determination of the position of the node of Venus. The value obtained for the solar parallax is 8/’.79 with a probable error of + 0.034. Professor Harkness of the U. S. Naval Observatory has devoted sev- eral years of work to an elaborate discussion of the solar parallax and its related constants. His principal results are elsewhere referred to, the definitive value for the solar parallax being 8/’.80905 + 0/.00567. The French photographs of the transit of Venus give for the solar parallax the value 8.80 + 0/.06. OBSERVATORIES. Information in regard to the work going on at astronomical observa- tories has been derived from the reports contained in the Vierteljahrs- schrift, in the Monthly Notices, and in Loewy’s Observatoires astro- nomiques de Provence, and also trom the separate reports published by a few observatories. The compiler is indebted in some instances to directors of observatories who have communicated to him directly data in relation to the institutions under their charge. When it has seemed necessary to make a distinction, the year has been added to the note. ALLEGHENY: Langley. Work upon radiant energy has been con- tinued, and the time service has been maintained as in previous years, 160 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Aueters: Trépied.—A meridian circle of 0™.19 (7.5 inches) and an equatorial of 0™.12 (4.7 inches) have been added to the equipment. Ob- servations have been made upon a catalogue of 10,000 stars in the zone — 18° to — 23°. It is expected’that the photographic equatorial will soon be installed. (1889.) ARMAGH: Dreyer.—Observations of nebule and physical observations of Jupiter and Saturn; time service. BASEL: Riggenbach.—Devoted entirely to the instruction of students. BERLIN: W. Foerster.—Observations with the transit circle, obser- ‘ations with the 9-inch equatorial of asteroids, comets, and double stars, and with the small transit of comparison stars and stars occulted by the moon. BESANGON: Gruey.—Observations of comets; horology. ‘The observ- atory possesses an equatorial coude. Brrr CastLe: Lord Rosse-—Preparing for publication a series of sketches of the milky way; measures of lunar heat during the eclipse of January 28, 1888, have been reduced. 30NN: Schénfeld.—Zone observations +40° to +50° with the transit circle. Reductions in a forward state. (1889.) BorpEAUX: Rayet.—Preparations are being made for observing the zoue —20° to —25°. The photographic equatorial has been mounted. (1889.) BRESLAU: Galle—Chiefly magnetic and meteorological work. Small transit used for time service. CAMBRIDGE (England): Adams.—Mr. Newall has presented his 25-inch refractor to the university observatory, and the university authorities have voted to spend about $11,000 on its installation near the present observatory, and to appoint an observer, at $1,200 per annum, to devote himself to research in stellar physics. It is under- stood that the work with this instrument will be under the charge of Mr. H. F. Newall. Volume 22 of the publications has been issued and deals with the observations from 1866 to 1869. CAMDEN.—The amateur astronomical society at Camden, New Jer- sey, has a small observatory, with 54-inch equatorial, transit instra- ment, chronograph, clock, ete. Carr oF Goop Hore: Gill.—With the meridian circle regular ob- servations have been made of the sun, Mereury, Venus, comparison stars, stars occulted by the moon, ete. The heliometer has been con- stantly in use and much attention has been given to astronomical pho- tography. Prof. J.C. Kapteyn has measured definitively 389 negatives of the plates of the southern photographie Durchmusternng, covering 8,769 square degrees of the sky. This work represents 489,490 obser- vations of about 193.000 stars, or about 63 per cent. of the whole work. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 161 Dr. Gill, the astronomer royal for the Cape, and Dr. Auwers, of Berlin, by taking aiternate watches of observation (June 10 to August 26, 1889) secured an admirable series of observations of Victoria, which was in an exceptionally favorable position for determining the solar parallax. A large part of Dr. Gill’s report for 1889 is devoted to the geodetic work which is under his direction. CARLETON COLLEGE: Payne.—The first volume of publications con- sists of a catalogue of 644 comparison stars observed with the Repsold meridian circle, by Dr. Wilson. CATANIA: Ricco.—The observatory recently founded at Catania will be chiefly devoted to astrophysics, photography, meteorology, and seis- mology. It contains a Merz refractor of 0™.35 (13.8 inches) aperture, one by Cooke of 0.15 (5.9 inches), and a photographie telescope, by Steinheil, which will be used for photographing the zone +12° to +69. (1890.) CHAMBERLIN: H. A. Howe.—The disks for the 20-inch refractor are being worked by Clark, and the mounting is well advanced at the shop of Fauth & Co., Washington. The initial publication of the new observa- tory is a report upon observations of the eclipse of January 1, 1889. DEARBORN: Hough.—An illustrated description of the new observa- tory at Evanston will be found in the Sidereal Messenger for October, 1889. DENVER.—In addition to the working observatory founded by Mr. Chamberlin, an observatory for students is in course of erection. A 6-inch equatorial and a 3-inch transit have been ordered. DENVER. (See, also, Chamberlin.) DRESDEN: von Engelhardt.—Observations of nebule star-clusters and comets. Baron von Engelhardt has recently published a second part of his ‘Observations Astronomiques,” containing principally measures of double stars, star charts, nebulwe, and comets. (1889). DunsinK: Ball.—A new reflecting telescope of 15 inches aperture has been presented to the observatory by Mr. Isaac Roberts for photo- graphic researches on stellar parallax. DUSSELDORF: Luther.—Observatious of small planets, and compu- tation of their ephemerides. Since 1847, 1,474 observations of 172 asteroids have been made. (1889). EDINBURGH: Copeland.—The site for a new observatory building two minutes of are south of the present observatory was selected in 1889. The plans have been completed and it is hoped that the work of con- struction will soon be begun. It is interesting to note that though the new site is within 500 yards of the suburban railway, the porphyrite rock of which the hill consists does not appear to transmit any percep- tible vibration from the railway even when the heaviest trains are passing. Dr. Becker has continued his determinations of the positions of nebule and work in stellar and solar spectroscopy. H. Mis. 129——11 162 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890, GEORGETOWN: Hagen.—Observations of variable stars have been made systematically, and experiments in photographic observations of star transits by Father Hagen and his assistant, Father Fargis. GENEVA: Gautier.—Chiefly engaged in testing chronometers and watches. Observations of the sun and of comets have been made with the equatorial. Dr. Raoul Gautier has been appointed professor of astronomy and director of the observatory, Col. E, Gautier retaining the title of honorary director. GLASGow (England): Grant. Transit-cirele observations. GOTTINGEN: Schur.—HUeliometer used in measuring Praesepe, Ple- iades, and double stars. (1889.) GREENWICH: Christie—In the report for 1889 it is noted that the observations with the transit cirele by reflexion have been much facili- tated and improved by using an amaigamated copper-bottom mercury trough for the artificial horizon, Two photographic objectives have been tried, one of 6 inches aperture to be used as a pilot for the 13-inch star-charting telescope stars, and the other of 4 inches in connection with the 28-inch refractor. The annual visitation in 1890 took place on June 7. The collection of historical instruments and the new photographic equatorial espe- cially attracted the attention of some 300 visitors present. It is pro- posed to put up a large new building with four wings to relieve the overcrowded condition of the elder buildings. It is expected that the new 28-inch refractor will be installed at an early day. The 13-inch photographic equatorial was received from Grubb on March 17, 1890, aud was mounted and made ready for use. The astronomer royal re- ported that the work of the observatory had proceeded without essen- tial modification. “The observations for the longitude of Paris made in 1888 have now been completely reduced and the definitive results found by the French and English observers are respectively, 9™ 215.04 and 9™ 20%.84. In view of this unsatisfactory discordance - - - it seems desirable that the determination should be repeated with interchange of instru- ments as well as of observers.” The 1887 volume of Greenwich observations contains among its ap- pendices the ten-year catalogue deduced from observations made from 1877 to 1886. ‘The total number of stars is 4,059, the positions being given for 1880. 0 HARVARD COLLEGE: Pickering.—Miss C. W. Bruce, of New York, has made a gift of $50,000 to the Harvard observatory to be applied to the construction and maintenance of a photographic telescope having an objective of about 24 inches aperture and a focal length of 11 feet. The figuring of the lens has been intrusted to Alvan Clark, who has experienced some difliculty in securing proper glass. The Bache 8-inch telescope of similar construction has been in constant use in Cambridge ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 163 for four years, and is now in Peru photographing the southern sky ; with it stars too faint to be seen with the 15-inch refractor have been photographed, and a corresponding advantage is anticipated from the increase of the aperture to 24 inches. Volume 17 of the Annals is now completed and consists of the follow- ing papers, which have been separately printed and distributed during the last few years: I. Magnitudes of stars employed in various nautical almanacs; II. Discussion of the Uranometria Oxoniensis; III. Photo- metric observations of asteroids; IV. Total eclipse of the moon, 1888, January 28; V. Total eclipse of the sun, 1886, August 29; VI. Detection of new nebulxw by photography; VII. A photographic determination of the brightness of the stars; VIII. Index to observations of variable stars; IX. Meridian-circle observations of close north polar stars; X. Meridian-cirele observations of close south polar stars. Volume 21, part 1, contains the observations of the New England Meteorological Society made during 18388. Volume 22 contains a long series of meteorological observations made on the summit of Pike’s Peak, Colorado, between January, 1874, and June, 1888, by U. 8S. Army Signal Service observers. KALocsa: Fenyi.—Physical observations of the sun. (1889.) Kew: Whipple.—Meteorological, magnetic, and solar observations. KiEL: Krueger.—The catalogue of zone +55° to +65° has been pub- lished. Computation of the orbits of comets and asteroids. KONIGSBERG: C. F. W. Peters.—Observations of zone +83° to +90°; also heliometer observations of wide double stars. (1889 ) KREMSMUNSTER: Wagner.—Observations of comets and asteroids ; time service. LEIPzic: Bruns.—Observations of zone +5° to +10°; observations with the heliometer; time service. Lunp: Moller.—Spectroscopic observations to determine the sun’s rotation period. The printing of the Zone Catalogue is in progress. The second volume of Zone Observations, + 36° to +40°, has been published. Lynn (Massachusetts\.—Private observatory of Mr. C. W. Wilson. Latitude +42°.5, longitude 71° west. The principal instrument is one of Alvan Clark & Sons’ 6-inch refractors of unusual excellence. Lyons: André.—Meridian work; physical observations of the sun and of Jupiter. McCormick: Stone.—Chiefly engaged in observations of double stars and nebula. Volume 1, part 4, of the Publications contains double- Star measures made in 1885 and 1886 by Leavenworth and Muller. MARSEILLES: Stephan.—Revision of Riimker’s Catalogue; observa- tions of comets, asteroids, nebule and variable stars. (1889.) 164 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. MELBOURNE: Jllery.—Transit-circle observations, observations of comets and astroids and of stellar spectra. The great reflector has been repolished, and its performance is reported as improved. The photographic telescope for the international chart work has been re- ceived and mounted. The Second Melbourne General Catalogue of Stars, containing 1,211 stars and embodying the results of observa- tions made with the old transit circle from the beginning of 1871, has been published. MILAN: Schiaparelli.icThe 18-inch equatorial was used for double- star measures; the observations of Mercury, 188i—~88, were discussed, and the rotation period determined. (1889.) MunIcH: Seeliger.—Work on a catalogue of 33,082 stars; observa- tions of comets and measures of the star cluster in Perseus. NATAL: Nevili—Observations of the position of the moon. There has been formed a manuscript catalogue of about 4,000 observations of right ascensions of zodiacal stars used in deterinining the places of the moon during the years 1883~’88. Time service. Nice: Perrotin.—Charlois has been remarkably successful in his search for new asteroids. The third volume of Annals contains a new chart of the solar spectrum by Thollon, the concluding part of the dis- cussion of the theory of Vesta by Perrotin, and the observations made in the years 1887-88. O’GYALLA: Konkoly.—Observations of sun spots and meteors; pho- tographic researches. OXFORD UNIVERSITY: Pritchard.—Experimental work on the new photographic objectives by Grubb has occupied much time; the par- allaxes of six more stars have been determined by photography. (1890.) Paris: Mouchez.—The large transit circle has been used for the sun, planets, and stars of Lalande’s catalogue; the Gambey transit for ob- servation of fundamental stars in groups of 24 to 48 hours; the Gambey circle for experiments on flexure and the determination of latitude; comets and nebule have been observed with the west equa- torial, and the equatorial coudé has been used in determining the con- stants of refraction and aberration. The work for which the Paris ob- servatory has been especially known of late years, astronomical pho- tography, has been actively pursued by the Henrys. The frontispiece of Adiniral Mouchez’s report for 1889 is a representation of the great equatorial coudé of 18 metres focal length and 0.6 metre (23.62 inches) aperture. Attention has been given to photographing of stellar spectra by placing prisms of 22° or 45° in front of the objective of the tele- scope, and Admiral Mouchez has announced that spectroscopic obser- vations will form a reguiar part of the observatory work in future. PorspAmM: Vogel.—Astrophysical work, determination of the motion of stars in the line of sight by means of photography ; spectrum analysis in general; photometric measures of large planets and a photometric ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 165 Durchmusterung of the northern sky ; observations of sun spots. The new refractor for the photographic star chart is erected and some ex- perimental work has been done. (1889.) PRAG: Safarik.—Double-star measures; drawings of the moon; chiefly devoted to observations of variable stars. (1889.) PRAG (University observatory): Weinek.—Drawings of moon; oceul- tations. Time service. (1889.) PuLKOwA: Bredichin—Prof. Otto Struve retired from the direct- orship of the observatory, which he has held for over 25 years, and has been succeeded by Dr. Bredichin, formerly director of the observatory at Moscow. Three volumes were issued in 1889; Volume 8 containing the catalogue of Bradley’s stars, a volume containing an investigation by Lindemann of the photometric scale of the Bonn Durchmusterung, and the third volume, the * Jubilee” volume, with an historical account of the observatory for 25 years, a monograph on the 30-inch refractor, and a description of the astrophysical observatory. The volume contains several fine engravings of the observatory and 30-inch. (1889~90.) RADCLIFFE: Stone.—Transit-circle observations of the zone 0°-15°, and of the sun and moon. RoME: Denza.—The new observatory of the Vatican has been built partly upon the site of the old observatory, founded in 1582, and partly upon a tower dating from the time of Leo IV. Special attention will be given to astronomical photography. ROUSDON (Lyme Regis): Peek.—Observations of variables. Time service. STocKHOLM: Gyldén.—Largely engaged in mathematical researcheg upon orbits. Photographs have been taken of the Pleiades and of a region extending about 4° around the north pole. (1889.) STONYHURST: Sidgreaves—Father Perry, whose sad death immedi- ately after observing the total eclipse of the sun on December 21, 22, 1889, has been elsewhere referred to, has been succeeded in the direct- orship of the observatory by Father Walter Sidgreaves. (1889.) STRASSBURG: H. Becker.—Observations of comets and heliometer measures of the sun’s diameter ; also transit-circle observations of the sun and major planets. SYDNEY: Russell.—Transit-circle observations, and with the 113-inch equatorial observations of comets and of double stars. The photo- graphic telescope for chart work has been mounted upon an elevated site 620 feet above the seaand 11 miles inland from the present observ- atory. Each instrument has its own group of accumulators, conven- iently charged by the help of a gas engine. SMITHSONIAN ASTRO-PHYSICAL OBSERVATORY: Langley.— An astro- physical observatory has been established as a department of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, occupying at present a tem- 166 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. porary building in the Smithsonian grounds, erected in 1889-90. The principal instruments are a very large siderostat by Grubb, a large spectro-bolometer, special galvanometer, and resistance box. Ke- searches in tellurie and astro-physics will be carried on. SWARTHMORE COLLEGE: Miss S. J. Cunningham.—The observatory building contains four rooms: A transit room, in which is a 3-ineh Warner and Swasey transit and mean-time clock ; a pier room at pres- ent utilized as asidereal clock room; a work room containing the chro- nograph, chronometer, and a small reference library ; and the dome, in which is a 6-inch Warner and Swasey equatorial. Connected with the observatory is the signal service station of the state weather service, fully provided with the necessary meteorological and other apparatus. (1890.) TACUBAYA: Anguiano.—The construction of the new observatory has progressed favorably, the photographic department being entirely finished and the instruments mounted. The photographie equatorial is by Grubb, of the pattern adopted by the astrophotographie congress in 1889 and furnished for most of the observatories taking part in the international chart. Among the minor apparatus added to the equip- ment of the observatory may be mentioned a complete portable photo- graphie outfit; a Merz polariscope for the 15-inch equatorial ; a Pritch- ard’s wedge photometer by Hilger; a mercury artificial horizon by Gauthier for the meridian circle; a complete meteorological outfit; a petroleum motor and electric light installation. In August, 1889, two additions were made to the observatory staff, Messrs. Camilo A. Gonzalez and Guillermo Puga, who have been as- signed to duty on the meridian circle. They have been engaged in studying the instrumental constants and have undertaken the observa- tion of certain stars to the tenth magnitude, conveniently situated for reference stars for the zone of the photographic map assigned to the Tacubaya observatory. Sr. Felipe Valle has been engaged with the equatorial in observations of comets, asteroids, and nebule. A series of daily observations of sun spots and facule has been made. Photographs of the sun have been taken with the photoheliograph. Two parties were sent out to observe the total solar eclipse of October 22, 1889, one to Yucatan and one to San Luis Potosi. (1890.) TANANARIVO: Colin.—An observatory has been established on a hill about 4,400 feet high a short distance to the east of Tananarivo on the island of Madagascar. It has an equatorial, meridian instrument, and photographic telescope for solar work. (1889.) Tokyo: Terao.—A large number of observations of comet e, 1888, made by Professor Teara and Mr. J. Midzuhara have been published as the second fasciculus of volume 1 of the Annals. (1889.) TouLovuseE: Baillaud.—The photographic telescope has been mounted. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 167 UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORY: McNair.—The reports of the superintendents of the Naval Observatory show no material change in the character of the work from the years immediately preceding. On June 28, 1890, Capt. F. V. McNair succeeded Capt. R. L. Phythian as Superintendent, Capt. McNair’s report covering the fiscal year June 30,1890. The walls of the main building for the new observatory were practically completed by the end of 1890 ; also the great equatorial and clock and observer’s rooms. The iron work for the three transit-circle rooms is ready. The buildings will scarcely be ready for occupancy before the summer of 1892. UpsaLa: Dunér.—From an extensive series of spectroscopic obser- vations to determine the rotation period of the sun, it appears that the period varies from 25.5 days to 38.6 days, increasing with the helio- graphic latitude. VIENNA (von Kuffner’s observatory) : Herz.—The latitude from obser- vations with the Repsold meridian circle, 1889-90, is +.48° 12’ 46/’.67, WASHINGTON (Catholic University of America): Searle.—A small observatory has been built at the Catholic University in the suburbs of Washington (D. C.), and is under the direction of Rev. G. M. Searle. The position is latitude + 38° 56 15’; longitude 5» 8™ 08.0 west of Greenwich. The telescope, which will be mounted in 1891 is 9 inches aperture, 9 feet focus, glass and tube by Clacey, mounting by Saeg- muller (Fauth & Co.). The cells and center piece of tube are made of aluminum. A small meridian circle, and photographic and spectro- scopic apparatus will also be provided. A 5-inch telescope is now in use. (1890.) WASHINGTON. (See, also, Georgetown; alsv, Smithsonian astro- physical observatory; also, U. 8S. Naval Observatory.) WASHBURN: Comstock.—The sixth volume of publications contains the meridian observations of 1887 and observations of double stars. YALE: Newton.—The heliometer triangulation of the region near the north pole has been completed, and some observations of Iris, Victoria and Sappho have been obtained in codperation with the observatories at the Cape of Good Hope and Leipsic, for the determination of the solar parallax. ZuRiIcH: Wolf.—Physical observations of the sun. ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. In the fourth part of the Bulletin of the Astro-photographic con- gress, Dr. H. C. Vogel describes the photographic refractor constructed for the observatory at Potsdam by the Repsolds. This instrument has two objectives; eye-piece and plate-holder are in the same tube, con- forming to the resolutions of the congress in 1887, but the peculiarity is in the form of mounting, which is quite different from both the Eng- 168 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. lish and the French forms. The pillar that supports the polar axis is not upright, but L-shaped, the lower part being inclined nearly in the plane of the equator, the upper almost at right angles to this, extend- ing toward the north pole and inclosing the polar axis. The support possesses very great stability, and its form permits an uninterrupted motion of the telescope in al! positions. In Engineering for December 19, 1890, will be found a description of the Melbourne photographic telescope made by Sir Howard Grubb. An instrument for comparing and measuring celestial photographs, somewhat similar to that designed by Mr, Roberts, has been devised by Mr. Common. An apparatus for eliminating personal equation in the observation of sudden phenomena, such as the disappearance of a star when occulted by the moon has been devised by Mr. 8. P. Langley, and is described in the Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, vol. x1. The principle of the method consists in associating a motion, real or apparent, of the object, with intervals of time so that the apparent posi- tion of the object at the instant of the occurrence of any phenomenon being noted the time of the occurrence will be known. Experiments made with artificial stars show that it is quite possible for a compar- atively inexperienced person to observe an occultation with a probable error of only one-fortieth of a second. The great Lick refractor of 36 inches diameter is to be surpassed by one still larger, ordered for the University of Southern California, at Los Angeles. This lens is to be 40 inches in diameter, and the crown glass disk for the achromatic combination is now in the hands of the Clarks, who pronounce it a remarkably fine piece of glass. It may perhaps be mentioned here that a bill was introduced in the United States Congress making an appropriation of $1,000,000 for a refractor of 5 feet aperture for the U.S. Naval Observatory, but the plan never received support from the Government astronomers. Mr. Brashear has under way at his shop in Allegheny a 16-inch objective for Carleton College Observatory, one of 12 inches for Brown University, and a second of 12 inches for Mr. G. E. Hale, of Chicago. He is also making a large spectroscope and spectrograph for Professor Young, at Princeton, which is expected to be the finest in the United States; a very complete spectroscope with Jena glass objectives and prism is being made for Carleton College, and a new star spectroscope for Lick Observatory. For the Willard photographic telescope of the Lick Observatory, he is making an equatorial mounting with controlled clock. MISCELLANEOUS. Personal equation.—The attention of astronomers interested in the subject of personal equation should be directed to a paper prepared ’ by a physiologist, Dr. E. C. Sanford, of the Johns Hopkins University, ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 169 and published in volume 2 of the American Journal of Psychology. An important contribution to the astronomical side of the subject is an investigation by Dr. Wislicenus, of the Strasburg Observatory, who has investigated the personal equation in transit observations, not only for a horizontal position of the telescope, but for all inclinations. By plac- ing a small convex lens behind the ocular an artificial star is obtained which is easily moved in the plane of the reticule with a velocity corre- sponding to any declination. Dr. Wislicenus concludes from his experi- ments that the inclination of the telescope has a considerable effect upon the observer’s personal equation. One of the essays contributed to the celebration of the Pulkowa Jubilee was a discussion of absolute personal equation by H. G. van de Sande Bakhuyzen. The artificial star observed was the meridian mark of the transit circle, to which an apparent motion was given by inter- posing a prism fixed excentrically to a circular rotating plate. Very satisfactory results were obtained. The personality depending upon direction of apparent motion seemed to be generally small for seven observers who tried the apparatus. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETIES. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific_—Under the leadership of Pro- fessor Holden and the astronomers at the Lick Observatory the Astro- nomical Society of the Pacific was founded February 7, 1889, as a result of the cordial codperation of amateur and professional astronomers in successfully observing the total solar eclipse of the preceding New Year’s day. Any person interested in astronomy is invited to join its membership. Three meetings each year are held in San Francisco and three meetings at Mount Hamilton. An excellent series of publi- cations, in octavo form, issued at irregular intervals, has reached the second volume. These “ publications ” contain papers read before the society, and also notices from the Lick Observatory prepared by members of the observatory staff. A fund has been established known as the “Donohoe fund for the maintenance of the comet medal of the Astronom- ical Society of the Pacific,” the principal conditions of the gift, a medal of bronze, being the discovery of a new comet or the first precise deter- mination of position of a periodic comet at any one of its expected returns. The discoverer is to make his discovery known in the usual way, and also to communicate it immediately to the director of the Lick Observatory. No application for the bestowal of the medal is required. The British Astronomical Association.—A new astronomical society, to be called the British Astronomical Association, has been formed in England to meet the wishes and needs of those who find the subscrip- tion of the Royal Astronomical Society too high, or its papers too ad- vanced, or who are, as in the case of ladies, practically excluded from becoming fellows; it is also to afford a means of direction and or- ganization in the work of observation to amateur astronomers. The 170 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. new society is thus to be regarded as supplementary to the older one, and not its rival. The first general meeting was held on October 24, 1890, in the hall of the Society of Arts, Adelphi, London, and the offi- cers nominated by a provisional committe: were elected, Capt. W. Noble being made president. The sections under which the work of ob- servation is organized are: Meteoric, solar, lunar, spectroscepic, and photographic, colored stars, variable stars, double stars, and Jupiter, each section being presided over by an amateur astronomer who has devoted special attention to the subject named. The first number of the Journal appeared in October, 1890, under the able editorship of Mr. E. W. Maunder. Gesellschaft Urania.—The building forming the headquarters of the Gesellschaft Urania was completed in July, 1889, and is described at some length by Dr. M. W. Meyer in the February and March numbers of Himmel und Hrde. The Gesellschaft is for the purpose of popular- izing science. The chief astronomical instrument is a 12-inch refractor by Bamberg, the glass for which was made by Schott & Co., of Jena. There are also a 6-inch and a 4-inch refractor, a 6-inch reflector, a 23- inch transit, and a 5-inch comet-seeker. These instruments are for the use of visitors, and for cloudy nights a collection of 700 lantern slides is provided. The thirteenth meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft was held at Brussels, Septembr 10 to 12, 1889. The next meeting is at Munich in 1891. Astronomical prizes.—The Lalande prize of the French Academy of Sciences was awarded for 1889 to M. Gonnessiat of the Lyons observa- tory, the Valz prize to Charlois, and the Janssen prize to Lockyer. In 1890 the Lalande prize was awarded to Schiaparelli for his obser- vations determining the rotation of Mercury and Venus, the Valz prize to Glasenapp for his determination of the orbits of double stars, and the Janssen prize to Young. The Damoiseau prize, for which but one memoir was presented, was continued for another year with the same subject: To perfect the theory of the inequalities of long period caused by the planets in the motion of the moon. The Copley medal of the Royal Society was awarded on November 20, 1590, to Professor Simon Newcomb for his contributions to gravita- tional astronomy. The first award of the Donohoe medal was made to Mr. W. R. Brooks for the discovery of a comet on March 19, 1890; the second to Mr. W. I’, Denning for his comet of July 23, 1890, and the third to Monsieur Jérome Coggia, astronomer of the observatory of Marseilles, for his discovery of a comet on Juiy 18, 1890, this being the eighth comet discovered by M. Coggia. A generous gift has been made in aid of astronomical research by Miss ©. W. Bruce, of New York, who placed in the hands of Professor Picker- ing, director of the Harvard Observatory, $6,000, In answer to a circular ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. PCE issued by Professor Pickering, numerous requests were received fer aid from this fund, and various sums were awarded by Professor Pickering so as to aid as wide a range of astronomical subjects as possible, and to aid investigators in all parts of the world. Among new works of general interest to astronomers may be men- tioned Miss Clerke’s “The System of the Stars;” a new edition of Chamhers’ Astronomy in three volumes. The first two volumes of an able ‘‘ Traité de mécanique céleste,” the first containing the general theory of perturbations, and the second on the figures of rotation of celestial bodies ; these are to be followed by a third volume on the lunar theory, theory of Jupiter’s satellites, Hansen’s method for the ecaleu- lation of perturbations, and other methods of recent date. Another work which has been found useful as a text-book is Dziobek’s Die mathematischen Theorien der Planeton—Bewegungen. Dr. Scheiner has published a treatise on spectrum analysis which is intended to form the first volume of complete work on astrophysics. The first volume of the national edition of the works of Galileo has appeared under the patronage of the King of Italy. Dr. Dreyer has published a biography of Tycho Brahe upon which he has been at work for several years past. A very interesting paper on Bowditch, who translated Laplace’s “ Mécanique Céleste,” has been contributed by Prof. Joseph Lovering to the Proceedings of the American Academy of Sciences. An index to the literature of spectroscopy, compiled by Mr. Alfred Tuckerman, has been published in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- lections. It contains a bibliography of the history of the subjects ; of books; of apparatus; of spectrum analysis in general; of qualitative analysis; of quantitative analysis; of absorption spectra; of alkalies and alkaloids; of astronomical spectroscopy ; of carbon compounds, and of the spectra of metals; there is also alist of 799 authors. The num- ber of titles is 3,829. Another useful contribution to astronomical bibliography is the cata- Jogue of the Crawford Library at the Royal Observatory at Edinburgh, presented to the observatory by the Earl of Crawford, and formerly constituting the library of the Dun Echt Observatory. The catalogue was compiled by the present astronomer royal for Scotland, Mr. Cope- land, and contains a number of rare works. Reference should also be made to a new edition of M. Lancaster’s use- ful little Liste générale des observatoires, appearing in 1890 with many additions and corrections. ASTRONOMICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR 1889. A brief bibliography of astronomy for the year 1890 having been con- tributed to the Sidereal Messenger for 1891, it seems unnecessary to cover more than the year 1889 in the present review. The titles given below include the most important books and journal articles of 1889, that Lg ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. have come under the compiler’s notice, some few titles having been taken from reviews or catalogues, where the publications themselves have not been accessible. In the reference to periodicals the volume and page are simply sep- arated by a colon; thus: Astron. Jour. 8:153 indicates volume 8, page 153, of the Astronomical Journal. The following less obvious abbrevia- tions occur : Abstr. = Abstract. n F.= neue Folge. Am. = American. nD. S. = new series. Bd. = Band. Not. — Notices. d. = di, der, del, ete. Obsvy. = Observatory. ed. = edition. p. = page. Hitt. = Heft. pl. = plates. hrsg. = herausgegeben. portr. = portrait. il. = illustrated. pt. = part. j-, jour. = journal. r. = reale. k. k. = kaiserlich, kéniglich. Rev. = Review. Lfg. = Lieferung. 8. = series. M. = Marks. sc. = science, scientific. n. d. = no date. vol. = volumes. n. p. = no place of publication. NECROLOGY OF ASTRONOMERS FOR 1889-’90. Biographical sketches of most of the following astronomers are to be found in the columns of the Astronomische Nachrichten, in the Viertel. jahrschrift, der Astronomischen Gesellschaft, or in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. ApotrH (CARL). Born at Nordstemmen, Hanover, April 8, 1838; died January 3, 1890. CaccIATORE (GAETANO). Born at Palermo March 17, 1814; died at Palermo June 16, 1889, @t. 75. Dre LARUE (WARREN). Born at Guernsey January 18, 1815; died April 19, 1889, at. 74. Erck (WENTWORTH). Born in Dublin, 1827; died at Sherrington, Wicklow, Jan- uary 15, 1890, et. 63. FEARNLEY, (CARL FREDERIK). Born at Frederiksbald’ December 19, 1818; died August 22, 1890, et 72. FIevez (CHARLES). Died February 2, 1890, et 46. MontTiGny (C. M. V.). Died at Schaerbeck, March 16, 1890, et 71. NEWALL (ROBERT STIRLING). Born in Dundee May 27, 1812; died April 21, 1889) at. 77. Oom (FréDERICO AUGUSTO). Born at Lisbon December 4, 1830; died at Lisbon July 24, 1880, wt 60. PERRY (STEPHEN JOSEPH), Born in London August 26, 1833; died at sea near Dem- arara, December 25, 1889, wt. 56. PETERS (CHRISTIAN HELNRICH FRIEDRICH). Born at Coldenbiittel, Schleswig, Sep- tember 19, 1813; died at Clinton, New York, July 19, 1890, wt. 77. REsPIGHI (LORENZO). Born at Cortemaggiore, Pracenza, October 7, 1824; died at Rome December 10, 1889, wt. 75 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. LS ROSENBERGER (OTTO AUGUST). Born at Tukkum, Russia, August 10, 1800; died at Halle January 23, 1890, et. 90. SCHULTZ (HERMAN). Born at Nygvarn. Sédermanland, July 7, 1823; died at Stock- holm May 8, 1890, et. 67. TEMPEL (ERNST WILHELM LEBERECHT). Born at Nieder-Kunersdorf, Saxony, De- cember 4, 1821; died at Arcetri March 16, 1389,* qt. 66. WELD (ALFRED). Born August 5, 1823; died at Grahamstown July 24, 1890, wt. 67. ASTRONOMICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, 1889, 1890. Asteroid 80. BRYANT (R.) Orbit of the planet (0) Sappho. Astron. Nachr., 121: 321-32. Orbit of planet G0) Sappho, the secular perturbation of the minor planets upon elements of that orbit, and the mass of planet Jupiter. Astron. Jour., 8: 185-9. KirRKWoOoD (D.) Inclination of the asteroids. Sid. Mess., 8: 305-7. LEHMANN (P.) Zusammenstellung der Planeten-Entdeckungen im Jahre 1888. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 4-9. Astronomers. Morton (E. J. C.) Heroesof science. Astronomers. 8+341p. 12mo. London and New York, [1889]. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. [By-Laws, etc. Society organized Feb.7, 1889.] Pub. astron.soc. Pacific 1: 1-7. MEETING of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Sid. Mess., 8: 358. Astronomy. BALL (R. 8S.) 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Astronomy (Progress of). FLAMMARION (C.) Les progrés de l’astronomie pendant |’année, 1888. L’Astron. 8: 162-74. 1889. WIinLock (W.C.) Account of the progress in astronomy in the year 1886. Smithsonian rept. 1886-’87 : 991-87. Also, Reprint. Chronometers. HILFIKER (J.) L’influence de la pression de l’air sur Ja marche des chronométres, 22p. 12mo. Neuchatel, 1889. Repr. from: Bull. Soc. d. sc. nat. de Neuchatel, 17. 174 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Comet Winnecke. von Harrpri (E.) Bahn des periodischen Kometen Winnecke in den Jahren 1858-86. II. Theil. 38p. 4to. Wien, 1889. Comet 1867 III. Brocu (P.) Bahnbestimmung des Cometen 1867 III. Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. in Wien, 97. 2. Abth. Also, abstr.: Astron. Nachr,, 121: 353-8. Comet 1880 V. BEEBE (W.) and Puitiies (A. W.) Orbit of Swift’s comet 1880 V, determined by Gibbs’s vector method. Astron. Jour., 9: 113-121. Comet 1887 I. OPPENHEIM (H.) Definitive Bestimmung der Bahn des grossen Siidcometen 1887 I. Astron, Nachr., 121: 337-42. Comet 1889, Jan. 15. BARNARD (E. E.) Search for the comet reported, 1889, Jan. 15, by Mr. Brooks. Astron. Jour., 8: 168. Comet 1889 V. BARNARD (E. E.) Companions to comet d 1889 (Brooks). Astron. Jour., 9: 77-78. Companions to comet d 1889 (Brooks). Sid. Mess., 8: 360-63, —. A very remarkable comet. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific 1: 72. CHANDLER (S8.C.) Action of Jupiter in 1836 upon comet d 1889, and the iden- tity of the latter with Lexell’s comet of 1770, Astron. Jour., 9: 100-3. Comets. BREDICHIN (T.) Quelques mots sur l’origine des cométes périodiques. Astron. Nachr., 120: 331. 1889. Also; Bull. Soc. imp. d.nat.de Moscou, 1889, No. 2. CALLANDREU (O.) ‘Théorie des cométes périodiques. 64 p. 4to. Paris, 1889. Repr. from: Ann. obs. d. Par. 20, CoMETARY discoveries during the years 1840-68. Obsry., 12: 435. DENNING (W.F.) Notes on comets and cometseeking. Obsry.,12: 256, 285, 311, 349, 372, 403, 433. Kreutz(H.) Bericht iiberCometen. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 293-8. 1889. MAUNDER (E. W.) Comet 1887 I and cometary tails. Obsry., 12: 70-4. ScHULHOF (L.) Notes sur quelques cométes & courte période. Bull. astron., 6: 465-71. TISSERAND (I°.) Théorie de la capture des cométes périodiques. Bull. astron., 6: 241, 289. Comets of 1888. Kreutz (H.) Zusammenstellung der Cometen-Erscheinungen des Jabres 1888. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 9-17. Computing Machines. BaBBAGE (H.P.) Babbage’s calculating engines . . . 8-+042-+43 p. il. portr. pl. Lond., 1889. Corona (Solar). ABNEY (W. de W.) and Tuorpek (T. i.) Determination of the photometric in- tensity of the coronal light . . . eclipse 1886, Aug, 28-29. Phil. Trans,, 363-384. 1889. BIGELOW (F.H.) Solar corona discussed by spherical harmonics. 22 p., 1 pl. 4to. Washington, 1829. Smithsonian publication No. 691. Cosmogony. Croiu(J.) Stellar evolution and its relations to geological time. 11-4118 p. 12mo. New York, 1889. Rev. by Fowler (A.) Nature 40: 199. Hirn (G.A.) 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Total eclipse of the Sun, August 29, 1886. Ann. Harv. Coll. Obsry., 18: 85-111. (v.18, n0.5.) 4pl. Also, Reprint. Eclipse of the Sun, 1889, January 1. HoLpEN (E. 8S.) [Preliminary report] on the solar eclipse of January 1, 1889. il. Obsry., 12: 130-4. REPORTS on the observations of the total eclipse of the Sun of January 1, 1889, published by the Lick Observatory. 10+210 p. il. 8vo. Sacramento, 1589. PICKERING (W, H.) [Photograph of the corona taken during] the total solar éclipse of January, 1889. Sid. Mess., 8: 337-39. Topp (D. P,) Photographs of the corona . . . [with notes on the] structure of the corona. J0p.,2pl. 4to. Washington, 1889. Smithsonian publication No. 692. Eclipse of the Sun, 1889, December 21. HOLDEN (E. 8.) Lick Observatory expedition to observe the solar eclipse of December 21, 1889. Sid. Mess., 8: 339-41. Encke (J. F.) Gesammelte mathematische und astronomische Abhandlungen. 3. Band. Astronomische und optische Abhandlungen. 158 p. 8vo. Berlin, 1889. Fedorenko (Iwan) [1827-88]. LEwITzky (G.) Todes-Anzeige. Astron. Nachr., 120: 319. Geodesy. Gore (J.H.) Bibliography of geodesy. Rept. U.S. Coast and Geod. Sury. 1887: 312-512 (Rept. 1887, App. 16). Also, Reprint. Harvard College Observatory. PICKERING (E. C.) The Bruce photographic telescope. 1p. 4to. Cambridge, 1889. PICKERING (E. C.) [Circular showing the need for] a large photugraphic tele- scope. 4). 4to. Cambridge, 1833. Also: Sid. Mess., 8: 304. Horizon (Artificial). MAILHAT (—.) Nouveau bain de mercure, perfectionné. L’Astron., 8: 107. 1889. Houzeau. LANCASTER (A.) Notes biographiques sur J.C. Houzeau. 120 p., portr. Bru- xelles, 1889. 176 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Huyghens (C.) CEUVREs complétes ... Tome 2. 6+4639 p.,1 pl. La Hague, 1889. Jupiter (Satellites of). DOWNING (A. M. W.) [Glasenapp’s discussion of eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites. ] il. Obsry., 12: 173, 210. Jupiter. BARNARD (E. E.) Observations . . . with a 5-inch refractor during the years 1879-1886. il. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific, 1: 89-111. FLAMMARION (C.) Le monde de Jupiter. il. L’astron., 8: 361-401. 1889. HOLDEN (E. 8.) Drawings .. . made with the 26-inch equatorial at Washing- ton during 1875. il. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific, 1: 111. 1889. [L’occuLTATION de Jupiter. 1889. Aug. 7.] il. L’Astron., 8: 322. TERBY (F.) [Structure de la bande nord équatoriale de Jupiter.] 4p. il. 8vo. Bruxelles, 1889. Bull. Acad. roy. de Belg., 3. s., 18, nos. 9, 10. Same. 6p. il. 8vo. Bruxelles, 1890. Bull. Acad. roy. de Belg., 3. s., 18, No. 12, 1889. WILLIAMS (A. 8S.) Zenographical fragments: the motions and changes of the markings on Jupiter during 1886-87. 118 p.,9 pl. &8vo. London, 1889. Jupiter (Orbit of). Hitt (G. W.) Leverrier’s determination of the second-order terms in the secular motions of the eccentricities and perihelia of Jupiter and Saturn. Astron. Jour., 9: 89-91. Karlsruhe Observatory. VEROFFENTLICHUNGEN ... Heft3. 8+204p.,3 pl. 4to. Karlsruhe, 1889. von Kuffner Observatory. PUBLICATIONEN der von Kuffner’schen Sternwarte in Wien. 1. Band. 217 p., 12 pl. 4dto. Wien, 1889. Le Verrier (U. J. J.) [1811-77]. STATUE .. . 4 Vobservatoire de Paris. L’Astron., 8: 281. 1889. Lick Observatory. HOLDEN (E.S.) L’observatoire Lick. il. L’Astron., 8: 241,305. 1889. Lunar theory. FRANZ (J.) Die Konstanten der physischen Libration des Mondes, abgelietet aus Schliiter’s Beobachtungen. Kénigsberg, 1889. Rev. by R{adau] (R.) Bull. astron., 6; 399-407, McCormick Observatory. PUBLICATIONS . .. v. 1, pt.4. Double stars. 1885-86. [51] p. 8vo. Univ. of Virginia, 1889. Mars. FLAMMARION (C.) Changements actuellement observés & la surface de la planéte - Mars. il. L’Astron., 8: 208, 285. 1889. Observations de Mars faites & l’observatoire Lick... il. L’Astron., 8: 180-84. 1889. GuriGNny (P.) Les marées sur Mars. L’astron., 8: 381-8. 1889. H[ OLDEN] (E.8.) Variations of the surface of Mars. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific, 1122. Mac Coti (H.) A journey to the planet Mars. Nature. London, 1889. Rev. by Gregory (R. A.) Nature, 40; 291. MEISEL (F.) Versuch, die Verdoppelung der auf der Marsoberfliiche beobachte- ten Linien auf optischen Wege zu erkliiren. Astron. Nachr., 121 :371. NOUVELLES découvertes sur Mars: canaux, lacs et mers dédoublés. il. L’as- tron., 9: 401-11. 1890. SCHRAPARELLI (G. V,) Sur Ja plantte Mars. il. L’Astron., 8: 19, 42, 89, 124. 1889. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Lae Mechanics (Celestial). TISSERAND (F.) Traité de mécanique céleste. Tome l. 474 p. 4to. Paris, 1889. TRAXTER (R. P,) Principles of mechanics as applied to the solar system. 70 p. il. Svo. San Francisco, 1889. Meteors. BREDICHIN (T.) Quelques propriétés remarquables des courants météoriques. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 273-9. 1889. DENNING (W.F.) Determination of attenuated meteor-streams. Obsry., 12: 182. KLEIBER (J.) Petite histoire des étoiles filantes. L’Astron., 8: 413. 1889. LockyER (J. N.) Notes on meteorites. Nature, 39: 402; 40: 136. Moncxk (W. H.S.) Meteors and meteorites. Sid. Mess., 8: 395-402. Micrometers (Double image). BRENDEL (M.) Ueber ein neues von Herrn Dr. Wellmann construirtes Doppel- bild-Mikrometer. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 268-72, 1889. Moon. Boys (C. V.) Heat of the moon and stars. il. Proc. roy. soc., 47: 480-99. LANGLEY (S. P.) Temperature of the moon. Am. J. Sc., [38]: 421-40. 1889. Same, Mem. nat, acad. sc., 4: 103-212. 26 pl. 4°. 1889. Also, Re- print. Milky way. PLASSMANN (J.) Ueber Grosse, Gestalt und Sternfiille der Milchstrasse. 10 p.8vo. le 19s5 Sale . Mitchell (Ormsby Mcknight). PORTER (J. G.) Ormsby Mcknight Mitchell. Sid. Mess., 8: 442-47, Nebula in Lyra Hatt (A.) Note on the ring-nebulain Lyra. Astron. Jour., 9: 64. PHOTOGRAPHIE de la nébuleuse de la Lyre. il. L’Astron., 9: 441-6. 1890. Nebula in Orion (Great). CLommon] (A. A.) [Note on a photograph by Roberts.] il. Obsry., 12: 105. Nebula. Youne (C. A.) Note on recent papers of Dr. Huggins. Sid. Mess.,8: 289-91. CLERK (A. M.) Spectra of the Orion nebula and of the aurora. Obsry,, 12: 366-70. Nutation. Four ( ) Détermination de la nutation diurne. Bull. astron., 6: 100-3. Objectives. BATTERMANN (H.) Untersuchungen iiber die Gestalt der Bilder und die Theorie der Messungen ausserhalb der optischen Axe von astronomischen Instrumen- ten. Astron. Nachr., 120: 337-416. STEINHEIL (A.) Einfluss der Objectiveonstruction auf die Lichtvertheilung in seitlich von der optischen Axe gelegenen Bildpunkten von Sternen bei zwei- linsigen Systemen. Sitzungsb. d. math.-phys. Cl. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wis- sensch., 19 (Hft. 3): 413-15. 1889. Vertheilung des Lichtes in seitlich von der Axe gelegenen Sternbildern und den Einfluss der Construction des Objectives hierauf. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 254-9. 1889. Observatories. BeumMer (G. H.) Report on astronomical observations for 1886. Smithson. * Rept., 1886: 367-488. Also, Reprint. BupGET de Vastronomie et de la météorologie [en France 1891]. L’Astron., 9: 436. 1890. JAHRESBERICHTE der Sternwarten fiir 1888. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 85-171. H. Mis. 129 12 178 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Occultations. CALLANDREAU (O.) Prédiction des occultations. Bull. astron., 6: 129-41. Orbits. GuauseR(J.) Bahnbestimmung nach Lambert. Astron. Nachr., 121: 65-70. SEARLE (G. M.) Computation of the true anomaly, radius-vector and coordi- nates in ellipses of great eccentricity. Astron. Jour., 8: 153-6. ScuuLnor (L.) Formules différentielles pour les variations des 6!éments dune orbite. Bull. astron., 6: 151-192. Oxford University Observatory. ASTRONOMICAL observations . . . under the direetion of C. Pritchard. No. 3. Researches in stellar parallax by the aid of photography. 8-+133 p. 8vo. Ox- ford, 1889. Parallax. VON ReEBECR-PASCHWITzZ (E.) Hiilfstafeln zur Berechnune der Parallaxe fiir Cometen-und Planetenbeobachtungen. Verdffentl. d. Grossheragl, Struwrt. zu Karlsruhe, 3: 183-204, 1889, Parallax (Solar). HARKNESS (W.) On the masses of Mercury, Venus, and the Earth and on the so- lar parallax. Astron. Jour., 9: 9-15, 31. On an error in computation of the solar parallax. Astron. Jour., 9: 5-31. Parallax (Steller). BELOPOLSKY (A.) Beitrag zur Ermittelung von Sternparallaxen aus Durchgangs- beobachtungen. Astron. Nachr., 121: 113-22. FLAMMARION (C.) Distances des étoiles. [Tables.] L’astron., 8: 441-50. 1889, CLERKE (A. M.) Star distances. Nature, 41: 81. Paris Exposition (1889). L/ASTRONOMIE 4 l’exposition. L’astron., 8: 450. Paris Observatory. RAPPORT aunuel. . . pour l’année 1888. . . par [E.] Mouchez. 26p. 4ta Paris, 1839. Personal equation. BakHUYZEN(H. G. vande Sande). Beschreibung eines Apparates zu der absoluten personliches Fehlers. . . 40 p.,2pl. 4to. Haag, 1889. GONNESSIAT (F.) Recherches sur les erreurs personnelles daus les observations de passages. Bull. astron., 6: 471-80. LANGLEY (S. P.) Observation of sudden phenomena. Sid. Mess., 8: 291-99. Low (M.) Der persénliche Fehler bei Messung von Zenith-Distanzen und Azi- muten. Astron, Nachr., 121: 307-16. Personal scale, BoquetT (I.) Recherche sur la valeur des observations de passages. Bull, astron., 6: 337-43. Photographic Congress, Paris (1837). BULLETIN du comité international permanent pour Vexécution photographique de la carte du ciel. p. 147-226 (3° et 4° fascicule). [CircuLak of International Congress on celestial photography.] Obsry., 12: 329-32. [Reports of meeting of permanent committee on charting, and of organization of committee on celestial photography and spectroscopy.] Obsry., 12: 363-6. Photography. MEETING of the permanent committee of the astro-photographic congress. Sid. Mess., 8: 412-14. PICKERING (E. C.) Photographie determination of the brightness of the stars. Ann, Hary. Coll. Obsry., 18; 119-214 (v. 18, No. 7). Also, Reprint. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 179 Photography (Astronomical). FLAMMARION (C.) Les progrés de la photographie céleste. il. L’Astron., 8: 121-4, 1890. HOLDEN (E.8.) Photographing and seeing stars in the day-time. Astron. Jour., 9: 73-74, Photography (Stellar). ANOTHER photographie chart of the heavens. Obsry., 12: 308-11. CHARLIER (C. V. L.) Anwendung der Sternphotographie zu Helligkertsmes- sungen der Sterne. 8+31p. 4to. Leipzig, 1889. Pub. d. astron. Gesellsch., 19. GouLD (B. A.) Reduction of photographic observations, with a determination of the position of the Pleiades from photographs by Mr. Rutherfurd. Mem. Nat’] Acad. Sc., 4: 173-90 (v. 4, 3. mem.). 4lso, Reprint. KAPTEYN (J. C.) Bericht iiber die zur Herstellung einer Durchmusterung des siidlichen Himmels ausgefiihrten Arbeiten. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 213-20. LA CARTE photographique du ciel. L’astron., 8: 388-91. 1889. PICKERING (EK. C.) Photographie chart of the heavens. Obsry., 12: 375. REUNION du comité international permanent pour l’exécution de la carte photo- graphique du ciel, a Vobservatoire de Paris en septembre 1889. 112 p., 4to. Paris, 1889. Photometry. SCHAEBERLE (J. M.) Photographic brightness of the fixed stars. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific, 1: 53-64. SCHEINER (J.) Bestimmung der Sterngréssen aus photographischen Aufnah- men. Astron. Nachr., 121: 49-62. Planets. GREGORY (R. A.) Determination of masses in astronomy. Nature, 40: 80. Hau (A.) Deduction of planetary masses from the motions of comets. Astron. Jour., 9: 47. Pleiades. ELKIN (W. L.) Comparison of Dr. Gould’s reductions of Mr. Rutherfurd’s Pleiades photographs with the heliometer results. Astron. Jour., 9: 33-35. GOULD (B. A.) Determination of the position of the Pleiades from photographs by Mr. Rutherturd. Mem. nat’l acad. se., 4: 173-90. (v. 4, 3. mem.) Also Reprint. Presepe. GOULD (B.A.) Reduction of photographic observations of the Pesepe. Mem, Nat. Acad. Sc., 4: 193-9. (vy. 4,4. mem.) dlso, Reprint. Proper motion. Boss (L.) Proper motions of stars in the Albany zones. (--0° 50’ to 50° 10/ for 1885.) Astron. Jour., 9: 57-64. Red stars. CLERKE (A. M.) Some southern red stars. Obsry., 12: 134. Refraction. LAskA (W.) Ueber eine einfache Refractionsformel. Astron. Nachr., 121: 111. LEHMANN-FiLuts (R.) Hine geniherte Refractionsformel. Astron. Nachr., 121: 383. Rapav (R.) Essai sur les réfractions astronomiques. 80 p. 4to. Paris, 1859. Resisting medium. Hai (A.) Resisting medium in space. Sid. Mess., 8: 433-42. 180 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Saturn. ANDING (A.) Die Seeliger’sche Theorie des Saturnringes und der Beleuchtung der grossen Planeten iiberhaupt. Astron. Nachr., 121: 1-16. Haut (A.) White spot on the ring of Saturn. Astron. Jour., 9: 23. HoLpEN (E. 8.) Reported changes in rings of Saturn. Astron. Jour., 8: 180-1. KEELER (J. E.) Outer ring of Saturn. Astron. Jour., 8: 22-175. LockyeEr (J. N.) Note on the spectrum of the rings of Saturn. Astron. Nachr., 121: 15. TERBY (F.) La tache blanche de l’anneau de Saturne .. . Obsry., 12: 286. —. Sur laspect de la planéte Saturne et spécialement sur une tache blanche et brillante observée sur son anneau. il. Astron. Nachr., 121: 109, 173, 233, 305, 336, 367. Saturn (Rings of). TISSERAND (F.) Théorie de Maxwell sur Vanneau de Saturne. Bull. astron., 6 : 383, 417. Solar system. Boss (L.) Systematic corrections of star positions near Equator, with a note on the constants of solar motion. Astron. Jour., 9:17, 25. Spectrum (Solar). JANSSEN (J.) Ascension scientifique au mont Blanc. L’Astron., 9: 446-9, 1890. Origine tellurique des raies de l’oxygéne dans le spectre solaire. L’As- tron., 8: 206. 1889. LANGLEY (S.P.) The solar and the lunar spectrum. il. Mem. nat. acad.sc.,4: 159-70, 5 pl. Also, Reprint. Spectra (Stellar). Espin (T. E.) Stars with remarkable spectra. Astron. Nachr., 121: 33-6. PICKERING (E. C.) Henry Draper memorial. Third annual report of the pho- tographie study of stellar spectra. 8p. 4to. Cambridge, 1889. Star-catalogues. Auwers (A.) Vorliufiger Fundamental-Catalog fiir die siidlichen Zonen der Astronomischen Gesellschaft. Astron. Nachr., 121 : 145-72. BurIcHTE iiber die Beobachtung der Sterne bis zur neunten Grosse am nérdlichen Himmel. Vrtljschr., 24: 280-93. 1889. CATALOGUES @’étoiles deduits des observations publiées dans les vols vi et vii. Observations de Poulcova. v. 8. 1889. OrRTEL (K.) Beziehungen der in den Berliner astronomischen Jahrbiichern von 1860 bis 1883 gegebenen Fixsternérter zum Fundamental-Catalog der Astro- nomischen Gesellschaft. Astron. Nachr., 121: 225-32. Kreutz (H.) Berichtigungen zu der Bonner Durchmusterungen-Zone 55°-65°. Astron. Nachr., 121: 23-8. [Prrers (C. H. F.) vs. Borst (C. A.) Action to recover manuscript. Supreme court, Oneida Co., N. Y. Opinion of Justice P. C. Williams in favor of Peters. ] 19p. 8vo. Utica, 1889. PETER’S Star-eatalogue. Sid. Mess., 8 : 455-58. { Wintock (A.)] Meridian-cirele observations of close polar stars. Ann. Hary. Coll. Obsry., 18: 259-84. (v.18, no. 9.) Also, Reprint. Star-charts. CorraM (A.) Charts of the constellations, London. 1889. Star-places. Boss (L.) Systematic corrections of star positions near the Equator, with a note on the constants of solar motion. Astron. JOUr., 9's 17, 25. ; GouLp (Bb. A.) Comparisons of the photographic with the instrumental, deter- minations of star-places. Astron. Jour., 9: 36-37. ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 181 Stars (Motion of) in the line of sight. VoGEL (H. C.) Ueber die auf dem Potsdamer Observatorium unternommenen Untersuchungen iiber die Bewegungen der Sterne im Visions-Radius vermit- telst der spectrographischen Methode. Astron. Nachr., 121: 241-58. Sun. Wotr (R.) Bericht iiber die Thitigkeit auf der Sonne im Jahre 1888. Astron. INachrs, 12k 107. —. Statistique solaire de ’année 1888. L’Astron., 8: 61. 1389. Sun (Diameter of). AUWERS (A.) Neue Untersuchungen iiber den Durchmesser der Sonne, III. Sitzungsb. d. k. preuss. Akad. d. Wissensch., 1889: 111-170. Sun-spots. BRUGUIERE (H.) Maxima et minima solaires. L’Astron.,8: 417. 1889. SPOERER (G. F. W.) Von den Sonnenflecken des Jahres 1888 und von der Ver- schiedenheit der nérdlichen und siidlichen Halbkugel der Sonne seit 1883. As- tron. Nachr., 121: 105. —-. Sur les différences que présentent ’hémispheére nord et Vhémispheére sud du soleil. Bull. astron., 6: 60-3. Tables (Astronomical). ParkHuRST (H. M.) Astronomical tables. 456 p. 16mo. New York, 13889. ——— Telescopes. BATTERMANN (H.) Untersuchungen iiber die Gestalt der Bilder und die Theorie der Messungen ausserhalb der optischen Axe von astronomischen Instrumenten. Astron. Nachr., 120: 337-416. Common (A. A.) Great telescopes. Obsry., 12: 138. T[ENNANT] (J. F.) Distortion in telescopic images. Obsry., 12: 304-8. Tempel [Guglielmo Ernesto, 1821-’89. ] SCHIAPARELLI (G. V.) Anzeige des Todes .. . Astron. Nachr., 121: 95. Thermograph. HuTcuins (C.C.) & OWEN (D.E.) Account of a new thermograph . . . measures of lunar radiations. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sc., 24: 125-45. Also, Reprint, 1889, Three bodies (Problem of). BRENDEL (M.) Gylden’s theory. Obsry., 12: 399-403. F[LAMMARION] (C.) Le probléme des trois corps. L’Astron., 8: 265-8. 1889. Liapounor (A. M.) [Stability of mption in a special case of the problem of three bodies.] 94p. 8vo. Silberberg, 1889. [In Russian.] Rev. by R[ADAU] (R.) Bull. astron., 6: 481-3. Tides. FERREL (W.) Laplace’s solution of the tidal equations. Astron. Jour., 9: 41-44, Time services. OBSERVATORY local patronage threatened. Sid. Mess., 8: 452-54. Time (Universal). La TURQUIE et unification du temps. L’Astron.,8: 49. 1889. Transit instruments. Hamy (—). Variations de l’axe de rotation des instruments méridiens. Bull. astron., 6: 377-83. Transit observations (Reduction of). CHANDLER (S.C.) Note on the equation of the meridian transit instrument. Astron. Jour., 8: 147. Uranus. . GREGORY (R. A.) The planet Uranus. Nature, 40: 235. Hueeins (W.) Spectrum of Uranus. Astron. Nachr., 121: 369. ——. Photographic spectra of Uranus and Saturn. Sid. Mess., 8: 450-52. LockyER (J.N.) Note on the spectrum of Uranus. Astron. Nachr., 121: 369. 182 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Variable stars. CHANDLER (S.C.) The period of U Coronw. Astron. Jour., 9: 97-9. . The variable Y Cygni. Astron. Jour., 9: 92-3. —. Light-variations of U Cephei. Astron. Jour., 9: 49-53. ——. General relations of variable star phenomena. Astron. Jour., 9: 1-5. ——. Contributions to the knowledge of the inequalities in the periods of the variable stars. Astron. Jour., 8: 161-6, 172-5. [PIcKERING (E. C.)] Index to observations of variable stars. Ann. Hary. Coll. Obsry., 18: 215-57. (v.18,no.8.) Also, Reprint. ScHGNFELD (E.) Ephemeriden veriinderlicher Sterne fiir 1890. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 220-34. YENDELL (P.S.) Corrigendum to the elements of X Cygni. Astron. Jour., 9: 8. Venus. SCHAPARELLI. Transl. by Tesby Lee. L’Astron., 9: 285, 325,411. Aug. and Sept. Yale Observatory. TRANSACTIONS ...v. 1, pt. 2. Researches with the heliometer. Determination of the orbit of Titan and the mass of Saturn, by A. Hall, jr. [387] p. 4to. New Haven, 1889. THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH.* The name of this section, which by your courtesy it is my duty to ad- dress to-day, implies a community of interest amongst astronomers and mathematicians. This community of interest is not difficult to explain. We can of course imagine a considerable body of astronomieal facts quite independent of mathematies. We can also imagine a much larger body of mathematical facts quite independent of and isolated from astronomy. But we never think of astronomy in the large sense with- out recognizing its dependence on mathematics, and we never think of mathematics as a whole without considering its capital applications in astronomy. Of all the subjects and objects of common interest to us, the Barth will easily rank first. The earth furnishes us with a stable foundation for instrumental work and a fixed line of reference, whereby it is possible to make out the orderly arrangement and procession of our solar system and to gain some inkling of other systems which lie within telescopic range. The earth furnishes us with a most attractive store of real prob- lems ; its shape, its size, its mass, its precession and nutation, its internal heat, its earthquakes, and volcanoes, and its origin and destiny, are to be classed with the leading questions for astronomical and mathematical research. We must of course recognize the claims of our friends the geologists to that indefinable something called the earth’s crust, but con- sidered in its entirety and in its relations to similar bodies of the uni- verse, the Earth has long been the special province of astronomers and mathematicians. Since thetimes of Galileo and Kepler and Copernicus it has supplied a perennial stimulus to observation and investigation, and it promises to tax the resources of the ablest observers and anal- ysts for some centuries to come. The mere mention of the names of Newton, Bradley, d’Alembert, Laplace, Fourier, Gauss, and Bessel, calls to mind not only a long list of inventions and discoveries, but the most *Vice-presidential address before the section of Mathematics and Astronomy of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at the Toronto meeting, August, 1889. (From the Proceedings Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. XXXVUL.) 183 184 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. important parts of mathematical literature. In its dynamical and phys- ical aspects the Karth was to them the principal object of research, and the thoroughness and completeness of their contributions toward an ex- planation of the ‘* system of the world ” are still a source of wonder and admiration to all who take the trouble to examine their works. A detailed discussion of the known properties of the earth, and of the hypotheses concerning the unknown properties, is no fit task for a summer afternoon; the intricacies and delicacies of the subject are suit- able only for another season and a special audience. But it has seemed that a somewhat popular review of the state of our mathematical knowl- edge of the Karth might not be without interest to those already famil- iar with the complex details, and might also help to increase that gen- eral interest in science, the promotion of which is one of the most important functions of this association. As we look back through the light of modern analysis, it seems strange that the successors of Newton, who took up the probiem of the shape of the Karth, should have divided into hostile camps over the question whether our planet is elongated or flattened atthe poles. They agreed in the opinion that the Earth is a spheroid, but they debated, investigated, and observed for nearly half a century before deciding that the spheroid is oblate rather than oblong. This was a critical question, and its decision marks perhaps the most important epoch in the history of the figure of the Earth. The Newtonian view of the oblate form found its ablest supporters in Huygens, Maupertuis, and Clair- aut, while the erroneous view was maintained with great vigor by the justly distinguished Cassinian school of astronomers. Unfortunately for the Cassinians, defective measures of a meridional are in France gave color to the false theory and furnished one of the most con- spicuous instances of the deterring effect of an incorrect observa- tion. As you well know, the point was definitely settled by Mauper- tuis’s measurement of the Lapland are. For this achievement his name has become famous in literature as well as in science, for his friend Voltaire congratulated him on having “ flattened the poles and the Cassinis ;” and Carlyle has honored him with the title of ‘ Earth-flat- tener.” * Since the settlement of the question of the form—progress toward a knowledge of the size of the Earth has been consistent and steady, until now it may be said that there are few objects with which we have to deal whose dimensions are so well known as the dimensions of the Earth. But this is a popular statement, and like most such, needs to be explained in order not to be misunderstood. Both the size and shape of the Earth are defined by the lengths ofits equatorial and polar axes; and, knowing the fact of the oblate spheroidal form, the lengths of the axes may be found within narrow limits from simple measure- ~Todhunter, History of the Theories of Attraction and the Figure of the Earth. London, 1873, vol. 1, art. 195. THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 185 ments conducted on the surface quite indenendently of any knowledge of the interior constitution of the earth. It is evident in fact, without recourse to mathematical details, that the length of any are, as a degree of latitude or longitude on the earth’s surface, must depend on the lengths of those axes. Conversely, it is plain that the measurement of such an are and the determination of its geographical position consti- tute an indirect measurement of the axes. Hence it has happened that scientific as distinguished from practical geodesy has been con- cerned chiefly with such linear and astronomical measurements, and the zeal with which the work has been pursued is attested by triangu- lations on every continent. Passing over the earlier determinations as of historical interest only, all of the really trustworthy approximations to the lengths of the axes have been made within the half century just passed. The first to appear of these approximations were the well- founded values of Airy,* published ia 1830. These, however, were almost wholly overshadowed and supplanted eleven years later by the values of Bessel,t whose spheroid came to occupy a most conspicuous place in geodesy for more than a quarter of a century. Knowing as we now do that Bessel’s values were considerably in error, it seems not a little remarkable that they should have been so long accepted with- out serious question. One obvious reason is found in the fact that a considerable lapse of time was essential for the accumulation of new data, but two other possible reasons of a different character are worthy of notice because they are interesting and instructive, whether specially applicable to this particular case or not. It seems not im- probable that the close agreement of the values of Airy and Bessel, computed independently and by different methods—the greatest dis- crepancy being about 150 feet—may have been incautiously inter- preted as a confirmation of Bessel’s dimensions, and hence led to their too ready adoption. It seems also not improbable that the weight of Bessel’s great name may have been too closely associated in the minds of his followers with the weights of his observations and results. The sanction of eminent authority, especially if there is added to it the stamp of an official seal, is sometimes a serious obstacle to real prog. ress. We can not do less than accord to Bessel the first place amongst the astronomers and geodesists of his day, but this is no adequate jus- tification for the exaggerated estimate iong entertained of the precision of the elements of his spheroid. The next step in the approximation was the important one of Clarket in 1866. His new values showed an increase over Bessel’s of about +t Astronomische Nachrichten No. 438, 1841. ¢{ Comparison of Standards of Length, made at the ordnance office, Southampton, England, by Capt. A. R. Clarke, R.E. Published by order of the secretary of state for war, 1866. 186 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. jn the polar semi-axis. Since 1866, General Clarke has kept pace with the accumulating data and given us so many different elements for our spheroid that it is necessary to affix a date to any of his values we may use. The later values, however, differ but slightly from the earlier ones, so that the spheroid of 1866, which has come to be pretty gener- ally adopted, seems likely to enjoy a justly greater celebrity than that of its inmediate predecessor. The probable error of the axes of this spheroid is not much greater than the hundred thousandth part,* and it is not likely that new data will change their lengths by more than a few hundred feet. In the present state of science, therefore, it may be said that the first order of approximation to the form and dimensions of the Earth has been successfully attained. The question which follows naturally and immediately is, how much further can the approximation be carried ? The answer to this question is not yet written, and the indications are not favorable for its speedy announcement. The first approximation, as we have seen, requires no knowledge of the interior density and ar- rangement of the earth’s mass; it proceeds on the simple assumption that the sea surface is closely spheroidal. The second approximation, if it be more than a mere interpolation formula, requires a knowiedge of both the density and arrangement of the constituents of the earth’s mass, and especially of that part called the crust. ‘ All astronomy,” says Laplace, ‘rests on the stability of the earth’s axis of rotation.” t In a similar sense we may say all geodesy rests on the direction of the plumb line. The simple hypothesis of a spheroidal form assumes that the plumb line is everywhere coincident with the normal to the spheroid, or that the surface of the spheroid coincides with the level of the sea. But this is not quite correct. The plumb line is not in general coincident with the normal, and the actual sea level or geoid must be imagined to be an irregular surface lying partly above and partly below the ideal spheroidal surface. The deviations, it is true, are relatively small, but they are in general much greater than the unavoidable errors of observation and they are the exact numerical expression of our ignorance in this braneh of geodesy. It is well known, of course, that deflections of the plumb line can sometimes be accounted for by visible masses, but on the whole it must be admitted that we possess only the vaguest notions of their cause and a most in- adequate knowledge of their distribution and extent. What is true of plumb-line deflections is about equally trne of the de- viations of the intensity of gravity from what may be called the sphe- roidial type. Given a closely spheroidal form of the sea level and it follows from the law of gravitation, as a first approximation, without * Clarke, Col. A. R., Geodesy, Oxford, 1880, p. 319. t**Toute ?Astronomie repose sur linvariabilité de axe de rotation de la Terre ila surface du sphéroide terrestre et sur ’uniformité de cette rotation.” Mécanique Ceé- leste (Paris, 1882), Tome v, p, 22. THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 187 any knowledge of the distribution of the earth’s mass, that the increase of gravity varies as the square of the’sine of the latitude in passing from the equator to the poles. This is the remarkable theorem of Stokes,* and it enables us to determine the form or ellipticity of the Earth by means of pendulum observations alone. It must be admitted, however, that the values of the ellipticity recently obtained in this way by the highest authorities, Clarke} and Helmert,t are far from satis- factory, whether we regard them in the light of their discrepancy or in the light of the different methods of computing them. In general terms we may say that the difficulty in the way of the use of pendulum observations still hinges on the treatment of local anomalies and on the question of reduction to sea level. At present, the case is one concern- ing which the doctors agree neither in their diagnosis nor in their remedies. Turning attention now from the surface towards the interior, what can be said of the earth’s mass as a whole, of its laws of distribution, and of the pressures that exist at great depths? Two facts, namely, the mean density and the surface density, are roughly known; a third fact, namely, the precession constant, or the ratio of the difference of the two principal moments of inertia to the greater of them, is known with something like precision. These facts lie within the domain of observation and require only the law of gravitation for their verification. Certain inferences, also, from these facts and others, have long been and still are held to be hardly less cogent and trustworthy, but before stat- ing them it will be well to recall briefly the progress of opinion con- cerning this general subject during the past century and a half. The conception of the earth as having been primitively fluid was the prevailing one among mathematicians before Clairaut published his Théorie de la Figure de la Terre in 1743. By the aid of this conception “Clairaut proved the celebrated theorem which bears his name, and probably no idea in the mechanies of the earth has been more suggest- ive and fruitful, It was the central idea in the elaborate investigations of Laplace and received at his hands a development which his succes- sors have found it about equally difficult to displace or to improve From the idea of Huidity spring naturally the hydrostatical notions of pressure and level surfaces, or the arrangement of fluid masses in strata of uniform density. Hence follows, also, the notion of continuity of in- crease in density from the surface toward the center of the Karth. All of the principal mechanical properties and effects of the earth’s mass, viz, the ellipticity, the surface density, the mean density, the preces- sion constant, and the lunar inequalities, were correlated by Laplace § vol. 11. tGeodesy, Chap. xiv. tHelmert, Dr. F. R., Die Mathematischen und Physikalischen Theorieen der Hoheren Geodisie, Leipzig, 1880, 1884, 1 Teil. § Mécanique Céleste, Tome v, Livre xi. 188 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. in a single hypothesis, involving only one assumption in addition to that of original fluidity and the law of gravitation. This assumption relates to the compressibility of matter and asserts that the ratio of the increment of pressure to the increment of density is proportional to the density. Many interesting and striking conclusions follow readily from this hypothesis, but the most interesting and important are those rela- tive to density and pressure, especially the latter, whose dominance as a factor in the mechanics of celestial masses seems destined to survive whether the hypothesis stands or falls. The hypothesis requires that, while the density increases slowly from something less than 3 at the surface to about 11 at the center of the Earth, the pressure within the mass increases rapidly below the surface, reaching a value surpassing the crashing strength of steel at the depth of a few miles and amount- ing at the center to no less than 3,000,000 atmospheres. The infer- ences, then, as distinguished from facts, are that the mass of the Earth is very nearly symmetrically disposed about its center of gravity, that pressure and density except near the surface are mutually dependent, and that the earth in reaching this stage has passed through the fluid or quasi-fluid state. Later writers have suggested other hypotheses for a continuous dis- tribution of the earth’s mass, but none of them can be said to rival the hypothesis of Laplace. Their defects lie either in not postulating a di- rect connection between density and pressure or in postulating a con- nection which implies extreme or impossible values for these and other mechanical properties of the mass. It is clear, from the positiveness of his language in frequent allusions to this conception of the earth, that Laplace was deeply impressed with its essential correctness. ‘ Observations,” he says, ‘‘ prove incontesta- bly that the densities of the strata (couches) of the terrestrial spheroid increase from the surface to the center,”* and “the regularity with which the observed variation in length of a second’s pendulum follows the law of squares of the sines of the latitudes proves that the strata are arranged symmetrically about the center of gravity of the earth.” t The more recent investigations of Stokes, to which allusion has already been made, forbid our entertaining anything like so confident an opin- ion of the earth’s primitive fluidity or of a symmetrical and continuous arrangement of its strata. But, though it must be said that the suffi- ciency of Laplace’s arguments has been seriously impugned, we can hardly think the probability of the correctness of his conclusions has been proportionately diminished. * Enfin il (Newton) regarde la terre comme homogéne, ce qui est contraire aux observations, qui prouvent incontestablement que les densités des couches du sphé- roide terrestre croissent de la surface au centre.” Mécanique Céleste, Tome Vv, p. 9. t ‘La régularité avec laquelle la variation observée des longueurs du pendule & secondes suit la loi du carré du sinus de la latitude prouve que ces couches sont dis- posées réguliérement autour du centre de gravité de la terre et que leur forme est a peu prés elliptique et de révolution.” Jbid., p. 17. THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 189 Suppose, however, that we reject the idea of original fluidity, Would not a rotating mass of the size of the earth assume finally the same aspects and properties presented by our planet? Would not pressure and centrifugal force suffice to bring about a central condensa- tion and a symmetrical arrangement of strata similar at least to that required by the Laplacian hypothesis? Categorical answers to these questions can not be given at present. But, whatever may have been the antecedent condition of the earth’s mass, the conclusion seems una. voidable that at no great depth the pressure is sufficient to break down the structural characteristics of all known substances, and hence to produce viscous flow whenever and wherever the stress difference ex- ceeds a certain limit, which can not be large in comparison with the pressure. Purely observational evidence, also, of a highly affirmative kind in support of this conciusion, is afforded by the remarkable results of Tresca’s experiments on the flow of solids and by the abundant proofs in geology of the plastic movements and viscous flow of rocks. With such views and facts in mind the fluid stage, considered indispensable by Laplace, does not appear necessary to the evolution of a planet, even ifit reach the extreme refinement of a close fulfillment of some such mathematical law as that of his hypothesis. If, as is here assumed, pressure be the dominant factor in such large masses, the attainment of a stable distribution would be simply a question of time. The fluid mass might take on its normal form in a few days or a few months, whereas the viscous mass might require a few thousand or a few million years. Some physicists and mathematicians, on the other hand, reject both the idea of existence of great pressures within the earth’s mass, and the notion of an approach to continuity in the distribution of density. _ As representing this side of the question the views of the late M. Roche, who wrote much on the constitution of the earth, are worthy of consid- eration. He tells us that the very magnitude of the central pressure computed on the hypothesis of fluidity is itself a peremptory objection to that hypothesis.* According to his conception, the strata of the earth from the center outwards are substantially self-supporting and unyielding. It does not appear, however, that he had submitted this conception to the test of numbers, for a simple calculation will show that no materials of which we have any knowledge would sustain the Stress in such shells or domes. If the crust of the earth were self-sup- porting, its crushing strength would have to be about thirty times that of the best cast steel, or five hundred to one thousand times that of granite. The views of Roche on the distribution of the terrestrial lasection des sciences de l’Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier, 1880-1884 Tome x. t+ Ibid. 190 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. made up of two distinct parts, an outer shell or crust whose thickness is about one-sixth of the earth’s radius, and a solid nucleus having little or no central condensation. The nucleus is conceived to be purely metallic, and to have about the same density as iron. To account for geological phenomena, he postulates a zone of fusion separating the crust from the nucleus. The whole hypothesis is consistently worked out in conformity with the requirements of the ellipticity, the superficial density, the mean density, and precession; so that to one who can divest his mind of the notion that pressure and continuity are impor- tant factors in the mechanics of such masses, the picture which Roche draws of the constitution of our planet will present nothing incongru- ous. In a field so little explored and so inaccessible, though hedged about as we have seen by certain sharply limiting conditions, there is room for a wide range of opinion and for great freedom in the play of hypoth- esis; and although the preponderance of evidence appears to be in favor of a terrestrial mass in which the reign of pressure is well-nigh absolute, we should not be surprised a few decades or centuries hence to find many of our notions on this subject radically defective. If the problem of the constitution and distribution of the earth’s-:mass is yet an obscure and difficult one after two centuries of observation and investigation, can we report any greater degree of success in the treatment of that still older problem of the earth’s internal heat; of its origin and effects? Concerning phenomena always so impressive and often so terribly destructive as those intimately connected with the terrestrial store of heat, it is natural that there should be a considera- ble variety of opinion. The consensus of such opinion, however, has long been in favor of the hypothesis that heat is the active cause of many and a potent factor in most of the grander phenomena which geol- ogists assign to the earth’s crust; and the prevailing interpretation of these phenomena is based on the assumption that our planet is a cooling sphere whose outer shell or crust is constantly cracked and crumpled in adjusting itself to the shrinking nucleus. The conception that the earth was originally an intensely heated and molten mass appears to have first taken something like definite form in the minds of Leibnitz and Descartes.* But neither of these philos- ophers was armed with the necessary mathematical equipment to sub- ject this conception to the test of numerical calculation. Indeed, it was not fashionable in their day, any more than it is with some philosophers in ours, to undertake the drudgery of applying the machinery of analy- sis to the details of an hypothesis. Nearly a century elapsed before an order of intellects capable of dealing with this elass of questions ap- peared. it was reserved for Joseph Fourier to lay the foundation and *Protogée, ou de la formation et des révolutions du globe, par Leibnitz, ouvrage tradnite - - - avee une introduction et des notes par le Dr. Bertrand de Saint- Germain, Paris, 1859, THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 191 build a great part of the super-structure of our modern theory of heat diffusion, his avowed desire being to solve the great problem of terres- trial heat. ‘The question of terrestrial temperatures,” he says, ‘has always appeared to us one of the grandest objects of cosmological studies, and we have had it principally in view in establishing the mathematical theory of heat.”* This ambition however was only partly realized. Probably Fourier under-estimated the ditneculties of his problem, for his most ingenious and industrious suecessors in the same field have made little progress beyond the limits he attained. But the work he left is a perennial index to his genius. Though quite inadequately appreciated by his contemporaries, the Analytical Theory of Heat, which appeared in 1820, is now conceded to be one of the epoch- making books. Indeed, to one who has caught the spirit of the extraor- dinary analysis which Fourier developed and illustrated by numerous applications in this treatise, it is evident that he opened a field whose resources are Still far from being exhausted. A little later Poisson took up the same class of questions and published another great work on the mathematical theory of heat.t Poisson narrowly missed being the fore- most mathematician of his day. In originality, in wealth of mathe- matical resources, and in breadth of grasp of physical principles he was the peer of the ablest of his contemporaries. In lucidity of exposition it would be enough to say that he was a Frenchman, but he seems to have excelled in this peculiarly national trait. His contributions to the theory of heat have been somewhat overshadowed in recent times by the earlier and perhaps more brilliant researches of Fourier, but no student can afford to take up that enticing, though difficult, theory with- out the aid of Poisson as well as Fourier. It is natural, therefore, that we should inquire what opinions these great masters in the mathematics of heat diffusion held concerning the earth’s store of heat. J say opinions, for, unhappily, this whole subject is still so largely a matter of opinion that, in discussing it, one may not inappropriately adopt the famous caution of Marcus Aurelius, ‘ Re- member that all is opinion.” It does not appear that Fourier reached any definite conclusion on this question, though he seems to have favored the view that the Earth in cooling from an earlier state of incandescence reached finally through convection a condition in which there was a uniform distribution of heat throughout its mass. ‘This is the consisten- tior status of Leibnitz, and it begins with the formation of the earth’s crust, if not with the consolidation of the entire mass. It thus affords an initial distribution of heat and an epoch from which analysis may Start, and the problem for the mathematician is to assign the subse- *“Ta question des températures terrestres nous a toujours paru un des plus grands objets des études cosmologiques, et nous l’avions principalement en vue en établissant la théorie mathématique de la chaleur.” Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1824, tome XXVII, p. 159. t Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, Paris, 1835. 192 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. quent distribution of heat and the resulting mechanical effects. But no great amount of reflection is necessary to convince one that the analysis can not proceed without making a few more assumptions. The assump- tions which involve the least difficulty, and which for this reason, partly, have met with most favor, are that the conductivity and thermal capacity of the entire mass remain constant, and that the heat conducted to the surface of the earth passes off by the combined process of radiation, convection, and conduction, without producing any sensible effect on surrounding space. These or similar assumptions must be made before the application of theory can begin. In addition, two data are essen- tial to numerical calculations, namely, the diffusivity, or ratio of the conductivity of the mass to its thermal capacity, and the initial uniform temperature. The first of these can be observed, approximately, at least; the second can only be estimated at present. With respect to these important points which must be considered after the adoption of the consistentior status, the writings of Fourier afford little light. He was content perhaps to invent and develop the exquisite analysis requi- site to the treatment of such problems. Poisson wrote much on the whole subject of terrestrial temperatures and carefully considered most of the troublesome details which lay be- tween his theory and its application. While he admitted the nebular hypothesis and an initial fluid state of the Earth, he rejected the notion that the observed increase of underground temperature is due to a prim- itive store of heat. If the Earth was originally fluid by reason of its heat, a supposition which Poisson regarded quite gratuitous, he con- ceived that it must cool and consolidate from the center outwards ; * so that according to this view the crust of our planet arrived at a condi- tion of stability only after the supply of heat had been exhausted. But Poisson was not at a loss to account for the observed temperature gra- dient in the earth’s crust. Always fertile in hypotheses, he advanced the idea that there exists by reason of interstellar radiations, great variations in the temperature of space, some vast regious being com- paratively cool and others intensely hot, and that the present store of terrestrial heat was acquired by a journey of the solar system through one of the hotter regions. ‘‘ Such is,” he says, ‘*in my opinion, the true cause of the augmentation of temperature which occurs as we descend below the surface of the globe.”t| This hypotheisis was the result of Poisson’s mature reflection, and as such is well worthy of attention. The notion that there exist hot foci in space was advanced also in an- other form in 1852 by Rankine, in his interesting speculation on the re-concentration of energy. But whatever we may think of the hypoth- esis as a whole it dces not appear to be adequate to the case of the *Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, Supplément de, Paris, 1837. t* Telle est, dans mon opinion, la cause véritable de Vangmentation de température qui a lieu sur chaque verticale & mesure que l’on s’abaisse au-dessous de la surface du globe.”—Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, Supplément de, p. 15. THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 193 Earth unless we suppose the epoch of transit through the hot region exceedingly remote and the temperature of that region exceedingly high. The continuity of geological and paleontological phenomena is much better satisfied by the Leibnitzian view of an earth long subject to comparatively constant surface conditions but still active with the energy of its primitive heat. Notwithstanding the indefatigable and admirable labors of Fourier and Poisson in this field, it must be admitted that they accomplished little more than the preparation of the machinery with which their sue- cessors have songht and are still seeking to reap the harvest. The dif.- ficulties which lay in their way were not mathematical but physical. Had they been able to make out the true conditions of the earth’s store of heat, they would undoubtedly have reached a high grade of perfec- tion in the treatment of the problem. The theory as they left it was much in advance of observation, and the labors of their successors have therefore necessarily been directed largely towards the determination of the thermal properties of the earth’s crust and mass. Of those who in the present generation have contributed to our knowledge and stimulated the investigation of this subject, it is hardly necessary to say that we owe most to Sir William Thomson. Hehas made the question of terrestrial temperatures highly attractive and instructive to astronomers and mathematicians, and not less warmly interesting to geologists and paleontologists. Whether we are prepared to accept his conclusions or not, we must all acknowledge onr indebtedness to the contributions of his master hand in this field as well as in most other fields of terrestrial physics. The contribution of special interest to us in this connection is his remarkable memoir.on the secular cooling of the Earth.* In this memoir he adopts the simple hypothesis of a solid sphere whose thermal properties remain invariable while it cools by con- duction from an initial state of uniform temperature, and draws there- from certain striking limitations on geologic time. Many geologists were startled by these limitations, and geologic thought aud opinion have since been widely influenced by them. It will be of interest there- fore to state a little more fully and clearly the grounds from which his arguments proceed. Conceive a sphere having a uniform temperature initially, to cool in a medium which instantly dissipates all heat brought by conduction to its surface, thus keeping the surface at a constant temperature. Suppose we have given the initial excess of the sphere’s temperature over that of the medium. Suppose also that the capacity of the mass of the sphere for the diffusion of heat is known, and known to remain invariable during the process of cooling. This capacity is called diffusivity, and is a constant which can be observed. Then from these data the distribution of temperature at any future time can be assigned, and hence also the rate of temperature increase, or the tem- * Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1862. Thomson and Tait’s Natural Philosophy, vol. 1, Part 2, Appendix D. H. Mis. 129——13 194 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. perature gradient, from the surface towards the center of the sphere ean be computed. It is tolerably certain that the heat conducted from the interior to the surface of the Earth does not set up any re-action which in any sensible degree retards the process of cooling. It escapes so freely that, for practical purposes, we may say it is instantly dis- sipated. Hence, if we can assume that the Earth had a specified uni- form temperature at the initial epoch, and can assume its diffusivity to remain constant, the whole history of cooling is known so soon as we determine the diffusivity and the temperature gradient at any point. Now, Sir William Thomson determined a value for the diffusivity from measurements of the seasonal variations of under-ground temperatures, and numerous observations of the increase of temperature with depth below the earth’s surface gave an average value for the temperature gradient. From these elements, and from an assumed initial tempera- ture of 7000° Fahr., he infers that geologic time is limited to something between twenty million and four hundred million years. He says: ‘We must allow very wide limits in such an estimate as I have attempted to make; but I think we may with much probability say that the con- solidation can not have taken place less than 20 million years ago, or we should have more underground heat than we actually have, nor more than 400 million years ago, or we should not have so much as the least observed underground increment of temperature. That is tosay, I con- clude that Leibnitz’s epoch of emergence of the consistentior status was probably between those dates.” These conclusions were announced twenty-seven years ago and were re-published without modification in 1883. Recently, also, Professor Tait, reasoning from the same basis, has insisted with equal confidence on cutting down the upper limit of geologic time to some such figures as ten million or fifteen million years.* As mathematicians and astronomers, we must all confess to a deep inter- est in these conclusions and the hypothesis from which they flow. They are very important if true. But what are the probabilities? Having been at some pains to look into this matter, I feel bound to state that, although the hypothesis appears to be the best which can be formulated at present, the odds are against its correctness. Its weak links are the unverified assumptions of an initial uniform temperature and a constant diffusivity. Very likely these are approximations, but of what order we can not decide. Futhermore, if we accept the hypothesis, the odds appear to be against the present attainment of trustworthy numerical results, since the data for calculation, obtained mostly from observa- tions on continental areas, are far too meagre to give satisfactory aver- age values for the entire mass of the earth. In short, this phase of the case seems to stand about where it did twenty years ago, when Huxley warned us that the perfection of our mathematical mill is no guaranty THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 195 extract wheat flour from peascods, so pages of formulz will not get a definite result out of loose data.” * When we pass from the restricted domain of quantitative results concerning geologic time to the freer domain of qualitative results of a general character, the contractional theory of the earth may be said still to lead all others, though it seems destined to require more or less modification if not to be relegated to a place of secondary importance. Old, however, as is the notion that the great surface irregularities of the earth are but the outward evidence of a erumpling erust, it is only recently that this notion has been subjected to mathematical analysis on anything like a rational basis. About three years ago Mr. T. Mel- lard Reade+ announced the doctrire that the earth’s crust from the joint effect of its heat and gravitation should behave in a way somewhat analogous to a bent beam, and should possess at a certain depth a ‘level of no strain” corresponding to the neutral surface in a beam. Above the level of no strain, according to this doctrine, the strata will be subjected to compression and will undergo ecrumpling, while below that level the tendency of the strata to crack and part is overcome by pressure which produces what Reade calls ‘‘ compressive extension,” thus keeping the nucleus compact and continuous. A little later the same idea was worked out independently by Mr. Charles Davison,t and it has since received elaborate mathematical treatment at the hands of Darwin,§ Fisher,|| and others. The doctrine requires for its application a competent theory of cooling, and hence can not be depended on at present to give anything better than a general idea of the mechanics of crumpling and a rough estimate of the magnitudes of the resulting effects. Using Thomson’s hypothesis, it appears that the stratum of no strain moves downward from the surface of the earth at a nearly con- stant rate during the earlier stages of cooling, but more slowly during later stages; its depth is independent of the initial temperature of the earth; and if we adopt Thomson’s value of the diffusivity, it will be about two and a third miles below the surface in a hundeed million years from the beginning of cooling, and a little more than fourteen miles below the surface in seven hundred million years. The most important inference from this theory is that the geological effects of secular cooling will be confined for a very long time to a comparatively thin crust. Thus, if the earth is a hundred million years old, crumpling should not extend much deeper than two miles. A test to which the theory has been sub- * Geological Reform (The Anniversary Address to the Geological Society for 1869). t Reade, T. Mellard, Origin of Mountain Ranges, London, 1886. {On the Distribution of Strain in the Earth’s Crust resulting from Secular Cooling with special reference to the growth of continents and the formation of mountain chains. By Charles Davison, with a note by G. H. Darwin. Philosophical Transac- tions, vol. 178 (1887), A, pp. 231-249. § Ibid. | Fisher, Rey, Osmond, Physics of the Earth’s Crust, second edition, London, 1889, Chapter vin. 196 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. jected, and one which some * consider crucial against it, is the volumetric amount of crumpling shown by the Earth at the present time. This is a difficult quantity to estimate, but it appears to be much greater than the theory can account for. The opponents of the contractional theory of the Earth, believing it quantitatively insufficient, have recently revived and elaborated an idea first suggested by Babbaget and Herschel in explanation of the greater folds and movements of the crust. This idea figures the crust as being in a state bordering on hydrostatie equilibrium, which can not be greatly disturbed without a re-adjustment and consequent movement of the masses involved. According to this view the transfer of any considerable load from one area to another is followed sooner or later by a depression over the loaded area and a corresponding elevation over the unloaded one, and in a general way it is inferred that the ele- vation of continental areas tends to keep pace with erosion. The proc- ess by which this balance is maintained has been called isostasy,i and the crust is said to be in anisostatic state. The dynamics of the super- ficial strata with the attendant phenomena of folding and faulting are thus referred to gravitation alone, or to gravitation and whatever op- posing force the rigidity of the strata may offer. In a mathematical sense, however, the theory of isostasy is in a less satisfactory state than the theory of contraction. As yet we can see only that isostasy is an efficient cause if once set in action, but how it is started and to what ex- tent it is adequate remain to be determined. Moreover, isostasy does not seem to meet the requirements of geological continuity, for it tends rapidly towards stable equilibrium, and the crust ought therefore to reach a state of repose early in geologic time. But there is no evidence that such a state has been attained, and but little if any evidence of diminished activity in crustal movements during recent geologic time. Hence we infer that isostasy is competent only on the supposition that itis kept in action by some other cause tending constantly to disturb the equilibrium which would otherwise result. Such a cause is found in secular contraction, and it is not improbable that these two seem- ingly divergent theories are really supplementary. Closely related to the questions of secular contraction and the me- chanies of crust movements are those vexed questions of earthquakes, voleanism, the liquidity or solidity of the interior, and the rigidity of the earth’s mass as a whole ;—all questions of the greatest interest, but still lingering on the battle-fields of scientific opinion. Many of the “thrice slain” combatants in these contests would fain risk being slain again; and whether our foundation be liquid or solid, or, to speak more * Notably, Rev. Osmond Fisher. See his Physies of the Earth’s Crust, chapter viii. t Appendix to the Ninth Bridgewater Treatise (by C. Babbage), second edition, Lon- don, 1838. t Dutton, Capt. C.E. On some of the Greater Problems of Physical Geology, Bulletin Philosophical Society of Washington, vol. X1, pp. 51-64. THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 197 precisely, whether the Earth may not be at once highly plastic under the action of long-continued forces and highly rigid under the action of periodic forces of short period, it is pretty certain that some years must elapse before the arguments will be convincing to all concerned. The difficulties appear to be due principally to our profound ignorance of the properties of matter subject to the joint action of great pressure and great heat. The conditions which exist a few miles beneath the surface of the earth are quite beyond the reach of laboratory tests as hitherto developed, but it is not clear how our knowledge is to be im- proved without resort to experiments of a scale in some degree com- parable with the facts to be explained. In the mean time, therefore, we may expect to go on theorizing, adding to the long list of dead theories which mark the progress of scientific thought with the hope of attain- ing the truth not so much by direct discovery as by the laborious process of eiizninating error. When we take a more comprehensive view of the problems presented by the Earth, and look for light on their solution in theories of cosmog- ony, the difficulties which beset us are no less numerous and formidable than those encountered along special lines of attack. Much progress has recently been made, however, in the elaboration of such theories. Roche,* Darwin.} and others have done much to remove the nebulosity of Laplace’s nebular hypothesis. Poincaré { and Darwin§ have gone far towards bridging the gaps which have long rendered the theory of ro- tating fluid masses incomplete. Poincaré has, in fact, shown us how a homogeneous rotating mass might, through loss of heat and consequent contraction, pass from the spheroidal form to the Jacobian ellipsoidal form, and thence, by reason of its increasing speed of rotation, separate into two unequal masses. Darwin, starting with a swarm of meteorites and gravitation as a basis, has reached many interesting and instructive results in the endeavor to trace out the laws of evolution of a planetary system.|| But notwithstanding the splendid researches of these and other investigators in this field, it must be said that the real case of the solar system, or of the earth and moon, still defies analysis; and that the mechanics of the segregation of a planet from the sum, or of a satellite from a planet, if such an event has ever happened, or the * Essai sur la Constitution et ae du systéme nalaies: par M. Edouard Roche. Mémoires de V Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier, Tome vu, 1873. t On the Precession of a Viscous Spheroid and on the remote History of the Earth, Phil. Trans., Part 11, 1879. On the secular changes in the Elements of the Orbit of a Satellite revolving about a tidally distorted Planet, Phil. Trans., Part 11, 1880. On the Tidal Friction of a Planet attended by several Satellites, and on the Evolution of the Solar System, Phil. Trans., Part 11, 1881. { Sur l’équilibre d’une masse fluide animée d’un mouvement de rotation. Acta Mathematica, vol. 7, 1885. § On figures of Equilibrium of Rotating Masses of Fluid, Phil. Trans., vol. 178, 1887. || On the Mechanical Conditions of a Swarm of Meteorites and on Theories of Cos- mogony, Phil. Trans., vol. 180, 1889. 198 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. mechanies of the evolutien of a solar system from a swarm of meteor- ites, are still far from being clearly made out. Time does not permit me to make anything but the briefest allusion to the comparatively new science of mathematical meteorology with its already considerable list of well-defined theories pressing for accept- ance or rejection. Nor need I say more with reference to those older mathematical questions of the tides and terrestial magnetism than that they are still unsettled. These and many other questions, old and new, might serve equally well to illustrate the principal fact that this address has been designed to emphasize, namely, that the mathematical theories of the earth already advanced and elaborated are by no means com- plete, and that no mathematical Alexander need yet pine for other worlds to conquer. Speculations concerning the course anid progress of science are usually untrustworthy if not altogether fallacious. But, being dele- gated for the hour to speak to and for mathematicians and astronomers, it may be permissible to offer, in closing, a single suggestion, which will perhaps help us to orient ourselves aright in our various fields of re- search. If the curve of scientific progress in any domain of thought could be drawn, there is every reason to believe that it would exhibit considerable irregularities. There would be marked maxima aud min- imainits general tendency towards the limit of perfect knowledge; and it seems not improbable that the curve would show throughout some portions of its length a more or less definitely periodic succession of maxima and minima, Races and communities as well as individuals, the armies in pursuit of truth as well as tnose in pursuit of plunder, have their periods of cuiminating activity and their periods of placid repose. It is a curious fact that the history of the mathematical theories of the earth presents some such periodicity. We have the marked max- imum of the epoch of Newton near the end of the seventeenth century, with the equally marked maximum of the epoch of Laplace near the end of the eighteenth century; and, judging from the recent revival of geo- desy and astronomy in Europe, and from the well-nigh general activity in mathematical and geological research, we may hope, if not expect, that the end of the present century will signalize a similar epoch of productive activity. The minima periods which followed the epochs of Newton and Laplace are less definitely marked but not less noteworthy and instruct- ive. They were not periods of placid repose; to find such one must go back into the night of the middle ages; but they were periods of greatly diminished energy, periods during which those who kept alive the spirit of investigation were almost as conspicuous for their isolation as for their distinguished abilities. Many causes, of course, contributed to produce these minima periods, and it would be an interesting study in philosophic history to trace out the tendency and effect of each cause. It is desired here, however, to call attention to only one cause which contributed to the somewhat general apathy of the periods mentioned, THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 199 and which always threatens to dampen the ardor of research imme- diately after the attainment of any marked success or advance. I refer to the impression of contentment with and acquiescence in the results of science, which seems to find easy access to trained as well as un- trained minds before an investigation is half completed or even fairly begun. That some such tacit persuasion of the completeness of the knowledge of the earth has at times pervaded scientific thought, there can be no doubt. This was notably the case during the period which followed the remarkable epoch of Laplace. The profound impression of the sufficiency of the brilliant discoveries and advances of that epoch is aptly described by Carlyle in the half humorous, half sareastic lan- guage of Sartor Resartus. ‘Our theory of gravitation,” he says, “is as good as perfect: Lagrange, it is well known, has proved that the planetary system, on this scheme, will endure forever; Laplace, still more cunningly, even guesses that it could not have been made on any other scheme. Whereby, at least, our nautical logbooks can be better kept; and water transport of all kinds has grown more commodious. Of geology and geognosy we know enough; what with the labors of our Werners and Huttons, what with the ardent genius of their disci- ples, it has come about that now, to many a royal society, the creation of a world is little more mysterious than the cooking of a dumpling; concerning which last, indeed, there have been minds to whom the question— How the apples were got in—presented difficulties.” This was written nearly sixty years ago, about the time the sage of Ecclefechan abandoned his mathematics and astronomy for literature to become the seer of Chelsea; but the force of its irony is still applicable, for we have yet to learn, essentially, ‘* How the apples were got in” and what kind they are. As to the future, we can only guess, less or more vaguely, from our experience in the past and from our knowledge of present needs. Though the dawn of that future is certainly not heralded by rosy tints of overconfidence amongst those acquainted with the difficulties to be overcome, the prospect, on the whole, has never been more promising. The converging lights of many lines of investigation are now brought to bear on the problems presented by our planet. There is ample reason to suppose that our day will witness a fair average of those happy accidents in science which lead to the discovery of new princi- ples and new methods. We have much to expect from the elaborate macbinery and perfected methods of the older and more exact sciences of measuring and weighing—astronomy, geodesy, physics, and chem- istry. We have more to expect, perhaps, from geclogy and meteorology, with their vast accumulation of facts not yet fully correlated. Much, also, may be anticipated trom that new astronomy which looks for the secrets of the earth’s origin and history in nebulous masses or in swarms of meteorites. We have the encouraging stimulus of a very general and rapidly growing popular concern in the objects of our inquiries, 200 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. and the freest avenues for the dissemination of new information; so that we may easily gain the advantage of a concentration of energy without centralization of personal interests. To those, therefore, who can bring the pre-requisites of endless patience and unflagging industry, who can bear alike the remorseless discipline of repeated failure and the prosperity of partial success, the field is as wide and as inviting as it ever was to a Newton or a Laplace. ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.* By HENRY HENNEssy, F. R. S. The structure of the Earth, as a mechanical and physical question, is closely connected with the origin and formation of its satellite, and of the planets and satellites belonging to the saine solar system. The brilliant results obtained during the present and preceding century by the aid of mathematical analysis, whereby the motions of those bodies have been brought within the grasp of dynamical laws may have led to the notion that by similar methods many obscure problems relating to the planet we inhabit might be accurately solved. But although the general configuration of the Earth and planets has been treated mathematically, with results which leave little to be desired, when applications of analytical methods are attempted to questions of de- tail in terrestrial structure, the complication of the conditions is so great as to impose the necessity on some investigators of so altering these conditions as to make their results perfectly inapplicable to the real state of the Earth. Physical geology presents problems the sola- tion of which undoubtedly calls for mechanical and physical considera- tions; but these may in general, under the complex nature of the phenomena, be often better reasoned out without the employment of the symbolical methods of analysis. In most cases the conditions are totally unlike those above alluded to, which admit of precise numerical computations. The heterogeneous character of the rocks composing the Earth’s crust, and the probably varied nature of the matter compos. ing its interior, render mathematical applications rarely possible, and sometimes misleading Such views seem to be gradually gaining strength among geologists who pay attention to questions of a general nature, and no one has beeter expressed them in recent times than Prof. M. E. Wadsworth.t The principle upon which I have ventured to found all my researches on terrestrial physics is this: to reason on the matter composing the globe from our knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties “From the ZL. l. D. Philosophical Magazine, September and October, 1886, vol. XXII, pp. 233-251 and 328-331. t Lithological Studies.” Memoirs of Harvard College Museum, vol. 1, p. 3, and American Naturalist, June, 18e4, p. 587. 201 9()2 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. of its materials which come under our notice. Of these properties the most important are density, compressibility, and contraction or dilation from changes of temperature. Newton and other philosophers have already adopted the same principle to a limited extent, when assuming for the mass of fluid composing the Earth in its primitive condition those specific properties which have been assigned to all kinds of fluids observed at the surface. It is impossible to frame any statement more erroneous and misleading than that I have endeavored to render the question more hypothetical than it was. On the contrary, I have dis- carded the invariable assumption of mathematicians who treated the question, namely, the hypothesis of the invariability of positions of the particles composing the solidifying earth. The speculations of all rational inquirers upon the Earth’s internal structure must necessarily start from the same general principle as above. Some investigators have disregarded that principle and made the problem thereby a purely mathematical exercise. In order to reason upon the Earth’s figure, we must assume that the laws of fluid equilibrium apply to the inner portions of the fluid as well as the outer. There is nothing hypothetical in reasonings as to the formation of the solid shell and the law of increase of ellipticity of its inner surface as a result of the transition of the formerly fluid matter to the state of solidity. On the contrary, the assumptions of Mr. Hopkins and other mathematicians, that this transition created no change in the law of density of the matter composing the Earth and in the ellipticity of the strata of equal pressure, are not merely hypothetical; they are directly opposed to well-established physical and mechanical laws. On the other hand, those who have concluded that nothing can be known of the form of the fluid nucleus seem to deny that the recognized laws of matter apply to the internal condition of the Earth. The shape of the nucleus and the figures of its strata of equal density follow from physical and mechanical laws, just as the forms of the isothermal sur- faces within the spheroid follow from the known laws of conduction of heat. Some of the mechanical reasonings regarding the strata of the nucleus and the structure of the solid shell can be presented without employing mathematical symbols, and in what follows I have, as far as possible, avoided the use of such symbols. This course, moreover, possesses the advantage of making many parts of reasonings more clear to geologists and observers of the strati- graphical featurcs of the Earth, who are in reality the ultimate judges of the matter, and not mathematicians. The necessity under which the latter are constrained when dealing with problems, of throwing the preliminary propositions into simple, well-defined shapes, admitting of definite deductions, obliges them to overlook the most essential condi- tions of the very questions at issue, and they thus arrive at results which may be precise, but which are totally inconclusive with reference to the Earth’s structure. ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 2035 THE MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MATTER COMPOSING THE EARTH, (1) The materials of the Earth must manifestly influence its general structure, and no inquiries with this structure can be usefully made if the physical properties of these materials are not kept in view. If the interior of the Earth is in a fiuid state it is reasonable to believe that the fluid is not the ideal substance called by mathematicians a perfect liquid, namely, a substance not only endowed with perfect mobility among its particles, but also absolutely incompressible. It is more rea- sonable to believe that the fluid in question resembles the liquid out- pourings of volcanoes, or at least some real and tangible liquid whose properties have been experimentally studied. I have already shown that by overlooking this simple principle certain untenable conclusions, which assert the exclusively solid character of the Earth, have been deduced. Here I propose to develop some additional arguments rela- tive to one of the properties of liquids which has an essential bearing upon the internal structure of the Earth. (2) Ina former paper, on the limits of hypotheses regarding the properties of matter composing the Earth’s interior,* I find that hav- ing referred to published statements where the facts were not clearly put forward, I underrated the compressibility of liquids as compared with solids. The influence of the imperfect experiments of the Aca- demia del Cimento has long injariously operated in defining liquid and solid matter, and has produced a remarkable conflict of opinions. On taking the results of the best experimental investigations it appears that, although liquids are but slightly compressible as com- pared with gases, they are highly compressible as compared with solids. In many treatises on physics and mechanics which have a high reputation, matter is divided into solids, elastic fluids or gases, and incompressible fluids or liquids. Hence the erroneous inference seems to have arisen that liquids are incompressible, not only in comparison With gases, but also in comparison with solid bodies. I was surprised to find this remarkably misleading proposition formally stated, long after the decisive experiments of Oersted, Colladon, and Sturm, heg- nault, Wertheim, and Grassi, in such a work as Pouillet’s Hléments de Physique, and also in the German translation by Miiller. The great compressibility of liquids as compared with solids is seldom affirmed as a distinct general proposition in books on physics. It occurs, however, in Deschanel’s treatise, both in the original and in the English edition. Daguin states, in vol. 1 of his Traité de Physique, 2d edition, p. 40, that the compressibility of liquids was long considered doubtful, but never- theless they are more compressible than solids. Lamé also pointed out the great compressibility of liquids as com- — — * Philosophical Magazine for October, 1878, p. 265. 264 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTII. pared with solids. I have before now referred to the statement of the same proposition in the comprehensive work of the late Prof. C. F. Naumann, the Lehrbuch der Geognosie, vol. 1, p. 269, 2d edition. * Although in many physical questions the compressibility of liquids may be neglected as well as the compressibility of solids, we are not entitled to assume at any time that the latter are relatively more com- pressible than the former. In questions where the pressure of columns of liquid of great magnitude comes under consideration we can no longer treat the liquid as incompressible. In the preblem of oceanic tides the incompressibility of the water has been assumed, but if a planet were covered with water to a depth of 100 miles it would be scarcely correct to make such an assumption. The compressibility is negligible in a small mass of water, but if can not be neglected in a large mass. Such an assumption is equally unwarrantable with regard to properties of matter which, though negligible in some problems, are not in others. Thus in the common hydraulic questions liquids are assumed to be incompressible ; if would be more correct to say the com- pressibility is neglected. In small problems connected with limited portions of the atmosphere the compressibility of air may be also neg- lected, but we could not neglect it for a high column of the atmesphere. If, as before remarked, the Earth were surrounded with an ocean 100 miles deep, the compressibility of the water could not be well over- looked in tidal questions; then, @ fortiori, compressibility can not be neglected in such a problem as the tides of a liquid spheroid having a radius nearly equal to that of the earth. This is immediately made manifest by expressing the compressibilities of liquids, not in terms of the amount due to a single atmosphere of pressure, as is done in most tabulated groups of results, but by some very much greater standard, such as one or two thousand atmospheres. In the experiments of Per- kinst the highest pressure employed was 2,000 atmospheres, and with this he reduced a column of water by nearly one-twelfth of its volume. The results of experiments with great pressures such as this are highly illustrative of the force by which a fluid may be compressed in the Earth’s interior. The actual coefficients of cubical compressibility, on which calculations could be based, may be partly obtained from the more exact researches of Regnault, Grassi, and other recent experi- ments, or from special investigations on fluid matter conducted with precautions such as these observers have employed. By then compar- ing the moduli of compressibilities caleulated from pressures of 1,000 or 10,000 atmospheres there could be no possibility of overlooking the consequences as to the relations of Jiquids and solid bodies in any case where they could be subjected to pressures of abnormal magnitude. (3) The propagation of sound in liquids and solids gives further proof of the greater compressibility of liquids. *“Pliissige Korper sind aber mit einer weit starkeren Compressibilitat begabt, also starre Koérper. ” t Phil. Trans, 1826, p. 541. ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 205 The rate v of transmission of sound in solids and liquids is a fune- tion of their compressibilities. In solids, v= 4, where H is the modulus of elasticity and p the density. In liquids, gHa. oa pr where jis the coefficient of cubic compressibility, H the pressure of the atmosphere, and a the deusity of mercury. But as in solids the modulus of elasticity is inversely as the compressibility k, we have i gab out Y% kpHa Both in solids and liquids the velocity of sound is inversely as the square roots of the densities and compressibilities. Although such solids as metals and rocks are denser than most liquids, the limits of their elastic compressibility are so much less that sound is propagated far more quickly through such solids than through liquids. In steel and metals generally this has been long since established. In rocks the velocity of sound has been computed from direct experiment by Mallet, and has been found to be greater in continuous homogeneous rock than the velocities observed in liquids.* (4) If we had not the results of direct experiment on the compressi- bilities of liquids and solids to assure us that these properties in liquids are in excess of those obtained for solids we might fairly infer this conclusion from the relative dilatability of such substances under dif- ferences of temperature.t+ The construction of our common thermome- ters is based on the greatly superior dilatability of the liquids inclosed in the thermometer-tube over the material of the tube itself. The dynamical theory of heat clearly establishes that the expansion of solids and liquids is a mechanical action as much as their compression under the action of force, and the substances which contract least by *See Philosophical Transactions for 1861 and 1862. t Expansions of metals and glass for 1° C., according to Dulong and Petit, at different temperatures T. SOLIDs. LIQUID. a SS || TS | Platinum. T. | Tron. c.-iCoppers|\) a: Glass. Mercury. ie) ° 7 fo) °) 1 1 1 | 1 1 37,700 | 190 | ago00 | 289 | 9,400 | 19° | sazoo | 1° | 5,550 Ea 213 i | 36,800 5,425 1 : 1 aa ee rt eas ail ee aa ye 38,300 | 211 | ap 700 | 32 | i700 | 378 | s2,000 | 3% 5,300 | | 206 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. cooling are precisely those which contract least under pressure. Gases which contract most by pressure are also the most dilatable by heat. Liquids occupy an intermediate place between solids and gases in rela- tion both to the dynamical effect of pressure and the action of loss of heat. If, instead of the experiment of the Academia del Cimento with globes of porous metal, an experiment with equally strong but impervi- ous vessels had been made, the deformation of each globe would have been unaccompanied by the exudation of the liquid, and the totally false statement that solids are more compressible than liquids would not have so long injuriously influenced physical science. THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH CONSIDERED AS PARTLY FLUID AND PARTLY SOLID. (1) The problem of the precessional motion of the Earth considered as a solid shell filled with liquid devoid of viscidity and friction has been elaborately investigated by Mr. Hopkins, in his ‘ Researches ot Physical Geology,” in the Philosophical Transactions for 1839, 1840, and 1842, and the result obtained by him has been often quoted as extremely remarkable. Before treating the same question, it may be necessary to state that on the continent of Europe the application made by Mr, Hopkins of his result to geology is not generally admitted, and views such as I have always firmly upheld seem to be more generally adopted; but some confusion appears to exist as to Mr. Hopkins’s results and those to which I have been led. Thus in arecent treatise on systematic geology the author says, with reference to the thickness of the solid crust of the earth, there are plainly only four possibilities to be thought of: 1. The Earth is through and through solid. 2. The Earth is through and through fluid, with a solid crust. 3. The Earth has a solid nucleus and a solid crust, with fluid stratum lying between. 4. The Earth is solid, but furnished with cavities which are filled with fluid. The first and last of these possibilities are not admissible, according to astronomical observations. According to the investigatiors of Hopkins the action exercised by the sun and moon on the positiv of the Earth’s axis in space, by which precession and nutation are pro- duced, would be different according to the structure we attribute to the earth. Thevalues established by observation compel us to regard the earth as for the most part in a fluid state, in order. that the results may har- monize with calculation (Pfaff, Grundriss der Geologie). This is the reverse of what Hopkins has concluded, and is precisely what I have long since enunciated, which I have always continued to maintain, and which forms the cumulative result of the investigations in the text of this paper. In a report to the Royal Irish Academy on “ Experiments on the Influence of the Molecular Influence of Fluids on their Motion ai os ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 207 when in Rotation,” p. 57,* I referred toa proof obtained by me of the result alluded to, and I now may be allowed to submit this proof to those interested in the question. (2) Let us suppose the earth to consist of a solid spheroidal shell composed of nearly similar spheroidal strata of equal density, and having the ellipticities of the inner and outer surfaces small and nearly equal. The sheil is supposed to be full of liquid and to rotate around its polar axis. Under these conditions the attraction of an exterior body would tend to produce pressure between the fluid nucleus and the inner surface of the shell. Whatever may be the direction of this pressure, it can be resolved into a force normal to the shell’s surface and into forces in its tangent plane. The normal force might be effective in causing a deformation of the shell, or, if the latter were rigid, it would be destroyed by the shell’s resistance. If friction existed between the materials of the shell and the fluid of the nucleus, the resolved forces in the tangent plane would tend to change the motion of the shell from the motion it would have if empty. But if no friction and no adhesion existed between the particles of the liquid and the shell’s nearly spherical surface, and if the particles of the liquid are free from viscidity and internal friction among themselves, this purely tangential component could exercise no influence on the motions of the shell. If the solid envelope containing fluid was bounded by planes such as a prismatic vessel or box, it is manifest that unequal normal pressures on the faces of such prism would tend to produce couples, and thus possible rotations. Such a case has been considered by Professor Stokes, and he has shown that a rectangular prism filled with fluid will have the same motion as if the fluid was replaced by a solid having the same mass, center of gravity, and principal axis, but with much smaller moments of inertia corresponding to these axes. But in a continuously curved and nearly spherical vessel the normal pressure arising from the disturbance of the liquid could not produce the same results. The tangential components of the forces acting at the surface of the liquid could, in this case, be alone effective, and if no friction or viscidity existed at this surface such tangential action would totally disappear. The conclusion of Mr. Hopkins’s first memoir is, that if the ellipticity of the inner and outer surfaces of the solid shell were the same, precession would be unaffected by the fluid, and any small inequality of nutation would be totally inappreciable to observa- tion (p. 423, Phil. Trans., 1839). This may be rendered more manifest by recalling the general equations for the surface of a fluid obtained by Poisson, Navier, Meyer, and other mathematicians when the internal friction of the fluid is taken into account. If a, 6, y, be the angles made by the normal to the curved surface of the fluid, X, Y, Z the com- ponents parallel to the rectangular axes of #, y, and 2, it appears that we shall have at the fluid surface, when nearly spherical, * Proceedings of R. I, A,, 2d series, vol. 11, Science. 208 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. . Sly oy atk Wi, 85) du HON Ae du du\ . X =hk i eo cos a + ( ay 4. ie: cos ff + ( ae -+ ro COs y |; 70 7) ie Pa | ke dv iON ae y= hk egg -) cos a+ 2 iy cos fi + (— + ai COS } | Z=hk* T ( dw + du ) cos at ( die + = cos 6 + 2 dw cos y |; dx dz dy dz Where u,v, w are components of velocity parallel to the codrdinate axes, and where k£ is a coefficient depending on friction aud viscidity. If no viscidity and no friction exists we must have k=0, and hence also A OF Y= 040; Now, as X, Y, and Zare the effective components with which the nearly spherical mass of fluid acts at its surface when each of them is separ- ately equal to zero, it follows that the fluid can do no work at the sur- face, and the motions of the shell would take place quite independently of the contained mass of fluid when the latter is totally devoid of fric- tion and viscidity. (3) It has long since been clearly shown that the motion of the axis of the Earth, considered as a solid body, may be determined by the differential equations deb tudt) 1 dV dee Cn sin 6 dé Prue vegultceane ils dt. On sin 0 deb. V is the potential of the rotating solid, Cits maximum moment of in- ertia, @ and ¢ direction angles of the axis of rotation. In the case of the Earth, 4 has a particular value when it becomes the obliquity of the ecliptic, and 7 the longitude of the first point of Aries. It follows that the determination of 7 and 4 at any time depends upon C and JV. By analytical transformations, which are fully given by Poisson in his memoir Sur la Rotation de la Terre autour de son centre de Gravité, and by other writers, it finally appears that the variations of 4 and depend on equations in which a factor enters of the form 2C0—A—B C / where A, B, OC, are the three principal moments of inertia “ the Earth. —A In a spheroid of revolution A = B, and the factor becomes — ae a3 a ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 209 As precession depends essentially on the variation of the angle /, it C follows that the complete expression of the factor is of primary importance. (4) Mathematicians, during the past two centuries, have devoted much attention to the question of the figure of a rotating mass of fluid, with especial reference to the explanation of the spheroidal figures of the earth and her sister planets. Solutions of this problem have been presented, especially by Clairaut, Legendre, Laplace, Gauss, Ivory, Jacobi, and Airy; and it is not a little remarkable that in applying these solutions to the case of the Earth every one of these investi- gators has not only supposed the Earth to have been originally in a fluid state, but that the particles of the mass retained the same posi- tions after solidification had taken place. This tacit or openly expressed assumption of the unchangeable position of the particles of the origi- nal fluid mass on their passage to a complete or partial state of solidity lies at the root of the whole question of the Earth’s structure. For the first time in the treatment of the physico-mathematical problem, I dis- tinetly discarded this assumption and I affirmed that the position of ‘the particles of matter, on passing from the state of fluidity to solid- ity, must assume positions in conformity with mechanical and physical laws. In this way the hypothesis of the Karth’s primitive fluidity be- came more simple and much more rational; for it was as manifestly absurd to assume that the particles of the fluid mass, on passing into a solid state of consistence, retained their original positions, as it would be to assume that if the whole Earth became liquefied the positions of its particles would be unchanged. The corrected and simplified hypothesis is also fruitful in important results; butit is singular that, as far as | am aware, no mathemetician seems to have understood or appreciated its bearing on the physical structure of the Earth, except M. Plana, by a remark in a memoir published by him towards the close of his career. (5) Before presenting my conclusions on the shape of the inner surface of the solidified shell and Plana’s remark relative to the same subject, it is necessary to recall some results established by Clairaut and fre- quently pat forward by mathematical investigators of the Earth’s figure. It seems to be universally admitted that if a mass of heterogeneous fluid composed of strata of equal density, each increasing in density from the Surface of the mass to its center, is set in rotation, the several strata will be spheroidal, but their ellipticities will not be equal. The elliptici- ties will decrease from the outer surface toward the center. This law of decrease of ellipticity toward the center is not a hypothetical result, but a necessary deduction from the properties of fluids. As all known fluids are compressible, such an arrangement of strata of equal density as that referred to must follow from the supposition of the existence of any mass of fluid of such magnitude as the whole Earth, The increase H. Mis. 129——14 210 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. of the Earth’s density from its surface to its center is, moreover, a fact clearly revealed by the mean density of the Earth being double that of the materials composing the outside of its solid shell. If the increase of density in going from the surface to the center of a large mass of fluid is due to compression exercised by the outer upon the inner strata, it follows that the greater the total quantity of fluid the greater will be the difference between the density at its surface and its center, and the less the quantity of fluid the less will be this differ- ence. With a small spheroid of compressible fluid the variation of density might be neglected and the mass regarded as homogeneous. Suppose such a small mass of fluid to be set in rotation, its surface will become spheroidal, and it will have the well-known ellipticity & m, where m is the ratio of centrifugal force to gravity at the equator of the spheroid. If now this original spheroid be supposed to be overlaid with masses of the fluid, one after another, the inner portions will be sensibly compressed, and the whole mass will begin to vary in density in going from center to surface. The outer surface will now present an ellipticity less that ? m. If fresh layers of fluid are continually applied to the outer surface, the variation of density will continue, and the differ- ence between the density at the center and surface will increase. The ellipticity of the outer stratum of fluid will at the same time diminish to a value corresponding to the law of density. Let us now reverse this operation and suppose a great mass of liquid in rotation; its outer stratum will be less dense than those beneath, and its greatest density must be at the center. Let the outer strata of equal density be sue- cessively removed, so as to leave a succession of free fluid surfaces, until a spheroid is reached in which the difference of density is insensible. It is manifest that with each successive removal of the upper stratum of liquid the compression in the remaining strata becomes reduced, and also the variation in density from surface to center, until this variation becomes altogether extinguished. With the same velocity of rotation, the ellipticities of the surfaces of liquid thus successively exposed would increase up to the limiting value, } m. If at any time of the Earth’s solidification we suppose a nucleus of fluid to be inclosed within the solid shell, the successive increasing of thickness of the shell, from the congelation of the fluid matter of the nucleus, must be accompanied by the removal of successive outer strata from the nucleus. From what has been seen already, the nucleus will tend to acquire an increase of ellipticity, and therefore to mould the semifluid pasty matter about to pass into a solid state into a shape dif- ferent from what it would have if no change whatever in the position of the particles had taken place. As the nucleus is supposed to be in a state of fusion from heat, the successive additions to the inner surface of the shell from the matter of the nucleus must proceed at a very slow rate. The congelation of the surface stratum of tke nucleus must be a process of the same order of slowness as the flow of heat through the shell; and the mathematical theory of conduction established by Fourier ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 7 | shows that this can not proceed otherwise than slowly. The changes in shape of the surface of the nuclens would be correspondingly slow and gradual. When once a comparatively rigid outer crust had been formed, the process of molding additional strata of solidified matter against the inner surface of the crust from the nucleus would proceed in a slow and gradual order, so that the resulting solid strata would conform to the shape impressed upon them by the molding forces. A remarkable illustration of the way in which fused matter ejected from the Earth’s interior may, while turning on its center and at the same time cooling, mold itself against a solid crust formed upon it has been adduced by Charles Darwin, and has already been quoted by me on a former occasion. From these considerations I have been led to conclude, that the ellipticity of the shell’s inner surface may exceed but can not be less than the ellipticity of its outer surface ;* and referring to the same ques- tion, Plana used the words, *“ La loi des ellipticités a subi dans le passage de Vétat liquide a l’état solide une alteration sensible par laquelle toutes les couches se sont constitueés de maniére a avoir wn méme applatisse- ment et plus grand que le précédent.” M. Plana has further stated his views in the same volume of the Astronomische Nachrichten for 1852, thus: ‘Il est permis de penser que ces couches (de la fluide intérieuse) en se consolidant, ont subi des modifications a la verité fort petites, mais assez grandes pour nous empécher de pouvoir dériver, avec tout ’exacti- tude que lon pourrait scuhaiter, état de la Terre solid de son état antérieure de fluidité.” This paragraph gives a distinct adhesion to the improved form of the hypothesis of the original fluidity of the Earth; and this concurrence on the part of M. Plana is the more important, as it is possible that he had formed his conclusions independently. He refers to a letter written by him on the subject to Humboldt; and it is remarkable that, in the fifth and last volume of ‘*Cosmos,” published not long before the author’s death, some adjacent notes allude to Plana’s views, and contain refer- ences to the investigations of Mr. Hopkins and to my early researches. At this period Humboldt could scarcely have had time to examine the mechanical and physical reasonings, and he merely quoted the papers in the Philosophical Transactions as if he had seen them for the first time: I am not aware of any evidence as to whether Plana bad known their contents; and it is possible that his conclusions as to the forms of the strata of the shell and nucleus had been formed independ- ently, though published a short time after my investigations. The annexed figure may assist in making clear the results of the pre- ceding paragraph. The outer ellipse represents the outline of the exte- rior surface of the Earth’s crust, which is shaded and bounded inwardly by a surface slightly more elliptical. The fluid nucleus included within the shell is represented with strata decreasing in ellipticity towards the = “ *See the subjoined representation of a section of the shell and nucleus. 212 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. center. This arrangement is necessarily followed by a mass of fluid under such conditions as the nucleus, or under the conditions of the entirely fluid Earth. If the matter com- posing the Earth underwent no change in passing from the fluid to the solid state, instead of the arrangement here represented, the inner surface of the shell would have a smaller ellipticity than its outer surface, and the strata of the shell, as well as those of the nu- cleus, would be less oblate in going from the outer surface. (6) It is important to distinetly bear in mind that the constitution of the shell and nucleus indicated by the foregoing reasonings is not based on any hypothesis of a specific law of density of the interior strata of the Earth. It is a deduction from the established properties of fluids quite as vigorous as the conclusions regarding the spheroidal shape of a mass of rotating liquid. On the other hand, the supposition tacitly or openly made by Mr. Hopkins and his followers, that the ellip- ticity of the inner stratum of the solid shell is precisely the same as that which this stratum had when fluid, is not merely a hypothesis—it is an assumption which is directly contradicted by the recognized physical properties of all known liquids, and even contradicted by the funda- mental principles of hydrodynamics. Upon this assumption was based the calculation of the ratios of the inner and outer ellipticities of the shell which would correspond to the observed value of the precession of the Earth’s axis, and hence the limiting value of the thickness of the shell. But when the fundamental assumption on which this ratio is calculated is shown to be in contradiction to physical and mechanical laws, the whole of the conclusions drawn from such a calculation must fall to the ground. In the Mecanique Céleste, Laplace, following Clairaut, proved that if the density in a fluid spheroid decreases from the center to the surface, the ellipticity of the strata of equal density must decrease from the surface towards the center. This result forms the groundwork of some of the arguments employed in the present inquiry. Legendre and La- place also deduced a law of density from the properties of compres- sible fluids, and from this law the latter unfolded a law of ellipticity of the strata of equal density. The results arrived at in my pres- ent inquiry are manifestly totally independent of the law of density A sin qa o— —, deduced by Legendre and Laplace. In order to apply this law to the strata of the solidified shell, the assumption must necessarily be made that the particles of the fluid underwent no change in position on passing to the solid state. This was assumed ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 213 by Mr. Hopkins and Archdeacon Pratt; and, as we have seen, such an assumption is not only unwarranted, but is absolutely contradicted by the established laws of hydrodynamies. My conclusions are not only in harmony with those laws, but necessarily require them to be kept constantly in view throughout the whole investigation. (7) The result obtained in section (3) allows of an immediate and easy application to the inquiry before us, if we admit that the strata of equal density in the shell have all equal ellipticities—an admission which has been already shown to be a particular case of a rigorous and exact deduction from hydrodynamical principles. In this ease let us consider the ratio of the difference of the moments of inertia of any spheroidal stratum to its greatest moments of inertia. It will readily appear that the difference of the greatest and least moments of inertia, of all the strata, divided by the sum of the greatest moments of inertia, will be the same as that fora homogeneous shell whose inner and outer elipticities are equal. If p be the density of any spheroidal stratum of equal density, then for that stratum OG Ai = hp (x?+y’) dx dy dze—f (2?+y’) dx dy de CU; Sp (a+y?) dx dy dz and as p may be placed outside the sign of integration, it disappears both from numerator and denominator. As we shall see presently, ey gay a ee a emey? where }, and a are the semi-axes of the stratum; and for all other strata of equal density we would have CAM ee eT get =) 3 ao eee Ou Ay b,? oy Oe aD ( iL pod aa J ee se Sj = 9 a een te a. Now if these strata are all similar, and have equal ellipticities, and hence C,—A, _G)—Az _ O3;—As __ Cis 1 1 Beh >) C; 9 OC, ct As ie waa C,, Se 2 ( 2 214 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. where } and @ are the outer semiaxes of the shell composed of all the strata of equal density. But . 1 jak I? ioe Pe ciasiebat ...+¢C,— ce LitAo+... +A.) aX: Oy (Ee Mes eS Coe -+C, This is the symbolical form of the proposition just stated. In a homogeneous solid of revolution the general expression for the moment of inertia is af yada ; and from the ordinary treatises on mechanics it readily appears that from a spheroid, C= 7G, ae B= ate b (a’+b*), where 0 is the semi-polar and a the semi-equatorial axis. Hence we have (ars 2a'b = “Zeb 2a BOA) b> =arg (dag) In a spheroidal shell for whose inner surface the semi-axes are }; and a, we have the moments of inertia with respect to the axes by taking the moments for the inner spheroid bounded by b; and a from those of the outer spheroid. Calling the former C, and A,, we have as before, C1= :- a Calling C, and A, ae moments of inertia of the sheil, we have there- fore, C—A_ 2athb—ath—@b’ atb—a’b (aa ae =3(4 ~a) a ee =9 4 BM Di, 1 15 ma; by (ay? +b, Ve 8 4 C1= 157 (Wb—an' di), A; = 15 a [ab (a?+b?) —a?b\(a?+b,")]; and hence by b? ab Ia )-a' i( 1— a ) C,—A,_ @&b(a—b’)—a/’ bi(ay> b—D?) a,” /, OF ieee 2 (a* b—a, b;) ae 2 (a' b—a,' bs) Ife and e, be the outer and inner ellipticities of the shell, b b \ b BD; e=1— q? @ =] ee and if e = 4, 7G 4 4 : a G4 (ath — a, 4b;) (1— p> In this case - O,* | Dae ae =% (1- a)? 0,—A;, ,C—A Re ico Oo ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 215 Consequently the precessional motion of such a shell would be the same as that of a homegeneous spheroid of the same ellipticity. Ife = 3,, it appears that the value of precession for such a spheroid would be 57”, while its observed value is 50’-1.* Now, as-it is impossible to admit such a difference where the result of observation is so well estab- lished, we must conclude that the solid shell of the Earth, composed of nearly equi-elliptic strata, can not extend to its center —in other words, that the Earth can not be altogether a solid from its surface to its center. On the other hand, the fluid nucleus contained within the shell can not be devoid of friction and viscidity, but must possess these properties in common with all fluids that have ever been observed on the Earth’s surface. These properties of the liquid may, as I have long since an- nounced, cause the shell and liquid nucleus to rotate together as one solid mass. The same conclusion was afterward put forward by M. De- launey; and experiments made under his direction, and afterward, at the instance of the Royal Irish Academy, by me, show that in rota- ting glass vessels filled with water the amount of friction and viscidity is such as to render any difference of slow motion between the liquid and its containing vessel insensible. With liquids so viscid that water is in comparison limpid, such as piteh, honey, and especially volcanic lava in a fused state, the results would be absolutely decisive. To this class of liquids the fluid matter of the Earth’s interior, so far as it has come under observation, undoubtedly belongs; and hence the overwhelming certainty of our geveral conclusions as to the connection between the Earth’s structure and its rotation. (8) If the tendency of the solid crust is to become more elliptical at its inner surface as it increases in thickness, some interesting conse- quences appear to follow. If the shell were unaccompanied by the nucleus, or if no friction existed at their surfaces, the changes in the relations of the principal moments of inertia of the shell might be sup- posed to cause its rotation to become unstable, so as to bring about conditions which might result in a change of the axis of rotation. It is easy to show on the most favorable suppositions that this could not occur. The increasing ellipticity of the inner surface of the shell would be due to the increasing oblateness of the surface of the fluid nucleus, and this would be at its maximum if the neucleus approached a state of homogeneity; but the fluid can not approach this state unless the radius of the nucleus is so small that the variation in density due to pressure becomes insensible, whence all its strata would possess the same density. This condition with a certain thickness of the solid shell clude that the precession for the solid spheroid would be a little less, and about 557 instead of 57’. This I propose to prove in a short paper, entitled ‘‘ Note on the an- nual precession calculated on the hypothesis of the earth’s solidity.” This note [appended to this article] leaves the general conclusions of the present paper un- altered. 216 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. may bring about equality in the two principal moments of inertia of the shell. The most favorable case would be for a homogeneous shell. Hence we have only to solve the very simple problem: Given the thick- ness of a homogeneous spheroidal shell at its pole, required its thick- ness at the equator, so as to make its principal moments of inertia equal. We have from the expressions for OC; and A, in (7), ae ah a bh (a? bv? a b (a—b’)=a;? b, (a,°—b,’), or a,!—a,? b?= : Ye), 1 which gives 1 ; roa ae ; n=saorts/ a’ b (a’—b ) aye. dD, This may be written a 1 ie [4 a2b (a@—b?) by v2 cee ereriarare: If we take e= 1, for the outer ellipticity of the shell, and e=345 for its maximum inner ellipticity, we can easily find the values of & a : and ” from whence it appears that in order to have equal moments of i inertia the thickness of the shell should be .047 of its equatorial semi- axis, and the mean radius of the nucleus would thus be reduced from the original value when the whole mass was fluid by a fraction less than one-twentieth. Under these conditions the ellipticity of 54,, cor- responding to homogeneity, could not exist; and hence it may be con- cluded that, whether the shell is thin or whether the Earth has become almost altogether solid, the moment of the inertia of the shell with respect to its polar axis must be always greater than the moment of inertia for its equatorial axis, The tendeney of the fluid nucleus to increase in ellipticity might produce a result worthy of examination by volcanologists, namely, a possible increase in the development of volcanic phenomena in equa- torial as compared to polar regions with the progressive solidification of the Earth up to a certain point. Until the thickness of the shell has become very great, recent periods should exhibit a greater devel- opment of voleanic energy towards the equator than toward the poles as compared to remote epochs. NOTE. On the annual precession calculated on the hypothesis of the Earth’s solidity. In discussing the influence of the internal structure of the Earth upon precession it has been frequently assumed that with the ellipticity gy the annual precession of a homogeneous solid shell or completely ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 2h solid spheroid would be 57”. ‘This was the result of Mr. Hopkins’s eal- culations; and the difference, amounting to between six and seven sec- onds between it and the observed value, formed the basis of all his conclusions relative to the Earth’s internal condition. Hitherto I have not seen any reason for doubting the above numerical result; but on looking more closely into the question it appears probable that we must reduce the precession for the hypothetical solid spheroid to about 55’. If the Earth were a spheroid perfectly rigid, the amount of pre- cession can be calculated from formule given in Airy’s Tracts, Pratt’s Mechanical Philosophy, Pontecoulant’s Théorie Analytique du Systéme du Monde, or Resal’s Traité de Mécanique Celeste. In the two latter works Poisson’s memoir on the rotation of the Earth about its center of grav- ity is very closely followed, and the formule are those which I have generally employed. irom these writings we have P,—3m (20-A—B) 4n C (1+ vy) cos I; where J is the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic, 7 the ratio of the Moon’s action on the Earth compared to that of the Sun, m the : m ; ; : Earth’s mean motion around the Sun, = the ratio of this mean motion to the Earth’s rotation, and A, B, C the three principal movements of the inertia of the Earth. When the Earth is supposed to bea spheroid of revolution, A=B, and the above becomes (1) pots. (1+y) cos 1. Qn Pratt gives the formula Me OHA 12 sin? 1 iy) SS = eee eg en et Rr ee a 180°: ey)? oA A 4 Daa l+y : N where ¢ is the inclination of the Moon’s orbit to the ecliptic, vy the ratio of the Earth’s mass to that of the Moon. In all these formu}e, or in any others by which the precession can be calculated, the Moon’s mass entérs directly or indirectly. When Mr. Hopkins made his calculation more than forty years ago, he appears to have taken the value of the Moon’s mass and all his other numerical data from the early editions of Airy’s Tracts. He uses 366.26 for the Earth’s period, 27.32 for the Moon’s. He makes J=23° 28’, i=5° 8’ 50’, and the Moon’s mass +; of the Earth’s mass. All of these values require revision, and it may be remarked that Sir George Airy has more recently expressed the opinion that 5 may be taken as the value of the Moon’s mass.* On this question I may be permitted to remark *Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, December, 1878, p. 140. 218 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. that there are three different phenomena from which the Moon’s mass has been determined: (1) The perturbations of the Earth’s motion in its orbit around the Sun by the action of the moon; (2) the tides; and (3) the natation of the Barth’s axis. The largest mass, or +; nearly, bas been obtained from the first, and the smallest from nutation. But the values obtained from nutation are not very accordant, aud more- over the close connection between nutation and precession makes it a doubtfel matter to calculate the amount of one from a quantity depend- ing on the other. The moon’s mass obtained from the tides is that which has been employed by Laplace, Poisson, and other mathemati- cians as the most probable. It appears that a recent discussion of the tides in the United States, made by Mr. Ferrel, has given the same value as that found by Laplace. This circumstance, as well as the fact that the value so obtained lies between the values found by the other methods, gives us reason to place much confidence in the result. If we call P; the precession for a homogeneous spheroid whose ellipticity is #, then from (1) Ree E(1+y) cos I. If we take the value of the Moon’s mass given by the tides, or rather the ratio ot the Moon’s action to that of the Sun thus given, we shall use the value of y employed by Poisson, Pontécoulant, and Resal; if we also employ for # the value which Colonel Clarke shows good ground for deeming the most probable,* that is 554-;,% instead of 3, or even smaller fractions hitherto accepted, I find that P, becomes 56-05. By Pratt’s formula and the numerical values he employs. except for RB, I find P,=54''-879, If we take ,4 for the Moon’s mass in Poisson’s formula, vy becomes 2°2062, and P\=53!"574. If we change y to 80 in Pratt’s formula with E= 9 da P,=52!'-95. The value for the observed precession now generally admitted is 50-37. Itis therefore manifest that the difference between this and the precession of a homogeneous equi-elliptic spheroid can not be admitted to be as great as Mr. Hopkins has declared it to be. From the values of P, which I have calculated we should have P,—P=5'"'68 and 4/507, with the Moon’s mass=-;; * See Colonel Clarke’s paper in the Philosophical Magazine for August, 1878, where he maintains that recent geodetical results tend to increase the value of the Earth’s ellipticity and to make the measured value approach to that obtained from pen- dulum observations, ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 219 3-204 : P,—P= 9/6617) and 2’ .58, if we take the Moon’s mass=;5. On calculating P with the Moon’s mass=,, Sun’s mass 354936, y is 2-25395. If we take for J its value in 1852, or 23° 27’ 32’, and make m=359°-9931, *— 0027303, 554-463 the following calculations can be made. log m = 2°5562965, log (1+y) —0-5124109, log cos I —9-9625322, m _ —34 4362104, ee =~—~4674500 ) 3°7323937 2°4675459 or P,=54" nearly, P,—P=3"-617. Consequently instead of admitting Mr. Hopkins’s result of 7” for the difference between the precession of a homogeneous spheroid with the Earth’s ellipticity and the precession actually observed, we may affirm that this difference is probably not more than 4” or 5”. With the best values for the numerical elements the difference is, however, too well ascertained to be overlooked, and it leads to the con- clusion that the Earth ean not consist of an entirely solid mass composed of equi-elliptic strata, and that it is therefore partly composed of a solid shell bounded by surfaces such as I have elsewhere indicated, with an interior mass of viscid liquid, such as is seen flowing from the volcanic openings of the shell, arranged in strata conforming to the laws of hydrostatics, or in other words, with strata of equal density decreasing in ellipticity toward the Earth’s center. GLACIAL GEOLOGY.* By Prof. JAMES GEIKIE, F. R. S. The results obtained by geologists, who have been studying the pe- ripheral areas of the drift-covered regious of our continent, are such as to satisfy us that the drifts of those regions are not iceberg-droppings, as we used to suppose, but true morainic matter and fluvio-glacial de- tritus. Geologists have not jumped to this conclusion; they have only accepted it after laborious investigations of the evidence. Since Dr. tto Torell, in 1875, first stated his belief that the “ diluvium” of north Germany was o7 glacial origin a great literature on the subject has Sprung up, a perusal of which will show that with our German friends glacial geology has passed through much the same succession of phases as with us. At first icebergs are appealed to as explaining everything— next we meet with sundry ingenious attempts at a compromise between floating ice and a continuous ice-sheet. Asobservations multiply, how- ever, the element of floating ice is gradually eliminated, and all the phenomena are explained by means of land ice and ceseninele wasser” alone. It is a remarkable fact that the iceberg hypothesis has always been most strenuously upheld by geologists whose labors have been largely confined to the peripheral areas of drift-covered countries. In the upland and mountainous tracts, on the other hand, that hypothesis has never been able to survive a moderate amount of accurate observa- MOTs = -= | *- The notion of a general ice-sheet having covered a large part of Europe, which a few years ago was looked upon as a wild dream, has been amply justified by the labors of those who are so assiduously investi- gating the peripheral area of the “ great northern drift.” Aud perhaps I may be allowed to express my own belief that the drifts of middle and southern England, which exhibit the same complexity as the “lower diluvium” of the continent, will eventually be generally acknowledged to have had a similar origin. I now pass on to review some of the general results obtained by con- * Presidential address before the Geological Section of the British Association Ady. Sci. at Newcastle, September, 1889. (Report of the British Association, 1889,vol. Lux, pp. 552-564.) 221 222 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. tinental geologists as to the extent of area occupied by inland ice dur- ing the last great extension of glacier ice in Europe. It is well known that this latest ice-sheet did not overflow nearly so wide a region as that underneath which the lowest bowlder clay was accumulated. Gerard de Geer has given a summary* of the general results obtained by himself and his fellow-workers in Sweden and Norway; and these have been supplemented by the labors of Berendt, Geinitz, Hunchecone, Klockmann, Keilhack, Schréder, Wahnschaffe, and others in Germany, and by Sederholm in Finland. From them we learn that the end- moraines of the ice-circle round the southern coasts of Norway, from whence they sweep southeast by east across the province of Gottland in Sweden, passing through the lower ends of Lakes Wener and Wet- ter, while similar moraines mark out for us the terminal front of the inland ice in Finland at least two parallel frontal moraines passing inland from Hango head on the Gulf of Finland through the southern part of that province to the north of Lake Ladoga. Further northeast than this they have not been traced; but, from some observations by Helmersen, Sederholm thinks it probable that the terminal ice front extended northeast by the north of Lake Onega to the eastern shores ot the White Sea. Between Sweden and Finland lies the basin of the Baltic, which at the period in question was filled with ice, forming a ereat Baltie glacier which overflowed the Aland Islands, Gottland and Oland, and which, fanning out as it passed toward the southwest, invaded, on the south side, the Baltic provinces of Germany, while, on the north, it crossed the southern part of Scania in Sweden and the Danish islands to enter upon Jutland. - - The general conclusion arrived at by those who are at present inves- tigating the glacial accumulations of northern Europe may be sum- marized as follows: (1) Before the invasion of northern Germany by the inland ice the low grounds bordering on the Baltic were overflowed by a sea which contained a boreal and arctic fauna. These marine conditions are in- dicated by the presence, under the lower bowlder clay of more or less well-bedded fossiliferous deposits. On the same horizon occur also beds of sand, containing fresh-water shells, and now and again mammalian remains, some of which imply cold and other temperate climatic condi- tions. Obviously all these deposits may pertain to one and the same period, or more properly to different stages of the same period—some datiug back to a time when the climate was still temperate, while others clearly indicate the prevalence of cold conditions, and are there- fore probably somewhat younger, (2) The next geological horizon in ascending order is that which is marked by the “ Lower Diluvium”—the glacial and fluvioglacial de- tritus of the great ice-sheet which flowed south to the foot of the Harz Mountains. The bowlder clay on this horizon now and again contains * Zeitschrift d. deutsch. geolog. Ges. Bd. XXXvUi, p. 177. GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 223 marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial organic remains, derived undoubt- edly from the so-called preglacial beds already referred to. These latter, it would appear, were plowed up and largely incorporated with the old ground moraine. (3) The interglacial beds which next succeed contain remains of a well-marked temperate fauna and flora, which point to something more than a mere partial or local retreat of the inland ice. The geographi- cal distribution of the beds and the presence in these of such forms as Hlephas antiquus, Cervus elephas, C. megaceros, and a flora comparable to that now existing in northern Germany, justify geologists in con- cluding that the inter-glacial epoch was one of long duration, and characterized in Germany by climatic conditions apparently not less temperate than those that now obtain. One of the phases of that inter-glacial epoch, as we have seen, was the overfiowing of the Baltic provinces by the waters of the North Sea. (4) To this well-marked inter-glacial epoch succeeded another epoch of arctic conditions, when the Scandinavian inland ice once more invaded Germany, plowing through the inter-glacial deposits, and working these up in its ground moraine. So far as I can learn, the prevalent belief among geologists in north Germany is that there was only one inter-glacial epoch; but, as already stated, doubt has been expressed whether all the facts can be thus accounted for. There must always be great difficulty in the correlation of widely separated inter- glacial deposits, and the time does not seem to me to have yet come when we can definitely assert that all these inter-glacial beds belong to the same geological horizon. Ihave dwelt upon the recent work of geologists in the peripheral areas of the drift-covered regions of northern Hurope, because I think the results obtained are of great interest to glacialists in this country. And for the same reason I wish next to eall attention to what has been done of late years in elucidating the glacial geology of the Alpine lands of central Europe, and more particularly of the low grounds that stretch out from the foot of the mountains. Any observations that tend to throw light upon the history of the complex drifts of our own peripheral areas can not but be of service. The only question concern- ing the ground moraines that has recently given rise to much discussion is the origin of the materials themselves. It is obvious that there are only three possible modes in which those materials could have been introduced to the ground moraine; either they consist of superficial moraini¢ débris which has found its way down to the bottom of the old glaciers by crevasses; or they may be made up of the rock rubbish, shingle, gravel, etc., which doubtless strewed the valleys before these were occupied by ice; or, lastly, they may have been derived in chief measure from the underlying rocks themselves by the action of the ice that overflowed them. The investigations of Penck, Blaas, BGhm, and Briickner appear to me to have demonstrated that the ground moraines 224 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. are composed mostly of materials which have been detached from the underlying rocks by the erosive action of the glaciers themselves. Their observations show that the regions studied by them in great detail were almost completely buried under ice, so that the accumula- tion of superficial moraines was, for the most part, impossible; and they advance a number of facts which prove positively that the ground moraines were formed and accumulated under the ice. These geolo- gists do not deny that some of the material may occasionally have come from above, nor do they doubt that preéxisting masses of rock rubbish and alluvial accumulations may have been incorporated with the ground moraines ; but the enormous extent of the latter and the direction of transport and distribution of the erratics which they contain can not be thus accounted for, while all the facts are readily explained by the action of the ice itself, which used its subglacial débris as tools with which to carry on the work of erosion. Professor Heim and others have frequently asserted that glaciers have little or no eroding power, since at the lower ends of existing glaciers we find no evidence of such erosion being in operation. But the chief work of a glacier cannot be carried on at its lower end, where motion is reduced to a minimum, and where the ice is perforated by sub-glacial tunnels and arches, underneath which no glacial erosion can possibly take place; and yet it is upon observations made in just such places that the principal arguments against the erosive action of glaciers have been based. - - - If we wish to learn what glacier-ice can accomplish, we must study in detail some wide region from which the ice has completely disappeared. Following this plan, Dr. Blaas has been led by his observations on the glacial formation of the Inn Valley to recant his former views, and to become a formidable advocate of the very theory which he formerly opposed. ‘To his work and the memoirs by Penck, Briickner, and Béhm, already cited, and especially to the admirable chapter on glacier erosion by the last-named author, I would refer those who may be anxious to know the last word on this much- debated question. The evidence of inter-glacial conditions within the Alpine lands con- tinues to increase. These are represented by alluvial deposits of silt, sand, gravel, conglomerate, breccia, and lignites. Penck, Bohm, and Briickner find evidence of two interglacial epochs, and maintain that there have been three distinct and separate epochs of glaciation in the Alps. No mere temporary retreat and re-advance of the glaciers, ac- cording to them, will account for the phenomena presented by the in. ter-glacial deposits and associated morainic accumulations. During interglacial times the glaciers disappeared from the lower valleys of the Alps; the climate was temperate and probably the snow-fields and glaciers approximated in extent to those of the present day. All the evidence conspires to show that an interglacial epoch was of prolonged duration. Dr. Briickner has observed that the moraines of the last mS ‘ GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 225 glacial epoch rest here and there upon loess, and he confirms Penck’s observations in South Bavaria that this remarkable formation never overlies the morainic accumulations of the latest glacial epoch. Ac- cording to Penck and Briickner therefore the loess is of interglacial age. There can be little doubt, however, that loess does not belong to any one particular horizon. Wahnschaffe* and others have shown that through- out wide areas in north Germany it is the equivalent in age of the “Upper Diluvium,” while Schumacher} points out that in the Rhine valley it occurs on two separate aud distinct horizons. Professor Andree has likewise shown that there is an upper and lower léss in Alsace, each characterized by its own special fauna.i There is still considerable difference of opinion as to the mode of formation of this remarkable accumulation. By many it is considered to be an aqueous deposit; others, following Richthofen, are of opinion that it is a wind-blown accumulation, while some incline to the belief that it is partly the one and partly the other. Nor do the upholders of these various hypotheses agree amongst themselves as to the pre- cise manner in which water or wind has worked to produce the ob- served results. Thus, amongst the supporters of the aqueous origin of the loess, we find this attributed to the action of heavy rains washing over and re-arranging the material of the bowlder clays.§ Many, again, have held it probable that loess is simply the finest loam distributed over the low grounds by the flood waters that escaped from the northern inland ice and the mers de glace of the Alpine lands of central Europe. Another suggestion is that much of the material of the loess may have been derived from the denudation of the bowlder clays by flood water during the closing stages of the last cold period. It is pointed out that in some regions at least the loess is underlaid by a layer of erraties, which are believed to be the residue of the denuded bowlder clay. Weare re- minded by Klockmann|| and Wahuschaffef that the inland ice must have acted as a great dam, and that the wide areas in Germany, ete., would be flooded, partly by water derived from the melting inland ice and partly by waters flowing north from the hilly tracts of middle Germany. In the great basins thus formed there would be a commingling of fine silt material derived from north and south, which would necessarily come to form a deposit having much the same character throughout. From what I have myself seen of the loess in various parts of Ger- many, and from all that I have gathered from reading and in conver: sation with those who have worked over loess-covered regions I incline * Abhandl. z. geolog. Specialkarte v. Preussen, etc., Bd. vit, Heft 1: Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch., 1885, p. 904; 1886, p. 367. , t Hygienische Topographic von Strassburg i. E., 1885. t Abhandl. z. geolog. Specialkarte v. Elsass-Lothringen, Bd. vu1, Heft 2. § Laspeyres: Lrlduterungen z. geolog. Specialkarte v. Preuessn, etc., Blatt Grobzig, Zorbig und Petersberg. || Klockmann: Jahrb. d. k. preuss. geolog. Landesanstalt fiir 1883, p. 262. §] Wahnschafte: Op. cit. and Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geolog. Ges., 1886, p. 367. H. Mis. 129—15 226 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. to the opinion that loess is for the most part of aqueous origin. In many cases this can be demonstrated, as by the occurrence of bedding aud the intercalation of layers of stones, sand, gravel, etc., in the de- posit; again, by the not infrequent appearance of fresh-water shells; but perhaps chiefly by the remarkable uniformity of character which the loess displays. It seemed to me reasonable also to believe that the flood waters of glacial times must needs have been charged with finely divided sediment, and that such sediment would be spread over wide regions in the low grounds—in the slack waters of the great rivers and in the innumerable temporary lakes which occupied or partly occupied many of the valleys and depressions of the land. There are different kinds of loess or loess-like deposits, however, and all need not have been formed in the same way. Probably some may have been derived, as Wahnschaffe has suggested, from the denudation of bowlder clay. Pos- sibly, also, some loess may owe its origin to the action of rain upon the stony clays, producing what we in this country would eall * rain-wash.” There are other accumulations, however, which no aqueous theory will satisfactorily explain. Under this category comes much of the so- called Bergloss, with its abundant land shells andits generally unstrat- ified character. It seems likely that such loess is simply the result of sub aerial action, and owes its origin to rain, frost, and wind acting upon the superficial formations and re-arranging their finer-grained con- stituents. And it is quite possible that the upper portion of much of the loess of the lower grounds may have been re-worked in the same way. But I confess I can not yet find in the facts adduced by German geo- logists any evidence of a dry-as-dust epoch having obtained in Europe during any stage of the Pleistocene period. It is obvious, however, that after the tlood waters had disappeared from the low grounds of the continent sub-aérial action would come into play over the wide regions covered by glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits. Thus, in the course of time these deposits would become modified, just as similar accumulations in these islands have been top-dressed,as it were, and to some extent even re-arranged. I am strengthened in these views by the conclusion arrived at by M. Falsan, the eminent French glacialist. Covering the plateaux of the Dombs, and widely spread throughout the valleys of the Khone, the Ain, the Isere, ete., in France, there is a deposit of loess, he says, which has been derived from the washing of the ancient moraines. At the foot of the Alps, where black schists are largely developed, the loess is dark gray; but west of the secondary chain the same deposit is yellowish and composed almost entirely of silicious materials, with only a very little carbonate of lime. This limon, or loess, however, is very generally modi- fied towards the top by the chemical action of rain, the yellow loess acquiring a red color. Sometimes it is crowded with calcareous con- cretions; at other times it has been deprived of its caleareous element aud converted into a kind of pulverulent silica or quartz, This, the true GLACIAL GEOLOGY. Pepa | loess, is distinguished from another, lehm, which Falsan recognizes as the product of atmospheric action, formed, in fact, in place from the disintegration and decomposition of the subjacent rocks. Even this lehm has been modified by running water, dispersed or accumulated locally, as the case may be.* All that we know of the loess and its fossils compels us to inelude this accumulation as a product of the Pleistocene period. It is not of post- glacial age, even much of what one may call the ‘“‘remodified loess” being of Late Glacial or Pleistocene age. I can not attempt to give here a summary of what has been learned within recent years as to the fauna of the loess. The researches of Nehring and Liebe have familiar- ized us with the fact that at some particular stage in the Pleistocene period a fauna like that of the alpine steppe lands of western Asia was indigenous to middle Europe, and the recent investigations of Woldrich have increased our knowledge of this fauna. At what horizon, then, does this steppe fauna make its appearance? At Thiede Dr. Nehring discovered in so-called loess three successive horizons, each characterized by a special fauna. The Jowest of these faunas was decidedly arctic in type; above that came a steppe fauna, which last was succeeded by a fauna comprising such forms as mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, Bos, Cervus, horse, hyena, and lion. Now, if we compare this last fauna with the forms which have been obtained from true postglacial deposits, those deposits, namely, which overlie the younger bowlder clays and flood accumulations of the latest glacial epoch, we find little in common. The lion, the mammoth, and the rhinoceros are conspicuous by their absence from the postglacial beds of Europe. In place of them we meet with a more or less arctic fauna, and a high alpine and arctic flora, which, as we all know, eventually gave place to the flora and fauna with which Neolithic man was contemporaneous. As this is the case throughout northwestern and central Europe, we feel justi- fied in assigning the Thiede beds to the Pleistocene period, and to that interglacial stage which preceded and gradually merged into the last glacialepoch. - - - If the student of the Pleistocene fauna has certain advantages in the fact that he has to deal with forms many of which are still living, he labors at the saine time under disadvantages which are unknown to his colleagues who are engaged in the study of the life of far older periods. The Pleistocene period was distinguished above all things by its great oscillations of climate, the successive changes being repeated and producing correlative migrations of floras and faunas. We know that arctic and temperate faunas and fioras flourished during interglacial times, and a like succession of life forms followed the final disappearance of glacial conditions. A study of the organic remains met with in any particular deposit will not necessarily, there- fore, enable us to assign these to their proper horizon. The geograph- *Falsan; La Période glaciaire, p. 81. 228 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. ical position of the deposit and its relation to Pleistocene accumulations elsewhere must clearly be taken into account. Already, however, much has been done in this direction, and it is probable that ere long we Shall be able to arrive at a fair knowledge of the various modifi- cations which the Pleistocene floras and faunas experienced during the protracted period of climatic changes of which I have been speaking. We shall even possibly learn how often the arctic, steppe, prairie, and forest faunas, as they have been defined by Woldrich, replaced each other. Even now some approximation to this better knowledge has been made. Dr. Pohlig,* for example, has compared the remains of the Pleistocene faunas obtained at many different places in Europe, and has presented us with a classification which, although confessedly incomplete, yet serves to show the direction in which we must look for further advances in this department of inquiry. During the last twenty years the evidence of interglacial conditions both in Europe and America has so increased that geologists generally no longer doubt that the Pleistocene period was cbaracterized by great changes of climate. The occurrence at many different localities on the continent of beds of lignite and fresh-water alluvia, containing remains of Pleistocene mammalia, intercalated between separate and distinct bowlder clays, has left us no alternative. The interglacial beds of the Alpine lands of Central Europe are paralleled by similar deposits in Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, and France. But opinions differ as to the number of glacial and interglacial epochs, many holding that we have evidence of only two cold stages and one general interglacial stage. This, as I have said, is the view entertained by most geologists who are at work on the glacial accumulations of Scandinavia and North Germany. On the other hand, Dr. Penck and others, from a study of the drifts of the German alpine lands, believe that they have met with evidence of three distinct epochs of glaciation and two epochs of inter- glacial conditions. In France, while some observers are of opinion that there have been only two epochs of general glaciation, others, as for example, M. Tardy, find what they consider to be evidence of several such epochs. Others again, as M. Falsan, do not believe in the existence of any interglacial stages, although they readily admit that there were great advances and retreats of the ice during the glacial period. M. Falsan, in short, believes in oscillations, but he is of the opinion that these were not so extensive as others maintained. It is, therefore, simplya question of degree,and whether we speak of oscilla- tions or of epochs we must needs admit the fact that through all the glaciated tracts of Europe fossiliferous deposits occur intercalated among glacial accumulations. The successive advance and retreat of *Pohlig: Sitzungsb. d. Niederrheinischen Gesellschaft zu Bonn, 1884: Zeitschr.d. deutsch. geolog. Ges., 1887, p. 798. For a very full account of the diluvial European and Northern Asiatic mammalian faunas by Woldrich, see Mem. de V Acad. des Sciences de St.-Petersbourg, 1887, 7° sér., tom, XXXV. GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 229 the ice, therefore, was not a local phenomenon, but characterized all the glaciated areas. And the evidence shows that the oscillations referred to were on a gigantic scale. The relation borne to the glacial accumulations by the old river alluvia which contain relics of paleolithic man early attracted atten- tion. From the fact that these alluvia in some places overlie glacial deposits the general opinion (still held by some) was that paleolithic man must needs be of postglacial age. But since we have learned that all bowider clay does not belong to one and the same geological horizon—that, in short, there have been at least two, and probably more, epochs of glaciation—it is obvious that the mere occurrence of glacial deposits underneath paleolithic gravel does not prove these latter to be postglacial. All that we are entitled in such a case to say is simply that the implement-bearing beds are younger than the glacial accumulations upon which they rest. Their horizon must be deter- mined by first ascertaining the relative position in the glacial series of the underlying deposits. Now, it is a remarkable fact that the bowl- der clays which underlie such old alluvia belong, without exception, to the earlier stages of the glacial period. This has been proved again and again, not only for this country but for Europe generally. I am sorry to reflect that some twenty years have now elapsed since I was led to suspect that the paleolithic gravels and cave deposits were not of post-glacial but of glacial and inter-glacial age. In 187172 I pub- lished a series of papers in the Geological Magazine, in which I set forth the views I had come to form upon this interesting question. In these papers it was maintained that the alluviaand cave deposits could not be of post-glacial age, but must be assigned to pre-glacial and inter- glacial times, and in chief measure to the latter. Evidence was adduced to show that the latest great development of glacier ice in Europe took place after the southern pachyderms and paleolithie man had vacated England; that during this last stage of the glacial period, man lived contemporaneously with a northern and alpine fauna in sueh regions as southern France; and, lastly, that paleolithic man and the southern mammalia never re-visited northwestern Europe after extreme glacial conditions had disappeared. These conclusions were arrived at after a somewhat detailed examination of all the evidence then available, the remarkable distribution of the paleolithic and ossiferous alluvia having, as I have said, particularly impressed me. I colored a map to show at once the areas covered by the glacial and fluvio- glacial deposits of the last glacial epoch, and the regions in which the implement-bearing and ossiferous alluvia had been met with, when it became apparent that the latter never occurred at the surface within the regions occupied by the former. If ossiferous alluvia did here and there appear within the recently glaciated areas, it was always either in caves or as infra- or inter-glacial deposits. Since the date of these researches our knowledge of the geographical distribution of Pleisto- 230 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. cene deposits has greatly increased, and implements and other relics of paleolithie man have been recorded from many new localities throughout Europe. But none of this fresh evidence contradicts the conclusions I had previously arrived at; on the contrary, ithas greatly strengthened my general argument. - - - Thus as years advance the picture of Pleistocene times becomes more and more clearly developed. The conditions under which our old paleolithiec predecessors lived—the climatic and geographical changes of which they were the witnesses—are gradually being revealed with a precision that only a few years ago might well have seemed impossi- ble. This of itself is extremely interesting, but I feel sure that I speak the conviction of many workers in this field of labor when I say that the clearing up of the history of Pleistocene times is not the only end which they have in view. One can hardly doubt that when the conditions of that period and the causes which gave rise to these have been more fully and definitely ascertained we shall have advanced some way towards the better understanding of the climatic conditions of still earlier periods. - - - It would almost seem as if all one had to do to ascertain the climatic condition of any particular period was to prepare a map depicting with some approach to accuracy the former relative position of land and sea. With such a map could our meteor: ologists infer what the climatic cenditions must have been? Yes, pro- vided we could assure them that in other respects the physical condi- tions did not differ from the present. Now, there is no period in the past history of our globe the geological conditions of which are better known than the Pleistocene. And yet when we have indicated these upon a map we find that they do not give the results which we might have expected. The climatic conditions which they seem to imply are not such as we know did actually obtain. It is obvious, therefore, that some additional and perhaps exceptional factor was at work to produce the recognized results. What was this disturbing element, and have we any evidence of its interference with the opera. tion of the normal agents of climatie changes in earlier periods of the world’s history? We all know that various answers have been given to such questions. Whether amongst these the correct solution of the enigma is to be found time will show. Meanwhile, as all hypothesis and theory must starve without facts to feed on, it behooves us as working geologists to do our best to add to the supply. The success with which other problems have been attacked by geologists forbids us to doubt that ere long we shall have done much to dispel some of the mystery which still envelopes the question of geological climates. THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER.* By G. K. GiLBERT. The Niagara River flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The shore of Erie is more than 300 feet higher than the shore of Ontario; but if you pass from the higher shore to the lower, you do not descend at a uniform rate. Starting trom Lake Erie and going northward, you travel upon a plain—not level, but with only gentle HOH iebae2-antil you approach the shore of Lake Ontario, and then suddenly you find. yourself on the brink of a high bluff or cliff overlooking the lower lake, and separated from it only by a narrow strip of sloping plain. The bird’s-eye view in Plate Lis constructed to show the relations of these various features, the two lakes, the broad plateau lying a little higher than the shore of Lake Erie, the cliff, which geologists call the Niagara Escarpment, and the narrow plain at its foot. Where the Niagara River leaves Lake Erie at Buffalo and enters the plain, a low ridge of rock crosses its path, and in traversing this its water is troubled; but it soon becomes smooth, spreads out broadly, and indolently loiters on the plain. For three-fourths of the distance it can not be said to have a valley, it rests upon the surface of the plateau; but then its habit suddenly changes. By the short rapid at Goat Island and by the cataract itself the water of the river is dropped 200 feet down into the plain, and thence to the cliff at Lewiston it races headlong through a deep and narrow gorge. From Lewiston to Lake Ontario there are no rapids. The river is again broad, and its channel is scored so deeply in the littoral plain that the current is relatively slow, and the level of its water surface varies but slightly from that of the lake. The narrow gorge that contains the river from the Falls to Lewiston is amost peculiar and noteworthy feature. Its width rarely equals the fourth of a mile, and its depth to the bottom of the river ranges from 200 to 500 feet. Its walls are so steep that opportunities for climbing up and down them are rare, and in these walls one may see the "This essay contains the Srbatanes of a lecnene Nona to ie Rant conn eae for the Advancement of Science at its Toronto meeting, August, 1889. (From the Sixth Annual Report of the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara, 188889. Transmitted to the legislature January 22, 1890. pp. 61-84.) 231 232 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. a ee. — — Spreng PN OM = = — : ae pare mane eS ow mer et —-_ = —_ Plate I.—Bikp’s-EYK VIEW OF NIAGAKA RIVER, THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 233 geologic structure of the plateau. They are constituted of bedded rocks—limestone, shale, and sandstone—lying nearly horizontal, and a little examination shows that the same strata occur in the same order on both sides. So evenly are they matched, and so uniform is the general width of the gorge, that one might suspect, after a hasty exain- ination, the two sides had been cleft asunder by some Plutonic agency. But those who have made a study of the subject have reached a dif- ferent and better conclusion—the conclusion that the trench was exea- vated by running water, so that the strata of the two sides are alike because they are parts of continuous sheets, from each of which a narrow Strip has here been cut. The contour of the cataract is subject to change. From time to time blocks of rock break away, faliing into the pool below, and new shapes are then given to the brink over which the water leaps Many such falls of rock have taken place since the white man occupied the banks of the river, and the breaking away of a very large section is still a recent event. By such observation we are assured that the extent of the gorge is increasing at its end, that it is growing longer, and that the cataract is the cause of its extension. ? This determination is the first element in the history of the river. A change is in progress before our eyes. The river’s history, like human history, is being enacted, and from that which occurs we can draw inferences concerning what has occurred, and what will occur. - We can look forward to the time when the gorge now traversing the fourth part of the width of the plateau will completely divide it, so that the Niagara will drain Lake Erie to the bottom. We can look back to the time when there was no gorge, but when the water flowed on the top of the plain to its edge, and the Falls of Niagara were at Lewiston. We may think of the river as laboring at a task—the task of sawing in two the plateau. The task is partly accomplished. When itis done the river will assume some other task. Before it was begun what did the river do? How can we answer this question? The surplus water discharge from Lake Erie can not have flowed by this course to Lake Ontario without sawing at the plateau. Before it began the cutting of the gorge it did not flow along this line. It may have flowed somewhere else, but if so it did not constitute the Niagara River. The commence. ment of the cutting of the Niagara gorge is the beginning of the his- tory of the Niagara River. We have accomplished somewhat of our purpose if we have discovered that our river had a beginning. | We are so accustomed to think of streams, and especially large streams, as permanent, as flowing on forever, that the discovery of a definite beginning to the life of a great river like the Niagara is im- portant and impressive. But that discovery does not stand alone. Indeed, it is but one of a large class of similar facts familiar to students 234 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. of geology. Let us consider for a moment the tendency of stream his- tories and the tendency of lake histories. Wherever streams fall over rocky ledges in rapids or in cataracts, t.eir power of erosion is greatly increased by the rapid descent, and they deepen their channels. If this process continues long enough, the result must be that each stream will degrade its channel through the hard ledges until the descent is no more rapid there than in other parts of its course. It follows that a stream with cascades and water falls and numerous rapids is laboring at an unfinished task. It is either a young stream, or else nature has recently put obstructions in its path. Again, consider what occurs where a lake interrupts the course of a stream. The lower part of the stream, the outflowing part, by deepen- ing its channel continually tends to drain the lake. The upper ccurse, the inflowing stream, brings mud and sand with it and deposits them in the still water of the lake, thus tending to fill its basin. Thus, by a double process, the streams are laboring to extinguish the lakes that lie in their way, and given sufficient time, they will accomplish this. Now, if you will study a large map of North America, you will find that the region of the Great Lakes is likewise a region of small lakes. A multitude of lakes, lakelets, ponds, and swamps where ponds once were, characterize the surface from the Great Lakes northward to the Arctic Ocean, and for a distance southward into the United States. In the same region waterfalls abound, and many streams consist of mere alternations of rapids and pools. Further south, in the region beyond the Ohio River, lakes and cataracts are rare. The majority of the streams flow from source to mouth with regulated course, their waters descending at first somewhat steeply, and gradually becoming more nearly level as they proceed. At the south the whole drainage system is mature; at the north it is immature. At the south it is old; at the north, young. The explanation of this lies in a great geologic event of somewhat recent date—the event known as the age of ice. Previous to the ice age our streams may have been as tame and orderly as those of the Southern States, and we have no evidence that there were lakes in this region. During the ice age the region of the Great Lakes was some- what in the condition of Greenland. It was covered by an immense sheet of ice and the ice was in motion. In general it moved from north to south. It carried with it whatever lay loose upon the surface. It did more than this, for just as the soft water of a stream, by dragging sand and pebbles over the bottom, wears its channel deeper, so the plastic ice, holding grains of sand and even large stones in its under surface, dragged these across the underlying rock, and in this way not only scoured and scratched it, but even wore it away. In yet other ways the moving ice mass was analogous toa river. Its motion was perpetual, and its form changed little, but that which moved was continually renewed. As a river is Supplied by rain, so the THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER 235 glacier was supplied by snow falling upon regions far to the north. To a certain extent the glacier discharged to the ocean like a river, break- ing up into icebergs and floating away; but its chief discharge was upon the land, through melting. The climate at its southern margin was relatively warm, and into this warm climate the sheet of ice steadily pushed and was as steadily dissolved. Whatever stones and earth were picked up or torn up by the ice moved with it to its southern margin and fell to the ground as the ice melted. If the position of the ice margin had been pertectly uniform its continuously deposited load might have built a single high wall; but as the seasons were cold or warm, wet or dry, the ice margin advanced and retreated with endless variation, and this led to the deposition of irregular congeries of hills, constituting what is known as the ‘drift deposit.”.. Eventually the warm climate of the south pre- vailed over the invader born of a cold climate, compelling it to retreat. The motion of the ice current was not reversed, but the front of the glacier was melted more rapidly than it could be renewed, and thus its area was gradually restricted. During the whole period of retre: ch- ment the deposition of drift proceeded at the margin of the ice, so that the entire area that it formerly occupied is now diversified by irregular sheets and heapings of earth ana stone. The ancient configuration of the country was more or less modified by the erosive action of the ice, and it was further moditied by the deposits of drift. The destructive and constructive agencies together gave to the land an entirely new system of hills and valleys. When the ice was gone the rain that fell on the land could no longer follow the old lines of drainage. Some of the old valleys had perhaps been obliterated; others had been changed so that their descent was ina different direction, and all were obstructed here and there by the heaps of drifts. The waters were held upon the surface in innumerable lakes, each overflowing at the lowest side of its basin, and thus giving birth to a stream that descended to some other lake. Often the new lines of descent—the new water courses—crossed regions that before had had no streams, and then they were compelled to dig their own channels. Thus it was that the whole water system of a vast region was refash- ioned, and thus it has come to pass that the streams of this region are young. Like every other stream of the district of the Great Lakes. the Niagara was born during the melting of the ice, and so we may begin our chronicle with the very beginning of the river. If you will again call to mind the features of a general map of the United States and Canada, and consider the direction in which the streams flow, you will perceive that there is a continuous upland, a sort of main divide, separating the basin of the Great Lakes from the basin of the Mississippi.* It is not a mountain range. In great part it is a * A part of its course uppears as a broken line on the maps in Figs. 3 and 4. 236 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. region of hills. In places it is only the highest part of the plain; but it is nevertheless a continuous upland, else the waters would not be parted along its course. When the ice had its greatest extent it passed over this upland, so that the waters produced by its melting fell into the Ohio and other tributaries of the Mississippi, as well as into streams that discharged to Delaware and Chesapeake Bays. Afterward, when the glacier gradually fell back, there came atime when the ice front lay in the main to the north of the great water parting, but had not yet re- ceded from the Adirondack Mountains, so that the water that flowed from the melting glacier could not escape by way of the St. Lawrence River, but gathered as a lake between the upland divide and theice front. In fact, it formed not one but many lakes, each discharging across the divide by some low pass, and as the great retreat progressed these lakes were varied in number and extent, so that their full history is exceeding complex. The surfaces of these lakes were stirred by the winds, and waves beat upon their shores. In places they washed out the soft drift and carved clifts; elsewhere they fashioned spits and bars. These cliffs and spits and other monuments of wave work survive to the present time. and have made it possible to trace out and map certain of the ancient lakes. The work of surveying them is barely begun, but from what is known we may add a chapter to the history of our river. There was a time when one of these lakes oceupied the western por- tion of the basin of Lake Erie, and discharged across the divide at the point where the city of Fort Wayne now. stands, running into the Wabasb River and thence into the Ohio. The channel of this discharge is so well preserved that its meaning can not be mistaken, and the associated shore lines have been traced for many miles eastward into Ohio and northward into Michigan. Afterward this lake found some other point of discharge, and a new shore line was made 25 feet lower. Twice again the point of discharge was shifted and other shore lines were formed. The last and lowest of the series has been traced eastward across the States of Ohio and Pennsylvania and into western New York, where it fades away in the vicinity of the town of Careyville. At each of the stages represented by these four shore lines the site of the Niagara was either buried beneath the ice or else sub- merged under the lake bordering the ice. There was no river. The next change in the history of the lakes was a great one. The ice, Which had previously occupied nearly the whole of the Ontario basin, so far withdrew as to enable the accumulated water to flow out by way of the Mohawk Valley. The level of discharge was thus sud- denly lowered 550 feet, and a large district previously submerged be- came dry land. ‘Then for the first time Lake Erie and Lake Ontario were separated, and then for the first time the Niagara River carried the surplus water of Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The waves of the new-born Lake Ontario at once began to carve THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 237 about its margin a record of its existence. That record is wonderfully clear, and the special training of the geologist has not been necessary to the recognition of its import. The earliest books of travel in west- ern New York describe the Ridge road, and tell us that the ridge of sand and gravel which it follows was even then recognized by all resi- dents as an ancient beach of the lake.* In the Province of Ontario, the beach was examined and described by the great English geologist, - Charles Lyell, during his celebrated journey in America,t and it after- ward received more careful study by Mr. Sandford Fleming,t and by the geologists of the Canadian Survey.§ In western New York it was traced out by the great American geologist, James Hall, during hissurvey of the geology of the fourth district of the State.|| Within afew years more attention has been given to detail. Prof. J. W. Spencer has traced the line continuously from the head of the lake at Hamilton, past Toronto, Windsor, and Grafton, in the vicinity of Belleville,] beyond which point it is hard to follow. South of the lake, I myself have traced it from Hamilton to Queenstown and Lewiston, thence to Rochester, and all about the eastern end of the basin to Watertown, beyond which point it is again difficult to trace. Southeast of the present margin of Lake Ontario there was a great bay, extending as far south as Cayuga Lake, and including the basin of Oneida Lake, and it was from this bay that the discharge took place, the precise point of overflow being the present site of the city of Rome. For this predecessor of Lake On- tario Professor Spencer has proposed the name of Iroquois. Putting together the results of his survey and of my own, I have been able to prepare a map (PI. 11) exhibiting with a fair amount of detail the outline of the old lake. It will be observed that the north- eastern portion of the shore is not traced out. In fact it is not trace- able. The water was contained on that side by the margin of the glacier, and with the final melting of the ice all record of its shore vanished. The form and extent of Lake Iroquois, and the form and extent of each other lake that bordered the ice front, were determined partly by the position of the pass over which the discharge took place, and by the contour of the land; but they were also determined to a great extent by the peculiar arene of the land. *C. Schultz, jr. Toe on an ialanee Worse - - - in the years 1807 and 1808, New York, 1810, p. 85. De Wit Clinton. Discourse before the New York Historical Society, 1811, p. 58. Francis Hall. Travels in Canada and the United States in 1816 and 1817, Boston, 1818, p. 119. t Travels in North America in the years 1841-42. New York, 1845, vol. 2, pp. 86, 87. {Sandford Fleming. Notes on the Davenport gravel drift. Canadian Journal, new series, vol. 6, pp. 247-253. § Geological Survey of Canada, report to 1863, pp. 914, 915. || Natural History of New York. Geology, Part Iv, pp. 348-354. {] Communicated to the Philosophical Society of Washington, to be published, in vol. 11 of the Bulletin of the Society, THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. er ae ‘SLW YOVONOUIOV “‘popeys-ssoro Joos ov] ~=“papeys vor ayry ynalouy “seurly poyop ur LydeadoapAy Wiapoy{ —*NOLLVNV14Xq ‘sIOQndDONT ANWT JO aVK—'T] ALVIG hp L ae . Cayuga TS : OPIN S. “és a ae 2 R/O nf Duvlo se Low sbpry_~ Y YU THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 239 Perhaps a word of general explanation is necessary in speaking of the attitude of the land. Geologists are prone to talk of elevation and subsidence—of the uprising of the earth’s crust at one place or at one time, and of its down-sinking at another place or another time. Their language usually seems to imply the rise or fall of an area all together, without any relative displacement of its parts; but you will readily see that, unless a rising or sinking tract is torn asunder from its surround- ings, there must be all about it a belt in which the surface assumes an inclined position, or, in other words, where the attitude of the land is changed. If the district whose attitude changes is a lake basin, the change of attitude will cause a change in the position of the line marked about the slopes of the basin by the water margin, and it may even cause the overflow of the basin to take a new direction. The Ontario basin has been subjected to a very notable change of attitude, and the effect of this change has been to throw the ancient shore line out of level. When the shore line was wrought by the waves, all parts of it must have lain in the same horizontal plane, and had there been no change in the attitude of the basin, every point of the shore line would now be found at the level of the old outlet at Rome, Instead of this, we find that the old gravel spit near Toronto—the Davenport ridge—is 40 feet higher than the contemporaneous gravel spit on which Lewiston is built; at Belleville, Ontario, the old shore is 200 feet higher than at Rochester, New York; at Watertown 300 feet higher than at Syracuse; and the lowest point, in Hamilton, at the head of the lake, is 325 feet lower than the highest point near Water- town. From these and other measurements we learn that the Ontario basin with its new attitude inclines more to the south and west than with the old attitude. The point of discharge remained at Rome as long as the ice was crowded high against the northern side of the Adirondack Mountains, but eventually there came a time when the water escaped eastward between the ice and the mountain slope. The line of the St. Lawrence was not at once opened, so that the subsidence was only partial. The water was held for short times at various intermediate levels, recorded at the east in a series of faint shore lines. Owing to the attitude of the land, these shores are not traceable all about the basin, but pass be- neath the present water level at various points. Finally the ice blockade was raised in the St. Lawrence Valley, and the present outlet was established. During the period of final retreat the attitude of the land had slowly changed, so that it was not then so greatly depressed at the north as before; but it had not yet acquired its present position, and for a time Lake Ontario was smaller than now, its western margin lying lower down on the slope of the basin. An attempt has been made in PI. 111 to exhibit diagramatically the relations of ice dams and basin attitudes to one another and to the river. The various elements are projected, with exaggeration of heights, on a THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 240 ‘SLATLAO OL GNV ANVT : FHL AO SACOIILIV OL NISVG OWIVINO AHL NI STAAUT NaLVA\ LO SNOILVTIAY AHL ALYNISATII OL WVISVIG—' [I] ALVIgG g ‘Jada T Dag 14 7 - i / / N is fe ee I a 5 7 2! Vv oe ris i! THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 241 vertical plane runving a little west of south, or parallel to the direction of greatest inclination of old water-planes. At N is represented the Niagara escarpment and the associated slope of the lake basin; at A the Adirondack Mountains. R and T are the passes at Rome and at the Thousand Islands. Successive positions of the ice front are marked at [, ?, and I. The straight line numbered 1 represents the level of lake water previous to the origin of the Niagara River; 2 gives the first position of the water level after the establishment of the Rome outlet; and the level gradually shifted to 3; 4 is the first of the series of tem- porary water levels when the water escaped between the mountain slope and the ice front; 5 represents the first position of the water level after the occupation of the Thousand Island outlet; and 6, the present level of Lake Ontario. It should be added parenthetically that the shore of Lake Iroquois as mapped in PI. 11 is not quite synchronous. Between 2 and 3 of PI. III there was a continuous series of water levels, but it was not easy to map any one except the highest. The northern part of the map delin- eates the margin of water level 2 and the southern part the margin of water level 3. It is easy to see that these various changes contribute to modify the history of the Niagara River. In the beginning, when the cataract was at Lewiston, the margin of Lake Ontario, instead of being 7 miles away, aS now, was only 1 or 2 miles distant, and the level of its water was about 75 feet higher than at present. The outlet of the lake was at Rome, and while it there continued there was a progressive change in the attitude of the land, causing the lake to rise at the mouth of the Niagara until it was 125 feet higher than now. It fairly washed the foot of the cliff at Queenston and Lewiston. ‘Then came a time when the lake fell suddenly through a vertical distance of 250 feet, and its shore retreated to a position now submerged. Numerous minor oscil- lations were caused by successive shiftings of the point of discharge, and by progressive changes in the attitude of the land, until finally the present outlet was acquired, at which time the Niagara River had its greatest length. It then encroached 5 miles on the modern domain of _ Lake Ontario, and began a delta where now the lead-line runs out 30 fathoms. While the level of discharge was lower than now, the river had dif- ferent powers as an eroding agent. The rocks underlying the low plain along the margin of the lake are very soft, and where a river flows across yielding rocks the depth to which it erodes is limited chiefly by the level of its point of discharge. So when the point of discharge of the Niagara River—thé surface of the lake to which it flowed—was from 100 to 200 feet lower than now, the river carved a channel far deeper than it could now carve. When afterward the rise of land in the vicinity of the outlet carried the water gradually up to its present position in the basin this channel was partly filled by sand and H, Mis. 129 16 242 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER, other débris brought by the current; but it was not completely filled, and its remarkable present depth is one of the surviving witnesses of the shifting drama of the Ontario. Near Fort Niagara 12 fathoms of water are shown on the charts. Mr. Warren Upham has made a similar discovery in the basin of the Red River of the North. That basin held a large lake, draining south- ward to the Mississippi—a lake whose association with the great glacier Upham appropriately signalized by naming it after the aposile of * the glacial theory,” Louis Agassiz. The height of the old Agassiz shore has been carefully measured by Mr. Upham, through long distances, and it is found to rise continuously, though not quite uniformly, toward the north. Similar discoveries have been made in the basins of Erie, Huron, and Michigan, and the phenomena all belong approximately to the same epoch. So, while the details remain to be worked out, the general fact is already established that during the epoch of the ice retreat the great plain constituting the Laurentian basin was more inclined to the northward than at present. It was shown, first in the case of Lake Agassiz, and afterward, as already stated, in the case of Lake Ontario, that the change from the old attitude of the land to the present attitude was in progress during the epoch of the ice retreat. The land was gradually rising to the north or northeast. In each Jake basin the water either retreated from its northern margin, so as to lay bare more land, or encroached on its southern margin, or else both these changes occurred together ; and in some cases we have reason to believe that the changes were so exten- sive that the outlets of lakes were shifted from northerly passes to more southerly passes. To illustrate the effect of the earlier system of land slopes upon the distribution of water in the region of the Great Lakes I have con- structed the map in Pl. 1v. It does not postulate the system of levels most divergent from the present system, but a system such as may have existed at the point of time when the last glacial ice was melted from the region. The modern system of drainage is drawn in broken lines; the hypothetie system in full lines, with shading for the lake areas; and a heavier broken line toward the bottom of the map marks the position of the present water-parting at the southern edge of the Laurentian basin. In the ancient system of drainage, Georgian Bay, instead of being a dependency of Lake Huron, is itself the principal lake, and receives the overtlow from Huron. It expands toward the northeast so as to include the basin of Lake Nipissing, and its discharge is across a some- what low pass at the east end of Lake Nipissing, and thence down the Ottawa River to the St. Lawrence. Lake Michigan, instead of vom- municating with Lake Huron by a strait, forms a tributary lake, dis- charging its surplus through a river. Lake Superior has the same relations as now, but its overtlow traverses a greater distance before 243 THE NIAGARA RIVER. REV HISTORY OF LY Dae tas 6 eee ae) eaten Y — em Ui ; ; Pak Yu rea ’ \guce sone A Aas . eo oe oa “sy < See LY em Y ‘ : ADH Ue as bye vA ta A ate nee 7 i A! none 1 = ss ' a ean YY Y; fe, 3 ; ‘ ee ' ; Yyjfy Yy ae i a? OW ‘ oe fj aan ae es Beet Saga. sy. ‘ (oe at Wg < SoG r) senses ‘ AS Ui sewers yy i] oie Niagara “Falls. oe 4 tes L St. Cleeir? Bf nO ae xed ieee ects / amass Z \S PLatTH 1V.—HYPOTHETIGC HYDROGRAPHY AT A DATE AFTER THE MELTING OF THE GREAT GLACIER FROM THE ST. LAWRENCE VALLEY. we ERAN STION. av ater paring in heavy broken line. Modern hydrography in hght broken lines. Ancient rivers in full lines. Ancient lakes shaded. 244 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. reaching Lake Huron. Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Georgia con- stitute a lake system by themselves, independent of Erie and Ontario, and the channel of the Detroit River isdry. Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, both greatly reduced in size, constitute another chain, but their con- necting link, the Niagara River, is a comparatively small stream, for the diversion of the upper lakes robs the river of seven-eighths of its tributary area. Whether this hypothetie state of drainage ever existed, whether the ice retreated from the Nipissing pass while still the changing attitude of the land was such as to turn the Georgian outlet in that direction, are questions not yet answered. But such data as I have at present incline me to the belief that for a time the upper lakes did discharge across the Nipissing pass. Professor Spencer has decribed a channel by which Georgian Bay once drained across a more southerly pass to the valley of the Trent River, and thence to Lake Ontario.* He states that there is an ancient shore line about Georgian Bay associated with this outlet, and that he has traced this line westward and southward until it comes down to the shore of Lake Huron, demonstrating that during the existence of that outlet also, the Detroit River ran dry. The Trent pass is much higher than the Nipissing pass, so that it appears necessary to assume that during the history of the Trent outlet for the upper lakes the great glacier still occupied the region of Lake Nipissing, preventing the escape of the water in that direction. The map in Pl. Vv represents the system of lakes and outlets at that time. It is largely theoretic, but at the same time I believe its general features consistent with our present knowledge of the facts. Unless I have misunderstood Professor Spencer, Lake Ontario was at high stage in the first part of the epoch of the Trent Valley outlet, and was afterwards at low stage. I have selected as the date of my map the epoch of the high stage, with the outlet of Ontario at Rome, and have indicated an ice sheet so extensive as to block the way not only at Lake Nipissing but at the pass of the Thousand Islands. The date of this map is earlier than the other; it belongs toa time when the northward depression of the land was greater. Lake Erie is repre. sented as less in extent, for its basin in that position would hold less water. Huron and Ontario would likewise be smaller were their waters free to escape over the lowest passes.; but the ice blocks the way, and so their waters are raised to the level of higher passes. Of the contemporaneous relations of the upper lakes we know nothing at present. They are drawn as though communicating with Lake Huron, but it is equally possible that they fell into some other drainage system. Here again the Detroit channel was not in use, and the Niagara River was outlet only for the waters of the Erie basin. * Proceedings Am, Assoc, Adv. Sei., 37th Meeting (Cleveland), pp. 198-199. is Pha “PaPBYS-SSOIs JOOYS GOT “popvys sox[vT ‘autyT Uayorq Savoy ut Daryawwd-107e A\—‘NOILVNV 1d XT ITTV A FONT AMV'T A v ae JO ONILTAN DHL TWOMIA ALVA V LV AHAVUDOUGAH IILAHLOdAY—'A ALVIg ‘soml] Ueyorq ys ur AqdeasoipAy us0poy ‘SOMI] [[NJ Ul SIDAIT QUeIOUy quowuy THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 245 sae ee ee os (hater ‘ . ' Nb? x t - fo Ces neh — Ww eT) Ate is itn wi NX jee 3- yaaa), eaeat SE oie a QI WSN SW ees \ steerer if yy eSaanist aavesseter ee HH sae sprttip pity fait i ) ~ S saewereiguses| bees pets 9° LAS y sonteseassecsngestsesces Pet hit . ee eeeeseereseaterecinan an 0 tt © 20! cy cry o ‘LS FHL WOW UAIOWTD LVS DHL vy ome sacacse na rin iinet Hil P46 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER araphie methods are ill adapted to the communication of qualified or indefinite statements. By the aid of a map ene can indicate definitely the relation of Albany to other places and things, but he cannot say indefinitely that Albany is somewhere in eastern New York, nor can he say, with qualification, that it is probably on the Mohawk River. For this reason [ have decided to publish these two maps only after hesitation, because I should greatly regret to produce the impression that the particular configuration of lakes and outlets here delineated has been actually demonstrated. The facts now at command are sug- gestive rather than conclusive, and when the subject shall have been fully investigated it is to be expected that the maps representing these epochs will exhibit material differences from those I have drawn. The sole point that I wish to develop at this time is the probability that dur- ing a portion of the history of the Niagara River its drainage distriet— that area from which its water was supplied—was far less than it is at the present time. There is reason to believe that during an epoch which may have been short or long—we can only vaguely conjecture— the Niagara was a comparatively small river. The characters of the gorge are in general remarkably uniform from end toend. Its width does not vary greatly ; its course is flexed but slightly ; its walls exhibit the same alternation of soft and hard rocks. But there is one exceptional point. Midway, its course is abruptly bent at right angles. On the outside of the angle there is an enlarge- ment of the gorge, and this enlargement contains a deep pool, called the Whirlpool. At this point, and on this side only, the material of the wall has an exceptional character. At every other point there is an alternation of shales, sandstones, and limestones, capped above by an unequal deposit of drift. At this point limestones, sandstones, and shales disappear, and the whole wall is made of drift. Here is a place where the strata that floor the plateau are discontinuous, and must have been discontinuous before the last occupation of the region of the glacier, for the gap is filled by glacial drift. Another physiographic feature was joined to this by Lyell and Hall. They observed that the cliff limiting the plateau has, in general, a very Straight course, with few indentations. But at the town of St. David’s, a few miles west of Queenston. a wide flaring gap occurs. This gap is partly filled by drift, and although the glacial nature of the drift was not then understood, it was clearly perceived hy those geologists that the drift-filled break marked the position ofa line of erosion established before the period of the drift. Putting together the two anomalies, they said that the drift-filled gap at the Whirlpool belonged to the same line of ancient erosion with the drift-filled gap at St. David’s.* Their conclusion has been generally accepted by subsequent investigators, but the interpretation of the phenomena was earried * Travels in North America. By Charles Lyell. New York, 1845. Vol. 11, pp. 77-80. Natural History of New York. Geology, Part 1v. By James Hall, pp. 389-390. THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 244 little further until the subject was studied by Dr. Julius Pohiman.* He pointed out that the upper course of the ancient gorge could not have lain outside the modern gorge. If the course of one gorge lay athwart the course of the other, we should have two breaks in the con- tinuity of the strata, instead of the single one at the Whirlpool. The upper part of the ancient gorge necessarily coincides with a part of the modern gorge; and so when the cataract, in the progressive excava- tion of the cafion, reached a point at the Whirlpool where it had no firm rock to erode, it had only to clear out the incoherent earth and bowlders of glacial drift. To whatever distance the gorge of the earlier stream extended, the modern river found its laborious task per- formed in advance. Let us put together what we have learned of the Niagara history. The river began its existence during the final retreat of the great ice sheet, or, in other words, during the series of events that closed the age of the ice in North America. If we consider as a geologic period the entire time that has elapsed since the beginning of the age of ice, then the history of the Niagara River covers only a portion of that period. In the judgment of most students of glacial geology, and, I may add, in my own judgment, it covers only a small portion of that period. During the course of its history the length of the river has suffered some variation by reason of the sucessive fall and rise of the level of Lake Ontario. It was at first a few miles shorter than now; then it became suddenly a few miles longer, and its present length was gradu- ally acquired. With the change in the position of its mouth there went a change in the height of its mouth; and the rate at which it eroded its channel was affected thereby. The influence on the rate of erosion was felt chiefly along the lower course of the river, between Lewiston and Fort Niagara. The volume of the river has likewise been inconstant. In early days, when the lakes levied a large tribute on the melting glacier, the Niagara may have been a larger river than now; but there was a time when the discharge from the upper lakes avoided the route by Lake Erie, and then the Niagara was a relatively small stream. The great life work of the river has been the digging of the gorge through which it runs from the cataract to Lewiston. The beginning of its life was the beginning of that task. The length of the gorge isin sole sense a measure of the river’s age. In the main the material dug has been hard limestone and sandstone, interbedded with a coherent though softer shale; but for a part of the distance the material was incoherent drift. : The geologic age of the earth—the time during which its surface has been somewhat as now, divided into land and ocean, subject to endless waste on the land and to endless accumulation of sediment in the * Proceedings Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 35th meeting (Buffalo), pp. 221-222. THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. = ¥ . wer ee ‘ADYOH VUVOVIN DHL JO MUA FAG-S.GUIG—"TA ALVIg —==— tes 9g ea == = + I ee foo rte THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 249 ocean, green with verdure and nourishing the varied forms of animal life—this time is of immense duration. Even the units into which geologists divide it, the periods and epochs of their chronology are themselves of vast duration. Human history is relatively so short, and its units of centuries and years are so exceedingly brief, that the two orders of time are hardly commensurate. Over and over again the attempt has been made to link together the two chronologies, to obtain for the geologic units some satisfactory expression in the units of human history. It can not in fairness be said that all these attempts have failed, for some of them are novel and untested; but, however successful or unsuccessful they may have been, the interest in the subject remains, and no discussion of the history of the Niagara River would be complete without some allusion to its value as a geologic chronometer. It is true we know but little of the ratio the river epoch bears to the extent of the glacial period, or to any longer geologic unit; but yet were we able to determine, even approximately, the time con- sumed by the river in cutting its gorge, we should render less hazy and vague our conception of the order of magnitude of the units of the earth’s geologic history. The problem has been attacked by numerous writers, and the resulting estimates have ranged from three or four thousand years to three or four million years. The method of reaching a time estimate has been, first, to estimate the present rate of recession—the rate at which the cataract is increas- ing the length of the gorge; second, to compute, with the aid of this estimate and the known length of the gorge, the time necessary for the entire excavation; and, third, some writers have moditied their result by giving consideration to various conditions affecting the rate of erosion during earlier stages of the excavation. ‘The enormous range of the resulting estimates of time has depended chiefly upon the im- perfection of data with reference to the present rate of recession of the falls. It is but a few years since measnrement of the rate of recession was substituted for bald guessing. This measurement consists in making surveys and maps of the falls at different times, so that the amount of change in the interval between surveys can be ascertained by comparison of the maps. In 1842 Pro- fessor Hall made a survey of the outlines of the falls, and he published, for the use of future investigators, not only the map resulting from the survey, but also the bearings taken with the surveying instrument in determining the principal points of the map.* He likewise left upon the ground a number of well-marked monuments to which future sur: veys could be referred. Thirty-three years later a second survey was made by the United States Army Engineers, and they added still further to the series of bench marks available for future reference. Three years ago my colleage, Mr. R. 8S. Woodward, executed a third survey.t * Natural History of New York, Geology, Part Iv, pp. 402, 403. t Science, vol. VII, i886, p. 205. 250 THE HISTORY OF 'THE NIAGARA RIVER. Plate vil exhibits the outline of the crest of the falls, together with the brink of the cliff in the vicinity of the falls, as determined by Mr. Woodward in 1886, and also shows a part of the same outline as deter- mined by Professor Hall 44 years earlier.* If both were precise, the area included between the two lines would exactly represent the reces- sion of the Horseshoe and American falls in 44 years, and the retreat of the cliff face at Goat Island in the same time. I regret to say that there is internal evidence pointing to some defect in one or both sur- veys, for there are some points at which the Woodward outline projects farther towards the gorge than the Hall outline, and yet we can not believe that any additions have been made to the face of the eliff. Nevertheless, a critical study, not merely of these bare lines on the chart, but also of the fuller data in the surveyors’ notes, leads to the belief that the rate of recession in the central part of the Horseshoe Fall is approximately determined, and that it is somewhere between 4 and 6 feet per annum. The amount fallen away at the sides of the Horseshoe is not well determined, but this is of less importance, for such falling away affects the width of the gorge rather than its length, and it is the length with which we are concerned. The surveys likewise fail to afford any valuable estimate of the rate of retreat of the American Fall, merely telling us that its rate is far less than that ot the Horseshoe—a result that might be reached independ. ently by going back in imagination to the time when the two falls were together at the foot of Goat Island, and considering how much greater is the distance through which the Horseshoe Fall has since retreated. The rate of retreat of the central portion of the Horseshoe is the rate at which the gorge grows longer. Now if we were to divide the entire length of the gorge by the space through which the Horseshoe Fall retreats in a year, we might regard the resulting quotient as expressing the number of years that the falls have been occupied with their work. This is precisely the procedure by which the majority of time estimates have been deduced, but in my judgment it is not defensible. It implies that the rate of retrogression has been uniform, or, more precisely, that the present rate of retrogres- sion does not differ from the average rate, and this implication is open to serious question. I conceive that future progress in the discussion of the time problem will consist chiefly in determining in what ways the conditions or circumstances that affect the rate of retrogression have varied in past time. In order to discuss intelligently these condi- tions, it is necessary to understand just what is the process by which the river increases the length of its gorge. There can be no question that the cataract is the efficient engine, but what kind of an engine is it? What is the principle on which it works ? * The south side of this chart is placed uppermost (in violation of the conventional rule) so that it may accord with the bird’s-eye views. THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. Zo HORSESHOE Fate Goat Isiano , y 7 TapieRocn *. . «0 aco 20 we los Scace or Feer pee gas es 1s aie, uml a A ee ee eae ee ey PLATE VII.—CHaRT OF THE CLIFF LINE AT THE HEAD OF THE NIAGARA GORGE, COMPILED TO SHOW THE RECESSION FROM 1842 TO 1886. EXPLANATION.—Broken line, crest of falls and cliff as mapped by N. Y. State Geol. Survey in 1842. Full line, crest of falls as mapped by the U. 8S. Geol. Survey in 1886, with other fea- tures as mapped by the U.S. Lake Survey in 1875. I 252 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. It has already been stated that the rocks at the falls lie in level layers. ‘The order of succession of the layers has much to do with the nature of the cataract’s work. Above all is a loose sheet of drift, but this yields so readily to the wash of the water that we need pay no attention to it at present. Under that is a bed of strong limestone. This is called the Niagara limestone, and in thickness is 80 feet. - Beneath it is a shale, called the Niagara shale, with a thickness of 50 feet; and then for 35 feet there is an alternation of limestone, shale, and sandstone, known collectively as the Clinton group. This reaches down very nearly to the water’s edge. Beneath itand extending down- ward for several hundred feet is a great bed of soft, sandy shale, inter- rupted, so far as we know, by a single hard layer, a sandstone ledge, varying in thickness from 10 to 20 feet. These are the Medina shales and the Medina sandstone. The profilein the figure indicates that the hard layers project as shelves or steps, and that the softer layers are eaten back. I have been led so to draw them by considerations of anal- ogy only, for underneath the center of the great cataract no observations have been made. We only know that the river leaps from the upper surface of the Niagara limestone and strikes upon the water of the pool. The indicated depth of the pool, too, isa mere surmise, for in that com- motion of waters direct observation is out of the question. But where the United States Engineers were able to lower their plummet, a halfa mile away, a depth was discovered of nearly 200 feet, and I have assumed that the cataract is scouring as deeply now as it scoured at the time when that part of the gorge was dug. It is a matter of direct observation that from time to time large blocks of the upper limestone fall away into the pool, and there seems no escape from the inference that this occurs because the erosion of the shale beneath deprives the limestone of its support. Just how the shale is eroded and what is the part played by the harder layers beneath are questions in regard to which we are much in doubt. In the Cave of the Winds, where one can pass beneath and behind one of the thin- ner segments of the divided fall, the air is filled with spray and heavier masses of water that perpetually dash against the shale, and though their force in that place does not Seem to be violent, it is possible that their continual beating is the action that removes the shaly rock. The shale is of the variety known as caleareous, and as its caleareous ele- ment is soluble, it may be that solution plays its part in the work of undermining. What goes on beneath the water of the pool must be essentially different. The Niagara River carries no sediment, and there- fore can not scour its channelin the manner of most rivers, but the fragments of the limestone bed that fall into the pool must be moved by the plunging water, else they would accumulate and impede its work, and being moved, we can understand that they become power- ful agents of excavation. Water plunging into a pool acquires a gyra- tory motion, and, carrying detritus about with it, sometimes bores deep “"NOISONA JO SSHOONd AHL JO AYOUHL V INILVYELSOTII ANY ‘VLYULS LIOS GNV GUVH JO LNAWGONVYYVY UHL ONIMOHS ‘STIV] VUVOVIN JO NOILOAS— ‘ITA ALVTd THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 200 Bi ee: Z z > Na nN 4 io) a re) fe) > oy D 7} D > D z > = > < | = o 3 fo) y eg < Zz z > nm > : = = im fe) fe) v4 = m | Wl iH A lit ANCA iit 4 | adh a 1, | iH HA SOUT AVERSA CE Soe HO a ht i ie il ARES (Hy fee i ee te i Hy nu il rh it ‘in Lea hy en Pie ealae sia 4 ie ! ne ey it i yccey LE tag Hi He 1 ya Li uu a Ne CSA Oo ea Mi ih \ yy ae L Ail Waly eat j Hh Zea | NY i ay i gay, ST 4p Wil { 254 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. holes, even in rocks that are hard. These holes are called technically ‘“not-holes,” and there is much to commend the suggestion that the excavation within the pool is essentially pot-hole work.* The process which [ have described is that which takes place in the central part of the Horseshoe Fall, where the greatest body of water is precipitated. At the margin of the Horseshoe, and also at the American Fall, in which places the body of falling water is much less, the process is different. There is there no pot-hole action and no pool. The fallen blocks of limestone form a low talus at the foot of the cliff, and upon them the force of the descending water is broken and spent. Such of you as have made the excursion through the Cave of the Winds will recall that though for a few steps you traveled upon an undisturbed rock stratum, one of the layers of the Clinton group, the greater part of the journey lay across large fallen blocks of limestone, irregularly heaped. Where, then, the volume of falling water is relatively small, the great bed of shale below the Clinton ledges plays no part, and the rate at which the limestone breaks away is determined purely by the rate of erosion of the shale bed lying just beneath it. The difference between the two processes is of great importance in the present connection, because the two rates of erosion are very different. I am fully aware that this sketch of the cataract’s work is not a satis- factory explanation of the mode of recession, but it yet serves a present purpose, for it renders it possible to point out that the rate of recession is affected by certain factors which may have varied during the early history of the river. We see that the process of recession is concerned with a heavy bed of hard rock above, with beds of softer rock beneath, with the force of falling water, and possibly, also, with the solvent power of the water. Concerning each of these factors a number of pertinent questious may be asked, questions that should certainly be considered, whether they are answered or not, before any solution of the time problem is regarded as satisfactory. To illustrate their pertinence, a few will be propounded. Question 1, Does the limestone vary in constitution in different parts of the gorge? If its texture or its system of cracks and joints varies, the process of recession may vary in consequence. Question 2. How does the limestone bed vary in thickness in differ- ent parts of the gorge? This question is easily answered, for at all points it is well exposed for measurement. Question 3. How is the thickness of the limestone related to the rate of recession? ‘This is more difficult. The débris from a very thick bed of limestone would oppose great resistance to the cataract and check its work. The débris from a very thin bed would afford small and in- efficient pestles for pot-hole action, and might lead to a slow rate of *] am indebted for this suggestion to Mr. W J McGee. THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 255 recession. If the thickness now seen at the cataract were slightly increased or slightly diminished, it is not at once apparent how the rate of recession would be affected, and yet there might be an important dif- erence. We have seen that the pre-glacial stream whose channel is betrayed at the Whirlpool removed the Niagara limestone through a portion of the gorge, and Question 4 asks: Through what portion of the gorge was the Niagara limestone absent when the Niagara River began its work ? Question 5. Does the rock section beneath the limestone—the shale series with its imbedded harder layers—does this vary in different parts of the gorge? Question 6. Through what distance were the several members of the underlying rock series removed by the action of the pre-glacial stream ? Coming now to consider the force of the falling water, a little con- sideration serves to show that the force depends on at least three things: The height through which the water falls, the degree of concentration of the stream, and the volume of the river. The height of the fall is the vertical distance from its crest to the sur- face of the pool below. Question 7 asks: How has the height of the crest of the fall varied during the history of recession ? Question 8. How has the height of the base of the fall varied? And this involves a subsidiary question—to what extent has the excavated gorge, as left by the retreating cataract, been re-filled, either by the falling in of fragments from the cliffs or by contributions of débris brought by the current ? Question 9. What has been the form of the channel at the crest of the fall from point to point during the recession? Wherever the chan- has been broad, and the water of uniform depth from side to side, the force of the falling water has been applied disadvantageously ; wher- ever the channel has been narrow, or has been much deeper in some parts than in others, the force of the water has been applied advanta- geously. There are many ways in which it is possible that the volume of the river was made to differ at early dates from its present volume. Dur- ing the presence of the ice there was a different climate, and there were different drainage systems. Question 10. During the early history of the river was the annual rainfall on which its water supply depended greater or less than now ? Question 11. Was the evaporation from the basin at that time greater or less than now ? It is believed that at the present time the Niagara River receives less than half the water that falls upon its basin in rain and snow, the remainder being returned to the air by evaporation from the lakes, from the surface of the land, and from vegetation. Question 12. Was the water supply increased by ablation? There 256 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. may have been times when the overlapping edge of the glacier dis- charged to the Laurentian Basin large bodies of water furnished by the melting of ice that had congealed from the clouds of regions far away. Question 13. Was the drainage area of the river at any time increased through the agency of ice barriers? Just as the Winnipeg basin was wade to sendits water to the Mississippi, So we can imagine that regions north of the Great Lakes and now tributary to Hudson’s Bay had their discharge temporarily turned to Lake Superior and Lake Huron. On the other hand, we have seen that the discharge of the whole dis- trict of the upper lakes was for a time turned away from the Niagara River. Therefore we ask: Question 14. To what extent and for what periods was the volume of the river diminished through the diversion of the discharge of the upper lakes ? Assuming all these questions to be answered one by one, and the variations of different sorts determined, it is still necessary to learn the relations of those variations to each other, and so we ask: Question 15. How have the variations of rock section, the variations of cataract height, the variations of form of channel, and the variations of volume been related to one another in point of time? What have been their actual combinations ? Question 16. How have the various temporary combinations of factors affected the process of retreat and the rate of recession? The tale of questions is not exhausted, but no more are needed if only it has been shown that the subject is not in reality simple, as many have assumed, but highly complex. Some of the questions are, indeed, easily answered. It may be possible to show that others are of small moment. It may even be that careful study of the local features will enable the investigator to infer the process of cataract work at each point from the existing condition of the gorge, and thus relieve him from the necessity of considering such remote questions as the nature of glacial climate and the history of glacial retreat. But after all paring and pruning, what remains of the problem will be no baga- telle. It is not to be solved by a few figures on a slate, nor yet by the writing of many essays. It is not to be solved by the cunning discussion of our scant, yet too puzzling, knowledge—smoothing away inconvenient doubts with convenient assumptions and cancelling out, as though compensatory, terms of unknown value that happen to stand on oppo- site sides of the equation. It is a problem of nature, and, like other natural problems, demands the patient gathering of many facts, of facts of many kinds, of categories of facts suggested by the tentative theories of to-day, and of new categories of facts to be suggested by new theories. I have said our problem is but the stepping stone to another problem, the discovery of common units for earth history and human history. The Niagara bridges the chasm in another way, or, more strictly, in THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 257 another sense, for the term of its life belongs to both histories. The river sprang from a great geologic revolution, the banishment of the dynasty of cold, and so its lifetime is a geologic epoch; but from first to last man has been the witness of its toil, and so its history is inter- woven with the history of man. The human comrade of the river’s youth was not, alas, a reporter with a notebook, else our present labor would be light. He has even told us little of himself. We only know that on a gravelly beach of Lake Iroquois, now the Ridge road, he rudely gathered stones to make a hearth, and built a fire; and the next storm breakers, forcing back the beach, buried and thus preserved, to gratify yet whet our curiosity, hearth, ashes, and charred sticks.* In these Darwinian days we can not deem primeval the man pos- sessed of the Promethean art of fire, and so his presence on the scene adds zest to the pursuit of the Niagara problem. Whatever the an- tiquity of the great cataract may be found to be, the antiquity of man is greater. * American Anthropologist, vol. 1, pp. 173, 174. H. Mis. 129 ses THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL.* By Sir R. LAMBERT PLAYFAIR. When the unexpected honor was proposed to me of presiding over your deliberations, I felt some embarrassment as to the subject of my address. Geography as a science, and the necessity of encouraging a more systematic study of it, had been treated in an exhaustive manner during previous meetings. - - - In my perplexity I applied for the advice of one of the most experienced geographers of our Society, whose reply brought comfort to my mind. He reminded me that it was generally the custom for presidents of sections to select subjects with which they were best acquainted, and added: ‘‘ What more instructive and captivating subject could be wished than the Mediterranean, physi- cal and historical?” For nearly a quarter of a century I have held an official position in Algeria, andit has been my constant delight to make myself acquainted with the islands and shores of the Mediterranean, in the hope of being able to facilitate the travels of my countrymen in that beautiful part of the world. I can not pretend to throw much new light on the subject, and I have written so often about it already that what I have to say may strike you as a twice-told tale; nevertheless, if you will permit me to descend from the elevated platform occupied by more learned predecessors, I should like to speak to you in a familiar manner of this ‘‘ great sea,” as it is called in sacred Scripture, the Mare internum of the ancients, “our sea,” Mare nostrum of Pomponius Mela. Its shores include about 3,000,000 square miles of the richest country on the earth’s surface, enjoying a climate where the extremes of tem- perature are unknown, and with every variety of scenery, but chiefly consisting of mountains and elevated plateaux. It is a well-defined region of many parts, all intimately connected with each other by their geographical character, their geological formation, their flora, fauna, and the physiognomy of the people who inhabit them. To this general * Vice-presidential address before the Geographical Section of the British Associa- tion Ady. Sci. meeting at Leeds, September, 1890, (From Nature, September 11, 180, vol. XLII, pp. 480-4>5.) 259 260 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. statement there are two exceptions;—namely, Palestine, which belongs rather to the tropical countries lying to the east of it, and so may be dismissed from our subject; and the Sahara, which stretches to the south of the Atlantic region—or region of the Atlas—but approaches the sea at the Syrtis, and again to the eastward of the Cyrenaica, and in which Egypt is merely a long oasis on either side of the Nile. The Mediterranean region is the emblem of fertility and the cradle of civilization, while the Sahara—Kgypt, of course, excepted—is the traditional panther’s skin of sand, dotted here and there with oases, but always representing sterility and barbarism. The sea is in no sense, Save a political one, the limit between them; it is a mere gulf, which, now bridged by steam, rather unites than separates the two shores. Civilization never could have existed if this inland sea had not formed the junction between the three surrounding continents, rendering the coasts of each easily accessible, whilst modifying the climate of its shores. The Atlas range is a mere continuation of the south of Europe. It is a long strip of mountain land, about 200 miles broad, covered with splendid forests, fertile valleys, and in some places arid steppes, stretch- ing eastward from the ocean to which it has given its name. The highest point is Morocco, forming a pendant to the Sierra Nevada of Spain; thence it runs, gradually decreasing in height, through Algeria and Tunisia, it becomes interrupted in Tripoli, and it ends in the beauti- ful green hills of the Cyrenaica, which must not be confounded with the oases of the Sahara, but is an island detached from the eastern spurs of the Atlas, in the ocean of the desert. In the eastern part the flora and fauna do not essentially differ from those of Italy; in the west they resemble those of Spain; one of the noblest of the Atlantic conifers, the Abies pinsapo, is found also in the Iberian peninsula and nowhere else in the world, and the valuable alfa grass or esparto (Stipa tenacissima), from which a great part of our paper is made, forms one of the principal articles of export from Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli. On both sides of the sea the former plant is found on the highest and most inaccessible mountains, amongst snows which last during the greater part of the year, and the latter from the sea level to an altitude of 5,000 feet, but in places where the heat and drought would kill any other plant, and in undulating land where water can not lodge. Of the three thousand plants found in Algeria, by far the greater number are natives of southern Europe, and less than one hundred are peculiar to the Sahara. The macchie or maquis of Algeria in no way differs from that of Corsica, Sardinia, and other places; it consists of lentisk, arbutus, myrtle, cistus, tree-heath, and other Mediterranean shrubs. If we take the commonest plant found on the southern shores of the Mediterranean, the dwarf palm (Chamerops humilis), we see at once how intimately connected is the whole Mediterranean region, with THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 261 the exception of the localities I have before indicated This palm still grows spontaneously in the south of Spain, and in some parts of Prov- ence, in Corsica, Sardinia, and the Tuscan Archipelago, in Calabria and the Ionian Islands, on the continent of Greece, and in several of the islands in the Levant, and it has only disappeared from other countries as the land has been brought under regular cultivation. On the other hand, it occurs neither in Palestine, Egypt, nor in the Sahara. The presence of European birds may not prove much, but there are mammalia, reptiles, fish, and insects common to both sides of the Mediterranean. Some of the larger animals, such as the lion, panther, jackal, etc., have disappeared before the march of civilization in the one continent, but have lingered, owing to Mohammedan barbarism, in the other. Tbere is abundant evidence of the former existence of these and of the other large mammals which now characterize tropical Africa in France, Germany, and Greece. Itis probable that they only migrated to their present babitat after the upheaval of the great sea which, in EKocene times, stretched from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, making southern Africa an island continent like Australia. The original fauna of Africa, of which the lemur is the distinctive type, is still preserved in Madagascar, which then formed part of it. The fish fauna is naturally the most conclusive evidence as to the true line of separation between Europe and Africa. We find the trout in the Atlantic region and in all the snow-fed rivers falling into the Mediterranean; in Spain, Italy, Dalmatia; it occurs in Mount Olym- pus, in rivers of Asia Minor, and even in the Lebanon, but nowhere in Palestine south of that range, in Egypt, or in the Sahara. This fresh- water salmonoid is not exactly the same in all these localities, but is subject to considerable variation, sometimes amounting to specific dis- tinction. Nevertheless it is a European type found in the Atlas, and it is not till we advance into the Sahara, at Tuggurt, that we come to a purely African form in the Chromidz, which have a wide geographical distribution, being found everywhere between that place, the Nile, and Mozambique. The presence of newts, tailed batrachians, in every country around the Mediterranean, except again in Palestine, Egypt, and the Sahara, is another example of the continuity of the Mediterranean fauna, even though the species are not the same throughout. The Sahara is an immense zone of desert which commences on the Shores of the Atlantic Ocean, between the Canaries and Cape de Verde, and traverses the whole of north Africa, Arabia, and Persia, as far as Central Asia. The Mediterranean portion of it may be said roughly to extend between the fifteenth and thirtieth degrees of north latitude. This was popularly supposed to have been a vast inland sea in very recent times, but the theory was supported by geological facts wrongly 262 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. interpreted. It has been abundantly proved by the researches of travel- lers and geologists that such a sea was neither the cause nor the ori- gin of the Libyan Desert. Rainless and sterile regions of this nature are not peculiar to north Africa, but occur in two belts which go round the world in either hem- isphere at about similar distances north and south of the equator. These correspond in locality to the great inland drainage areas from which no water can be discharged into the ocean, and which occupy about one-fifth of the total land surface of the globe. The African Sahara is by no means a uniform plain, but forms sev- eral distinct basins containing a considerable extent of what may almost be called mountain land. The Hoggar Mountains, in the center of the Sahara, are 7,000 feet high, and are covered during three months with snow. The general average may be taken at 1,500. The physi- cal character of the region is very varied; in some places, such as at Tiout, Moghrar, Touat, and other oases in or bordering on Morocco, there are well watered valleys, with fine scenery and almost European vegetation, where the fruits of the north flourish side by side with the palm tree. In others there are rivers like the Oued Guir, an affluent of the Niger, which the French soldiers, who saw it in 1870, compare to the Loire. Again, as in the bed of the Oued Rir, there is a subterra- nean river, which gives a sufficient supply of water to make a chain of rich and well-peopled oases equal in fertility to some of the finest por- tions of Algeria. The greater part of the Sahara, however, is hard and undulating, cut up by dry water courses, such as the Igharghar, which descends to the Chott Melghigh, and almost entirely without animal or vegetable life. About one-sixth of its extent consists of dunes of moving sand, a vast accumulation of detritus washed down from more northern and southern regions—perhaps during the glacial epoch—but with no indi- cation of marine formation. These are difficult and even dangerous to traverse; but they are not entirely destitute of vegetation. Water is found at rare but well-known intervals, and there is an abundance of salsolaceous plants which serve as food for the camel. This sand is largely produced by wind action on the underlying rocks, and is not sterile in itself; it is only the want of water which makes it so. Wherever water does exist or artesian wells are sunk oases of great fertility never fail to follow. Some parts of the Sahara are below the level of the sea, and here are formed what are called chotts or sebkhas, open depressions without out lets, inundated by torrents from the southern slopes of the Atlas in winter, and covered with a saline efflorescence in summer. This salt by no means proves the former existence of an inland sea; it is produced by the concentration of the natural salts, which exist in every variety of soil, washed down by winter rains, with which the unevaporated res- idue of water becomes saturated. THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 263 Sometimes the drainage, instead of flooding open spaces and forming chotts, finds its way through the permeable sand till it meets imper- meable strata below it, thus forming vast subterranean reservoirs where the artesian sound daily works as great miracles as did Moses’s rod of yore at Meribah. I have seen a column of water thrown up into the air equal to 1,500 cubic meters per diem, a quantity sufficient to redeem 1,800 acres of land from sterility and to irrigate 60,000 palm trees. This seems to be the true solution of the problem of an inland sea, a sea of verdure and fertility caused by the multiplication of artesian wells, which never fail to bring riches and prosperity in their train. The climate of the Sahara is quite different from that of what I have called the Mediterranean region, where periodical rains divide the year into two seasons. Here, in many places, years elapse without a single shower; there is no refreshing dew at night, and the winds are robbed of their moisture by the immense continental extents over which they blow. There can be no doubt that it is to these meteorological and not to geological causes that the Sahara owes its existence. Reclus divides the Mediterranean into two basins, which, in memory of their history, he calls the Pheenician and the Carthaginian, or the Greek and Roman Seas, more generally known to us as the Eastern and Western Basins, separated by the island of Sicily. If we examine the submarine map of the Mediterranean we see that it must at one time have consisted of two inciosed or inland basins, like the Dead Sea. The western oue is separated from the Atlantic by the Straits of Gibraltar, a shallow ridge, the deepest part of which is at its eastern extremity, averaging about 300 fathoms, while on the west, bounded by a line from Cape Spartel to Trafalgar, it varies from 50 to 200 fathoms. Fifty miles to the west of the straits the bottom suddenly sinks down to the depths of the Atlantic, while to the east it descends to the general level of the Mediterranean, from 1,000 to 2,000 fathoms. The Western is separated from the Eastern Basin by the isthmus which extends between Cape Bon, in Tunisia, and Sicily, known as the “Adventure Bank,” on which there is not more than from 30 to 250 fathoms. The depth between Italy and Sicily is insignificant, and Malta is a continuation of the latter, being only separated from it by a Shallow patch of from 50 to 100 fathoms, while to the east and west of this bank the depth of the seais very great. These shallows cut oft the two basins from all but superficial communication. The configuration of the bottom shows that the whole of this strait was at one time continuous land, affording free communication for land animals between Africa and Europe. The paleontological evidence of this is quite conclusive. In the caves and fissures of Malta, amongst river detritus, are found three species of fossil elephants, a hippopota- mus, a gigantic dormouse, and other animais which could never have lived in so small an island. In Sicily, remains of the existing elephant 264 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. have been found, as well as the Hlephas antiquus, and two species of hippopotamus, while nearly all these and many other animals of African type have been found in the Pliocene deposits and caverns of the Atlantic region. The rapidity with which such a transformation might have occurred can be judged by the well-known instance of Graham’s Shoal, between Sicily and the island of Pantellaria; this, owing to volcanic agency, actually rose above the water in 1832, and for a few weeks had an area of 3,240 feet in circumference and a height of 107 feet. The submersion of this isthmus no doubt occurred when the waters of the Atlantic were introduced through the Straits of Gibraitar. The rainfall over the entire area of the Mediterranean is certainly not more than 30 inches, while the evaporation is at least twice as great; there- fore, were the straits to be once more closed and were there no other agency for making good this deficiency, the level of the Mediterranean would sink again till its basin became restricted to an area no larger than might be necessary to equalize the amount of evaporation and precipitation. Thus not only would the strait between Sicily and Africa be again laid dry, but the Adriatic and Aigean Seas also, and a great part of the Eastern Basin. The entire area of the Mediterranean and Black Seas has been esti- mated at upwards of a million square miles, and the volume of the rivers which are discharged into them at 226 cubic miles. All this and much more is evaporated annually. There are two constant currents passing through the Straits of Gibraltar, super-imposed on each other; the upper and most copious one flows in from the Atlantic at a rate of nearly 3 miles an hour, or 140,000 cubic metres per second, and supplies the difference between the rainfall and evaporation, while the under current of warmer water, which has undergone concentration by evapora- tion, is continually flowing out at about half the above rate of move- ment, getting rid of the excess of salinity; even thus, however, leaving the Mediterranean salter than any other part of the ocean except the Red Sea. A similar phenomenon occurs at the eastern end, where the fresher water of the Black Sea flows as a surface current through the Darda- nelles, and the salter water of the Mediterranean pours in below it. The general temperature of the Mediterranean from a depth of 50 fathoms down to the bottom is almost constantly 56° F’., whatever may be its surface rise of temperature. This is a great contrast to that of the Atlantic, which at a similar depth is at least 3° colder, and which at 1,000 fathoms sinks to 40° F, This fact was of the greatest utility to Dr. Carpenter in connection with his investigations regarding currents through the straits, enabling him to distinguish with precision between Atlantic and Mediterranean water. For all practical purposes the Mediterranean may be accepted as being, THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 265 what it is popularly supposed to be, a tideless sea; but it is not so in reality. In many places there is a distinct rise and fall, though this is more frequently due to winds and currents than to lunar attraction. At Venice there is a rise of from 1 to 2 feet in spring tides, according to the prevalence of winds up or down the Adriatic; but in that sea itself the tides are so weak that they can hardly be recognized, except during the prevalence of the Bora, our old friend Boreas, which generally raises a surcharge along the coast of Italy. In many straits and narrow arms of the sea there is a periodical flux and reflux; but the only place where tidal influence, properly so called, is unmistakably observed is in the Lesser Syrtis, or Gulf of Gabes. There the tide runs at the rate of 2 or 3 knots an hour, and the rise and fall varies from 3 to 8 feet. It is most marked and regular at Djerba, the Homeric island of the Lotophagi. One must be careful in landing there in a boat, so as not to be left high and dry a mile or two from the shore. Perhaps the companions of Ulysses were caught by the receding tide, and it was not only a banquet of dates, the “honey-sweet fruit of the Lotus,” or the potent wine which is made from it, which made them “forgetful of their homeward way.” The Gulf of Gabes naturally calls to mind the proposals which were made a few years ago for inundating the Sahara, and so restoring to the Atlantic region the insular condition which it is alleged to have had in pre-historic times. I will not allude to the English project for introduc- ing the waters of the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa. That does not belong to my subject. The French scheme advocated by Com- mandant Roudaire, and supported by M. de Lesseps, was quite as vis- ionary and impracticable. To the south of Algeria and Tunis there exists a great depression, stretching westward from the Gulf of Gabes to a distance of about 235 miles, in which are several chotts or salt lakes, sometimes only marshes, and in many places covered with a saline crust strong enough to bear the passage of camels. Commandant Roudaire proposed to cut through the isthmuses which separated the various chotts, and so prepare their basins to receive the waters of the Mediterranean. This done, he intended to introduce the sea by a canal, which should have a depth of 1 metre below low-water level. This scheme was based on the assumption that the basin of the chotts has been an inland sea within historic times; that, little by little, owing to the difference between the quantity of water which entered and the amount of evaporation and absorption, this interior sea had disappeared, leaving the chotts as an evidence of the former condition of things; that, in fact, this was none other than the celebrated Lake Triton, the posi- tion of which has always been a puzzle to geographers. This theory however is untenable. The isthmus of Gabes is not a mere sand bank. There is a band of rock between the sea and the basin of the chotts, through which the former never could have penetrated in modern times. It is much more probable that Lake Triton was the 266 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. large bight between the island of Djerba and the mainland, on the shores of which are the ruins of the ancient city of Meninx, which, to judge by the abundance of Greek marble found there, must have carried on an important commerce with the Levant. The scheme has now been entirely abandoned. Nothing but the mania for cutting through isthmuses all over the world which followed the brilliant success achieved at Suez can explain its having been started atall. Of course, no mere mechanical operation is impossible in these days; but the mind refuses to rea'ize the possibility of vessels cireulat- ing in a region which produces nothing, or that so small a sheet of water in the immensity of the Sahara could have any appreciable effect in modifying the climate of its shores. The eastern basin is much more indented and cut up into separate seas than the western one. It was therefore better adapted for the com- mencement of commerce and navigation. Its high mountains were land- marks for the unpracticed sailor, and its numerous islands and harbors aftorded shelter for his frail bark, and so facilitated communication be- tween one point and another. The advance of civilization naturally took place along the axis of this sea, Phoenicia, Greece, and Italy being successively the great nur- series of human knowledge and progress. Phcenicia had the glory of opening out the path of ancient commerce, for its position in the Levant gave it a natural command of the Mediterranean, and its people sought the profits of trade from every nation which had a seaboard on the three continents washed by this sea. Phoenicia was already a nation before the Jews entered the Promised Land; and when they did so, they carried on inland traffic as middlemen to the Phoenicians. Many of the commercial centers on the shores of the Mediterranean were founded before Greece and Rome acquired importance in history. Homer refers to them as daring traders nearly a thousand years before the Christian era. : For many centuries the commerce of the world was limited to the Mediterranean, aud when it extended in the direction of the East it was the merchants of the Adriatic, of Genoa, and of Pisa who brought the merchandise of India, at an enormous cost, to the Mediterranean by land, and who monopolized the carrying trade by sea. It was thus that the elephant trade of India, the caravan traffic through Babylon and Palmyra, as well as the Arab kafilehs, became united with the Occidental commerce of the Mediterranean. As civilization and commerce extended westward, mariners began to overcome their dread of the vast solitudes of the ocean beyond the Pil- lars of Hercules, and the discovery of America by Columbus and the circum-navigation of Africa by the Portuguese changed entirely the cur- rent of trade as well as increased its magnitude, and so relegated the THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 267 Mediterranean, which had hitherto been the central sea of human inter- course, to a position of secondary importance. Time will not permit me to enter into further details regarding the physical geography of this region, and its history is a subject so vast that a few episodes of it are all that I can possibly attempt. It is in- timately connected with that of every other country in the world, and here were successively evolved all the great dramas of the past and some of the most important events of less distant date. As I have already said, long before the rise of Greece and Rome its shores and islands were the seat of an advanced civilization. Phoenicia had sent out her pacific colonies to the remotest parts, and not iusig- nificant vestiges of their handicraft still exist to excite our wonder and admiration. We have the megalithic temples of Malta, sacred to the worship of Baal, the generative god, and Ashtoreth, the conceptive goddess, of the universe. The three thousand nurhagi of Sardinia, round towers of admirable masonry, intended probably for defense in case of sudden attack, and the so-called giant graves, were as great a mystery to classical authors as they are to us at the present day. Minorca has its talayots, tumuli somewhat analogous to but of ruder constructiop than the nwrhagi, more than 200 groups of which exist in various parts of the island. With these are associated subordinate con- structions intended for worship, altars composed of two immense monoliths erected in the form of a T, sacred inclosures and megalithic habitations. One type of talayot is especially remarkable, of better masonry than the others, and exactly resembling inverted boats. One is tempted to believe that the Pheenicians had in view the grass hab- itations or mapalia of the Numidians described by Sallust, and had endeavored to reproduce them in stone: Oblonga, incurvis lateribus tecta, quasi navium carine sunt. For a long time the Pheenicians had no rivals in navigation, but subsequently the Greeks—especially the Phocians—established colonies in the western Mediterranean, in Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, and the south of France, through the means of which they propagated not only their commerce but their arts, literature, and ideas. They iutro- duced many valuable plants, such as the olive, thereby modifying pro- foundly the agriculture of the countries in which they settled. They have even left traces of their blood, and it is no doubt to this that the women of Provence owe the classical beauty of their features. But they were eclipsed by their successors. The empire of Alexander opened out a road to India, in which, indeed, the Pheenicians had pre- ceded him, and introduced the produce of the Kast into the Mediter- ranean; while the Tyrian colony of Carthage became the capital of another vast empire, which, from its situation midway between the Levant and the Atlantic Ocean, enabled it to command the Mediter- ranean traffic. The Carthaginians at one time ruled over territory extending along 268 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. the coast from Cyrene to Numidia, besides having a considerable influ- ence over the interior of the continent, so that the name of Africa, given to their own dominions, was gradually applied to a whole quarter of the globe. The ruling passion with the Carthaginians was love of gain, not patriotism, and their wars were largely fought with mercena- ries. It was-the excellence of her civil constitution which, according to Aristotle, kept in cohesion for centuries her straggling possessions. A country feebly patriotic, which intrusts her defense to foreigners, has the seeds of inevitable decay, which ripened in her struggle with Rome, despite the warlike genius of Hamilear and the devotion of the magnanimous Hannibal. The gloomy and cruel religion of Carthage, with its human sacrifices to Moloch and its worship of Baal under the name of Melkarth, led to a criminal code of Draconic severity and alienated it from surrounding nations. When the struggle with Rome began, Carthage had no friends. The first Punic war was a contest for the possession of Sicily, whose prosperity is even now attested by the splendor of its Hellenic monuments. When Sicily was lost by the Carthaginians, so also was the dominion of the sea, which hitherto had been uncontested. The second Punic war resulted in the utter prostration of Carthage and the loss of all her possessions out of Africa, and in 201 B. ¢., when this war was ended, 552 years after the foundation of the city, Rome was mistress of the world. The destruction of Carthage after the third Punic war was a heavy blow to Mediterranean commerce. It was easy for Cato to utter his stern Delenda est Carthago. Destruction is easy, but construction is vastly more difficult. Although Augustus in his might built a new Carthage near the site of the old city, he could never attract again the trade of the Mediterranean, which had been diverted into other chan- nels. Roman supremacy was unfavorable to the growth of commerce, because, though she allowed unrestricted trade throughout her vast empire and greatly improved internal communications in the subju- gated countries, Rome itself absorbed the greater part of the wealth and did not produce any commodities in return for its immense con- sumption, therefore Mediterranean commerce did not thrive under the Roman rule. The conquest of Carthage, Greece, Egypt, and the East poured in riches to Rome, and dispensed for a time with the needs of productive industry, but formed no enduring basis of prosperity. It is only in relation to the Mediterranean that I can refer to Roman history; but 1 must allude to the interesting episode in the life of Diocletian, who, after an anxious reign of 21 years in the eastern division of the empire, abdicated at Nicomedia, and retired to his native province of Illyria. He spent the rest of his life in rural pleas- ures and horticulture at Salona, near which he built that splendid pal- ace within the walls of which subsequently arose the modern city of Spalato. Nothing more interesting exists on the shores of the Medi- terranean than this extraordinary edifice, perhaps the largest that THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 269 ever arose at the bidding of a single man; not only vast and beautiful, but marking one of the most important epochs in the history of archi- tecture. Though now obstructed with a mass of narrow, tortuous streets, its salient features are distinctly visible. The great temple, probably the mausoleum of the founder, has become the cathedral, and after the Pantheon at Rome there is no finer specimen of a heathen temple turned into a Christian church. Strange it is that the tomb of him whose reign was marked by such unrelenting persecution of the Chris- tiaus should have been accepted as the model of those baptisteries so commo:ly constructed in the following centuries. Of Diocletian’s Salona, one of the chief cities of the Roman world, but little now remains save traces of the long, irregular walls. Recent excavations have brought to light much that is interesting, but all of the Christian epoch, such as a large basilica which had been used as a necropolis, and a baptistery, one of those copied from the temple of Spalato, on the mosaic pavement of which can still be read the text, Sicut cervus desiderat fontem aquarum ita anima mea ad te Deus. The final partition of the Roman Empire took place in 365; 40 years later the barbarians of the North began to invade Italy and the south of Europe; and in 429, Genseric, at the head of his Vandal hordes, crossed over into Africa from Andalusia, a province which still bears their name, devastating the country as far as the Cyrenaica. He sub- sequently annexed the Balearic Islands, Corsica, and Sardinia; he ravaged the coasts of Italy and Sicily, and even of Greece and Illyria; but the most memorable of his exploits was the unresisted sack of Rome, whence he returned to Africa laden with treasure and bearing the Empress Eudoxia a captive in his train. The degenerate emperors of the West were powerless to avenge this insult; but Byzantium, though at this time sinking to decay, did make a futile attempt to attack the Vandal monarch in his African stronghold. It was not, however, till 533, in the reign of Justinian, when the successors of Genseric had fallen into luxurious habits and had lost the rough valor of their ancestors, that Belisarius was able to break their power and take their last king a prisoner to Constantinople. The Vandal domination in Africa was destroyed, but that of the Byzantines was never thoroughly consolidated; it rested not on its own strength, but on the weakness of its enemies; and it was quite unable to cope with the next great wave of invasion which swept over the land, perhaps the most extraordinary event in the world’s history, save only the introduction of Christianity. In 647, 27 years after the Hedjira of Mohammed, Abdulla ibn Saad started from Egypt for the conquest of Africa with an army of 40,000 men. The expedition had two determining causes—the hope of plunder and the desire to promulyate the religion of El] Islam, The sands and 270 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. scorching heat of the desert, which had nearly proved fatal to the army of Cato, were no bar to the bardy Arabians and their enduring camels. The march to Tripoli was a fatiguing one, but it was success- fully accomplished; the invaders did not exhaust their force in a vain effort to reduce its fortifications, but swept on over the Syrtic desert and north to the province of Africa, where, near the splendid city of Suffetula, a great battle was fought between them and the army of the Exarch Gregorius, in which the Christians were signally defeated, their leader killed, and his daughter allotted to Ibn-ez-Zobair, who had slain her father. Not only did the victorious Moslems overrnn north Africa, but soon they had powerful fleets at sea, which dominated the entire Mediter- ranean, and the emperors of the East had enough to do to protect their own capital. Egypt, Syria, Spain, Provence, and the islands of the Mediterranean successively fell to their arms, and until they were checked at the Pyrenees by Charles Martel it seemed at one time as if the whole of southern Europe would have been compelled to submit to the disciples of the new religion. Violent, implacable, and irresistible at the moment of conquest, the Arabs were not unjust or hard masters in countries which submitted to their conditions. Every endeavor was, of course, made to proselytize, but Christians were allowed to preserve their re- ligion on paymeut of a tax,and even Popes were in the habit of entering into friendly relations with the invaders. The Church of St. Cyprian and St. Augustine, with its 500 sees, was indeed expunged, but five cen- turies after the passage of the Mohammedan army from Egypt to the Atlantic a remnant of it still existed. It was not till the twelfth cen- tury that the religion and language of Rome became utterly extin- guished. The Arabs introduced a high state of civilization into the countries where they settled; their architecture is the wonder and admiration of the world at the present day; their irrigational works in Spain have never been improved upon; they fostered literature and the arts of peace, and introduced a system of agriculture far superior to what existed before their arrival. Commerce, discouraged by the Romans, was highly honored by the Arabs, and during their rule the Mediterranean recovered the trade which it possessed in the time of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians; it penetrated into the Indian Archipelago and China; it travelled west- ward to the Niger, and to the east as far as Madagascar, and the great trade route of the Mediterranean was once more developed. The powerand prosperity of the Arabs culminated in the ninth century, when Sicily fell to their arms; it was not, however, very long before their empire began to be undermined by dissensions ; the temporal and spiritual authority of the Ommiade Khalifs, which extended from Sind to Spain and from the Oxus to Yemen, was overthrown by the Abba- THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 271 sides in the year 132 of the Hedjira, a. p. 750. Seven years later Spain detached itself from the Abbaside empire; a new caliphate was established at Cordova, and hereditary monarchies began to spring up in other Mohammedan countries. The Oarlovingian empire gave an impulse to the maritime power of the south of Europe, and in the Adriatic the fleets of Venice and Ragusa monopolized the traffic of the Levant. The merchants of the latter noble little republic penetrated even to our own shores, and Shake- speare has made the Argosy or Ragusie a household word in our lJan- guage. During the eleventh century the Christian powers were no longer content to resist the Mohammedans; they began to turn their arms against them. If the latter ravaged some of the fairest parts of Europe, the Christians began to take brilliant revenge. The Mohammedans were driven out of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and the Balearic Islands, but it was not till 1492 that they had finally to abandon HKurope, after the conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella. Abont the middle of the eleventh century an event took place which profoundly modified the condition of the Mohammedan world. The Caliph Mostansir let loose a horde of nomad Arabs, who, starting from Egypt, spread over the whole of north Africa, carrying destruction and blood wherever they passed, thus laying the foundation for the subse- quent state of anarchy which rendered possible the interference of the Turks. English commercial intercourse with the Mediterranean was not unknown even from the time of the Crusades, but it does not appear to have been carried on by means of our own vessels till the beginning of the sixteenth century. In 1522 it was so great that Henry VIII appointed a Cretan merchant, Censio de Balthazari, to be “‘ master, gov- ernor, protector, and consul of all and singlar the merchants and others, his lieges and subjects, within the port, island, and country of Crete or Candia.” ‘This is the very first English consul known to history, but the first of English birth was my own predecessor in office, Master John Tipton, who, after having acted at Algiers during several years in an unofficial character, probably elected by the merchants them- Selves to protect their interests, was duly appointed consul by Sir William Harebone, ambassador at Constantinople, in 1585, and received just such an exequatur from the Porte as has been issued to every consul since by the Government of the country in which he resides. Piracy has always been the scourge of the Mediterranean, but we are too apt to associate its horrors entirely with the Moors and Turks. The evil had existed from the earliest ages; even before the Roman conquest of Dalmatia the Illyrians were the generai enemies of the Adriatic. Africa, under the Vandal reign, was a uest of the fiercest pirates. The Venetian chronicles are full of complaints of the ravages 272 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. of the Corsairs of Ancona, and there is no other name but piracy for such acts of the Genoese as the unprovoked pillage of Tripoli by Andrea Doria in 1535. To form a just idea of the Corsairs of the past, it is well to remember that commerce and piracy were often synonymous terms, even among the English, up to the reign of Elizabeth. Listen to the description given by the pious Cavendish of his commercial cir- cumnavigation of the globe: “It has pleased Almighty God to suffer me to cirecumpass the whole globe of the world. - - - I navigated along the coast of Chile, Peru, and New Spain, where I made great spoils. All the villages and towns that ever I landed at, I burned and spoiled, and had [ not been discovered upon the coast, I had taken a great quantity of treasure,” and so he concludes, “* The Lord be praised for all his mercies!” Sir William Monson, when called upon by James I to propose a scheme for an attack on Algiers, recommended that all the maritime powers of Europe should contribute towards the expense and partici- pate in the gains by the sale of Moors and Turks as slaves. After the discovery of America and the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, piracy developed to an extraordinary extent. The audacity of the Barbary Corsairs seems incredible at the present day; they landed on the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, and even extended their ravages to Great Britain, carrying off all the inhabitants whom they could seize into the most wretched slavery. The most formidable of these piratical states was Algiers, a military oligarchy, consisting of a body of janissaries, recruited by adventurers from the Levent, the outeasts of the Mohammedan world, criminals and renegades from every nation in Europe. They elected their own ruler or Dey, who exercised despotic sway, tempered by frequent assassination; they oppressed without merey the natives of the country, accumulated vast riches, had immense numbers of Christian slaves, and kept all Europe in a state bordering on subjection by the terror which they inspired. Nothing is sadder or more inexplicable than the shameful manner in which this state of things was accepted by civilized nations. Many futile attempts were made during successive centuries to humble their arrogance, but it only increased by every manifestation of the power- lessness of Europe to restrain it. It was reserved for our own country- man, Lord Exmouth, by his brilliant victory in 1816, forever to put an end to piracy and Christian slavery in the Mediterranean. His work, however, was left incomplete, for though he destroyed the navy of the Algerines and so rendered them powerless for evil on the seas, they were far from being humbled; they continued to slight their treaties and to subject even the agents of powerful nations to contumely and injustice. The French took the only means possible to destroy this nest of ruffians by the almost unresisted occupation of Algiers and the deportation of its Tarkish aristocracy. They found the whole country in the possession of a hostile people, THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 273 some of whom had never been subdued since the fall of the Roman Empire, and the world owes France no small debt of gratitude for hav- ing transformed what was a savage and almost uncultivated country into one of the richest as well as the most beautiful in the basin of the Mediterranean. What has been accomplished in Algeria is being effected in Tunisia. The treaty of the Kasr-es-Saeed, which established a French protecto- rate there and military occupation of the regency, were about as high-handed and unjustifiable acts as are recorded in history; but there can be no possible doubt regarding the important work of civil- ization and improvement that has resulted from them. European courts of justice have been established all over the country, the exports and imports have increased from twenty-three to fifty-one millions of franes, the revenue from six to nineteen millions, without the imposition of a single new tax, and nearly half a million per annum is being spent on education. Sooner or later the same thing must happen in the rest of north Africa, though at present international jealousies retard this desirable consummation. It seems hard to condemn such fair countries to con- tinued barbarism in the interest of tyrants who mis-govern and oppress their people. The day can not be far off when the whole southern shores of the Mediterranean will enjoy the same prosperity and civil- ization as the northern coast, and when the deserts which are the result of mis-government and neglect will assume the fertility arising from security and industry, and will again blossom as the rose. It cannot be said that any part of the Mediterranean basin is still unknown, if we except the Empire of Morocco. But even that country has been traversed in almost every direction during the past 20 years, and its geography and natural history have been illustrated by men of the greatest eminence, such as Gerhard Rohlfs, Monsieur Tissot, Sir Joseph Hooker, the Vicomte de Foucauld, Joseph Thomson, and numerous other travellers. The least known portion, at least on the Mediterranean coast, is the Riff country, the inhospitality of whose inhabitants has given the word ‘ruffian” to the English language. Even that has been penetrated by De Foucauld disguised as a Jew, and the record of his exploration is one of the most brilliant con- tributions to the geography of the country which has hitherto been made. Although, therefore, but littie remains to be done in the way of actual exploration, there are many by-ways of travel comparatively little known to that class of the community with which I have so much sympatby,—the ordinary British tourist. These flock every year in hundreds to Algeria and Tunis, but few of them visit the splendid Roman remains in the interior of those countries. The Cyrenaica is not so easily accessible, and I doubt whether any Englishmen have travelled in it since the exploration of Smith and Porcher in 1861. H. Mis. 129-18 274 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. Cyrene almost rivalled Carthage in commercial importance. The Hellenic ruins still existing bear witness to the splendor of its five great cities. It was the birth-place of many distinguished people, and amongst its hills and fountains were located some of the most interesting scenes in mythology,such as the Gardens of the Hesperides, and the “silent, dull, forgetful waters of Lethe.” This peninsula is only separated by a narrow strait from Greece, whence it was originally colonized. There, and indeed all over the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, are many little-trodden routes, but the subject is too extensive; I am reluctantly compelled to restrict my remarks to the western half. The south of Italy is more frequently traversed, and less travelled in, than any part of that country. Of the thousands who yearly embark or dis-embark at Brindisi few ever visit the land of Manfred. Otranto is only known to them from the fanciful descriptions in Horace Wal- pole’s romance. The general public in this country is guite ignorant of what is going on at Taranto, and of the great arsenal and dockyard which Italy is constructing in the Mare Piccolo, an inland sea contain- ing more than 1,000 acres of anchorage for the largest ironclads afloat, yet with an entrance so narrow that it is spanned by a revolving bridge. Even the Adriatic, though traversed daily by steamers of the Austrian Lloyd’s Company, is not a highway of travel, yet where is it possible to find so many places of interest within the short space of a week’s voy- age, between Corfu and Trieste, as along the Dalmatian and Istrian shores, and among the islands that fringe the former where it is diffi- cult to realize that one is at sea at all, and not on some great inland lake? There is the Bocche di Cattaro, a vast rent made by the Adriatic among the mountains, where the sea flows round their spurs in a series - of canals, bays, and lakes of surpassing beauty. The city of Cattaro itself, the gateway of Montenegro, with its picturesque Venetian fort- ress, nestling at the foot of the black mountain, Ragusa, the Roman successor of the Hellenic Epidaurus, queen of the southern Adriatic, battling with the waves on her rock-bound peninsula, the one spot in all that sea which never submitted either to Venice or the Turk, and for centuries resisting the barbarians on every side, absolutely unique as a medieval fortified town, and worthy to have given her name to the argosies she sent forth; Spalato, the grandest of Roman monuments ; Lissa, colonized by Dionysius of Syracuse, and memorable to us as hav- ing been a British naval station from 1812 to 1814, while the French held Dalmatia; Zara, the capital, famous for its siege by the Crusaders, interesting from an ecclesiological point of view, and venerated as the last resting place of St. Simeon, the prophet of the Nune dimittis ; Parenza, with its great basilica; Pola, with its noble harbor, whence Belisarius sailed forth, now the chief naval port of the Austrian Em- pire, with its Roman amphitheater and graceful triumphal arches, be- THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 275 sides many other places of almost equal interest. Still farther west are Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands, all easily accessible from the coasts of France, Italy, and Spain. Their ports are constantly vis- ited by mail steamers and private yachts, yet they are but little ex- plored in the interior. - - - I have endeavored to sketch, necessarily in a very imperfect manner, the physical character and history of the Mediterranean, to show how the commerce of the world originated in a small maritime state at its eastern extremity; how it graduaily advanced westward till it burst through the Straits of Gibraltar and extended over seas and continents until then undreampt of, an event which deprived the Mediterranean ot that commercial prosperity and greatness which for centuries had been limited to its narrow basin. Once more this historic sea has become the highway of nations; the persistent energy and genius of two men have revolutionized naviga- tion, opened out new and boundless fields for commerce, and it is hardly too much to say that if the Mediterranean is to be restored to its old position of importance, if the struggle for Africa is to result in its re- generation, as happened in the New World, if the dark places still re- maining in the farther East are to be civilized, it will be in a great measure due to Wagborn and Ferdinand de Lesseps, who developed the overland route and created the Suez Canal. But the Mediterranean can only hope to retain its regenerated posi- tion in time of peace. Nothing is more certainly shown by past history than that war and conquest have changed the route of commerce in spite of favored geographical positions. Babylon was conquered by Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, and Romans, and though for a time her position on the Kuphrates caused her to rise like a Phenix from _ her ashes, successive conquests combined with the luxury and effemi- nacy of her rulers, caused her to perish. Tyre, conquered by Nebuchad- nezzar and Alexander, fell as completely as Babylon had done, and her trade passed to Alexandria. Ruined sites of commercial cities rarely again become emporia of commerce; Alexandria is an exception de- - pendent on very exceptional circumstances. The old route to the East was principally used by sailing vessels, and was abandoned for the shorter and more economical one by the Suez Canal, which now enables a round voyage to be made in 60 days, which formerly required from 6 to 8 months. This, however, can only remain open in time of peace. It is quite possible that in the event of war the old route by the Cape may be again used to the detriment of traffic by the Mediterranean. Modern invention has greatly economized the use of coal, and steamers, by the use of duplex and triplex engines, can run with a comparatively small consumption of fuel, thus leaving a larger space for cargo. England, the great carrying power of the world, may find it more advantageous to trust to her own strength and the secur- 276 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. ity of the open seas than to run the gauntlet of the numerous strateg- ical positions of the Mediterranean, such as Port Mahon, Bizerta, and Taranto. each of which is capable of affording impregnable shelter to a hostile fleet, and though the ultimate key to the Indian Ocean is in our own hands, our passage to it may be beset by a thousand dangers. There is no act of my career on which I look back with so much satis- faction as on the share I had in the occupation of Perim, one of the most important links in that chain of coaling stations which extends through the Mediterranean to the farther East, and which is so neces- sary for the maintenance of our naval supremacy. Itis a mere islet, it is true, a barren rock, but one surrounding a noble harbor, and so em- inently in its right place that we can not contemplate with equanimity the possibility of its being in any other hands than our own. It is by no means certain whether exaggerated armaments are best suited for preserving peace or hastening a destructive war; the golden age of disarmament and international arbitration may not be near at hand, but it is even now talked of as a possibility. Should the poet’s prophecy or the patriot’s dream be realized and a universal peace indeed bless the world, then this sea of so many vic- tories may long remain the harvest field of a commerce nobler than conguest. ae STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA.* By J. Scotr KELTIE. It is 19 years since Stanley first crossed the threshold of central Africa. He entered it as a newspaper correspondent to find and succor Livingstone, and came out burning with the fever of African exploration. While with Livingstone at Ujiji, he tried his ’prentice hand at a little exploring work, and between them they did something _ to settle the geography of the north end of Lake Tanganyika. Some three years and a half later he was once more on his way to Zanzibar, this time with the deliberate intention of doing something to fill up the great blank that still occupied the center of the continent. A glance at the first of the maps which accompany this paper will afford some idea of what Central Africa was like when Stanley entered it a second time. The ultimate sources of the Nile had yet to be settled. The contour and extent of Victoria Nyanza were of the most uncertain character. Indeed, so little was known of it beyond what Speke told us, that there was some danger of its being swept off the map alto- gether, not a few geographers believing it to be not one lake, but several. There was much to do in the region lying to the west of the lake, even though it had been traversed by Spekeand Grant. Between a line drawn from the north end of Lake Tanganyika to some distance beyond the Albert Nyanza on one side, and the west coast region on the other, the map was almost white, with here and there the conjec- tural course of a river or two. Livingstone’s latest work, it should be remembered, was then almost unknown, and Cameron had not yet returned. Beyond the Yellala Rapids there was no Congo, and Living- stone believed that the Lualaba swept northwards to the Nile. He had often gazed longingly at the broad river during his weary sojourn at Nyangwé, and yearned to follow it, but felt himself too old and exhausted for the task. Stanley was fired with the same ambition as his dead master, and was young and vigorous cnough to indulge it. What, then, did Stanley do to map out the features of this great blank during the 2 years and 9 months which he spent in crossing from Bag:moyo to Boma, at the movth of the Congo? He determined, with an accuracy which has since necessitated but slight modification, *From The Contemporary Review, January, 1890, vol. Lym, pp. 126-140. 277 278 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. Londen Stanfords Ceog' Estabt vA 104A PUA) VN Z 35° 18 Nn x (@) = < = oO WwW CENTRAL AFRICA, BEFORE STANLEY. “10° East of Greenwich 15° mee CENTRAL AFRICA, AFTER STANLEY. VOL, LYII. STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. ie) pa ml SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES z 400 100 280 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. the outline of the Victoria Nyanza; he found it to be one of the great lakes of the world, 21,500 square miles in extent, with an altitude of over 4,000 feet and border soundings of from 330 to 580 feet. Into the south shore of the lake a river flowed, which he traced for some 300 miles, and which he set down as the most southerly feeder of tie Nile. With his stay at the court of the clever and cunning Mtesa of Uganda we need not concern ourselves; it has had momentous results. West- wards he came upon what he coneeived to be a part of the Albert Nyanza, which he named Beatrice Gulf, but of which more anon. Coming southwards to Ujiji, Stanley filled in many features in the region he traversed, and saw ata distance a great mountain, which he named Gordon Bennett, of which also more anon. A little lake to the south he named the Alexandra Nyanza; thence he conjectured issued the southwest source of the Nile, but on this point, within the last few months, he has seen cause to change his mind. Lake Tanganyika he circumnavigated, and gave greater accuracy to its out- line; while through the Lukuga he found it sent its waters by the Lualaba to the Atlantic. Crossing to Nyangwé, where with longing eyes Livingstone beheld the mile-wide Lualaba flowing ‘‘ north, north, north,” Stanley saw his opportunity, and embraced it. Tippu Tip failed him then, as he did later; but the mystery of that great river he had made up his mind to solve, and solve it he did. The epic of that first recorded journey of a white man down this majestic river, which for ages had been sweeping its unknown way through the center of Africa, he and his dusky companions running the gauntlet through a thousand miles of hostile savages, is one of the most memorable things in the literature of travel. Leaving Nyangwé on November 5, 1876, in 9 months he traced the many-islanded Congo to the Atlantic, and placed on the map of Africa one of its most striking features; for the Congo ranks among the greatest rivers of the world. From the remote Chambeze, that enters Lake Bangweolo to the sea, it is 3,000 miles. It has many tributaries, themselves affording hundreds of miles of navi- gable drains, waters a basin of a million square miles, and pours into the Atlantic a volume estimated at 1,800,000 cubic feet per second. Thus, then, were the first broad lines drawn towards filling up the great blank. But, as we know, Stanley two years later was once more on his way to the Congo, and shortly after, within the compass of its great basin, he helped to found the Congo Free State. During the years he was oflicially connected with the river, either directly or through those who served under him, he went on filling up the blank by the exploration of other rivers, north and south, which poured their voluminous tribute into the main stream; and the impulse he gave has continued. The blank has become a network of dark lines, the interspaces cevered with the names of tribes and rivers and lakes. Such, then, briefly, is what Stanley did for the map of Africa during his great aud ever-memorable journey across the continent. Ouce more STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 281 Mr. Stanley has crossed the continent, in the opposite direction, and taken just about the same time in which to do so. Discovery was not his main object this time, and therefore the results in this direction have not been so plentiful. Indeed, they could not be; he had left so com- paratively little to be done. But the additions that he has made to our knowledge of the great blank are considerable, and of high importance in their bearing on the hydrography, the physical geography, the climate, and the people of central Africa. Let us rapidly run over the incidents of this, in some respects, the most remarkable expedition that ever entered Africa. Its first purpose, as we know, was to relieve, and if necessary bring away, Emin Pasha, the governor of the abandoned equatorial province of the Egyptian Sudan, which spread on each side of the Bahr-el-Jebel, the branch of the Nile that issues from the Albert Nyanza. Here it was supposed that he and his Egyptian officers and troops, and their wives and children, were beleagured by the Madhist hordes, and that they were at the end of their supplies. HEmin Pasha, who as Eduard Schnitzer was born in Prussian Silesia, and educated at Breslau and Berlin as a physician, spent 12 years (1864-1876) in the Turkish service, during which he traveled over much of the Asiatic dominions of Turkey, indulging his strong tastes for natural history. In 1876he entered the service of Egypt, and was sent up to the Sudan as surgeon on the staff of Gordon Pasha, who at that time governed the equatorial province. In 1878, two years after Gordon had been appointed governor-general of the whole Sudan, Emin Effendi (he had Moslemized himself) was appointed governor of the equatorial province, which he found com- pletely disorganized and demoralized, the happy hunting-ground of the slave-raider. Withinafew months Emin had restored order, swept out the slavers, got rid of the Egyptian scum who pretended to be soldiers, improved the revenue, so that instead of a large deficit there was a considerable surplus, and established industry and legitimate trade. Meantime the Mahdi had appeared, and the movement of con- quest was gathering strength. It was not, however, till 1884 that Emin began to fear danger. It was in January of that year that Gordon went out to hold Khartoum; just a year later both he and the city fell before the Madhist host. , Emin withdrew with his officers and dependents, numbering about 1,500, to Wadelai, in the south of the province, within easy reach of Albert Nyanza. Rumors of the events in the Sudan after the fall of Khartoum reached this country, but no one outside of scientific circles seemed to take much interest in Emin till 1886. Rapidly, however, Europe became aware what a noble stand this simple savant, who had been foisted into the position of governor of a half-savage province, was making against the forces of the Mahdi, and how he refused to desert his post and his people. Towards the autumn of 1886 public feeling on the subject rose to such a height that the British Government, which was held to blame 282 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. for the position in the Sudan, was compelled to take aetion. Our representative at Zanzibar, as early as August of that year, instituted inquiries as to the possibility of arelief expedition, but in the end, in dread of international complications, it was decided that a government expedition was impracticable. In this dilemma, Sir (then Mr.) William Mackinnon, chairman of the British India Steam Navigation Company, whose connection with east Africa is of old standing, came forward and offered to undertake the responsibility of getting up an expe- dition. The Emin Pasha relief committee was formed in December, 1886, and Government did all it could to aid, short of taking the actual responsibility. Mr. H. M. Stanley generously offered his services as leader, without fee or reward, giving up many lucrative engage- ments for the purpose. No time was lost. The sum of £20,000 had been subscribed, including £10,000 from the Egyptian Government. Mr. Stanley returned from America to England in the end of Decem- ber; by the end of January he had made all his preparations, selecting 9 men as his staff, including 3 English officers and 2 surgeons, and was on his way to Zanzibar, which was reached on February 21. On the 25th the expedition was on board the Madura, bound for the mouth of the Congo, by way of the Cape; 9 European officers, 61 Sudanese, 15 Somalis, 3 interpreters, 620 Zanzibaris, the famous Arab slaver and merchant, Tippu Tip, and 407 of his people. The mouth of the Congo was reached on March 18; there the expedition was trans- shipped into small vessels and landed at Matadi, the limit of naviga- tion on the lower river. From Matadi there was a march of 200 miles, past the cataracts, to Stanley Pool, where the navigation was resumed. The troubles of the expedition began on the Congo itself. The ques- tion of routes was much discussed at the time of organizing the expedition, the two that found most favor being that from the east coast through Masai land and round by the north of Uganda, and that by the Congo. Into the comparative merits of these two routes we shall not enter here. For reasons which were satisfactory to himself—and no one knows Africa better—Mr. Stanley selected the Congo route, though had he foreseen all that he and his men would have to undergo he might have hesitated. As it was, the expedition, which it was thought would be back in England by Christmas, 1887, only reached the coast in November, 1889. But the difficulties no one could have foreseen, the region traversed being completely unknown, and the obstacles encountered unprecedented even in Africa. Nor when the goal was reached was it expected that months would be wasted in per- suading Emin and his people to quit their exile. Not the keenest-eyed of African explorers could have foreseen all this, Want of sufficient boat accommodation and a seareity of food almost amounting to famine hampered the expedition terribly on its way up the Congo. The mouth of the Aruwimi, the real starting point of the expedition, some 1,500 miles from the mouth of the Congo, was not STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 283 reached by Mr. Stanley and the first contingent, till the beginning of June, 1887. The distance from here in a straight line to the nearest point of the Albert Nyanza is about 450 miles; thence it was believed communication with Emin would be easy, for he had two steamers available. But it was possible that a detour would have to be made towards the north so as to reach Wadelia direct, for no one knew the conditions which prevailed in the country between the Aruwimi mouth and the Albert Nyanza. As it was Mr. Stanley took the course to the lake direct, but with many a circuit and many an obstruction and at a terrible sacrifice of life. An intrenched camp was established on a bluff at Yambuya, about 50 miles up the left bank of the Aruwimi. Major Barttelot was left in charge of this, and with him Dr. Bonny, Mr. Jameson, Mr. Rose Troup, Mr. Ward, and 257 men; the rear column was to follow as soon as Tippu Tip provided the contingent of 500 natives which he had solemnly promised. Although the whole of the men had not come up, yet everything seemed in satisfactory order; explicit instructions were issued to the officers of the rear column, and on June 28, 1887, Mr. Stanley, with a contingent consisting of 389 offi- cers and men, set out to reach Emin Pasha. The officers with him were Captain Nelson, Lieutenant Stairs, Dr. Parke, and Mr. Jephson. Five miles after leaving camp the difficulties began. The expedition was face to face with a dense forest of immense extent, choked with bushy undergrowth and obstructed by a network of creepers through which a way had often to be cleaved with the axes. Hostile natives harassed them day after day; the paths were studded with concealed spikes of wood; the arrows were poisoned; the natives burned their villages rather than have dealings with the intruders. Happily the river when it was again struck afforded relief, and the steel boat proved of service, though the weakened men found the portages past the cataracts a great trial. It was fondly hoped that here at least the Arab slaver had not penetrated; but on September 16, 200 miles from Yambuya, making 340 miles of actual travel, the slave camp of Uga- rowwa was reached, and here the treatment was even worse than when fighting the savages of the forest. The brutalities practiced on Stan- ley’s men cost many of them their lives. A month later the camp of another Arab slaver was reached, Kilinga Longa, and there the treat- ment was no better. These so-called Arabs, whose caravans consist mainly of the merciless Manyuema, from the country between Tagan- yika and Nyangwé, had laid waste a great area of the region to be traversed by the expedition, so that between August 31 and November 12 every man was famished; and when at last the land of devastation was left behind, and the native village of Ibwiri entered, officers and men were reduced to skeletons. Out of the 389 who started only 174 entered Ibwiri, the rest dead, or missing, or left behind, unable to move, at Ugarowwa’s. So weak was everybody that 70 tons of goods 284 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. and the boat had to be left at Kilinga Longa’s with Captain Nelson and Surgeon Parke. A halt of 15 days at I[bwiri, with its plenty of fowls, bananas, corn, yams, beans, restored everybody; and 173 sleek and robust men set out for the Albert Nyanza on November 24. A week later the gloomy and dreaded forest suddenly ended; the open country was reached ; the light of day was unobstructed; it was an emergence from darkness to light. But the difficulties were not over; some little fighting with the natives on the populous plateau was necessary before the lake could be reached. On the 12th, the edge of the long slope from the Congo to Lake Albert was attained, and suddenly the eyes of all were gladdened by the sight of the lake lying some 3,000 feet almost sheer below. The expedition itself stood at an altitude of 5,200 feet above the sea. But the end was not yet. Down the expedition marched to the southwest corner of the lake, where the Kakongo natives were unfriendly. No Emin Pasha had been heard of; there was no sign even that he knew of Stanley’s coming or that the messenger from Zanzibar had reached him. The only boat of the expedition was at Kilinga Longa’s, 190 miles away. Of the men 94 were behind sick at Ugarowwa’s and Ki- linga Longa’s; only 173 were with Stanley ; 74 of the original 341 were dead or missing; and, moreover, there was anxiety about the rear column. Stanley’s resolution was soon taken. Moving to the village of Kavalli, some distance up the steep slope from the lake, the party began a night march on December 15, and by January 7, they were back at Ibwiri. Here Fort Bodo, famous in the records of the expedi- tion, was built. The men were brought up from the rear, and on April 7, Stanley, with Jephson and Parke, once more led the expedition to Lake Albert, this time with the boat and fresh stores. Meantime Stanley himself was on the sick list fora month. This time all the natives along the route were friendly and even generous, and on April 22, the expedition reached the chief Kavalli, who delivered to Stanley a letter wrapped in American cloth. The note was from Emin and stated that he had heard rumors of Stanley’s presence in the district; it begged Stanley to wait until Emin could communicate with him. The boat was launched and Jephson set off to find Emin. On the 29th, the Khedive steamer came down the lake with Emin, the Italian Casati, and Jephson on board. The great object of the expedition seemed at last to be all but fulfilled. But the end was not yet. There was the party at Fort Bodo ; there were the sick further back, with whom Lieutenant Stairs had not re- turned when Stanley left the fort ; and, above all, there was the rear column left at Yambuya with Major Barttelot. It would take some time for Kmin to bring down all his people trom Wadelai and other stations. So after spending over 3 weeks with the vacillating Emin, Stanley, on May 25, was once more on the march back to Fort Bodo STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 285 to bring up allhands. He left Jephson, 3 Sudanese, and 2 Zanzibaris with Emin, who gave him 102 natives as porters, and 3 irregulars to accompany him back. Fort Bodo was reached on June 8, and was found in a flourishing state, surrounded by acres of cultivated fields. But of the 56 men left at Ugarowwa’s only 16 were alive for Lieut- enant Stairs to bring to Fort Bodo. As there was no sign of the rear column nor of the 20 messengers sent off in March with letters for Major Barttelot, Stanley felt bound to retrace his steps through the terrible forest. This time he was better provisioned, and his people (212) escaped the horrors of the wilderness. Fort Bodo was left on June 16, Stanley letting all his white com- panions remain behind. Ugarowwa’s camp was deserted, and he him- self, with a flotilla of fifty-seven canoes, was overtaken far down the river on August 10, and with him, 17 of the carriers sent off to Major Barttelot in March; 3 of their number had been killed. On the 17th the rear column was met with at Bonalya, 80 miles above Yambuya, and then for the first time Stanley learned of the terrible disaster that had befallen it—Barttelot shot by the Manyuema; Jameson gone down the Congo (only to die); Wardaway: and Troupinvalided home. No one but Dr. Bonny ; of the 257 men only 72 remaining, and of these only 52 fit for service. No wonder Mr. Stanley felt too sick to write the details; and until we have the whole of the evidence it would be unfair to pronounce judgment. One thing we may say: we know, from Mr. Werner’s recently published “ River Life on the Congo,” that before Major Barttelot left Yambuya to follow Stanley it was known to Mr. Werner, to more than one Belgian officer, to several natives, and to the Manyuema people with Barttelot, that instructions had been given by Tippu Tip to these last to shoot Major Barttelot if he did not treat them well. Yet no one cared to warn the Major and he was allowed to depart to his almost certain fate. The thing is too sicken- ing to dwell upon. It was at this stage that Stanley sent home his first letters, which reached England on April 1, 1889, 20 months after hestarted from the Aruwimi, and over 2 years after heleft England. The relief was intense; all sorts of sinister rumors had been floated, and most people had given up the expedition for lost. Once more back through the weary forest, with the expedition re- organized. A new route was taken to the north of the river through a region devasted by the Arab slavers; and here the expedition came near to starvation, but once more Fort Bodo was reached, on Decem- ber 20. Here things were practically as Stanley had left them; there was no sign of Emin, though he had promised to come to the fort. The combined expedition marched onwards, and Mr. Stanley, pushing on with a contingent, reached the lake for the third time, on January 18, only to learn that Emin and Jephson had been made prisoners by Emin’s own men; the Mahdists had attacked the station and created a panic, and all was disorganization and vacillation. At last, however, 286 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. the chief actors in this strange drama were together again; and Mr. Stanley’s account of Emin’s unstable purpose, the long arguments with the Pasha to persuade him to come to a decision ; the ingratitude and treachery of the Egyptians, the gathering of the people and their burdensome goods and chattels preparatory to quitting the lake — these and many other details are fresh in our memories from Stanley’s own letters. But the main purpose of the expedition was accomplished, at however terrible a cost, and however disappointing it was to find that after all Emin was reluctant to be ‘ rescued.” When the start was made from Kavalli’s on April 10 last, 1,500 people in all were mustered: An almost mortal illness laid Stanley low for a month shortly after the start, and it was May 8 before the huge caravan was fairly under way. Some fighting had to be done with raiders from Unyoro, but on the whole the homeward march was comparatively free from trouble, and full of interest; and on December 6 Mr. Stanley once more entered Zanzibar, which he had left 2 years and 10 months before. Such briefly are some of the incidents of the rescue expedition; let us now as briefly sum up the geographical results. When Stanley left for Africa, in January, 1887, there remained one of the great problems of African hydrography still unsolved—what is known as the problem of the Weillé. Schweinfurth and Junker had come upon a river at some points which seemed to rise in the neighbor- hood of the Albert Nyanza, and appeared to flow in a northwest diree- tion. The favorite theory at the time was that the river Wellé was really the upper course of the Shari, which runs into Lake Chad far away to the northwest. But as the Congo and its great feeders on the north, and the lie of the land in that direction, became known, it began to be conjectured that after all the Wellé might send its waters to swell the mighty volume of the great river. Stanley, I know, hoped that, among other geographical work, he might be able to throw some light ou the course of this puzzling river. But, as we see now, the cares and troubles that fell upon him prevented him going much out of the way to do geographical work. While, however, Stanley was cleaving his way through the tangled forest, Lieutenant Van Géle, one of the Free State officers, proved conclusively that the Wellé was really the upper course of the Mobangi, one of the largest northern tributaries of the Congo. But another kindred problem Stanley was able to solve. Before his journey the mouth of the river Aruwimi was known; the great naval battle which he fought there on his first descent of the river is one of the most striking of the many striking pictures in the narrative of that famous journey. But beyond Yambuya its course was a blank. The river, under various names, ‘‘ Ituri” being the best known, led him almost to the brink of the Albert Nyanza. One of its upper contribu- tories is only 10 minutes’ walk from the brink of the escarpment that looks down upon the lake. With many rapids, it is for a great part of its course over 500 yards wide, with groups of islands here and there, STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 287 _ For a considerable stretch it is navigable, and its entire length, taking all its windings into account, from its source to the Congo, is 800 miles. One of its tributaries turns out to be another river which Junker met further north, and whose destinaticn was a puzzle.—The Nepoko. Thus this expedition has enabled us to form clearer notions of the hydrography of this remarkable region of rivers. We see that the sources of the Congo and the Nile lie almost within a few yards of each other. Indeed, so difficult is it to determine to which river the various waters in this region send their tribute that Mr. Stanley himself, in his first letter, was confident that the southern Lake Albert belonged to the Congo and not to the Nile system. It was only actual inspection that convinced him he was mistaken. How it is that the Ituri or the Aruwimi and other rivers in the same region are attracted to the Congo and not to the Nile is easily seen from Mr. Stanley’s graphic descrip- tion of the lay of the country between the Congo and the Albert Nyanza. It is, he says, hike the glacis of a fort, some 350 miles long, sloping gradually up from the margin of the Congo (itself at the Aruwimi mouth 1,400 feet above the sea), until ten miles beyond one of the Ituri feeders it reaches a height of 5,200 feet to descend almost per- pendicularly 2,900 feet to the surface of the lake, which forms the great western reservoir of the Nile. But when the term “ glacis” is used, it must not be inferred that the ascent from the Congo to Lake Albert is smooth and unobstructed. The fact is that Mr. Stanley found himself involved in the northern section of what is probably the most extensive and densest forest region in Africa. Livingstone spent many a weary day trudging its gloomy, recesses away south at Nyangwé on the Lualaba. It stretches tor many miles north to the Monbuttu country. Stanley entered it at Yambuya, and tunnelled his way through it to within 50 miles of the Albert Nyanza, when it all of a sudden ceased and gave way to grassy plains and the unobstructed light of day. How far west it may extend be- yond the Aruwimi he can not say; but it was probably another section of this same forest region that Mr. Paul du Chaillu struck some 30 years ago, when gorilla hunting in the Gaboon. Mr. Stanley estimates the area of this great forest region at about 300,000 square miles, which is more likely to be under than over the mark. The typical African forest, as Mr. Drummond shows in his charming book on ‘Tropical Africa,” is not of the kind found on the Aruwimi, which is much more South American than African. Not even in the “great sponge,” from which the Zambesi and the Congo draw their remote supplies, do we meet with such impenetrable density. Trees scattered about as in an English park in small open clumps form, as a rule, the type of“ forest” common in Africa. The physical causes which led to the dense packing of trees over the immeuse area between the Congo and the Nile Lakes will form an interesting investigation. Mr. Stanley’s description of the great forest region, in his letter to Mr. Bruce, is well worth quoting: 288 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. “Take a thick Scottish copse, dripping with rain. Imagine this copse to be a mere undergrowth, nourished under the impenetrable shade of ancient trees, ranging trom 100 to 180 feet high; briars and thorns abundant; lazy creeks, meandering through the depths of the jungle, and sometimes a deep affluent of a great river. imagine this forest and jungle in all stages of decay and growth—old trees falling, leaning perilously over, fallen prostrate; ants and insects of all kinds, sizes, and colors murmuring around; monkeys and chimpanzees above, queer noises of birds and animals, crashes in the jungle as troops of elephants rush away; dwarfs with poisoned arrows securely hidden behind some buttress or in some dark recess; strong brown-bodied aborigines with terribly sharp spears standing poised, still as dead stumps; rain pat- tering down on you every other day in the year; an impure atmosphere with its dread consequences, fever and dysentery; gloom throughout the day, and darkness almost palpable throughout the night, and then if you will imagine such a forest extending the entire distance from Plymouth to Peterhead, you will have a fair idea of some of the incon- venience endured by us from June 28 to December 5, 1887, and from June 1, 1888, to the present date, to continue again from the present date till about December 10, 1888, when I hope to say a last farewell to the Congo forest.” Mr. Stanley tries to account for this great forest region by the abund- ance of moisture carried over the continent from the wide Atlantie by the winds which blow landward through a great part of the year; but itis to be feared the remarkable phenomenon is not to be accounted for in so easy away. Investigation may prove that the rain of the rainiest region in Africa comes not from the Atlantic, but the Indian Ocean, with its moisture laden monsoons; and so we should have here a case analogous to that which oceurs in South America, the forests of which resemble in many features those of the region through which Mr. Stanley has passed. 3ut the forest itself is not more interesting than its human denizens. The banks of the river in many places are studded with large villages, some, at least, of the native tribes being cannibals. Weare here onthe northern border of the true negro peoples, so that when the subject is investigated the Aruwimi savages may be found to be much mixed. But unless Europe promptly intervenes, there will shortly be few people left in these forests to investigate. Mr. Stanley came upon two slave- hunting parties, both of them manned by the merciless people of Man- yuema. Already great tracts have been turned into a wilderness, and thousands of the natives driven from their homes. From the ethnolo- gist’s point of view the most interesting inhabitants of the Aruwimi for- ests are the hostile and cunning dwarfs, or rather pigmies, who caused the expidition so much trouble. No doubt they are the same as the Monbuttu pigmies found farther north, and essentialy similar to the pigmy population found seattered all over Africa, from the Zambesi to STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 289 the Nile, and from the Gaboon to the east coast. Mr. Du Chaillu found _ them in the forests of the west30 years ago, and away south on the great - Sankuru tributary of the Congo Major Wissman and his fellow explo- rers met them within the past few years. They seem to be the rem- nants of a primitive population rather than the stunted examples of the normal negro. Around the villages in the forest wherever clearings _ had been made the ground was of the richest character, growing crops ofall kinds. Mr. Stanley has always maintained that in the high lands around the great lakes will be fouud the most favorable region for Eu- ropean enterprise; and if in time much of the forest is cleared away, the country between the Congo and Lake Albert might become the granary of Africa. To the geographer, however, the second half of the expedition’s work is fuller of interest than the first. Some curious problems had to be _ solved in the lake region, problems that had given rise to much discus- sion. When in 1864 Sir Samuel Baker stood on the lofty escarpment _ that looks down on the east shore of the Albert Nyanza, at Vacovia, the lake seemed to him to stretch illimitably to the south, so that for long it appeared on our maps as extending beyond 1 degree south lat- _itude. When Stanley, many years later, on his first great expedition, _ after crossing from Uganda, came upon a great bay of water, he _ was naturally inclined to think that it was a partof Baker’s lake, and _ called it Beatrice Gulf. But Gessi and Mason, members of Gordon _ Pasha’s staff, cireumnavigated the lake later.on and found that it ended more than a degree north of the equator. So when Stanley published his narrative he made his “ Beatrice Gult” a separate lake lying to the _ south of the Albert Nyanza. Mr. Stanley saw only a small portion of | 4 the southern lake, Muta Nzigé, but in time it expanded and expanded on our maps until there seemed some danger of its being joined on to Lake Tanganyika. Emin himself, during his 12 years’ stay in the Sudan, did something towards exploring the Albert Nyanza, and found that its southern shore was fast advancing northward, partly owing to sediment _ brought down by ariver, and partly due to the wearing away of the rocky bed of the Upper Nile, by which much water escaped and the level of _ the lake subsided. Thus, when Baker stood on the shore of the lake in 1864, it may well have extended many miles farther south than it - does now. But where did the river come from that Mason and Emin - saw running into the lake from the south? As was pointed out above, Stanley at first thought it could not come from his own lake to the a4 south, which he believed must send its waters to the Congo. But all _ controversy has now been ended. During the famous exodus of the * 1,500 from Kavilli to the coast, the intensely interesting country lying between the northern lake, Albert, and the southern lake, now named _ Albert Edward, was traversed. Great white, grassy plains stretch away _ south from the shores of Lake Albert, which under the glitter of a trop- ical sun might well be mistaken for water; evidently they had been H, Mis, 129-———19 290 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. under water at quite a recent period. But soon the country begins to rise, and round the base of a great mountain boss the river Semliki winds its way through its valley, receiving through the picturesque glens many streams of water from the snows that clothe the moun- tain tops. Here we have a splendid country, unfortunately harassed by the raids of the Wanyoro, in dread of whom the simple natives of the mountain side often creep up to near the limit of snow. Up the mountain, which Lieutenant Stairs ascended for over 10,000 feet, blackberries, bilberries, violets, heaths, lichens, and trees that might have reminded him of England flourish abundantly. Here evidently we have a region that might well harbor a European population. The mountain itself, Ruwenzori, a great boss with numerous spurs, is quite evidently an extinct voleano, rising to something like 19,000 feet, and reminding one of Kilimanjaro, farther to the east. It is not yet clear whether it is the same mountain as the Gordon Bennett seen by Stan- ley in his former expedition, though the probability is that, if distinct, they belong to the same group or mass. Apart from the mountain the country gradually ascends as the Semliki is traced up to its origin in Lake Albert Edward. Mr. Stanley found that, after all, the southern Nyanza belongs to the great Nile system, giving origin to the farthest southwest source of Egypt’s wonderful river, which we know receives a tribute from the snows of the equator. The southern lake itself is of comparatively small dimensions, prob- ably not more than 45 miles long, and is 900 feet above the northern Lake Albert. Mr. Stanley only skirted its west, north, and east shores, so that probably he has not been able to obtain complete data as to size and shape. But he has solved one of the few remaining great problems in African geography. The two lakes lie in a trough, the sides of which rise steeply in places 3,000 feet, to the great plateaus that extend away east and west. This trough, from the north end of Lake Albert to the south end of Lake Albert Edward, is some 260 statute miles in length. About 100 miles of this is occupied by the former lake, 45 by the latter, and the rest by the country between, where the trough, if we may indulge in an Irishism, becomes partly a plain, and partly a great mountain mass. But this trough, or fissure, a glance at a good map will show, is continued more or less south and southeast in Lakes Tanganyika and Nayassa, which are essentially of the same character as Lakes Albert and Albert Edward, and totally different from such lakes as Victoria Nyanza and Bangweolo. Here we have a feature of the greatest geographical interest, which still has to be worked out as to its origin. There is little more to say as to tlie geographical results of the Emin Pasha relief expedition. There are many minute details of great interest, which the reader may see for himself in Mr. Stanley’s letters, or in his forthcoming detailed narrative. In his own characteristic way he tells of the tribes and peoples around the Jakes, and between the STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 291 lakes and the coast; and it was left for him on his way home to dis- cover a great southwest extension of Victoria Nyanza, which brings that lake within 150 miles of Lake Tanganyika. The results which have been achieved have been achieved at a great sacrifice of life and of suffering to all concerned; but no one, I am sure, will wish that the work had been left undone. The few great geographical problems in Africa that Livingstone had to leave untouched, Stanley has solved. Little remains for himself and others in the future beyond the filling in of details; but these are all-important, and will keep the great army of explorers busy for many years, if not for generations. ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION.* ——— See = c By G. S. GRIFFITHS. My experience during the four years which have elapsed since this vroject was first mooted in Melbourne is that any reference to the sub- ject is sure to be met with the query Cui bono? What good can it do? What benefit can come from it? What is the object to be served by such an expedition? In setting myself to the task of answering these questions let me observe that it would indeed be strange if an unexplored region S,000,000 square miles in area—twice the size of Kurope—and grouped around the axis of rotation and the magnetic pole could fail to yield to investigators some novel and valuable information. But when we notice that the circle is engirdled without by peculiar physical condi- tions which must be correlated to special physical conditions within, speculation is exchanged for a confident belief that an adequate reward must await the skilled explorer. The expected additions to the geog- raphy of the region are, of all the knowledge that is to be sought for there, the least valuable. Where so many of the physical features of the country—the hills, the valleys, and the drainage lines—have been buried beneath the snow of ages, a naked outline, a bare skeleton of a map, is the utmost that can be delineated. Still, even such knowledge as this has a distinet value, and as it can be acquired by the explorers as they proceed about their more important researches, its relatively small value ought not to be admitted as a complete objection to any enterprise which has other objects of importance. Our present acquaint- ance with the geography of the region is excessively limited. Ross just viewed the coasts of Victoria Land between 163° KE. and 160° W. longitude; he trod its barren strand twice, but on each occasion for a few minutes only. From the adjacent gulf he measured the heights of its voleanoes, and from its offing he sketched the walls of its icy barrier. Wilkes traced on our map ashore line from 97° E. to 167° E. longitude, and he backed it up with a range of mountains, but he landed nowhere. Subsequently Ross sailed over the site assigned to part of this land, * An address on ‘“‘The Objects of Antarctic Exploration,” delivered at the annual meeting of the Bankers’ Institute of Australia, at Melbourne, on Wednesday, August 27. (From Nature, October 16, 1890, vol. xLi1, pp. 601-604. ) 293 294 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. and hove his lead 600 fathoms deep where Wilkes had drawn a moun- tain. He tells us that the weather was so very clear that had high land been within 70 miles of that position he must have seen it (“‘ Ross’s Voyage,” 1278). More recently Nares, in the Challenger, tested another part of Wilkes’s coast line, and with a like result; and these cireum- stances throw doubts upon the value of his reported discoveries. D’Urville subsequently followed a bold shore for a distance of about 300 miles from 136° E. to 142° KE. longitude; whilst in 67° S. latitude, and between 45° E. and 60° E. longitude, are Enderby’s and Kemp’s lands. Again, there is land to the south of the Horn which trends from 45° to 75° S. latitude. These few discontinuous coast lines com- prise all our scanty knowledge of the Antarctic land. It will be seen from these facts that the principal geographical probiem awaiting solu- tion in these regions is the interconnection of these scattered shores. The question is, do they constitute parts of a continent, or are they, like the coasts of Greenland, portions of an archipelago, smothered under an overload of frozen snow, which conceals their insularity? Ross inclined to the latter view, and he believed that a wide channel leading towards the Pole existed between North Cape and the Balleny Islands (‘“‘Ross’s Voyage,” 1221). This view was also held by the late Sir Wyville Thomson. A series of careful observations upon the local eur- rents might throw some light upon these questions. Ross notes several such in his log. Off Possession Island a current, running southward, took the ships to windward (ibid., 1195). Off Coulman Island another drifted them in the same direction at the rate of 18 miles a day (ibid., 1204). A three-quarter knot northerly current was felt off the barrier, and may have issued from beneath some part of it. Such isolated observations are of little value, but they were multiplied, and were the currents correlated with the winds experienced the information thus obtained might enable us to detect the existence of straits, even where the channels themselves are masked by ice barriers. Finally, it is calculated that the center of the polar ice-cap must be 3 miles, and may be 12 miles deep, and that the material of this ice mountain being viscous, its base must spread out under the crushing pressure of the weight of its center. The extrusive movement thus set up is supposed to thrust the ice cliffs off the land at the rate of a quarter of a mile per annum. These are some of the geographical questions which await settlement. In the geology of this region we have another subject replete with interest. ‘The lofty volcanoes of Victoria Land must present peculiar features. Nowhere else do fire and frost divide the sway so com- pletely. Ross saw Erebus belching out lava and ashes over the snow and ice which coated its flanks. This circumstance leads us to specu- late on the strata that would result from the alternate fall of snow and ashes during long periods and under a low temperature. Volcanoes are built up, as contra-distinguished from other mountains, which result ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 295 from elevation or erosion. They consist of débris piled round a vent. _ Lava and ashes surround the crater in alternate layers. But in this polar region the snow-fall must be taken into account as well as the ash deposit and the lava flow. It may be thought that any volcanic ejecta would speedily melt the snow upon which they fell, but this does not by any means necessarily follow. Volcanic ash, the most wide-spread and most abundant material ejected, falls comparatively cold, cakes, and then forms one of tho most effective nonconductors known. When such a layer a few inches thick is spread over snow even molten lava may flow over it without melting the snow beneath. This may seem to be incredible, but it has been observed te occur. In 1828 Lyell saw on the flanks of Etna a glacier sealed up under a crust of lava. Now, the Antarctic is the region of thick-ribbed ice. All exposed surfaces are quickly covered with snow. Snow-falls, fish-falls, and lava-flows must have been heaping themselves up around the craters during unknown ages. What has been the result? Has the viscosity of the ice been modified by the intercalation of beds of rigid lava and of hard-set ash? Does the growing mass tend to pile up or to settle down and spread out? Is the ice wasted by evaporation, or does the ash layer preserve it against this mode of dissipation? These inter- esting questions can be studied round the South Pole, and perhaps nowhere else so well. Another question of interest, as bearing upon the location of the ereat Antarctic continent, which it is now certain existed in the See- ondary period of geologists, is the nature of the rocks upon which the lowest of these lava beds rest. If they can be discovered, and if they then be found to be sedimentary rocks—such as slates and sandstones, or plutonic rocks—such as granite, they will at once afford us some data to go upon, for the surface exposure of granite signifies that the locality has been part of a continental land sufficiently long for the weathering and removal of the many thousands of feet of sedimentary rocks which of necessity overlie crystalline rocks during their genesis ; whilst the presence of sedimentary rocks implies the sometime prox- imity of a continent from the surfaces of which alone these sediments, as rain-wash, could have been derived. As ancient slate rocks have already been discovered in the ice-clad South Georgias, and as the drag-nets of the Hrebus and the Challenger have brought up from the beds of these icy seas fragments of sand- stones, slates, and granite, as well as the typical blue mud which invariably fringes continental land, there is every reason to expect that such strata will be found. Wherever the state of the snow will permit, the polar mountains should be searched for basaltic dikes, in the hope that masses of spec- ular iron and nickel might be found, similar to those discovered by Nordenskiédld, at Ovifak, in north Greenland. The interest taken in these metallic masses arises from the fact that they alone, of all the 296 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. rocks of the earth, resemble those masses of extra-terrestial origin which we know as meteorites. Such bodies of unoxidized metal are unknown elsewhere in the mass, and why they are peculiar to the Arctic it is hard to say. Should similar masses be found within the Antarctic, a fresh stimulus would be given to speculation. Geologists would have to consider whether the oxidized strata of the earth’s crust thin out at the poles; whether in such a case the thinning is due to severe local erosion, or to the protection against oxygen afforded to the surface of the polar regions by their ice caps, or to what other cause. Such discoveries would add something to our knowledge of the materials of the interior of our globe and their relation to those of meteorites. Still looking for fresh knowledge in the same direction, a series of pendulum observations should be taken at points as near as possible to the pole. Within the Arctic circle the pendulum makes about 240 more vibrations per day than it does at the equator. The vibrations increase in number there because the force of gravity at the earth’s surface is more intense in that area, and this again is believed to be due to the oblateness of that part of the earth’s figure, but it might be caused by the bodily approach to the surface at the poles of the masses of dense ultra-basie rocks just referred to. Thus, pendulum experiments may reveal to us the earth’s figure, and a series of such observations, recorded from such a vast and untried area, must yield important data for the physicist to work up. We should probably learn from such investigations whether the earth’s figure is as much flattened at the Antarctic as it is known to be at the Arctic. We now know that in the past the North Polar regions have enjoyed a temperate clinate more than once. Abundant seams of Paleozoic coal, large deposits of fossiliferous Jurassic rocks, and extensive Eocene beds, containing the remains of evergreen aud deciduous trees and flowering plants, occur far within the Arctic circle. This circumstance leads us to wonder whether the corresponding southern latitudes have ever experienced similar climatic vicissitudes. Conclusive evidence on this point it is difficult to get, but competent biologists who have ex- amined the floras and faunas of South Africa and Australia, of New Zealand, South America, and the isolated islets of the Southern Ocean, find features which absolutely involve the existence of an extensive Antarctic land—a land which must have been clothed with a varied vegetation, and have been alive with beasts, birds, and insects. As it also had had its fresh-water fishes, it must have had its rivers flowing and not frost-bound, and in those circumstances we again see indica- tions of a modified Antarctic climate. Let us briefly consider some of the evidence for the existence of this coutinent. We are told by Pro- fessor Hutton, of Christchurch, that 44 per cent. of the New Zealand flora is of Antarctic origin. The Auckland, Campbell, and Macquarie Islands all support Antarctic plants, some of which appear never to ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 297 have reached New Zealand. New Zealand and South America have three flowering plants in common, also two fresh-water fishes, five sea- weeds, three marine crustaceans, one marine mollusk, and one marine fish. Similarly New Zealand and Africa have certain common forms, and the floras and faunas of the Kerguelen, the Crozets, and the Marion Islands are almost identical, although in each case the islands are very small, and very isolated from each other and from the rest of the world. Tristan d’Acunha has fifty-eight species of marine Mollusca, of which number thirteen are also found in South America, six or seven in New Zealand, and four in South Africa (Hutton’s Origin of New Zealand Flora and Fauna). Temperate South America has seventy-four genera of plants in common with New Zealand, and eleven of its species are identical (Wallace’s Zsland Life). Penguins of the genus Eudyptes are common to South America and Australia (Wallace, Dist. of Animals, 1399). Three groups of fresh-water fishes are entirely con- fined to these two regions. Apbhritis, a fresh-water genus, has one species in Tasmania and two in Patagonia. Another small group of fishes known as the Haplochitonide inhabit Tierra del Fuego, the Falklands, and South Australia, and are not found elsewhere, while the genus Galaxias is confined to South Temperate Ameriva, New Zea- land, and Australia. Yet the lands which have these plants and animals in common are so widely separated from each other that they could not now possibly interchange their inhabitants. Certainly towards the equator they approach each other rather more, but even this fact fails to account for the present distribution, for, as Wallace has pointed out, “the heat-loving Reptilia afford hardly any indica- tions of close affinity between the two regions” of South America and Australia, “ whilst the cold-enduring Amphibia and fresh-water fishes offer them in abundance” (Wallace, Dist. of Animals, 1400). Thus we see that to the north interchange is prohibited by tropical heat, while it is barred to the south by a nearly shoreless circumpolar sea. Yet there must have been some means of intercommunication in the past, and it appears certain that it took the shape of a common father- land for the various common forms from which they spread to the northern hemisphere. As this father-land must have been accessible from all these scattered southern lands, its size and its disposition must have been such as would serve the emigrants either as a bridge or as a series of stepping-stones. It must have been either a continent or an archipelago. But a further and a peculiar interest attaches to this lost continent. Those who have any acquaintance with geology know that the placental Mammalia—that is, animals which are classed with such higher forms of life as apes, cats, dogs, bears, horses, and oxen—appear very abruptly with the incoming of the Tertiary period. Now, judging by analogy, it is not likely that these creatures can have been developed out of Mesozoic forms with anything like the suddenness of their apparent 298 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. entrance upon the scene. For such changes they must bave required along time, and an extensive region of the earth, and it is probable that each of them had a lengthy series of progenitors, which ultimately linked it back to lower forms. Why, then, it is constantly asked, if this was the sequence of crea- tion, do these missing links never turn up? In reply to this query, it was suggested by Huxley that they may have been developed in some lost continent, the boundaries of which were gradually shifted by the slow elevation of the sea margin on one side and its simultaneous slow depression upon the other, so that there has always been in existence a large dry area with its live stock. This dry spot, with its fauna and flora, like a great raft or Noah’s Ark, moved with great slowness in whatever direction the great earth-undulation travelled. But to-day this area, with its fossil evidences, is a sea-bottom; and Huxley sup- poses that the continent, which once occupied a part of the Pacifie Ocean, is now represented by Asia. This movement of land-surface translation eastwards eventually created a connection between this land and Africa and Europe, and if when this happened the mammalia spread rapidly over these countries, this circumstance would account for the abruptness of their appear- ance there. Now, Mr. Blanford, the president of the Geological Society of London, in his annual address, recently delivered, advances matters a stage further, for he tells us that a growing acquaintance with the biology of the world leads naturalists to a belief that the placental mammalia and other of the higher forms of terrestrial life originated during the Meso- zoie period still further to the southwards—that is to say, in the lost Antaretie continent, for the traces of which we desire to seek, But it almost necessarily follows that wherever the mammalia were developed there also man had his birth-place, and if these speculations should prove to have been well founded we may have to shift the loca- tion of the Garden of Eden from the northern to the southern hemis- phere. I need hardly suggest to you that possibilities such as these must add greatly to our interest in the recovery of any traces of this myste- rious region. This land appears to have sunk beneath the seas after the close of the Mesozoic. Now, the submergence of any mass of land will disturb the climatie equilibrium of that region, and the disappear- ance of an Antarctic continent would prove extremely potent in vary- ing the climate of this hemisphere. For to-day the sun’s rays fall on the South Polar regions to small purpose. The unstable sea absorbs the heat, and in wide and comparatively warm streams it carries off the caloric to the northern hemisphere to raise its temperature at the expense of ours. But when extensive land received those same heat rays, its rigid surfaces, so to speak, tethered their calorie in this hemi- ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 299 sphere, and thus when there was no mobile current to steal northwards with it, warmth could accumuiate and modify the climate. Under the influences of such changes the icy mantle would be slowly rolled back towards the South Pole, and thus many plants and animals were able to live and multiply in latitudes that to day are barren. What has undoubtedly occurred in the extreme north is equally possi- ble in the extreme south. Butif it did occur—if South Polar lands, now ice bound, were then as prolific of life as Disco and Spitzbergen once were—then, like Spitzbergen and Disco, the unsubmerged rem- nants of this continent may still retain organic evidences of the fact in the shape of fossil-bearing beds, and the discovery of such deposits would confirm or confute such speculations as these. The key to the geological problem lies within the Antarctic Circle, and to find it would be to recover some of the past history of the southern hemisphere. There is no reason to despair of discovering such evidence, as Dr. McCormack, in his account of Ross’s voyage, records that portions of Victoria Land were free from snow, and therefore available for inves- tigation; besides which their surface may still sapport some living forms, for they can not be colder or bleaker than the peaks which rise out of the continental ice of North Greenland, and these, long held to be sterile, have recently disclosed the existence upon them of a rich though humble flora. We have now to consider some important meteorological questions. If we look at the distribution of the atmosphere around the globe we shall see that it is spread unequally. It forms a stratum which is deeper within the tropics than about the poles and over the northern than over the southern hemisphere, so that the barometer normals fall more as we approach the Antarctic than they do when we near the Arctic. Maury, taking the known isobars as his guide, has caleulated that the mean pressure at the North Pole is 29.1, but that it is only 28 at the South (Maury’s Meteorology, 259). In other words, the Ant- arctic Circle is permanently much barer of atmosphere than any other part of the globe. Again, if we consult a wind chart we shall see that both poles are marked as calm areas. Each is the dead center of a perpetual wind vortex, but the South Polar indraught is the stronger. Polarward winds blow across the forty-fifth degree of north latitude for 189 days in the vear, but across the forty-fifth degree of south latitnde for 209 days. And while they are drawn in to the North Pole from over a disk-shaped area 5,500 miles in diameter, the South Polar in- draught is felt throughout an area of 7,000 miles across. Lastly, the winds which circulate about the South Pole are more heavily charged with moisture than are the winds of corresponding parts of the other hemisphere. Now, the extreme degree in which these three conditions, of a perpetual grand cyclone, a moist atmosphere, and a low barom- eter, co-operate without the Antarctic ought to produce within it an exceptional meteorological state, and the point to be determined is 300 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. what that condition may be. Maury maintained that the conjunction will make the climate of the South Polar area milder than that of the north. His theory is that the saturated winds being drawn up to great heights within the Antarctic must then be eased of their moisture, and that simultaneously they must disengage vast quantities of latent heat; and it is because more heat must be liberated in this manner in the South Polar regions than in the north that he infers a less severe cli- mate for the Antarctic. He estimates that the resultant relative differ- ences between the two polar climates will be greater than that between a Canadian and an English winter (Maury’s Meteorology, p. 466). Ross reports that the South Polar summer is rather colder than that of the north, but still the southern winter may be less extreme, and so the mean temperature may be higher. If we examine the weather reports logged by Antarctic voyagers, instead of the temperature merely, the advantage still seems to rest with the south. In the first place, when the voyager enters the Antarctic he sails out of a tem- pestuous zone into one of calms. To demonstrate the truth of this statement I have made an abstract of Ross’s log for the two months of January and February, 1841, which he spent within the Antarctic Circle. To enable everyone to understand it, it may be well to explain that the wind force is registered in figures from 0, which stands for a dead calm, up to 12, which represents a hurricane. I find that during these 60 days it never once blew with the force 8—that is, a fresh gale; only twice did it blow force 7, and then only for half a day each time. Force 5 to 6—fresh to strong breezes—is logged on 21 days. Force 1 to 3—that is, gentle breezes—prevailed on 34 days. The mean wind foree registered under the entire 60 days was 3.45—that is, only a 4 to 5 knot breeze. On 38 days blue sky was logged. They never hada single fog, and on 11 days only was it even misty. On the other hand, snow fell almost every second day. We find such entries as these: ‘‘ Beautifully clear weather,” and “Atmosphere so extraordinarily clear that Mount Herschel, distant 90 miles, looked only 30 miles distant.” And again, ‘Land seen 120 miles distant; sky beautifully clear.” Nor was this season exceptional, so far as we can tell, for Dr. McCormack, of the Hrebus, in the third year of the voyage, and after they had left the Antarctic for the third and last time, enters in his diary the fol- lowing remark. He says: “It is a curious thing that we have always met with the finest weather within the Antarctic circle; clear, cloudless sky, bright sun, light wind, and a long swell” (MeCormack’s Antarctic Voyage, vol. 1, p- 345). It would seem as if the stormy westerlies, so familiar to all Australian visitors, had given to the whole southern hemisphere a name for bad weather, which, as yet at least, has not been earned by the South Polar regions. It is probable, too, that the almost continuous gloom and fog of the Arctic (Scoresby’s Arctic Regions, pp. 97 and 137) July and August have prejudiced seamen against the Antaretie summer. The true character of the climate of this region is : ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 301 one of the problems awaiting solution. Whatever its nature may be, the area is so large and so near to us that its meteorology must have a dominant influence on the climate of Australia, and on. this fact the value of a knowledge of the weather of these parts must rest. To turn to another branch of science, there are several questions re- lating to the earth’s magnetism which require for their solution long- maintained and continuous observations within the Antarctic circle. The mean or permanent distribution of the world’s magnetism is be- lieved to depend upon causes acting in the interior of the earth, while the periodic variations of the needle probably arise from the superficial and subordinate currents produced by the daily and yearly variations in the temperature of the earth’s surface. Other variations occur at irregu- lar intervals, and these are supposed to be due to atmospheric electricity. All these different currents are excessively frequent and powerful about the poles, and asufficient series of observations might enable physicists to differentiate the various kinds of currents, and to trace them to their several sources, whether internal. superficial, or meteoric. To do this properly at least one land observatory should be established for a period, In it, the variation, dip, and intensity of the magnetic currents, as well as the momentary fluctuations, of these elements would all be recorded. Fixed term days would be agreed on with the observatories of Australia, of the Cape, America, and Europe, and during these terms a concerted continuous watch would be kept up all round the globe to determine which vibrations were local and which general. The present exact position of the principal south magnetic pole has also to be fixed, and data to be obtained from which to calculate the rate of changes in the future, and the same may be said of the foci of magnetic intensity and their movements. In rejation to this part of the subject, Captain Creak recently reported to the British Association his conclusions in the following terms. He says: ‘*“ Great advantage to the science of terrestrial magnetism would be derived from a new magnetic survey of the southern hemisphere extending from the parallel of 40° south, as far towards the geographical pole as possible.” Intimately connected with terrestrial magnetism are the phenomena of auroras. Their nature is very obscure, but quite recently a distinct advance has been made towards discovering some of the laws which regulate them. Thanks to the labors of Dr. Sophus Tromkolt, who has spent a year within the Arctic circle studying them, we now know that their movements are not as eccentric as they have hitherto ap- peared to be. He tells us that the Aurora Borealis, with its crown of many lights, encircles the pole obliquely, and that it has its lower edge suspended above the earth at a height of from 50 to 100 miles, the mean of 18 trigonometrical measurements, taken with a base line of 50 miles, being 75 miles. The aurora forms a ring round the pole which changes its latitude four times a year. At the equinoxes it attains its greatest distance from the pole, and at midsummer and midwinter it approaches 302 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. it most closely, and it has a zone of maximum intensity which is placed obliquely between the parallels of 60° and 70° N. The length of its meridional excursion varies from year to year, decreasing and increasing through tolerably regular periods, and reaching a maximum about every 11 years, when, also, its appearance simultaneously attains to its great- est brilliancy. Again, it has its regular yearly and daily movements or periods. At the winter solstice it reaches its maximum annual intensity, and it has its daily maximum at from 8 P. M. and 2 A. M., according to the latitude. Thus at Prague, in latitude 50° N., the lights appear at about 8.45 Pp. M.; at Upsala, latitude 60° N., at 9.30 Pp. M.; at Bossekop, 70° N., at 1.30 A. M. Now, while these data may be true for the northern hemisphere, it remains to be proved how far they apply to the southern. Indeed, seeing that the atmosphere of the latter region is moister and shallower than that of the former, it is probable that the phenomena would be modified. A systematic observation of the Aurora Australis at a number of stations in high latitudes is therefore desirable. Whether or not there is any connection between auroral exhibitions and the weather is a disputed point. Tromholt believes that such a re- lationship is probable (Under the Itays, 1283). He says that, “how- ever clear the sky, it always became overcast immediately after a vivid exhibition, and it generally cleared again as quickly” (Under the Rays, 1235). Payer declares that brilliant auroras were generally succeeded by bad weather (Voyage of Tegethoff, 1324), but that those which had a low altitude and little mobility appeared to precede calms. Ross re- marks of a particular display ‘that it was followed by a fall of snow, as usual” (Ross’s Voyage, 1312). Scoresby appears to have formed the opinion that there is a relationship indicated by his experience. It is, therefore, allowable to regard the ultimate establishment of some con- nection between these two phenomena as a possible contingency. If, then, we look at the eleven-year cycle of auroral intensity from the meteorological point of view, it assumes a new interest, for these periods may coincide with the cycles of wet and dry seasons which some meteorologists have deduced from the records of our Australian climate, and the culmination of the one might be related to some equivalent change in the other. For if a solitary auroral display be followed by a lowered sky, surely a period of continuous auroras might give rise to a period of continuous cloudy weather, with rain and snow. Fritz con- siders that he has established this eleven-year cycle upon the strength of auroral records extending from 1583 to 1874, and his deductions have been verified by others. In January, 1886, we had a wide-spread and heavy rain-fall, and also an auroral display seen only at Hobart, but which was sufliciently pow- erful to totally suspend communication over all the telegraph lines situ- ated between Tasmania and the China coast. This sensitiveness upon the part of the electric currents to aureral excitation is not novel, for long experience on the telegraph wires of Scandinavia bas shown that ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 303 there is such a delicate sympathy between them that the electric wires there manifest the same daily and yearly periods of activity as those that mark the auroras. The current that reveals itself in fire in the higher regions of the atmosphere is precisely the same current that plagues the operator in his office. Therefore, in the records of these troublesome earth currents, now being accumulated at the observatory by Mr. Ellery, we are collecting valuable data, which may possibly enable the physicist to count the unseen auroras of the Antarctic, to caleulate their periods of activity and lethargy, and, again, to check these with our seasons. But it need hardly be said that the observa- tions which may be made in the higher latitudes and directly under the rays of the Aurora Australis will have the greater value, because itis only near the zone of maximum auroral intensity that the phenomena are manifested in all their aspects. In this periodicity of the southern aurora I have named the last scientific problem to which I had to direct your attention, and I would point out that if its determination should give to us any clew to the changes in the Australian seasons which would enable us to forecast their mutations in any degree, it would give to us} in conducting those great interests of the country which depend for their success upon the annual rain-fall, an advantage which would be worth many times over all the cost of the expeditions necessary to establish it. Finally, there is a commercial object to be served by Antarctic ex- ploration, end it is to be found in the establishment of a whaling trade between this region and Australia. The price of whalebone has now risen to the large sum of £2,000 a ton, which adds greatly to the possi- bilities of securing to the whalers a profitable return. Sir James Ross aud his officers have left it on record that the whale of commerce was seen by them in these seas, beyond the possibility of a mistake. They have stated that the animals were large, and very tame, and that they could have been caught in large numbers. Within tine last few years whales have been getting very scarce in the Arctic, and in consequence of this two of the most successful of the whaling masters of the present day, Capts. David and John Gray, of Peterhead, Scotland, have devoted some labor to collecting all the data relating to this question, and they have consulted such survivors of Ross’s expedition as are still available. They have published the results of their investigations in a pamphlet, in which they urge the establishment of the fishery strongly, and they state their conclusions in the following words. They say: ‘We think it is established beyond doubt that whales of a species similar to the right or Greenland whale, found in high northern latitudes, exist in great numbers in the Antarctic seas, and that the establishment of a whale fishery within that area would be attended with successful and profitable results.” It is not necessary for me to add anything to the opinion of such experts in the business. All I desire to say is that if such a fishery were created, with its headquarters in Melbourne, it 304 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATITION. would probably be a material addition to our prosperity, and it would soon increase our population by causing the families of the hardy seamen who would man the fleet to remove from their homes in Shetland and Orkney and the Scotch coasts and settle here. In conclusion, I venture to submit that I have been able to point to good aud substantial objects, both scientific and commercial, to justify a renewal of Antarctic research, and | feel assured that nothing could bring to us greater distinction in the eves of the whole civilized world than such an expedition, judiciously planned and skillfully carried out. HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 3y Col. B. Wirskowsk1, of the General Staff, and Prof. J. HOWARD GorE, B.S., Ph. D. From the time of the unification of the several Moscovite states there has been felt the need of descriptions of the separate parts. But it was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that the inexact and un- satisfactory “Great PJan” made any attempt towards filling this need. Systematic geodetic operations, however, did not receive any attention until the time of Peter the Great, who sent out foreigners, especially invited for this purpose, together with such Russians as had been under their instruction, to make surveys of different parts of the empire. These disconnected surveys were made without any definite correlation of the separate parts, and in a very crude manner—using cords for measuring lines, astrolabes for angle determinations, and large quad- rants for latitude observations. When Delisle arrived in St. Petersburg in 1726, in response to an invitation from the emperor, an impetus was given to the exact sciences. In connection with the Academy of Sciences, founded likewise in 1726, he organized special astronomic expeditions for determining, in addi- tion to other work, the geographical position of points to check the geography of the Great Plan, and to make such revisions as might be necessary. In these operations longitudes were determined by the eclipse of Jupiter’s satellites. The result of these expeditions was the Russian Atlas, edited by the Academy in 1745, consisting of one gen- eral and nineteen special maps, constructed on a scale of 34 versts* to the inch. Notwithstanding its imperfections, this atlas was far superior to any of its period, and ante-dated all general maps except those of France and Italy. Delisle awakened great interest in astronomy at Russia’s capital, and secured the necessary permission and aid to observe every important astronomie event that was visible from any part of her domain. This created a need for assistants, and called forth a number of astronomers whose names are known to us, as Krassilnikow, a member of Bering’s expedition; Krashennikow, who made the first description of Kam- *1 verst equals 3,500 English feet. H. Mis. 129-20 305 306 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. chatka, and Roumovsky, explorer of northern European Russia. In 1789 the last named published a table of the geographical positions of sixty-two stations in Russia. It may be remarked, in this connection, that at that time no country of western Europe possessed such a number of well-determined places. In the eighteenth century the measurement of an are of the meridian was even planned, but why it was not earried out is not known at the present time. Delisle thought it possible to measure in the meridian of St. Petersburg an are of 22° or 25°, and in the year 1737 a base line was measured on the ice between St. Petersburg and Cronstadt and several stations were selected. In 1796, by order of the Emperor Paul, the Depot of Maps was insti- tuted, which laid a solid foundation for a separate department specially occupied with all the geodetic and cartographic work in the state. Soon after Schubert gave special instruction in astronomy and geodesy, looking to the better qualification of men for this work. But owing to the troublesome times at the beginning of the present century, a stop was put to the progress of all geodetic operations. However, carto- graphic work was making rapid progress, not only in the interior of the state, but in sich neighboring states as the fortunes of war introduced Russian troops, as for instance in 181618, while thearmy wasin France, more than 10,000 square versts were mapped. Inthissurvey mountains were for the first time drawn by cross hatchings, according to Lehman’s system. After the close of the war with Napoleon geodetic operations in Russia began to develop very rapidly, and lying at the foundation of accurate maps, the practical value was so apparent that no obstacle to their progress was encountered. The great extent of the country pre- cluded the plan which naturally suggested itself of covering the entire state with a network of triangulation before beginning the mapping. Consequently independent nets were started which later could be united and brought into a harmonious whole. Vilna was the first prov- ince which was covered by a triangulation. It was prosecuted in 1816- 1821, under the direction of General Tenner, and is of interest to us be- cause its principal triangle entered into the great meridional are. This work rested on three bases measured with an apparatus con- structed on the Borda principle under the supervision of Professor Reisig. Tenner discovered that the behavior of the metal components under varying temperatures was wholly unreliable and at once proposed an apparatus consisting of only one metal, in the shape of a bar of iron 14 feet long, with a slide projecting beyond the end of one of the bars to measure the interval between two bars when they are brought into approximate contact. This device has been employed in a variety of forms and is now known as the contact-siide. The temperature of the bars during the measuring was ascertained from two thermometers on each bar, the bulbs of which were inserted into the body of the bar. — HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 307 The angles in this net were measured with repeating circles, employing for each angle from twenty to fifty repetitions. For the probable error of angle determinations 0’’.62 was found to be anaverage. Astronomie observations were made at only one point with the longitudes referred to the observatory of Vilna. Almost simultaneously with the above-named operations in Vilna, a young enthusiastic astronomer of the Dorpat University, W. Struve, acting in response to a request from the Livonian Economical Society, covered Livonia with a trigonometrical net. In this work the angles were measured with a sextant and the bases with wooden rods, so that but little confidence can be placed in the results, still it was while en- gaged upon this work that Struve formed a liking for geodesy and con- ceived the plan of making a great arc measurement for the purpose of determining the lengths of degrees in different latitudes. His great interest in the work attracted the attention of the univer- sity authorities, and in answer to his request they furnished him with the necessary means and instruments. The base apparatus was of his own invention, and still bears his name. The salient feature intro- duced in its construction was the contact lever, which indicated on a graduated are over which one end of the lever swept the exact measur- ing length each time the bar was put in place. Inclination was deter- mined by means of a special level. A large theodolite, provided with four verniers, served as the angle- reading instrument. In this werk Struve was the first to abandon the seductive, unreliable method of repetition, using in its place the method of directions. It was so apparent to many that an angle measured say twenty times, with only one reading of the circle, would be affected by an error only one-twentieth as large as if the single reading corre- sponded to only one pointing. Struve clearly saw that this method introduced other errors more pernicious than those of reading, but so firmly was the Borda repeating circle fixed in the confidence of its users that had not Gauss embraced the new plan in his monumental work it is likely that the method of repetition would have continued to impair geodetic determinations. However much we are indebted to Gauss for assisting in the change, we owe the inception to Struve. The results of this first degree measurement, which extended from the isle of Hohland, in the Finnish Gulf, to the town Jacobstaadt, on the river Dvina, are given in Struve’s Breitengradmessung in den Ostseeprovinzen Russlands, Dorpat, 1831. On finishing this work, Struve, seeing no natural obstacles in the way, hoped to extend an are along the meridian of Dorpat. He was soon in a position to take up this undertaking, since as director of the observatory at Pulkova he was virtually at the head of all astronomie and geodetic operations in Russia. Fortunately he received the appro- bation of Emperor Nicholas, and under his patronage this branch of scientific work prospered. The great arc, which received well-nigh uninterrupted attention for more than 40 years, had as its central fea- 308 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. ture the Baltic are; to this was successively joined Feuner’s meridional chains in the provinces of Vilna, Lithonia, Volynia, and Podolsky. In the years 1830-1544, triangles were added until the chain reached from the isle of Hohland to Tornea, in the north, and in the following years Tenner carried the southern end through Bessarabia, terminating at Staraja-Nekrasovka, at the mouth of the Danube. For the continua- tion of the are northward from Tornea the co-operation of the Swedish Government was necessary, as the best disposition of the triangles threw the stations alternately in Russia and in Sweden, finally cross- ing the north of Norway. Struve went to Stockholm to lay the matter before King Oscar, who at once entered into the spirit of the under- taking, and not only gave his consent but contributed aid in carrying iton. In 1845, this part of the work was begun, and with the assist- ance of Selander, on the part of Sweden, and Hansteen, for Norway, the field work was completed in 1852. This entire are comprises 25° 20’, in which there are 258 principal triangles resting on ten base lines, and fixed in position on the earth’s surface by astronomic observations at thirteen stations. As a supple- ment to this work may be mentioned the chronometrical expedition between Pulkova and Dorpat, made in 1854. In this operation thirty- one chronometers were transported ten times. The details of this are measurement are given quite fully in “Are du Méridien,” which was published in French and Russian in 1860. This are has entered into all of the more recent determinations of the figure of the earth, and in the computations of General Bonsdorff it alone gives for the ellipticity sots9) Which agrees quite well with the best values. Ares of parallel have also received some attention. In 1526, the French Government announced that there was already in existence an are of parallel approximately in latitude 47° N. from Brest, on the west, to Techernowizt, on the east, and that if the Russians would continue this are eastward valuable geodetic data would result. The plan was received with favor, but different obstacles intervened, so that it was not until 1848 that it could be carried out. By this time the triangu- lation had reached the so-called New Russia, and in the general pur- pose to cover this entire section with a network of triangles General Wrochenko, the chief, received instructions to so perform his work that amongst his triangles there should be an uninterrupted chain along this parallel of such strength and accuracy that they could form an integral part of this are. The field operations continued without serious interruption up to their completion in 1856, extending over an are of about 20° ampli- tude from Bologan to Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga. For this work three bases have been measured in addition to the checks which came down from the northern work. As the determination of the am- plitude depends upon differences of longitudes this part of the work was delayed awaiting the construction of telegraph lines. At the HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 309 present time jongitudes of tive stations are known, and the final results will soon be published. In 1860, it was decided to carry an arc along the fifty-second parallel, which, when completed, would have, between Haversfordwest, in Eng- land, and Orsk, on the river*Ural, an amplitude of 63° 31’. To Russia’s share fell 29° 24’, while the other countries had their work finished. In addition to this, Russia at this time had only a few triangles suitably situated that were sufficiently accurate to form a part of this arc; therefore it was necessary to revise some of the former work and to add to it much that was wholly new. In the prosecution of this work many obstacles were met with, especiaily while traversing the marshes of Minsk, where, on account of the heavy timber and the flat character of the ground, it was necessary to build high signals, in some cases as much as 150 feet in height. The field operations were completed in 1872. One can form an idea of the magnitude of this triangulation when it is said that in Russia there are 321 triangles, of which 199 are taken from Tenner’s nets in Poland and along the Volga, while 122 were measured by Generai Zilinsky especially for this arc. They rest on seven base lines, two in Tenner’s chain and five in the eastern part. Fifteen astronomical stations haye been occupied for longitude determinations, chiefly by Russian officers, although six points were in other countries; these were: Breslau, Leipzig, Bonn, Newport, Greenwich, and Haversford- west. Time observations were made with portable transit instruments, and latitudes were ascertained from observations made with the ver- tical circles of Re psold. For the transmission of time, telegraphic signals consisting of the turning aside of the needle of a galvanoscope were employed. Between two complete determinations of time four groups of twelve signals each were sent at irregular intervals of time, varying from 13 to 17 seconds. Six repetitions of such a set consti- tuted a longitude determination. At the present time the computations are in press, forming parts of volumes 46 and 47 of the Memoirs of the Topographic Section of the General Staff. We are fortunately able to give the final results, as follows: , Stations. | Geodeto dit: ait of alae Ac ae | = ongitude. lel in metres. [o} ‘ “uw fe} ‘ uw uM C@henstob ow Warsaw cde cccenscceccaccecciecst| i Ry VG TM 1 54 8.85 +11. 08 131, 854.1 WTS Siwy COM Oncariacisinieioa a ae oceania esjacic mals 2 48 10.12] 9 48 3,45] — 6.67 192, 501.4 (rodno—DODTUISKeeee eso e eens ccc cc scene cee cer 5 23 38.38 5 23 46.50 + 8.12 370, 468, 1 BG DEMIS== One leash ere et eek ae 6° 50) L477. 6 50 23.70 + 8.93 469, 605. 9 Orel—ipetzles sescenesesaiesiscscnhusasiescaes sce: 3 32 24.02 3 32 18.15 — 5.87 243, 027. 2 ipet7zie— SaratOveocee. ssc aac sccssecess cesses 6 26 12.99) 6 26 25.35] 12.36 441, 906. 5 SEIGh Soni =k i ee 4 2 34.94) 4 2 21.60} —13.34 277, 561. 2 Samara—Orenbares son. ssc sccs ssc eccceceessces- ie le PTAA ay ihe saath + 8.83 344, 917.6 Orenburo—Orslese ee eee sede cease eke ate PHP Pairs 26 47.70 | —35.52 237, 290. 8 (Chensiphow.—Oxrsices saeeetenececan cue aaesaecie 39) 200 dees) oor ea) ol 15))) —12508 2, 709, 132. 8 310 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. In 1816, was begun the general triangulation of Russia which was to serve as the basis of accurate maps. At first the operations in differ- ent sections were isolated, and when connections were made discrep- ancies were discovered. This suggested to General Schubert, at the time chief of triangulation in the province of St. Peterburgh, that a central department having charge of all astronomie, geodetic, topo- graphic, and cartographic work should be established. His proposal was favorably received by the authorities, and in 1822, the Military Topographic Corps was founded with Schubert at its head. At the same time was organized the Topographic School, where young men could prepare themselves for service in the corps. That the founder showed great wisdom in forming his plan of organization is apparent from the fact that but few changes have taken place up to the present time. This institution is charged with all operations looking towards the complete mapping of all Russian possessions. These in a great part lie in inhospitable climes, and many are the abode of deadly fevers or sav- age hordes, so that the work is of surpassing difficulty. All this, how- ever, has delayed but not deterred the determined observers, so that at the present time nearly all Russia is provided with a secondary trian- gulation suitable for cartographic operations. In this work the only important feature introduced was in the measurement of base lines by means of wires. This method, known in Europe as the Jiiderin appa- ratus, consists of a pair of tapes of different metals, usually one brass and one steel, each 25 metres long. In measuring both are used side by side and are stretched under the action of a constant tension. Two sliding scales attached to the top of a tripod are adjusted so that the zero mark on one coincides with the end of the brass wire and the zero of the other coincides with the end of the steel wire. Then the wires are carried forward and the rear end of the brass wire is brought into coincidence with the zero of the scale which had been adjusted to its front end, and the same adjustment is made for the steel wire. If the two wires should remain equal in length there would be no disagree- ment in the zero marks, but as the rates of expansion of these two metals are widely different the distance between the zeros at the first laying of the wires is due to their unequal expansion, and each time the wires are put in place this distance is augmented or diminished according as the temperature is continually increasing or decreasing. rom this it can be seen that the entire base line can be regarded us measured by a single length of an apparatus constructed on the Borda principle and at a temperature equal to the mean temperature experi- enced in measuring. With these wires great speed can be attained, reaching as much as 8 kilometres a day, and judging from the Molos- kowizy base, where the discrepancy between two measures was only 1 centimeter in a base 9,822 metres, sufficient accuracy is readily secured. Not only for the purpose of determining the amplitude of ares of par- HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 311 allel, but also for locating or correcting the location of points distant from fixed observatories, was it early necessary to ascertain differences of longitude. ‘The first step in this direction was made in 1833, when fifty-six chronometers were transported in the steamer Hercules to points along the shores of the Baltic Sea. This was foliowed by several large or primary expeditions, fixing points from which smaller or sec- ondary expeditions radiated as from centers. The most important of these is the well-known expedition carried on under the direction of Struve, for determining the difference of longitude between Greenwich and Pulkova. The next was between Pulkova and Moscow, with forty chronometers. During these exchanges a great number of box chro- nometers were transported in carriages, and it was found that in a good spring vehicle, even over bad roads, the rate of the chronometers were as constant as when they were carried by water. In the frequent ex- peditions following these, when no less than eighty chronometers were employed, observations and comparisous were made not only at the terminal points, but also at several intermediate stations. The great number of chronometers in use made it necessary to find some means of lessening the time necessary for their comparison. When, as was at first the case, siderial and mean-time chronometers were com- pared, 4 minutes were lost while waiting for a coincidence. As the out- come of this necessity Struve invented the thirteen striker, that is, a chronometer making thirteen beats or strokes in 6 seconds. This gives, whether comparing with a star or mean chronometer, a coinci- dence every 6 seconds withina range of 0/.02, which is sufficiently accu- rate. An uncompensated chronometer always formed a part of the equipment, serving aS a means for finding the temperature coefficients of the compensated chronometers more satisfactorily than if tempera- tures were taken from accompanying thermometers. As one would expect, the Russians have made very elaborate investigations regarding the rates of chronometers and their disturbing causes. As soon as Russia was covered with a telegraphic net the new method of determining difference of longitudes was tried and at once adopted The first application of this scheme was in Finland, between the sta- tions Cronstadt and Uleaborg. This was in 1860, and since that time each year has witnessed at least one new determination. In 1868 ob- servations were made for finding the longitudes of Wiborg, Lovisa, Hel- singfors, and Albo with reference to Pulkova. In these operations - there was used for the first time the method of finding time by a tran- sit instrument set in the vertical of Polaris. This method had been known for along time, but had not been used because of the complicated computations involved. But W. Diillen, of Pulkova, gave formule and tables which made it possible to compute the correction of the clock almost as quickly as if the observations were made in the meridian. The greatest undertaking in the way of telegraphic longitudes are the labors of Shamgorst and Kulberg, who, in 1873~76, gave a series of oL2 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. points from Moscow to Vladivostak, covering Siberia and embracing ares having a total amplitude of more than 100°, This huge undertak- ing had two objects in view: to give the exact position of a number of stations which were to serve as the bases of numerous smajler opera- tions, especially chronometric expeditions, and to determine in the most accurate maner the longitude of stations where observations of the transit of Venus were to be made in 1874. The observations were made with portable transit instruments specially adapted for quick and convenient shifting in azimuth, making it possible to readily place the instrument in the vertical of Polaris. For latitudes these same instru- ments were used, being placed in the prime vertical. The account of this expedition takes up nearly the whole of the thirty-eighth volume of the Memoirs of the Topographical Section of the General Staff. Upon examination it is found that the latitudes were affected with a probable error of 0.1, while the probable error of a longitude deter- mination is 0.043. From the successive transmission of time back- wards and forwards the velocity of the galvanic current was found to be 93,548 kilometres per second. While the triangulation was in progress, zenith-distances were ob- served from which the heights of stations were completed, but these operations have not been consistently followed out, so that there are in many parts of Russia a lack of well-determined altitudes. General Tenner gave due attention to this special werk, and in his chain he united the Baltic and the Black Seas. His results showed that the former is 0.53 fathom higher, but as the probable error is 1.5 fathoms but little confidence was placed in the theory that there was any difter- ence in the level of these two seas. But with the Caspian Sea a dif- ferent state of affairs was supposed to exist. It had been suspected that this sea was lower than either of the two just named, so in 1836~37, a large expedition was organized, in which Fuss, Sawitch, and Sabler were participants. They began at Kagalnik near the Asov Sea, crossed the northern portion of the Caucasian deserts to the Tschornoi Rynok on the Caspian. for greater accuracy the zenith distances were meas- ured at very short distances, approximately 3.5 versts. These distances were ascertained by computation from short lines measured by placing’ bars end to end on a rope stretched tight. The results, published in 1849, showed that the Caspian Sea is 85.45 feet lower than the Black Sea. Subsequently almost the same value was obtained, but still later a value 4 feet greater was found, suggesting that the level of the Cas- pian is decreasing. This fact has had further demonstration. The academician Lenz made a mark on arock near the town of Baku ex- actly on a level with the sea; this mark in 1861 was 3.93 feet higher than the water, and more recent comparisons show that the difference is increasing. The other Russian interior sea, the Aral, is,on the contrary, higher than the level of the ocean. The special levelling party sent out for HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 313 this purpose in 1874, came to the conclusion that the Aral Sea is higher than the Caspian by 243 feet. In 1871, systematic spirit leveling was begun, and in its prosecution many interesting facts have been brought to light. One of these is the different levels of the water in the Baltic Sea. Taking 0 for the level of water at Cronstadt, the height of the sea level proves to be: Metres. Act WeVOls ac... 222. CoS ores bee eeeoee ate — 0.57 MEMO MMATIIMO Oss 2:5 oo oad 2 SSL oe see — 0.88 JN LTO sae gm a — 1.24 Another is the discrepancy between spirit levelling and geodetic level- ling in obtaining the elevation of the threshold of the Dorpat Observa- tory. This amounts to nearly 4 metres, and is suggestive of a consid- erable local disturbance. The first local attraction observed in Russia was in the neighborhood of Moscow, where, owing to the absence of hills, one might least ex- pect a discrepancy between geodetic and astronomic results. Soon after the completion of the triangulation in the province of Moscow this deflection attracted public attention, and the astronomer Schweizer undertook a special investigation. The result showed that in this province, almost in the direction from east to west, there is a strip along whose northern boundary there is a considerable (5/’) northern detlec- tion, and on the southern border a southerly deflection of 10”. It is supposed that along this belt there must be a vast extent of matter of comparatively small density, or underlying it great cavities. The most elaborate investigation of local deflection of the plumb-line was made in the Caucasus by General Stebnizki and published in the Memoirs of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences for 1870. From the analysis of the astronomic and trigonometric operations executed on both sides of the principal Caucasian ridge it became evident that, in general, to the north of the mountains there exists a deflection to the south and on the south an opposite deflection. The greatest dis- crepancies in the astronomic and geodetic latitudes proved to be in Viadikaukasus, —35/.76; in Alexandrovskaja, —18/.14; in Petrovk, —18”.56; and in Dushet, +18”.29. Availing himself of the surveys already executed furnishing a great number of very accurately deter- mined points, General Stebnizki computed the effect which the attrac- tion of the exterior mountainous mass would have upon the astronomic latitude of the different stations. In these computations no attracting mass was considered which was distant more than 240 versts, while the chief disturbing causes were frequently found to lie within a circle with a radius of 80 versts, the station occupying the central point. It was found that the greater part of the noted discrepancies were sufficiently accounted for by the law of attraction having regard to the exterior mass alone. In the cases just cited the computed differences reduced the stationerrors to 3”, —1/ .31, +-2/.15 and —0’.86. But there are other 314 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. stations where the computed attraction is cither insufficient for the ex- planation of the observed discrepancy or even contradicts it. Among such stations the following are remarkable: Elisabetpol. | Tiflis. Shemaha. u” u ” The Observed: dEHSCHION c.paavssueddc wemccaes eho cers cemeeeeniee —7. 66 — 32.75 —-23.21 Mhercomputed denection =... soon. ace soe ses cnde ney Manmaelsioee -.2. 41 —20. 50 +16. 43 IDFerenCG sass Hes Re wrens, bs ee@ ume aw see cele ob dealer anees —9.97 —12, 25 —39. 64 As all of these stations lie approximately on the same parallel, and each showed a strong deflection to the south, there must lie to the south under the surface of the earth an extent of matter of great density, or to the north under the Caucasian ridge a mass of less density. The latter hypothesis has found a parallel in the deflections observed near the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. Besides the latitude deflections, General Stebnizki calculated the deflections of the vertical at longitude stations, but their number so far is insufficient to serve as a basis for generalization. For more than a century, the pendulum has been regarded in Russia as a geodetic instrument of great value, but no very accurate observa- tions were made prior to 182629, when Captain Lutke made a cruise around the world on the man-of-war Seniavin. He swung a Kater pendulum at ten stations. The results, published in 1833, gave for the ellipticity 1: 267.8, or 1: 269 if two somewhat doubtful stations are disregarded. Besides the desultory observations of Professor Parrot of Dorpat in 1829, nothing of consequence was attempted until 186568, when the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg sent out an expedition in charge of Sawitch, Smyslow, and Lenz. They selected twelve stations along the great Russian meridional are (Tornea, Nicolaistad, St. Petersburg, Reval, Dorpat, Jakobstadt, Vilna, Belin, Kremenetz, Kishener, Kamenetz and Ismail), and employed a reversible Repsold pendulum. The results 1 : 309 for the ellipticity of the earth. Since this time, many observations have been made in various portions of the Russian domain, and with the pendulum work, as with all other branches of geodetic operations, the best methods soon find a place, and results are obtained that are comparable with those of any country. QUARTZ FIBERS* by ©. Vv. BOYS eae Dh In almost all investigations which the physicist carries out in the lab- oratory, he has to deal with and to measure with accuracy those subtle and to our senses inappreciable forces to which the so-called laws of nature give rise. Whether he is observing by an electrometer the be- havior of electricity at rest, or by a galvanometer the action of elec- tricity in motion; whether in the tube of Crookes he is investigating the power of radiant matter, or with the famous experiment of Cavendish he is finding the mass of the earth—in these and in a host of other cases he is bound to measure with certainty and accuracy forces so small that in no ordinary way could their existence be detected; while disturbing causes which might seem to be of no particular consequence must be eliminated if his experiments are to have any value. It is not too much to say that the very existence of the physicist depends upon the power which he possesses of producing at will and by artificial means forces against which he balances those that he wishes to measure. _ Lhad better perhaps at once indicate in a general way the magnitude of the forces with which we have to deal. The weight of a single grain is not to our senses appreciable, while the weight of a ton is sufficient to crush the life out of anyone ina moment. A ton is about 15,000,000 grains. It is quite possible to measure with unfailing accuracy forces which bear the same relation to the weight of a grain that a grain bearsto a ton. To show how the torsion of wires or threads is made use of in meas- uring forces, I have arranged what I can hardly dignify by the name of an experiment. It is simply a straw hung horizontally by a piece of wire. Resting on the straw is a fragment of sheet-iron weighing 10 grains. A magnet so weak that it can not lift the iron yet is able to pull the straw round through an angle so great that the existence of the feeble attraction is evident to everyone in the room. Now it is clear that if, instead of a straw moving over the table simply, “Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, on Friday, Jnne 14, 1889. (From Nature, July 11, 1889, and October 16, 1890, vols. XL, pp. 247-251, and x11, pp. 604-608. ) 315 316 QUARTZ FIBERS. we had here an arm in a glass case and a mirror to read the motion of the arm, it would be easy to observe a movement a hundred or a thou- sand times less than that just produced, and therefore to measure a force a hundred or a thousand times less than that exerted by this feeble magnet. Again, if instead of wire as thick as an ordinary pin I had used the finest wire that can be obtained, it would have opposed the movement of the straw with a far less force. It is possible to obtain wire ten times finer than this stubborn material, but wire ten times finer is much more than ten times more easily twisted. Itis ten thousand times more easily twisted. ‘This is because the torsion varies as the fourth power of the diameter, so we say 10x10 = 100; 100x100 =10,000. Therefore with the finest wire, forces 10,000 times feebler still could be observed. It is therefore evident how great is the advantage of reducing the size of a torsion wire. Even if it is only halved the torsion is reduced sixteen-fold. To give a better idea of the actual sizes of such wircs and fibers as are in use I shall show upon the screen a series of photographs taken by Mr. Chapman, on each of which a scale of thousandths of an inch has been printed. 0 5 10 Cea es See oie bere Scale of 1000ths of an inch for Figs. 1 to 7. Thescale of Figs. 8 and 9 is much finer. The first photograph (Fig.1)is an ordinary hair—a sufficiently familiar object, and one that is generally spoken of as if it were rather fine. Much finer than this is the specimen of copper wire now on the screen QUARTZ FIBERS. ole (Fig. 2), which [ recently obtained from Messrs. Nalder Brothers. Itis only a little over one-thousandth of an inch in diameter. Ordinary spun glass, a most beautiful material, is about one-thousandth of an inch in diameter, and this would appear to be an ideal torsion thread (Fig. 3). Owing to its fineness its torsion would be extremely small, and the more so because glass is more easily deformed than metals. Owing to its very great strength, it can carry heavier loads than would be expected of it. I imagine many physicists must have turned to this material in their endeavor to find a really delicate torsion thread. I have so turned only to be disappointed. It hasevery good quality but one, and that is its imperfect elasticity. For instance, a mirror hung by a piece of spun glass is casting an image of a spot of light on the scale. If I turn the mirror, by means of a fork, twice to the right, and then turn it back again, the light does not come back to its old point of rest, but oscillates about a point on one side, which however is slowly changing, so that it is impossible to say what the point of rest really is. Further, if the glass is twisted one way first, and then the other way, the point of rest moves in a manner which shows that it is not influenced by the last deflection alone; the glass remembers what was done to it previously. For this reason spun glass is quite unsuit- able as a torsion thread ; it is impossible to say what the twist is at any time, and therefore what is the force developed. So great has the difficulty been in finding a fine torsion thread that the attempt has been given up, and in all the most exact instruments silk has been used. The natural cocoon fibers, as shown on the screen (Fig. 4), consist of two irregular lines gummed together, eacb about one two-thousandth of an inch in diameter. These fibers must be separated from one another and washed. Then each component will, according to the ex- periment of Gray, carry nearly 60 grains before breaking, and can be safely loaded with 15 grains. | Silk is there- fore very strong, carrying at the rate of from 10 to 20 tons to the square inch. It is further valuable in that its tor- sion js far less than that of a fiber of the same size of metal or even of glass, if such could be produced. The torsion of silk, though exceedingly small, .is quite sufficient to upset the working of any delicate instrument, because it is never constant. At one time the fiber twists one way, and another time in another, and the evil effect can only be initigated by using large apparatus in which strong forces are developed. Any attempt that may be made to increase the delicacy of apparatus by reducing their dimensions is at once prevented by the relatively great importance of the vagaries of the silk suspension. The result then is this. The smallness, the length of period, and therefore delicacy, of the instruments at the 318 QUARTZ FIBERS. physicist’s disposal have until lately been simply limited by the behavior ofsilk. A more perfect suspension means still more perfect instruments, and therefore advance in knowledge. It was in this way that some improvements that I was making in an instrument for measuring radiant heat came to a dead-lock about 2 years ago. I would not use silk, and I could not find anything else that would do. Spun glass even, was far too coarse for my purpose; it was a thousand times too stiff. There is a material invented by Wollaston long ago, which however I did not try because it is so easily broken. It is platinum wire which has been drawn in silver, and finally separated by the action of nitric acid. A specimen about the size of a single line of silk is now on the screen, showing the silver coating at one end (Fig. 5). As nothing that I knew of could be obtained that would be of use to me, I was driven to the necessity of trying by experiment to find some new material. The result of these experiments was the development of a process of almost ridiculous simplicity which it may be of interest for me to show. The apparatus consists of a small cross-bow, and an arrow made of straw with a needle point. To the tail of the arrow is attached a fine rod of quartz which has been melted and drawn out in the oxy- hydrogen jet. I have a piece of the same material in my hand, and now after melting their ends and joining them together, ap operation which produces a beautiful and dazzling light, all I have to do is to liberate the string of the bow by pulling the trigger with one foot, and then if ali is well a fiber will have been drawn by the arrow, the existence of which can be made evident by fastening to it a piece of stamp paper. In this way threads can be produced of great length, of almost any degree of fineness, of extraor- dinary uniformity, and of enormous strength. I do not believe, if any experimentalist. had been prom- ised by a good fairy that he might have anything he desired, that he would have ventured to ask for any one thing with so many valuable properties as these fibers possess. I hope in the course of this evening to show that I am not exaggerating their merits. In the first place, let me say something about the degree of fineness to which they can be drawn. There is now projected upon the screen a quartz fiber one five-thousandth of an inch in diameter (Fig. 6). This is one which I had in constant use in an instrument loaded with about 30 grains. It has a section only one-sixth of that of a single Fic. 5. QUARTZ FIBERS. 319 line of silk, and it is just as strong. Not being or- ganic, it is in no way affected by changes of moisture and temperature, and so it is free from the vagaries of silk which give so much trouble. The piece used in the instrument was about 16 inches long. Had it been necessary to employ spun glass, which hitherto was the finest torsion material, then, instead of 16 inches, I should have required a piece 1,000 feet long, and an instrument as high as the Hiffel tower to put it in. There is no difficulty in obtaining pieces as fine as this, yards loug if required, nor in spinning it very much finer. There is upon the screen a single line made by the small garden spider, and the size of this is perfectly evident (Fig.7). You now see a quartz fiber far finer than this, or, rather, you see a diffraction phe- nomenon, for no true image is formed at all; but even this is a conspicuous object in comparison with the tapering ends, which it is absolutely impossible to trace in a microscope. The next two photographs, taken by Mr. Nelson, whose skill and resources are so famous, represent the extreme end of a tail of quartz, and though the scale is a great deal larger than that used in the other photographs, the end will be visible only to a few. Mr. Nelson has photographed here what it is absolutely impossible to see. What the size of these ends may be I have no means of telling. Dr. Royston Piggott has estimated some of them at less than one-millionth of an inch, but what- ever they are they supply for the first time objects of extreme smaliness the form of which is certainly known, and therefore I can not help look- ing upon them as more satisfactory tests for the microscope than diatoms and other things of the real shape of which we know nothing whatever. Since figures as large as a million can not be realized properly, it may be worth while to give an illustration of what is meant by a fiber one- millionth of an inch in diameter. A piece of quartz an inch long and an inch in diameter would, if drawn out to this degree of fineness, be sufficient to go all the way round the world 658 times; or a grain of sand just visible—that is, one- hundredth of an inch long and one-hundredth of an inch in diameter— would make 1,000 miles of such thread. Further, the pressure inside such a thread due to a surface tension equal to that of water would be 60 atmospheres. Going back to such threads as can be used in instruments, I have made use of fibers one ten-thousanth of an inch in diameter, and in these the torsion is 10,000 times less than that of spun glass. As these fibers are made finer their strength increases in proportion 320 QUARTZ FIBERS. to their size, and surpasses that of ordinary bar steel, reaching, to use the language of engineers, as high a figure as 80 tons to the inch. Fibers of ordinary size have a strength of 50 tons to the inch. While it is evident that these fibers give us the means of producing an exceedingly small torsion, and one that is not affected by weather, it is not yet evident that they may not show the same fatigue that makes spun glass useless. I have therefore a duplicate apparatus with a quartz fiber, and you will see that the spot of light comes back to its true place on the screen after the mirror has been twisted round twice. I shall now for amoment draw your attention to that peculiar property of melted quartz that makes threads such as I have been describing a possibility. A liquid cylinder, as Plateau has so beautifully shown, is an unstable form. It can no more exist than can a pencil stand on its point. It immediately breaks up into a series of spheres. This is well illustrated in that very ancient experiment of shooting threads of resin electrically. When the resin is hot, the liquid cylinders which are pro- jected in all directions break up into spheres, as you see now upon the screen. As the resin cools they begin to develop tails; and when it is cool enough, 7. ¢., sufficiently viscous, the tails thicken, and the beads become less, and at last uniform threads are the result. The series of photographs show this well. There is a far more perfect illustration which we have only to gointo the garden to find. There we may see in abundance what is now upon the screen—the webs of those beautiful geo- metrical spiders. The radial threads are smooth, like the one you saw a few minutes ago, but the threads that go round and round are beaded. The spider draws these webs slowly, and at the same time pours upon them a liquid, and still further to obtain the effect of launching a liquid eylinder in space he, or rather she, pulls it out like the string of a bow, and lets it go with a jerk. The liquid cylinder can not exist, and the result is what you now see upon the screen (Fig. 8). A more perfect illustration of the regular breaking up of a liquid cylinder it would be impossible to find. “he beads are, as Plateau showed they ought to be, alternately large and small, and their regularity is marvellous. Sometimes two still smaller beads are developed, as may be seen in the second photograph, thus completely agreeing with the results of Plateau’s investigations. I have heard it maintained that the spider goes round her web and places these beads there afterwards. But since a Fic.8. web with about 360,000 beads is completed in an hour—that is, at the rate of about 100 a second—this does not seem likely. That what I have said is true, is made more probable by the photograph of QUARTZ FIBERS. 321 a beaded web that I have made myself by simply stroking a quartz fiber with a straw wetted with castor oil (Fig. 9). It is rather larger than a spider line; but I have made beaded threads, using a fine fiber, quite indistinguishable from a real spider web, and they have the further similarity that they are just as good for catching flies. Now, going back to the melted. quartz, it is evident that if it ever became perfectly liquid it could not exist as a fiber for an instant. It is the extreme viscosity of quartz, at the heat even of an electric arc, that makes these fibers possible. The only difference between quartz in the oxy- hydrogen jet, and quartz in the are, is that in the first you make threads and in the second are blown bubbles. I have in my hand some microscopic bubbles of quartz showing all the perfection of form and color that we are familiar with in the soap bubble. An invaluable property of quartz is its power of insulating perfectly, even in an atmosphere saturated with water. The gold leaves now diverging were charged some time before the lecture, and hardly show any change, yet the insulator is arod of quartz only three-quarters of an inch long, and the air is kept moist by a dish of water. The quartz may even be dipped in the water and replaced with the water upon it without any difference in the insulation being observed. Not only can fibers be made of extreme fineness, but they are won- derfully uniform in diameter. So uniform are they that they perfectly stand an optical test so severe that irregularities invisible in any mi- croscope would immediately be made apparent. Everyone must have noticed when the sun is shining upon a border of flowers and shrubs how the lines which spiders use as railways to travel from place to place glisten with brilliant colors. These colors are only produced when the fibers are sufficiently fine. If you take one of these webs and exam- ine it in the sunlight, you will find that the colors are variegated, and the effect consequently is one of great beauty. A quartz fiber of about the same size shows colors in the same way, but the tint is perfectly uniform on the fiber. If the color of the fiber is examined with a prism, the spectrum is found to consist of alternate bright and dark bands. Upon the screen are photographs taken by Mr. Briscoe, a student in the laboratory of South Kensington, of the spectra of some of these fibers at different angles of incidence. It will be seen that coarse fibers have more bands than fine, and that the num- ber increases with the angles of incidence of the light. There are pecu- liarities in the march of the bands as the angle increases which I can not describe now. I may only say that they appear to move not uni- formly but in waves, presenting very much the appearance of a cater- pillar walking. H. Mis. 129-———21 Fic. 9. 322 QUARTZ FIBERS. és So uniform are the quartz fibers that the spectrum from end to end consists of parallel bands. Occasionally a fiber is found which presents a slight irregularity here and there. A spider line is so irregular that these bands are hardly observable; but as the photograph on the screen Shows, it is possible to trace them running up and down the spectrum when you know what to look for. To show that these longitudinal bands are due to the irregularities, I have drawn a taper piece of quartz by hand, in which the two edges make with one another an almost imperceptible angle, and the spec- trum of this shows the gradual change of diameter by the very steep angle at which the bands run up the spectrum. Into the theory of the development of these bands I am unable to enter; that is a subject upon which your professor of natural philos- ophy is best able to speak. Perhaps I may venture to express the hope, as the experimental investigation of this subject is now rendered possible, that he may be induced to carry out a research for which he is so eminently fitted. Though this is a subject which is altogether beyond me, I have been able to use the results in a practical way. When it is required to place into an instrument a fiber of any particular size, all that has to be done is to hold the frame of fibers toward a bright and distant light, and look at them through a low-angled prism. The banded spectra are then visible, and it is the work of a moment to pick out one with the number of bands that has been found to be given by a fiber of the de- sired size. A coarse fiber may have a dozen or more, while such fibers as I find most useful have only two dark bands. Much finer ones ex- ist, showing the colors of the first order with one dark band; and fibers so fine as to correspond to the white or even the gray of Newton’s scale are easily produced. Passing now from the most scientific test of the uniformity of these fibers, I shall next refer to one more homely. It is simply this: the common garden spider, except when very young, can not climb up one of the same size as the web on which she displays such activity. She is perfectly helpless, and slips down with a run. After vainly trying to make any headway, she finally puts her hands (or feet) into her mouth, and then tries again, with no better success. I may mention that a male of the same species is able to run up one of these with the greatest ease, a feat which may perhaps save the lives of a few of these unprotected creatures when quartz fibers are more common. It is possible to make any quantity of very fine quartz fiber without a bow and arrow at all, by simply drawing out a rod of quartz over and over again in a strong oxyhydrogen jet. Then, if a stand of any sort has been placed a few feet in front of the jet, it will be found cov- ered with a maze of thread, of which the photograph on the screen rep- resents a sample. This is hardly distinguishable from the web spun. QUARTZ FIBERS. aoe by this magnificent spider in corners of greenhouses and such places. By regulating the jet and the manipulation, anything from one of these stranded cables to a single ultra-microscope line may be developed. And now that I have explained that these fibers have such valuable properties, it will no doubt be expected that I should perform some feat with their aid which, up to the present time, has been considered impossible, and this I intend to do. Of all experiments the one which has most excited my admiration is the famous experiment of Cavendish, of which I have a full-size model before you. The object of this experiment is to weigh the earth by comparing directly the force with which it attracts things with that due to large masses of lead. As is shown by the model, any attraction which these large balls exert on the small ones will tend to deflect this 6-foot beam in one direction, and then if the balls are reversed in posi- tion the deflection will be in the other direction. Now, when it is con- sidered how enormously greater the earth is than these balls, it will be evident that the attraction due to them must be in comparison excess- ively small. To make this evident the enormous apparatus you see had to be constructed, and then, using a fine torsion wire, a perfectly certain but small effect was produced. The experiment however could only be successfully carried out in cellars and underground places, because changes of temperature produced effects greater than those due to gravity.* Now I have—in a hole in the wall—an instrument no bigger than a galvanometer, of which a model is on the table. The balls of the Cav- endish apparatus, weighing several hundredweight each, are replaced by balls weighing 13 pounds only. The smaller balls of 13 pounds are replaced by little weights of 15 grains each. The 6-foot beam is re- placed by one that will swing round freely in a tube three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The beam is, of course, suspended by a quartz fibre. With this microscopic apparatus, not only is the very feeble attraction observable, but I can actually obtain an effect eighteen times as great as that given by the apparatus of Cavendish, and, what is more important, the accuracy of observation is enormously increased. The light from a lamp passes through a telescope lens and falls on the mirror of the instrument. It is reflected back to the table, and thence by a fixed mirror to the scale on the wall, where it comes to a focus. If the mirror on the table were plane, the whole movement of the light would be only about 8 inches, but the mirror is convex, and this magnifies the motion nearly eight times. At the present moment the attracting weights are in one extreme position, and the line of light is quiet. I will now move them to the other position, and you will see the result—the light slowly begins to move, and slowly increases in *Dr. Lodge has been able, by an elaborate arrangement of screens, to make this attraction just evident to an audience.—C., Y. B, 324 QUARTZ FIBERS. movement. In 40 seconds it will have acquired its highest velocity, and in 40 more it will have stopped at 5 feet 84 inches from the start- ing point, after which it will slowly move back again, oscillating about its new position of rest. It is not possible at this hour to enter into any calculations; I will only say that the motion you have seen is the effect of a force of less than one ten-millionth of the weight of a grain, and that with this apparatus lean detect a force two thousand times smaller still. There would be no difficulty even in showing the attraction between two No. 5 shot. And now in conclusion, I would only say that if there is anything that is good in the experiments to which I have this evening directed your attention, experiments conducted largely with sticks and string and straw and sealing-wax, I may perhaps be pardoned if I express my conviction that in these days we are too apt to depart from tbe simple ways of our fathers, and instead of following them, to fall down and worship the brazen image which the instrument-maker hath set up. Il Before I enter upon the subject upon which I have to address you, I wish to point out that, quite apart from any deficiency on my part which will be only too apparent in the course of the evening, it is my inten- tion to commit two faults which may well be considered unpardonable. In the first place, I shall speak entirely about my own experiments, even though I know that the iteration of the first personal pronoun for the space of one hour is apt to be as monotonous to an audience as it is wanting in taste on the part of a lecturer. In the second place, I am going almost to depend upon the motions of a spotof light to illustrate the actions which I shall have to describe, in spite of the fact that it is impossible for an audience to get up any enthusiasm when watching the wandering motion of a spot of light the result of the manipulation of a mystery box, of which it is impossible to see the inside. These however are faults which are the immediate consequence of the nature of my subject. Physicists deal very largely with the measurement of extremely mi- nute forces, which it is of the utmost importance that they should be able to measure accurately. Now, forces may be considered under two aspects. It may be that the force which is developed and which has to be measured is a twist, in which case the twisting force may be ap- plied to the end of a wire directly, when the amount through which that wire is twisted is a measure of the twisting force. Or the force may bea direct pull or a push, which may also be measured by the twist of a wire if itis applied to the end of a lever or arm carried by the wire. * Lecture delivered on September &, 1890, at the Leeds meeting of the British Asso- ciation. QUARTZ FIBERS. 325 Now supposing that the foree—whether of the nature of a twist or of a pull (it does not matter which)—is too small to produce an appreciable twist in the wire, it is obvious that a finer wire must be employed, but it is not obvious how much more easily a fine wire is twisted than a coarse one. If the fine wire is one-tenth of the diameter of the coarse one, we must multiply ten by itself four times over in order to find how much more easily twisted it is, and thus obtain the enormous number 10,000; it is 10,000 times more easily twisted than the coarse one. Thus there is an enormous advantage in increasing the minuteness of the wire by means of which feeble twisting or pulling forces are meas- ured. Butif the delicacy of the research is such that even the finest wire which can be made is still too stiff, then, even though with such wire, which is somewhere about the thousandth of an inch in diameter, forces as small as the millionth part of the weight of a single grain can be detected with certainty, the wire is of no use; and as wire can not be made finer, some other material must be used. Spun glass is fine and strong, and is still more easily twisted than the finest wire, but it possesses a property somewhat analogous to putty. When it has been twisted and then let go, it does not come back to its old place, so that though it is much more largely twisted than wire by the application of a force, it is not possible with accuracy to measure that force. There is, or rather I should say there was, no material that could be used as a torsion thread finer than spun glass; and therefore physicists use in- stead a fiber almost free from torsion. ie f ‘ <0. éh eta co Tiles Cian Litt = ¢ } { THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO DAY.* By VicroR MEYER. Translated by L. H. FriepBurG.t When, a short time ago, I was called upon to speak before you, I gladly and zealously approached the work which such an occasion seemed to call forth. It seemed to me that it would be an effort worthy of this assemblages of scientific men to recall the permanent addi- tions that chemistry has made in our day to the treasure of human knowledge and to enumerate the problems which seem to lie nearest us in the future. A science which, as such, is hardly older than the great European revolution, the centennial of which we witnessed a few months ago, and which in this short time has caused changes in our spiritual and material life hardly less than those of the political revolution, such a science, I have thought, may without temerity boast of its achieve ments. And yet the chemist approaches such a task with a certain hesita- tion from which the astronomer, the physicist, and the mathematician are free. Has it not been in our own day that the most prominent ora- tor amongst German naturalists, one who astonishes us by the compre- hensiveness of his knowledge, has adopted as his own Kant’s judgment on chemistry, namely, that ‘*chemistry is a science, but not a science in the highest sense of the word; that is, a knowledge of nature reduced to mathematical mechanics.” And this dictum is accepted, not as a blemish upon our science, but with the fullest and most perfect recog- nition of the immense achievements which modern chemistry has regis- tered as its own. But all of the marvellous successes of the atomic theory and of the doctrine of structure, the synthesis of the most complicated organic compounds, the blessings of an enlarged pharmacopeia, the potent revolution in technological processes, the new and systematic methods * An address delivered at Heidelberg at the first general session of the sixty-sec- ond meeting of the Association of German Naturalists and Physicians, September 18, 1289. t From the Deutsche Rundschau, November, 1889. (Re-printed from the Journal of the American Chemical Society, September, 1889, vol. xr, pp. 101-120.) 361 362 THE CHEMICAL PKOBLEMS OF TO-DAY. of production which have been characterized by an eminent technolo- gist as “the gaining of gold from rubbish ”—all this seems trifling to the mind that looks down from its standpoint of mathematical mechan- ics When compared with the work of a promised Newton of chemistry, who some day will represent chemical reactions in the thought and in the language of mathematical physics. And if he who looks from a height is justified in the expression that to-day chemistry, in the recognition of ultimate causes, stands yet below astronomy of the time of Kepler and Copernicus, must not the chemist lose courage if he attempts, before an illustrious assemblage, to raise a song of praise to his science, to glorify what she has done and what in the future she seems chosen to do? If in spite of this the attempt be made, it must be with that resignation which rests upon the belief that “ we should consider everything, but aim only at that which is possible.” Though we share, with full conviction, the expectations of a New- tonian period in chemistry, we hardly venture to hope that that period is near, and even the most enlightened representatives of the newer physical chemistry seem but precursors of that distant era. Perhaps the chemist, immersed in the daily work of his science, fails to take the comprehensive view of one who from a distant height looks down upon the same. But those who are surrounded by the whirl of hourly renewed work recognize all the more clearly the immense amount that remains stili to be achieved before those distant aims can be realized. This epoch, so rich in path-finders in the department of physies, has rarely directed the highest order of research into the ter- ritory of our science, and especially have the more complicated chem- ical phenomena been avoided. If in a period that has witnessed the discoveries of Helmholtz, Robert Mayer, Joule, Clausius, and van’t Hoff, the revolutionizing progress of knowledge has been limited to physies, and if only modest applications of what was gained have been made in related studies, then the epoch seems not yet to be at hand in which chemical processes can be thought of as we think of the movements which we feel as sound, light, or heat. A humiliating statement! But, strange to say, the chemist of to-day has hardly time to complain of this resignation imposed upon him, and this for reasons easily understood. If without question it is the aim of all natural science to under- stand phenomena so fully that they may be described in a mathematical form, and, as far as they are unknown, may be predicted, a science which is so far distant from this aim as to look merely for the path that shall some day lead to it, must be considered as in its infancy. In the present stage our way of thinking and acting has this peculiarity. In every science imagination must stand as another power alongside of knowledge and reasoning. But the influence of imagination upon knowl- edge is all the greater the further this latter is distant from the men- THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 363 tioned ideal. And thus it happens that in the chemistry of to-day im- agination and intuition have a larger scope than in other sciences, and that occupation with the same, besides the pure scientific satisfaction that it yields, brings an enjoyment which, in a certain sense, reminds one of the activity of an artist. He however who only knows chemistry as a tradition of perfectly clear facts, or who thinks to see the real soul of chemical study in measuring the physical phenomena which accom- pany chemical transformations, feels no breath of this enjoyment. The feeling is only disclosed to him who ventures into that ocean of the unknown that is spread out before us in the organic chemistry of the day; to him who is not appalled by a wilderness, populated with thousands of indivuals, of which every one shows a peculiar, fully unknown originality, and to him who attempts to become better acquainted with some of them, even if he is ata loss for a means of approaching them. To proceed with success in this direction is only granted to the genius; the method that leads onward can not be learned, and it has only been practiced with success by a small number of chosen ones. Indeed, in the experimental study of organic chemistry, the “ pre- sentiment” of happenings, the actuality of which is not indicated by any law to be expressed in words, has shown surprising results; here the thought is aided by a something, which we may meanwhile term “chemical feeling,” a name which will disappear as soon as the pro- gressive approach of chemistry to the mathematical physieu basis shall have disclosed its meaning and shall have tabulated it amongst the methods which lead to the recognition of the new. The eftect of this peculiar chemical method of study is not here to be dwelt upon in detail. Let it suffice to say that without it, the most brilliant discov- eries in organic chemistry would not have been made; just as little as « Kekulé would without it, have been able—in contradiction of numerous data in chemical literature never before doubted—to affirm the non-existence of isomeric monochlorbenzol and of such bodies as were said to consist of a benzol ring and but one bi-valent atom. Those significant hypotheses by means of which the knowledge of aromatic substances has been revealed to us, could not have been made solely upon the ground of exact observation; they required at the same time a pronounced chemical instinct. There was no logical reason in declaring the existence of a phenylene oxide as an impossibility, since the ethylene oxide did exist; he who nevertheless ventured to do so, and at the same time ran directly in the face of experience, was surely led by a feeling which the present status of chemistry forbids us to replace by a process of thought. But to return from the field of organic to that of general chemistry. Before we can arrive at a mathematico-physical treatment of chemical phenomena in general, two fundamental problems must be solved; an hypothesis which allows a control by experiment (even within the same 364 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY, limits which to this day are imposed upon physics in regard to the law of gravitation), must answer these questions: What is Chemical Affinity? and What is Valency? By means of laborious detail work, chemistry tries to approach the solution of these enigmas; but he who pursues chemical methods, who stands in the midst of chemical work—which aims only, as at a far distant task, at the discovery of a sure path—still sees such obstacles to be cleared away that he gives up the hope of living to see the new chemicalera. He finds satisfaction in the consciousness of having ex- erted his best abilities in the elucidation of some minor and precursory principles. If now we begin to consider—within the appointed limits—the most important achievements of chemistry, we can not, at this place and at this hourof our meeting, be in doubt as to what is to be mentioned in the first place. The hospitable city which shelters us boasts of an ad- vantage which is envied her by every other alma mater; here, chemis- try for more than a human lifetime has been represented by Robert Bunsen, of glorious name, and the very days which find us here as- sembled, follow immediately the moment in which this hero of science has retired from his academical occupation. Who does not think, at such an hour, of the great teacher around whom ardent pupils from all parts of the globe were accustomed to congregate? But who, being called upon to-day to speak of the results of chemistry within the walls of Heidelberg, would not before all direct an eye upon that one discovery which has lifted chemistry beyond terrestrial research, which has enabled her, like astronomy, to search the universe and to dissect the starry heavens, chemically, by the subtle appliances of analysis? If “old Heidelberg” has become a pearl amongst German cities by its history, by its numerous traditions, by the incomparable beauty of its situation,—if its university is the ideal of the German academical youth, we may well regard as an immortal leaf in its wreath of honor, along with these glorious titles, the union of those two great men who first met in this city in the most courageous enterprise of the penetrating mind; who have pursued with astonishing success the investigation which has made spectral analysis the most potent of scientific weapons, and has rendered their names a charm calling forth the admiration of the older minds and kindling in the minds of mere school boys the flame of enthusiasm in the study and exploration of nature, The immeas- urable results of that discovery—the consequences of which extend every day over new territories—are known in the widest circles, and to mention them to-day in detail would be but carrying owls to Athens. It behooves us in this place to mention reverently the names of Bunsen and Kirchhoff, to think of them with gratitude, and to hope that men, their equals, may uot be entirely wanting in the next generation! The vounger one of the m—whose scientific fertility was only equalled by his greatness of soul and the charming modesty of his heart—has THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 365 been taken away from us before old age had naturally limited him. Bunsen we still rejoice to call ours, who now, allowing the tools of his work to drop from his hand, looks forth to the evening of his life in quiet, happy leisure. May he be permitted for a long time to look back upon a life filled with greatest scientific achievements; may his calm, - friendly eye rest for many years upon the incomparable picture of his beloved Heidelberg. We have mentioned spectral analysis, though it has been almost for an age the common property of science. Let us also cast a grateful retrospect upon a deeply furrowing revolution—of which chemistry also, for several decades, has boasted as a substantial possession—upon the development of the doctrine of structure, that solid theoretical foun- dation from which the proud edifice of modern organic chemistry rises. A generation has grown up around us which has received as a matter of fact this doctrine which still seems new to us older ones. But those far-seeing men, whose eyes recognized the immensely simple in the seem- ingly impenetrable complication of the carbon compounds, are still ae- tively alive amongst us, and it is their happy lot to reap in their own activity what once they sowed in juvenile work. Here the eye is di- rected upon the master of chemical research—August Wilhelm von Hofmann; before all upon his researches upon the organic nitrogenous bases,—researches which do not find their equal in organic chemistry and which, even more perfectly than Dumas’ fundamental discovery of trichoracetic acid, allowed the fundamental conception of substitution to expand into the living consciousness of chemists, at first, curiously, by supporting the theory of types in organic compounds and then by promoting the transition to the structural or constitutional view, which at present embraces, with unparalleled perfection, the whole territory of organic compounds. But the suggestion of this doctrine, which finds its crowning success in the recognition of the inner aggregation of the atoms, is associated for all time with the name of a man who, although a master of rare art in experimenting, knew how to surpass what he had achieved at the laboratory table, by the convincing power of his speculative work. We ean not here dispute the part which other eminent chemists have taken in the development of the doctrine of structure—there are, Butlerow, Cooper, Erlenmeyer, Frankland, Kolbe, Odling, Williamson—but the glorious guide in this great and victorious movement forward, he, to whose eyes was disclosed not only the tetra-valence of carbon, but also the solution of the problem of the constitution of organic compounds, in the recognition of the property of carbon atoms to be linked to each other by their valencies; he is the philosopher of organic chemistry— August Kekulé. The name of this discoverer, who also started upon his high and soaring flight from Heidelberg, is justly mentioned alone when we want to recall in a word the putting forth and the development of the leading chemical theories, 366 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY, The researches in this direction are so numerous and so toilsome, and yet the result is so surprisingly simple! The carbon atom is endowed with four, the oxygen atom with two, the hydrogen atom with one point of attack for the chemical affinity. The cause of the aggregation of the atoms within the molecule lies in the mutual saturation of these units of affinity or valencies. It is the number of valencies which decides the possibility of the existence of a compound, Amongst the legion of imaginable combinations of these three elements only those are capable of existence in which every valency is saturated by that of another atom. Through this knowledge a new method of inquiry was opened, in particular for organic chemistry, the immense territory of which for many years seemed totally to absorb the working power of chemists. But then dawned the first signs of a further development. Hardly a decade had elapsed since the general admission of the doctrine of va- lency when a fundamental deepening of the same was announced, which our science owes to two savants, working independently of each other— to Le Bel and van’t Hoff. These chemists, considvring those substances which turn the plane of polarization cf light, arrived at views which soon led to a result until then thought to be out of reach, a conception of the aggregation of the atoms within the molecules in space. Thus_ a field of study was created which van’t Hoff called “la chimie dans Vespace” and which we now ¢all Stereo-chemistry. It was recognized that the carbon atom stretched out its four valen- cies in definite directions, and this in a symmetrical manner. The combination of a carbon atom with four other atoms, for example, methane, CH,, is representable by the picture of a tetrahedron in the stereometric center of which the carbon atom is situated, while the hydrogen atoms occupy its four corners. Numerous cases of isomerism, until then not understood, could be explained in this manner and were regarded as stereo-chemical ones. The cause of optical activity was found to consist in the presence of an a-symmetric carbon atom, that is, one which is combined with four dif- ferent groups. Also the stereometric forms of a few simple molecules were consid- ered; it was recognized, eé. g., that a compound of three carbon atoms linked togetber by one bond respectively could not contain those atoms in 2 straight line, but that they must lie in the angles of a triangle the sides of which form an angle equal to that in which the directions of valency of the carbon atom intersect each other. By the applications of these considerations to more complicated molecules, which contain a chain of atoms closed within itself, Adolph von Baeyer has enlarged our theory in a manner full of consequence. Kekulé in times past had recognized that carbon shows a particular disposition to form closed chains of six atoms. The discoveries of Bae- yer and his followers, as well as Fittig’s work on lactones, taught that such closed chains or rings formed of fewer atoms also exist. But THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 367 while rings of six or five atoms easily form, it is more difficult to com- bine fewer atoms, four or three, to a closed chain. The cause of this fact Baeyer recognized as lying in the stereometric conditions. The angles which the sides of a regular hexagon and pentagon form with each other very nearly coincide with those in which the directions of the valencies of the carbon atom intersect each other, and thus in linking five or six atoms together the circle, so to speak, closes itself, while if more or less atoms are present this can only be arrived at by strong deviation of the directions of affinity. But still more surprising discoveries were hidden in van’t Hoft’s the- ory. The gifted Dutch thinker had penetrated to the idea that two atoms which are linked together by asingle valency rotate freely around an axis the direction of which coincides with that of the linking valency, but that this rotation is stopped as soon as double linking takes place. This latter is an immediate consequence of the tetrahedric conception. IfI stretch out my two fore-fingers and let their points touch each other, then the hands can rotate around them as an axis; butif I stretch both thumbs and both fore-fingers and allow their corresponding points to touch each other, then a system results in which rotation is impossible. These two propositions of van’t Hoff, having remained almost un- noticed for a decade, have lately come into great prominence. Inaseries of important researches Johannes Wislicenus has proved that apply- ing these propositions and at the same time considering the specific affinities of the groups or elements present, the stereometric aggrega- tion of the atoms in certain molecules can be determined with prob- ability. In an ingenious manner he has utilized the addition phenomena shown by carbon atoms trebly linked together for an interpretation of a stereometric aggregation of the atoms in the compounds formed. Wislicenus, applying van’t Hoff’s ideas with courage and strictness, has advanced organic chemistry in an important manner and has opened a field for experimental research, which heretofore had been avoided with a precaution suggestive of timidity. New discoveries came from other sides. An intimate research into the oxims of benzil lead to the surprising result that the validity of the second proposition of van’t Hoff is not without exception. Cases were noticed in which the free rotation of carbon atoms united by a simple bond, which van’t Hoff disclosed, did not obtain. Further inquiry into this subject led to a renewal of the question, “* What does chemical valency really mean?” A question to which the mind incessantly de- mands an answer. It had long since been suggested that vaiency had some relation to the electric behavior of the atoms. The chemistry of the day expresses Faraday’s fundamental electrolytic law thus: An electric current which flows through several fused electrolytes severs in each of them the same number of valencies, not of atoms. It was found by von Helmholtz that those quantities of electricity which, during the electrolytic process, move with the ions are dis- 368 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. tributed among the valencies. Riecke, in virtue of his pyro-electrie re- searches, was led to the view that the atoms are surrounded by certain systems of positive and negative electric poles. Uniting these results with those of purely chemical experimentation, we arrive at the idea that the valencies do not appear as points of attack proper, but as having linear dimensions. The carbon atom represents itself as a sphere, surrounded by an envelope of zether which contains the valencies. The latter seem to be determined by the presence of two opposite electric poles which rest at the ends of a very short straight line. Such asystem is calleda di-pole. The attachment of two valencies to each other consists in the attraction of their opposed poles. It is evident that ina radial position of the di-poles they form an axis around which the atoms are able to rotate, but that this rotation is upset in case of a tangential position. In what has been said so far and through further considerations in regard to the electrical charge of the atoms and of the di-poles a reason is found for the repulsion of the four valencies and consequently for the tetrahedric grouping of the same. The fact that the valencies can deviate from this position now becomes intelligible; we perceive why the valencies of one atom can not unite with one another, while those of different atoms can combine; it is clear that there can exist two kinds of simple linking, one of which admits of rotation, while the other does not; finally, that in cases of manifold linking the free rotation must be annulled. Hence this hypoth- esis opens to us an understanding of the most important properties of chemical valency. So much may be said of the problems relating to the theory of valency. But the doctrine of substitution has likewise experienced a peculiar enlargement. Dumas first showed that the properties of organic com- pounds are generally little changed when the hydrogen of the same is replaced by univalent elements or groups. Now it has been learned from later experiments that even much more radical changes in the composition do not materially influence the properties of the substance. If for example we replace in the hydro-carbon benzol—two carbon and two hydrogen atoms by one atom of sulphur, the resulting product, thiophen, resembles benzol chemically and physically so closely as to be mistaken for it. We learn from this that the sulphur atom is able to take upon itself the functions of four atoms of entirely different nature. Similar facts have been found in regard to oxygen and to the imido group, which is equivalent to it. Turning away from these researches to cast a glance upon general chemical studies which lie some years behind us, we must above all consider one of the most far-reaching discoveries of our epoch, the rev- elation of the natural system of the chemical elements. We owe this to the far-seeing Demetrius Mendelejeff. By the side of the titanie figure of the Russian scholar we see the Englishman, Newlands, and our own countryman, Lothar Meyer, successfully co-operating in the foundation THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 369 and the structure of this work. What these men created has since become generally known; they showed that the properties of the elements are functions of their atomic weights. Mendelejeff taught us to predict the existence and the properties of chemical elements as yet unknown with a certainty that reminds us of Le Verrier’s prediction of the dis- covery of the planet Neptune. We can say with confidence that even to-day numerous elements, the qualities of which, as well as the place which they will occupy in the system, can be minutely foretold, wait merely to be discovered. The natural system has imposed upon us a problem of the greatest significance in the new determination of the atomic weights, the numer- ical values of which are pow of increased interest. But numerous other problems are presented by the new system of the elements. Above all we are at a loss to discern the cause of the inner nexus of the elements as the system offers it. Also by diligent work the less studied elements must be properly brought within the system. Fortunate circumstances may allow us to discover the numerous elements indicated by the peri- odic law. Here let us note a peculiar coincidence. We know to-day about seventy elements, but Mendelejeff’s table indicates so far—two small periods of seven elements each, and five large ones of seventeen elements, respectively. To these must be added hydrogen, forming a “ group ” in itself. By addition of these figures, (2 x 7) +(5 x 17) + 1, we obtain exactly the number 100. Itis true that no one can say whether the missing elements will really be discovered, or if further new periods might not be indicated by which this number 100 wouid be exceeded. But, as far as positive data are at hand, they indicate exactly the number mentioned and nothing points beyond it,—an odd coincidence which seems to ally the number of the existing elements with the number of our fingers. The discovery of the system of the elements leads us back to the question whether the chemical elements are separate worlds in them- selves or whether they represent different forms or conditions under which one ultimate substance exists, a question that has occupied the philosophical mind since very early times. The same question was raised anew by the discovery of spectral analysis. Whosvever regards the numerous lines of the spectrum of a metal will hardly be convinced that the metal from which they emanate should be an eternally un- decomposable element. In asimilar manner the compound nature of the elements is indicated by comparison of the regularities in numbers of the atomic weights with the homologous series of organic chemistry. In the pursuit of this question, which, since Proat’s hypothesis and the surprises offered by Stas’s determinations of atomic weights, has not been allowed to rest, positive results are not to be found. The decom- position of substances called elements into simpler ones has not been accomplished. H. Mis. 129-24 370 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. Nevertheless something has been achieved, since an increased interest has been drawn towards pyro-chemical research. To-day new methods of experiment permit of a comparatively easy determination of the vapor density and consequently of the molecular state of the substances at the highest temperatures. Numerous inorganic compounds, above all the very elements, have been studied in regard to their vapor density at a white heat. While many of them, as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and mercury, re- main unchanged under such conditions, the molecules of chlorine, bro- mine, and iodine, respectively, were split into two atoms, in conformity with Avogadro’s surmise of the compound nature of elementary mole- cules. In the same manner, the vapor density, and hence the molecular condition of the less vo latile substances, zinc, thallium, antimony, and bismuth, was suc ‘essfully determined at a white heat. Careful research resulted in the exposure of the old fallacy of the existence of a sulphur molecule containing six atoms. But how many of the problems which crowd around us at this point are for the time being entirely beyond the reach of the experimenter ! To-day pyro-chemical work is limited to a temperature of 1700° C., because vessels of porcelain and platinum, to the use of which we are limited, fuse above that temperature. The possibility of performing quantitative experiments at these temperatures seemed to us some years ago to be an unexpected progress, but to-day we complain that the trivial cause of a want of proper vessels forbids us to increase the tem- perature up to 2000° or 30009 C, There is no doubt that we should arrive at new unthought-of facts, that the splitting of still other ele- mentary molecules would be possible, that a new chemistry would be revealed to us, if—being provided with vessels of-infusible material, we could work at temperatures at which water vapor could not exist and at which detonating gas would be a non-inflammable mixture! Let us now enter other fields of physical chemistry. Golden fruit, daily increasing, has been harvested upon this field during these latter days. Again we see van’t Hoff take the lead. His keen eye has en- abled us to penetrate the nature of solution, which forms the beginning of anew epoch in molecular physics. The quintessence of his discover- ies may be thus expressed: “Solutions of different substances in the same liquid, which contain in the same volume an equal number of molecules of the dissolved sub- stance, show the same osmotic pressure, the same vapor pressure, and the same freezing point.” This surprising generalization offers the possibility of determining the true molecular weight of substances by experimenting upon them in solution, while heretofore this has only been possible by transforming them into the gaseous state, hence only for volatile substances, since THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. - Ou dilute solutions behave in regard to the molecular state of the dissolved substance like gases. In this manner new methods are given for the determination of molec- ular weights, which we are now able to determine by means of meas- urements relating to the freezing point, the vapor pressure, or the osmotic pressure of a solution of the substance to be tested. These results are of the highest possible practical im portance for chem- istry, since they widen in an unexpected manner the possibility of the determination of molecular weights, and in a still higher degree we are surprised by the elucidation which they offer in regard to the nature of solution. Clausius had already admitted, within narrower limits, that in solutions of electrolytes some of the dissolved molecules were decom- posed into their ions, but now this has been proved in a larger measure, particularly by Arrhenius. What a change our conceptions will have to undergo if we have to accustom ourselves to regard a dilute solution of sodium chloride as one containing, not undecomposed molecules of this salt, but separated atoms of sodium and chlorine! We owe these revolutionizing innovations to the investigations of van’t Hoff, Arrhenius, Ostwald, Planck and de Vrie, but in regard to experimental research especially to the splendid work of Raoult, which during recent years has etfected this mighty theoretical progress. Thus we see physical chemistry moving on in weighty development. Special laboratories are opened for her, and a special journal also has been started which is open alike to the records of experiment and to theoretical discussion. Through the foundation of this organ physical chemistry has been furthered in a most active manner. All the questions of the time and all those in dispute belonging to this depart- ment of science receive in this paper a thorough discussion. Dynamical- chemical questions are successfully studied, a significant impetus is given to the study of structure and affinity (widened as our knowledge of the nature of solutions has made necessary), by means of the study of the relations between chemical nature and electric conduction. The inquiry jnto the intimate relations that exist between physical and chemical properties, which was inaugurated half a century ago by Hermann Kopp, is now being deepened and widened. It is true that the great hopes which sprang from the study of thermo- chemical questions have so far been only partly fulfilled, but consecutive measurements offer more clearness also in this case. There is no field of our science in which we may expect greater revo- lutions in the time near at hand than in that of physical chemistry ! The value of these for general chemistry will be greater in proportion as the representatives of the same will recoguize their task in this: Above all to remain upon the chemical standpoint and to improve chem- istry by the application of physical modes of thought and experiment. Those who tried to further the progress of chemistry by the use of physical methods, but with insufficient consideration tor chemical rela- 372 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. tions, have been led into serious errors. The respect due to work of the highest merit, continued for years, has thus been lessened. Ap- parently this has even been overdone, and it is much to be deplored if the interest of chemists for physical chemistry should be diminished because some of its representatives are inclined to over-rate the value of their results. He who swims in the midst of high waves is unable at times to see over the crests. Innumerable, also, are the problems which meet us in the domain of organic chemistry. After the astonishing harvest of synthetical results which has been reaped here, hardly any problem of synthesis seems unapproachable. Since the artificial preparation of alizarin by Graebe and Liebermann, of indigo by von Baeyer, of conine by Ladenburg, of uric acid by Hor- baczewski and particularly by Behrend, since Emil Fischer and Kili- ani have elucidated the chemistry of the sugar group and Wallach that of the terpenes, we may well look hopefully for a clearer knowledge of the bodies comprised under the name albumin, and to its synthesis. But even such success tends only to render us more modest, since it shows us at the same time how narrow are the limits within which chemical synthesis moves. Assuming even that the preparation of albumin had been achieved, how infinitely far we should still be from a conception of the nature of organized bodies! Perhaps science is separated by an impassable chasm from the artificial preparation of a simple cell. Such an achievement les at least beyond the sphere of chemistry. But shall we really never succeed in sounding the process of assim- ilation, which, in spite of its simplicity, presents itself to us so enig- matically? Will it be found impossible to prepare artificially in our laboratories, from carbon dioxide and water, sugar and starch, a proe- ess Which nature performs unceasingly in the green parts of plants? The chemist however should not step prematurely upon the field of biology while so many great problems remain untouched in his own peculiar sphere of investigation. The method of research in organic chemistry, in spite of the brilliant successes already recorded, forces us even to-day to confess that only a very minute proportion of known substances is within its reach. In order to isolate an organic substance we are generally confined to the purely accidental properties of crystallization or volatilization. Have not those thousands of amorphous substances which cannot be char- acterized by any chemical property and which the chemist is forced to lay aside because he is unable either to purify them or to transform them into volatile or crystallizable bodies,—have they not the same claim upon our interest as their more beautiful and more manageable comrades ? The most significant progress of organic chemistry does not consist in single discoveries, nor in further expansion of synthetical success. THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 373 What we want is: new methods for recognizing the individuality of substances. The black substances of earthy nature, the innumerable formless and resinous products in the bodies of plants and animals, the coloring matter which gives beauty to flowers, all of these to-day mock our efforts to know them; they will form a new and inexhaustible field for the prosecution of chemical research, when methods shall have been found with which to begin this research. And as in organic chemistry, so in mineral chemistry every step leads to questions which we have as yet no means of answering. The syn- thesis of minerals and of rocks has made important progress, it is true, and this as well as the application of the doctrine of structure to the study of mineral species gradually leads to the understanding of their constitution; but we are as yet unable to use, in the study of min- erals, the method of analytical decomposition which has been so success- fully used to study the constitution of organic substances, and above all we lack the least knowledge in regard to the true molecular weight of minerals. Quite recently we have been presented with no less than three new and fruitful methods for the determination of the molecular weight, but not one of them gives us an indication of the true moiecular weight of the most simple oxides, such as silicic anhydride or calcium oxide. We know to-day very well that silicic anhydride can not have the formula SiO, that this must be multiplied by a very large factor; but of the numerical value of this latter we have no indication. And thus also in mineral chemistry we must aim not exclusively at finding new facts, but new methods of research in the first place, if a period of new discoveries is to be attained in this branch of our science. But how can we conclude this brief review without mentioning also the applications of chemistry to the industrial arts, the progress of which has mainly contributed to spread the splendor of our science most widely? The infinite variety of the tar colors, surpassing the colors of flowers in number and brightness, is daily increased by new discoveries. The technology of these dyes and pigments forms the most brilliant triumph of purely scientific laboratory work applied to manufactures. This industry in the simplest manner and on the largest scale performs the synthesis of compounds the complex nature of which is indicated by the names they bear. The unscientific man is frightened when a beautiful and brilliant dye is referred to as Hevamethylmethoxytriamido- triphenylearbinol; for the initiated there lies in this unpleasant name a full account of the synthesis and the constitution of the dye. Industry has learned to derive not only colors, but healing medicines also from coal tar. Antipyrin, discovered by Knorr, upon the basis of Emil Fischer’s fundamental research upon the hydrazines, brings to thousands suffering from fever, relief at least—if notcure. Let us hope that the time is not far distant when real fever curatives, which like the natural alkaloids of the cinchona bark, not only temporarily sup- 374 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. press the disease, but really cure it, may be prepared by synthesis. Until then be patient and do not chide chemistry if, for the time being, she offers only silver instead of gold. dvents in this field of the great chemical industries are significant. We are the witnesses of a great combat taking place between the older process of Le Blane for the preparation of soda and the new one of Solvay called the ammonia-soda process. The intelligence and in- ventive genius of manufacturers have added under the pressure of this competition a large number of improvements to the manufacture of sulphurie acid and of soda, and new and valuable methods for the preparation of chlorine. Here, more than in any other branch of chemical industry, the struggle for existence is fierce. The manufacture of iron, that most important chemical industry, is transformed by innovations. The imposing changes wrought by the older process of Bessemer, by the new one of Thomas, are they not based purely upon chemical reactions? The grandest application of a a complicated chemical reaction to a great manufacture is, perhaps, the dephosphorizing of pig-iron by lining the Bessemer converter with basic material, an invention which we owe to Thomas and Gilchrist. From this again, agriculture derives an advantage in the use of the Thomas slag containing the phosphorus which heretofore rendered iron ore less valuable. This then is truly a transformation of stone into bread, similar to the older manufacture of soluble fertilizers from mineral phospbates. Nevertheless, the era of bliss which was prophe- sied three years ago at the Berlin meeting of naturalists by our illus- trious colleague, Ferdinand Cohn, has not yet dawned. He held that all struggles for existence amongst men, arising from want of food, (the bread question,) will be done away with, when chemistry shall have learned to prepare starch from carbon dioxide and water. But since time immemorial the farmer is occupied in this very chemical industry, and it would hardly be great progress if the farm were merely replaced by a chemical factory. But we may reasonably hope that chemistry will teach us to make the fiber of wood a source of human food. Indeed, if we consider how small is the quantity of starch which the grain furnishes us, and further that the wood fiber has exactly the same chemical composition as starch, we see the possibility of increasing the production of food indefinitely by solving this problem: To transform cellulose into starch, If this problem were solved we should find an inexhaustible source of human food in the wood of our forests, in grass, and even in straw and chaff. The beautiful researches of Hellriegel have recently dis- closed the fact, which in former times was disputed, that certain plants transform atmospheric nitrogen into albumin and that this process can be improved by suitable treatment. The increase of albumin in plants, according to a plan, together with the production of starch out of cellulose—this would in reality signify the abolition of the bread question. THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. ate May it some day be granted to chemistry through such a discovery to inaugurate a golden age for humanity. I have tried to give a review of the most important problems which are set before chemical science. I have mentioned a goodly number, but the short time of one hour permits me to touch but slightly upon the greater ones. There are so many problems before us, which await an immediate solution as to justify what I said in the beginning; that to-day the chemist has no time to complain because the epoch of a mathematical treatment of his science has not vet arrived. Nevertheless, the brilliant successes which have been gained, the wonderful results which are immediately within our reach, have not the power to turn our eyes from this final problem. The Newton prophesied to Chemistry by Emil du Bois Reymond, may he appear at a later period; until he comes, may many a genera- tion honorably plow onin the sweat of its brow! We must remember that nature is not understood by us until we are able to reduce its phe- nomena to simple movements, mathematically traceable. The time will come, even for chemistry, when this highest kind of treatment will prevail, The epoch in which the foremost impulse of its research was a serenely creative imagination will then have passed; the joys, but also the pangs and struggles, peculiar to youth, will have been overcome. Re-united to Physics, her sister science, from whom her ways at present are separated, Chemistry will run her course with firm and unfaltering steps. Os ate wii ‘ pt .. Fo re ‘as 6 Ng o%: | a hia Ge ‘ Ngo > 4 f Z -, ad oe & a’ 5) 7 nna fr. a AL § Sor: THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE.* By Prof. RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F. R.S. The history of a discovery which has been developed to such a remarkable degree of perfection as photography has naturally been a fruitful source of discussion among those who interest themselves in tracing the progress of science. It is only my presence in this lecture theater, in which the first public discourse on photography was given by Thomas Wedgwood at the beginning of the century, that justifies my treading once again a path which has already been so thoroughly well beaten. If any further justification for trespassing upon the ground of the historian is needed, it will be found in the circumstance that in the autumn of last year there was held a celebration of what was generally regarded as the jubilee of the discovery. This celebra- tion was considered by many to have reference to the publie disclosure of the Daguerreotype process, made through the mouth of Arago to the French Academy of Sciences on August 10, 1839. There is no doubt that the introduction of this process marked a distinct epoch in the history of the art, and gave a great impetus to its subsequent develop- ment. But while giving full recognition to the value of the discovery of Daguerre, we must not allow the work of his predecessors and con- temporaries in the same field to sink into oblivion. After the lapse of half a century we are in a better position to consider fairly the influ- ence of the work of different investigators upon modern photographic processes. I have not the least desire on the present occasion to raise the ghosts of dead controversies. In fact, the history of the discovery of pho- tography is one of those subjects which can be dealt with in various ways, according to the meaning assigned to the term. There is ample scope for the display of what Mr. Herbert Spencer calls the “bias of patriotism.” If the word ‘“ photography” be interpreted literally as writing or inscribing by light, without any reference to the subsequent permanence of the inscription, then the person who first intentionally caused a design to be imprinted by light upon a photo-sensitive com- pound must be regarded as the first photographer. According to Dr. Eder, of Vienna, we must place this experiment to the credit of Johann *Friday evening lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, on May 16, 1890. (From Nature July 10, 1890, vol. xi, pp. 246-250.) 377 378 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. Heinrich Schulze, the son of a German tailor, who was born in the Duchy of Madgeburg, in Prussia, in 1687, and who died in 1744, after a life of extraordinary activity as a linguist, theologian, physician, and philoso- pher. In the year 1727, when experimenting on the subject of phos- phorescence, Schulze observed that by pouring nitric acid, in which some silver had previously been dissolved, on to chalk, the undissolved earthy residue had acquired the property of darkening on exposure to light. This effect was shown to be due to light, and not to heat. By pasting words cut out in paper on the side of the bo:tle containing his precipitate, Schulze obtained copies of the letters on the silvered chalk. The German philosopher certainly produced what might be called a temporary photogram. Whatever value is attached to this observa- tion in the development of modern photography, it must be conceded that a considerable advance was made by spreading the sensitive com- pound over a surface instead of using it in mass. It is hardly necessary to remind you here that such an advance was made by Wedgwood and Davy in 1802.* The impressions produced by these last experimenters were unfortunately of no more permanence than those obtained by Schulze three quarters of a century before them. It will perhaps be safer for the historian of this art to restrict the term photograph to such impressions as are possessed of permanence. I do not of course mean absolute permanence, but ordinary durability in the common-sense acceptation of the term. From this point of view the first real photographs, 7. €., permanent impressions of the camera picture, were obtained on bitumen films by Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, of Chalons-sur-Saone, who, after about 20 years’ work at the sub- ject, had perfected his discovery by 1826. Then came the days of silver salts again, when Daguerre, who commenced work in 1824, entered into a partnership with Niepce in 1829, which was brought to a termination by the death of the latter in 1833. The partnership was renewed be- tween Daguerre and Niepce de St. Victor, nephew of the elder Niepce. The method of fixing the camera picture on a film of silver iodide on a silvered copper plate—the process justly associated with the name of Daguerre—was ripe for disclosure by 1838, and was actually made known in 1839. The impartial historian of photography who examines critically into the evidence will find that quite independently of the French pioneers experiments on the use of silver salts had been going on in this coun- try, and photographs, in the true sense, had been produced almost simultaneonsly with the announcement of the Daguerreotype process by two Englishmen whose names are as household words in the ranks of science. I refer to William Henry Fox Talbot and Sir John Herschel. Fox Talbot commenced experimenting with silver salts on paper in * “An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of making Pro- files by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver. Invented by T. Wedgwood, Esq. With Observations by H. Davy.” Journ. Royal Institution, 1802, p. 170. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 379 1834, and the following year he succeeded in imprinting the camera picture on paper coated with the chloride. In January, 1839, some of his *‘ photogenic drawings”—the first “ silver prints” ever obtained— were exhibited in this Institution by Michael Faraday. In the same month he communicated his first paper on a photographic process to the toyal Society, and in the following month he read a second paper before the same society, giving the method of preparing the sensitive paper and of fixing the prints. The outcome of this work was the ‘‘Calotype” or Talbotype process, which was sufficiently perfected for portraiture by 1840, and which was fully described in a paper commu- nicated to the Royal Society in 1841. The following year Fox Talbot received the Rumford medal for his *‘ discoveries and improvements in photography.”* Herschel’s process consisted in coating a glass plate with silver chlo- ride by subsidence. The details of the method, from Herschel’s own notes, have been published by his son, Prof. Alexander Herschel.t By this means, the old 40-foot reflecting telescope at Slough was pho- tographed in 1839. By the kindness of Professor Herschel, and with the sanction of the Science and Art Department, Herschel’s original photographs have been sent here for your inspection. The process of coating a plate by allowing a precipitate to settle on it in a uniform film is however impracticable, and was not fucther developed by its illustrious discoverer. We must credit him however as being the first to use glass as a sub-stratum. Herschel further discovered the im- portant fact that while the chloride was very insensitive alone, its sen- sitiveness was greatly increased by washing it with a solution of silver nitrate. It is to Herschel also that we are indebted for the use of sodium thiosulphate as a fixing agent, as well as for many other dis- coveries in connection with photography which are common matters of history. Admitting the impracticability of the method of subsidence for pro- ducing a sensitive film, it is interesting to trace the subsequent devel- opment of the processes inaugurated about the year 1839. The first of photographic methods—the bitumen process of Niepece—survives at the present time, and is the basis of some of the most important of modern photo-mechanical printing processes. {Specimens illustrating photo-etching from Messrs. Waterlow & Sons exhibited.] The Daguer- reotype process is now obsolete. As it left the hands of its inventor it was unsuited for portraiture on account of the long exposure re- quired. It is evident moreover that a picture on an opaque metallic plate is incapable of re-production by printing through, so that in this respect the Talbotype possessed distinct advantages. This is one of the most important points in Fox Talbot’s contributions to photogra- * For these and other details relating to Fox Talbot’s work, necessarily excluded for want of time, I am indebted to his son, Mr. C. H. Talbot, of Lacock Abbey. t Photog. Journ. and Trans. Photog. Soc. June 15, 1872., 380 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. phy. He was the first to produce a transparent paper negative from which any number of positives could be obtained by printing through. The silver print of modern times is the lineal descendant of the Tal- botype print. After 40 years’ use of glass as a substratum we are going back to Fox Talbot’s plan, and using thin flexible films—not ex- actly of paper, but of an allied substance—celluloid. [Specimens of Talboty pes, lent by Mr. Crookes, exhibited, with celluloid negatives by the Eastman Company. | If [ interpret this fragment of history correctly, the founders of mod- ern photography are the three men whose labors have been brietly sketched. The jubilee of last autumn marked a culminating point in the work of Niepee and Daguerre and of Fox Talbot. The names of these three pioneers must go down to posterity as coequal in the annals of scientific discovery. [Portraits by Mr. H. M. Elder shown.| The lecture theater of the Royal Institution offers such tempting opportu- nities to the chronicler of the history of this wonderful art that [ must close this treatment of the subject by reminding myself that in select- ing the present topic I had in view a statement of the case of modern photography from its scientific side only. There is hardly any inven- tion associated with the present century which has rendered more splen- did services in every department of science. The physicist and chemist, the astronomer and geographer, the physiologist, pathologist, and an- thropologist will all bear witness to the value of photography. The very first scientific application of Wedgwood’s process was made here by the illustrious Thomas Young, when he impressed Newton’s rings on paper moistened with silver nitrate, as described in his Bakerian lecture to the Royal Society on November 24,1803. Professor Dewar has just placed in my hands the identical slide, with the Newton rings still visi- ble, which he believes Young to have used in this classic experiment. | Shown. ] Our modern photographic processes depend upon chemical changes wrought by light on films of certain sensitive compounds. Bitumen under this influence becomes insoluble in hydro-carbon oils, as in the heliographie process of the elder Niepece. Gelatine mixed with potas- sium dichromate becomes insoluble in water on exposure to light, a property utilized in the photo-etching process introduced in 1852 by Fox Talbot, some of whose original etchings have been placed at my disposal by Mr. Crookes. [Shown.] Chromatized gelatine now plays a most important part in the autotype and many photo-mechanical proc- esses. The salts of iron in the ferric condition undergo reduction to the ferrous state under the influence of light in contact with oxidizable or- ganic compounds. The use of these iron salts is another of Sir John Herschel’s contributions to photography (1842), the modern * blue print” and the beautiful platinotype being dependent on the photo- reducibility of these compounds. [Cyanotype print developed with ferricyanide. | THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 381 Of all the substances known to chemistry at the present time, the salts of silver are by far the most important in photography on account of the extraordinary degree of sensitiveness to which they can be raised. The photographic image with which it is my privilege to deal ou this occasion is that invisible impression produced by the action of light op a film of a silver haloid. Many methods of producing such films have been in practical use since the foundation of the art in 1839. All these depend on the double decomposition between a soluable chlo- ride, bromide, or iodide, and silver nitrate, resulting in the formation of the silver haloid in a vehicle of some kind, such as albumen (Niepce de St. Victor, 1848), or collodion on glass, as made practicable by Scott Archer in 1851. For 20 years this collodion process was in universal use; 1ts history and details of manipulation, its development into a dry: plate process by Colonel Russell in 1861, and into an emulsion process by Bolton and Sayce in 1864, are facts familiar to every one. The photographic film of the present time is a gelatino-haloid (gen- erally bromide) emulsion. If a solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of potassium bromide and the mixture well shaken, the silver bromide coagulates and rapidly subsides to the bottom of the liquid as a dense curdy precipitate. [Shown.] If instead of water we use a viscid medium, such as gelatine solution, the bromide does not settle down, but forms an emulsion, which becomes quite homogeneous on agitation. [Shown.] This operation, omitting all details of ripening, washing, etc., as well known to practical photographers, is the basis of all the recent photographic methods of obtaining negatives in the camera. The use of this invaluable vehicle, gelatine, was practically introduced by R. L. Maddox in 1871, previous experiments in the same direction having been made by Gaudin (1853-61). Such a gelatino- bromide emulsion can be spread uniformly over any sub-stratum—glass, paper, gelatine, or celluloid—and when dry gives a highly sensitive film. The fundamental problem which 50 years’ experience with silver haloid films has left in the hands of chemists is that of the nature of the chemical change which occurs when a ray of light falls on such a silver salt. Long before the days of photography, far back in the sixteenth century, Fabri- cius, the alchemist, noticed that native horn silver became colored when brought from the mine and exposed. The fact presented itself to Robert Boyle in the seventeenth century, and to Beccarius, of Turin, in the eighteenth century. The change of color undergone by the chloride was first shown to be associated with chemical decomposition in 1777 by Scheele, who proved that chlorine was given off when this salt dark- ened under water. I can show you this in a form which admits of its being seen by all. | Potassium iodide and starch paper were placed in a glass cell with silver chloride, and the arrangement exposed to the electric light till the paper had become blue.] The gas which is given 382 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE, off under these circumstances is either the free halogen or an oxide or acid of the halogen, according to the quantity of moisture present and the intensity of the light. Ll have found that the bromide affects the iodide and starch paper in the same way, but silver iodide does not give off any gas which colors the test paper. All the silver haloids become colored on exposure to light, the change being most marked in the chloride, less in the bromide, and least of all in the iodide. The latter must be associated with some halogen absorbent to render the change visible. [Strips of paper coated with the pure haloids, the lower halves brushed over with silver nitrate solution, were exposed.| The differ- ent degrees of coloration in the three cases must not be considered as a measure of the relative sensitiveness; if simply means that the prod- ucts of photo-chemical change in the three haloids are inherently pos- sessed of different depths of color. From the fact that halogen in some form is given off, it follows that we are concerned with photo-chemical decomposition, aa not with a physical change only. All the evidence is in favor of this view, Halo- gen absorbents, such as silver nitrate on the lower halves of the papers in the last experiment, organic matter, such as the gelatine in an emul- sion, and reducing agents generally, all accelerate the change of color. Oxidizing and halogenizing agents, such as mercuric chloride, potas- sium dichromate, etc., all retard the color change. [Silver chloride paper, painted with stripes of solutions of sodium sulphite, mercuric chloride, and potassium dichromate, was exposed.| It is impossible to account for the action of these chemical agents, except on the view of chemical decomposition. The ray of light falling upon a silver haloid must be regarded as doing chemical work; the vibratory energy is partly spent in doing the work of chemical separation, and the light passes through a film of such haloid partly robbed of its power of doing similar work upon a second film. It is difficult to demonstrate this sat- isfactorily in the lecture room on account of the opacity of the silver haloids, but the work of Sir John Herschel, J. W. Draper, and others has put it beyond doubt that there is a relationship of this kind be- tween absorption and decomposition. It is well known also that the more refrangible rays are the most active in promoting the decomposi- tion in the case of the silver haloids. This was first proved for the chloride by Scheele, and is now known to be true for the other haloids. It would be presumption on my part in the presence of Captain Abney to enlarge upon the effects of the different spectral colors on these ha- loids, as this is a subject upon which he can speak with the authority of an investigator. Itonly remains to add that the old idea of @ special ‘‘actinic” force at the more refrangible end of the spectrum has long been abandoned. It is only because the silver haloids absorb these par- ticular rays that the blue end of the spectrum is most active in pro- moting their decomposition. Many other instances of photo-chemical decomposition are known in which the less refrangible rays are the most THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 383 active, and it is possible to modify the silver haloids themselves so as to make them sensitive for the red end of the spectrum. The chemical nature of the colored products of photo-chemical decom- position is still enshrouded in mystery. Beyond the fact that they con- tain less halogen than the normal salt, we are not much in advance of the knowledge bequeathed to us by Scheele in the last century. The problem has been attacked by chemists again and again, but its solu- tion presents extraordinary difficulties. These products are never formed—even under the most favorable conditions of division and with prolonged periods of exposure—in quantities beyond what the chemist would call ‘‘a mere trace.” Their existence appears to be determined by the great excess of unaltered haloid with which they are combined. Were I to give free rein to the imagination I might set up the hypothesis that the element silver is really a compound body invariably containing a minute percentage of some other element which resembles the com- pound which we now call silver in all its chemical reactions, but alone is sensitive to light. I offer this suggestioa for the consideration of the speculative chemist.* For the colored product as a whole, 7. e., the product of photo-decomposition with its combined unchanged haloid, Carey Lea has proposed the convenient term ‘ photo-salt.” * It will avoid circumlocution if we adopt this name. The photo-salts have been thought at various times to contain metallic silver, allotropie silver, a sub-haloid, such as argentous chloride, ete., or an oxy-haloid. The free- metal theory is disposed of by the fact that silver chloride darkens under nitric acid of sufficient strength to dissolve the metal freely. The acid certainly retards the formation of the photo-salt, but does not pre- vent it altogether. When once formed the photo-chloride is but slowly attacked by boiling dilute nitric acid, and from the dry photo-salt mercury extracts no silver. The assumption of the existence of an allotropic form of silver insoluble in nitric acid can not be seriously maintained. The sub-haloid theory of the product may be true, but it has not yet been established with that precision which the chemist has aright todemand. We must have analyses giving not only the per- centage of halogen, but also the percentage of silver, in order that it may be ascertained whether the photo-salt contains anything besides metai and halogen. The same may be said of the oxy-haloid theory ; it may be true, but it has not been demonstrated. The oxy-haloid Leb was first suggested by Robert Hunt? for the *T have gone so far as e test this ian aes in a preliminary way, the result being, as might have been anticipated, negative. Silver chloride, well dark- ened by long exposure, was extracted with a hot saturated solution of potassium chloride, and the dissolved portion, after precipitation by water, compared with the ordinary chloride by exposure to light. Not the slightest difference was observable either in the rate of coloratiou or in the colors of the products. Perhaps it may be thought worth while to repeat the experiment, using a method analogous to the ‘¢ method of fractionation” of Crookes. t ** Researches on Light,” 2d ed., 1854, p. 80. 384 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. chloride; it was taken up by Sahler, and has recently been revived by Dr. W. R. Hodgkinson. It has been thought that this theory is dis- posed of by the fact that the chloride darkens under liquids, such as hydro carbons, which are free from oxygen. I have been repeating some of these experiments with various liquids, using every possible precaution to exclude oxygen and moisture; dry silver chloride heated to incipient fusion has been sealed up in tubes in dry benzene, petroleum, and carbon tetrachloride, and exposed since March. [Tubes shown.] In all cases the chloride has darkened. The salt darkens moreover in a Crookesian vacuum.* By these experiments the oxy-chloride theory may be scotehed, but it is not yet killed; the question now presents itself, whether the composition of the photo-salt may not vary according to the medium in which it is generated. Analogy sanctions the sup- position that when the haloid darkens under water or other oxygen- containing liquid, or even in centact with moist or dry air, that an oxychloride may be formed and enter into the composition of the photo- salt. The analogy is supplied by the corresponding salt of copper, viz, cuprous chloride, which darkens rapidly eu exposure. [Design printed on flat cell filled with cuprous chloride by exposure to electric light.] Wohler conjectured that the darkened product was an oxychloride, and this view receives a certain amount of indirect support from these tubes [shown], in which dry cuprous chloride has been sealed up in benzene and carbon tetrachloride since March; and although exposed in a southern window during the whole of that time the salt is as white as when first prepared. Some cuprous chloride sealed up in water and exposed for the same time is now almost black. [Shown.] When silver is precipitated by reduction in a finely divided state in the presence of the haloid, and the product treated with acids, the ex- cess of silver is removed and colored products are left which are some- what analogous to the photo-salts proper. These colored haloids are also termed by Carey Lea photo-salts because they present many anal- ogies with the colored products of photo-chemical change. Whether they are identical in composition it is not yet possible to decide, as we have no complete analyses. The first observations in this direction were published more than 30 years ago in a report by a British Association Committee,t in which the red and chocolate-colored chlorides are dis- me in a high vacuum darkens on exposure quite as rapidly as the dry salt in air. It soon regains its original color when kept iv the dark. It behaves, in fact, just as the chloride is known to behave when sealed up in chlorine, although its color is of course much more intense after exposure than is the case with the chloride in chlorine. tThese results were arrived at in three ways. In one case hydrogen was passed through silver citrate suspended in hot water, and the product extracted with citric acid. “The result of treating the residue with chloro-hrydic acid, and then dissolving the silver by dilute nitric acid, was a rose-tinted chloride of silver.” In another ex- periment the dry citrate was heated ina stream of hydrogen at 212° F., and the pro- duct, which was partly soluble in water, gave a brown residue, which furnished ‘a THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 385 tinectly described. Carey Lea has since contributed largely to our knowledge of these colored haloids, and has made it appear at least highly probable that they are related to the products formed by the action of light. [Red photo-chloride and purple photo-bromide and iodide shown. | The photographic image is impressed on a modern film in an inap- preciable fraction of a second, whereas the photo-salt requires an ap- preciable time for its production. The image is invisible simply be- cause of the extremely minute quantity of haloid decomposed. In the present state of knowledge it can not be asserted that the material com- posing this image is identical in composition with the photo-salt, for we know the composition of neither the one nor the other. But they are analogous in so far as they are both the result of photo-chemical de- composition, and there is great probability that they are closely related, if notidentical, chemically. Itmay turnout that there are various kinds of invisible images, according to the vehicle or halogen absorbent—in other words, according to the sensitizer with which the silver haloid is associated. The invisible image is revealed by the action of the de- veloper, into the function of which I do not propose to enter. It will suffice to say that the final result of the developing solntion is to mag- nify the deposit of photo salt by accumulating metallic silver thereon by accretion or reduction. Owing to the circumstance that the image is impressed with such remarkable rapidity, and that it is invisible when formed, it has been maintained, and is still held by many, that the first action of light on the film is molecular or physical, and not chemical. The arguments in favor of the chemical theory appear to me to be tol- erably conclusive, and I will venture to submit a few of them. The action of reagents upon the photographic film is quite similar to the action of the same reagents upon the silver haloids when ex- posed to the point of visible coloration. Reducing agents and halogen absorbents increase the sensitiveness of the film: oxidizing and halo- genizing agents destroy its sensitiveness. It is difficult to see on the physical theory why it should not be possible to impress an image on a film, say of pure silver bromide, as readily as on a film of the same haloid imbedded in gelatine. Everyone knows that this can not be done. I have myself been surprised at the extreme insensitiveness of films of pure bromide prepared by exposing films of silver deposited on glass to the action of bromine vapor. On the chemical theory we very pale red body on being transformed by chlorhydic and nitricacids.” In another experiment silver arsenite was formed, this being treated with caustic soda, and the black precipitate then treated successively with chlorhydic and nitric acids: ‘* Silver is dissolved, and there is left a substance - - - [of] arich chocolate or maroon, etc.” Thison analysis was found to contain 24 per cent. of chlorine, the normal chloride requiring 24.74 and the subchloride 14.08 per cent. The committee which conducted these experiments consisted of Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwick, and Llewelyn. B. A. Rep., 1859, p. 103. H. Mis. 129 25 386 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. know that gelatine is a splendid sensitizer—i. e., bromine absorbent. There is another proof which has been in our hands for nearly 30 years, but I do not think it has been viewed in this light before. It has been shown by Carey Lea, Eder, and especially by Abney, who has investi- gated the matter most thoroughly, that a shearing stress applied me- chanically to a sensitive film leaves an impression which can be devel- oped in just the same way as though it had been produced by the action of light. [Pressure marks on Eastman bromide paper developed by ferrous oxalate.| Now that result can not be produced ona surface of the pure haloid; some halogen absorbent, such as gelatine, must be associated with the haloid. Weare concerned here with a chemical change of that class so ably investigated by Professor Spring, of Liége, who bas shown that by mere mechanical pressure it is possible to bring about chemical reaction between mixtures of finely divided solids.* Then again, mild reducing agents, too feeble to reduce the silver hal- oids directly to the metallic state, such as alkaline hypophosphites, glu- cose or lactose and aikali, ete., form invisible images which can be de- veloped in precisely the same way as the photographic image. All this looks like chemical change, and not physical modification pure and simple. T have in this discourse stoically resisted the tempting opportunities for pictorial display which the subject affords. My aim has been to sumn- marize the position in which we find ourselves with respect to the in- visible image after fifty years’ practice of the art. This image is, I venture to think, the property of the chemist, and by him must the scientific foundation of photography be laid. Wemay not be able to give the formula of the photo-salt, but if the solution of the problem has hitherto eluded our grasp itis because of the intrinsic difficulties of the investigation. The photographie image brings us face to face—not with an ordinary, but with an extraordinary class of chemical changes due entirely to the peculiar character of the silver salts. The material com posing the image is not of that definite nature with which modern chemical methods are in the habit of dealing. The stability of the photosalt is determined by some kind of combination between the sub- haloid or oxy-haloid, or whatever it may be, and the excess of unaltered haloid which enters into its composition. The formation of the colored product presents certain analogies with the formation of a saturated solution; the product of photo-chemical decomposition is formed under the influence of light up to a certain percentage of the whole photo-salt, beyond which it can not be increased,—in other words, the silver haloid is saturated by a very minute percentage of its own product of photo- decomposition. The photo-salt belongs to a domain of chemistry—a no- *The connection between the two phenomena was suggested during a course of lectures delivered by me two years ago (‘‘ Chemistry of Photography,” p. 191). I have sincelearnt that the same conclusion had been arrived at independently by Mr. C. H. Bottamley, of the Yorkshire College, Leeds, THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 387 man’s land—peopled by so-called ‘“‘ molecular compounds,” into which the pure chemist ventures but timidly. But these compounds are more and more urging their claims for consideration, and sooner or later they will have to be reckoned with, even if they lack that definite- ness which the modern chemist regards as the essential criterion of chemical individuality. The investigation may lead to the recognition of a new order of chemical attraction, or of the old chemical attraction in a different degree. The chemist who discourses here upon this sub- ject at the end of the half century of photography into which we have now entered will no doubt know more about this aspect of chemical affinity ; and if I may invoke the spirit of prophecy in concluding, I should say that a study of the photographic film with its invisibleimage will have contributed materially to its advancement. 4 ie i fs m1 Pye ay ey } 4 e A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN.* BY M. TREUB. A short time ago botanic gardens were arraigned by the rector of one of the largest universities of Europe in a serious discourse. The orator, a celebrated phyto-physiologist, complained that these gardens no longer keep pace with the botanical science of the day. In the middle ages and until the middle of the sixteenth century botanic gar- dens were collections of officinal plants. Since that period they have become truly scientific institutions. Abandoning pure speculation, attention was given to living things themselves, particularly to plants. Patrons and scientists combined their efforts to bring from the most distant countries rare or unknown specimens. Im the gardens, depos. itories of this wealth, the difficult task was attempted of presenting, on a reduced scale, the entire vegetable world, and of bringing together (as far as possible), all existing vascular plants. In spite of the con- stantly increasing number of plants introduced into Europe, this gen- eral plan was for a long time followed, and not until the beginning of « the present century, was it felt that the method must be changed. In the first place it should have been recognized that it was impossible to collect in a single garden, however large and well managed, anything like the enormous number of vascular plants distributed on our globe. Besides, (and thisis a more serious argument,) the conditions offered to introduce plants in gardens are so far from natural, that exotic culti- vated plants can not be considered as furnishing a proper basis of com- parison in scientific researches, as these are at present understood. Too many plants in conditions too abnormal is briefly the criticism made by the orator. These institutions, attacked from so high a place, have not failed of defenders. While recognizing that part of the criticismis well founded, it is urged that if the object in view was varied somewhat by insisting —more than has heretofore been done—upon the adoption of a common plan, the botanic gardens of Europe would easily avoid the dangers with which they are menaced. It is not necessary that we take any part inthis controversy, for the objections— whether well-founded or not—do not apply to botanic gardens of the tropics, as we will endeavor to show in the following pages. *Translated from the Revue des Deux Mondes. January 1, 1890, vol. xcvil, pp. 162-183. 389 390 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. The number of botanic gardens situated in the tropical zone is much greater than might be supposed. According to a recent enumeration there are not less than fifteen in the British possessions. In the French colonies they are found at St. Denis in Reunion Island, at La Point-a- Pitre in Guadeloupe Island, at St. Pierre in Martinique, at Pondicherry, and at Saigon. Spain has one at Havana, and one at Manila; and Hol- Jand has a single one at Buitenzorg in theisland of Java. There are also tropical botanic gardens in South America, and these bring the total number to a considerable figure. Still it must be admitted that some are not botanic gardens properly so-called, but rather agricultural sta- tions and gardens of acclimation. There are others however, that while not abandoning tropical agriculture, merit the names of great scientific establishments. As the chief of this kind, those of Calcutta, of Buitenzorg in Java, and of Peradeniya in Ceylon (in chronological order) should be cited. The royal garden of Caleutta was founded in 1786 by Col. Robert Hyde, who was its first director. Among his successors are found the celebrated names of Wallich and Griffith, the greatest naturalist of our century in the extreme East. The garden of Calcutta has now been for several years under the wise and able direction of Dr. G. King, to whose care the herbarium of Calcutta owes its great reputation. The royal garden of Peradeniya in the Island of Ceylon was founded in 1821. Situated near Kandy, at an altitude of nearly 500 metres [1,600 feet], having a moist and hot climate, occupying more than 60 hectares [150 acres], and connected as itis with the post of Colombo by a railway, the garden of Peradeniya possesses conditions most favorable in every respect. For many years it was under the direction of Dr. Thwaites, aman of real merit, but who thought a botanic garden in a tropical country should be in some manner a reduced copy of the virgin forest. This system, more original than meritorious, excludes any methodical arrangement of plants and necessarily restricts the number of speci- mens. Dr. H. Trimen, the successor of Dr. Thwaites, as soon as he arrived in Ceylon, 9 years ago, realized the disadvantages of the plan of his predecessor. ‘To distribute over an area of 60 hectares, without any order, a great number of plants, for the most part not labelled, was to fatally embarrass the scientific use of the rich collections that had been brought together. So Dr. Trimen did not hesitate to adopt a new arrangement of plants according to the natural system and to label them as far as it was possible todo so. With branch establish- ments upon the plain and upon the mountain, the garden of Peradeniya has before it a brilliant future. The third of the gardens mentioned, that of Buitenzorg in the island of Java, was founded in 1817. We will briefly relate its history and show by a study of its present organ- ization that a new era is commencing for large tropical gardens, and that their influence will constantly increase in the future evolution of the science of plants. A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN, 391 is On the 29th of October, 1815, a squadron quitting the roadstead of Texel in the north of Holland set sail for the Kast Indies. The passen- gers (for they carried them upon these ships of war), must have rejoiced that they had left the storms and fogs of the North Sea for the sunny coasts of Malaysia. The squadron took to Java the commissioners- general to whom the sovereign of Holland had committed the task of assuming in his name the government of the Dutch East Indies. Being a man of broad views, the new king had attached to the com- mission a distinguished naturalist, Reinwardt, professor in the Athe- neum of Amsterdam, in order that the study of the marvellous natural products which constitute the wealth of the Dutch possessions in the south of Asia might be settled upon a solid basis. The squadron did not enter the straits of Sunda until the last of April in the following year. The high functionaries, sailing after a long voyage between charming’ islets, set like emeralds in thin sliver fillets of breakers, breathing the faint odors from the neighboring coasts, must at last land and take up their task. The future indeed reserved for them many disappointments, and it was only after long and tedious diplomatic maneuvers that the English authorities, on the 19th of August, 1816, decided to turn over to the plenipotentiaries of the king of Holland the rule of the Dutch Indies. Baron Van der Capellen the commissioner who was to perform the functions of governor-general shortly installed himself at Buitenzorg, taking Reinwardt with him. Buitenzorg, the residence of the viceroy of the Dutch Indies, is situated 58 kilometres [36 miles] from Batavia, in 106° 53’ 5” east longitude and 6° 35’ 8” south latitude, upon one of the long ridges that extend to the north of the great mountain of Salak. An enchant- ing site, possessing a beautiful and healthful climate, it is not surpris- ing that the governors-general established themselves there instead of at Batavia, however large and beautiful that “city of villas” might be, This preference, accorded to Buiteuzorg by the representatives of the king, was the cause of the creation of a botanical establishment at that point. In fact, upon the request of Reinwardt, the commissioners- general decided—by a decree of April 15, 1817—to found a botanic garden at Buitenzorg upon an uncultivated territory belonging to the domain and ceded by Baron Van der Capellen. On this territory, contiguous to the park and to the palace garden, work was commenced on the 15th of May by some fifty native workmen, under the direction of two chief gardeners, one of whom, brought out by Reinwardt, had been employed in the same capacity in Holland, while the other was a pupil of the royal garden of Kew. It would have been difficult to find in the whole island of Java a place more appropriate for a garden of this kind, for owing to certain conditions, Buitenzorg unites to other advantages that of having no dry season, properly speaking. It is evident that 392 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. only a small number of plants could endure a period of almost con- tinuous drought for 4 or 5 months, such as is habitual to the east of Java. Even the climate of batavia, where 2 or 3 months without heavy rains are not rare, would be Jess suitable for a botanic garden than Buitenzorg, where they complain if in the middle of the dry sea- son, rain is absent for 3 consecutive weeks. These frequent and heavy rains are doubly advantageous for the garden; Buitenzorg owes to them its ever luxuriant vegetation (never ceasing, aS One may Say), and they cause a lowering of the mean temperature which makes it possible to cultivate many plants from the virgin forests of the moun- tains, although the altitude of Buitenzorg is only 280 metres [200 feet]. In order to give an idea of the mass of water which is ordinarily shed upon the “Sans Souct” of Java,* it will be sufficient to say that at Buitenzorg there falls a mean quantity of 4,600 millimetres | 180 inches] of rain per year, while in Holland, one of the most rainy countries of Jurope, there falls per year but 660 millimetres [26 inches]. No set- tled plan was at first adopted, and the archives contain no indication of any kind relative to the earliest management of the garden. We merely know that its founder, Reinwardt, took advantage of many voyages made by him to send plants to Buitenzorg. Yet the first cata- logue of the * Botanic Garden of the State,” the name officially adopted, published some months after the departure of Reinwardt, enumerates ooly 912 species of plants. Reinwardt returned to Europe in June, 1822, to occupy a chair in the University of Leyden. Upon his recom- mendation the Government placed at the head of the garden a botanist of exceptional merit, Dr. C. L. Blume, who thus became the first director of the ‘Hortus Bogoriensis,”+ and whose scientific renown was cradled in the garden at Buitenzorg. Blume displayed a remarkable activity as director. He commenced in 1825 the publication of a work upon the flora of Dutch India; with a feverish activity he brought out dur- ing 1825 and the early part of 1826, seventeen parts, describing more than 1,200 new species, a great number of genera, and several families of plants entirely unknown up to that time. The garden profited directly from the work of Blume, because the collection of living plants was enriched by a numerous series of species discovered by him. On the other hand, Blume succeeded in attaching to the garden, besides a considerable force and the two chief gardeners, a third European gar- dener, and a draftsman. In short, the young institution came out brilliantly in every respect, and it seemed to promise a remarkable future. of 5°, 10°, and 15° over the surrounding temperature. To show that this calorification is a result of respiration, let a flower be covered with oil in order to exclude the oxygen in the air, or let it be placed in an inert gas from which all oxygen has been exhausted (nitrogen for in- stance), and its temperature will be reduced to almost nothing; combus- tion is retarded if not entirely suppressed. Very delicate experiments have established beyond a doubt that a close correlation exists between the supply of oxygen and the amount of heat produced, the latter being proportionate in intensity to the quantity of oxygen absorbed. 414 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. One has a right therefore to assume that all flowers evolve a certaim amount of heat, variable, it is true, for one flower differs from another, but always clearly appreciable. A similar evolution is observed in the active organs of plants when they are excited to movement. it has: been established in the case of germs by the means of thermo-eleetric¢ needles. It is much more sensible than in the case of adult plants, im which life is less active and intense. We see in the vegetable, as in the animal kingdom, that heat is gen- erated, and that it is due, for the most part, to oxidations within them- selves. It is possible to establish the existence of a complete likeness between these two classes of organisms. The demonstration which substantiates itself every day of the identity and unity of the funda- mental laws of life, in spite of variation in furm and appearanee, is not one of the least benefits which have resulted from the investigations of modern science. At the point where calorification results from chemical phenomena accompanying nutrition and respiration a close dependence springs uy» between it and the process of alimentation. This dependence clearly exists. The phenomena of alimentation are in consequence of the in- troduction of food into the organism in such a manner that it can be assimilated, portions of it immediately, and that which remains after it has undergone chemical modifications. To the former category va- rious salts and water belong; to the latter, organic compounds, flesh,, fruits, vegetables, milk, etc. Where there is a total lack or insuffi- ciency of alimentation the animal perishes, especially when there is no reserve supply of nutriment in the form of fat. At the same time its temperature falls. This fact has been established by Chossat, who has: made an exhaustive study of inanition. Animals deprived of nutri- ment generate less heat. Their temperature diminishes each day, and finally, at the moment of death, sinks to 10°, 15°, or 20° below the nor- mal medium. The temperature of pigeons, for example, falls from 40° or 42° to 20° or 189°. The same phenomenon exists in the case of mam ormammals. It is the same with them as with a boiler when the fur- nace is not fed; the fire is extinguished and heat disappears. In the vegetable kingdom there is in all probability a similar occurrence, al- though no visible proof is given of it as far as we know, Experiment in this case is very difficult, but an indirect proof is furnished by the fact, well known to agriculturists and botanists, that the suppression or diminution of such and such mineral salts necessary to vegetable life will result in the deterioration and relative unfruitfulness of the plant. That which diminishes their vitality and their proportions di- minishes also their nutrition, and as a natural consequence their pro- duction of heat, There is therefore between the processes of alimentation and calori- fication a fixed relation, and one can readily determine among the many different kinds of foods those which contribute most towards caiorifi- TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 415 cation. Chemistry shows us by exact analyses that different bodies, in oxidation, evolve varying degrees of heat. Let us imagine a given quantity of oxygen introduced into the blood to assist the oxidations which are the principal though not exclusive source of animal heat. The amount of heat which will be produced by the combustion of this volume of oxygen with the material existing in the tissues will vary ac- cording to the nature of the material. Combining with certain sub- stances the same quantity of oxygen will generate ten times more heat than will result from certain other combinations. That which is true of oxidations is also true of other chemical phenomena incident to ¢a- lorification—that is to say, hydrations, de-hydrations, decompositions, combinations, etc. The production of heat varies considerably accord- ing to the chemical nature of the substances which are influenced by these modifications. It is enough to say that certain foods are more productive of heat than others. Observation las long since shown the effects, in a cold climate, of a diet rich in fats and in sugar, and expe- rience establishes the fact that these substances develop a greater de- gree of heat than albuminoids. On the other hand, we all know that inhabitants of warm climates need less food and are more abstemious than those of a cold region. The need for being heated is less pro- nounced in their case on account of the temperature in which they live, and in which the external cooling is little or nothing in extent. The relations which exist between the processes of calorification and respiration are no less evident. Anything that obstructs respiration obstructs also the generation of heat. This is more pronounced in the case of creatures with whom oxidation plays a very important part in the generation of heat. The deprivation or diminution of pure air very quickly results in serious disturbance, due to the irregularity occa- sioned in the vital functions by an insufficient exchange between the blood and the atmosphere. Supposing that life were possible during a temporary but somewhat prolonged cessation of respiration, the temperature of the body would quickly diminish. The higher class of beings may not furnish proof of this fact, being so exceedingly sensi- tive to the deprivation of pure air, but by the lower organisms it is clearly proven. We have seen it in depriving of its share of oxygen a flower of arum or of colocasia by dipping it either in oil or in azote, when the phenomenon of thermogenesis is considerably diminished. In fine, the relations of calorification to the activity of the organism are quite as clear as those of which we have just spoken. These are manifest among vegetables as among animals. With the first the generation of heat is greatest during movement, or in reference to the more active portions, from the point of view of vitality and growth, and during the organization of the tissues; in germs, in which the chemical changes are rapid, numerous, intense, and in flowers during the operation of fecundation. With animals all activity is accompanied by an elevation of the tem. 416 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. perature, local or general, according to the intensity and duration of the activity. It is thus that a muscle in the act of contracting evolves more heat than when in a state of repose, and this production is such that it easily increases the temperature of the body 2% 3°, 5°. In the same manner, a mental or intellectual effort results in a produc- tion of considerable heat. The glands in an active state generate large quantities of heat, as is seen by the temperature of their secre- tions and of the venous blood, which has served in the formation of the latter. This is why the venous blood of the kidneys is warmer than the arterial blood, and according to Claude Bernard the temperature of the hepatic vein, which brings back the blood from the liver to the heart, is the highest in temperature, especially during the process of digestion, at which time the liver is very active, and the chemical proe- esses which take place are also numerous and intense. This is suffi- cient to show the dependence of the generation of heat upon the chem- ical activities of the body. By reason of natural and normal cessations of the phenomena which are instrumental in generating and liberating heat, it is impossible for the temperature of a being to be absolutely equable. Even with the most warm-blooded animals there are many normal variations. In a sound man, in normal condition, these variations take place within the space of about 24 hours. The temperature is highest from 10 o’clock, or midday, to 6 or 7 o’clock in the evening, reaching its lowest point between midnight and 6 o’clock in the morning. Violent exercise, of course, increases it several degrees, and the process of digestion is accompanied by a slight fever. Ina word, a multitude of circumstances occur each hour which render variable, within certain limits, it is true, the generation of heat. In addition, and this is quite natural, accord- ing to the explanations given above, the temperature is not the same in all portions of the organism. Certain portions are more thermogenic than others, and others are more exposed to a loss of heat. The calo- rific topography of the organism is accurately known. We know that the hepatic vein is one of the warmest points of the body, its position being a protected one, and containing, as it does, blood heated by the intense chemical action which takes place in the liver. The brain has probably the same temperature as this vein. On the other hand, the skin always shows a much lower temperature (3°, 5°, or 6°) than that of the rest of the organism, suffering as it does considerable loss from radiation. Leaving the question of external heat, we find that internal tempera- ture is the direct result of two factors, thermic generation and waste. Heat generated is the result of chemical processes, infinite in variety, of which the body is the theatre, processes among which that of oxi- dation holds a predominant place. As soon as oxidation is retarded, there follows a difficulty in breathing, accompanied by a lowering of the temperature. The cause of this is the diminution itself and the TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 417 reaction it probably exercises upon®the other thermogenic chemical actions, As to waste, this is incurred in accordance with well-known physical laws, and with warm-blooded animals it is sometimes facilitated and sometimes diminished by the action of the regulating mechanism placed under the dependence of the nervous system, a mechanism which in its normal condition tends to preserve for the organism a tem- perature nearly constant, diminishing the losses when the production of heat is feeble or insufficient in respect to the temperature of the sur- rounding medium, and augmenting these losses, on the contrary, when the atmosphere is too high, or when the production is so great that it tends to inflame the bodily organism. The only difference, from the physiological standpoint, in the calori- fication which exists among warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals is, that with the latter the production of heat is slight and the regu- lating apparatus absent. These species engender little heat, and are unable to regulate their losses. They also follow the variations in the outside temperature almost to as great an extent as inanimate objects; whereas warm-blooded animals conform in a less degree to the outer atmosphere, and also with less impunity. Il, We are now to consider between what limits of temperature organic life can be maintained. Animals of the highest temperature, protected though they are against the extremes of heat and cold, can be placed under conditions which render these protective means inadequate, and this in a state of nature and apart from all experimentation. A word first on the thermic variations which occur in the inhabited zone of our planet; a zone limited in extent, comprising an average of 8 to 10 kilometres in altitude, its elevations and depressions being about equal in distance from the level of the sea; a zone exceedingly small when compared with the diameter of the earth. Beyond the limits of this region life has never existed, or at least exists no longer. We are more especially interested in that portion of the earth which can support organic life. The extreme points of temperature observed in the atmosphere are - 70° and + 56°C. The former observation was made at Iakoutsk, the latter at Mourzouk. These are said to represent very exactly the extreme limits, forming a difference of 125° or 130°C, At these far distant points human life is possible, and also that of cer- tain animals. In the ocean the thermometric digressions are not as great. According to Wyville Thompson, the temperature of the At- lantic Ocean reaches 0° at a depth of only 4,200 metres; at 6,000 metres it registers 5°; at 800 metres, 4°, and at 2,000 meties it is 3°. About the same can be said of the Pacific Ocean. Should the temperature upon the surface or at the bottom of the sea descend lower than —1° or —2° the water freezes. It is not necessary for us to consider this H. Mis, 129 27 418 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. point however, since it is complicated by the introduction of a new factor—the suffocation of the inhabitants of the water as a resuit of this congelation, The Mediterranean Sea is less cold, the temperature at the bottom being about 12° or 13°. The Red Sea rises to 21°, and at the surface to 32°. The variations are less in the center, not exceed- ing 34°C. It is therefore on the earth and in the air that the extremes of temperature are found. The immense influence of the rays of the sun upon temperature should be taken into account. A thermometer which registers 27° in the shade will rise to 31° when placed in the sun, and when resting upon a bit of black cloth it will reach 80°. A thermometer placed on the helmet of a cuirassier and exposed to the sun will rise to 60° or 70°, and in a compartment of a furnace it rises to 75°C. On the other hand we must not forget that life exists in regions where the temperature reaches 90° and 98° C (Hooker, Flourens, ete.). This conclusion, therefore, is reached, that there are some creatures which can live at +100° and others at —60° or —70°. These figures represent the extremes of temperature to which living beings are ex- posed under actual terrestrial conditions, but they do not represent those which certain of these classes can resist, for certain spores of bacteria resist more than +100° and —100° C, according to recent ex- periments. Let us admit at the start, to simplify matters, that life can be sustained at —150° and at +150°. Are all these creatures able to sustain life with impunity, even for a short time, in such extremes of temperature ? Possibly so, but only for a limited space of time, and surrounded by a nonconductor. This proves nothing; the only inter- esting phases of this question are the facts or experiments which relate to the results obtained by organisms remaining in such extremes for a prolonged length of time—interesting where they succumb, being suf- focated or frozen, as well as when they are able to survive by pre- serving their normal temperature. We will not dwell upon those cases, which are both numerous and interesting, where man and animal have endured for a few moments or seconds extremes of temperature, only considering the cases where their continuation is sufficiently prolonged for the temperature to affect them. There is for every species of animal and vegetable, indeed even for each variety, a thermic optimum, that is to say, an average of tempera- ture which is most favorable to its growth and development. It should not be forgotten, however, that with all species of organic life a certain adaptation is possible, the limits of which are more or less restricted. In many instances it is possible to sustain life among animals in a medium which would have been fatal to them if they had been suddenly introduced into it, by carefully managing the conditions and transi- tions. This fact is especially recognized in chemical elements, of which many instances have been given. It is true as well of thermic condi- tions. At the same time, even when adaptations are made, new envi- ronment acts on the organism, influencing and modifying its structure - —s TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 419 or functions, and it may be said that for all life there is a degree of temperature which is more favorable than any other to its perfect development. The limits of temperature thus favorable to a given class are surprisingly narrow. This is especially true in the case of microbes. The bacillus of butyric fermentation is most active at 40°, At 42° it multiplies more rapidly, but diminishes in activity. At 45° it no longer effects fermentation. For alcoholic fermentation the most favorable point is between 25° and 30°, although it ceases at zero—the freezing point, and at 100°--the boiling point. The microbe of ecar- buncular diseases thrives at 37° to 39°, At 41° it dies. Convincing evidence of this is given by Pasteur, who has shown that a fowl in normal condition, its temperature being from 41° to 42°, can not become inoculated with a disease of this kind. If you cool the fowl artificially by means of cold water, so that its temperature diminishes 2° or 3°, the microbe multiplies abundantly in the blood of the fowl and kills it, at least if the cooling process is continued. If that ceases, a return to the normal condition of the animal will dissipate the disease. A temperature of 35° is most favorable to lactic fermentation. The fermentation of putrid matter is less restricted. It is carried on any- where from 0° to 40°, although the most favorable points are between 15° and 35°. Examples of this kind may be given in great numbers. What is more interesting, however, than this enumeration, is the study of the results which are induced by subjecting a given microbe to a degree of temperature higher than that which is best adapted to it, not sufficiently high, however, to be fatal to its existence. Very evident modifications are by this means produced in its physical condition. It becomes weakened, and there is a marked diminution in its vitality. This fact is the basis of the interesting processes of preventive vaccina- tions, of which Pasteur has given us so many striking and useful exam- ples. Only a slight increase of temperature is needed to transform a dangerous microbe into an invaluable auxiliary in the art of healing or preventing infectious diseases. On the contrary spores of bacteria can be subjected to considerable variations of temperature without being productive of any modifications. These spores withstand admirably extremes of temperature, for instance —100° and +1009, the bacteria which spring from these losing none of their virulence. Some species of bacteria may be frozen for many months and live. This is true of the bacteria of typhoid fever, according to Fraenkel and Prudden. Contrary to the general impression, congealing does not purify impure water. It is interesting to note that the sensibility of common leavens, as referred to their thermic variations, is repeated in soluble leavens— that is to say, with the products of the activity of certain cellules, which exhibit some of the qualities of the ordinary leavens. Thus pepsin is active anywhere between 37° and 40°. At 50° it acts in a less degree, becoming almost inactive at 90°. The pancreatic juice exercises its 420 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE, chemical action most thoroughly at 40°. At 20° it acts slightly, and at 60° its action ceases entirely. In considering the tissues of complex organisms, we ascertain analogous phenomena. Protoplasms of dif- ferent organisms, although they are often supposed to be identical, present very unequal opposition to thermic variations. In one case it dies at 30° or 20°, in others it lives at 0°, at —5°, at —10° (Norden- skiold). We know that eggs of birds require for their development a temperature, narrow in limits, which can not be overstepped without destroying the embryo, or producing malformations. Eggs of inverte- brates are Somewhat similar, but their exigencies are less restricted, and they accommodate themselves to greater differences of temperature. Every being, to live and move, requires environment of a certain temperature. Some are less exacting, and adapt themselves to varia- tions; others, on the contrary, can not endure even slight changes. Some seek the cold, others—heat; but all in a marked manner, as we know from the difficulties experienced in acclimating species to a new climate. A few examples will not be out of place. The polar region, with its prolonged and rigorous cold, and our high summits, always clothed with a mantle of ice, produce a fauna and flora which is peculiar to them. In these regions, where man is able to exist only at the cost of a considerable effort, there are mammals, insects, plants of all kinds, which can reach here only their full growth and perfect development. In a temperate or warm climate they lose their vitality and perish, never in reality becoming acclimated. Warm-blooded animals which live in these regions have the same temperature as their co-species in warm climates. They maintain themselves by appropriate food and a heavy growth of fur, discarded by them when the weather moderates. Captain Black has observed in Siberia when the external temperature was at —35°, that the temperature of a fox was 41°, making a difference of 76°. The reverse of these polar regions and glaciers are the hot springs. Here also we find a characteristic fauna and flora. Many observers have drawn up a list of sea weeds, infusorials, and fungi, living in the waters, the temperature of which varies from 50°, 60°, and even 90° ©, and that thrive and multiply. Between the coldest regions, which some species delight in, and the hot springs, or the tropical regions, where others attain their highest development, we find grades of organisms whose resistance to extremes of temperature is less and which prefer more temperate surroundings, manifesting a partiality for such and such a point in the thermic scale. To be assured of these preferences one has only to consult the docu- ments showing the distribution of species and their acclimation. The most curious fact disclosed by the preceeding data is the great resist- ance of the protoplasm of certain creatures to temperatures, which, judging from other cases, one would suppose must be fatal. The pro- toplasm in certain cases can sustain a temperature of zero, or lower still, and others can live at 90° and even higher temperatures. This is TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 421 a remarkable fact which neither physiologists nor chemists are able to explain. In short, there exists among organisms a certain number of species, vegetable or animal, able to withstand extremes of temperature, and to live normally therein, while the majority can live only in more uni- form and moderate temperatures. We will now see by what means the different organisms withstand or succumb to temperatures, other than those to which they naturally accomodate themselves, and to what influences they are subjected. Let us consider first heterothermic organisms, or cold-blooded animals, which follow the oscillations of the surrounding atmosphere, and the temperature of which rises and falls proportionately on account of the absence of the regulating apparatus by which they could control their own production and loss of heat. These organisms possess a sensibility which is regardless of variations in their temperature. They can un- dergo with impunity oscillations in the atmosphere about them which would endanger the life of warm-blooded animals, possibly destroying it entirely. The latter, man included, can not live a moment if their in- ternal temperature exceeds about 45° (113° F.) The cold-blooded animals can vary their temperature within very considerable limits. The enu- meration of the latter would not be particularly interesting; it is suffi- cient to say that the temperature of cold-blooded animals of our coun- tries varies according to circumstances from 0° to 35° and 40°. . That which arrests our attention is the summing up of the influence of differ- ent temperatures on the functions of these animals. As a matter of course, temperatures exist which are not deadly, which are consistent with the life of these creatures. We shall see later in what way the ex- tremes of temperature act. Itis a well-substantiated fact, by means of experiments which, though not numerous, are very exact, that there is for every living creature a degree of heat which is absolutely indispensable in order that its devel- opment be as complete as possible. On this point we have had for several years, thanks to the valuable labors of Boussingault, most inter- esting data. Being given a certain vegetable we can estimate that the time which elapses between the appearance of its vegetation and its complete maturity is short in proportion to the height of the tempera- ttire at which it vegetates, and long in proportion to its degree of low- hess, exception being made, let it be understood, of thermic conditions which are dangerous or fatal. Otherwise stated: Being given a plant which lives between 15° and 30°, of which the thermic optimum is 25°, its development will be slower in a constant temperature of 15° than in one of 20° to 25°, and the retardation is proportionate to the thermic difference. It seems that in whatever latitude or climate it thrives, there exists there for the plant just the quantity of heat necessary for its development. It is easy to prove that this hypothesis is exact and conforms to the facts of the case. The following is an example: From 422 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. the day when a seed germinates to the moment when the plant reaches its maturity an average is taken of the temperature for each cycle of 24 hours. Afterwards an average is made of these averages for all the period which has passed between the two moments mentioned above and this average is to be multiplied by the number of days which have passed. Suppose this action of the plant has taken 90 days, and that the aver- age of averages is 17, then you obtain the figure 1530, which represents the degrees of heat furnished in 90 days,—a day being taken as a unit of time. A very interesting fact is, that, if the same observations are made with the same species of plant under different thermic conditions, or in a different climate, the same figure is obtained, although the number of days necessary to the development may vary from simple to treble, according to the climate. The study of vegetable physiology is rich in interesting facts from the standpoint which is now occupied. In this way different seeds are very differently influenced by cold. One does not germinate below 15°, while others germinate at 4°, and still others at zero. One plant developes best at a temperature which is fatal to another. In the animal kingdom analogous facts have been observed in a very exact manner. A little fresh-water mollusk (lymnée) furnishes Carl Semper, the learned zodlogist of Wiirzburg, with very interesting facts in this connection. Below 12° this animal, although leading an active life and taking its food regularly, underwent no growth, though it was able to reproduce, its eggs developing perfectly. From 12° to 25° (which is its most favorable temperature) its assimilation was per- fect, and the animal grew and developed. Semper remarks that these mollusks, subjected permanently to a temperature of 10° or 12°, remain small and cease to develop. They produce a dwarfed breed, which in their turn reproduce normally, remaining, however, smaller than the other lymnées. On the other hand, an unnaturally large species can be produced by maintaining the mollusks by artificial means at the highest point of temperature. There is still another fact which accords with that of which we have just spoken. A well-known naturalist, Mcebius, has discovered that the same species of marine mollusks common to the Baltic and to the coast of Greenland differ greatly in size. At the Baltic they are small and have a thin shell, while on the coast of Green- land they are much larger in size and are provided with a thick shell. This is explained by the fact that in the Baltie the variations of tem. perature are more frequent and the cold is more intense than in Green- Jand, in consequence of which the development of the mollusk is more difficult and intermittent. Temperatures lower than this most favorable point have a marked effect upon animals and plants, which shows itself in the latter by : retardation of development which at the same time becomes less com- plete. On the contrary, temperatures not fatal, but relatively high in regard to their natural condition, favor their growth, which becomes proportionately rapid and complete. It is thus with the eggs of certain TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 423 species of crustacea, as the apus and branchipus, which develop between 0° and +502, accomplishing their complete evolution in 24 hours at a temperature of 30°, while between 16° and 20° it takes weeks to obtain the same result. ‘Tadpoles hatch in 10 days at a temperature of 15.59 ; at 10.5° it requires 15 days. Notice how various are the requirements of different creatures in the matter of temperature. That of 36°, so favorable to branchipus, is fatal to many, excepting the e1tire animal life of Arctic seas, and also, as I have already shown, a number of spe- cies of the Mediterranean, especially those which inhabit the seashore and can not adapt themselves to temperatures in pools heated by the summer sun. There is therefore for every species a certain temperature at which de- velopment is most rapid and life most easy. The limits of this thermic condition vary considerably according to the species and even the va- riety. Subjected to the influence of a lower temperature than that which is most favorable, each animal’s developmeut is retarded, in dif- ferent degrees, and often fails to attain perfection. If exposed to a higher temperature than that which is best adapted to them, disturb- ances are produced, alimentation becomes impaired, and the animal— or vegetable—begins to pine, as is also the case with man in excessively hot climates. This influence of temperature on life is not only manifested in de. gree and rapidity of development, if also appears in other phenom- ena; coloration, for instance. In this way Weissmann has shown that two butterflies, Vanessa levana and Vanessa prorsolevana, differing in coloration upon certain points, have been looked upon as belonging to two distinct species, whereas in reality they represent but one. The difference is simply a question of temperature. One comes from an egg laid during the winter, and one from one laid in the summer, but it is easy to obtain at will either variety from the same egg by heating or cooling artificially, according to the case. A more important ques- tion is the influence which the temperature exerts upon sexual devel- opment: Cold retards and sometimes arrests it; a certain degree of temperature favors and accelerates it; and itis well known that sexual development in man himself is hastened by the influence of a hot climate. In Cuba, and other warm climates, a girl attains maturity at 12 years. But the temperature must not be too high either. Crusta- cea kept for several weeks at 19° do not acquire sexual activity, whereas at 9° or 10° it is acquired in 2 days. Temperature thus exercises considerable influence upon all organ- isms. An interesting proof of these effects on the intensity of life (if it may thus be called) is furnished by a study of the influence exercised by this factor on the action of poisons and medicines. Alexander von Humboldt, and after him many investigators, have noted that this ac- tion is more instantaneous and rapid in high temperatures (which are - neither fatal nor dangerous in themselves) than at a lower degree. 494 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. Occasionally in the latter case, a poison becomes perfectly inactive and inoffensive, although it would prove deadly if the temperature rose a few degrees. This fact is now well understood, and account of it is taken in dealing with toxicology. This explains the frequent contra- dictions between the conclusions of different investigators, because they have not experimented under the same thermic conditicns, and most of them have failed to note the exact temperature. Another proof of temperature on the general functions of the organism is the proof furnished by a comparative study of the resistance of beings to asphyxia. When the temperature islow, asphyxia is slower and more difficult. A frog immersed in water, its head covered, and only cuta- neous respiration possible, will survive from 6 to8 hours with the water at 0°. At 15° or 16° it will only live a fourth of this time. To consider another phase of the same question: poisonous plants are more deadly under thermic conditions favorable to their growth than when strug- gling to live in an atmosphere colder or warmer than that adapted to their peculiarities. We have been considering so far the influence of thermic variations which are not of necessity deadly. We will now turn our attention to those which are fatal in their effects, first observing that the ef- fects vary according to the species, and also according to certain con- ditions, some intrinsic or inherent in the organisms, others extrinsic or relative to the conditions under which the thermic extremes occur. It is well known, for example, how unequal is the resistance of vegeta- bles and seeds to extremes of heatand cold. Some freeze easily, others with difficulty. It depends much upon their bulk and the proportion of water contained in their tissues. Some do not die immediately after freezing, even when the thawing is rapid, others only survive when the thawing is slow and gradual. A very important factor is the condition of the vitality. We know that spores of bacteria and seeds of plants withstand degrees of temperature at which neither bacteria nor plants could live. This fact is so well known that it is only necessary to touch upon it. It may seem strange that torpid organisms have more resistance than the higher species to adverse circumstances ; yet it is true that the less active the life the less vulnerable it is, and less can exterior forces dis- turb the functions which are already almost dormant and torpid. Cold kills a great number of the lower organisms by reason of the disorgan- ization of the tissues which takes place when congealed, and this dis- organization is complete in proportion to the amount of water which the tissues contain. There are, however, many organisms among the cold-blooded class which die before they reach the point of freezing. Invertebrates and plants belonging to warm climates, as well as many microbes, succumb when the thermometer has only reached 0°. In which case the method of death is different, it being produced by a slackening of all the functions. Extreme heat kills plants and animals TEMPERATURE AND LIFE, 425 of the cold-blooded class at different degrees of intensity, being much higher, however, than those at which warm-blooded species succumb. In the one case they are, in plain language, dried up, the heat depriving the tissues and functions of the water necessary to their existence; in the other, the vital material coagulates and life is no longer possible, this cause being the more general one. This congealing, however, is not always fatal, even in the case of animals of high organization. It has long been known that in the northern part of America and Russia travelers transport frozen fishes, rigid and brittle, which being placed in water of a temperature of 8° and 10° regain their activity, although they may have been frozen for 10 or 12 days. Science has refused to believe these statements, but careful experiments have authenticated them. In 1828 and 1829 Gaymard froze several toads thoroughly, and they returned to their normal condition and activity on being thawed. Care must be taken that both the freezing and thawing are gradual. This is the principal precaution to be taken in making experiments of this sort. The great English naturalist, Hunter, believed that the life of man could be prolonged by being frozen from time to time. He thought that if frozen and revived several times in the course of a few years the limits of life could be considerably extended. Unfortunately the experiment brought death instead of prolonging life. Let us now consider the warm-blooded organising, the creatures whose temperature is more stable and does not follow the thermic variations in the atmosphere about them. A mammal or a bird withstands a con- siderable amount of cold. If indigenous toa cold region, protected by thick fur or warm plumage, and in a position to secure the nourishment it needs, if can live in a temperature at 50° below zero, its own tem- perature remaining fixed and normal. It is true also of man, who by protecting himself by appropriate clothing, easily withstands quite as low points of temperature, particularly if there is an absence of wind. We all know by experience that a moderately cold temperature with wind blowing is much harder to bear than intense cold without wind. The explanation of this fact is very simple. The wind tends to con- stantly deprive the body of the layer of warm air, which forms between the body and the clothing, and to facilitate radiation and loss of heat by substituting for it cold air. But what happens under experimental or natural conditions when an animal or man is subjected to the action of intense cold? The organ- ism withstands it for a certain length of time, but this endurance has its limits, variable, it is true, according to species and conditions. A moment necessarily arises, if the cold be sufficiently severe or prolonged, when the organism is no longer in a state to generate sufficient heat to withstand the cold or, what is practically the same, when the loss is too considerable though the generation were sufficient. [rom that moment the temperature of the animal begins to decrease. This dimi- nution is compatible with life up toa certain point, which varies accord- 426 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. ing to the species. Some animals can live, their temperature being as low as 15° or 20°.. The temperature of a rabbit, for example, can fall from 38° or 40° to 20°. That of man may fall to 26°, 25°, and even 249 without resulting in death, according to authentic observations made by Reinke and Nicolayssen upon drunkards. It does not seem, how- ever, according to Claude Bernard, Magendie, and other physiologists, that one can with impunity lower the temperature of warm-blooded animals below 20° ©. At 20° death is almost inevitable; below that point it is certain. The nervous system is destroyed, involving the entire organism. The blood becomes weakened and unequal to per- form its work. Surgeons of large armies have left us valuable information concern- ing the effects of intense cold on human beings. In the case of men who are tired and jaded, intense cold is immediately fatal—especially where it is a sudden immersion in very cold water, for in this case the loss of bodily heatis great. Larrey states that in crossing the Beresina, men perished instantly upon entering the water, and Virey and Desgen- ettes testify to similar cases. With some death was caused by cerebral congestion, with others it was caused by anemia of the brain. When the action of the cold is less sudden, but more prolonged, the result is otherwise. A general benumbing of the body takes place,—of the senses, the brain, the intelligence, a gradual torpor, an invincible sleep from which none awake. ‘ Whoever seats himself, falls into a sleep, and whoever sleeps awakes no more,” said Solander. Death is produced by a slow paralysis of the nervous system or by asphyxia. Warm-blooded animals are enabled to resist the cold by reason of their very active thermogenesis, which prevents them from becoming chilled. But once let their resistance be overcome and they succumb to much higher temperatures than those which overcome cold-blooded organisms. Many of the latter can endure 10°, 5° and even 0° without perishing. The former die when once their internal temperature falls below 18° or 20°. A more forcible reason why the latter can not resist intense cold is because it destroys the portion congealed and therefore the entire organism. Life is also difficult at high temperatures. Man and some animals can, it is true, remain several minutes in a sweating-room in which the temperature is very high—even 100°, 120°, and 130° (Tillet and Duhamel, Delaroche and Berger, ete.)—but under these conditions the stay is always very short; if prolonged beyond 10 or 15 minutes the experience would prove fatal. The perspiration is so excessive that it produces a loss of the heat which is necessary to counterbalance the temperature to which the atmosphere tends to subject the organism. There is another point to be noticed. Air is a bad conductor, and hot air heats the body incomparably less than water subjected to the influ- ence of heat. Water, on the contrary, is an excellent conductor. It is impossible to endure for any time the contact of water at 50° and 60°. TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 427 Moist air is a better conductor than dry air, and it is still better if charged with steam. Thus man can easily remain for 10 minutes in a sweating room of dry air at 90° or 100°, but could not endure the same length of time in moist air at even a lower temperature. He would soon be overcome in the latter case at 90° or 100°. That which is true of high temperature is naturally true also of low. Dry air is not so good a conductor as moist, and moist air is inferior to water as a conductor. One can live in air at degrees of cold which would surely be fatal if the environment were a liquid. We have already stated how weak is the resistance of warm-blooded organisms to high degrees of temperature. In fact, in spite of perspiration and exhalations of vapor by the lungs, it is often impossible for the equilibrium to be maintained, and the organism becomes overheated. Its temperature can be increased very little without being fatal. It endures a decrease of 15° or 20° in its internal temperature, while an increase of more than 5° or 6° would be dangerous. Ifthe temperature of man or mam- mal reaches 44° or 46° death results. Birds can exist at a point some- what higher. First comes a period of great excitation and convulsions, from which it falls into a comatose state, followed by death. This result has not yet been elucidated as clearly as desirable. Death under all circumstances is sufficiently complex, but its complexity varies according to its conditions. There are dis-arrangements in the chemistry of the muscles, a portion of which undergoes a change. There are affections of the blood which may be lacking in oxygen though not presenting indications of any particular poison. Notwith- standing Claude Bernard, it is the thermic rigidity and the muscular injury which are most serious. These are of themselves sufficient to cause death, for their effect is to arrest respiration and circulation. In conelusion we can say that there is, in the case of heterothermic organisms, great endurance of intense cold, and, to a certain extent, of heat, despite the very marked action of thermic variations upon their organizations. In the case of homeothermic organisms we find moder- - ate endurance of low temperature, and very little resistance to an increase of internal temperature. For then alow temperature is accom- panied with much less danger than a high one. The former has to be pronounced to entail death, whereas a slight rise of temperature beyond a certain point will produce immediate and fatal results. Between these two classes of organisms there is another group called hibernating animals. These are, for the most part, rodents, which, at the approach of cold weather, make an underground habitation well covered with moss and other substances, where they remain motionless, rolled up like a ball, during the bad season, sleeping during the entire time, torpid, neither eating nor drinking. With these animals the internal temperature becomes very low, following somewhat the ther- mic variations. They searcely breathe. Their respiratory combustions diminish, and their temperature descends to 20°, 15°, and 109°, and even 428 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. lower. Horwath has stated that the temperature of a hibernating marmot reached 2°, As soon a8 warm weather returns they wake up, become active, and their temperature becomes normal. They are much leaner than before their winter’s sleep, having lived for several months on their own accumulation of fat. Here is an animal alternately warm blooded and cold blooded in summer and winter. The cause of this strange alternation has not yet been explained and is exceedingly com- plicated. With them the thermic production is relatively slight. It is cold that determines the hibernal sleep, for it is easy to produce this by subjecting the animal to prolonged cold by artificial means. No jnvestigations to my knowledge have been made of the resistance of this species of animals to heat. I mean to say, of the elevation of internal temperature above the normal level of the summer, but it is not to be supposed that their endurance would be as great as in case of extremes of cold. This class of hibernating animals unite the heterothermic and home- othermic species, and serve to show once again tbat everything in nature is related. Sudden leaps are no longer held to exist in the phy- siology of creatures which are similar in organic structure; science finds everywhere transitions. Finally, all living organisms generate heat, more or less it is true, according to their activity and their structure, but all produce it. In the same manner all organisms submit to the influence of the surround- ing atmosphere, although all do not follow the variations. For each there is a degree of heat which is best adapted to its perfect develop- ment. All die as soon as the external temperature reacts on the internal temperature to such an extent that the latter is carried above or below a certain point. The only difference is in the facility with which this action of the external temperature operates upon the internal tempera- ture of the organism, MORPHOLOGY OF THE BLOOD CORPUSCLES.* By CHARLES-SEDGWICK MINOT, If one goes through the very extensive literature dealing with blood corpuscles one finds the most divergent views defended, and can hardly reach clear ideas, for the conceptions do not agree among themselves, either as to their structure or as to the development of the corpuscles. According to some the red corpuscles arise from the white; according to others the white corpuscles arise from the red; and according to still others both kinds arise from indifferent cells. In regard to one point only is the majority of investigators united, namely, in the silent assumption that all blood corpuscles are of one and the same kind in spite of the absence of the nucleus in mammalian corpuscles. It is just this assumption that has caused endless confusion, and the morphology of the blood corpuscles can be cleared up only by starting with the recognition of the fundamental difference between nucleated and non- nucleated corpuscles. Further, it must be recognized that no corpus- cles, neither red nor white, arise from nuclei. The origin of red corpuscles from nuclei has been maintained several times. This notion is based upon defective observations. It is very easy in the chick, for example, to convince oneself that the first blood corpuscles are cells; in the area vasculosa, at the time of the blood formation, the red blood cells are readily seen, in part lying singly, in part in groups (blood islands), adherent to the vascular walls; the free celis are constituted chiefly by the nucleus, which is surrounded by a very thin layer of protoplasm, which is very easily overlooked, especially if the preparation is not suitably stained; thisexplains, I think, the state- ment made by Balfour (Works, vol. I) and others, that the blood corpus- cles consist only of nuclei. By following the development along further we find that the protoplasm enlarges for several days, and that during the same time there is a progressive diminution in size of the nucleus, which however is completed before the layer of protoplasm reaches its ultimate size. The nucleus is at first granular, and its nucleolus, or nucleoli, stands out clearly; as the nucleolus shrinks it becomes “From the American Naturalist, November, 1890, vol. Xx1v, pp. 1020-1023. 429 430 MORPHOLOGY OF THE BLOOD CORPUSCLES. round, and is colored darkly and almost uniformly by the usual nuclear stains. This species of blood corpuscle occurs in all vertebrates, and represents the genwine blood cells. According to the above description we can distinguish three principal stages: (1) young cells with very little protoplasm; (2) old cells with much protoplasm and granular nucleus ; (3) modified cells with shrunken nucleus, which colors darkly and more uniformly. I do not know whether the first form occurs in any living adult vertebrate, although the assumption seems justified that they are the primitive form. On the other hand, the second stage is obviously that characteristic of the Ichthyopsida in general, while the third form is typical for the Sauropsida. Therefore the development of the blood cells in amniota offers a new confirmation of Louis Agas- siz’s law (Haeckel’s Biogenetiches Grundgesetz). The blood cells of mammals pass through the same metamorphoses as those of birds; for example, in rabbit embryos the cells have reached the Ichthyopsidan stage on the eighth day; two days later the nucleus is already smaller, and by the thirteenth day has shrunk to its final dimensions. The white blood corpuscles appear much later than the red cells, and their exact origin has still to be investigated, for it has not yet been determined where they first arise in the embryo; nevertheless we may venture to assert that they arise outside the vessels. The formations of leucocytes outside of the vessels is already known with certainty to occur in later stages as well as in the adult. The sharp distinction between the sites of formation of the red and white cells appears with special clearness in the medulla of bone in birds, as we know from the admirable investigations of J. Denys (La Cellule, tometv). The white blood corpuscles then are cells, which are formed relatively late, and wander into the blood from outside. The non-nucleated blood corpuscles of adult mammals are entirely new elements which are peculiar to the class, and arise neither from red nor yet from white blood cells. Their actual development was first discovered (so far as I know) by EH. A. Schafer, who has given a detailed account of the process in the ninth edition of Quain’s Anatomy, and has shown there a full appreciation of the significance of his discovery. Unfortunately Schifer’s important investigations have received little attention. Kuborn has recently confirmed Schiifer’s results in an arti- cle (Anatom. Anzeiger, 1890) on the formation of blood corpuscles in the liver. One can readily study the process in the mesentery and owentum of human and other embryos. The essential point of Schifer’s discovery is that the non-nucleate corpuscles have an intra-cellular origin, and arise by differentiation of the protoplasm of vaso-formative cells, Several corpuscles arise in each cell without participation of the nucleus; they are therefore specialized masses of protoplasm, and may perhaps best be compared to the plastids of botanists. I venture to propose the name of blood-plastids for these structures, since the PLATE I. Smitnsonian Report, 1890, Part |. [slajeweip spg paijiudew ase saingdi} ayy hal “UBUL WIOIS 77 Spal eB utoay +9 pur yp DP 1 SoAIG UTE 8t] JO SE5v ol] SUIATS aequinu aT ‘syqqea wiody SoPsnd.ioo yuoseided (J “9 ‘_F ‘7) sommsy ssaddn anoy ayy, “LONII) Ad SSTOSNdHOD GOO1g 3HL 40 ADOTOHdYOW | :yavys B UO A tsAv JES ieee ee 8 ea. @) ©) eS (8) 8) (®) @) eon ah? - es = = oe <® @ @ Sl Y ~ 2 ih Oe cT ‘ ¥ \ 7 ’ De * - ; : ney Pata a 2 = a es cf ae, s ve “a - ‘ f* , ; J a 4 a os ao “Mf @ bye an | ‘ : : : ; i - MORPHOLOGY OF THE BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 431 term corpuscle (globule, Kérperchen) has no definite morphological meaning. Sonsino (Arch. Ital. Biol. x1) affirms that the red blood cells trans- form themselves into plastids. I have, however, never been able to find the intermediate forms in my own numerous preparations. I deem it probable that he has seen merely the degenerating stages of the red cells. The present article is an abstract of a communication made in August last to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Since then Howells’s memoir on the blood corpuscles has appeared (Journal of Morphology, tv, 57). The author describes the ejection of the nucleus from the red cells, and believes that this results in the for- mation of red plastids. The process is, I think, really degenerative, and the resemblance between the non-nucleated body of the cell and a true plastid, is not one of identity. Certainly, until proof is offered that the observations of Schafer, Kuborn, and myself, upon the intra-cellu- lar origin of the plastids are proved erroneous, the emigration of the nucleus of the red cells can not be held to result in producing plastids, but only to be degenerative. That the red cells degenerate and disap- pear has been known; Howells’s valuable observations indicate the mcthod of their destruction. The above review shows that the vertebrate blood corpuscles are of three kinds: (1) red cells; (2) white cells; (3) plastids. The red and white cells occur in all (?) vertebrates; the plastids are confined to the mammals. The red cells present three chief modifications; whether the primitive form occurs in any living adult vertebrate I do not know ; the second form is persistent in the Ichthyopsida, the third form in the Sauropsida. According to this we must distinguish : A.—One-celled blood, 7. e., first stage in all vertebrates; the blood contains only red cells, with little protoplasm. B.—Two-celled blood, having red and white cells; the red cells have either a large, coarsely granular nucleus (Ichthyopsida), or a smaller, darkly staining nucleus (Sauropsida, mamma- lian embryos). C.—Plastid blood, without red ceils, but with white cells and red plastids; occurs only in adult mammals. Mammalian blood in its development passes through these stages, as well as through the two phases of stage B, all in their natural sequence ; the ontogenetic order follows the phylogenetic. I pass by the numerous authors whose views conflict with mine, partly because the present is not a suitable oceasion for a detailed dis- cussion, partly because those authors who have asserted the origin of one kind of blood corpuscle by metamorphosis from another have failed to find just the intermediate forms; it seems to me therefore that most, at least, of the opposing views collapse of themselves. > . : ~ WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY.* By GEORGE J. ROMANES. The recently published translation of Professor Weismann’s essays on heredity and allied topies has aroused the interest of the general public in the system of his biological ideas. But seeing that his system, besides being somewhat elaborate in itself, is presented in a series of disconnected essays, originally published at different times, it is a matter of no small difficulty to gather from the present collection of these essays a complete view of the system as a whole. Therefore I propose to give a brief sketch of his several theories, arranged in a manner calculated to show their logical connection one with another. And in order also to show the relation in which his resulting theory of heredity stands to what has hitherto been the more usual way of regarding the facts, [ will begin by furnishing a similarly brief sketch of Mr. Darwin’s theory upon the subject. It will be observed that these two theories constitute the logical antipodes of explanatory thought; and therefore if may be said, in a general way, that all other modern theories of heredity—such as those of Spencer, Haeckel, Elsberg, Galton, Naegeli, Brooks, Hertwig, and Vries—occupy positions more or less intermediate between these two extremes. When closely analyzed, Mr. Darwin’s theory—or “ provisional hy- pothesis of pangenesis”—will be found to embody altogether seven assumptions, viz: (1) That ali the component cells of a rai cellular organism throw off inconceivably minute germs or ** gemmules,” which are then dis- persed throughout the whole system. (2) That these gemmules, when so dispersed and supplied with proper nutriment, multiply by self-division, and under suitable condi- tions, are capable of developing into physiological cells like those from which they were originally and severally derived. (3) That while still in this gemmular condition, these cell seeds have for one another a mutual affinity, which leads to their being collected from all parts of the system by the reproductive glands of the organism ; and that, when so collected, they go to constitute the essential material of she sexual elements, ova and spermatozoa being thus nothing more —— *From The Contemporary Review, May, 1890, vol. Lvit, pp. 686-699. H. Mis. 129 28 433 434 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. than aggregated packets of gemmules which have emanated from all the cells of all the tissues of the organism. (4) That the development of a new organism out of the fusion of two such packets of gemmules is due to a summation of all the develop- meuts of some of the gemmules which these two packets contain. (5) That a large proportional number of the gemmules in each packet, however, fail to develop, and are then transmitted in a dormant state to future generations, in any of which they may be developed subse- quently, thus giving rise to the phenomena of reversion or atavism. (6) ‘That in all cases the development of gemmules into the form of their parent cell depends on their suitable union with other partially developed gemmules, which precede them in the regular course of growth. (7) That gemmules are thrown off by all physiological cells, not only during the adult state of the organism, but during all stages of its de- velopment. Or in other words, that the production of these cell seeds depends upon the adult condition of parent cells, not upon that of the multi-cellular organism as a whole. At first sight if may well appear that we have here a very formidable array of assumptions. But Mr. Darwin ably argues in favor of each of them by pointing to well-known aualogies, drawn from the vital proe- esses of living cells, both in the protozoa and metazoa. For exampie, it is already a well-recognized doctrine of physiology that each cell of a metazoon, or multicellular organism, though to a large extent depend- ent on others, is likewise to a certain extent independent or automatous, and has the power of multiplying by self-division. Therefore, as it is certain that the sexual elements (and also buds of all descriptions) in- clude formative matter of some kind, the first assumption—or that which supposes such formative matter to be particulate—is certainly not a gratuitous assumption. Again, the second assumption—namely, that this particulate and formative material is dispersed throughout all the tissues of the organism—is sustained by the fact that both in cer- tain plants and in certain invertebrate animals a severed portion of the organism will develop into an entire organism similar to that from which it was derived, as for example is the case with a leaf of begonia and with portions cut from certain worms, sea-anemones, jelly-fish, ete. This well-known fact in itself seems enough to prove that the formative ma- terial in question must certainly admit (at all events in many cases) of being distributed throughout all the tissues of living organisms. The third assumption—or that which supposes the formative mate- rial to be especially aggregated in the sexual elements—is not so much an assumption as a statement of obvious fact; while the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh assumptions all follow deductively from their pred- ecessors. In other words, if the first and second assumptions be granted and if the theory is to comprise all the facts of heredity, then the remaining five assumptions are bound to follow, WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 435 To the probable objection that the supposed gemmules must be of impossibly minute size—seeing that thousands of millions of them would require to be packed into a single ovum or spermatozoou—Mr. Darwin opposes a calculation that a cube of glass or water having only one ten-thousandth of an inch to a side contains somewhere be- tween sixteen and a hundred and thirty-one billions of molecules. Again, as touching the supposed power of multiplication on the part of his gemmules, Mr. Darwin alludes to the facet that infectious mate- rial of all kinds exhibits a ratio of increase quite as great as any that his theory requires to attribute to gemmules. Furthermore, with respect to the elective affinity of gemmules, he remarks that ‘in all ordinary cases of sexual reproduction the male and female elements certainly have an elective affinity for each other ;” of the ten thousand species of Composite, for example, “ there can be no doubt that if the pollen of all these species could be simultaneously placed on the stigma of any one species, this one would elect, with unerring certainty, its own pollen.” Such then in brief outline, is Mr. Darwin’s theory of pangenesis. Professor Weismann’s theory of germ-plasm is fundamentally based upon the great distiaction that obtains in respect of their transmissi- bility between characters which are congenital and characters which are acquired. By acongenital character is meant any individual pecul- iarity, whether structural or mental, with which the individual is born. By an acquired character is meant any peculiarity which,the individual may subsequently develop in consequence of its own indi- vidual experience. For example, aman may be born with some mal- formation of one of his fingers or he may subsequently acquire such a malformation as the result of accident or disease. Now in the former case—i. e., in that where the malformation is congenital—it is ex- tremely probable that the peculiarity will be transmitted to his chil- dren; while in the latter case—i. e., where the malformation is subse- quently acquired—it is virtually certain that it will not be transmitted to his children. And this great difference between the transmissibility of characters which are congenital and characters which are acquired extends universally as a general law throughout the vegetable as well as the animal kingdom, and in the province of mental as in that of bodily organization. Of course this general law has always been well known and more or less fully recognized by all modern physiologists and medical men. But before the subject was taken up by Professor Weismann it was generally assumed that the difference in question was one of degree, not one of kind. In other words, it was assumed that acquired characters, although not so fully—and therefore not so certainly—inherited as congenital characters, nevertheless were inher- ited in some lesser degree ; so that, if the same character continued to be developed successively in a number of sequent generations, what was at first only a slight tendency to be inherited would become by 436 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. summation a more and more pronounced tendency, till eventually the acquired character might be as strongly inherited as any other charac- ter which was ab initio congenital. Now it is the validity of this assumption that is challenged by Professor Weismann. He says there is no evidence at all of any acquired characters being in any degree in- herited, and therefore that in this important respect they may be held to differ from congenital characters in kind. On the supposition that they do thus differ in kind, he furnishes a very attractive theory of heredity, which serves at once to explain the difference, and to rep- resent it as a matter of physiological impossibility that any acquired character can, under any circumstances whatsoever, be transmitted to progeny. In order fully to comprehend this theory, it is desirable first of all to explain Professor Weismann’s views upon certain other topics which are more or less closely allied to, and indeed logically bound up with the present one. Starting from the fact that uni-cellular organisms multiply by fission and gemmation, he argues that aboriginally and potentially, life is immortal; for, when a protozoén divides into two—more or less equal parts by fission, and each of the two halves thereupon grows into another protozoon, it is evident that there has been no death on the part of any of the living material involved; and inasmuch as this process of fission goes on continuously from generation to generation, there is never any death on the part of such protoplasmic material, although there is a continuous addition to it as the numbers of individ- uals increase. Similarly, in the case of gemmation, when a protozoén parts with a small portion of its living material in the form of a bud, this portion does not die, but develops into a new individual; and therefore the process is exactly analogous to that of fission, save that only a small instead of a large part of the parent substance is involved. Now if life be thus immortal in the case of uni-cellular organisms, why should it have ceased to be so in the case of multi-cellular organisms ? Weismann’s answer is that all the multi-cellular organisms propagate themselves, not exclusively by fission or gemmation, but by sexual fer- tilization, where the condition to a new organism arising is—that minute and specialized portions of two parent organisms should fuse together. Now it is evident that with this change in the method of propagation, serious disadvantage would accrue to any species if its sexual individ- uals were to continue to be immortal; for in that case every species which multiplies by sexual methods would in time become composed of indivuals broken down and decrepit through the results of accident and disease—always operating and ever accumulating throughout the course of their immortal lives. Consequently as soon as sexual methods of propagation superseded the more primitive a-sexual methods, it became desirable in the interests of the sexually-propagating species that their constituent individuals should cease to be immortal, so that WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. ASG the species should always be recuperated by fresh, young, and well- formed representatives. Consequently also, natural selection would speedily see to it that all sexually-propagating species should become deprived of tne aboriginal endowment of immortality, with the result that death is now a universal destiny among all the individuals of such species, that is to say, among all the metazoa and metaphyta. Never- theless, itis to be remembered that this destiny extends only to the parts of the individual other than the contents of those specialized cells which constitute the reproductive elements, for although in each in- dividual metazoén or metaphyton an innumerable number of these specialized cells are destined to perish during the life and with the death of the organism to which they belong, this is only due to the accident, so to speak, of their contents not having met with their com- plements in the opposite sex; it does not belong to their essential nature that they should perish, seeing that those which do happen to meet with their complements in the opposite sex help to form a new living individual, and so on through successive generations ad infinitum. Therefore the reproductive elements of the metazoa and metaphyta are in this respect precisely analagous to the protozoa: potentially, or in their own nature, they are immortal; and, like the protozoa, if they die, their death is an accident due to unfavorable circumstances. But the case is quite different with all the other parts of a multicellular organ- ism. Here, no matter how favorable the circumstances may be, every cell contains within itself, or in its very nature, the eventual doom of death. Thus, of the metazoa and mtaphyta it is the specialized germ- plasms alone that retain their primitive endowment of everlasting life, passed on continuously through generation after generation of succes- sively perishing organisms. So far, it is contended, we are dealing with matters of fact. It must be taken as true that the protoplasm of the uni-cellular organisms and the germ-plasm of the multicellular organisms have been continuous through the time since life first appeared upon this earth ; and although large quantities of each are perpetually dying through being exposed to. conditions unfavorable to life, this, as Weismann presents the matter, is quite a different case from that of all the other constituent parts of multi-cellular organisms, which contain within themselves the doom of death. Furthermore, it appears extremely probable that this doom of death has been brought about by natural selection for the reasons assigned by Weismann, namely, because it is for the benefit of all species which perpetuate themselves by sexual methods that their con- stituent individuals should not live longer than is necessary for the sake of originating the next generation and fairly starting itin its own struggle for existence. For Weismann has shown, by a somewhat laborious though still largely imperfect research, that there is through- out all the metazoa a general correlation between the natural life-time of individuals composing any given species and the age at which they A38 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. reach maturity or first become capable of procreation. This general correlation however is somewhat modified by the time during which progeny are dependent upon their parents for support and protection. Nevertheless, it is evident that this modification tends rather to confirm the view that expectation of life on the part of individuals has in all cases been determined with strict reference to the requirements of prop- agation, if under propagation we include the rearing as well as the production of offspring. I may observe in passing that I do not think this general law can be found to apply to plants in nearly so close a manner as Weismann has shown it to apply to animals; but leaving this fact aside, to the best of my judgment it does appear that Weis- mann has made out a good case in favor of such a general law with regard to animals, We have come then to these results. Protoplasm was originally immortal (barring accidents), and it still continues to be immortal in the case of unicellular organisms which propagate a-sexually. Butin the case of all multicellular organisms, which propagate sexually, nat- ural selection has reduced the term of life within the smallest limits that in each given case are compatible with the performance of the sexual act and the subsequent rearing of progeny, reserving however the original endowment of immortality for the germinal elements, whereby a continuum of life has been secured from the earliest appear- ance of life until the present day. Wow in view of these results, the question arises, Why should the sexual methods of propagation have become so general if their effect has been that of determining the necessary death of all individuals presenting them? Why, in the course of organic evolution, should these newer methods have been imposed on all the higher organisms, when the consequence is that all these higher organisms must pay for the innovation with their lives? Weismann’s answer to this question is as interesting and ingenious as all that has gone before. Seeing that sexual propagation is so general as to be practically universal among multi-cellular organisms, it is obvious that in some way or other it must have a most important part to piay in the general scheme of organic evolution. What then is the part that it does play? What is its raison @étre? Briefly, according to Weismann, its function is that of furnishing congenital variations to the ever-watchful agency of natural selection, in order that natural selection may always preserve the most favorable and pass them on to the next generation by hered- ity. That sexual propagation is well caleulated to furnish congenital variations may easily be rendered apparent. We have only to remem- ber that at each union there is a mixture of two germinal elements ; that each of these was in turn the produet of two other germinal ele- ments in the preceding generation, and so backwards ad infinitum in geometrical ratio. Remembering this, it follows that the germinal ele- ment of no one member of a species can ever be the same as that of any WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 439 other member; on the contrary, while both are enormously complex products, each has had a different ancestral history, such that while one presents the congenital admixtures of thousands of individuals in one line of descent, the other presents similar admixtures of thousands of other individuals in a different line of descent. Consequently, when in any sexual union two of these enormously complex germinal elements fuse together and constitute a new individual out of their joint endow- ments, it is perfectly certain that that individual can not be exactly like any other individual of the same species or even of the same brood ; the chances must be infinity to one against any single mass of germ- plasm being exactly like any other mass of germ-plasm; while any amount of latitude as to difference is allowed, up to the point at which the difference becomes too pronounced to satisfy the conditions of fer- tilization, in which case, of course, no new individual is born. Hence, theoretically, we have here a sufficient cause for all individual varia- tions of a congenital kind that can possibly occur within the limits of fertility, and therefore that can ever become actual in living organ- isms. In point of fact, Weismann believes—or at any rate began by believing—that this is the sole and only cause of variations that are congenital, and therefore (according to his views) transmissible by hered- ity. Now whether or not he is right as regards these latter points, I think there can be no question that sexual propagation is, at all events, one of the main causes of congenital variation; and seeing of what enormous importance congenital variation must always have been in supplying material for the operation of natural selection, we appear to have found a most satisfactory answer to our question,—Why has sex- ual propagation become so universal among all the higher plants and animals? It has become so because if is thus shown to have been the condition to producing congenital variations, which in turn constitute the condition to the working of natural selection. ‘Having got thus far, [ should like to make two or three subsidiary remarks. In the first place it ought to be observed that this luminous theory touching the causes of congenital variations was not originally propounded by Professor Weismann, but occurs in the writings of sev- eral previous authors and is expressly alluded to by Darwin. Never- theless, it occupies so prominent a place in Weismann’s system of theo- ries and has by him been wrought up so much more elaborately than by any of his predecessors that we are entitled to regard it as par ex- cellence the Weismannian theory of variation. In the next place it ought to be observed that Weismann is careful to guard against the seductive fallacy of attributing the origin of sexual propagation to the agency of natural selection. Great as the benefit of this newer mode of propagation must have been to the species presenting it, the benefit can not have been conferred by natural selection, seeing that the bene- fit arose from the fact of the new method furnishing material to the operation of natural selection, and therefore insofar as it did this, 440 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. constituting the condition to the principle of natural selection having been called into play at all. Or in other words, we can not attribute to natural selection the origin of sexual reproduction without involving ourselves in the absurdity of supposing natural selection to have origi- nated the conditions of its own activity.* What the causes may have been which originally led to sexual reproduction is at present a matter that awaits suggestion by way of hypothesis; and therefore it now only remains to add that the general structure of Professor Weismann’s system of hypotheses leads to this curious result, namely, that the otherwise ubiquitous and (as he supposes) exclusive dominion of nat- ural selection stops short at the protozoa, over which it can not exercise any influence at all. For if natural selection depends for its activity on the occurrence of congenital variations, and if congenital variations depend for their occurrence on sexual modes of reproduction, it follows that no organisms which propagate themselves by any other modes can present congenital variations, or thus become subject to the influence of natural selection. And inasmuch as Weismann believes that such is the case with all the protozoa, as well as with all parthenogenetic organisms, he does not hesitate to accept the necessary conclusion that in these cases natural selection is without any jurisdiction. How, then, does he account for individual variations in the protozoa? And still more, how does he account for the origin of their innumerable species? He accounts for both these things by the direct action of external con- * Since this paper was sent to press, Professor Weismann has published in Nature (February 6, 1890: vol. XLI, pp. 317-323) an elaborate answer to a criticism of his theory by Professor Vines (October 24, 1889: vol. xL, pp. 621-626). In the course of this answer Professor Weismann says that he ‘does attribute the origin of sexual reproduction to natural selection. This directly contradicts what he says in his essays, and for the reasons given in the text, appears to me an illogical departure from his previously logical attitude, I herewith append quotations in order to reveal the contradiction : ‘But when I maintain that the meaning of sexual reproduction is to render possi- ble the transformation of the higher organisms by means of natural selection, such a statement is not equivalent to the assertion that sexual reproduction originally came into existence in order to achieve this end. ‘The effects which are now produced by sexual reproduction did not constitute the causes which led to its first appearance. Sexual reproduction came into existence before it could lead to hereditary individual variability (7. e., to the possibility of natural selection). Its first appearance must, therefore, have had some other cause [than naturai selection]; but the nature of this cause can hardly be determined with any degree of certainty or precision from the facts with which we are at present acquainted.”—(‘‘ Essay on the Significance of Sex- ual Reproduction in the Theory of Natural Selection : English Translation,” pp. 281- 282.) “Tam still of opinion that the origin of sexual reproduction depends on the advan- tage which it affords to the operation of natural selection. - - - Sexual reproduction has arisen by and for natural selection as the sole means by which individual varia- tions can be united and combined in every possible proportion.”—( Nature, Vol. X11, p. 322.) How such opposite statements can be reconciled I do not myself perceive.—G. J. R., February 17, 1890, WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 441 ditions of life. In other words, so far as the uni-cellular organisms are concerned, Weismann is rigidly and exclusively an advocate of the theory of Lamarck, just as much as in the case of all the multi-cellular organisms he is rigidly and exclusively an opponent of that theory. Nevertheless, there is here no inconsistency ; on the contrary, it is con- sisteney with the logical requirements of his theory that leads to this sharp partitioning of the uni-cellular from the multi-cellular organisms with respect to the causes of their evolution. For, as he points out, the conditions of propagation among the uni-cellular organisms are such that parent and offspring are one and the same thing; “ the child is a part, and usually a half, of its parent.” Therefore, if the parent has been in any way modified by the action of external conditions, it is in- evitable that the child should, from the moment of its birth (7. é., fissi- parous separation), be similarly modified; and if the modifying influ- ences continue in the same lines for a sufficient length of time the re- sulting change of type may become sufficiently pronounced to consti- tute a new species, genus, ete. But in the case of the multi-cellular or sexual organisms the child is not thus merely a severed moiety of its parent; it is the result of the fusion of two highly specialized and ex- tremely minute particles of each of two parents. Therefore, whatever may be thought touching the validity of Weismann’s deduction that in no case can any modification induced by external conditions on these parents be transmitted to their progeny, at least we must recognize the validity of the distinction which he draws between the facility with which such transmission must take place in the uni-cellular organisms as compared with the difficulty—or, as he believes, the impossibility— of its doing so in the multi-cellular. We are now in a position to fully understand Professor Weismann’s theory of heredity in all its bearings. Briefly stated, this theory is as follows: The whole organization of any multi-cellular organism is com- posed of two entirely different kinds of cells, namely, the germ cells, or those which have to do with reproduction, and the somatic cells, or those which go to constitute all the other parts of the organism. Now the somatic cells in their aggregations as tissues and organs may be: modified in numberless ways by the direct action of the environment. as well as by special habits formed during the individual life-time of the organism. But although the modifications thus induced may be: and generally are adaptive,—-such as the increased muscularity caused by the use of muscles, “ practice making perfect ” in the case of nervous. adjustments, and so on,—in no case can these so-called acquired or ‘“* somato-genetic” characters exercise any influence upon the germ-cells,. such that they should re-appear in their products (progeny) as congen- ital or ‘‘ blasto-genetic” characters. For according to the theory, the germ-cells as to their germinal coutents differ in kind from the somatic cells, and have no other connection or dependence upon them than that of deriving from them their food and lodging. So much then for 442 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. the somatic cells. Turning now more especially to the germ-eells, these are the receptacles of what Weissmann calls the germ-plasm ; and this it is that which he supposes to differ in kind from all the other constituent elements of the organism. Tor the germ-plasm he believes to have had its origin in the uni cellular organisms, and to have been handed down from them in one continuous stream through all successive generations of multi-cellular organisms. Thus, for example, suppose we take a cer- tain quantum of germ-plasm as this oecurs in any individual organism of to-day. A minute portion of this germ-plasm, when mixed with a similarly minute portion from another individual, goes to form a new individual. But in doing so only a portion of this minute portion is consumed ; the residue is stored up in the germinal cells of this new individual in order to secure that continuity of the germ-plasm which Weismann assumes as the necessary basis of his whole theory. Fur- thermore, he assumes that this overplus portion of germ-plasm which is so handed over to the custody of the new individual is there capable of growth or multiplication at the expense of the nutrient materials which are supplied to it by the new soma in which it finds itself located ; while in thus growing or multiplying it faithfully retains its highly complex character, so that in no one minute particular does any part of a many thousand-fold increase differ as to its ancestral characters from that inconceivably small overplus which was first of all intrusted to the embryo by its parents. Therefore one might represent the germ- plasm by the metaphor of a yeast-plant, a single particle of which may be put into a vat of nutrient fluid; there it lives and grows upon the nutriment supplied, so that a new particle may next be taken to impreg- nate another vat, and so on ad infinitum. Here the successive vats would represent successive generations of progeny ; but to make the metaphor complete one would require to suppose that in each case the yeast-cell was required to begin by making its own vat of nutrient material, and that it was only the residual portion of the cell which was afterwards able to grow and multiply. But although the meta- phor is necessarily a clumsy one, it may serve to emphasize the all-im- portant feature of Weismann’s theory, viz., the almost absolute inde- pendence of the germ-plasm. For just as the properties of the yeast- plant would be in no way affected by anything that might happen to the vat short of its being broken up or having its malt impaired, so according to Weismann the properties of the germ-plasm cannot be affected by anything that may happen to its containing soma short of the soma being destroyed or having its nutritive functions impaired. Such being the relations that are supposed to obtain between the soma and its germ-plasm, we have next to contemplate what is sup- posed to happen when, in the course of evolution, some modification of the ancestral form of the soma is required in order to adapt it to some change on the part of itsenvironment. In other words, we have to con- sider Weismann’s views on the modus operandi of adaptive develop- ment, with its results in the origination of new species. WEISMANN'’S THEORY OF TLEREDITY. 443 Seeing that according to the theory, it is only congenital variations which can be inherited, all variations subsequently acquired by the in- tercourse of individuals with their environment, however beneficial such variations may be to these individuals, are ruled out as regards the species. Not falling within the province of heredity, they are blocked off in the first generation, and therefore present no significance at all in the process of organic evolution. No matter how many generations of eagles, for instance, may use their wings for purposes of flight; and no matter how great an increase of muscularity, of endurance, and of skill, may thus be secured to each generation of eagles as the result of individual exercise; all these advantages are entirely lost to progeny, and young eagles have ever to begin their lives with no more benefit bequeathed by the activity of their ancestors than if those ancestors had all been barn-door fowls. Therefore the only material which is of any count as regards the species, or with reference to the process of evolu- tion, are fortuitous variations of the congenital kind. Among all the numberless congenital variations, within narrow limits, which are perpetually occurring in each generation of eagles, some will have reference to the wings; and although these will be fortuitous, or oceur- ring indiscriminately in all directions, a few of them will now and then be in the direction of increased muscularity, others in the direction of increased endurance, others in the direction of increased skill, and so on. Now each of these fortuitous variations, which happens also to be a beneficial variation, will be favored by natural selection; and because it likewise happens to be a congenital variatiov, will be perpetuated by heredity. In the course of time, other congenital variations will happen to arise in the same directions; these will be added by natural selection _ to the advantage already gained, and so on, till after hundreds and thousands of generations the wings of eagles become evolved into the marvelous structures which they now present. Such being the theory of natural selection when stripped of all rem- nants of so-called Lamarckian principles, we have next to consider what the theory means in its relation to germ-plasm. For as before ex- plained, congenital variations are supposed by Weismann to be due to new combinations taking place in the germ-plasm as a result of the union of two complex hereditary histories in every act of fertilization. Well, if congenital variations are thus nothing more than variations of germ-plasm * writ large” in the organism which is developed out of the plasm, it follows that natural selection is really at work upon these variations of the germ-plasm. For although it is proximately at work on the congenital variations of organisms after birth, it is ultimately, and through them, at work upon the variations of germ-plasm out of which the organisms arise. In other words, natural selection in pick- ing out of each generation those individual organisms which are by their congenital character best suited to their surrounding conditions of life, is thereby picking out those peculiar combinations or variations 444 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF UWEREDITY. of germ-plasm, which, when expanded into a resulting organism, give that organism the best chance in its struggle for existence. And inasmuch as a certain overplus of this peculiar combination of germ- plasm is intrusted to that organism for bequeathing to the next gen- eration, this to the next, and so on, it follows that natural selection is all the while conserving that originally peculiar combination of germ. plasm, until it happens to meet with some other mass of germ-plasm by mixing with which it may still further improve upon its original peculiarity when, of course, natural selection will seize upon this im- provement to perpetuate as in the previous case. So that on the whole we may say that natural selection is ever waiting and watching forsuch combinations of germ-plasm as will give the resulting organisms the best possible chance in their struggle for existence; while at the same time it isremorselessly destroying all those combinations of germ-plasm which are handed over to the custody of organisms not so well fitted to their conditions of life. It only remains to add that, according to Weismann’s theory in its strictly logical form, combinations of germ-plasm when once effected are so stable that they would never alter except as a result of entering into new combinations. in other words, no external influences or in- ternal processes can ever change the hereditary nature of any particular mixture of germ-plasm, save and except its admixture with some other germ-plasm, which, being of a nature equally stable, goes to unite with the other in equal proportions as regards hereditary character. So that really it would be more correct to say that any given mass of germ-plasm does not change even when it is mixed with some other mass—any more, for instance, tlian a handful of sand can be said to change when it is mixed with a handful of clay. Consequently, we arrive at this curious result. No matter how many generations of organisms there may have been, and therefore no matter how many combinations of germ-plasm may have taken place to give rise to an existing population, each existing unit of germ-plasm must have remained of the same essential nature of constitution as when if was first started in its immortal career millions of years ago. Or re verting to our illustration of sand and clay, the particles of each must always remain the same,no matter how many admixtures they may undergo with particles of other materials, such as chalk, slate, ete. Now inasmuch as it is an essential—because a logically necessary— part of Weismann’s theory to assume such absolute stability or un- changeableness on the part of germ-plasm, the question arises, and has to be met,—What was the origin of those differences of character in the (different germ-plasms of multi-cellular organisms which first gave rise, and still continue to give rise, to congenital variations by their mixture one with another? ‘This important question Weismann answers by supposing that these differences originally arose out of the differences in the uni-cellular organisms, which were the ancestors of the primitive WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 445 multi-cellular organisms. Nowas before stated, different forms of uni- cellular organisms are supposed to have originated as so many results of differences in the direct action of the environment. Consequently, according to the theory, all congenital variations which now occur in multi cellular organisms are really the distant results of variations that were aboriginally induced in their uni-cellular ancestors by the direct action of surrounding conditions of life. I think it will be well to conclude by briefly summarizing the main features of this elaborate theory. Living material is essentially, or of its own nature, imperishable, and it still continues to be so in the case of unicellular organisms which propagate by fission or gemmation. But as soon as these primitive methods of propagation became, from whatever cause, superseded by sexual, it ceased to be for the benefit of species that their constituent individuals should be immortal, seeing that, if they continued to be so, all species of sexually-reproducing organisms would sooner or later come to be composed of broken down and decrepit individuals. Con- sequently, in all sexually-reproducing or multi-cellular organisms, nat- ural selection set to work to reduce the term of individual life-times within the narrowest limits that in the case of each species are com- patible with the procreation and the rearing of progeny. Nevertheless, in all these sexually-reproducing organisms the primitive endowment of immortality has been retained with respect to their germ-plasm, which has thus been continuous, through numberless generations of perishing organisms, from the first origin of sexual reproduction till the present time. Now it is the union of germ-plasms which is required to reproduce new individuals of multi-cellular organisms that determines congenital variations on the part of such organisms, and thus furnishes natural selection with the material for its work in the way of organic evolution,—work therefore which is impossible in the case of uni-cel- lular organisms, where variation can never be congenital, but always determined by the direct action of surrounding conditions of life. Again, as the germ-plasm of multi-cellular organisms is continuous from generation to generation, and at each impregnation gives rise to a more or less novel set of congenital characters which are of most service to the organisms presenting them, is really or fundamentally at work upon those variations of the germ-plasm which in turn give origin to those variations of organisms that we recognize as congenital, there- fore, natural selection has always to wait and to watch for such varia- tions of germ-plasm as will eventually prove beneficial to the individuals developed therefrom, who will then transmit this peculiar quality of germ-plasm to their progeny, and soon. Therefore also—and this is most important to remember—natural selection as thus working be- comes the one and only cause of evolution and the origin of species in all the multi-cellular organisms, just as the direct action of the environ- ment is the one and only cause of evolution and the origin of species 446 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. in the case of all the uni-cellular organisms. But inasmuch as the mul- ti-cellular organisms were all in the first instance derived from the uni- cellular and inasmuch as their germ-plasm is of so stable a nature that it can never be altered by any agencies internal or external to the organisms presenting it, it follows that all congenital variations are the remote consequences of aboriginal differences on the part of uni- cellular ancestors. And lastly, it follows also that these congenital variations—although now so entirely independent of external conditions of life, and even of activities internal to organisms themselves—were originally and exclusively due to the direct action of such conditions on the lives of their unicellular ancestry; while even at the present day no one congenital variation can arise which is not ultimately due to differences impressed upon the protoplasmic substance of the germinal elements, when the parts of which these are now composed constituted integral parts of the protozoa, which were directly and differentially attected by their converse with their several environments. Such then is Weismann’s theory of heredity in its original and strictly logical form. But itis now necessary to add that in almost every one of its essential features, as just stated, the theory has had to undergo—or is demonstrably destined to undergo—some radical modi- fication. On the present occasion however, my object is merely to state the theory, not to criticise it. Therefore I have sought to present the whole theory in its completely connected shape. On a future occa- sion—I hope within the present year—it will be my endeavor to dis- connect the now untenable parts from the parts which still remain for investigation at the hands of biological science. THE ASCENT OF MAN.* By FRANK Baker, M. D. The science of Anthropology, one of the younger daughters of human knowledge, is so vast in its scope that to master all of its different, ram- ifications seems a hopeless task. Having for its object the comprehen- sive study of man, including his origin, his development, and his present condition, its aim is to focus and co- ordinate the general results derived from avast number of subordinate branches. The philologist contrib- utes information concerning the origin and growth of language and its effect upon civilization; the mythologist tells of the psychological side of the human mind and traces the rise and progress of religious ideas; the archxologist, in order to fix their places in the history of mankind, searches for the remains of peoples long since passed away. All these depend for their material upon external records, left by tradition, by writing, by sculpture, or by implements and weapons. With greatest care every ancient habitation of man is searched in order to learn from it the details of the life of its former inhabitants. Within comparatively recent times still another avenue of informa. tion has been found, for we have learned that it is not alone by these external records that man’s history can be traced, but that important facts may be obtained by studying the constitution of his body; that the changes and vicissitudes of his existence are recorded on his very bones, in characters long undeciphered, but to which the clew has at last been found. My labors have led me more particularly to this department of anthropology, and a concise summary of the main heads of this research may be of value and interest. The views propounded by Lamarck in the early part of this century, with reference to the modification of living organisms by use and adap- tation, have been remarkably confirmed in modern times. Exhaustive researches into the constitution and properties of the cells composing living tissues show that they are subject to continual change, each im- pulse from without being registered by some small alteration in their physical condition. Impulses of a similar kind continuously aetuie * Address of the Vice-president fone the section of (ennhniaGee BE ie aon Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Indianapolis meeting, August 20, 1890. (From Proceedings Am, Assoc. Adv, Sci. vol. XXXIX, pp. 351-373. ) 447 AAS TIIE ASCENT OF MAN. produce greater changes, and long-continued repetition notably alters even the hardest and most enduring of structures. Thus it is that bones are modified in form by muscular pull and the surfaces of teeth are shaped by incessant grinding. These alterations are more readily apparent to us because they affect very hard and easily preserved organs, but the effects are equally potent, though not so clearly recog- nizable, in the softer tissues of the body. Every act of our lives is cer- tainly but surely registered within the marvellous structure of our bodies. Not a muscle can contract without an absolute change sub- stance; in its not a nerve-cell can discharge with out some self-destruc- tion. Most of these changes being very minute and evanescent are quite beyond our power to accurately estimate, and were the increments of change confined to a single life-time, were each individual to stand only for himself and compelled to earn his experience by the same tedious struggle, use and adaptation would have but little power to mold man- kind into races and varieties. But, by the action of a law as yet im- perfectly understood, the adaptations of each individual are transmitted to its offspring; or, tospeak more accurately, the offspring pass through the changes more easily and quickly than the parent did. While each has always to go back to the beginning and commence from the simple blastema of the primitive egg, the younger has the advantage of being able to adapt itself more quickly to its surroundings, provided these have not too greatly changed, and thus starts a little way ahead of its ancestor in the race for life. In consequence of this law, changes be- come cumulative, and a cause acting for a great length of time upon a series of suceessive generations finally produces a well-marked and easily observed effect in the structure of individuals; changing colors, modifying organs, shaping whole regions of the body. Again, if after such changes have been effected, these causes cease to operate and the organs they have shaped are no longer of use, the latter become reduced in size, atrophy, and recede, remaining however in a vestigial condition for many, many generations as records of the past history of the race, as dolmens and cromlechs certify to former customs and flint arrow-heads and stone hatchets give evidence of a previous state of civilization. The human body abounds in testimony of this sort,—-indications of the pathway by which humanity has climbed from darkness to light, {rom bestiality to civilization,—relies of countless ages of struggle, often fierce, bloody, and pitiless. These are found in every organ of the body, and each new investiga- tion adds to their number. To enumerate them all would be impossible within the limits assigned me by your patience. I will therefore touch only upon a few of the more striking ones, especially those connected with the modifications of the limbs, with the erect position, and with the segmentation of the body, THE ASCENT OF MAN. 449 The limbs, being organs of support and locomotion, show great varia- tions in the zodlogical series, and the hand of man has long been looked upon as especially significant of his high position in the animal king- dom, one of the chief distinctions between him and the nearest brutes. To a certain extent this is correct. No other creature possesses so highly complex and effective an organ for grasping and adjusting objects, and itis pre-eminently this that has made man a tool-using animal. On comparing a human hand with that of the anthropoid apes it may be seen that this efficiency is produced in two ways: first, by increasing the mobility and variety of action of the thumb and fingers; second, by reducing the muscles used mainly to assist prolonged grasp, they being no longer necessary to an organ that is intended for delicate work, and requires constant re-adjustment. Thus some elements are added and some taken away. Now according to the theory [have enunciated, the latest elements ought to show signs of their recent origin, to be somewhat imperfectly differentiated and liable to return to their primi- tive state, while those going out of active use ought to be vestigial, not equal in size or force to muscular organs generally, very liable to varia- tion or disappearance. This is what actually occurs. Among the new elements is a special flexor muscle for the thumb, arising high up on the forearm. A very slight examination shows that this muscle has been split off from the fibers of the deep flexor that bends the terminal joints of the fingers. In most apes the two form a single muscle, and in man the thumb flexor very often shows unmistakable evidence of such origin. In about 10 per cent. of persons, part of its fibers pass over to and become blended with the parent muscle. Not infrequently I have seen the two entirely united, returning absolutely to their primitive condition. The deep and super- ficial flexors of the fingers show signs of a similar relationship, as they frequently blend more or less, tending to revert to the type shown in most lower animals. Indeed, if we go back to embryonic life we find all the :nuscles of the anterior part of the fore-arm united in what is termed the pronato flexor mass, recalling the original condition of mus. culature in the earliest animals possessing limbs. In the category of disappearing muscles comes the palmarus longus a muscle of the fore-arm which in many animals is an important aid in climbing and grasping. It takes its origin from the upper arm and passes to the hand, where it expands into a large sheet of thick mem- brane calied the palmar fascia, which splits into several slips passing to each finger. The pull of the muscle acts upon all the fingers together, keeping them bent without independence of action, Now in man the fingers have each two separate flexor tendons that can act to a certain extent independently. To insure their independence they are at the wrist enclosed in a remarkable tubular conduit or subway formed by soldering the palmar fascia to the wrist-bones. This at once destroys ae Peele | H. Mis. 129: 29 450 THE ASCENT OF MAN. a flexor of the wrist. This soldering undoubtedly took place because the muscle was no longer required as a finger-holder. Like other organs that after playing a part of considerable functional importance have come from change of habit to be of but little value, it shows the most astonishing tendency to variation. Not a week passes in a large dis- secting room that some curious anomaly is not found in this muscle. Sometimes it is seen almost in its primitive condition, the palmar fascia being comparatively movable and the palmaris longus having some effect upon the flexion of the fingers; oftener it unites wholly or partially with some portion of the pronato-flexor mass or disappears altogether. The disappearance is usually only apparent, however. Regressive struc- tures rarely disappear totally, for on careful search astrip of fascia can usually be found that represents the atrophied and aborted organ. Since these two examples differ in that the first represents the devel- opment of a new muscle while the second is the atrophy of an old one, we ought to find racial differences corresponding to these two condi- tions. Our studies of racial anatomy are as yet far from sufficient to give us complete information upon these points, and I would especially avoid generalizing upon too meager data. It has however appeared to me that in negroes the palmaris longus is more inclined to assume its primitive type—that is, is less likely to vary—while the long flexor of the thumb is on the contrary more inclined to be partially, if not wholly, united with the deep flexor of the fingers. Connected intimately with the hand are the other portions of the thoracic limb that carry it from place to place. Here again we may note many points indicating a progressive development of the member. When the arm is naturally and easily bent at the elbow it does not carry the hand to the shoulder, as might be expected, but towards the mouth. The reason for this is that the articular surfaces of the elbow- joint are not cut horizontally across the axis of the humerus, but inclined atan angle of about 20°. This obliquity does not occur in the foetus and is less in Bushmen, Australians, and the anthropoid apes. It is associ- ated with another peculiarity ; indeed, may be said to be caused by it. Vhis is a twisting of the humerus on its long axis, which occurs markedly in the higher races. If we hold up endwise the humerus of a European we see that the longest diameters of the upper and lower ends very nearly coincide. In the negro we find the lower diameter turned more towards the body, still more in the anthropoid apes, and again more as we descend the scale. Embryology teaches that the humerus was for- merly set so that the hollow of the elbow looked towards the body rather than forward, and it seems therefore that as the functions of the limb became more various, the lower end of the bone gradually twisted outward around the long axis until its diameter described a considerable arc. This turned the hand with the palm to the front, ex- tended its range, and adapted it for a wider usefulness. Greater twist is found in the right humerus than in the left and in the humeri of THE ASCENT OF MAN, 451 modern times than in those of the stone age. As the torsion increased some provision became necessary for carrying the hand easily across the body to the mouth. This was effected by the inclination of the ar- ticular surfaces of the elbow-joint already mentioned. Many movements of the arm in man are produced by muscles acting upon the shoulder-blade or scapula. As the hand was turned outward and a wider range given, these increased in extent and importance, and the scapula accordingly widened out at its vertebral border in order to give a more extensive attachment for muscles. In order to accurately estimate this change the ratio of the breadth to the length of the scapula is taken. This ratio, called the scapular index, is highest among the white races, less in the infant, in negroes, and in Austra- lians, and still less in anthropoid apes. It is significant also that the vertebral border of the scapula is the last to form in the foetus. We have therefore three modifications—the torsion of the humerus, the inclination of its lower articular surface, and the scapular index—all depending upon each other, all varying together pari passu, and all showing a progressive development both in the individual and the race. Muscle is composed of one of the most highly organized and expen- sive tissues of the body. Unless fed constantly with a great supply of blood to keep up its active metabolic changes, it quickly wastes, func- tional activity being absolutely necessary to its proper maintenance, as any one knows who has seen how rapidly the muscles of an athlete diminish when he goes out of training.. If from accident or change of habit its use altogether ceases, its protoplasm is gradually removed, its blood supply diminishes, and it shrinks te a mere band or sheet of fibrous tissue. Changes of function may therefore affect the form of muscles, one portion becoming tendinous or fascia-like; may even cause them to shift their places, by inducing a development on one side and an atrophy on another, or to disappear altogether, being replaced by fascia orligament. A similar regression may take place in bone and car- tilage a high-grade, actively metabolic tissue, difficult to maintain, being replaced by a low-grade one comparatively slow to change. It is there- fore not unusual to find that muscles, bones, and cartilages performing important functions in some animals are represented by vestigial struc- tures in those higher in the scale. Our conclusions on this subject are confirmed by finding occasional instances where the hereditary ten- dency has been greater than usual and the parent form is re-produced more or less completely in the higher animal. The palmar fascia at the distal end of the palmaris longus, to which allusion has been made, represents a former muscular portion, relics of which probably remain as some of the small thumb muscles. Another interesting instance is the epitrochleo-anconeus, a small muscle at the elbow joint, used in apes to effect a lateral movement of the ulna upon the humerus. In man the ulna has become so shaped that the lateral movement is almost wholly lost, and the muscle has 452 THE ASCENT OF MAN. accordingly degenerated, being represented by a strip of fascia. Very often however, a few muscular fibers are still found in this situation. Several minor peculiarities that remind us of primitive conditions occur in the region of the humerus. Occasionally a supracondyloid process is found, throwing a protecting arch over the brachial artery and median nerve; in this resembling the supracondyloid foramen of marsupials. Struthers found this to be hereditary, occurring in a father and four children. A perforation of the olecranon fossa, the pit at the lower end of the humerus into which the beak-like end of the ulna fits when the arm is fully extended, may probably be regarded as a rever- sion toward the condition of anthropoid apes. This frequently occurs in South African and other low tribes and in the men of the stone age. Recently Dr. D. S. Lamb has found it remarkably frequent in pre-historic Indian humeri from the Salado Valley, Arizona. While the region of the hand and fore-arm indicates increase of specialization, the upper part of the limb generally testifies to a regres- sion from a former more highly developed state. The anatomy of the flying apparatus of a bird shows a series of muscular, ligamentous, and bony structures connected with its upper arm far beyond anything ever seen in man. The coracoid bone, a very important element of the shoulder girdle in birds, has become reduced in man to a little vestigial ossicle that about the sixteenth year becomes soldered to the scapula as the coracoid process. The muscles arising from this,—pectoralis minor, coraco-brachialis, and biceps,—are structures represented in birds by strong, flying muscles. The subclavius, a little slip ending at the clavicle, appears to have formerly passed to the coracoid bone or to the humerus and been employed in arm movement. The pectoralis major appears to represent what was formerly a series of muscles. All these have a tendency to repeat their past history, and the number of variations found among them is legion. The biceps show traces of its former complexity by appearing with three, four, or even five heads, by a great variety of insertions, by sending a tendon outside the joint capsule instead of through it, as is the rule. The pectoralis major may break up into several different muscular integers, inserted from the shoulder capsule down to the elbow. The coraco-brachialis shows the same instability, and by its behavior clearly indicates its derivation from a much larger and more extensive muscular sheet. Not less significant are the ligaments about the shoulder. Many of these appear to be relics of organs found active in animals lower in the seale. Thus the coraco-acromial ligament spanning over the shoulder joint is probably a former extension of the acromion process; the rhom- boid, conoid, trapezoid, and gleno-humeral ligaments represent regres- sive changes in the subclavius muscle, the coraco-humeral ligament, a former insertion of the pectoralis minor. Bands of the deep cervical fascia alone remain to testify to the former existence of the levator clav- THE ASCENT OF MAN. 453 icule, a muscle present in most mammals and used to pull forward the sheulder girdle when walking in a quadrupedal position. In negroes I have frequently found it more or less complete. A fibrous strip unit- ing the latissimus dorsi to the triceps is all that remains of an impor- tant muscle, the dorso-epitrochlearis, passing from the back to the elbow or forearm, used by gibbons and other arboreal apes in swinging from branch to branch. Testut found this fully developed ina Bushman. I have myself seen various muscular slips that must represent some por- tions of it, and authors generally describe it as occurring in 5 or 6 per cent. of individuals. The hind limbs of apes are popularly thought to be remarkably specialized. The term quadrumana or four-handed is used to charac- terize the class; yet it is quite true that this term involves a false con- ception. No animal has four exactly similar feet, still less four hands. The feet of the ape differ widely from hands; the great toe is not really opposable like the thumb, but merely separable from the others and differently set, so as to afford a grasp like that of a crampiron. The gibbon alone has a small muscle of the foot that may be compared with the opponens of the thumb. That these peculiarities are also shared by man to some extent is well known. It is quite possible to train the toes to do certain kind of prehensile work, even to write, cut paper, and sew. A baby not yet able to walk can often pick up small objects with its toes. Compare the marks caused by muscular action on the sole of a baby’s foot with those on the hand, and it will be seen that there are distinct signs of this prehension. Even the opponens hallucis of the gibbon is not infrequently found in man. The fetal condition of the foot also approaches that of the apes, the heel being shorter and the joints so arranged that the sole can be easily turned inward. In the ape the first or great toe is turned inward and upward by shorten- ing its metatarsal bone and setting it obliquely upon the ankle. This shortening and obliquity also occurs in the foetus; the adult condition, in which the metatarsal bone is lengthened and set straight so as to give a longer and firmer internal border to the foot, being gradually acquired. Many savage tribes still use the foot for climbing and have a shorter metatarsal, a wider span between the first and second toes, and greater ease in inverting the sole. Connected with this ease of inversion should be mentioned a peculiar, ape-like form of the tibia that occurs in people of the stone age, in the mound builders, and in some American Indians. This is a flattened, saber-like condition of the bone known as platycnemy. It is apparently to give greater surface of attachment and resistance to the pull of the tibialis anticus, the prin- cipal muscle that turns the sole inward. It is interesting to note that this peculiarity is much more marked in some early human skeletons than in any of the anthropoid apes. The poet says that while other animals grovelling regard the earth, AKA THE ASCENT OF MAN. Jupiter gave to man an uplifted countenance, and ordered him to look heavenward and hold his face erect towards the stars. “Pronaque cum spectent animalia cetera terram, Os homini sublime dedit, cceelumque tueri Jussit, et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus.””* Ovid, Metamorphoses: I, 84-86. The erect position is however gradually acquired. As in the sphinx’s riddle, we literally go on all fours in the morning of life, and the diffi- culty that an infant experiences in learning to walk is strong evi- dence that this is an accomplishment acquired by the race late in its history. We ought (if this is the case) to find in the human body indi- cations of a previous semi-erect posture. There is a vast amount of evi- dence of this character, and I can only sketch the outiines of it. The erect position in standing is secured by the shape of the foot, by the attachment of strong muscles at points of severest strain, and by the configuration of the great joints which permits them to be held locked when a standing posture is assumed. All these features are liable to great variation; they are less marked in children and in the lower races. Let us examine them somewhat more carefully. The Caucasian type of foot is evidently that best adapted for the erect position. The great toe is larger, stronger, and longer than the others, making a firm support for the inner anterior pier of the arch formed by the bones—an arch completed by a well-developed heel and maintained by a strong, dense band of fascia and ligament binding the piers together like the tie-rod of a bowstring truss—thus producing a light and elastic structure admirably adapted to support the weight of the body and diminish the effect of shocks. In the lower races of man all these characters are less marked. The great toe is shorter and smaller, the heel-bone less strongly made, the arch much flatter. This flattening of the arch produces the projection of the heel found in some TAaces, The muscles required for maintaining the erect position are those which from our predilection tor human anatomy we are apt to call the great extensors, overlooking the fact that in other animals they are by no means as well developed as in man. Being required at the points of greatest strain, all are situated on the posterior aspect of the body— the calf, the buttock, and the back. A very slight examination of any lower animal will show how strik- ingly it differs in the muscular development of these regions. The * Compare Milton : “A creature who not prone And brute as other creatures, but endued With sanctity of reason, might erect His stature, and upright with front serene Govern the rest, self-knowing.” Paradise Lost: VII, 506-510, THE ASCENT OF MAN 455 great muscle of man’s calf, the triceps extensor surw, is formed by the welding together of some four muscles separate in many lower forms. Varieties are found in man showing all grades of separation in these elements. One of the muscles, the plantaris, was formerly a great flexor of the toes, the plantar fascia representing its former distal ex- tent. Like the palmaris of the arm it lost its original function by the welding of the fascia to the bones to secure the plantar arch, and its functions being then assumed by other muscles it began to dwindle, and is now represented by a mere vestigial rudiment of no functional value. It is well known that the lower races of men have smaller calves than Europeans. Again, it should be noted that as the erect position is assumed the muscles required for the flexion and independ- ent action of the toes become reduced 1n character. .A comparison with other forms shows that some of the small muscles now confined to the region of the foot formerly took their origin higher up, from the bones of the leg. Losing in functional importance, they have dwindled in size and gradually moved downward. The great glutei muscles of the buttock find their highest develop- ment in man. They are subject to similar variations. Certain muscles of this region, normal in apes, are occasionally found in man: a sepa- rate head of the great gluteus, derived from the ischium, and the scansorius or climbing muscle that assists the great flexor of the thigh (the tlio-psoas), may be mentioned. The enormous size and complexity of the muscles of the back in man are well known. The erector of the spine fills up the vertebral grooves and sends up numerous tendons along the back like stays supporting the masts of a ship. The mass of this muscle is comparatively less in anthropoid apes. Notwithstanding all these powerful muscles, it would be impossible to retain the erect position for any great length of time were we to depend upon them alone, for it requires (as before stated) a great ex- penditure of force to keep a muscle in active use. It becomes rapidly fatigued and then loses its power, as any one may prove by standing in any constrained position, even ‘in the position of a soldier,” for half an hour. To provide against this, a beautiful arrangement of joints and ligaments has been developed. When in the erect attitude the ankle-joint is so arranged that its bones are in a position of greatest stability and the center of gravity is so adjusted that it falls directly upon it. This reduces to a minimum the amount of muscular force required to keep the body erect. At the knee the center of gravity falls a little in front of the axis of the limb, and the back and sides of the joint are provided with check ligaments or straps that hold the joints locked in a position of hyper-extension, so that no muscular force whatever is used to maintain it. These liga- _Inents are regressive structures, being vestiges of former insertions of muscles near the joint. At the hip a similar condition occurs, the 456 THE ASCENT OF MAN. center of gravity falling behind the joint and the whole weight of the trunk being hung upon the ilio-femoral ligament, a heavily thickened portion of the joint capsule. This structure is much more marked in inan than in other mammals, and is found to vary considerably in its size and strength. The spinal column has been remarkably modified to adapt it to the erect position. Before the fifth month of uterine life the whole spine deseribes a single, large, dorsally directed curve like that of the quad- ruped, arranged to accommodate the viscera. As this would be incom. patible with the erect posture, two additional curves in the opposite direction are formed: one in the region of the loins just where the center of gravity would begin to fall forward, another in the neck to counteract the heavy and unstable weight of the head. These curves are gradually acquired. While possessed by all races, and in a less degree by the higher apes, they arrive at their highest development in Europeans; while the lumbar curve of the lower races of men is much better adapted to running in a semi-erect position through the jungle or bush. Careful measurements show that the shapes of the vertebrie have been gradually modified. There is no abrupt transition from the spine of the lowest savages—A ustralian, Bushman, Andaman—to that of the gorilla, gibbon,and chimpanzee. There is also evidence that the posterior limbs have moved forward upon the spinal column in order that the erect position may be assumed with less effort. In man there are between the skull and the sacrum twenty-four vertebre. The other primates have usually twenty-six, although the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang agree with man. Now in foetal life the attachment of the hip-bones to the sacruin commences from below upward. Union first occurs with the third sacral vertebra, leaving twenty-six pre-sacral, then advances forward, the first sacral uniting last of all. The bip-bones actually move up along the spine a distance of two segments. Occasionally this shifting is carried still farther, and but twenty-three pre-sacral vertebr are left. Anomalies caused by an arrest of development at some stage of this process are not at all infrequent. The most common is the want of union between the hip-bones and the first sacral vertebra, thus producing apparently six lumbar vertebrie. A most beautiful specimen of this anomaly was found last winter in my laboratory. The spine is sustained erect by stringing from vertebra to vertebra numbers of short ligaments that reduce to a minimum the muscular exertion required to support it. These are particularly numerous be- tween the spines along the great dorsal curvature. Some of these lig- aments are replaced by small muscles, very inconstant and variable, the survivals of a whole system of musculature that had for its object the moving of the separate joints of the spine, one upon another. The head is also much modified by the erect position. In quadru- peds, its suspension requires an extensive apparatus, a large, strong, THE ASCENT OF MAN. A57 elastic strap—the ligamentum nuche-—passing from the tips of the thoracic vertebr to the occiput, sending processes to all the neck ver- tebrie involved in the strain. Though need for it has in great degree ceased since the head has become poised in such a way as to involve but little expenditure of muscular force, yet relics of this great suspen- sory apparatus remain in man’s neck in the form of thickened fascial bands. The arrangement of the great foramen of the skull that transmits the central axis of the nervous system, the spinal cord, is necessarily different in an animal carrying its head erect. The foramen would naturally tend to be set forward more under the center of gravity and its inclination would be more nearly horizontal. Here again we see that the ideally perfect form is more nearly approached in the civilized races. It is never quite realized, and indeed the whole skull and its contents evince markedly that they are still undergoing an evolution. Again the lower races show variations that unite tbem with the anthro- poid apes. While a negro may have a foramen magnum inclined 37 degrees to the horizontal, the orang may fall to 36 degrees. But it isnot only in this way that we get evidence that the erect position has been gradually acquired. Sinee gravity plays an impor- tant part in the functions of the visceral and circulatory systems, any marked change in the line of equilibrium must necessarily be accom- panied by disturbances. These disturbances to a certain extent con- flict with the acquirement of the position, as they weaken the animal. In the course of time the body may perhaps become adapted to the changed conditions, but before that perfect adaptation takes place there is a period of struggle. There is abundant evidence that such a strug- gle has occurred and is yet going on, the adaptation being as yet far from complete. The most striking and important of these adaptations concerns the pelvis. When the erect posture is assumed the weight of the viscera being thrown upon this bony girdle, it becomes adapted for their sup- port by assuming a more fixed and dish-like shape. This is naturally more pronounced in the female, since with her the pelvis must bear the additional weight of the pregnant uterus. It is evident that a solid, unyielding, laterally expanded ring of small aperture would give the most effective support in the erect position, but it is equally clear that with any such structure parturition would be impossible. In the quadruped the act of parturition is comparatively easy, the pelvis offer- ing no serious hindrance. The shape of the female pelvis is therefore the result of a compromise between two forms, one for support, the other for ease in delivery. When we reflect that along with the acquirement of the erect position, the size of the head of the child has gradually increased, thus forming still another obstacle to delivery and to the adaptation which might otherwise have taken place, we can realize how serious the struggle has been, and no longer wonder that 458 THE ASCENT OF MAN. deaths in child-birth are much more common in the higher races and that woman in her entire organization shows signs of having suffered more than man in the upward struggle. In no other animal is there shown such a distinetion between the pelvis of the male and that of the female, a distinction that increases as we ascend the scale. While the amount of individual variation is great, we yet see, particularly in the pelvis of the Andaman Islanders and of the Polynesian races, distinctly simian characters. The scanty material at hand indicates that a similar transition occurred between the modern and pre-historic types. The approximation of the infantile and simian forms is well known. The pelvis alone does not suffice to support the viscera. In quad- rupeds the whole weight is slung from the horizontal spine by means of a strong elastic suspensory bandage of fascia, the tunica abdominalis. The part of this near the thorax has in man entirely disappeared, being uo longer of any use. In the groin it remains to strengthen the weak points where structures pass out from the abdominal cavity. That it often is insufficient to withstand the great pressure is testified by the great prevalence of hernia, another sign of imperfect adaptation. The frequency of uterine displacements, almost unknown in the quadruped, has also been noted. It is significant that one of the most effective postures for treating and restoring to place the disturbed organ is the so-called “ knee-elbow position,” decidedly quadrupedal in character. Many other indications are found in the viscera. The urinary bladder is so arranged in man, that any concretions that may occur, do not gather near the opening of the urethra, where they might be discharged, but fall back into the cul-de-sac at the base, where they enlarge and irritate the mucous lining.* The cecum, with its vermiform appendage, a vestigial organ finding its proper functional activity far below man, is so placed in quadrupeds that the action of gravity tends to free it from fecal aceu- mulations. In man this is not the ease, and as a consequence inflam- mation of this organ or its surrounding tissues, very serious and often fatal, is by no means rare. It may be noted that the ascending colon is obliged to lift its contents against gravity, and that in a lowered state of the system this might very readily induce torpidity of function. The gal} bladder in quadrupeds also discharges at an advantageous angle. In man, although the difference is slight, it appears to be suffi- *Since the above was written, my attention has been called to the following re- markable passage in the works of Dr. ERAsMuS DARWIN. It occurs in his ‘‘ Temple of Nature,” Canto ii, foot-note to line 122. ‘It has been supposed by some that mankind were formerly quadrnpeds as well as hermaphrodites; and that some parts of the body are not yet so convenient to an erect posture as to a horizontal one: as the fundus of the bladder in an erect posture is not exactly over the insertion of the urethea ; whence it is seldom completely evacuated, and thus renders mankind more subject to the stone than if he had pre- served his horizontality.” (The preface to this poem is dated Jannary 1, 1802. ) THE ASCENT OF MAN. 459 cient to cause at times retention and consequent inspissation of the bile, leading to the formation of gall-stones. The quadruped’s liver hangs suspended from the spine, but as the erect attitude is assumed it depends more and more from the diaphragm. The diaphragm in its turn develops adhesions with the fibrous covering of the heart, which is continuous with the deep fascia of the neck, so that in effect the liver hangs suspended from the top of the thorax and base of the skull. This restricts in some degree the action of the dia- phragm and confines the lungs. This must have an effect upon the aération of the blood, and consequently upon the ability to sustain pro- longed and rapid muscular exertion. /.n extra lobe of the right lung that in animals intervenes, either constantly or during inspiration, be- tween the heart and the diaphragm, is occasionally found in a vestigial state in man. The vascular system abounds in evidences that it was primarily adapted to the quadrupedal position. By constant selection for enor- mous periods of time, the vessels have become located in the best pro- tected situations. It is scarcely possible to injure a vessel of any size in an animal without deeply penetrating the body or passing quite through a limb. In man, on the contrary, several great trunks are comparatively exposed, notably the great vessels of the thigh, those of the forearm, and of the ventral wall. The influence that gravity has upon the circulation is well known. The horizontal position of the great venous trunks favors the easy flow of blood to the heart without too greatly accelerating it. Man,in whom these trunks are vertical, suffers thereby from two mechanical defects,— the difficulty of raising blood through the ascending vena cava, whence come congestion of the liver, cardiac dropsy, and a number of other disorders, and the too rapid delivery through the descending cava, whence the tendency to syncope or fainting if for any cause the action of the heart is lessened. Clevenger’s admirable discovery that the valves of the veins are arranged for a quadrupedal position should also be mentioned here. Evidently intended to resist the action of gravity, they should, to be effective, be found in the large vertical trunks. But in the most important of these they are wanting. Hence are caused many disorders arising from hydrostatic pressure, such as varicose veins, varicocele, hemorrhoids, and the like. Yet the values occur in several horizontal trunks, where they are, as far as we know, of no use what- ever. Place man on all fours however, and it is seen that the entire system of valves is arranged with reference to the action of gravity in that position. The great vessels along the spine and the portal system being then approximately horizontal do not require valves, while all the vertical trunks of considerable size, even the intercostal and jugular veins, are provided with them. 2 Zed. 46 3 anes ful m EN Eset tH 2D Bw aH u Oo <: ‘a 5 Fs ee i ° 2 is) D 5 = TAI = > ° < cp = o 3) mn 2 ° 2 bs ote: ay _ hf AE” dee aor int, kee ee (ere. 2 ee ae Ey - : “it ; Ae . PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 533 (5) A new museum for medieval and modern times in other coun- tries of Europe. e (6) Ethnographic Museum, arranged to show the civilizations of the world by tribes. This was probably the first collection in Kurope to be laid out upon a strictly ethnographic basis. (7) Royal Museum of classic antiquities in Prinzens Palais. (8) Royal collection of coins in Prinzens Palais. — - No mention is made here of the royal galleries of art nor of the col- lection of crania and skeletons in the Zodlogical Museum. The visitor to Copenhagen never fails to spend a day in the Thorwalsden Museum, into which the affectionate esteem of his fellow citizens has gathered the works of the great sculptor and his personal effects and displayed them most attractively. A work of primary importance, which the director of every other anthropological museum should imitate with great promptness and care, is Dr. Hamy’s volume entitled Origines du Musée d’Ethnographie du Trocadero, Paris. The first exotic presents known to have come to France were the gifts of Haroun al Raschid to Charlemagne, 801 and 807, A.D. From that moment to the present all sorts of treasures, gotten in many ways, have been in the charge of public keepers. The modern museum is shown by this volume to have been the growth of ages, the beginning or germ being the curiosity of the king or some of the nobility. It would be well if every important museum could have a volume of history like Dr. Hamy’s “ Origines.” In addition to a thorough history of each public museum, prepared by its own authorities, the exigencies of intercommuniecation have led to the founding of a journal for museum workers, entitled, [nterna- tionales Archiv fiir E'thnographie (Leyden), and in February, appeared the first number of the Bulletin des Musées, Paris. It is edited by Mr. Edward Garnier and Léonce Benedite, and resembles the Berlin “ Year Book of the Royal Prussian Art Collections,” under the heading of ‘Mouvement des Musées it gives notes on other national galleries and collections, and a bibliography. The standard list of journals remains the same. No anthropologist can afford to neglect the following list: The American Anthropologist, Washington ; Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Braunschweig ; ‘Archivio per V Antropologia, Fireuze ; Bulletins de la So- ciété W@W Anthropologie de Paris; Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie, Leyden; Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London; L’ Anthropologie, Paris; Mittheilungen der Anthropolo- gischen Gesellschaft in Wien ; Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, etc., Berlin; Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, by the same society. Journals of a popular character which can not be neglected are: Academy, London; The American Naturalist, New York; Atheneum, London; Ausland, Stuttgard; Nature, Londou; Popular Science Monthly, New York; Rérue Scientifique, Paris; Science, New York. 534 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN_ 1890. 1Il.—BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY. This enormous subject, covering practically the whole of the structural part of anthropology, is amply represented in a few publications. For titles alone the Index Medicus and the Index Catalogue of the Surgeon- General’s library are the best guides accessible to Americans. In England this part of the subject is most elaborately worked out in the biological and zoélogical journals. The Paris Bulletins, the German Archiv and Zeitschrift, the Italian Archivio, and the Austrian Mittheilungen, though covering the entire science, are specially rich and full in biological matters. With the original papers, accounts of meetings, reviews of publications and bibliography there is little more to be desired either for the beginner or for the advanced student. Dr. Frank Baker devoted his vice-presidential address before Section H of the American Association to the organs of the human body that point to a past condition much lower than the present ;—indications of the pathway by which humanity has climbed from darkness to light, from bestiality to civilization. These organs are of two kinds, those that added or improved and those that are taken away or atrophied. Those specially mentioned are connected with the modifications of the limbs, with the erect posture, and with the segmentation of the body. In the hand the special flexor muscle of the thumb is a new element, while the palmaris longus is in the category of disappearing muscles. The torsion of the humerus and the incurvation of its trochlear surface and the scapular index all show a progressive development both in the individual and in the race. The palmar fascia, the epitrochles-anconeus, a process resembling the> supra-condyloid foramen of marsupials, the perforation of the olecranon fossa remind of primitive conditions. While the region of the hand and fore arm indicates increase of specialization, the upper part of the limb generally testifies to a regression. This principle is illustrated by ex- amples. The hind limbs of apes as compared with the human legs and the acquisition of the erect posture are closely examined. Upon the latter point Dr. Baker summarizes the evidences that the adaptation of man to the erect posture is yet far from complete. These resemblanees with anthropoid apes are held to indicate not lineal descent, but common ancestry, and the differences in the races of mankind do not justify our separating them on structural grounds. In his work on races and peoples Dr. Daniel G. Brinton summarizes the physical characteristics used in classification of mankind: SCHEME OF PRINCIPAL PHYSICAL ELEMENTS. Dolichocephalic.. ..long skulls. Skull ....< Mesocephulic ...... medium skulls. Brachycephalic .... broad skulls. Leptorhine ........ narrow noses. INDSO 3..-5,- < Mesorhine.=---- se medium noses. Pintyroinesc sss ese flat or broad noses. PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 535 Megaseme ...:..-..- round eyes, J WiEeeeae WIGSTON TOsasces cade medium eyes. Microseme -........ narrow eyes. Orthognathie ..-.--- straight or vertical jaws. Jaws ....< Mesognathic ....... medium jaws. IPO MENG Gesenodec projecting jaws. Chameprosopic ...-low or broad face. Face\...-.- Mesoprosopic ..--.. medium face. Letoprosopic...--.- narrow or high face. Platypellic 222252: broad pelvis. Pelvisees~ Mesopellie a2 e222 medium pelvis. eptopellic ---- =... narrow pelvis. On the 13th of March Mr. J. Venn gives in Nature the results of a series of measurements made upon the students of Cambridge Univer- sity,in England. The following queries are put, according to Dr. Gal- ton’s system: (1) The distance of the clearest vision, (2) traction upon the dynamometer, (3) force of pressure by the hand, (4) volume of the head, (5) capacity of pulmonary inspiration, (6) stature, (7) weight of the body. The most interesting result relates to the head, which is found to be larger in volume in the better students, and in all classes to increase up to the age of 25. Into comparison with this study may be brought that of Pauline Tarnowsky upon 150 prostitutes, 100 female thieves, 100 peasants, and 50 women of culture: ‘Prostitutes. Thieves. Peasants. “Cultured. Antero-posterior diameter and trausverse maximum | FETs As ae Re Rae CN 160.3 161.6 163. 2 164. 2 Horizontal circumference.................--..--.---- 531. 6 535.5 | 537.0 | 538. 0 “ Seccetiis STOP SUC pee eg ea 137. 5 | 138.6 | 139. 2 145.9 eprmnipeiniexmasa. Wk ee ALL SEE ae 80. 0 | 80.2 79.9 | 791 SEMnTEH ees teu A BA eS prem oh 153. 5 155. 6 156. 4. | 154.1 The vexed question at this moment in the science called criminology is whether there is an ensemble of characteristics which consign their possessor to a life of crime, or which may be used to distinguish differ- ent sorts of criminals. In some form the Italian school are committed to this doctrine, and are more or less opposed by the French school. In 1889 Dr. N. Anoutchine, of Moscow, published an elaborate work on stature of men in Russia compared with that of other nations. An excellent summary of this monograph is given in L’Anthropologie (I, 62-74), with chart and map. Every work of importance on human biology is noted in the Index-Medicus, published by Dr. J. S. Billings and Dr. Robert Fletcher, of the Surgeon-General’s Office, in Washing- ton. The permanent record of this literature is to be found in the Index-Catalogue of the Surgeon-General’s Office. Further important works are the following: Anthropometric Identification of Criminals, Bertillon; Anthropometry, Galton, Hurd; Ascent of Man, Baker; Cerebral Convolutions, Turner; Chest Development in Young Persons, Berry ; Color of Skin in Oriental Races, Beddoe ; Corsets, Robin; Cress- 536 PROGRESS CF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. Infertility, Gulick; Evolution and Disease, Sutton; Evolution of Sex, Geddes, Ryder; Giants, Laloy; Heredity, Hutchinson, La Pouge, Turner, Weismann, Thompson, Stoller; Human Selection, Wallace; Hypertrichosis, Jaws and Teeth, Talbot; Longevity and Climate, Re- mondino, Humphrey ; Olecranon Perforation, Lamb; One-sided Occu- pation, Miiller; Orbitomaxillary Suture, Thoms; Paternal Impressions, Bullard ; Physical Proportions, Greenleaf, Bellary ; Physiological Selee- tion, Romanes; Physique of Women, Bowditch ; Pigment in the Negro, Morison; Rigkt handedness, Baldwin; Rumination, Einhorn; Sex, Wal- lian: Skull of Charlotte Corday, Topinard, Benedikt; Tailed Men, Schaeffer ; Teeth of Prehistoric Skeletons, Ward ; Weight of the Human Body, Ranke. III.—PSYCHOLOGY. In the science of anthropology, psychology is the application of meas- ures to the activities of the mind through its material agency, the brain and the nervous system. The two sets of phenomena, those of the nor- mal mind and healthy brain and those of the abnormal mind, are in- eluded. The former fizd their able organ in the American Journal of Psychology, Worcester, Massachusetts, and the latter phenomena are treated in the journals of neurclogy. Abroad the greatest activity prevails in this department of research. Wundt’s Studien, Dubois-Reymond’s Archiv, Pfliiger’s Archiv, most of the physiological journals, Mind, Brain, and even the periodicals de- voted to criminology, must be consulted. The American Journal of Psychology furnishes (111, 275-286) a report on the amountof psychophysical instruction in the following American institutions of higher learning: University of Wisconsin, University of Nebraska, New York College for the Training of Teachers, Columbia College, Harvard University, Yale University, Army Medical Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Indiana University, Clark University, and University of Toronto. In each ease the instructors’ names are given and a syllabus of the instruction. It would be well to repeat here, did space permit, these cnrricula, to mark the present position of this branch of anthropology. It will suffice to append Dr. J. McK. Cattell’s account of work done in the psychological laboratory of the University of Penn- sylvania. ‘¢ Special courses in psychology were given at the University of Penn- sy:vania by Professor Fullerton and Prof, James McKeen Cattell. Pro- fessor Fullerton delivered two courses—one for undergraduates, the other for graduate students. In these courses special stress is laid on psychological analysis and those regions of psychology which border on the theory of knowledge. Professor Cattell gave three courses extend- ing through the year—an introductory course in experimental psychol- ogy, a course beginning with the special study of some psychological problem and taking up in the second half year comparative, social, and PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN. 1890. 537 abnormal psychology, and an advanced course in physiological and experimental psychology. These courses include either practical work or research on the part of the student. A lecturer on philosophy and an assistant in psychology are about to be appointed, and additional courses will be given next year. “In addition to these special courses, physiological, abnormal, and comparative psychology may be stadied in the medical and_ biological departments of the university. ‘hese are probably without rival in America, and offer complete courses of lectures, practical work, and clinics. Psychology borrows from and iends to all the sciences. Every one of the large number of advanced courses offered by the university bears some relation to psychology, and may prove useful to the stu dent. The asylums and hospitals will be found of special advantage to the student of psychology. The new library building of the university is nearly completed. There is a special endowment for the purchase of philosophical and psycho. logical books, and any books needed by students for special work will be obtained. The university press is about to begin the issue of a series of monographs representing work done in the fields of philosophy and psychology. The first number, no w in press, is a psychological study on *‘Sameness and Identity,” by Professor Fullerton. Following this number will be aseries of researches from the laboratory of psychology and an edition of Descartes’ * Meditations,” with Latin and English texts and philosophical commentary.” Professor Cattell makes the following report of work done in the psychological laboratory. ‘The chief work before experimental psy- chology is the measurement of mental processes. As experimental physics is devoted to the measurement of time, space, and mass in the material world, so experimental psychology may measure time, com- plexity, and intensity in consciousness. In so far as cases are investi- gated in which one mental magnitude is the function of another, a mental mechanics is developed. ‘The laboratory possesses apparatus, which measures mental times conveniently and accurately. This apparatus has been described in Mind (No. 42), but since then it has been improved. The chronoscope has been altered and a new regulator made, so that the mean variation of the apparatus is now under one-thousandth of a second. New pieces have been built for the production of sound, light, and electric stimuli. Apparatus for measuring the rate of movement and for other purposes have been added. ‘The observer is placed in a compartment separated from the experimenter and measuring apparatus. With this apparatus researches are being carried out in several directions. Pro- fessor Dolley is measuring the rate at which the nervous impulse trav- els, using two different methods. In one series ef experiments an electrical stimulus is applied to different parts of the body, and a reac. tion is made either with the band or foot. The rate of transmission in 538 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. the motor and sensory tracts of the spinal cord has thus been deter- mined. In a second series of experiments two stimuli are given at dif- ferent parts of the body, and the interval between them adjusted until the observer seems to perceive them simultaneously. It is thought that these experiments will throw more light on human physiology than cases in which the nerve (motor only) of a partly dead frog is artificially stimulated. The times are also of interest to psychology, as they are needed in order to determine purely mental times. Mr. Witmer is measuring the personal difference in reaction-times, and the work will be extended to different mental processes. These times seem to vary with age, sex, nationality, education and occupation, and their study may have practical value as well as theoretic interest. Length of life should be measured by rate of thought. Experiments are also being made on the variation in the reaction-time from hour to hour and day to day. With the co-operation of Dr. Weir Mitchell and other eminent neurologists the alteration in the time of physiological proc- esses in diseases of the nervous system is being studied. It is believed that such tests may be of use in diagnosis. The nervous impulse may be sent through the system in different directions until a relative delay discovers the diseased part. Recovery and progression may be studied by noting the alteration in time. ‘Owing to the introduction of cerebral surgery and the advances recently made in the treatment of diseases of the nervous system, any method which may make diagnosis more exact deserves careful study. In addition to the time of physiological processes in disease, other tests of loss of sensation, power and intelligence, are made in the labora- tory. The following ten tests are recommended; the methods, ete., are described in an article now in press for Mind: (1) Dynamometer pressure; (2) rateof movement; (3) sensation-areas; (4) pressure caus. ing pain; (5) least noticeable difference in weight; (6) reaction-time for sound; (7) time for naming colors; (8) bisection of 50 centimeters line; (9) judgment of 10 seconds time; (10) number of letters remembered on hearing once. These determinations are made not only on those who are suffering from disease, but also on every one who wishes to be tested. Itis hoped that the same tests will be made elsewhere, so that the results of a large number of observations may be compared and combined. The undergraduate students in experimental psycol- ogy undertakes a course of laboratory work in which about two bhun- dred tests and measurements are made. It is hoped that when a suffi- cient mass of data has been secured, it will have some scientific value. In the cases of two of the tests given above, the rate of movement and the pressure causing pain, researches are being carried out in the laboratory. By altering the distance and nature of the movement, and the point of the body to which the pressure causing pain is applied, new quantitative results are obtained.” Professor Fullerton is carrying on a research to determine the rate PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 539 at which a simple sensation fades from memory. lop into contact. 6 Geographic conditions undisturbed. ¢ Wild animals not diminished. (| developed in classes. i Industry of stone and (1. Prehistoric ..-..... | copper. Present or Great migrations begin. Conditions altered by agriculture. Alluvial 2. Proto- historic --.-. ; Industry of bronze and ( | Wild animals slain or tamed. ) Epoch. | (iron. | Geographic conditions greatly mod- (Extensive mingling of ES eENISLOTIG= 2 == orcin , ified by man. , races. Development of | All lower animals subjugated. {| nations. —Brinton, D. G., Races and peoples. New York, 1890, p. 96. The eighth Russian Archeological Congress was held in Moscow, January 8 to 24. It was the twenty-fifth anniversary of founding the Royal Archeological Society in Moscow, February 7, 1864. The HDA PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. occasion was one of great importance both socially and scientifically, as the following list of topies will show: 1) Pre-historie antiquities. 2) Historico-geographic and ethnographic antiquities. 3) Monuments of fine arts. ) Customs and usages in Russia. 5) Religious monuments. )) Ruasso-Slavie linguistic and paleographic monuments. ) Classic, Slavo-Byzantine and western antiquities. (8) Oriental and heathen antiquities. (9) Archeographic monuments. There is an excellent report of this meeting in the Mitthetilungen, Wien (xx, 148-164). An event in archeology worthy of record in 1889-90 was the removal of the National Egyptian Museum from Bilaq on the east side of the Nile to the spacious Khedivai palace at Gizeh on the west- ern bank. The death of Schliemann banbned one of the most romantic charac- ters in the scientific world. The conception of exploring the site of ancient Troy was formed in his boyhood. His assiduity in amassing a fortune to this end, and his untiring effort to spend his fortune to secure that end have held him up to the admiration of two geverations. That his interpretation of his discoveries may not be in every case correct, will not detract greatly from his just meed of praise. Archeological publications of general interest will be found under the following titles: Aboriginal Monuments in North Dakota, Mont- gomery; American Antiquities, Peet (under several titles); Antiquity of Man, White (series of papers on the Warfare of Science in Pop. Se. Monthly); Antiquities of Tennessee, Thruston; Archxology, Powell; Archeology of India, Fiihrer; Archeology of Ohio, Putnam; Bronze Age, Montelius; Cliff Dwellings, Chapin, Mearns; Discoveries in Egypt, Edwards, Brugsch, Naville; Fort Ancient, Ohio, Moorehead ; French Archeology, Mortillet; Gashed Bones and the Antiquity of Man, Hughes; Oriental Archeology, Sayce; Prehistoric Anthropology, Wilson ; Peonianic Cave dwellings, Bickford; Stone Age in Africa, Andree; Winnipeg Mound Region, Bryce. VILI.—SOCIOLOGY. In December of 1889, the American Academy of Political and Social Science was organized in Philadelphia under the most favorable aus- pices. The list of subseribing members reached the number of 800 in the first six months of the Academy. The most distinguished univer- sity presidents and professors are among the governing body. This co- Operative action marks an eraina branch of anthropology hitherto diffi- cult to summarize. The resources of sociological study are unlimited. de + ' PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY JIN 1890. aL Census reports, tables of vital statistics, blue books, literature of the Bureau of Labor, of interstate commerce, of education, Johns Hopkins tracts on historical and political science; the great reviews, all of them; the daily press are only a few of the great organs of sociology. The existence of a national society with an official organ will enable the specialists to cull from this great mass the publications in his line of study. Anthropology comes to the aid of justice in the success of the Bertil- lon method of measuring and identifying criminals. This has found favor not only in all France, but in the United States. and even in the Argentine Republic. To the ordinary police questions of sex, height, age, and color of the eye are added the cephalic diameters, the length of the foot, length of the middle finger, length of the ear, length of the forearm, and personal scars or individual peculiarities. The many beneficial effects of the certain identification of a criminal, in spite of all aliases and disguises that have already been published, the ability to separate the first offense from the professional villainy, are not the least among the obligations society owes to anthropology. The discussion still continues upon the subject whether there are certain morphological indications of criminal proclivities so marked that society may use them to protect itself by confining the subject be- fore the crime may be committed. The wide range of inquiry in the province of sociology is indicated in the following titles: Anthropology of Prostitutes, Tamousky; Ar- tificial Deformation of the Head, Delisle, Nicolucci ; Child Marriage in India, Brahmin; Chronology of China, Gordon; Communism, Lav- eleye ; Comparative Criminality, Tarde; Courtesy, Mallery ; Crime and ‘Suicide, Corre; Criminal Anthropology, Garnier, Galton, Garofalo, Germa, Lombroso, Paravant, Ellis, Proal; Disposal of the Dead, Tay- lor; Duk-Duk Ceremonies, Churchill; The Ear as a Sign of Defective _ Development, Warner; Ethical Problem, Carus; Evolution and Inher- itance, Eimer; Gentile System of the Navajos, Matthews ; Government, Huxley; Infancy of Criminals, Taverni; Infant Marriages in India, Fawcett; Japanese Women, Loti; Judicial Dictionary, Stroud; Judicial Torture, Gundry; Justice and Political Ethics, Spencer; La Couvade, Meyners; Masks, Boas, Meyer; Marriage and Heredity, Nisbet; Mar- riage Relation, Wake; Mutual Aid Among Animals, Krapotkin; North American Indian Children, Pajeken ; Origins of Common Law, Pollock ; Police Anthropometry, Spearman; Political Evolution, Letourneau; Pol- yandria, Raynaud; Primitive Fashions, Basu; Primitive Games, Thurn; Province of Sociology, Giddings; Racing in 1890, Stutfield ; Society Among Animals, Girod; Student Life in Paris in the Twelfth Century, Francke; Survival of Ancient Custom, Gomme; Tattooing in Tunis, Bazin (also sub voce); Thief Talk, Wilde; Trephined Crania, Verneau ; Young Parisian Criminals, Jolly, Roux. 556 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. IX.—RELIGION AND FOLK-LORE, One of the remarkable results of cojperation in the study of folk-lore is seen in the possibility of such a work as Professor Frazer’s Golden Bough. The priest of Diana, near Aricia, took office after killing his predecessor. Before doing this the candidate was obliged to break a bough from a sacred tree in the grove, identified with the Golden Bough plucked at the Sibyl’s bidding by Aineas before entering upon his journey to the world below. The two questions, why was the priest obliged to kill his predecessor? and why, before killing him, was he obliged to pluck the Golden Bough? drive the author to consult the whole body of knowledge recently accumulated in comparative religion. The lower forms of animisom are quite familiar to Professor Frazer, who explored them in the preparation of his well-known work entitled Totemism. Sir Monier Williams has placed within the reach of English-speaking people a study in comparative religion in his work on Buddhism in its connection with Brahmanism and Hinduism and in its contrast with Christianity. Tbere is no better example of the amenability of such matters to scientific treatment than is furnished by Buddhism. At first it was not a religion at all. It recognized no spirit world; it had no ecclesiastical organization, no places of worship, no cult whatever. Out of itself partly and in its association with surrounding religions it became, in the north especially, the most complicated and exacting of cults founded upon spirit worlds of countless number, of every variety’ of inhabitants intimately associated in every conceivable way with the people of the earth. The study of Buddhism is a chapter in the natural history of religion. The American Folk-lore Society held its annual meeting in Columbia College, New York, under the presidency of Dr. Daniel G. Brinton. The report of the council gave the most flattering account of the pros- perity of the organization. A movement was made toward enlarging the scope of the society’s publications. The folklorist needs no better guide than the Journal of American Folk Lore, edited in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by W. W. Newell. Original papers of great merit fill the body of the numbers, but reviews of current literature and a list of all publications upon the subject put the student at once into communication with his colleagues. In the same manner the Révue de V Histoire des Religions, published under the auspices of the Musée Guimet, in Paris, takes notice of all current literature on the natural history of religions. It is a guide book to this branch of science. During the current year this periodical enters its twenty-first volume. The Annales du Musée Guimet are devoted to memoirs too long and technical for the Révue. Mr. Francis C. Macauley, of Philadelphia, has conceived the idea of a folklore museum. In pursuance of his suggestions Mr. Culin pub- lished a paper in the Journal of American Folk-Lore, and organized a PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1899. aya department devoted to this subject in the Museum of Archeology of the University of Pennsylvania. Attention is called to the following titles: Aryan Cosmogony, Veck- enstedt; Buddhism, Griffin, Williams; Comparative Religion, Frazer ; Diabology, Jewett; Evolution of a Sect, MeGee; Folklore, Newell; Humanities, Powell; Mythology of the Menomoni, Hoffman; Natural Religion, Miiller; Polytheism in China, Lyall; Prayer Among the Hin- dus, Roussel; Primitive Religion, Schurtz; Religion of the Semites, Lloyd; Taoist Religion, Benton. X.—MAN AND NATURE. Prof. N. S. Shaler published a series of papers on America in its re- lation to civilization, including aboriginal life as well as that of the white race. One of the most interesting chapters in this study is that which relates to the change from agricultural to hunting life wrought in the aborigines by the invasion of the buffalo; or, rather, it might be called the reciprocal action of buffalo and Indian. The burning of forests encouraged the growth of grass; this invited the buffalos; they enticed the farmer from his stone hoe and laborious husbandry to take up the spear and the bow. Meat was easier to procure than corn; furthermore, the buffalo destroyed the corn and left the farmer nothing else to do but to pursue the occupation of Nimrod. M. Marcelin Boule brought together in L/ Anthropologie (1, 89-103) a series of reviews on quaternary geology in its relation to the antiquity of man. This list includes Forsyth Major, on the Mammalian fauna of the Val d@’Arno (Quart. J. Geol. Soc., Lond., XLI, p. 1); A. J. Jukes- Browne, on the Bowlder clays of Lincolnshire (7d., 114); Aubrey Stra- hem, on the Glaciation of South Lancashire, Cheshire, and the Welsh Border (id., XLII, 369); R. M. Dilley, on the Pleistocene succession in the Trent Basin (id., xLul, 437); J. Prestwich, on the Date, duration, and conditions of the glacial period, with reference to the antiquity of man (id., XLII, 393); T. Mellard Reade, on An estimate of post-glacial times (id., XLIV, 291); Rev. O. Fisher, on the Occurrence of elephas meridionalis at Dewlest, Dorset (id., xLIv, 818); J. R. Kilroe, on Diree- tion of ice-flow in the north of Ireland (id., xLIv, 827); James Croll, on Prevailing misconceptions regarding the evidence which we ought to expect from former glacial periods (id., XLV, 220); J. Prestwich, on the Occurrence of palzolithic implements in the neighborhood of Ight- ham, Kent (id., xLv, 270); Henry Hicks, on the Cac Gwyne Cave, North Wales (id., xLIv, 561). 558 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 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Revue d’ethnographie de la Société Imperiale des amis des sciences naturelles. 1 annee, 1889, Moscou, 3 vols. A list of the papers given in L’ Anthropologie, 1, 474. Revue de l’hypnotisme. Paris. Revue des traditions populaires. Paris. Revue Scientifiaue. Paris. Reynier, J. B. Causes de l’expression spirituelle et mordante de certains bossus, Gaz. méd.-chir. de Toulouse, XXII, 155-157. Resor, TH. The psychology of attention: 1. Spontaneous or natural attention; 2. Vol- untary or artificial attention, and, 3. Morbid states of attention. Chicago, Open Court Pub. Co. Ruys. Early ethnology of the British Isles. Scottish Review, April, 1890. Mythological treatment of Celtic ethnology. Scottish Review. Oct. 1890. RuccarpI, P. Prequidizi e superstitioni del popolo modenese. Archivio l’anthrop. e la etnol., Firenze, Xxx, 73-110. Ricner, PAvL. Anatomie artistique. Description des formes extérieures du corps humain au repos et dans les principaux mouvements. Paris: Edit. Plon. 269 pp. 4to. 108 pl. [Rev. in: Anthropologie, Par., 1, 712-714, by P. Topinard. ] 4 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 597 RIcHER, PAuL. Du role de la graisse dans la conformation extérieure du corps humain. N. iconog. de la Salpétriére, Par., 111, 20-26. RIcHTER, J.PAuL. The Guilds of the Early Italian painters. Nineteenth Cent., N. Y., CLXV, 786-800. RICHTER, UL. Culturpflanzen und ihre Bedeutung fiir das wirthschaftliche Leben der Volker. Geschichtlich-geographische Bilder. Wien: Hartleben. 228 pp. 8vo. Rig Van Americanus: Sacred songs of the ancient Mexican. Edited by Daniel G. Brinton. London: Paul. 8vo. RINK, H. Om Eskimoemes Herkomst. i copaeauee- MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE MOHAVES. By GEORGE A. ALLEN, Colorado River Agency, Colorado. Although the Mohaves are giving up many of their superstitions, some of them still cling to the teachings of their ancestors. They cre- mate their dead, the funeral pyre being made ready for the corpse as soon as life is extinct, and the body is placed on the pile of wood pre- pared, while all the friends and relations of the deceased gather around and set up a pitiful moan. Formerly they burned all the property of the deceased, and often the mourners would contribute everything they possessed to the flames, thereby showing the affection and grief they felt for the dead; but this custom is not much practiced at the present time. The women usually contributed a portion of their hair to the flames—that is, those who belonged to the immediate family of the deceased—and would even sometimes throw themselves on the fire, such was their grief. While they have but littie reverence, they believe there is a God, whom they call Mat-o-we-lia, and that He is the maker of all things; that He has a son, whom they call Mas-zam-ho, who is king of de- parted spirits. Mat-o-we-lia conducts the movements of the sun, moon, and stars; sends the rain, sunshine, etc. Mas-zam-ho has full charge of affairs in heaven, or ‘‘White Mountain,” as they call it. They believe the spirits of the dead go up to the “‘White Mountain” in smoke, and that all the property destroyed in the flames with the deceased will go with him to the “* White Mountain,” where pots are constantly boiling with something to eat. They had formerly an annual burning of property, and all would con- tribute something to the flames in expectation of its going up to their departed friends. This practice is entirely discontinued on the reser- vation, but is still kept up by the Yumas at Fort Yuma, and by the Mohaves at Needles and Fort Mohave, off the reservation. They also have a belief that all the Mohaves who die and are not cremated turn into owls, and when they hear an owl hooting at night they think it is the spirit of some dead Mohave returned. They are also superstitious about eating any kind of food that they are not ac- customed to. They will not eat the meat of the beaver, claiming that if they did their necks would swell. This belief was brought about by 615 616 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE MOHAVES. the circumstance of some one having poisoned beaver for their hides, and tne Indians who ate of the flesh were poisoned and died; hence, they think all beavers are bad. After one dies the friends do not eat salt nor wash themselves for four days. But these superstitions are fast disappearing, and in afew years most of them will have died out altogether. The medicine men are most instrumental in keeping them alive. They formerly practiced polygamy, but this is now discontinued. Their marriage ceremony is a very simple one; they merely agree to live together as man and wife, seldom separating after such an agree- ment is formed. They regard the hieroglyphics found on rocks as being the relics of some distinct race, of which they have no tradition whatever. Their animal nature, like that of all aborigines, predominates, and they are most happy and contented when they have plenty to eat. The children are rather bright and inclined to learn when their minds are not diverted by play. When allowed to recreate they play some kind of game from early morn until bed-time. Some of the women do very artistic work in beads and pottery; they also weave matting from cottonwood bark. The mesquite bean is their principal food in winter; this they gather and put up in large willow baskets, which they place upon platforms for storage. The screw beans they put into a kind of kiln, and thus it goes through a sweating process before they are used. They have the metate for grinding wheat, corn, beans, ete. Chief Hook-o-row is the head of the Mohave tribe, and he is a good, peaceable Indian, but not very progressive, being inclined to take life rather easy. Like all Indians they have plenty of dogs, and will divide their last meal with them, The children are all called *‘ Peet,” until they arrive at about four or five years of age, when they are provided with a name. They live in sweat-houses in winter and under open’sheds in summer. Those who go to the railroad towns and mining camps soon become demoralized with whisky and contaminated by tramps. With proper means of irrigation and instruction as to farming they would soon become a thriving community. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY.* By THOMAS WILSON, LL.D. The First International Congress of Criminal Anthropology was held at Rome in 1885. It opened a new epoch in the history of crime. It was proposed to investigate crime scientifically, biologically, fundamentally ; to investigate it in its origin, its causes; to determine, if possible, what share or proportion of responsibility therefor belonged to the criminal, and what to the public. As the causes were to be investigated, so also were the cures. What effect did punishment have for the prevention of crime? What good could be done by education ? I formulate some of the propositions with regard to the commission and prevention of crime and show the relations of different methods to the end sought to be attained. I.—The commission of crime—how induced : 1. By heredity. 2. By edueation: a. Environment, b. Sociologic influences, chiefly in youth. c. Economic influences; as poverty, famine, &c. II.—The prevention of crime: 1. By fear of punishment: a. Execution. 6. Imprisonment. c. Fine. 2. By restraint: a. Imprisonment in reformatory institutions. b. Education. I1I.—For the prevention of crime which had its cause in heredity : 1. Restraint of liberty (of the born criminal) before commission of any crime; this for the individual and for effect in the present. 2. Restraint of marriage or the prevention of the birth of children who are cer- tain to become criminals. 1V.—Reformation of criminals : < 1. By punishment after the commission of crime. 2. Restraint before the commission of crime. 3. Education : a. Religion and morals. b. At home. e. At church. * A report on the Second International Congress of Criminal Anthropology, held at Paris, August, 1339. By THomMas WILSON, LL. D., curator of prehistoric anthropol- ogy of the U. S. National Museum, appointed as delegate from the Smithsonian Insti- tution to the said Congress. 617 618 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. d. In parochial schools. e. Publie schools: Technical. Manual. Night schools. The Congress of Rome of 1885 adjourned to meet in Paris upon the occasion of the French Exposition in 1889, from August 10 to 17 inelu- sive. The opening session was held at the Palace Trocadero under the presidency of the minister of Justice and Worship, and Keeper of the seal. The following officers were chosen : Honorary presidents : MM. Thevenet, Keeper of the Seal, Minister of Justice and of Worship, France; Benedikt, Professor of the University of Vienna, Austria; Brouar- del, Dean, Professor of Medical Jurisprudence at the Faculty of Medicine, Paris, France; Demange, Avocat in the Court of Appeals of Paris, Member of the Council of Order, France; Ferri (E.) Professor of the University of Rome, Deputy of the Italian Parliament, Italy ; Garofalo (Baron), Vice-President of the Civil Tribunal of Naples, Italy; Hakim (John), President of the National Italian Committee of the Universal Exposition of Paris, Official Delegate of the Committee of the Italian Congress, Italy ; Hamel (van), Professor of the University of Amsterdam, Holland; Ladame (Doctor), Professor of the University of Geneva, Switzerland; Lombroso (Cesare), Professor of Medical Jurisprudence, Turin, Italy; Moleschott, Professor of the University of Rome, Senator of the Kingdom, Italy ; Romiti (Doctor), Professor at the University of Pisa, Italy ; Semal, Director of the Asylum for the Insane, Mons, Belgium; Taladriz (Alvarez), Dean of the Bar at Valladlolid, Spain; Tarde, Judge of Instruction, Sarlat (Dordogne), France; Dr. Lorenzo Tenchini, Professor at the University of Parma, Italy; Wilson (Thomas), Attorney of the Supreme Court, Curator of the Department of Prehistoric Anthropology, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. President: M. Roussel (Doctor Theophile), Senator, Member of the Academy of Medicine. Vice-presidents: MM. Lacassagne (Doctor), Professor of Medical Jurisprudence of the Faculty of Lyon (Rhone); Motet (Doctor), Medical Expert of the Tribunals of Paris. General secretary: M. Magitot (Doctor), Member of the Academy of Medicine, An- cient President of the Society of Anthropology of Paris. Recording secretaries: MM. Bertillon (Alphonse), Chief in the Service of Identifi- cation of the Prefecture of the Police in Paris; Bournet (Doctor), Secretary and Editor of the Archives of Criminal Anthropology of Lyons; Coutagne (Doctor Henri), Medical Expert at the Tribunal of Lyons; Manouyvier (Doctor), Professor in the School of Anthropology at Paris. The official delegates were as follows: Austria-Hungary: M. Benedikt, Professor of Neuropathology at the University of Vienna. Belgium: Dr. Semal, Director of the State Insane Asylum at Mons; Dr. de Smeth, Professor in the University at Brussels. Brazil: Councillor Ladislas Natto, Director of the Museum at Rio Janeiro. Denmark: Hansen (Soren), Copenhagen. United States: Dr. Thomas Wilson, Curator of Prehistoric Anthropology, U. §. National Museum, Delegate of the Smithsonian Institution ; Clark Bell, Esq., Dele- gate of the Society of Medical Jurisprudence of New York. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 619 France: MM. Dr. Lacassagne, Delegate of the Society of Anthropology at Lyons. Dr. Letourneau, Delegate of the Society of Anthroplogy of Paris. Hawaii: M. H. de Varigny. Holland: M. Hamel (van), Professor of the Law Faculty of Amsterdam. Italy: Hakim, (John), President of the Italian Committee at the Exposition of Paris. Mexico: M. EK. Raphael de Zayas Enriquez. Paraguay: M. Dr. Hassler. Peru: MM. Dr. Muniz, Surgeon of the Army in Peru. Roumania: M. Dr. Iscovesco; Dr. Soutzo, Professor of Legal Medicine at the Fac- ulty of Medicine at Bucharest. hussia: M. Dr, W. de Dekterew, Delegate of the Society of Public Hygiene, of Moscow. Servia: Milenko Vesnitch, Doctor of Law. Sweden: M. Dr. G. Retzius, Delegate of the Society of Anthropology of Stockholm. There were twenty-two countries, represented by 192 delegates. At the opening session addresses were made. First, a welcome by the Minister of Justice, by Dr. Brouardel, and Dr. Th. Roussel, which were responded to on behalf of the foreign delegates by M. Moleschott, presi- dent of the Congress at Rome. The meetings, after the opening session, were held in the amphitheater of the Faculty of Medicine, the same place as had been held the Congress of Hygiene and Demography. The questions proposed by the committee of organization to be dis- cussed by the Congress were as follows, the preparation of papers thereon having been assigned to the persons whose names respectively follow them: The first series: SECTION I.—CRIMINAL BIoLoGy. I. The Latest Discoveries in Criminal Anthropology. Prof. Ces. Lombroso, University of Turin, and Prof, L. Tenchini, University of Parma. II. Do Criminals Present any Peculiar Anatomic Characters? If so, how can we discover them? Dr. Manouvrier, professor of the School of Anthro- pology of Paris. III. Establishment of General Rules for Investigating the Occupants of our Prisons and Insane Asylums by means of Anthropometry or Psychology. Prof. Sciamanna, of Rome, and Lawyer Virgilio Rossi. IV. The Determining Conditions of Crime and their Relative Values. Prof. E. Ferri, deputy Italian Parliament and professor of Criminal Law. V. The Infancy of Criminals Considered in its Relation to Predisposition to Crime. MM. Prof. Romeo Taverni, Catania, and Dr. Magnan, Director of the Asylum, St. Anne. VI. Organs and Functions among Criminals. MM. Dr. Frigerio, of Alexandria, and Dr, Ottolenghi, of Turin. SECTION II.—CRIME IN ITS RELATION TO SOCIOLOGY. VII. The Determination by Means of Criminal Anthropology of the Various Classes of Delinquents. Baron Garofalo, president of the Civil Tribunal, Naples. VIII. Conditional Liberation. Dr. Semal, director of the State Insane Asylum, Mons, Belgium, IX. Crime in its Relation to Ethnography. Dr. Alvarez Taladriz, Madrid. 620 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. X. Moral Responsibility ; What are its Foundations? M. Tarde, judge of in- struction, Sarlat (Dordogne). XI. Criminal Process from a Sociologic Point of View. M.G. A. Pugliese, Law- yer, Triani, Italy. XII. The Relation of Criminal Anthropology to Legislation and Questions of Civil Rights. M. Avocat Fioretti, of Naples. XIII. The System of Solitary Confinement in its Relation to Biology and Sociol- ogy. Prof. van Hamel, of Amsterdam. Questions proposed by volunteers : XIV. Atavism Among Criminals. Dr. Brouardel, prof>ssor of the School of An- thropology of Paris. XV. Criminal Anthropology considered as a branch of General Anthropology. Dr. Manouvrier, professor of the School of Anthropology. XVI. The Teaching of Anthropologic Sciences in the Law Schools and Colleges. Professor Lacassagne, of Lyons. XVII. Anthropometry as Applied to Young Persons from 15 to 20 Years of Age. M. Alphonse Bertillon. XVIII. The Employment of the Methods of Criminal Anthropology in the Aid of the Police and Arrests of Criminals. Avocat Anfosso and Professor Romiti. XIX. The Correctional Education and Reform of Criminals in Accordance with Biology and Sociology. Dr. Motet, Paris. XX. Perversion of Affections and Moral Qualities in Infants. Dr. Magnan, In- sane Asylum of St. Anne, Paris. XXI. Mental Degeneration and Simulation of Insanity; Reciprocity between them. Dr. Paul Garnier. XXII. Influence of the Professions on Criminality. Dr. Henri Coutagne, Lyon. XXIIi. The Degenerative Characters and Biologic Anomalies Among Criminal Women. Drs. Belmondo and A. Marro, Italy. XXIV. Vegetative Functions Among Criminals and Insane. Drs. Ottolenghi and Rivono, Italy. XXYV. Causes and Remedies for the Repetition of Crime by the Same Persons. Avocats Barzilai and Y. Rossi. XXVI. Political Crime from the Standpoint of Anthropology. Avocat Laschi. XXVII. Criminal Sociology in its Application to Jurisprudence. M. Pierre Sar- raute, judge of the Tribunal, Perigueux (Dordogne). XXVIII. Criminal Anthropology in its Relation to Sociology. Avocat A, de Bella. XXIX. Criminal Anthropology in Egyptian Society in Antiquity. M. Ollivier Beauregard, of Paris. XXX. Moral and Criminal Responsibility of Deaf Mutes. M. Giampietro, of Naples. XXXI. The Relations of Criminal Anthropology with Medical Jurisprudence. Dr. Zuecarelli, of Naples. XXXII. The Effect and Modes of Application of the Penal Law According to the Standard or View Point of Criminal Anthropology. M. Vittorio Olivieri, of Verona. XXXIII. Criminal Sociology. Dr. Colajanni, of Catania, Sicily. XXXIV. The Contagion of the Crime of Murder. Dr. Aubry, of Saint Brieuce, France, XXXYV. Political Assassins—a Medico-Physiologie Study. Dr. Regis. XXXVI. The Role of Woman in the Reduction of Crime. Dr. (of law) Joseph WVAguanno, of Palermo. XXXVII. Medio-Physiologic Observations on the Criminals of Russia, M. J. Or- chanski, professor of the University of Charkow. CRIMINAL ANTITROPOLOGY. 621 The discussions of the congress were opened at its second session, Monday morning, August 12, by Signor Lombroso, upon the first ques- tion, ‘* The Latest Discoveries of Criminal Authropology.” His discus- sion soon developed the fact that there were two great parties in this congress. One, which was led by Lombroso, and might be called the Italian school, for it comprised a great proportion, though not all, of the Italian delegates; and the other, lead by Dr, Manouvrier, to whom adhered the majority of the French delegates. Question I.—Signor Lombroso said a Greek philosopher in moving, proved the fact of movement, and it is so to day with the discoveries of criminal anthropology. These discoveries prove the existence of the science better than the most rhetorical amplifications. The most impor- tant problem of the last congress, then only half resolved, has been com- pleted by the studies of Verga, Brunati, Marro, Batl, Gonzale, Tonnia, Pinero, and by himself. The number of cases of epilepsy with intervals of consciousness has been extended by genealogic studies of epileptic families, by their derivation from criminals, from consumptives, from aged parents, accompanied with the predominance of awkwardness and clumsiness, by frequent vertigos, occasional delirium, ete. The occa- sional cases of epilepsy without absence of moral sense, but with ereth- ism or exaggerated sensibilities, explains how some persons, criminals because of their passion, have many times an unconsciousness of their own criminal acts. The role of epilepsy extended itself into the cate- gory of the criminal insane, principally among the victims of alcohol- ism, the hysterics, and other monomaniacs. One has only to take the chart of Esquirol on the homicidal monomaniacs to find the manifesta- tion and extent of psychic epilepsy. The “criminals of occasion,” studied anthropologically, have shown in themselves (as one can say in the language of bacteriology) attenu- ated, but nevertheless, distinctly visible, characters of the born crimi- nal. His sensibility is less obtuse, his reflexes less irregular, the anom- aly less frequent, especially in the skull, but they have always the characters of the criminal born in some degree, such as the blackest hair in the servant who is a thief, awkwardness more frequent among the swindlers, and that they are all more governed by impulse. In my study of the photographs taken by Mr. Francis Galton, said he, I have found in eighteen skulls of condemned persons, two types which resemble marvelously and with an exaggeration which is evident, the characters of the criminal and approaching those of the savage. Frontal sinuses well marked, cheek and jaw bones very large, orbits large and distant, an unsymmetrical face, the nasal overture of a phe- leiform type, and lemurian attachment of the under jaw. ‘The other skulls of the swindlers, thieves, and robbers gave to me a type lesspre- cise, but the want of symmetry, the great size of the orbits and the prominence of the cheek bones were well marked, though less than in the former cases. The anomalies were less marked than in the eighteen 622 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. skulls above mentioned. This discovery appears to me to have an importance not at first seen, for if serves to increase the signification and importance of the statistics of anthropometry. In order to obtain reliable indications we should investigate only homogeneous groups. Mr. Lemoine has published in the Archives d’Anthropologie Crimi- nelle of Lyon an anomaly which is perhaps unique: The union of the frontal lobes found in an ex-member of the commune who died at his house in Lille. M. Severi has shown that compared with the normal type the crimi- nals have a great capacity or size and extent of the fossettes of the cere- bellum. Marino has demonstrated the diffusion of the occipital fossette: 22 per cent. among the Papuans and 25 per cent. among the New Zealand- ers, While he has confirmed the same proportion that I have found among the Europeans and among the criminals. Joly has confirmed the strange phenomenon that the physiognomy of criminals loses the stamp or type of their nationality. Ottolenghi has studied and developed the curious characteristics of criminals in regard to baldness or gray hair. He has found in them an enormous retardation, comparable only to the epileptics and idiots. He also found the wrinkles to be more numerous among criminals, and above all the one naso labial, which he remarked as a characteristic. The female criminals differ among each other as much as the men, and these characters are almost entirely absent. The criminals have a peculiar gesticulation. They have a jargon or dialect among themselves, as well as a caligraphy, which latter has been confirmed by hypnotism. The peculiarities of criminals extend even to their art. They excel in mechanies and in their precision of detail, but they lack in ideality. The study of molecular changes has given some curious results. The average temperature is much above the normal in criminals. It pre- sents but slight variation in pyretic maladies. An analysis of the urine of criminals born gives a greater proportion of phosphoric acid and less of azote. Lombroso did not continue his presentation at great length nor with great detail. He referred his audience to his last book, which was pub- lished with the maps, scales, and tables therein set forth, and he declared his unwillingness to take away from his colleagues the pleasure which they might have in presenting some of their own discoveries. Dr. Manouvrier followed him and disputed his proposition, and plunged into the discussion of the great question whether criminals were born or made. He pronounced the theory of his opponents to be but a recitation of the exploded science of phrenology, which, whatever good it may have proved, was compelled to fall before the poverty of its experimental statistics and our certain knowledge. He admitted the physiologic and anatomic differences mentioned by Lombroso, but CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY, 623 he declared them to be differences of anatomy and physiology; that they belonged as much to honest men as to criminals, and that the line of difference mentioned by Lombroso bore no relation between an hon- est man and a criminal. These were structural and other differences of physiology and anatomy, while crime was a matter of sociology. Baron Garofalo, MM. Drill, Lacassagne, and Benedikt declared their opposition in whole or in part to the theory of Lombroso. M. Drill recalled that the organization of man was far from being simple, that he was an extremely complex being, made up of many component parts and that his life depended upon his surroundings, his education, his training, his companions, and that whatever there might be in the physical or anatomical characteristics of a man which would point towards his crime or the possibility of its commission, that each of these elements entered into and became a factor, and were each and all of them to be considered in deciding this question. According to M. Déekterew the surrounding circumstances, the social condition, of man played the greatest role and had the greatest influence. M. Pugliese declared crime to be a social anomaly and the consequence of a failure of the criminal to adapt himself to his social surroundings. M. Benedikt, of Vienna, was of the opinion that criminals were sick men either in body or spirit; and if one examines the exterior morpho- logic signs to explain and account for the existence of crime in the con- duct of a given man, it was equally necessary to investigate the mole- cular trouble in his cerebral structure. He declared that the physiologic characteristics were a greater factor than the anatomic, and this it was, with the favorable social surroundings, that made the assassin or the robber. The criminal, said he, has no particular stigma or mark by which he can be known from other men. Sometimes there may be signs of a defective organization, but these are marks or signsof the epileptic or of the insane. This was also the view of Tarde. There might be certain predispositions which were organic or possibly physiologic, which were more or less easily developed according to the social sur- roundings of the individual and which might, under favorable circum- stances induce crime. M. Lacassagne agreed with Tarde that in considering the problem of criminality it was necessary to take largely into account the social influ- ences. Because these influences and surroundings might modify the organic characteristics and thus create these anatomic anomalies which were relied upon by the Italian school. In order to study the criminal it is first necessary to consider his surrounding. It is not atavism, but the social surroundings, the social condition, which make the criminal. If the condition of the humble and the poor and the young and the ignorant is ameliorated you will diminish immediately the army of crim- inals. It is society which makes the criminals. Society has only the criminals it merits. Criminality was above all a social question. M. Lacassagne said a factor of crime too much neglected was misery, pov- 624 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. erty, and he declared it to extend backwards, not only throughout this life, but might have been derived from the parents especially the mother. Garofalo disputed the assertion of Lacassagne. He said the statistics would show that crime was committed in equal proportions by the person who was born and raised, he would not say in afflueuce, but in such circumstances as to avoid the charge of poverty or misery, and he demanded before these assertions should be made or conclusions ac- cepted that accurate statistics should be furnished. Madame Clemence- Royer invoked a new factor in the genesis of crime which, in her opinion, had a greater responsibility than had before ever been attrisuted to it, to wit, hybridity—the mixture of races, the mixtures of the blood of different races, one of which was usually if not always an inferior. M. Moleschott, senator from Italy, thanked M. Tarde and Dr. Bene- dikt for having spoken of the molecular movements, for, said he, there is the question. The minute researches into the anatomic conditions made by Lombroso should not make us to forget the different stages of life which are presented in each individual according to the different conditions of his life and that the first false step has been approached on an infinite scale. A more or less degree, however small, of irrita- bility on the part of an individual may result in a duel or other crime, because, according to the words of our Lord Jesus Christ, ** We are all sinners.” Dr. Brouardel said that in order to resolve the problem it was neces- sary to apply clinical methods. We do not say that a sick man has the typhoid fever because he has the headache, or the diarrhea, or cough, or fever but we say he has typhoid fever because we have grouped his symptoms and according to their existence and method and the time or period of their apparition we determine that he is afflicted with this malady. Therefore to the anatomic stigmas of an individual it is neces- sary to add the corresponding psychologic characters. The delirium of combativeness which is due to a poison produced by belladonna is not a cerebral localization. It is due to a modification brought by the presence of the agent in the blood, of the nutrition of the entire cere- bral mass. M. Ferri declared crime to be a phenomenon extremely complex. It was a sort of polyhedron of which each person saw but a special] side. The different views sustained to-day are equally true and yet equally incomplete. M. Lombroso, said he, brings to light the bio- logic side of crime; Drill and Manouvrier showed the social; Pugliese the legal view; Tarde presented the physiological side, and Moleschott and Dr. Brouardel declared crime to be a phenomenon at once biologic and social. M. Lacassagne said in the first Congress at Rome that the criminal was a microbe which propagates only in a certain condition. Without doubt the conditions and the surroundings make the criminal, but like the bouillon without microbes within it, the surroundings with- out crimes are powerless to bring forth the criminal. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 625 As the bouillon is complementary to and as necessary as the microbe, so the biologic defects and the favorable social surroundings are the fundamental aspects of criminality. Question II.—Do criminals present any peculiar anatomic characters? If so, how can we discover them ? Dr. Manouvrier said that, in order to study the anatomy of criminals, it is necessary to consider their physiological elements, and to divide and subdivide those elements in the attempt to attach one or more to each specitic crime or series of crime. It is necessary first to discover a method by which it can be determined whether criminals differ anatomically from honest men, and at the same time whether criminals differ from each other, and wherein. AS Soon aS one can recognize certain special anatomic char- acters as more frequent or more pronounced among criminals or among such and such category of criminals, one will thea be in the right path to make an analysis of the subject. This is called to-day, in a vague and indefinite manner, the tendency to crime, or the tendency to par- ticular crimes. These tendencies ought to be resolved into their true physiologic elements, corresponding to certain elementary anatomic characters. But the problem is complicated by the intervention of sociologic elements, so that one becomes lost in a labyrinth of specu- lation. If one supports the theory that criminals are born, it is but a return to that ancient but now exploded science of phrenology, which from an examination of the head, and so of the brain, the expert could determine from the relative size and value of what he called organs, the virtuous or the vicious character of the individual, which in particular cases was called the tendency to crime. Dr. Manouvrier insisted that this theory was completely exploded, that these charac- teristics were not confined to criminals nor to criminal classes, for all the anatomic distinctions and psychologic characteristics quoted by Signor Lombroso were to be found among honest men as well as among criminals. And he argued that it was not sufficient that you should find a greater proportion of them among criminals than among honest men. If Lambroso’s theory, that the man was born a criminal, was to be taken as the rule, then it must be universal, and that men thus born inevitably committed crime. If it be the rule then it must over- ate in all cases. That it did not so operate proved that it was not the rule, aud therefore he concluded the proposition of anatomic character- istics peculiar to criminals did not exist. Manouvrier asked had any one seen an anatomic character which would serve to characterize exclusively the criminals of any certain category, such as robbers, thieves, assassins, burglars, ete. No an- thropologist believes in the existence of such a character. ‘There are many epileptics, drunkards, imbeciles, degenerates, and inferiors of all sorts who have never committed a crime; their action has been such as that they stand fair to the community, and they have a right to be classed with honest men; no one has a right to class them with crimi- H. Mis. 129 40 626 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. nals. If some of them have been criminals, who can say that they would not have been honest if subjected in early life to favorable edu- cation and sociologic influences? But, on the contrary, who can say what may not become of the man who has a sound mind in a sound body if he be subjected to the continued pressure of adverse sociologic surroundings. Take as a single illustration the feeble cranium capac- ity which is not without certain relation to feebleness of mind. The feebleness of mind may make its owner commit crime under cer- tain deplorable circumstances, but at the same time this may render him more inoffensive under other circumstances. His unfortunate ana- tomic character may itself conspire to make him more peaceable, hon- est, and virtuous. In any event it would be hard to affirm that there was a greater proportion of feeble-minded men among honest men than among dishonest. And as with feeble-mindedness, so with the other anatomic criminal characteristics. Some one has used the phrase “all other things being equal,” a man with such and such anatomic characteristics would be more likely to become a criminal than a man with other characteristics. Manouvrier assailed this position, saying that it was founded in error. It was because ‘all other things” were not equal that the man became crimi- inai. He asked what were tliese things, and suggested the infantile life, familiarity with vice and crime, the surroundings, the waut of moral train- ing, sociologic conditions; and these, he said, were the conditions which produce the criminals rather than the anatomic characters. He asserted that the man with characteristics the opposite of Lombroso’s criminal, if subjected to the conditions, influences, and temptations which lead to- wards crime, was as likely to become a criminal as was he who possessed the characteristics described by Lombroso. He assailed also the idea of a criminal type who stood for the criminal classes. He declared that, in his opinion, there was no such type. The criminal, the thief, might have a head shaped one way in one case, and another way in another case, with crania or facial anomalies, with deep occipital fassettes, and so forth. But these did not form a type; they were different charac- teristics which had no relation to each other, and which he did not believe had any relation to crime or criminal tendencies. It was as though a man with a long head commits a crime; according to this theory, that forms a criminal type. A man with a broad head commits acrime; that forms a criminal type. And, using different peculiarities as illustrations, where a man with long arms or long legs, or one with short arms or short legs, commits a crime, then each of these become in their turn criminal types. Thus you have as criminal types the long and the short, the round and the square head, the long and the short arm, and the long and the short leg. Therefore he declared his opinion that, properly speaking, there was no such thing as a criminal type. The criminal type was the man who, having submitted to the sociologic influence of crime, having been born and raised therein CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY, 627 and always submitted to them, finds himself in an atmosphere of crime to which he adapts himself, and so commits it in the same kind of way as he breathes the air of the ill-ventilated teuement house or cellar in which he lives. In order to create a type there must be a continuation of characteristics, a recurrence in given directions, which is repeated again and again until it becomes fixed, and the required characteristics are manifested in every normal individual of each generation. This forms a type: without this continued re-appearance of characteristics, no type is formed. Manouvrier declared that no account had been taken of the different kinds of crimes, crimes which were different in their motives, requir. ing different kinds of individuals to commit them, and that a type for one would not stand as a type for the other.. He divided these thus: First: Strange crimes, those inexplicable to the normal man, such as were committed by the insane, by the epileptic, idiots, and the de- lirious. This ground belongs to pathology and to teratology. Second: Crimes committed under the influence of passing troubles or delirium, such as anger, drunkenness, jealousy, fear, ete. It is nee- essary to distinguish in these criminais thus deranged whether they be habitual or accidental; that is to say, the irascible, the habitual drunkard, the insanely jealous, ete. Third: The crimes accomplished in cold blood, after a certain fash- ion—deliberate, intentional, with malice aforethought; and he asserted that it was to the latter class and to that alone the investigations of this congress should be confined. To the two others it went without say- ing that they might have had predispositions to crime as they had pre- dispositions to the various maladies which influenced them to crime, some of which they could possibly avoid, others of which they possibly could not. In these cases it was the malady that caused the crimes, for which it was responsible, and that the crime in these categories was not the deliberate act or intent of the criminal. The distinction between the normal and the pathological state, based on a physiological analysis, is indispensable in the study of this sub- ject. But to do this satisfactorily, how great the difficulty? If this be difficult, how impossible to classify properly the doubtful and inter- mediate cases? Without these doubtful and intermediate cases being fully classified we will have naught but physiological disorder. It is necessary also to distinguish physiologically and anatomically between the normal and the abnormal state (this of the same persons?). Physi- ologically it is abnormal to murder or to rob without motive, or at least without other motive than the mere pleasure, whether it be the gratification to the criminal or the pleasure he may receive to see an- other suffer. But one must be an optimist to believe that it is abnor- mal to covet the property of another, and so coveting to seek to appropriate it. It is idle not to recognize, in addition to the imperfec- tions of human nature, the pernicious influence that is exercised by 628 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. the evil education, the evil examples, the natural or factitious needs, the seductive occasions, the improper liasons, the repugnance to labor, the pleasures of idleness, the apparently natural willingness to cat the bread and enjoy the fruits of another’s labor, or the satisfaction of a former escapade which brought profit, and went unpunished; and, in a word, it is useless to refuse to recognize the thousand different socio- logic conditions which may serve to form a million of combinations, any of which may lead towards crime. With what care is one not obliged to guard the child and the young person from the hardening effect of evil influences or from the corruption of his childish innocence and innate honesty and virtue by the persuasions and example of evil associates. Without doubt theft appears execrable, while murder is horrible, to those young persons who, thanks to a careful education or the precepts of a good mother, or the influences of a Christian family and surround- ings, have acquired the habits and situation of honest people; and, nevertheless, one can easily imagine a combination of circumstances, an acquaintance with vice and crime, by which such an individual has or may become a criminal. Vice is a monster of such hideous mien, That to be hated needs but to be seen ; Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, We first endure, then pity, then embrace. And there are all sorts of crimes, and that which might be no tempta- tion in one case might be overpowering in another. With all these difficulties is it not impossible by any system of classification to draw the line between a normal and an abnormal physiologic state, which will separate the criminal classes from the honest men ? We have still to consider that there are many physiologic pecul- iarities which become good or bad qualities according to the circum- stances, and these circumstances are simply the surroundings, the envi- ronment. An amorous temperament might be highly appreciated and complimented in one case, and yet become extremely dangerous in another. The audacity and courage which might be a source of pride in the soldier, would become execrable on the part of a robber. An excellent salesman, the successful drummer, the best newspaper re- porter, might, with a change of circumstances, a change in his sur- roundings, his environment, become a most dangerous swindler, or the best mechanic may become a most dangerous bank burglar or counter- feiter; and his eminence in crime is attained because of his apparently natural excellencies, which might have made him, and which went so far towards making him, an honest and successful man. Crime is, therefore, not necessarily bound to physiologic peculiarities, nor isit produced by abnormal or disadvantageous anatomic characters. It must be remembered that the man, healthy and normal though he be, is not a man without faults or without tendency to vice. To seek CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 629 for this is to seek for the impossible. All men, however honest or vir- tuous, will be found to have some defect or some vice, otherwise they would be perfection, which is not to be expected of human nature. A defect or a vice, whether anatomic or physiologic, does not become an anomaly simply because one finds it in a criminal. Anatomically the same remark is to be made; we do not consider as abnormal or in- ferior every man who is not perfect. Dr. Manouvrier proceeded to examine the results of anatomic re- searches made, up to the present time, upon criminals. No one has yet accomplished or discovered an anatomic character by which the criminal can be classified into categories, like robbers, swin- dlers, burglars, ete. The most one can doin investigating the tendency to crime by the examination of the criminal himself is to seek for the specific characteristics, but even these, if found, do not prove that they are specifically criminal or special to’ criminals. All that can be done in this direction, and it is quite another question from the former, is to discover if the criminals examined present cer- tain abnormal anatomic characters more frequent and in a higher de- gree than honest men. To answer either affirmatively or negatively as to the whole aggregate, or even to the average, would be a hardy and even dangerous undertaking. There are honest men who are af- fected in all the unfortunate and much to be regretted ways suggested by Signor Lombroso—epilepties, imbeciles, degenerates, and even the vicious and inferiors of all sorts; while those who have been classed as honest men are capable of becoming criminals ot the darkest dye, and have no more morality or virtue than the most incorrigible robber and thief. Dr. Manouvrier referred again to the Saying, “All other things being equal,” the abnormal, the inferior, etc., were more likely to become criminals, ete., “ but” he demanded, “is it certain that all things are equal for the criminal?” It is in vain that we have remarked the small number of individuals becoming criminals out of each hundred persons subjected to these defective sociologic circumstances. The conditions and circumstances which are so difficult. to weigh, and above all the infinitely variable combinations, whether taken by themselves or by their complex tendencies, have a different effect upon each individual. Among a hundred individuals thus environed, is it not possible to be- lieve that the ten or twenty who become criminals are those which have been subjected to the combinations, sociologic and ph ysio-sociologic, the most evil, the most powerful, and the most effective in leading them in the wrong path? It is therefore wiser to permit the facts to decide each case for itself. The documents published are numerous, but they are not yet suffi- cient to convince an incredulous anthropologist who finds himself op- posed to either view, and who proposes to examine them critically. Occasionally monstrous criminals have been exhibited, but that does 630 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. not prove that criminals are anatomie monsters, and no more does the fact that some criminals are epileptics prove that all criminals are epileptics, nor that epileptics become criminals. The statistics ob- tained and the averages sought to be established have been based upon insufficient data. The series have not been sufficiently extended, the figures have been obtained by defective processes, the observa- tions have been uncertain and different, and the observers or investi- gators have been novices in many cases, and in others have proceeded upon different lines, if not by different processes, each one of them more uncertain and defective than the other. They have cited insig- nificant differences which they say exist between honest men and criminals, but which differences may be found in equal proportion among honest men, if they were so examined, and might also be found between criminals. They have compared the series of criminals with series of soldiers; that is to say, with men who are chosen for their exemption from infirmities or deformities, and have calculated the relative frequency of these deformities in the two series, or in the series of the two classes without regard to the difference in their con- dition. They have cited cranial peculiarities observed by different persons operating in different methods and by different rules, with different standards. And from all these discordant and inharmonious elements they have sought to establish averages in the respective classes whether of criminals or of honest men. In spite of all this incoherence and erroneous and defective process, whether of gathering facts and obtaining evidence, or of ratiocination, they have obtained statistics, which, aided slightly by preconceived opinion, have almost persuaded some of our wisest and best men that the criminal classes present in their average a proportion of abnormal or inferior characters greater than those belonging to the classes of honest men. The number of these abnormal or inferior characters are multiplying themselves day by day in the estimation of these wise mep, and this is being pushed to such extremes as that soon the man who is believed to be honest will find himself possessing a half dozen of these criminal characteristics. Thus the system is in danger of breaking down of its own weight. We might with propriety ask, what constitutes a criminal type? If, in making this examination of criminals, one unites the characters abnormal, pathologic or inferior, taken in an examination of say a thousand criminals, without considering and arranging upon the other side the characters found therein which are incompatible with each other, it will be apparent that the investigation will be without value and the conclusion based thereon erroneous. One eriminal is plagio- cephalic, another has long arms, another a vermien fossette, ete. But it is not any one of these that forms a type whether criminal or other- wise. In order to form a type one should unite the common characters, eli- — CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 631 minating the anomalous and pathologic manifestations. In order to obtain an abnormal type, it is necessary to choose for each species of anomalies or alteration an individual in which this anomaly or altera- tion is well characterized, and then there will be as many types as there are sorts of anomalies or alterations. We therefore can not have a type criminal any more than we can have atype of human monsters. In order to characterize criminals in general, it is necessary to ob- tain the averages, which can be compared with the averages of other individuals of the same race, the same sex, the same social class, ete. These latter individuals must themselves be the average of their respec- tive race, sex, or class, and their averages thus taken should become the type or standard. Honest or virtuous men (a category not less vague than that of criminals) will then be without doubt the metatypic. But these have not yet been studied nor their type settled. Nevertheless it is these metatypes that we should compare anatomically with the criminals if we would make comparison between the anatomic characters of the two classes. Who form this class of honest and virtuous men that furnish the standard by which the criminal classes are to be judged? They may be idle, vicious, evil disposed, imbecile, passionate, brutal, and all that, if they have but escaped being declared by the law to be criminals. In this condition of affairs is it possible that any one can determine anatomically, or physiologically, or psycho-sociologically what physical characteristics form a criminal type of man? What are the results? This is a question to be resolved by anatomic anthropology, of which the comparative anatomy of criminals is no more than one chapter. The anatomic study of criminals in ordér to become of value has need to be extended to a greater area and in greater detail even than has been here indicated. There was, of course, a large discussion among the members of the congress over this question. Nearly every one had a different idea concerning it. Professor Lombroso responded to Dr. Manouvrier. He demanded how he would distinguish the criminals. The criminals of occasion has presented abnormal characters. It was not the occasion that made the criminal, but it was the occasion which was presented to an individual predisposed to commit the crime. It has been objected that the woman criminal had no anatomic characteristics, but they who made that objection forgot that prostitution was the form of the feminine crimi- nality. He believed somewhat in the idea emitted by Madame Clemence-Royer on the relation between crime and hybridity, or mix- ture of races, one being inferior. If the crime is not an anomaly, what is it? Is ita virtue? He agreed with Dr. Manouvrier that the cra- nial capacity is not a characteristic of criminality. Bearing upon the question of atavism he stated that he had found among criminals a great number or proportion of hernia. This was a regressive char- 652 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. acter. The role of ptomaines in criminal manifestations appeared to him certain. M. Tarde responded to Lombreso apropos of the criminal woman. He maintained that an honest woman presented the characteristics ascribed to the criminal woman as described by the Italian school, and nevertheless, woman is less criminal, or takes to crime less than man. Prostitution is the occasion and not the offense. He declared there were no anatomic characters proper or peculiar to the criminal, and, nevertheless, there were organic and physiologic predispositions to crime. The function made the organ, and the nerve would model the bone; as the river determines the valley, so the crime makes the crimi- nal. If in criminal anthropology one can come to show the localization of criminal characteristics, as has done Broca for the articulate language, the base of the scientific edifice might be considered established. M. Moleschott and Dr. Brouardel complimented these gentlemen upon the profoundness of their studies. The latter considered the search for the criminal anomaly in physical or anatomical character- istics as illusory. He could admit the malformations of the pavillion of the ear reported by Morel, the occipital fossette and the characters of the same kind, but these were no cause of criminality in themselves, but only simple indexes of an abnormal development of which the con- sequences could be many. The epileptics, the insane, show the presence of ptomaines in their urine. He recalled the observations of an epilep- tic woman in bis service. Her urine contained a convulsive ptomaine, which injected into a frog produced the same physiologic effects as strychnine. The ptomanic products or the leucomanic toxique found in the veins of the insane and the melancholy result from troubles in general nutrition. Are they cause or are they effect? The question demands to be studied. Dr. Brouardel responded to M. Tarde that if the function made the organ, it could only do so in the presence of muscular fiber. A woman without any calf to her leg could never become a dancer. M. Bajenoff, director of the Asylum of Riazanne, Russia, could not accept everything he had found in the works of Lombroso and his col- leagues, but his and their methods seemed to be scientific. His own studies cephalometric had shown to him that honest men had a larger frontal development, while the criminals were better developed in the parietal and occipital portions of their brain or skull. Baron Garofalo said that crime might be considered always the result of an organic anomaly. In speaking of crimes we should con- sider only those which were declared so by the publie conscience and not always those declared so by the law. Those, for instance, of great cruelty or extraordinary improbity. But one could perceive that criminals always manifested moral anomalies and physical anomalies that were found less frequently in honest men. Lombroso insisted upon his fundamental distinction between the CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 633 criminal born and the criminal of occasion. But he conceded that the existence of criminal anatomic characteristics might be limited or even absent in the latter class. He declares woman to be a criminal of occasion, except with prostitution, wherein she represented the born criminal. But in the criminal born he insisted upon the existence of physical signs which he declared to be undeniable, and that while their number and importance vary from one individual to another, yet when considered together, had a value and signification ‘‘ absolument incon- testable.” While he would not deny the influences sociologic, mesologic, geographic, and orographic, yet the effect of these influences was only to intensify the criminal characteristics which existed anatomically and fundamentally. Thus it will be seen that in the discussion between these two representatives of the different schools, in spite of the appar- ent diversity of their opinion they came nearly together by an exchange of partial and reciprocal concession. Yet this harmony was more ap- parent than real, for in the subsequent discussions of the Congress, whenever anything was said favoring the existence of a criminal type, it immediately precipitated a return to the former discussion. In the discussion of the seventh question the whole argument was gone over again. The skull of Charlotte Corday, which belonged, with all guaranty of authenticity, to the collection of Prince Roland Bona- parte, was presented as an illustration of a born criminal because of the depth of the occipital fossettes. This immediately brought out Lombroso, who returned to the attack with all his ardor and power, and after him Benedikt, of Vienna, Garofalo, Ferri, Brouardel, and at last, M. Herbette. The latter, with Dr. Brouardel, seemed to be the most conservative. They presented, each of them, in calm and consid- erate but elegant language, the necessity for carefui study and profound investigation. Festina lenta was their motto. While they recom- mended the investigation and study to be made with ardor, and pushed to the extreme, they counseled that the conclusions should not be made hastily, changes should not be made brusquely, opinions not be an- nounced dogmatically, or by going too rapidly, this science might com- promise its force, its authority, or its prestige. The importance of this question or the value of its discussions in this congress cau not be overestimated, for while the substance may have been argued pro and. con in years past, yet here for almost the first time the scientific men of the world were assembled in an international congress for its discussion, with full opportunity for preparation, and with the knowledge that they were here to be brought face to face with their opponents or those who held different opinions from themselves, and here they were to appear with what arguments, reasons, statistics they might have in defense of the position which they claimed to be right. Accordingly as this question shall be decided, so should there be a change in the fabric of our criminal jurisprudence. If men are born criminals then they are not to be punished as they would be if 634 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. otherwise. If, on the other hand, they are educated to be criminals, then ought our system of education to be seriously and radically changed. I repeat my impression of the profound importance of this science, Question ITI,—Establishment of regular rules for investigating the occupants of our prisons and insane asylums by means of anthropom- etry, or of psychology, by Dr. Sciammana of Rome, reporter. The study of the criminal had its origin in the purest love for science and the greatest desire to obtain the truth. Perhaps those who com- mence to gather the history of celebrated criminals, to trace their organ- ‘isms, to study their special physical conditions, the environments in which they have lived, or to search for the idea or theory that possessed them at the moment of their crime, or the cause which pushed them to it, did it for naught but scientific curiosity. But in the study of erim- inal anthropology in these latter days these things have changed, and bow, thanks to the civilization of our epoch, its truth is sought for its own sake as well as for the practical benefits which may follow. Every one has recognized the practical importance of the study of criminal an- thropology. ‘There are, nevertheless, scientists who deny the fecundity of the researches and who believe that crimes are nothing but the re- sult of the free will of the criminal, and that the influence which pushes him to commit the crime had its origin in the same free but evil and wicked will. But we are not obliged to occupy ourselves with these scientists, however wise they may be, because they have confined their investigations only to the field of theory and have never come down to test of investigation by means of experiments. Our scientific academies, our medical congress, the administration of the prisons, are all now occupying themselves over the questions, what are the individual characteristics of criminals, whether anatomic, psy- chologic, physiologic or sociologic? And in studying these questions they are moved by the highest order of both charity and pride. They are moved to discover the most rational and satisfactory method for the prevention of crime and the reformation of criminals. Various scientific societies and bodies have taken steps in this direction. The Society of Anthropology of Brussels organized a commission charged to study the characters of professional criminals, and in the bulletins of that society the members published their investigations on the criminals confined at the prisons at Louvain. In 1885 the Medical Congress at Antwerp following a communication made by Dr. Semal on the relations of criminality and insanity, voted unanimously to continue these studies, to extend the commission to in- clude the magistrates who tried the criminals, the administrators of the penitentiary and the medical profession. The International Medical Congress of Barcelona recognized the im- portance of criminal anthropology and declared that the scientific CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 635 inquests were now sufficiently advanced to demand their practical ap- plication. The scientist who desires seriously to study the psychology of a crim- inal is fairly well received by the prison authorities in all civilized coun- tries, and a good opportunity is given him for study, whether it shall be during the life of the criminals or upon their bodies after death. In these conditions it is our duty, as we find ourselves representing one of the principal sciences in the world, to report, each one, to this Congress of Criminal Anthropology, what he has done, what he can do in his own country, and thus to gather and unite the largest possible number of discovered and verified facts. This congress, representing all countries, may thus agree upon certain facts as the result of a once separate but now united series, and a law be thus established. That law it is our duty to formulate and proclaim. In 1884, in Italy, when the general direction of prisons was con- fided to M. Beltrani-Scalia, one of our most illustrious savants, the Government ordained the autopsy of all criminals who die in the prison of the kingdom. It was thus intended to gather from the cadavers of criminals, a series of anatomic and physiologic facts, by which their history relative to crime, aided by the documents of the prison, could be made known. Dr. Sciammana said he had been charged to formulate a series of questions, to which all the doctors of the prisons of the kingdoms would respond, relative to the exterior examination of the cadavers, but not including anthropometric researches. To respond conscientiously to the questions by doctors who were entirely unused to them and whose time was already engaged, required much labor and the consumption of much time, and it was concluded by them that the work was too heavy. Therefore, the scheme has not succeeded as well as was ex- pected, and we have to renounce hope for the present of obtaining this scientific material for studies in criminology. To obviate the difficulty, a new formula of questions has been prepared, which while it has reduced somewhat our scientific information, has also so far reduced the labor of answering them, as that the result is even more satisfactory than before. But there is something to which, in relation to the statistics of crime, the attention of the congress is particularly called. It is not difficult to report all the information coneerning the crimes found in the records made by the magistrates or courts who tried the prisoners and the attorney-general who prosecuted them. Also such notes as have been made while the criminals were in prison. But these things are of small utility if there is not also gathered the more precious ma- terial concerning the personality of the criminal, the material psycho- logic, anthropologic, teratologic and anatomo-pathologic, which should be studied by competent medical authorities. To accomplish this it is necessary to follow a single method of study and investigation by which the facts gathered can be compared as though they were done by the 636 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. same person. Following this system, those who study the materials of criminology will be able to note the most valuable observations and pursue researches which they believe to be the most profitable. It is one of the important works of this congress, or of its suecessors, to form- ulate a code of observation and to establish the common means of record- ing the results. These researches, made for the purpose of establishing a system of comparative international statistics, ought to be made both upon the criminal while living and upon his cadaver when dead. The first should be an investigation as to the intellectual capacity of the individual, the modes and manifestations of his affections and moral sense, and the de.- gree of his vital energy and will power. This psychologic investiga- tion oxrght to be preceded by an anamnestic interrogation of the individ- ual or by an examination of the criminal process against him. Every investigation should include the study of his heredity and neuro-pathol- ogy. These anthropologic and clinical researches should be made be- fore the criminal has suffered a prolonged imprisonment; if not, his peculiarities or characteristics may be effected thereby. The second of the researches should be upon the cadaver, as to its conditions anthropologie and pathologic, so that it can be determined whether the alterations are due to the pre-eminence of morbid tenden- cies or whether they are the result of an abnormal development due to some other cause. These researches should be made both upon the criminal and the insane, and one ean thus see the links which form the psycho-pathologic chain of human life, at one end of which we may find insanity and at the other criminality. Many insane asylums are confided to the care of zealous savants who make these studies and note the results. Attention is called to the exceptional importance of these researches that can be made in the houses of correction, not alone in the interest of science, but that they can serve as a complement to the observations which one may make later upon the same individual if found in the prison. They also may serve as a guide for the treatment and reformation of those who are in the house of correction. But it is necessary to have a special accord among the savants and the medical authorities of the prisons, insane asylums, and houses of correction so that one can obtain the same researches and results throughout this, whether among the living or upon the cadavers. It is therefore proposed that a commission should be charged to formulate the questions and to establish what might be called a national code of researches, to which it is hoped all nations will accord their favor and adopt. Question IV.—The conditions determinative of crime and their rela- tive value. M. Ferri, professor of penal law in the university at Rome and deputy of the Italian Parliament, was the reporter. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 637 The natural genesis of crime obeys a fundamental law by which all crime is only the result of the simultaneous or indivisible concurrence of the conditions of the individual, whether they be biologic or of the surroundings where the individual was born, lived, and acted. Every crime, no matter who its author, no matter under what cir- cumstances committed, can be explained in one of two ways—either as the act or fiat of the individual’s free will or as the natural effect of natural causes. The first of these explanations being without scientific value, it is impossible to explain scientifically a crime (like every other action, human or animal) if it is not considered as the product of an or- ganic constitution or psychic personality which is called upon to act under certain conditions, either of physical or social surroundings. It is therefore inexact to affirm that the school of criminal positivists can reduce crime to a phenomenon purely and exclusively anthropologie, for, on the contrary, that school has always maintained from its be- ginning that crime is the effect of multifarious conditions, anthro- pological, physical, and social, and that these operate together and may determine the crime by an action simultaneous and inseparable; and if the researches into the biologic conditions are more abundant or more apparent because of their novelty, that does not contradict the influence of the sociologic condition apon crime. We are to consider on this occasion the relative value of these three orders of condition in the natural determination to the commission of crime. A response can not be given absolutely or categorically. Be- sides, the question is frequently misunderstood and misstated. Those who think that crime is nothing but a phenomenon, purely and exelu- sively social, without the concurrence in its determination by the criminal of his organic and psychic anomalies, misunderstand the uni- versal union of natural forces and forget that one can not limit in an absolute fashion the infinity of causes, which far or near, direct or indirect, may combine or conspire to produce every phenomenon. This position is aS erroneous as to say that the life of a mammal is the effect of the action of a single organ, whether lungs, heart, or stomach, or to say that it is maintained alone by food or drink or the oxygen of the atmosphere, and that each of these produces the entire effect without the aid of the other. If crime be the exclusive product of the social surrounding, how is one to explain the fact known to us every day of our lives, that in the same social status and under equal circumstances of misery, poverty, and ignorance, out of each one hundred individvals sixty are not criminal, commit no crime, and out of the remaining forty, five prefer suicide to crime, five become insane, five become beggars or vagabonds, and only twenty-five out of the hundred become criminals; and among the latter the crimes com- mitted differ in variety,—from those the most bloodthirsty, frightful, and inexcusable, to those which are the mildest misdemeanor, and for which the prisoner may be discharged with only a reprimand. The 638 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. secondary differences in social conditions which may be found even among the members of the same family are evidently not sufficient in themselves to explain the enormous differences of these resulting actions. Itis necessary, therefore, to consider this question in a relative sense and to discover which of the three orders of natural causes of crime has the greatest influence in the determination to the commission thereof. A general or categoric answer can not be given, for the relative influ- ence of the anthropological, physical, and social conditions, vary with each criminal action according to the psychologic and social characters of the individual. When we consider, for example, the three classes of crimes, those against persons, those against property, those against morality and virtue, it is evident that each order of the determining conditions, and, above all, the biologic conditions and the social conditions, have an in- fluence altogether different in the determination to the crimes of mur- der, robbery, or violation. And this can be repeated for all categories of crime. The undeniable influence of social condition, and above all—economic condition in the determination to rob or steal, has much less effect in the determination to murder or violation. And in each category of crimes the influence of the determining conditions is muen accord- ing to the special forms of criminality. Certain classes of murders (those of occasion) are evidently the effect of social conditions, as, for instance, alcoholism, gambling, public opinion, ete., while cer- tain other murders are the effect of the ferocity or the moral insensi- bility of the criminal, or else arising from the psycho-pathologie con- dition which corresponds to organic abnormal conditions. And it is the same with certain offenses against good morals which are in a great part the effeet of a social condition which condemns some communities to live together in habitations more as herds of wild beasts than as human beings, with a brutal promiscuity of sexes and ages, parents, chiidren, strangers, boys, girls, etc., which will have the effect to pre- vent every normal sentiment of virtue or modesty and to efface any such sentiment already formed. Other crimes of the same nature, but more brutal, are derived from the biologic conditions of the criminal, whether they be the result of a sexual psychopathy or a biologic anomaly. While simple theft or larceny may be somewhat the effect of social or economic conditions, yet these influences have but slight effeet in comparison with the im- pulsion given by the individual constitution, whether organic or psychic, in higher crimes, as robbery with violence, or in murder with intent to rob or steal, or other crimes committed in cold blood. The same observation can be applied to the conditions of the phys- ical surroundings, for example, the augmentation in the number of crimes against property committed during the cold or winter months, CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 639 while on the other hand the augmentation of crimes against the person, whether those of blood or against morality, during the warm or summer months. The reason for these things is that we find the individuals affected, to be in that biologic condition wherein they have the least resistance against these evil influences. The limits of this paper do not permit the proofs, whether anthro- pologic, psychologic, or statistic, of these conclusions, but these are only the synthesis of humerous studies and positive investigation made upon the tendency or inducement to crime, by observing the crimi- nals and the causes which affect them. It has been said that for certain crimes and criminals the largest influence ought to be recog- nized or accorded to the physio-psychic conditions of the individual, which may go from the anthropologic anomaly, scarcely recognizable, to the pathologic state, the most accentuated, yet this does not exclude the possible fact that crime may be a consequence of social con- dition; that the physio-psychic anomalies of the individual are nothing but the effect of a deleterious*social environment which condemns those which it surrounds to an organic and psychic degeneration. This ob- jection might be good when taken in a relative sense, but is without foundation if one seeks to give it an absolute value. First, it is necessary to remember that cause and effect are them- selves only relative, for each effect is in its turn a cause and vice versa ; so that if misery, poverty, degradation, etc., whether material or moral, is a cause of degeneration, the degeneration becomes in its turn a cause of the misery, poverty, and degradation. And so the discussion be- comes metaphysical. Investigators into the relations of crime in differ- ent countries (criminal geographers) have claimed a great value for their statistics when they have given the quality of the crime and the number of the criminals in various countries or provinces, and sought to compare one with the other. Instead of these being the differences in biologic condition, as of race; or of physical conditions, as of climate, etc.; they may be governed largely by social or economic conditions ; that is, those arising from the differences in agriculture, industry, labor, wages, homes, schools, service in the army, ete. In the absence of any positive verification, the student of this ques- tion may with propriety ask if the social conditions of a given province or country have any real effect upon or relation to its criminality, and whether the social conditions may not be themselves only the effect of the ethnic characters of intelligence, energy, eic., of its inhabitants and the conditions of its climate, soil, ete. But with more precision one can also aver, even outside the conditions profoundly pathologic, that there are a great number of cases in which the bio-psychic anomalies of the criminals may be the effect of an envi- ronment which is physically and morally mephitic. In each family of several children, in spite of the same surroundings and like favorable conditions, with the same methods of instruction and 640 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. education, there will be individuals of differen€ intellectuality, to be remarked from the cradle, as well in the quantity or in the quality of their talent as in their moral and physiologic constitutions. And this phenomenon, although it be evident only in a small number of cases of the most accentuated characteristics, whether normal or ab- normal, does not cease to be true also in the more numerous class of cases of mediocre characteristics. The physical and social conditions may have an influence less patent according as the physio-psychic con- stitution of the individual is stronger and healthier. The practical conclusion of these general observations upon the nat- ural genesis of crime is this: That each crime is the result of indi- vidual physical and social conditions; and because these conditions have an influence preponderating more or less in different crimes or in different forms of criminality, the most sure and certain means that society has or should employ in its defense against or for the preven- tion of crime, is twofold ; and both ought to be employed and developed simultaneously. On the one hand, the amelioration of social condi- tions, which will serve as a natural prevention of crime; on the other hand, the elimination of those biologie conditions which determine crime ; these measures of elimination should be perpetual or temporary, according as their influence on the biologic conditions are permanent and radical, or as they are temporary and changeable. There are, said Ferri, five kinds of criminals, which should be dis- tinguished each from the other and treated accordingly; the born crimi- nal, the insane criminal, the criminal of occasion, of passion, of habitude. To prevent crime the government or society should, on the one hand, ameliorate the social conditions, and, on the other, eliminate from society either partially or entirely those with defective characters, according to the degree of danger and the possibility of cure. M. Alimena declared the essential causes of crime to be the social condition and hereditary transmission. According to him the crim- inal was produced by the same processes as were employed by stock- raisers to rear new races as an improvement of the present races, and adopting the words of Dr. Lacassagne at Rome, “society has no erimi- nals except such as it merits.” Dr. Manouvrier took up the battle. He said they had reduced the importance of the surroundings. If their theory be true that the occa- sion makes the criminal, then society will make a criminal of the man who is the most inoffensive, and an inoffensive man of him who is most disposed to crime: and he argued his side of the question at length, and with vigor and eloquence. M. Tarde said we have the agricultural type of man, the military type, the sailor type, and why should we not have the criminal type? Lom- broso took it up by saying that it was undoubted that we had among the criminals the type of the assassin, the type of the robber and bur- glar, and the type of the thief and swindler. M. Moleschott, senator CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 641 of Italy, mentioned an influence towards crime that had not been no- ticed, to wit, the heredity social influence; that is, the tradition which is instilled into the mind of every child, before he knows the difference between right and wrong, that by which he obtains the rudiments of his knowledge of right and wrong. Whether it be correct or not, it is the child’s standard. He gets it not from any knowledge or theory of justice, but from the tradition of his own neighborhood, as it is taught by his parents and associates, by the people, and as it is believed by them. Dr. Manouvrier responded: The argument of M. Ferri on the pre-dis- posing importance of the anatomic characters proves nothing, because he has taken account of only the general sociologic influences, and not enough of the daily events of infinite details which happen to every man continually from his birth, and while each one of them was of the minimum in itself, yet aggregated made a sociologic surrounding in the life of the man to such extent as to change its form, and make him be- come what he is. The study of criminality among animals proves that education can change him to be contrary to all his hereditary in- stinets, even contrary to his essential anatomic organization. M. Ra- bourdin succeeded in rendering his wolf an honest and respectable animal, so that it would not attack or devour sheep, but would content himself with his regular meals duly served. The regular meal to the wolf played the same role that the daily income does to man, by the grace of which many persons who might easily become criminals pass their days with high heads in society and enjoy the confidence of their neighborhoods with a reputation all their lives of being honest men. He elaborated the necessity of consideration in this matter, not only of the number of the conditions and circumstances which had an influence upon us, but still further the arrangement and position relative to these conditions. The possible combinations became infinite and not to be measured, and the realization of two cases apparently alike, theoretic- ally alike, might be practically unlike, and what became in one indi- vidual entirely possible became in the other entirely impossible. As to his illustration of the wolf, he said that this was introduced to show how difficult it was to educate any animal to disobey his instinets, but still the illustration proved that it could be done. Question V.—The infancy of children in its relation to a predisposi- tion to crime. Dr. Romeo Taverni, professor of the University of Catania, Italy, and Dr. Magnan, director of the insane asylum at Sainte Anne, Paris, reporters. . First part by Dr. Romeo Taverni. The science of anatomy can not alone tell us the genesis of crime in an individual man, and it never will, because the moral lite of humanity, the most simple phenomenon, will carry us to many causes for its explanation, and must be searched for among many sciences, and will never be found in a single cause nor by a single method. The problem is to search the brain of the H. Mis. 129 41 642 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. criminal, and find if there be any anomalies which would authorize the idea of a degradation or physical degeneration predominating among that class of men. This problem remains yet an object of study. The results which have come to us up to the present are not conclusive. Among those who make these studies, some have observed too small a number of cases, and others have occupied themselves solely upon the cranial anomalies without interesting themselves with the anomalies of the brain, or vice versa, and the researches have not always been exempt from influence or conception a priori. They have supposed their task to be to establish imaginary relations between par- ticular dispositions, altogether accidental, of the cerebral convolutions of criminals, and certain normal dispositions of the same convolu- tions among other persons. The observers have been rare who have sought among criminals for the peculiarities which the surface of the cerebral hemispheres present, and their relation with the type of skull corresponding, and whether these things are or not the same which the anatomist has already found to exist among individuals not criminals. Nevertheless, the observation of several scientific anatomists appear to affirm that there does not exist any special type of skull or of brain in criminals, and this invites us to consider whether there exists any nor- mal type of skull or brain of non-criminals, honest men. In the skull and brain of criminals the degenerate characters appear with greater frequency than in those not criminals. But the precise value of this comparative frequency is yet insufficiently determined as well as the manner in which these degenerative characters are proven, so that their full power to cause crime or to create a pre-disposition to crime, does not appear as yet established by any law that can be called invariable. No order of somatic anomaly encountered among crimi- nals possesses by itself any signification of a material cause of the delin- quency nor a physical pre-disposition to delinquency. Taken together they indicate only the existence of, (1) a degeneration, (2) an organism by which their development has been arrested, or (5) the return of a regressive atavism. 3ut the physical degradation which is recognized by every fact can not, according to our experience, be found separated from a moral deg- radation. Observation has taught us that the brain sous-micro-cephalic is perhaps not apt in its function to conceive principles of which the presence in the understanding is a force necessary to the existence of moral life. So that we have learned that a human skull which recalls by its structure the animal form which it resembles, approaches more to the ancestral form than another in which the archaic forms have been effaced. The moral degradation which physical degradation teaches, belongs exclusively to the general operation of the moral life. We do not pos- sess sufficient experimental knowledge of the anatomic structure of any individual to enable us to say, from this, that he had any determin- ing tendency towards crime, nor thatit hadin any way a bearing upon CRIMINAL ANTITROPOLOGY. 643 his moral sense. There is no scientific method by which the relation- ship between his physical structure and his moral sense can be deter- mined, whether the study be made during his life or by autopsy. (2) The first principle ot the science of criminal anthropology, as taught in modern times, is to study the criminal rather than the crime. We have lived among criminals in the prisons of several of the cities as much of the time as was possible. During several years we have kept anamnestic observations and have recorded everything which had relation to the past life of the criminal; but we are not occupied solely in determining, according to the physiognomy of their crime, whether there is any such thing as criminals by instinct. We have never omit- ted an occasion to interrogate the criminal concerning his parents, his tutors, his friends, his master, his nurses, doctor, all that could give testimony concerning the infancy and youth of our criminals. One hundred and twenty-three of these numerous anamnestic tables have been recorded and give an abundance, an exactitude, a minutia of historic information of such nature as to cause us truly to believe that future researches upon this point can do no more. The tables are of persons condemned for those grave crimes which have been effected by destructive means, wheth er against the person or of property, or one or both. The sex, age, origin, etat civil, profession, the economic condition, religion, intellectual culture of criminals have all been investigated and recorded. There is much variation according to our observation, but we have considered all descriptions and classes of these criminals and have formulated this interesting scientific conclusion: That there is an inaptitude for education in infancy that is evidence of a natural pre-disposition to crime. We have met with cases and occasions where we could base a veritable scientific prognosis which has confirmed the truth of this experimental doctrine. A methodical investigation has shown to us seventeen children hav- ing this inaptitude for education, that we have foreseen with assur- ance they‘would become criminals. And they became criminals con- trary to the expectation and belief of a number of savants who were obstinate in their opinion that these infants were only backward in their education, and who prophesied that they would succeed if their pedagogy was appropriate. In order to resolve the grand question as to the natural predisposition to crime, the science of criminology ought to demand critical experience of the pedagogic biology. We deeply regret that the general bureau of criminal statistics can not give official information in auswer to the two questions: How many children and young people already gathered in the houses of correction become criminal adults? And its complement: How many condemned adults had in their youth been placed in houses of correction ? (3) Our modern civilization has so improved, that it exceeds the nat- ural capacity of many individuals who live in our midst. Modern civ- ilization represents the last and final effort of the individuals who are 644 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. the best equipped. Many persons who now might be regarded as more or less criminal would have been esteemed honest if they had been destined to live in the primitive condition of man at the origin of civil- ization, or, at least, in the civilization of ancient times when our ances- tors formed the barbaric races of Europe. Each political government is a vast organism for the social education of all its citizens. Never- theless there are persons who, by virtue of an instinctive and invin- cible opposition, reject the possibility of modification by the adapting eflicacy of political government. Out of this opposition grows instinet ive criminality. Because of it, criminals perform their actions without being conscious of evil. Giving free course to their instincts, they have only the consciousness of the good of their own individuality. Their selfishness seeks only their own good, and if they are not to be charged with the evil which their acts cause, no more are they entitled to credit for the good. The family is a small copy of society. The historic evolution of the family is that of society in general. There is a law which gives the highest importance to the good order of gen- eral society. There is also another law, only second to this, the good order of the family. The law of general society is the same in a greater sense as is the law of the family. The law of good order in the family is intended for the adaptation of the individual to the social law. It is easy to recognize by observation and experiment that there are some individuals, however small the number, who present an insensible, instinctive, and obstinate resistance to the law of the family. This repugnance to family government is sometimes revealed during their infaney. These are the individuals who rebel against edu- cation and good order, whether of the family or of the State. The ini- tial adaptation of these individuals to the social law, on which are to be found all ulterior adaptations to law and order, are in a great part achieved by these individuals during their infancy. We ask, in what consists this opposition of the individual, the student, the infant, to the good order, whether of the family or society? How is it explained ? It appears to consist in the physical impossibility of the individual to bring into subjection certain of his nervous centers, and his inability to require them to accommodate themselves in their structure so that they can execute with facility all those molecular movements on which depend the acts of obedience to the domestic law, whether of the family or of society. These should be repeated and executed with so little friction as to become habitual, and they can be taught by the ordi- nary pedagogic process. This want of power in the nervous center brings about in the young person a default in the impressions neces- sary, by which the moral life of the individual is made to correspond to that of society. As a consequence of this default all idealization which leads to this end, is absent in the student without possible substitu- tion, nor can he effect it by any spontaneous appreciation of his intel- ligence. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 645 The sentiments of these individuals not only are closed against every civilizing action which educative objects commonly exercise, but the presence of these civilizing influences in the world, and in society or in the family, excites their opposition. They repulse with great efforts their educators and teachers when they would direct them toward their moral teaching, the object of the educators being to prevent this development of antagonism to the laws of society. The efforts even of the educators and teachers to prevent this opposition itself begets an opposition and increases the antagonism of the scholar. The inaptitude for education on the part of the individual arises because of a natural and irremediable defect or a physiologic inaptitude to the social laws of the family that one observes among some children, sometimes without regard to their life or surroundings, education, or example. This constitutes their pre- disposition to crime, and thus has grown up the saying used by many people without knowing that it is true science, sometimes expressed concerning an incorrigible infant, ‘Ce fils est né pour la guillotine,” ‘* He was born to be hung.” Dr. Magnan, the head of the insane asylum at Sainte-Anne, Paris, was a joint reporter with Monsieur Taverni upon the foregoing ques- tion. Dr. Magnan differed largely from Taverni. He said the question as thus presented seems to admit as an accepted fact an infantile pre- disposition to crime. That, he said, is an assertion maintained by many criminalists, but one to which he refused his adhesion. He said that the opinion that attributes to the most of the criminals an ancestral origin, which considers the criminal born and raised as a savage sur- viving our present actual civilization, which contends that the infant criminality is only a prolonged example of savagery ;—this opinion, he says, has always brought forth contradictions, and he cites certain recent publications : Tarde, ‘La criminalité comparée,” Paris, 1886. Topinard, ‘“ L’an- thropologie criminelle—Revue @anthropologie, No. 6,” November, 1887. Ch. Féré, *‘ Dégenérescence et criminalite,” Paris, 1888. H. Joly, ‘‘ Le crime, Etude sociale,” Paris, 1888. Continuing his discussion concerning this supposed pre-disposition to crime, he asked, “Can any one dare to say that there are primordial forms of crime and that they, with the germs of crime, are natural attri- butes; in other terms, that the infant is naturally disposed to crime and that the criminal is a man deprived of moral sense?” We think this to be an erroneous determination of observed phenomena. At the moment of birth and for some days after, the infant has noth- ing more than a vegetative life. It cama into the world where it has to live finding itself surrounded by elements which conflict with its organ- ism and provoke re-action. These are only the instinctive expressions of its emotions. All acts of the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and other organs are a reflex order and do not demand the intervention of either mind or brain; mere life is sufficient for their accomplishment 646 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. But soon the acquisitions of the new being begin, and the furctions of the brain increase. The door opens to an exterior world; the sight, the hearing, the taste, the smell, the sensations within the periphery of the body permits relations more intimate and complete with the outside world. These new operations bring into play that region in which experimental physiology and pathological anatomy have demonstrated reside the brain centers perceptive and sensitive. This is the organic substratum of our remembrances. In these differences are deposited the lingering images of all our sensorial impressions and it is thence that the centers of ideality draw the necessary material for intellectual elaboration in the formation of ideas. The images passing first to the frontal region, become the representative signs of thought and furnish the elements of our determinations. The excellent work of Meynert on the structure of the brain has taught us the system of the fibers of association and of projection which are the evidence of this functional evolution. If nothing abnormal in- tervenes, if none of the wheels of the cerebral mechanism are broken and nothing interferes with the activity of the sensori-motrice of infaney then the intervention of the center moderators substitute the active ideo-motrice which, under the influence of the attention, based on ex- perience, gives place to, or is followed by, the volitional act of reason. Atavery early day in its life the infant begins to obtain or assume control of itself, say of its hands first, which produce the phenomenon of attention and of those conflicting motives, agreeable, or the reverse, which preside over the acts of volition. A chart given in the psychiatry of Meynert shows the succession of phenomona in one of these simple mental operations; the image of the flame of the candle thrown by the apparatus of vision on the center cortical posterior, transmits its repre- sentation into the frontal region and provokes immediately an involun- tary movement of the arms and hands towards the brilliant object. A painful impression, such as a burnt finger however, following an analo- gous act, acts in an inverse sense upon the psycho-motrice region, and a movement of shrinking is apparent. The two sensations, the one pleasurable, the other painful, are compared, the attention is attracted, the education of the moderate center is affected, recognition and memory are called into play, and in what before was only an act of impulse be- comes in fact, or at least has the aspect of, deliberation. Irom the simple vegetative life of the first few days of the infant (simple reflex) it soon passes to the instinctive life (activité sensori-motrice) thence to the intellectual life (activité ideo-motrice). These three different estates are but three stages of the evolution of one and thesame function. The dif- ferent modes of cerebral activity, the sentiments, will, attention, memory, judgment, reason, ete., that constitute the psychologic faculty develop themselves and become perfected successively by the harmonious action of all parts of the brain. There is a progressive evolution of the mental faculties, until they arrive at that state of conscience which enables us to CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 647 discern the true from the false, and the good from the evil; that secret testimony of the soul which gives approbation for good actions, which makes reproaches for evil actions, and is a characteristic of moral Sense. The normal individual is not naturally disposed to crime. If he becomes a criminal (criminal of occasion as well as a criminal of habit), he does so under the influence of passion, or of vicious education. The influence of education is well marked in the infant and it takes an exceptional importance in the categories of these unhappy little ones of whom Monsieur Theophile Roussel has taught us so much in his re- markable report made to the Senate on the subjects of abandoned or mal-treated infants, and his project of a law for their protection. Many of these unfortunate criminals fall under the influence of de- plorable surroundings and examples because they are the subjects of a heredity, which may be only nervous or may be the result of alcoholism of their ancestors. This is not a natural pre-disposition for crime, but is a pathologic tare, a degeneration that troubles the cerebral function. Sometimes the center moderators of the brain are not sufficiently strong to repress the unhealthy appetite and curb the improper instinct. Some- times the center moderators are too feeble to repress the appetites and refuse the unholy demands of these other centers which are in a state of erethism; sometimes, on the contrary, the center moderators are out of equilibrium with themselves and have nof that ponderation which, in their normal state will regulate these instinctive phenomona. But this is a pathologic state, and this study of the degenerates of these sick people belongs exclusively to the medical profession and should be sub- mitted to a clinical investigation. With this preliminary discussion the question is separated from theory and gains in precision and in certainty. It is now reduced to a question of diagnosis. The examination still belongs to the dector. That these individuals will commit offenses and crimes is of small consequence. The investigation of the doctor goes beyond the commission of the act which is charged as a crime and the inquest should embrace the life of the subject, his atavisms, his physical troubles, as well as the intellec- tual, moral, and affective modification which they have produced. This detailed analysis and attentive research into the past life of the sub- ject will serve to clear the question and will furnish the best of elements of appreciation upon which the doctor can have his judgment. We now pass to the discussion propér of the question. The degen- erate hereditaries are born with the mark of their origin. Their phys- ical stamps are well known and we do not stop to investigate them. They are here questions of but secondary importance. We pursue at present the study of the anomalies of cerebral development. According to the seat and generalization of the lesions, according to the locality of the functional troubles, the clinical types will be variable, but in Spite of their diversity the insensible transitions conduct from one 648° CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. extremity of the scale to the other, from the degraded idiot to the degenerated superior, intelligent though out of equilibrium. We have but little here to say of the idiot who lives after a fashion purely vegetative, occasionally even only by instinct. The peripheric or surrounding excitation provoke the cerebral or medullary reflexes ; but they are naught but simple reflexes and the center moderators do notintervene. From the time the frontal regions become free the sub- ject commences to penetrate the dominion of realization and of control. He ceases then to be ar idiot and is elevated to the dignity of an im- becile. The localization of the lesions in such and such a perceptive center, or of more or less extent in the anterior region, explains to us that such and such faculties have survived the general destruction and thus there exists the partial genius, the learned idiot. The study of the dis-equilibriums, which as a class furnish the delinquents, belongs to mental pathology; and there is in them no great anatomic lesions, but rather the functional troubles on which depend the modification of the activity of the cerebro-spinal axis. The predominating trouble in this class is the want of harmony, the failure of equilibrium, not solely between the mental and intellectual faculties upon one part, and the sentiments and desires upon the other part, but there is a want of har- mony of the intellectual faculties between themselves. The want of equilibrium extends to the moral character. A degenerate hereditaire may possibly become a savant, a distinguished magistrate, an eminent mathematician, a sagacious politician, an efficient administrator, and yet he may present from the moral point of view those profound defects, those strange and unaccountable actions; and as on our moral side our sentiments and desires are the basis of our determination, it follows that the brilliant faculties of this individual may be put at the service of an evil cause, that is, at the service of instinct, appetite, unhealthy senti- ments, ete., which, owing to the feebleness of the will, pusk him to acts the most extravagant and sometimes the most dangerous. The abnormal action of the cerebral and spinal centers gives rise to curious functional troubles which are of the psychic kind. The syn- dromie episodes, the extreme manifestations of dis-equilibrium, bring to light by their exaggeration, the false psychic mechanism which is found, though in less degree, among these degenerates. For example: The illustrations of the effect of the dis-equilibrium are many, and in their manifestations are different, yet they are all referable and trace- able to the one cause—disturbance of mental and moral equilibrium, An individual affected with some malady or just recovered from a spell of sickness, who becomes haunted, tormented till he shall have recalled the desired word, or fixed in its proper place the face of a passing stranger he has somewhere seen before, is conscious that it is only a phantom, yet is unable to throw off the spell, to banish the image which possesses his cortical center; or another case a person is driven as by power, uncontrollable as it is unexplainable, to make an attack upon an CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 649 inoffensive and possibly unknown person whom he may find within reach of his fist or weapon; or one torn with a desire for drink; all these are phenomona of the same features and are illustrations of disturbed equilibriums. In these cases a conflict is engendered between the posterior brain (of which this particular center is in a state of erethism), and the moderat- ing centers. The facts which show these unhealthy impulsions of syn- dromatic degenerates are analogous to those of other degenerates whose acts are criminal, while in the preceding similar cases the center moderators, in spite of their decreased energy, can, for a time at least, interpose and hold a check or counterbalance on this impulsion. Upon the contrary, among degenerace criminals these centers are scarcely represented. They have small energy, are content to remain idle, will not carry on the contest, and their feeble compulsion leaves the indi- vidual without any protest from the anterior region. He is then ruled by his instinct alone, and this without any counterbalance or govern- ment. Conclusion: The infinite changes under which are presented the mental differences of those who are hereditarily degenerate, though they may appear much varied, can be definitely classed as follows: A. Predominance of intellectual faculty, but moral state defective,— degenerate criminals. B. Moral state preponderate, but intellectual faculties and aptitudes inactive or wanting. C. Apparent equilibrium of the faculties, but prominent defect in bringing them into usage, as in application, effort, emotion, ete. Having gotten this conception of the degenerates, it is not astonish- ing that cerebral anomalies should manifest themselves in their infaney. These are the original tares which manifest themselves in the psychic life. From the age of 4 or 5 years, even before avicious education has had time to influence or modify them, these young subjects will present characters of impulsiveness, phenomena of mental arrest, intellectual and moral anomalies, their strange decisions and uncertain actions as though possessed of an evil spirit and by which they can be segregated from their fellows and established into a separate class. These are ex- amples of perverse instinct, cruel impulses, cruelty to animals. Usually these strange anomalies belong only to a special part of the brain which may have been gravely affected by cerebral lesions, or thrown com- pletely out of equilibrium by functional troubles which may provoke in certain centers a great excitement and in others a diminution of their activity. In these children one sometimes encounters a hereditary pathology which may explain the troubles of their cerebral develop- ment. The individual cases which serve as illustrations of these propo- sitions are to be found in great number. They are set forth in medical journals and are given by the standard medical authors. In each of these cases and in all others known, it is remarkable that in spite of 650 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. or, if so, they are almost imperceptible. Neither is there to be found any physical brand of hereditary or ancestral degeneracy. But a scrutiny of their pathologic life will reveal that from their infaney they have been marked by the breaking out of anomalies of character, of in- | stinetive perversion, by affective sentiments which show themselves in numberless ways. From the very beginning of their psychie life they have been subject to cerebral anomalies. The history of the infancy of a degenerate adult will show the evident defective side of a mental organization from its earliest years and in the case of degenerate infants we know well what signification to attach to the precocious manifesta- tions of a morbid heredity. Dr. Mangan presented several cases and showed the photographs of many, many more which he said were the hereditary degenerates. Curious enough the most of them were girls, mainly infants from 7 or 9 years old, to 12 and 14. Their conduct as depicted by him was most vileand abominable. It was unnecessarily and unprofitably wicked. Only a few can be given as samples of the best, the worst can not be presented : Marguerite V., of 12 years, of good physique, and without any apparent mark of physical degeneration, rather good looking, intelligent, but full of vanity, of turbulent and variable humor, subject to violent fits of anger when she broke anything, beat her mother, stole what she could lay her hands upon, and excited her brother to steal. She would bite her little brother without motive and without cause, would take a pin within ber mouth and then invite him to kiss her that she might wound him. Her memory was fairly good, but it was sexual troubles which dominated her. - - - Emile M. would laugh and ery easily and without reason. She had frequent and violent bursts of temper, stole upon every occasion, stole the money from the pockets of her father, took whatever lay about of personal property, would hide in the ashes and cinders the bread, sugar, ete., destroyed the tools and merchandise in her father’s shop, declaring she would like to ruin him; she tried to poison him, and on her starting for school in a gay and laughing manner, left a cup of coffee for her father in which she had deposited phosphorus. She tried to kill her twin brother, declaring she would like to kill herself. Then followed the sexual troubles. - - - Louise C., 9 years old, was the daughter of an insane father. She lived in a state of continual excitement. Her intelligence was debili- tated, the evil instincts were highly developed, but nevertheless there was no evidence of malformation, no physical stigma. She wasinca- | pable of attention, turbulent, was discharged from several schools. The tendency to steal manifested itself at the age of 3 years, and she in- dulged it upon every oceasion and against the property of every per- son. At 5 years she was arrested after a most violent resistance. She these moral monstrosities one does not find any physical modification, | CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 651 was a vagabond, would cry without reason, her memory was feeble, she could read and write, but did not understand arithmetic. She seemed to have no moral sense, was without modesty and knew not virtue. Her actions and conduct was such as not to be described. Augustine L. was 14 years old. She entered St. Anne at 10 years. Her family back to her grandparents had been seriously affected with epilepsy, alcoholism, delirium, etc. Her physiognomy was agreeable and there were no signs of physical degeneration. She had an excita- ble disposition, her humors were unequal, sometimes she worked with facility, other times she was incapable of attention. She had alterna- tions of excitement and depression, was unstable, passionate, idle, liar to an extreme degree, was tormented by sexual pre-occupation, was without any moral sense, without modesty, pity, or affection. Never- theless was not un-intelligent, although her memory had been neglected. Upon occasions she was a good worker, but usually she engaged in all sorts of vagabond, idle, evil life and conduct. - - - Gorgette J. was 12 years of age. Her physiognomy was agreea- ble, without any physical stain or stigma that would give the idea that she was a degenerate. The contrast between her physical appearance and her moral state presented a series of deformities unbelievable. She was undisciplined and so could scarcely read or write. Evil practices commenced at 5 years of age and were frightful. Their relations are shocking and impossible to relate. And so there were others: Jeanne D., Lizzie X., and others again and again quoted by Dr. Magnan, many of whose photographs he ex- hibited tome. He said those were cited simply as illustrations. The numbers which had come within his observation were many, but even this frequency does not cause us only to accord a secondary impor- tance to these physical signs which are inconstant, and even with the aid of all they seem very difficult to form or constitute a type. It is not the general contestable characters as yet undetermined, that can be used to clear the conscience of the magistrate. Medical juris- prudence demands from the medical faculty greater certainty. The medical expert can not attain to that necessary degree of precision without complete clinical examination in each particular case. Each case, he said, requires a positive diagnosis in order to respond to the enigmas of the case or the demands of medico-legal inquest. Dr. Motet presented some statistics and with them general consider- ations in order to complete the communication of Dr. Magnan. Of the cbildren brought to the house of correction during the 10 years from 1874 to 1884, there were 2,324 children admitted; 680 were illiterate ; 1,119 had been abandoned. He was in favor of a strong organization which would give to these unfortunates an education which was at once physical, intellectual, and moral. The agricultural penitentiary colonies were not his ideal when it concerned a child of the large cities. He declared that the State alone ought to have charge and direction 652 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. of the education of these unfortunates, and to organize a school of in- dustry where they would be taught proper trades, which trades, he said, could easily be arranged for what is known in commerce as the “articles de Paris,” and the needed knowledge taught to the abandoned and illiterate child. He gave as his opinion that this was the duty of the State to provide and care for these children and to so rear them as they should become honest, respectable, and industrious men and women instead of the ignorant, illiterate, degenerate criminals, to be- come which they were now on the high road. This report gave rise to a great discussion. MM. Motet, Dalifol, Rous- sel, and Herbette deplored the condition of the law that placed in the houses of correction—children at an age from 10 to 15 years. If not already criminals, they soon become perverted and ready to become criminals. A more humanitarian law would have sent them to school and to church. Lombroso said that the perverse instinct of human nature appears even in the first years of the life of the infant. The infant in his first months is likely to be vain, proud, selfish, cruel, without moral sense, without honesty or truth, without knowledge or care for the rights of others, and without affection; and this, said he, is a criminal embry- onnaire. He thanked Dr. Magnan for having explained many ob- secure things found in Meynert. Lombroso explained the origin of his studies upon the criminality of infants, and said he had done nothing else than to copy the observers Perez, Spencer, and Tain. In the cases submitted by Dr. Magnan which he had described and many more of which he had exhibited the photographs, Lombroso declared that he could recognize in them the physical characteristics of true criminals. Those which Dr. Magnan declared to be the evidences of a general paralysis, were to his (Lombroso’s) mind naught but those of the criminal born. He could see in the degenerates the criminal epi- leptic, the imbecile, with their stigmas each peculiar to itself. Of the seventy-eight photographs in Dr. Bronardel’s album he had found but two who had not the criminal traits. MM. Moleschott and Van Hamel came to the defense of the infant and invoked its inability of discernment. They declared there were no such things as innate ideas, nor yet was there either criminality or virtue innate. The infant was born unconscious of either. In its early infancy it is not chaste because it is unconscious of shame. It has no respect for the trfith, because it does not know the difference between the truth and alie. The instinct of destruction is very strong, and it destroys with pleasure aud satisfaction. M. Moleschott called to mind a trick of Goethe, recounted by himself, in which he described his de- light in a scene in his infancy when in the absence of his mother he committed an absolute carnage among the glass and pottery ware. But the sentiment of honesty and virtue and truth developed with age. It is the law of evolution, but it is necessary that we do not confound this phase of evolution with physiologic malady or with criminality. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 653 This view was emphasized by M. Roulet, who said he depended largely upon the physiognomy of the child, to which was added the reports of its conduct. But he declared that during the early infancy there was almost always an absence of discernment. He pleaded for precise detail, close and accurate investigation, and report among the doctors in order to determine the exact nature and degree of capability; and this, he said, was the mission of the anthropologist, who was destined to establish the differential diagnosis of the infant and determine whether it was a natural-born criminal or not, so as to apply the proper measures, whether it be the house of correction, or a simple education. M. Roulet was a lawyer before the court of appeals of Paris, was secretary of the French union for the defense and the tutelage of infants in moral danger. He said that he had defended during the month of October more than four hundred infants before the tribunal of Seine; infants who were arrested in Paris for insignificant offenses, as vaga- bondage, begging, and little thefts. He had always pleaded that they were without discernment; that they should be acquitted of the crime, but that the state should have charge of their education. If the infant was acquitted, he demanded that it should be confided to the French Union for the Saving of Infants. Under the operation of this society, the infant was placed in the country and watched over by charitable ladies. If the infant was still evilly disposed, he demanded of the tribunal that he should be sent to the house of correction until he was 20 years of age, where he became the veritable ward of the state- The society of the French Union for the Saving of Infants had been organized in 1887. It was in close relation with the police and with the magistrates and courts: if had sought and obtained their confidence, and there were now remitted into its care a great many children who otherwise must be sent to prison, there to be swallowed up for all time in the everlasting whirlpool of crime. He asked the aid of some anthropologist, who was at the same time an anthropometrician, to visit the Palais de Justice each morning, and go with him through the crowd of arrested children and make the necessary scientific examination that could be perpetuated in the form of statistics ; and to this response Dr. Manouvrier promised his assistance by making that appointment for each morning. Their rendezvous would be at the anthropometric laboratory of M. Bertillon. M. Eschaneur, a Protestant pastor, declared the problem of saving and regeneration of the infant could be brought about only by love. Dr. Brouardel gave an interesting description of the physical and mental state of the gamins of Paris, so bright and intelligent during their infancy, but which, as has been observed by Lorraine and Tarde, early present the phenomena of a singular degradation. Near their fifteenth year their development was arrested, and a sort of physical decay was produced which led to sexual debasement and perversion, although it did not exclude certain intellectual aptitudes. Some H54 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. became musicians, poets, aud painters. These indicated troubles of development, which in certain cases produced subjects degraded and debauched, and who, under favoring circumstances, were disposed to the genesis of crime. M. Theophile Roussel, senator, declared that to properly discuss this question it was necessary to occupy an entire conference. The legis- lation, however incomplete it might be, had already done much for the protection of infants. The state, which was the head of the grand family, assumes more and more of guardianship over the abandoned or neglected. And he quoted a proposed law which corresponded exactly to the present preoccupation of this congress. M. Herbette pursued the same course. How should the infant be treated by the state? If it is deprived of the care and protection of its family, the state should become its guardian, its protector, its educator, its father. The state is now largely the protector of infants, whether they be deprived of family or not. It protects the infants in the family against the stupidity, immorality, or crime of the parents; it protects the unfortunate, whether criminal or not, in the house of correction ; it protects him before the tribunal and it protects him against himself, because it refuses to give up its guardianship until he shall have arrived at majority. The state endeavors to preserve the infant from ignorance, vice, or crime. While man lives physically, no one has a right to say that he is morally dead. M. Herbette exhibited a chart of the penitentiaries of the country. He insisted that the rédle of education was prevention of the evil in its course, and, without rejecting the inter- vention of the societies of charity and protection, he demanded above all the surveillance and control of the state. Question VI.—The organs and functions of sense among criminals. Dr. Frigerio and Dr. Ottelinghi, of Turin, were the reporters. First part by Dr. Frigerio. I.—The eye of criminals.—(1) The color of the iris: I have examined the color of the iris of 700 persons normal and 1,500 criminals. Ihave encountered a predominance of the chestnut-colored iris among the criminals, a considerable proportion of blue among the violators, offenders against public morals. (2) The chromatic sense: This has been examined in 460 criminals with the method of Holingren. I have encountered but 0.86 per cent. of daltonism, a proportion which is feeble compared with the obser- vations made upon Italians, which has usually given from 1 to 3 per cent. of dischromatopsy. (3) Visual acuteness: Observations were made upon 100 criminals with the method of Smellen. For refraction we have met with an ap- parent predominant emmetropie. This visual acuteness is much more developed than among other Italians in the corresponding conditions of life though not criminal. CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 655 IT.—The skeletons and the form of the nose among criminals.—My ob- servations upon the skeletons have been based upon 609 skulls, among which 397 belong to the normal man, 129 to criminals (75 women and 54 men), 50 were insane, 13 epileptics, and 20 idiots. The nose of the living person has been studied in 830 persons normal and 392 criminals, of which latter 193 were thieves, 37 swindlers, 28 robbers, 40 murderers, 22 violators. We also examined 60 insane, 40 epileptics, and 10 idiots. For the observations made upon the skeleton I have encountered the anomaly of the nasai echancrure, that furnishes a new abnormal char- acter of the criminal man, and which I believe to be atavic. To this must be added frequent irregularity of the nasal overture, osynchie, and deviation of the nasal bone. Among the living the larger number of criminals show a nose square or wavy, of average length, but rather large and often twisted. The robber has often the broken nose; not large, short, wide, mashed, and twisted: the assassin straight, long, excessively large, wide, nearly always protuberant and twisted. ITI.—The sense of smell among criminals.—I have examined 80 crim- inals (50 men and 30 women) and 50 normal persons, 30 men, the most part the guards at the prisons, and 20 women of average culture. I com- pesed for that purpose an osmometre made by twelve aqueous solutions of the essence of giroflée in order of increasing concentration trom =5455 to ;4,, of which 50 cubic centimetres were each placed in a glass bottle with ground stopper. The following were my conclusions: (1) An inferior sense of smell among criminals as compared with nor- mal persons. (2) The sense of smell more feeble among women than among men. (3) The sense of smell more feeble among criminal women than among normal women. IV.—-The senseof taste among criminals.—I examined 60 habitual crim- inals, born criminals, 20 criminals of occasion, those which yielded to passion, sudden impulse, ete., 20 normal men of the inferior classes, 50 professors and students, 20 women of average intellectual culture, 20 criminal women. All were between 20 and 50 years of age. Observations were made of the taste bitter, taste sweet, and the taste salty. It was accomplished by a delicate solution of strychnine .t5s53 of sugar yp5000, and salt, =4},. The tables are omitted but the conelu- sions are given as follows: (1) The taste is less developed among criminals than among normal persons of the same class. (2) The taste is less developed among those who are criminals born than among the criminals of occasion. (3) Thesense of taste is slightly less among women than among men. 656 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. (4) The sense of taste among criminal women is inferior to that of normal women, but is more delicate than among criminal men. (5) Several cases of partial failure of taste among criminal men. V.—The sense of hearing among criminals.—Second part by Dr. Otte- linghi, of Turin. No organ of sense comes to such perfection in criminals as that of hearing. We have come to this conclusion both from our direct exam- ination and from the information received from the prison guards. It is without doubt true that the disuse of one sense will serve to sharpen another. As is the sense of touch among the blind, so is the sense of hearing among those prisoners who are condemned to silence. In our prisons where silence is required the prisoners have succeeded in es- tablishing means of communication which might rival the telegraphic apparatus. The cells are divided by a corridor along which constantly passes one of the guards, so that the prisoners have no opportunity of communication with each other. It has come to be known definitely and certainly that they communicate with each other by means of a tapping or striking upon the wall or other substance. This sort of tel- egraphic communication may be likened unto the old Morse alphabet ; one stroke for a, two for b, and other changes and variations for the other letters. They did not use the letter h: no reason was given for the omission. Thus it happens that a prisoner will continue his work even in the presence of the guard who is watching him, yet by the strokes which he may make in his work he can communicate with the other prisoners who may be within earshot, and it does not seem to make much difference to them whether the surroundings are in silence or amidst a deafening noise. In case of the latter they seem to be able by their fineness of hearing to pick out the taps or strokes which form the letters, as one would read a book or paper silently, while around him was such a noise as that if he spoke aloud he could scarcely hear his own voice. Although the guardians wore slippers shod with cloth or felt, in- tended to enable them to walk noiselessly, yet every criminal detects the difference in the step of the various guards so as to tell which one was approaching. These examinations were made upon 280 criminals in the prisons. For the most part the sense of hearing was in excellent condition. With their eyes bandaged, standing at a distance of 1 or 2 metres, they could hear the ticktack of a watch. We attempted an experience with the transmission of sound by the aid of the os craniens, but without any conclusion. Our examination of insane criminals was also without conclusion. In the number of autopsies which we made upon insane criminals we have always found the convolution temporo-sphenoidal in a proportionate normal state, and have never found that among the criminals condemned to silence, there seemed to be any difference in CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 657 the convolution of that portion of the brain, which would tend to show any other than a normal condition or normal activity. If the sharp- ness of hearing amony criminals is engendered by the inertia or disuse of the other senses we were unable to find any physiological or anatom- ical evidence of it in the brains of those whose autopsies we made. Question VII.—Yhe determination by means of criminal anthropol- ogy of the class of delinquents to which a given criminal may belong. Baron Garofalo, vice-president of the civil tribunal of Naples, reporter. For the determination of this question a psychological study of the criminal is indispensable, and this is possibly the principal branch of criminal anthropology. The anatomic characters can only furnish in- dication, and it is necessary to complete the moral figure of the criminal by the investigation of his psychic anomaly. (1) In order to recognize this psychic anomaly the kind of offense will suffice sometimes. But it is necessary that the phrase ‘kind of offense” should be employed distinct from the language of the penal code or the judicial theory. Thus, for example, in the case of murder the word pre- meditation may be insufficient to authorize us to class the offender along with murderers, for one can kill,even with premeditation, the murderer of his father or the seducer of his sister without being thereby classed among the criminals born. All the vengeances of blood, the vendettas, are of the same kind, because there is not a seeking for that egotistic satisfaction which compels the man to murder or makes him criminal born. These offenses are oftener the effect of an altruism, such as amour propre or case of honor. On the other hand a man may have the most monstrous criminal nature and yet be a simple murderer without being an assassin; nor is it any better to determine the assas- sination from the motive, for either murder or assassination may take place without any of the motives which influence the average man. Men in all the enjoyment of their psychic faculties will kill sometimes as though they were savages; sometimes from vanity, sometimes to show their force, their address; sometimes to acquire notoriety. And again, the murder with an apparently sufficient motive, may be nothing more after all than the work of a maniac, epileptic, hysteric, ete. Even in the case of brigandage one can not be sure of the nature of the crim- inal without having examined him physically and morally. Where brigandage is endemic a son follows his father or his older brother on an expedition which has no other end than to rob the passing travellers and to kill them if they should resist, still he is not to be classed by anthropologists among the born criminals. It may happen that the brig- and who, if investigated anthropologically, ethnologically, or morally, would pass the whole examination with high credit marks, would yet in the cases cited follow his father or older brother in his trade or profes- sion and be a brigand. ; H, Mis, 129——-42 658 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. A classification of the penal code might make no differences between these offenses, while anthropologic and psychologic investigations would have to take account of them. In order to place a criminal in the degenerate classes of monstrous criminals it is necessary that he should exhibit an innate or instinctive cruelty, such as is found in certain savage peoples. In that case the murder is committed with a purely egotistic aim, that is to say, that the criminal has been moved by a desire of some individual satisfac- tion; when there has been on the part of the victim an absence of what would constitute provocation on the part of a normal man; when the murder has been accompanied by brutality made with intent to prolong the agony, that it may give pleasure to the fiendish character of the criminal. It is in these terrible crimes, by which the monstrous nature of the criminal is to be recognized. After this be once established there is still to distinguish between the borp assassin and the insane or epileptic individual, who is either impelled by an imaginary superior force or else from want of perception of the nature of crime is held to be not responsible. (2) The cases cited are confessed to be of extreme anomaly. Some- times the circumstances themselves in which the crime has been com- mitted are sufficient to show the nature of the criminal. In cases where this is in doubt and it is desired to determine to which class he belongs, there should be the examination psychologic and anthropo- logic. The anthropologic characters are of an importance and often- times decisive when taken from the diagnosis of infants or young erim- inals. ‘There are those who are recognized as having this taint of born criminality by their light offenses, their fighting, lying, cruelty, wan- tonness, truancy, theft, ete., and those bad boys, incorrigible young- sters, always doing things not simply mischievous, but things which. they know to be wrong, though they may not be high crimes. But these individuals, being examined by anthropology, may present at the same time the characters of moral insanity and of innate criminality. The sanguinary instinct manifests itself frequently from the first in- fancy by a series of acts just described as slight offenses, but which are unjustifiable, frequently repeated, yet of which the parent or teacher in authority takes no notice, because of the youth or feebleness of the child. Arrived at manhood, when he has finished his evil career by assassination, murder, and the higher crimes, then is remembered these minor offenses in his infaney which were the fore-runners of graver and more hideous crimes. In these and similar cases one can find the typ- ical physiognomy of the assassin, the cold regard, the fixed eye, the marked cranial deformation, an excessive length of the lower part of the face, the forehead narrow and retreating, and other regressive signs; or, perhaps, such atypie anomalies as plagiocephaly and scaphocephaly and among those who commit rape the thickness and grossness of the ——=— CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 659 lips. And as for the moral sentiment, there may be shown a complete indifference for the victim. Apathy and egotism may be shown by the preoccupation of the criminal as to the possible duration of his punish- ment and the pleasures of which it will deprive him. If the anthropo- logic student will charge up against the delinquent the kind and the frequency of these small offenses in his extreme infancy, will note his psychologic and anthropologic characters, and take into account the heredity of vice, of insanity, or of crime, he can prophesy that the infant or young person with these mental and moral characteristics will, if the provocation or opportunity arise, become an assassin. It is not rare for the psychopathic form to manifest itself in subsequent time, and then one may fairly conclude it to be a case of either insanity, epilepsy, or a born criminal. . (3) The physical observation of the delinquent should be continued, to the end that one may distinguish the impulsive characters; that is to say, those characters which impede or prevent moral resistance to the passions which excite to crime, principally anger, vengeance, alco- holism, insanity, epilepsy, and certain other characteristics which de- scend by heredity. This class of delinquents are midway between the malefactors by instinct and those of occasion. Although this tendency to crime is a germ in their individual organisms, which becomes semi- pathologic, yet the germ will rest latent and unproductive, if there is not added to it an impulsion from the exterior world. This impulsion is required in order to cause them to commit crime which leads us to class thenras criminals of occasion. As soon as this exterior impulsion is found to be not necessary, or, if the crime is immoderate as compared with the impulsion, then the delinquent is to be classed as a criminal born. The regressive anomalies of the skull and of the physiognomie type of inferior races that has been so frequently remarked in the criminal born are nearly always absent from the impulsive criminal. But on the other hand these latter are characterized by nervous anomalies, and by other striking maladies. It follows as a result of this theory that in murders or assaults arising from a quarrel or riot, one can easily under- stand how there can be two classes of criminals—the criminal impul- sive, and the criminal by chance. The first, which are partially crim- inals born, are much more dangerous to society than the latter. They may commit crime from disease as much as from instinct and ought to be made objects of particular treatment, as much by the medical man in the hospital as the policeman in the prison. (4) The terms used in jurisprudence for the description of a great number of crimes signifies nearly nothing for the anthropologist. In the science of criminal anthropology the author of a given crime may be ranged under different classes of criminals. He may be a criminal born; he may be a criminal impulsive, or only a criminal of occasion. 660 CRIMINAL AN'THROPOLOGY. According to the penal law there are but two terms: the criminal and the punishment, while criminal anthropology, the new science, has three terms: (1) the crime, (2) the criminal, and (3) the punishment or the adapted repressive measures. These repressive measures are to be again divided according as they are applied to the different classes of criminals. (5) In classing as criminals those who commit offenses against prop- erty, such as robbers, thieves, swindlers, forgers, ete., psychology plays a réle even more important than anthropology. The sentiment of probity is less instinctive than that of charity or pity and is not de- pendent upon the organism because it is more recent and less trans- missible by heredity. It happens that exterior causes, such as the surroundings, conditions, examples, education, and economic conditions may have a greater effect upon this species of criminality. In the case of the robber or thief, along with the morbid form, kleptomania, there is an instinct to steal caused by heredity or atavism, which is often manifested by anthropologic signs and above all by special physiognomy. The most striking characters are those mentioned by Lombroso of the extreme mobility of the face and hands, small and bright eye, heavy and continuous eyebrows, the camus nose, small and retreating fore- head, ete. When these characteristics are found upon the recidivist, that is, the incorrigible criminal, one can be sure that he has to do with acrim- inal born. It is frequent that among vagabonds, robbers, thieves, and other criminals against property there is a physical and moral neurastheny, a term coined by Benedikt, of Vienna; that is to say, an aversion to labor and to every moral combat for the right, derived from a nervous constitution, and which is combined with, or perhaps has produced a desire to enjoy the pleasures of life and to indulge in its luxuries quite beyond his means. When the circumstances of life are hard upon such an individual, and he is subjected to an economic or social crisis, he is more likely to become a criminal, because crime may aid him in the satisfaction of his desires. To this neurasthenic class belong the vagabonds, thieves, and swindlers, whose improbity may have commenced by unfortunate circumstances, such as being out of work, loss of place, evil company, bad example, and improper moral education, and which ends in his becoming an instinctive criminal. The neurasthenic and the habitual or instinctive criminal ought there- fore to be grouped together, because they are equally incorrigible, until at least the social and economic situation of the former shall be- come s0 changed as to offer them the enjoyment of all pleasures and luxuries which they desire without the need to work. It is necessary, however, to make exceptions for young persons who are driven into vagabondage and are thieves by bad examples, and evil surroundings and associations, Although they may have become habitual criminals, CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 661 yet they may not be incorrigible, certainly not until they shall have arrived at the age when the character is fixed. (6) It follows as a necessary conclusion that as each of these classes of delinguents may be determined with anything approaching pre. cision an enlightened legislature should adopt a special treatment. It is not astonishing that the legislators and magistrates who make and deal with the criminal laws should repulse the services and the aid of psychology and anthropology, and should persist in their @ priort per- ceptions and in uniform precepts, without giving consideration to the infinite variety in criminals produced by so many different causes and influenced so differently by surroundings, all of which go in such supreme degree to form the guilty and reprehensible intent with which the crime was committed, or which on the other hand may take away that in- tent and form either a justification or excuse. M. Puglia gave his unqualified assent and support to the propositions advanced by Baron Garofalo. M. Alimena, on the contrary, assailed the entire classification. Ac- cording to him the examination, whether anthropological, physical, or psychological, was insufficient to more than raise presumptions and invent theories, while certainty was required in dealing with judicial questions and eases. If exterior and physical anomalies are appreci- ated, why not. apply the same rule to internal anomalies? What, he demanded, did it signify as to the depth or size, more or less, of the occipital fossette in the skull of Charlotte Corday which we now saw in the collection of Prince Roland Bonaparte? If it indicates, as is claimed, that she was a born criminal, then instead of being a heroine who rid the world of a mouster, she was naught but a common, vulgar, impulsive murderess. The difference should be recognized between a purely scientific treat- ment of criminals and the practical treatment which they must receive under the law. If science advances so does the law. But they go at different rates. Science flies on wings of the mind, while the law marches along in stately and dignified tread with leaden sandals. Scientific errors are easily corrected. They do no harm. They come down upon us and envelop us as does the fog the earth, but like the mists of the morning which fade away before the sunlight of heaven, so do they under the light of investigation ; while the jurisprudence of the country, solid and enduring, and, more like the earth which has been hidden, remains after the fog has been dissolved into a few drops of dew. He expressed his opinion that of al) these sciences, psychology would be most productive in results, and he much regretted that the schools of law and of medicine did not teach this science. Lombroso responded that his works or his opinions were not opposed to nor contradicted by any psychologic diagnosis. He returned to the skull of Charlotte Corday, which he said demonstrated anatomic char- 662 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. acters of the criminal born, such as platycephalic, the occipital fossette, and other characters of the viril skull. Dr. Topinard responded to him by affirming that the skull of Char- lotte Corday was normal, and that it presents all the proper characters of the skull of a woman. The platycephalic was a normal character and the vermicular fossette was not an anomaly, and there was nothing irregular in the skull unless it should be its platycephaliec, and he said it was rare or never that a skull was the same in all its parts and on beth its sides. Nearly all skulls showed a difference or distinction on the one side or the other. M. Benedikt opposed this theory of the craniometric methods and also the psychologic characteristics enumerated by Baron Garofalo, which, he said, would belong equally to the dyspeptics and the neural- itics. It was easy to make hypotheses, and according to his belief one had as much right to say that the occipital fossette was an indication of a pre-disposition to hemorrhoids as much as it was to crime. Ferri and Lombroso replied vigorously to Dr. Benedikt, while Sen- ator Moleschott came to his aid. Dr. Brouardel recalled the speakers to the discussion of the report of Baron Garofalo. The problem proposed by him was a classification of criminals. The crime itself is insufficient to class the criminal. The decision must be upon all the evidence. One insane ‘act is not suffi- cient to characterize an insane person. It must be established by the antecedents of the subject, his former life, his peculiarities, and his physical signs. This was the only true system to be pursued, and any purely physical or purely psychologic examination wouid be insuffi- cient and was to be repulsed entirely. Suppose the theories of Baron Garofalo to prevail, then a criminal born, according to his views, should be arrested at once and confined in some special establishment. M. Herbette took up the discussion and enumerated the results ob- tained by the administration of the penitentiaries. We have, said he, at one time the prisoners and the sick people. The prison is not a hos- pital. The hospital is an association for the good of the sick and where they may furnish a subject of study and experience. In the most of them the entry is free, and in all the departure equally free. In the prison the situation is entirely different. The prisoner is imprisoned as a result of the penal right of society to protect itself. M. Lacassagne protested that for the sake of science, for the sake of society, for the sake of investigation into crime and its causes, the law should give to the prison authorities the right to investigate the biology of the criminal and the sole control of the cadaver of the criminal, whether his death was inflicted by the law or came from other causes. But M. Herbette declared he would not go so far, and he counseled patience, study, careful investigation, great conservatism, regard for the feelings of the public, so to the end there shold be no revulsion on their part, for the reforms which were forced might bring great risks to science and compromise its success. ole, eT ese eee CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 663 Question VIII.—The conditional liberation of criminals. Dr. Semal, director of the insane asylum of the state at Mons, Belgium, reporter. (1) In studying the right of society to punish a criminal, one is Struck with the insistance of the law upon the characters and circum- stances of the offense, without the slightest examination into the per- sonalities or conditions of the delinquent. Dr. Semal advocated a psycho-moral examination of the delinquent in order to determine his condition, whether he was a confirmed criminal or only a criminal on occasion; and whether he might not in the one ease be given a condi- tional liberation, and in the other be continued indefinitely in confine- ment. One of the theories of the penal code which forms a foundation for the right to punish, is the possible reformation of the delinquent; but the idea of a fixed term of imprisonment as a punishment for one class, and another term for another class of offenders, is opposed to the theory of possible reformation. To give this idea of reformation full effect, there should be a conditional liberation which should take effect sooner in one proper case, and later, or not at all, in an improper ease. He declared a scheme of conditional liberation could be provided which would be more rational, more humane, and more successful in the reformation of criminals. The jurist, in writing on this subject, contents himself to remain within the limits of the written law, and declares himself satisfied by the uniform and inflexible application of formulas which have been erys- tallized in the codes. The decay of these doctrines will appear where to the safety of the public or society is added the desire to reform the criminal. But their destruction will not be complete until crime is re- garded as a natural phenomenon which can be prevented by a study of the social and individual causes which lead up to it. From this there are to be made two deductions: (1) If the punishment is the principal object of the repressive system, why should it be prolonged when it has contributed all it can to the reformation of the condemned? This isthe foundation of conditional liberation. (2) If the penal condemnation is sufficient to awaken in the heart of the delinquent his heretofore smoth- ered sentiments of right and justice, and if the moral effect of his offense is complete by the fact of his condemnation, why should he be com- pelled to serve, or even enter upon, a term of imprisonment? And from this has sprung the theory of conditional sentence. These two propositions contain the germs of the radical reform of the repressive system. They tend to give to the convicted criminal the opportunity to determine by his conduct if he will have his sentence postponed indefi- nitely, and his liberation made at once, even though it be on probation and under surveillance, he to be returned to prison on his ‘first move- ment towards a return to his former criminal life. (2) The proposed law of conditional liberation would operate upon the sentimeuts of the condemned person, of which we can suppose the 664 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. existence; and in order to establish with certainty this proposition, it is proposed to give him a scientific psychologic examination. Man ean be judged only by his acts. There may be a sort of latent criminality always ready to explode under the shock of propitious cir- cumstances, as ap expression of a diathesic stage dominated by hered- ity, and of which biologie science can enumerate the signs. A psycho- logie analysis is indispensablein order to determine these questions. The necessity of a psychologic examination of the delinquent is imposed because it is the only method by which one can determine the existence of such sentiments as will authorize the conditional liberation or ought to postpone the punishment. (5) As to the practicability of this we have to remark that the pres- ent theory and past experience has only resulted in a multiplication of punishment without having reduced the extent of criminality; and this, whether in the number of the crimes, their frequency, or their grades. By the old system neither the genesis or evolution of crime has been studied; neither the legislator nor the jurist seem to have ever considered why an evil-minded minority should persevere in the commission of crime while the majority of people are honest, well dis- posed, and of good repute. It is therefore towards the modern school of positivists that we must turn for a solution of this matter, because it alone seems to have studied crime as a natural phenomenon arising from multiple causes. (4) The principle of the reformation of the criminal by the opera- tion of the penal system is in contradiction with the fixation in ad- vance of the duration of the cure to which the delinquent has to sub- mit. The new theory of jurisprudence will permit whoever or what- ever criminal shall show himself to be repentant and inoffensive to be conditionally liberated, and this offer should be made or the opportu- nity given even to those who refuse or those who find themselves in the impossibility to reform. The reformation of the delinquent, or at least his resignation to and respect for social laws, is the essence of this theory of conditional liberation. But, as one can count to a cer- tain extent upon the vitality of the criminal instinet, and with the per- sistence of the social conditions which nourished it, it is necessary to prepare for the eventuality of a prolonged incarceration which may be regarded as the result of incurability on the part of the criminal. The idea is to proportion the length of the imprisonment according to the nature of the delinquent, to the degree of his perversity, and the dan- ger of his return to society before his evil tendencies shall have become enfeebled or neutralized, It is evident that this is more rational than to fix a time certain for his imprisonment according to the condition of his offense, which may furnish only an isolated system of the moral malady with which he has been attacked and which was the cause of the commission of his crime. The proposed law of conditional libera- CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 665 tion can correct any erroneous verdict or judgment or work any reduc- tion of the term of imprisonment. (5) The proposed law of conditional condemnation is upon the same principle as that of conditional liberation. It corresponds somewhat to the practice prevailing in some States of the United States of sus- pension of sentence during the indefinite period of good behavior. It is a measure generous and wise, is addressed to delinquents of tender years,—those who have been arrested for the first time, who may be the victims of circumstances, who are without criminal intent, and who, if the sentence be suspended, would probably never be guilty of the offense again, while, if their sentence should now be carried into execution, it would almost certainly result in the loss to society of one who might become an honest and respected member thereof, and gain in his place he who might easily become a hardened criminal. But the application of this principle is or will be surrounded by researches ex- tremely delicate, which ought to be highly scientific and so length- ened as to include the antecedents of the delinquent, his life, his raising, his surroundings, and to get if possible into the interior of his soul. The word ‘ delicate” has been used, and truly this is necessary, for the responsibility is great, for as the judge may by refusal to sus- pend sentence lose a member of good society, so also he may by a sus- pension of sentence grant indulgence to unworthy subjects and be deceived by hypocritical pretenses and promises, crocodile tears manu- factured for the occasion and practiced upon him by a hardened and instinctive criminal. (6) The instinctive delinquency of the young criminal is not abso- lutely in relation with the enormity of the crime. This imposes upon the jurist the necessity of a proper selection from among the arrested as well as among those imprisoned as to whom, in justice, to apply the different systems of treatment. The operation of these two systems, the one of which operates upon those subjects which can possibly be reformed, the other with the prolonged and continued punishment and incarceration, even in solitary confinement, of incorrigible subjects, who, if allowed their liberty in the least degree, will use it only for the con- tamination of their fellow-prisoners and the preparation and arrange- ment for themselves to enter into a wider sphere of crime upon their release. These are the foundations of the two systems. (7) Individualization is necessary in order to recognize and class the delinquents, and to determine whether the medicine to be administered to him for his cure should be of incarceration or liberation. Sometimes it might be better to adopt the plan of solitary confinement in order to conduct properly this individualization. An anthropologiec examina- tion or a psychologic analysis may not be sufficient to determine to which class he should belong, and therefore he should be tried under different conditions, always bringing out his real and heartfelt senti- ment, thus enabling one to determine to which class he belongs and 666 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. whether he should be conditionally liberated or continued in solitary confinement. ‘To this end an opportunity must be given both by re- straining his liberty until he shall bein solitary confinement or extend- ing it until he shall be conditionally liberated. His actions and the psychologic effect which this has upon him must determine the future course to be pursued with him. In doubtful cases the conditional liber- ation is the most rational, as it is the most humane. It gives the delinquent an opportunity to reclaim himself, and gives him a guaranty that his attempts at reformation will be well seconded. (8) After having returned to society those of whom we have nothing more to fear in the way of criminal offenses, after having taken all necessary precautions for those who are to remain under surveillance and possible return, it is necessary to take steps for those individuals who are by nature rebels and refractory, who reject all ordinary means of reformation, who are delinquents by habitude, and are instinetive criminals. For these individuals their detention, even to solitary con- finement, with severe and hard labor, should be kept up until they give proof of their repentance. If this is refused then we in France and on the continent can only relegate them to a penal colony in a distant ocean or else to solitary confinement in one of our home penitentiaries. The relegation of a recidivist or an incorrigible to a penal colony, soli- tary confinement, or some other form of severe punishment, or else treating him as sick or insane and sending of him to a prison asylum; these are the logical corollaries of the propositions for conditional lib- eration. The criminal, conditionally liberated, should be required to report for examination whenever needed, and thus the prisoners who are under condemnation of the law would become physical subjects for the study of crime in its psychologic as well as anthropologic phases, and the prison become as well an asylum and a hospital, affording a clinic for the lawyer, for the doctor, the judge, and the lawmaker. M. Alimena called the attention of the congress to the fact that this question had been discussed for a long time and in many places by legislators and jurists, and he referred to the first congress of the Inter- national Union of Criminal Law; held at Brussels, in 1889, where the discussion took place upon the thesis presented by Senator Michaud on the lawof pardon. He said three methods had been proposed—the conditional sentence, which was enforced in Belgium ; the suspension of judgment, which was practiced in England, America, and Australia ; and finally that of blame, set forth in the German code, the Russian, Spanish, Portugese, and in some of the eantons of Switzerland and provinces of Italy. M. Drill remarked that the system of conditional liberation required the exercise of two functions—that of the judgment of the court passing upon the guilt of the criminal, and the ulterior or subsequent treatment of the criminal, and that these were functions entirely different and ought | . CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 667 to be separated. The first belonged to the judge and the court, and the second belonged to the administration of the penitentiary. He thought these ought to be kept separate, and it was clearly his opinion that the judge or the court alone should decide upon the culpability of the in- dividual and the application of the penal law. The administration of the penitentiary should be composed of, or should eall to its aid, the most competent scientific gentlemen, who would be able to pass upon any question concerning the physical, physiological, or psychological characteristics of the individual, and this, taking in consideration his antecedents, his social condition and surroundings, his education, com- panions, ete., together with his conduct while in prison, would enable them to decide upon the application of the conditional liberation.* M. Bertillon, while giving all credit to the scientific investigations mentioned, begged the congress not to forget that the final end was primarily for the safety and well-being of society, and the reformation or well-being of the criminal only secondary. Question I1X.—Crime in its relation with ethnography. Dr. Alvarez Taladriz, of Valladalid, reporter. M. Ferri had already described the ethnic influence upon crime, so Dr. Taladriz sought to establish a tendency towards crime on the part of a whole people; the criminality of a nation or of races. He sought to show how the crimes in the Northern, Middle, and Southern Spain, were different, and also the difference in criminals. He declared this difference to be due to the advent of Charles I and Philip II, as Kings, and that it was but an exposition of the ferocious instinct of the primi- tive inhabitants of the forests of Germany. The mesologic influences are confirmed by history in such manner as that it ought to recall to the student of sociologic influence the statis- tics of offenses committed in the cold and warm countries, those be- tween the region of the North and the region of the South. These ques- tions have not. been studied from a geographic or ethnic point of view. It is proper that they should be. There probably is no place in which this ethnic influence upon crime could be studied with greater success and accuracy than in Spain, where there are such ethnic differences between the people of the different parts of that country, and where one will find a corresponding difference in the crimes committed. In the north of Spain offenses are of a character distinct from those of the center and south, Crimes against person and property are rare. Those which exist are the result of inherited, primitive usages and cus- toms like in the vast mountainous Basque provinces of Catalonia, the kingdoms of Galicia, the Asturias, and Leon, where assassination and homicide show the terrible characters of the sediment of population *The legislatures of Massachusetts and New Jersey have lately adopted a system of conditional liberation. 668 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. deposited by the preceding races of Germany during the grand period of invasion of the tribes of the north who occupied these regions more than any other part of the peninsula. The miners of the center of Spain do not present those characters of ferocity, because their elements are a concourse of varied and multiplied antecedents of the successive dominations which have come to pass in the peninsula. In the kingdoms of Valencia and the Andulasian provinces, the crimi- nal customs of the Arab race were handed down as a souvenir of the Kabyles, where the inhabitants organized themselves into a band of malefactors. The crimes of homicide, assassination, in the majority of cases were only the result of the passion of jealousy coupled with a hate truly African and which considerably augments the number of offenses against persons and property. Nevertheless, we recall certain acts of nobility, the Arab hospitality, ete. True, there may be excep- tions found, as there will always be, to general rules, but the conclu- sions are: (1) The physiologic characters of the criminal type manifest them- selves in a constant and uniform manner in all epochs and in all races, and without other variations than those imposed by accidental and external circumstances from these epochs and races. (2) The conditions of race, climate, geography have their influences upon the senses and passions of mankind and upon the development of crime, as well as upon sociology, religion, economics, or politics. (3) The grand offenses committed by races and nations ought to be an object of an international penal code by which they could be pun- ished with a certainty and uniformity that would bring them to an end; while in the same code could be declared the sacred right of nations and of individuals, which should be recognized by all the world. Question (37).—Medico-psychologie observations upon Russian crimi- nals. M. J. Orchanski, of Charkow, Russia, reporter. M. Orchanski is professor of the university at Charkow. He was not present to read his paper,and it was presented by Dr. Brouardel in connection with Question LIX. Only the conclusions were read and they were in opposition to the Italian school. The paper consisted of arguments and deductions, and did not deal in testimony or statistics. Dr. Topinard took the opportunity to present his opposition to the title Criminal Anthropology” and thought it should be replaced by that of “Criminology,” as being shorter, easier, better understood, having a clearer meaning, and with everything to recommend the change. Dr. Manouvrier preferred the the term “Anthropologie Juridique.” Question X.—The ancient and new theories of moral responsibility. M. Tarde, juge Winstruction at Sarlet, Dordogne, reporter. This was a long and learned disquisition upon moral responsibility. wie ~ CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 669 The opening paragraph declared that moral responsibility depended upon free will, which, at least, in its relation to crime, was a hypothesis without foundation in truth or justification in law. The discussion became more philosophical and metaphysical than practical. The most careful report would fail to do it justice or render satisfaction to its author, and it is therefore deemed wise to omit it. Question XI.—The criminal process considered from a point of view of sociology. M. A. Pugliese, of Trani, reporter. The moment appears opportune to make the criminal process an ob- ject of the study of penal sociology. (1) The criminal process is an institution of State established in the social interest, having for its end the search for and repression of crime. The general rules of its formation provide for the discovery and appre- ciation of crime, the punishment of the author, and the conciliation of the social and individual interest. To do this properly requires a magistrate who has technical as well as general knowledge. It is not sufficient in these times of the discovery and investigations of anthro- pology that he should be simply a judge or even ajurist. It is necessary that he should be acquainted with the studies of anthropology and sociology ; that he should understand the social surroundings in which the crime is committed as well as the men who commit it. Whether the State should found the necessary institutions of learning for the training of these magistrates was a question for discussion, but it is indisputable that they should have a special training. Prosecutors are charged with the trial of criminal offenses. In western Europe these things are not satisfactory ; a juge d’instruction, or prosecuting ofticer, scarcely possesses any special training or had any special qualification to fit him for his position. Perhaps he has never written a criminal process, never seen a cadaver, or attended an autopsy. He knows nothing of anthropology nor of penal sociology, and yet he is called upon to exer- cise functions the most delicate, most difficult, on which depends the safety of the citizens and their social surety. He obtains his experience in corpore vivo; he learns at the expense of society. In doing black- smith’s work he becomes a blacksmith, and when he shall have become habituated to his position, and qualified in even a mediocre manner, he will be changed to another place with another duty, and another person will replace him to begin again this new life of study and practice. This is not a system but is only education. The faults, and the scandal are enormous. Sixty per cent. of criminal processes fail. The real culpables have a good chance of escape, while the innocent run the danger of losing their honor, their liberty, and, possibly, their life. It is evident that the criminal process should not, as at present, be limited to the gathering of the proofs pell mell. On the contrary, the prosecutor ought to study the evil and secret causes of the criminal actions, and from them deduce the true reason of punishment. They 670 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. ought to seek also for the precedents somatic, psychic, and social, and discover the conditions, surroundings, environments, not only of this particular criminal but of all that have gone to produce such criminal phenomena. It is now time to search for such indications as can be furnished by anthropology and by criminal statistics, not only for iden- tity, as given by the works of Bertillon, Voisin, and Herbette, but also the biology of crime as has been investigated by Ferri, Garofalo, and Righini. (2) The investigation and trial should be confided to those who have been technically educated, experts of special training, one for the prosecution and another chosen by the defense. The defense ought to be admitted to take measures, to ask questions of medical juris- prudence, such as he may need in the interest of his client, and upon these questions the debate should take piace and the judgment rendered. This would not be a mere opinion, but would be a true de- cision of a technical commission, which would settle at once and for- ever all debate upon that question. It would be a trial before a tech- nical jury as to the questions of medicine or medical jurisprudence or psychiatyy. It would also raise the professional dignity of the medical jury, and would assure the world that, cost what it might, the research would be in the interest of truth. The right of the judge to demand the decision of science, and along with it the right and the power to trample the decision under his feet is a manifest contradiction. We who have always maintained that it is not reasonable to submit to a common jury questions of medical jurisprudence, think it time to over- turn the ancient maxim that the judge is the expert of experts. The maxim may flatter the vanity of the judge, but itis not true. Each one to his place is the truth. When a question of medical jurisprudence arises the medical jurist ought to be the judge. This question was brought up at the session of the congress at Rome. Drs. Tamassia and Laccasagne presented it. There was an important debate thereon, and the principle here laid down was ap- proved with a single exception We propose that questions of medical jurisprudence, of psychiatry, should be tried before a technical jury, and that they should be authorized not simply to make a suggestion and give an opinion, but to render that which is a real decision and a final judgment. We believe the proposition laid down in the Holy Scriptures to be the true one, to give to Christ that which belongs to Christ and to Cesar that which belongs to Cesar. (3) There should be established a system of preventive detention, that is to say, there should be a detention for the purpose of preventing crime by means of imprisonment of the individual before he has com- mitted it, rather than to imprison him after as a punishment for having committed it. The penal process or code in the Latin countries consists of the two steps, one of instruction and the other accusation. In the first the presumption of innocence prevails, and there the preventive CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY, 671 detention should be the exception, but in the second it ought to be the rule. But these things are to be determined by the psychic condition of the delinquent and the nature of the causes which impelled him to crime. If the psychic conditions have been verified there should be no further hesitation, but the imprisonment or detention should be en- forced with rigor. (4) The judge gives his jadgment in three forms: Condemnation,— acquittal for inexistence of the crime or of his innocence ;—acquittal for insufficiency of proof. This corresponds to the ancient formula: Condemno, absolvo, non liquet. The jury, on the contrary, except in Scotland, have only two formulas: Yes, no; guilty or not guilty. If they are in doubt. as to his guilt, they respond not guilty. This does not appear just. The jury should have a formula of non liquet—not proven; the laws would then be equal for all. (5) There should be an appeal in criminal cases as well in acquittals as in convictions. This question was treated by Garofalo, Ferri, Maino, and by Pugliese in the Revue de Jurisprudence in 1885. It has been argued in the affirmative by Mittermaier in his Die Gesetzgebung und Kechtsbildung. In this principle it has received its first legislative recognition in paragraph 388 of the Austrian code and paragraph 399 of the Ger- manic code. But in these cases it is confined only to corruption or false testimony. It is time, however, that the principle of appeal in the social interest should be recognized without restriction and ap- peals be taken as easily by the prosecution as by the defense. The law ought to be equal for all. The interest for the one and of the other are the same. No reason in justice can be given why one should have an appeal and the other not. It would serve to correct many erroneous, not to say corrupt, judgments and prevent many scandals upon the law. Dr. Brouardel accepted much said by M. Pugliese, but he combatted some positions. He denied the propriety of making an expert to be a judge or making judges only of experts. The responsibility was too great and the result would be unsatisfactory. M. Benedikt agreed with Dr. Brouardel and said that while the edu- cation of the magistrature should include certain prescribed medical studies, they should be always auxiliary to jurisprudence and never above or beyond it. This was in accordance with the opinion of M. Lacassagne. Question X VJ.—Instruction in medical jurisprudence in the law schools. Professor Lacassagne, of Lyons, reporter. In the presentation of this paper M. Lacassagne repeated largely the ideas which he had put before the congress at Rome upon the necessity of instruction in medical jurisprudence in the law school. There was a large discussion over this question, but it was confined to the details, 672 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOI.OGY. all the speakers, Brouardel, Moleschott, Van Hainel, Ploix, FPéré, Tarde, Soutzo, Ferri, and Madame Clemence-Royer, were in accord with the proposition. It was finally agreed to recommend the examples of the universities of Holland and Belgium, to which might have been added Trinity College, Dublin, all of which have a special course of medicine in their law schools. It was recommended that even in these courses should be extended to include a large proportion of anthropology, for Madame Clemence-Royer recalled that according to Socrates the first study of man should be man himself. M. Soutzo insisted that to teach criminal anthropology was to teach medical jurisprudence, and he cited examples among the insane. A paralytic by virtue of his delirium becomes a robber or a thief. In his perverted senses he falls into dipsomania, Another, which, attacked by the mania of persecution, becomes a murderer or a suicide, Another category of individuals who are on the frontiers of insanity may be found in the degenerates, the morally perverted, the drunkards, and all that train of individuals capable of committing crime according to their conditions and surroundings, and among which are to be found the stigmas, physical, moral, and intellectual, that have been taught to us by the professors of criminal anthropology before us. These indi- viduals are not, like the first, absolutely irresponsible, but they are partially or conditionally so. Therefore, said he, the great necessity for the teaching of criminal anthropology, not by the side of, but in- cluding medical jurisprudence, and that this should be carried on in all the schools of law, and taught to all those who would become lawyers or judges, or who would have dealings with criminals or insane before the courts or under the law. ANTHROPOMETRY. There were two papers before the congress on this subject: No. XVII, ‘Anthropometry as applied to persons from 15 to 20 years of age,” Alphonse Bertillon, reporter; and No. xv, “The employment of the methods of criminal anthropology in aid of the police and for the arrest of criminals,” MM. Avocat Anfosso, of Turin, and Professor Romiti, reporters. Anthropometry is a branch of the science of anthropology by which the physical characteristics of man are studied, the investigation being made by measurement. The application of anthropometry is twofold. One, the more exten- sive and more scientific, was largely the result of the investigations of Broca, though there were others who practised the science independent of and even before him. Quetelet of Belgium, Vircbow of Germany, Roberts, Francis, Galton, and Dr. John Beddoe of England, and our own doctors Morton and Baxter have all practised anthropometry in- dependently of Broca. In France Drs. Topinard and Manouvrier have taken up the science where Broca left it at his death, The former has CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 673 been pursuing his investigations into the races of men found in France as determined by color, and he investigates and studies that of the eyes and hair as well as that of the skin. The latter succeeded Broca in the Labratoire @’Anthropologie, and is professor and lecturer upon this subject before the School of Anthropology. The second use of anthropometry has been more practical, for, while it is conducted scientifically, it is employed in Europe, principally in France, as a means of identification of individuals, whether required in the army, by the law, by the police, or for private and scientific uses. It was with regard to the second application of anthropometry that the congress of criminal anthropology eecnie itself in the two papers set forth at the head of this chapter. The discovery of the use of anthropometry for identification is due to Dr. Adolph Bertillon, himself a professor in the school of anthropol- ogy, who died in 1883 at the age of 62 years, leaving his two sons to follow in his footsteps, with prospects of becoming equally as eminent as their father. It was the son, Alphonse, who presented question XVU, in which he was assisted by MM. Anfosso and Romiti, the report- ers of question XVIII, both of whom were aided in the discussion by M. Cantilo, advocat from the Argentine Republic. M. Herbette, chief of the penitentiary system of France, early per- ceived the benefits of this system and adopted it. It is now in use throughout France, thanks to his initiation. He was its ardent advo- cate at the congress in Rome, and there made it the subject of an address, which was translated by Mr. Edward R. Spearman, a portion of which was adapted and published in the Fortnightly Review of March, 1890. M. Alphonse Bertillon is attached to the department of justice and assigned to duty with M. Herbette at police headquarters in Paris, there to use his talent and knowledge in the identification of such per- sons as may be brought before him. ‘Chis, of course, means the identi- fication of criminals, or persons arrested. The morning of Friday, August 16, was devoted to a visit by the congress to the establishment in charge of M. Bertillon to witness the operations of his methods and to hear his explanations. We, how- ever, were favored with a private view on the day before, by the means ot which we were better enabled to understand the operations. The establishment to which we were introduced would correspond to and probably be known in most cities of the United States as the rogue’s gallery. In our country a criminal once arrested, whom they may desire to recognize at some future time, is marched down toa photographic establishment and has his photograph taken by a single negative, carte de visite size, of more or less front view, from which a print is made, which in due time is delivered to the detective corps at police headquarters, where it is placed in a rack for public inspection. It is by comparison with this photograph, and the recognition of wit- H, Mis. 129-—43 | 674 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. nesses, that the individual criminal will be identified in future, if he should be again arrested. It goes without saying that these methods are extremely unreliable—unreliable at best, but in Paris impracticable and valueless, for there they have no less than 100,000 photographs of criminals who have passed through the police headquarters within the past 10 years. It will be recognized as practically impossible to search through a pile of 100,000 photographs to find one which shall bear a likeness to the individual under investigation. It would be impracti- cable, if the photograph, when found, should prove te be the picture of the identical criminal whose case was being investigated, but when we consider the differences of appearance of the same individual, and the similarity of different individuals, as shown by the photograph, the im- possibility of successful identification becomes indisputable. To be-of any value as means of identification, there should be two photographs taken of each person, one full face, the other a profile. If this be done with the small size, 2? by 34 inches, it would require 10,600 square feet surface measure for 100,000 photographs. These dis- played on a wall in a strip 5 feet in height would require a space 2,120 feet in length. A search through such a dreary extent of pho- tographs in order to find the particular one to compare with the crim- inal, whom the officer leads around, and thus be able to identify him, would be like a search among the sands upon the seashore, or the leaves in the forest, and its impossibility, or, at least, impracticability is dem- onstrated. M. Bertillon has so arranged his system of anthropometry, and classi- fied it—together with the photographs—as that his usual search does not exiend beyond twenty, and rarely above ten, and can easily be re- duced as occasion demands, and be accomplished in a few minutes. Upon the occasion of my visit he gave to Professor Mason and myself a descriptive card of a given criminal, who was brought and measured in our presence—upon the visit of the congress M. Moleschott, senateur from Italy, was given a like chart; and we were instructed to make the search for ourselves and so understand the classification and find and identify the criminal. The system proved so perfect that we three, strangers, making our first visit to the establishment, hearing the de- scription for the first time, were enabled to understand the classifica- tion and find the box in which his deseription belonged, with no more than ten cards in it, and so identify the man in question, and this we did within two minutes time. I will describe the method of procedure and the system of classification : The instruments.—These are few and simple. Their cost is about $25. A series of them were displayed by their maker, M. Colas, at the Expo- sition in the department of anthropology, and I have described them in the chapter on Anthropology at the Exposition. A wooden right-angle for taking the measure of the height. Calipers for measuring length and breadth of head; two sliding measures of CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 675 different lengths for other parts of the body, and the necessary stands, stools, etc. These will all be understood as the operation proceeds. The batch of “arrests” have been brought in for measurement and identification ; under the necessary guard they are conducted toa room divided around its walls into open lockers after the fashion of public bath houses. The individual is stripped to his shirt and pantaloons and these lockers are provided with hooks on which to hang the cloth- ing, and a bench with a drawer. Thence he is marched into the meas- uring room. The services of two men are required; one to take the measurements, the other to write them on the appropriate card. The subject may have already been examined, or he may be examined here as to his name, residence, place of birth, and former convictions, if any. If he be a hardened criminal, an incorrigible, called in French, « recidi- vist, he will probably give a false name and declare this is his first arrest. The report of the bureau at Paris shows the following list of persons who did this and were recognized by this system and their descriptive cards found in the boxes as hereafter explained : Persons, MBSE Water tay Slavs telaiaes a ine sep wicie re cisic Solaet Sch ete peeleiele sae 49 OSA Pee rans eioe nia ees onwine e Sate cal ames tlecime cee siete Seas 241 NBS ERE Raat pene Po eth te Setatie cm eres Sa et a Ries die cine Usineee 450 LESBO ocr asets eee ie cies setae ee eeeasas wee entonelioee 352 MBBS rset fee cteres eeheciocwis cet ae secleke omee S)sec ecu cimacsiewe 615 French. |Foreigners.| Total. Subjects measured for first time-.....--.-..---..-..2---+----2---- 9, 517 1, 140 10, 657 Same returned under same name..-.-...--...-20.-ccecscsecees=-> 4, 521 | 173 | 4, 694 Same returned under false name and identified...........-.....-. 303 49 | 352 OLA MeASINCC smn eateralaintele acini ainis's a sisicix,-ln\-isintersiersiatarele eae = ti||ea cs os) eeieictern|| eee cisioeonies 15, 703 All measures of anthropometry should be taken by the metric system and reported in millimetres. By common consent among the principal nations the metric system has been adopted for anthropometry. Com- parisons are made much easier and more correctly from a single and universal standard, and therefore it becomes the duty of the United States to fall into line with her sister nations. To measure the height of the individual.—By asimple mechanieal con- trivance the operation can be done rapidly, accurately, and without risk of deception. The subject is barefoot and placed with his back against the wall; a strip of wood has been fastened upon the wall so as to fur- nish a perpendicular edge ; a door or window jamb may serve the pur- pose equally well. The wooden right angle spoken of can be placed against this edge and moved up and down, the broad bottom of which can rest lightly upon the head of the individual. Lines painted upon the wall, or stripes with the necessary measures of height marked upon them, will show with accuracy the height of the individual, ; 676 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. Maximum length of the head (skull),—The subject being seated, for convenience, one point of the calipers is placed in the hollow above the bridge of the nose, together while the other point is used to find the greatest length at the back of the head. This should be done with accuracy, and so that the length will be given exactly. If done with care the true length can be obtained within 1 millimetre, which is about one twenty-fifth part of an inch. It is admitted that the skull of man developes but little, if any, after his maturity, 21 years of age. No one possesses any power to alter or in any way change the size or con- formation of his skull. ‘The same thing is true with regard to the length of bones in the human body, and this had afforded the key to the sys- tem of anthropometry adopted by M. Bertillon, as he has chosen for his identification those portions of the body over which the individual has no control, and in which it is impossible for him to make any change in their size or length. The length of the head thus taken is a measurement at once accurate, unchangeable, and beyond the control of the individual or the possibility of deception. Maximum breadth of head.—This is measured from one parietal bone to the other in the same manner as the length of the head is measured. Maximum length of arms, extended.—This is a measurement which is popularly supposed to be always equal to the height, but in reality it may vary from 5 to 20 centimetres. It assists therefore in classifying even after the height. Length of middle finger of left hand.—This is the best of our indications, for it can be measured to a millimetre, provided care is taken that the finger is bent at an exact right angle with the back of the hand; there can be no cheating with this and it undergoes no alteration from adult to old age. Notice must, however, be taken of any unusual length of nail in the person being measured. Maximum length of left foot.—In taking this measurement the subject must, of course, be barefoot, and in order to avoid any chance of cheat- jug the subject should stand on the left foot only, with the left knee bent. This is not quite so good a measurement for our purposes as that of the middle finger, and can only be measured to within 2 millimetres. Color of the eyes.—A special table has been framed for the color of the eyes, which gives seven categories. These are based on the intensity of the pigmentation of the iris. Firstly, we note the exact shade of the pigment when it exists, and secondly, the approximate shade of the deep stratum of the periphery of the iris. Hence the seven divisions: (1) Iris azure blue and slaty blue with aureole concentric pupillary aureole more or less pale but destitute of yellowish pigment. (2) Iris inclining more or less to blue or slate color, but with a light yellowish aureole. | (3) Same shade but with a further aureole, approaching orange. ; CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 677 (4) Iris reflection more or less greenish and with a chestnut aureole. (5) Same shade with brown aureole. (6) In this class the chestnut is no longer clustered in an aureole around the pupil, but spread on the whole surface of the iris and only shows some greenish yellow irisations. (7) Eye entirely brown. This grouping enables us to pass by almost imperceptible transitions from the light blue eye to the pure brown eye. To examine the eyes the operator should place himself in the angle of a window, his back to the light,—avoid using the word gray. For further details read the Revue Scientifique of July 18, 1885; also, Annales de Démographie, 1881-82, ** La couleur de ? Iris en lanthropologie,” by Alphonse Bertillon. This procedure gives six measures of each individual, but upon neces- sity they can be increased indefinitely. The effect is twofold. One is to procure a reliable means of identification of the individual by means of an accurate measurement of certain portions, the bony structure of his body, which in the case of the adults does not change. Fatness or leanness, well or ill condition, has no effect upon these measurements. They are and always will be (except the height) the same, and neither by will or trick can any one make them different. The other effect is to provide an arrangement by which the cards may be segregated and classified so that the individual can easily be found. The cards on which these measurements are recorded are of a regular size and pattern, with printed forms, so as to always give the same indi- cation. The size used by M. Bertillon is 53 inches square. Both sides are utilized for description, and on the one are placed the two photo- graphs—front and profile view--the full face on the right, profile on the left. These cards are then arranged in boxes or drawers after the manner of cali cards in the U. 8. National Museum; that is, on edge, the face to the front, the depth of the box being not more than half the height of the card so that it can easily be seen and read during examination without being taken out. The classification of these cards and photographs in their boxes is such that the descriptive card of any individual will fall into a subdi- vision of not more than ten or twenty other cards, and can be found, as was done by Signor Moleschott, Professor Mason, and myself within a space of 2 minutes. M. Bertillon has at Paris 100,000 photographs of criminals and arrested persons, and these are increasing at a wonderfully rapid rate. The proportion of 40.000 may be excluded from our present consider- ation, being those of women and children. Sixty thousand are of men of mature age, and as we have already seen the measurements were made of those portions of the body of the bony structures, the size of which or length of which can not be changed. 678 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. The principle of the classification of M. Bertillon is to divide each one of these measurements into three classes: the large, the small, and the medium. This classification, beginning with the length of the head, then toits width, extends through all the measurements indicated, and ends in a division containing about ten cards, but which must not ex- ceed twenty. The lines of demarcation between these divisions are made arbitrarily and with the sole intent to make each division ap- proximately equal in point of numbers. So he has found the numbers for line of division for the length of skull to be at 184 and 189 millime- tres. All heads the length of which fell between these two numbers inclusive, constituted the middle division; all of 183 and less formed the division of short heads, while all of 190 and more constituted the division of long heads. For the breadth of the skull the two dividing figures were 155 to 156, and these formed the middle division. Those 152 and less formed the shortest, and those 159 and over formed the broadest division; and this system was continued throughout all other measurements. It was found in practice that this slight difference of 5 millimetres, being only about one-fifth part of an inch, taken, as it were, out of the middle of head measurements, would contain about an equal number with those in the other two divisions. The divisions made by the measurement of the middle finger of the left hand established for the medium class from 110 to 115; all middle fingers from 109 and under are classed with the short; from 110 to 115 with the medium, and 116and over with the long fingers. So also with the length of the foot, the spread of the arms, and, as I have said, by the color of the eyes. In practice the 60,000 photographs would be first divided according to the length of the head, large, medium, and small; and this would separate them into three divisions of 20,000 each, in the case of drawers. The width of the head would again divide each one of these 20,000 into large, small, and medium, which would give practically 6,000. The three divisions arising from the spread of the arms and the length of the middle finger will reduce it to 600. The length of the foot will again reduce it to 63, and the further reduction by the color of the eyes of seven classes to 9 photographs in each division, The prin- cipal divisions are made in the cases of drawers, while the smaller are made within the drawers themselves. The anthropometric establishment under M. Bertillon does not abolish the use of photography. The photographs are taken in double, a full face and a profile, and this should always be done. The change of face arising either from accident or intention on the part of the subject is much less easily controlled by him in profile view than of the full face. He can at best only change the lower part of his face, and in making comparisons by photographs, where such a change is suspected, it is well to cover the lower part of the face on the photograph by a spot of CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 679 paper and make comparisons of the contour of the head, the shape of the face, the position of the ear and its appearance, and thus one is enabled to make much better and more satisfactory investigation. If one would rely upon the photograph there should also be added the other position of a full-length standing portrait. At Paris the studio for taking the photographs of criminals is at- tached to the establishment of M. Bertillon and is over his office of measuring. Another suggestion which he makes concerning photo. graphs and their benefit and advantage concerning identification is the necessity of having them the same proportion, the same relative size, and so he insists that the instruments and the subjects shall always be at the same distance. Therefore he has the chair in which the sub- ject sits, and also the stand for the camera fastened firmly to the floor so that they give the same proportionate size of the subject. M. Bertillon also remarked the importance of including in the pho- tograph a view of the bust. Ifthe head only be shown it gives it an enlarged appearance and so is deceiving, and besides the setting of the head upon the shoulders is as much a means of identification as is the head itself. He said also to throw back the hair off the ears of the subject when taking the profile view, for it is an organ unchangeable upon its owner and with its characteristics may serve as a means for identification. But with all this M. Bertillon uses the photograph more as an auxiliary, and depends principally upon the measurements. How to make a search.—Our man, whose photograph and measure- ment is given on the card, is supposed to have just arrived, the meas- urement made, and his photograph taken. We desire to know if he has ever before passed through the depot and whether his card of measurement is here to be found. The length of bis head is 191, there- fore we find it in the highest division; that is, with the longest heads, and we know it will be in this row of drawers. The width of his head is 157. That falls within the medium class, and we therefore know it will fall within this row of drawers. We have now, by exclusion, reduced the number of cards to be examined from 60,000 to 6,000. The length of his middle finger is 127, which throws it into the highest of that division, and that has reduced it to 2,000. The like investigations with regard to his foot, which is 278, and the spread of his arms, which are 151, reduces it, as we have said, to an average division of 63 cards. These are divided among the seven distinctive colors of the eyes, and so the package of cards within which his description will be found, if at all, is reduced to an average of 9, and in practice is never to exceed 20, And this by depending solely upon the measurement and without con- sulting the photograph. As a precaution additional to the normal sizes of the various portions of the body which were selected for measurement, there would be natur- ally employed any abnormal marks which might be found. If these were agreed in the two descriptions we would declare the identification com- 680 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. plete. Every person has on his body some particular marks, such as moles, scars from cuts, boils, ete. Three or four of these corresponding would be quite enough to identify a man out of a million provided always that the nature, etc., of the marks has been accurately recorded. It is very seldom that one finds on an individual identically the same mark and in the same place that has been previously noticed on another, but that two persons should be found bearing three or four scars pre- cisely similar would be a co incidence which appears impossible, and we have certainly never met with such a case. These marks and cicatrice are set forth under the appropriate head on the back on the card of Feillier. I will not attempt to translate that deseription. It is too intricate and with too many abbreviations and private marks for me to do so with certainty. But as an illustration | may quote those which were presented by M. Bertillon to the congress at Rome, and which had been translated by Mr. Spearman : (1) Oblique outward sear between second and third joint middle of first finger left hand. (2) Sear oblique inward of 5 centimetres, left palm, 3 centimetres above third finger. (3) Mole 8 centimetres below left nipple, and at 10 centimetres from center of body. (4) Mole 4 centimetres left of spinal column, 20 below prominent vertebra of neck. If this series of private marks be found to correspond on the two cards, one would say they were both made from the same individual and that the identification was perfect. It is not to be expected that an inexperienced person will be able to do this work of anthropometry without error. In the beginnings of the system there were fewer identifications of former criminals and more failures, but as time has progressed and a certain expertness with regard to measuring and accuracy in making and keeping the records, these errors and failures have been so far eliminated as that Monsieur Bertillon claims it to be practically perfect. The anthropometrie service in the penitentiary and police system of France was established in 1882. The annual examinations were as follows: In 1882, 225; 1885, 7,336; 1884, 10,398; 1885, 14,965; 1886, 15,703; 1887, 19,150. Up to this time the service was considered more or less experimental, and only certain classes were subject to measure- nent. In the year 1888 the application of the system was extended to in- clude all persons arrested for any except the lower grades of offenses, and the number in this year who passed through the depot at Paris was increased to 31,849. This gives an average of about 100 measurements per day. M. Bertillon told me that in practice it took the two men, one to measure the other to reeord, about 7 minutes to each prisoner, or 8 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 681 prisoners per hour. As it is important that prisoners should be exam- ined in court without delay the entire day is not at their disposal, and . so they have four squads of operators, who endeavor to conclude their measurements each day before breakfast, as they call it; that is, before 12 m., the afternoon being devoted to the routine business at the office. Of the 31,849 offenders or suspects measured in 1888 615 were recog- nized as having been measured before, but who sought to conceal their identity by giving false names and reporting falsely the number of their arrests. There were only four failures of identification. Four failures out of 31,849 measurements was considered by M. Bertillon to be prac- tically perfection. This system of M. Bertillon for identification of individuals by means of anthropometry is having much success. The most superficial exam- ination seems to convince every one of its efficacy and superiority. M. Cantilo, Procureur General at Buenos Ayres, the delegate from the Argentine Republic, bore his testimony before the congress of the mar- velous results obtained in the determination of individual identity. He said that the method had been adopted by several of the States of the United States of North America, and also by his own country, the Ar- gentine Republic, the capital, Buenos Ayres, already possessing an in- stallation of the anthropometric system of Bertillon. He spoke of the necessity for its adoption by all civilized countries, and he proposed to the congress a resolution inviting all governments to adopt it whenever they might have need for the identification of any considerable number of their citizens, which resolution was unanimously adopted. M. Bertillon stated that after France the Argentine Republic was the first government to adopt the anthropometric system by law or official decree. He complimented the admirable application madein the State of Illinois, principally at the penitentiary of Joliet, by the private efforts of MM. Mac-Claughry, Gallas, Muller, Porteous, of Chicago, ete. Monsieur Herbette, in his presentation of this matter at the congress of Rome, following the communication of M. Bertillon,* pointed out how this verifying of the physical personality and the indisputable identity of people of adult age should in modern society fulfill real requirements and under the most varied services. If it were a ques- tion, for instance, of identifying the soldiers of an army, or travellers going to distant lands, they could have personal cards having recog- nizable signs enabling them always to prove who they are; if it were a question of completing the records of the etat civil by sure indica- tions to prevent error or substitution of persons; if it were a question of recording the distinctive marks of an individual in documents, titles, contracts so that his identity could be established either for his own interest, for the interest of third parties, or for that of the state, the fuli benefit of the anthropometric system would be realized. If there should arise a question of identity in a life certificate, a life insurance * Translation by Mr. Spearman. 682 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. contract or proof of death, or to certify the identity of a dead person, or one badly wounded or disfigured, the body having been partially destroyed or bad become difficult to recognize in case of a sudden or violent death, the result of a crime, an accident, a shipwreck, a battle, how great would be the advantage of being able to trace these charac- ters, unchangeable in each individual, infinitely variably as between one individual and another, indelible, in great part, even in death. There is still more cause to occupy oneself with it if it is a question of identifying distant persons or after the lapse of a considerable time when the general appearance, the look, the features, and the physical habits have changed naturally or artificially, and that without moving or expense, by the simple exchange of a few notes or figures sent from one country to another, from one continent to another, to be able to know in America what sort of a man it is who has just arrived from France, and to show clearly whether a certain traveler one finds in Rome is the same person that one measured in Stockholm 10 years before. In one word to fix the human personality, give to each human being an identity, an individuality lasting, unchangeable, always recogniz- able, easily proved, this appears to be the extended aim of the new method. It may consequently be said that the extent of the problem, as well as the importance of its solution, far exceeds the limits of penitentiary work, and the interest, not inconsiderable, which final action has exer- cised amongst various nations. These are the motives for giving to the labors of M. Bertillon and their practical utilization, the publicity they merit. Question XITX.—Correctional education—reforms in accordance with our knowledge of biology and of sociology and their relations to crime. Dr. Motet, reporter. Dr. Motet, in accordance with M. Dalifol, presented the necessity for a considerable development in moral education as well as professional. Especially should this be so in the agricultural schools, and M. Van Hamel came to their aid in showing the success which had attended the moral education in his country of Holland. Question X XI.—The relation between mental degeneration and sim- ulation of insanity. Dr. Paul Garnier, reporter. The boundary between crime and insanity is very narrow and one which gives to the medical jurist sometimes the greatest difficulty. It is here that the real criminal will simulate insanity before the courts in order to escape the responsibility of his acts, and here is to be found the greatest number of the simulators. The degenerate individual, he who has come to be of a lower scale, whether mentally or psychologic- ally, is closely related to and liable to become either epileptie or hys- teric. If he shall simulate either one of these or the insanity growing CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 683 out of them, he may be his own dupe, and finish by becoming the insane person that he at first only pretended to be. The simulation, even when successful, dues not necessarily give evidence of intellectual ability. It does not in these cases require a high order of intellectual ability to deceive; deceit is not intelligence. It is many times difficult to detect insanity in a given individual, but it is much more difficult to detect the simulation of insanity. To do this with certainty requires the most skillful and best trained scientist. A moment’s consideration of the proposition will serve to confirm the opinions so many times expressed by members of this Congress as to the necessity for an anthropological education and training on the part of the judges and law officers deal- ing with criminals. Question X XTI.—The influence of professional life upon criminality. Dr. Henri Coutagne, of Lyon, reporter. The object of this memoir was to present the importance of those studies which had for their object a research into what the reporter called “professional psychology,” or the psychology of professional life. He said the psychic functions of the individual were greatly influenced by the profession he chose to exercise among his fellows. That the vo- cation or profession showed the tendency of races or of individuals. He spoke of the special aptitude of the Hebrew race for financial affairs. His memoir was as much graphic as written, and showed nine classes of professions, and the criminals which had belonged to each. This had been continued and kept up by him and his predecessor since the year 1829, and was devoted largely to statistics as well as enforcing their value and importance. These statistics showed that much the larger proportion of criminals is to be found among the agricultural and indus- trial population. He enlarged upon the necessity for statistics, and invoked the various societies, as the bar associations, the medical soci- eties, and those representing other trades and professions, to gather with thoroughness and detail the number of criminals, the habit of life of the various individuals, and especially this with regard to their course in crime. The congress drifted into a discussion as to the im- portance of statistics, those to be gathered as well by the state as by the different societies and organizations mentioned. M. Herbette enlarged upon the necessity for complete and accurate statistics gathered by the penitentiaries and prisons, and spoke of the necessity of what he called ‘+a bulletin official individual,” which should show every act in crime and in life and in the surroundings of the indi- vidual, his temptations, opportunities, his first tendencies to crime, and his criminal life both in and out of prison, so far as possible, and to this should be added the anthropologie and ps ’chologic investigations. Dr. Wilson, from the United States of America, after noticing the necessity for a general plan of gathering statistics with accuracy and detail, and making a collation and classification of reports for purposes of comparison, and the fact that thus defined there were scarcely any 684 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. statistics in the United States in relation to crime and criminals, went on to say that only in some of the States were records kept so that statistics could be obtained. New York and Massachusetts are the most prominent. But their records are kept, each on its own plan and without relation to the plan of the other, and therefore they lose the benefit of comparison with each other. In most of the States of the Union there has been only a slight attempt to keep vital statistics. Marriages, births, deaths, con- viction for crime, are intended to be made a matter of record, but the penalty provided by law for the neglect is so sligit and so rarely en- forced as to be ineffectual. Ours is a new country; our people have never been accustomed to strictness in making or keeping such ree- ords. The population in many localities is sparse, the people change their residence often, they go and come at will, there is no military service demanded of them, and it is exceedingly rare for a pauper to be returned to the place of his original domicil that he may be supported at public expense. So the needs which exist in Europe for such records fail in the United States. The only necessity for such statistics is be- lieved by our people to be for historic or sociologic purposes. This has not yet: been sufficiently appreciated by them to overcome the diffi- culties. There are also more difficulties than exist in European coun- tries. Our country is large; compared with European countriesit has a vast extent. It was also as compared with these countries, dis- covered only a few yearsago. It has had only about 100 years of life. Oue hundred years ago it had but 3,000,000 souls; it extends from the Atlantie to the Pacific, a distance of nigh 5,000 miles, and its center of population remained, until within 50 years, practically on the Atlantic coast, and even now has not goue beyond 600 miles to the westward. Our country had to be rescued from the possession of the barbarian, and a people thus engaged have but little time and less inclination to keep records and statistics which in their opinion have only a senti mental utility. So it has as yet been scarcely attempted. We may accomplish it after a time; not at present. The difficulties are in- creased by our form of government. We have that anomaly of two sovereignties within one country, two governments over one people; anit I explained the difference between our State and national govern- ments, each of which has its own jurisdiction over crime, and yet each is independent of the other. So I said the United States Census is de- pendent largely for its statistics of crime upon information obtained from the State authorities. If, on the other hand, it be a State census, each will be separate and distinct, and may be different from any other. So it was that in the State of Pennsylvania the statistics of crime showed the number of convictions to be 2,930, while the State of New York, with but a slightly increased population returned 58,670 convic- tions; twenty times more than that of Pennsylvania. The explana- tion given was, that in the former State convictions only in the courts of —_———— CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 685 record were reported, while in the latter the convietions were of every kind, whether for small or great offenses. The meager statistics of crime in the United States, taken from the census of 1880, and reported by Mr. A. RK. Spofford in his American Almanae, are given in the following table: State oe ee State ee ee I Alabamaii-. 2oee85-% | Unknown. | 1, 262, 344 |) 20. WiiasGtrri += 2..22.5.0.- 1, 294 2, 169, 091 2 CARKANGASis ~cebrse cet Unknown. 802, 562 | 21 IN ehiraiston.s t= se celal oleae ets 452, 432 3e Californias secs ccec= 615 864, 686 || 22. Nevada .-.-...--.-... i44 62, 265 4. Connecticut........-. 251 | 622, 683 || 23. New Hampshire...... 180 | 347, 784 De Bia Wants a wats aaiesa cess cc scien: 146, 654 || 24. New Jersey.-......-.. 823 | 1, 180, 892 ewe ik Gye te aries ae eae 71 266, 566 |} 25. New York ........... 3, 576 5, 083, 173 * T.(GQOOLMIA ss atnccite =< -< = 590'| 1,538,983 || 26, North Carolina.......|......--..-: 1, 400, 000 SSaMimO is pes a2 se oe T9007 |< 3j0785 636 || 27.9 OhiO = 2 ne ae eines 1, 362 3, 197, 794 Oy eindian ase is's "cae = alee 1,231 | 1,798,358 || 28: Oregon...-....-...... 104 174, 767 WORALOW ALAS seni a's cicle 353 | 1, 624, 463 || 29. Pennsylvania ....... 1, 861 4, 282, 738 WitekGanaas: osoc6 .b.20 ce. 406 995, 385) || 30:; Rhode Island! -22 2.222.325 52045 276, 528 TORE NAT <\ ae eer Reem 983 | 1, 6£8,599 |) 31. South Carolina......- 625 995, 706 To PWOMISIaNe Game. sent ae 625 940, 263 | 32. Tennessee -.......... 1, 153 1, 542, 463 Ace MUL G amie ercisteis sts evar=is 221 648) 945 (38.7 LOXAS ac merece riers sie creosote ors | 1, 598, 509 15. Maryland ...........- 170 935, 139 || 34. Vermont..........--- 175 332, 286 16. Massachusetts ....... 757 | 1, 783, 086 | 85; VITO Ina). el niele-s-.- at 1, 105 1, 312, 208 ieMichiganiess.-h'2 ce. 809 1, 634, 096 | 36. West Virginia -.....- | 218 618, 193 18. Minnesota .........-- 235 780, 807 || 37. Wisconsin ....-.-.-.-. 309 1, 315, 386 OA NTISISSEP PL oe es 997 | 1,131, 899 | | Question X X VI.— Political offenses from the point of view of anthro- pology. This study, written by M. Laschi, an avocat from Verona, was made with the assistance of M, Lombroso. It dealt with race, genius, and the density of the population in the older and better settled countries. The author distinguished revolution from revolt. The first he called psy cho- logic manifestations, and the latter pathologic. He spoke of the influ- ences of climate and orography, not to mention those social and polit- ical, upon the race which might belong to or inhabit a country. He gave as his opinion, derived from his investigation and the statistics, that the short-headed races, brachycephalics, were conservative, while the long- headed, dolicocephalics, were revolutionists ; that the mixture of these races could modify their character and so change them as a nation, but that occasionally, by reason of atavism, or something similar, peculiar circumstances, changes in social conditions as well as in political, the dolicocephalic individual of modern times and in modern countries might break out in revolution, which was naught else on his part than the return, through heredity, to the original revolutionary characters of some remote ancestor. He said the most revolutionary cities of Ku- rope, like Paris, Florence, Geneva, were those which manifested the greatest genius and the most vivacity of thought. Drs. Broaardel and Motet believed, on the contrary, that the influ- ence of political crimes was to show the inferiority of intelligence, the 686 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. fanatism, the impressionability, and the exaltation of the individual These, said they, were particular factors in political crimes. Professor Lombroso cited M. Taine, and said that these political crimes were what the anthropological historian might well call political epilepsy. Question XX VIJ.—Jurisprudence applied to criminal sociology. M. Pierre Sarraute, judge of the tribunal at Perigueux, Dordogne, reporter. The punishment for crime ought to be against the individual. The particular individual criminal should be made to feel that he received the punishment for his offense. To accomplish this with satisfaction the juge @instruction should be able to investigate the anthropologie and social factors which have entered into or operated upon the mind of the criminal in causing him to commit the offense. The juge d’in- struction must himself be educated, and it must be remitted into his hands entirely to judge of the utility, and extent of the examination, and to control the results. To do this successfully it will be necessary to open a course of lectures upon criminal anthropology and medical jurisprudence in the various schools of law, and to educate the students in these sciences. The reporter proposed as a remedy for some of the lapses in the law, and the miscarriages of justice, an indeterminate sentence by the judge; he proposed profound modifications in the jury system, requiring of them in particular cases, special aptitude, special preparations or educations, enabling them to deal properly with the subject in hand. He would reduce the number of the jurors and would require them to give their answers to the questions submitted to them by the court, which answers should establish the facts in the case with which they as jurors alone had to deal, leaving the questions of law to the judge of the court; leaving the anthropologie questions, those of psychology and physiology, to the trained scientist, who should be a criminal anthropologist. With a training of the lawyers and judges in these various sciences, and then a division of their various duties and responsibilities, with higher courts which should combine in them these various branches of scientific knowledge, the right of the criminal would be guarded, while crime would be lessened and society protected. Question XX X.—The moral and criminal responsibility of deaf-mutes in their relations to legislation. M. Giampietro, of Naples, reporter. He argued the defective physical organization of deaf mutes, and seemed to say that there was a corresponding want of responsibility which should be recognized by the law and the court. The important part of his paper, which can not be here followed, was the scientific portion, the physiologic investigations into the conditions of deaf-mutes and the formation of articulate language. He described certain brain centers which were possessed of such functions in this regard. He ‘alled them the centers auditif, phonique, volitif, mnemonique, ideosym- bolique, and moteur, COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS,* By R. BRUDENELL CARTER. It is a matter of familiar knowledge that the sense of vision is called into activity by the formation, on the retina or internal nervous expan- sion of the eye, of an inverted optical image of external objects—an image precisely analogous to that of the photographic camera. The retina iines the interior of the eyeball over somewhat more than its posterior hemisphere. It is a very delicate transparent membrane, about one-fifth of a millimetre in thickness at its thickest part, near the entrance of the optic nerve, and it gradually diminishes to less than half that thickness at its periphery. It isresolvable by the microscope into ten layers, which are united together by a web of connective tissue, which also carries blood vessels to minister to the maintenance of the structure. I need only refer to two of these layers: the anterior or fiber-layer, mainly composed of the fibers of the optic nerve, which spread out radially from their point of entrance in every direction, except where they curve around the central portion of the membrane; and the perceptive iayer, which—as viewed from the interior of the eye- ball, may be likened to an extremely fine mosaic, each individual piece of which is in communication with a nerve fiber, by which the impres- sions made upon it are conducted to the brain. The terminals of the -perceptive layer are of two kinds, called respectively rods and cones; the former, as the name implies, being cylindrical in shape, and the latter conical. The bases of the cones are directed towards the interior of the eye, so as to receive the light; and itis probable that each cone may be regarded as a collecting a) paratus, calculated to gather together the light which it receives, and to concentrate this light upon its deeper and more slender portion, or posterior limb, which is believed to be the portion of the whole structure which is really sensitive to. luminous impressions. The distribution of the two elements differs greatly in different animals; and the differences point to corresponding differ- ences in function. The cones are more sensitive than the rods, and minister toa higher acuteness of vision. In the human eye there is a small central zeetgn in which the perenye layer consists of cones * Lecture delivered at the noe al Tananoe on Friday, Mae 9, 1890. (Fre rom Nature, May 15, 1590, vol. XLII, pp. 55-61.) 687 688 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNEES. only, a region which the fibers avoid by curving round it, and in which the other layers of the retina are much thinner than elsewhere, so as to leave a depression, and are stained of a lemon-yellow color. In a zone immediately around this yellow spot each cone is surrounded by a single circle of rods; and as we proceed outwards towards the periphery of the retina, the circle of rods around each cone becomes successively double, triple, quadruple, or even more numerous. The yellow spot receives the image of the object to which the eye is actually directed, while the images of surrounding objects fall upon zones which surround the yellow spot; and the result of this arrangement is that generally speaking, the distinctness of vision diminishes in proportion to the distance of the image of the object from the retinal center. The consequent effect has been well described by saying that what we see resembles a picture, the central part of which is exquisitely finished, while the parts around the center are only roughly sketched in. We are conscious that these outer parts are there; but if we desire to see them accurately, they must be made the objects of direct vision in their turn. The indistinctness with which we see lateral objects is so completely neutralized by the quick mobility of the eyes, and by the manner in which they range almost unconsciously over the whole field of vision, that it seldom or never forces itself upon the attention. It may be conveniently displayed by means of an instrument called a perimeter, which enables the observer to look steadily at a central spot, while a second spot, or other object, is moved along an are, in any meridian, from the circumference of the field of view towards the center, or vice versa. Slight differences will be found between individuals; but, speak- ing generally, a capital letter one-third of an inch high, which is legi- ble by direct vision at a distance of 16 feet, and is recognizable as a dark object at 40° or 50° from the fixing point, will not become legible at a distance of 1 foot, until it arrives within about 10°. The image formed upon the retina is rendered visible by two differeut, conditions,—that is to say, by differences in the amount of light which enters into the formation of its different parts, and by differences in the quality of this light, that is, in its color, The former conditions are fulfilled by an engraving, the latter by apainting. Itis with the latter conditions only, and with the power of perceiving them, that we are concerned this evening. Betore such an audience as that which I have the honor to address, it is unnecessary to say more about color than that it depends upon the : power possessed by the objects which we describe as colored, to absorb and retain certain portions of white or other mixed light, and to reflect or transmit other portions. The resulting effect of color is the impres- . sion produced upon the eye or upon the brain by the waves of light which are left, after the process of selective absorption has been accom- plished. Some substances absorb two of the three fundamental colors COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 689 of the solar spectrum, others absorb one only, others absorb portions of one or more. Whatever remaius is transmitted through the media of the eye, and in the great majority of tbe human race, suffices to excite the retina to a characteristic kind of activity. Few things are more curious than the multitude of different color sensations which may be produced by the varying combinations of the three simple elements, red, green, and violet; but this is a part of the subject into which it would be impossible for me now to enter, and with which most of those who hear me must already be perfectly familiar. Apart from the effect of color as one of the chief sources of beauty in the world, it is manifest that the power of distinguishing it adds greatly to the acuteness of vision. Objects which differ from their sur- roundings by differences of color are far more conspicuous than those which differ only by differences of light and shade. Flowers are much indebted to their brilliant coloring for the visits of the insects by which they are fertilized ; and creatures which are the prey of others find their best protection in a resemblance to the colors of their envi- ronment. It is probably a universal truth that the organs of color perception are more highly specialized and that the sense of color is more developed in all animals in precise proportion to the general acuteness of vision of each. From a variety of considerations, into which time will not allow me to enter, it has been concluded that the sense of color is an endowment of the retinal cones, and that the rods are sensitive only to differences in the quantity of the incident light, without regard to its quality. Nocturnal mammals, such as mice, bats, and hedgehogs, have no cones ; and cones are less developed in nocturnal birds than in diurnal ones. Certain limitations of the human color sense may almost be inferred from the anatomy of the retina. It is found, as that anatomy would lead us to suppose, that complete color sense exists only in the retinal center, or in and immediately around the yellow spot region, and that it diminishes as we pass away from this center towards the periphery. The precise facts are more difficult to ascertain than might be supposed; for although it is easy to bring colored objects from the circumference to the center of the field of vision on the perimeter, it is by no means easy to be quite sure of the point at which the true color of the ad- vancing object can first be said to be distinctly seen. Much depends, moreover, on the size of this advancing object, because the larger it is the sooner will its image fall upon some of the more sparsely distrib- uted cones of the peripheral portion of the retina. Testing the mat- ter upon myself with colored cards of the size of a man’s visiting card I find that I am conscious of red or blue at about 40° from the fixing point, but not of green until it comes within about 30°; while, if I take three spots, respectively of bright red, bright green, and bright blue, each half a centimetre in diameter and separated from its neighbor on either side by an interval of half a centimetre, spots which would be H. Mis, 129——-44 690 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. visible as distinct and separate objects at 8 metres, I can not fairly and distinctly see all three colors until they come within 10° of the center. Beyond 40°, albeit with slight differences between individuals and on different meridians for the same individual, colors are only seen by the degree of their luminosity; that is, they appear as light spots if upon a dark ground and as dark spots if upon a light ground. Speaking generally therefore, it may be said that human vision is only tri-chro- matic, or complete for the three fundamental colors of the solar spec- trum, over a small central area, which certainly does not cover more than 30° of the field ; that it is bi-chromatic, or limited to red and vio- let, over an annulus outside this central area; and that it is limited to light and shade from thence to the outermost limits of the field. The nature and imitations of the color sense in man long ago sug- gested to Thomas Young that the retina might contain three sets of fibers, each set capable of responding to only one of the fundamental colors; or in other words, that there are special nerve fibers for red, special nerve fibers for green, and special nerve fibers for violet. It has also been assumed that the differences between these fibers might essen- tially consist in the ability of each set to respond only to light vibra- tious of a certain wave length, much as a tuned string will only respond to a note with which it is in unison. In the human subject, so far as has yet been ascertained, no optical differences between the cones are discoverable ; but the analogy of the ear and the facts which have been supplied by comparative anatomy combine to render Young’s hypothesis exceedingly probable, and it is generally accepted, at least provision- ally, as the only one which furnishes an explanation of the facts. It implies that elements of all three varieties are present in the central portion of the retina; that elements sensitive to green are absent from an annulus around the center; and that the peripheral portions are destitute of any elements by which color sense can be called into ac. tivity. According to the observation already made, that the highest degree of acuteness of vision is necessarily attended by a corresponding acute- ness of color sense, we should naturally expect to find such a highly devcloped color sense in birds, many of which appear, as regards visual power, to surpass all other creatures. [I need not dwell upon the often- | described acuteness of vision of vultures or upon the vision of fishing | birds, but may pass on to remark that the acuteness of their vision ap- pears not only to be unquestionable, but also to be much more widely diffused over the retina than is the case with man. If we watch domes- tic poultry or pigeons feeding we shall frequently see a bird, when busily picking up food immediately in front of its beak, suddenly make ; a lateral dart to some grain lying sidewise to its line of sight, which would have been practically invisible to a human eye looking in the same direction as that of the fowl. When we examine the retina the explanation both of the acuteness of vision and of its distribution be- Pee COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 691 comes at once apparent. In birds, in some reptiles, and in fishes not only are cones distributed over the retina much more abundantly and more evenly than in man, but the cones are provided with colored globules, droplets of colored oil, at their apices, through which the light entering them must pass before it can excite sensation and which are practically impervious to any color but their own. Each globule is so placed as to intervene between what is regarded as the collecting por- tion of the cone and what is regarded as its perceptive portion in such a way that the latter can only receive color which is capable of passing through the globule. The retinz of many birds, especially of the fineh, the pigeon, and the domestic fowl, have been carefully examined by Dr. Waelchli, who finds that near the center, green is the predominant color of the cones, while among the green cones, red and orange ones are somewhat sparingly interspersed and are nearly always arranged alternately, a red cone between two orange ones, and vice versa. In a surrounding portion, called by Dr. Waelchli the red zone, the red and orange cones are arranged in chains and are larger and more numerous than near the yellow spot. The green ones are of smaller size and fill up the inter-spaces. Near the periphery the cones are scattered, the three colors about equally numerous and of equal size, while a few colorless cones are also seen. Dr. Waelchli examined the optical prop- erties of the colored cones by means of the micro-spectroscope and found, as the colors would lead us to suppose, that they transmitted only the corresponding portions of the spectrum, and it would almost seem, ex- cepting for the few colorless cones at the peripheral part of the retina, that the birds examined must have been unable to see blue, the whole of which would be absorbed by their color globuies. It would be neces- sary to be thoroughly acquainted with their food in order to understand any advantage which the birds in question may derivo from the pre- dominance of green, red, and orange globules over others, but it is im- possible to consider the structure thus described without coming to the conclusion that the birds in which it exists must have a very acute sense of the colors corresponding to the globules with which they are so abundantly provided and that this color sense, instead of being localized in the center, as in the human eye, must be diffused over a very largo portion of the retina. Dr. Waelchli points out that the coloration of the yellow spot in man must, to a certain extent, exclude blue from the central and most sensitive portion of his retina. It is hardly necessary to mention how completely the high differen- tiation of the cones in the creatures referred to-—tends to support the hypothesis of Young, that a similar differentiation, although not equally manifest, exists also in man. If this be so, we must conclude that the region of the yellow spot contains cones, some of which are capable of being called into activity by red, others by green, and others by violet ; that a surrounding annulus contains no cones sensitive to green, but such as are sensitive to red or to violet only ; and that, beyond and around 692 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. this latter region, such cones as may exist are not sensitive to any color, but, like the rods, only to differences in the amount of light. When cones of only one kind are called into activity the sensation produced is named red, green, or violet, and when all three varieties are stimu- lated in about an equal degree the sensation produced is called white. In the same way the innumerable intermediate color sensations, of which the normal eye is susceptible, must be ascribed to stimulation of the three varieties of cones in unequal degrees. The conditions of color-sense which in the human race (or at least in civilized man) exist normally in outer zones of the retina, are found in a few individuals, to exist alsoin the center. There are persons in whom the region of the yellow spot is absolutely insensitive to color, and recognizes only differences in the amount or quantity oflight. To such persons the term ‘color-blind” ought perhaps in strictness to be limited; but the individuals in question are so rare that they are hardly entitled to a monopoly of an appellation which is conveniently applied also to others. The totally color-blind would see a colored picture as if it were an engraving, or a drawing in black and white, and would perceive dif- ferences between its parts only in the degree in which they differed in brightness. A more common condition is the existence, in the center of the retina, of a kind of vision like that which normally exists in the zone next sur- rounding it; that is, a blindness to green. Persons who are blind to green appear to see violet and yellow much as these are seen by the normal-sighted, and they can see red, but they can not distinguish it from green. Others, and this form is more common than the preceding, are blind to red, and a very small number of persons are blind to violet. Such blindness to one of the fundamental colors may be either com- plete or incomplete; that is to say, the power of the color in question to excite its proper sensation may be either absent or feeble. In some cases the defect is so moderate in degree as to be adequately described by the phrase “ defective color-sense.” The experiments of Helmholtz upon color led him tosupplement the original hypothesis of Young by the supposition that the special nerve elements excited by any one color are also excited in some degree by each of the other two, but that they respond by the sensation appropri- ate to themselves, and not by that appropriate to the color by which they are thus feebly excited. This, which is often called thé Young- Helmholtz hypothesis, assumes that the pure red of the spectrum, while it mainly stimulates the fibers sensitive to red, stimulates in a less degree those which are sensitive to green, and in a still less degree those which are sensitive to violet, the resulting sensation being red. Pure green stimulates strongly the green-perceptive fibers, and stimu- lates slightly both the red-perceptive and the violet-perceptive—result- ing sensation, green. Pure violet stimulates strongly the violet-percep- tive fibers, less strongly the green-perceptive, least strongly the red- ~qenege™ Le tl COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 693 perceptive—resulting sensation, violet. When all three sets of fibers are stimulated at once the resulting sensation is white, and when a normal eye is directed to the spectrum the region of greatest luminos- ity is in the middle of the yellow; because, while here both the green- perceptive and the red-perceptive fibers are stimulated in a high degree, the violet-perceptive are also stimulated in some degree. According to this view of the case the person who is red-blind, or in whom the red-preceptive fibers are wanting or paralyzed, has only two fundamental colors in the spectrum instead of three. Spectral red nevertheless is not invisible to him, because it feebly excites his green- preceptive fibers, and hence appears as a saturated green of feeble luminosity; saturated, because it scarcely at all excites the violet- preceptive fibers. The brightest part of the spectrum instead of being in the yellow is in the blue-green, because here both sets of sensitive fibers are stimulated. In the case of the green-blind, in whom the fibers preceptive of green are supposed to be wanting or paralyzed, the only stimulation produced by spectral green is that of the red-precep- tive and of the violet-perceptive fibers; and where these are equally stim- ulated we obtain the white of the green-blind, which, to ordinary eyes, is a sort of rose color, a mixture of red and violet. In like manner the white of the red-blind is a mixture of green and violet, and if we con- sider the facts we shali see that spectral red, which somewhat feebly stimulates the green-perceptive fibers of the normal eye, and spectral green, which somewhat feebly stimulates the red-perceptive fibers of the normal and also of the green-blind eye, must appear to the green- blind to be one and the same color, (differing only in luminosity, and that in an opposite sense to the preception of the red-blind. In other words, red and green are undistinguishable from each other as colors alike to the red-blind and to the green-blind ; but to the former the red and to the latter the green appears, aS compared with the other, to be of feeble luminosity. In either case the two are only lighter and darker shades of the same color. The conditions of violet-blindness are analo- gous, but the defect itself is very rare; and as it is of small industrial importance it has attracted but a small degree of attention. Very extensive investigations, conducted during the last few years both in Europe and in America, have shown that those which may be called the common forms of color-blindness, the blindness to red and to green, exist in about 4 per cent. of the male population and in perhaps 1 per thousand of females. Among the rest there are slight differences of color-sense, partly due to differences of habit and training, but of little or no practical importance. One such difference, to which Lord Rayleigh was the first to direct attention, has reference to yellow. The pure yellow of the spectrum may, as is generally known, be precisely matched by a mixture of spectral red with spectral green; but the pro- portions in which the mixture should be made differ within certain limits for different people. The difference must, I think, depend upon 694 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. differences in the pigmentation of the yellow spot rather than upon any defect in the nervous apparatus of the color-sense. There is a very ingenious instrument, invented by Mr. Lovibond and called by him the ‘tintometer,” which allows the color of any objéct to be accurately matched by combinations of colored glass, and to be expressed in terms of the combination. In using this instrument we uot only find slight differences in the combinations required by different people, but also in the combinations required by the two eyes of the same person. Here again, I think the differences must be due either to differences in the pigmentation of the yellow spot, or possibly also to differences in the color of the internal lenses of the several eyes, the lens, as it is well known, being usually somewhat yellow after middle age. The differ- ences are plainly manifest in comparing persons all of whom possess tri-chromatie vision, and are not sufficient in degree to be of any prac- tical importance. Taking the ordinary case of a red-blind or of a green-blind person, it is interesting to speculate upon the appearance which the world must present to him. Being insensible to one of the fundamental colors of the spectrum, he must lose (roughly speaking) one-third of the luminosity of nature; unless, as is possible, the deficiency is made good to him by increased acuteness of perception to the colors which he sees. Whether he sees white as we see it, or as we see the mix- tures of red and violet, or of green and violet, which they make to match with it, we can only conjecture, on account of the inadequacy of language to convey an accurate idea of sensation. We have all heard of the blind man who concluded, from the attempts made to describe scarlet to him, that it was like the sound of a trumpet. If we take a heap of colored wools, and look at them first through a glass of pea- cock blue, by which the red rays are filtered out, and next through a purple glass, by which a large proportion of the green will be filtered out, we may presume that, under the first condition, the wools will ap- pear much as they would do to the red blind; and under the second, much as they would do to the green blind. It will be observed that the appearances differ in the two conditions, but that in both, red and green are practically undistinguishable from each other, and appear as the same color, but of different luminosity. Prior to reflection, and still more, prior to experience, we should be apt to conjecture that the existence of color-blindness in any individual could not remain concealed, either from himself or from those around him; but such a conjecture would be directly at variance with the truth. Just as it was reserved for Mariotte, in the reign of Charles II, to discover that there is, in the field of vision of every eye, a lacuna or blind spot, corresponding with the entrance of the optic nerve, so it was reserved for a still later generation to discover the existence of so common a defect as color-blindness. The first recorded case was de- eAedad scribed to Dr. Priestley by Mr. Huddart, in 1777, and was that of a man an COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 695 named Harris, a shoemaker at Maryport, Cumberland, who had also a color-blind brother, a mariner. Soon afterwards, the case of Dalton, the chemist, was fully described, and led to the discovery of other ex- amples of a similar kind. The condition was still however looked upon asavery exceptional one; insomuch that the name of “ Daltonism” was proposed for it, and is still generally used in France as a synonym for color-blindness. Such use is objectionable, not only because it is undesirable thus to perpetuate the memory of the physical infirmity of an eminent philosopher, but also because Dalton was red-blind, so that the name could only be correctly applied to his particular form of defect. Color-blindness often escapes detection on account of the use of color names by the color-blind in the same manner as that in which they hear them used by other people. Children learn from the talk of those around them, that it is proper to describe grass as green, and bricks or cherries as red; and they follow this usage, although the difference may appear to them so slight that their interpretation of either color- name may be simply as a lighter or darker shade of the other. When they make mistakes, they are laughed at, and thought careless, or to be merely using color names incorrectly ; and a common result is that they ’ rather avoid such names, and shrink from committing themselves to statements about color. Dr. Joy Jefferies gives an interesting descrip- tion of the almost unconscious devices practiced by the color-blind in this way. He says: “The color-blind, who are quick-witted enough to discover early that something is wrong with their vision by the smiles of their listeners when they mention this or that object by color, are equally quick-witted in avoiding so doing. They have found that there are names of certain attributes they can not comprehend, and hence must let alone. They learn also what we forget, that so many objects of every-day life always have the same color, as red tiles or bricks, and the color names of these they use with freedom ; whilst they often, even unconsciously, are cautious not to name the color of a new object till they have heard it applied, after which it is a mere matter of memory stimulated by a consciousness of defect. I have often recalled to the color-blind their own acts and words, and surprised them by an exposure of the mental jugglery they employed to escape detection, and of which they were almost unaware, so much had it become matter of habit. Another im- portant point is, that as violet blindness is very rare, the vast majority of defective eyes are red or green blind. These persons see violet and yellow as the normal-eyed, and they naturally apply these color names correctly. When therefore they fail in red or green, a casual observer attributes it to simple carelessness,—hence a very ready avoidance of detection. It does not seem possible that any one who sees so much correctly, and whose ideas of color so correspond with our own, can not be equally correct throughout, if they will but take the pains to notice and learn.” 696 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. When the coler-blind are placed in positions which compel them to select colors for themselves and others, or when as sometimes happens, they are not sensitive with regard to their defect, but rather find amusement in the astonishment which it produces among the color- seeing, the results which occasionally follow are apt to be curious. They have often been rendered still more curious, by having been the unconscious work of members of the Society of Friends. Color-blind- nessisa structural peculiarity, constituting what may be called a variety of the human race; and like other varieties, it is hable to be handed down to posterity. Hence, if the variety occurs in a person belonging to a community which is small by comparison with the nation, and among whose members there is frequent inter-marriage, it has an in- creased probability of being reproduced; and thus, while many of the best known of the early examples of color bindness, including that of Dalton himself, were furnished by the Society of Friends, the examina- tions of large pumbers of scholars and others, conducted during the last few years have shown that in this country, color blindness is more com- mon among Jews than among the general population. The Jews have no peculiarities of costume; but the spectacle, which has more than once been witnessed, of a venerable Quaker who had clothed him- selfin bright green or vivid scarlet, could scarcely fail to excite the de- rision of the unreflecting. Time does not allow me to relate the many errors of the color-blind which have been recorded ; but there is an in- stance of a clerk in a Government office, whose duty it was to cbeck cer- tain entries, in relation to their subject-matter, with ink of one or of an- , other color, and whose accuracy was dependent upon the order in which his ink bottles were ranged in front of him. This order having been accidentally disturbed, great confusion was produced by his mistakes, and it was a long time before these were satisfactorily accounted for. Au official of the Prussian post-office, again, who was accustomed to sell stamps of different values and colors, was frequently wrong in his cash, his errors being as often against himself as in his favor, so as to exvlude any suspicion of dishonesty. His seeming carelessness was at last explained by the discovery of his color-blindness, and he was re- lieved of a duty which it was impossible for him to discharge without falling into error. The color mistakes of former years were however of little moment when compared with those now liable to be committed by engine driv- ers and mariners. The avoidance of collisions at sea and on railways depends largely on the power promptly to recognize the colors of sig- ials; and the colors most available for signaling purposes are red and green, or precisely those between which the sufferers from the two most common forms of color-blindness are unable with any certainty to discriminate. About 13 years ago there was a serious railway acci- dent in Sweden, and in the investigation subsequent to this accident, there were some remarkable discrepancies in the evidence given with a. COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 697 regard to the color of the signals which had been displayed. Professor Holmgren, of the University of Upsala, had his attention called to this discrepancy, and he found, on further examination, that the wit- ness whose assertions about the signals differed from those of other people was actually color-blind. From this incident arose Professor Holmgren’s great interest in the subject, and he did not rest until he had obtained the enactment of a law under which no one can be taken into the employment of a Swedish railway until his color-vision has been tested, and has been found to be sufficient for the duties he will be called upon to perform. The example thus set by Sweden has been followed, more or less, by other countries, and especially, thanks to the untiring labors of Dr. Joy Jeffries, of Boston, by several of the United States; while at the same time much evidence has been col- lected to show the connection between railway and marine accidents and the defect. [t has been found, by very extensive and carefully conducted exam- inations of large bodies of men, soldiers, policemen, the workers in great industrial establishments, and so forth, as well as of children in many schools, that color-blindness exists in a noticeable degree, as I have already said, in about 4 per cent. of the male industrial population in civilized countries, and in about one per thousand of females. Among the males of the more highly educated classes, taking Eton boys as an example, the color-blind are only between 2 and 3 per cent., and per- haps nearer to2 than to3. Whether asimilar difference exists between females of different classes, we have no statistics to establish. The condition of color-blindness is absolutely incurable, absolutely incapa- ble of modification by training or exercise, in the case of the individual; although the comparative immunity of the female sex justifies the sug- -gestion that it may possibly be due to training throughout successive generations, on account of the more habitual occupation of the female eyes about color in relation to costume. However this may be, in the individual, as I have said, the defect is unalterable; and if the difference between red and green is uncertain at 8 years of age, it will be equally uncertain at 80. Hence the existence of color-blindness among those who have to control the movements of ships or of railway trains con- stitates the real danger to the public; and it is highly important that the color-blind, in their own interests as well as in those of others, should be excluded from employments the duties of which they are unfit to discharge. The attempts hitherto made in this country to exclude the color- blind from raiiway and marine employment have not been by any means successful. As far as the merchant navy is concerned, so-called exami- nations have been conducted by the board of trade, with results which can only be described as Indicrous. Candidates have been “ plucked ” in color at one examination, and permitted to pass at a subsequent one; as if correct color-vision were something which could be acquired. 698 ‘CCOLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. Such candidates were-either improperly rejected on the first occasion, or improperly accepted on the second, On English railways there has been no uniformity in the methods of testing ; except (in so far as I am acquainted with them) thatthey have been almost uniformly misleading, calculated to give rise to the imputation of color-blindness where it did not exist, and to leave it undiscovered where it did. In these cireum- stances if is not surprising that great discontent should have arisen among railway men in relation to the subject; and this discontent has led, indirectly, to the appointment of a committee by the Royal Society, with the sanction of the board of trade, for the purpose of investigating the whole question as completely as may be possible. It is perhaps worth while, before proceeding to describe the manner in which the color sense of large bodies of men should be tested for indus- trial- purposes, to say something as to the amount of danger which color-blindness produces. A locomotive, as we all know, is under the charge of two men, the driver and the fireman. Ina staff of 1,000 of each, allotted to 1,000 locomotives, we should expect, in the absence of any etficient method of examination, to find 40 color-blind drivers and 40 color-blind firemen. The chances would be 1 in 25 that either the driver or the fireman on any particular engine would be color blind ; they would be 1 in 625 that both would be color-blind. These figures appear to show a greater risk of accident than we find realized in actual working, and it is manifest that there are compensations to be taken into account. In the first place, the term “ color-blind ” is itself in some degree misleading ; for it must be remembered that the signals to which the color-blind person is said to be “ blind” are not invisible to him. To the red-blind, the red light is a less luminous green; to the green- blind, the green light is a less luminous red. The danger arises because the apparent differences are not sufficiently characteristic to lead to cer- - tain and prompt identification in all states of illumination and of atmos- phere. It must be adinitted therefore that a color-blind driver may be at work for a long time without mistakes; and it is probable, knowing, as he must, that the differences between different signal lights appear to him to be only trivial, that he will exercise extreme caution. Then it must be remembered that lights never appear to an engine driver in unexpected places. Before being intrusted with a train he is taken over the line, and is shown the precise position of every light. If a light did not appear where it was due, he would naturally ask his fireman to aid in the lookout. It must be also remembered that to over-run a danger signa] does not of necessity imply a collision. A driver may over-run the signal, and after doing so may see a train or other obstrue- tion on the line, and may stop in time to avoid an accident. In sueh a vase he would probably be reported and fined for over-running the sig- nal; and if the same thing occurred again, he would be dismissed for his assumed carelessness, probably with no suspicion of his defect. Color-blind firemen are unquestionably thus driven out of the service = COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 699 by the complaints of their drivers; and none but railway officials know how many cases of over-running signals, followed by disputes as to what the signals actually were, occur in the course of a year’s work. I have never heard of an instance in this country, in which, after a rail- way accident, the color vision of the driver concerned or of his fireman has been tested by an expert on the part either of the board of trade or of the company, but a fireman in the United States has recently recov- ered heavy damages from the company for the loss of one of his legs in a collision which was proved to have been occasioned by the color- blindness of the driver. Looking at the whole question, I feel that the danger on railways is a real one, but that it is minimized by the several considerations to which I have referred, and that it is much smaller than the frequency of the defect migbt lead us to think likely. At sea, the danger is much more formidable. The lights appear at all sorts of times and places, and there may be only one responsible person on the lookout. Mr. Bickerton, of Liverpool, has lately pub- lished accounts of three cases in which the color-blindness of officers of the mercantile marine, all of whom had passed the board of trade ex- amination, was accidentally discovered by the captain being on deck when the officers in question gave wrong orders consequent upon mis- taking the light shown by an approaching vessel. The loss of the Ville du Havre was almost certainly due to color-blindness; and a very fatal collision in American waters, some years ago, between the Isaac Bell and the Lumberman, was traced, long after the event, to the color- blindness of a pilot, who had been unjustly accused of being drunk at the time of the occurrence. In how many instances color-blindness has been the unsuspected cause of wrecks and other calamities at sea, it is impossible to do more than conjecture. It is necessary then, alike in the public interest and in the interest of the color-blind, who have doubtless often sutfered in the misfortunes which their defects have produced, to detect them in time to prevent them from entering into the marine and railway services; and the next question is, how this detection should be accomplished. We have to distinguish the color-blind from the color-sighted ; but we must be care- ful not to confound color-blindness with the much more common con- dition of color-ignorance. It would surprise many people, more especially many ladies, to dis- cover the extent to which sheer ignorance of color prevails among boys and men of the laboring classes. Many who ean see colors perfectly, and who would never be in the least danger of mistaking a railway signal, are quite unable to naine colors or to describe them, and they are sometimes unable to perceive for want of education of a faculty which they notwithstanding possess, anything like fine shades of difference. Mr. Gladstone once published a paper on the scanty and uncertain color-nomenclature of the Homeric poems, and he might have found very similar examples among his own contemporaries and in his own 700 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. country. I have lately seen a pattern card of colored silks issued by a Lyons manufacturer, which contains samples of two thousand different colors, each with its more or less appropriate name. There is here a larger color vocabulary than the entire vocabulary for the expression of all his knowledge and of all his ideas, which is possessed by an aver- age engine driver or fireman, and just as most of us would be igno- rant of the names of the immense majority of the colors displayed on that card, so hundreds of men and boys among the laboring classes, especially in large towns where the opportunities of education by the ° colors of flowers and insects are very limited, are ignorant of the names of colors which persons of ordinary cultivation mention constantly in their daily talk and expect their children to pick up and to understand unconsciously. It is among people thus ignorant that the officials of the board of trade and of railways have been most successful in find- ing their supposed color-blind persons, and these persons who would never have been pronounced color-blind by an expert have been able, as soon as they have paid a little attention to the observation and naming of color, to pass an official examination triumphantly. The sense of color presents many analogies to that of hearing. Some peo- ple can hear a higher or a lower note than others, the difference de- pending upon structure, and being incapable of alteration. No one who cannot hear a note of a certain pitch can ever be trained to do so; but within the original auditory limits of each individual the sense of hearing may be greatly improved by cultivation. In like manner a person who is blind to red or green must remain so, but one whose color sense is merely undeveloped by want of cultivation may have its acuteness for fine differences very considerably increased. In order to test color-vision for railway and marine purposes, the first suggestion which would occur to many people would be to employ as objects the flags and signal lanterns which are used in actual working. I have heard apparently sensible people use, with reference to such a procedure, the phrase upon which Faraday was wont to pour ridicule, and to say that the fitness of the suggested method * stands to reason.” To be effectual, such a test must be applied in different states of atmos- phere, with colored glasses of various tints, with various degrees of illumination, and with the objects at various distances; so that much time would be required in order to exhaust all the conditions under which railway signals may present themselves. This being done, the examinee must be either right or wrong each time. He has always an even chance of being right; and it would be an insoluble problem to discover how many correct answers were due to accident, or how many incorrect ones might be attributed to nervousness or to confusion of names. We must remember that what is required is to detect a color-blind person against his will; and to ascertain, not whether he deseribes a given signal rightly or wrongly on a particular occasion, but whether é Ger Ge See ow COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. TOL he can safely be trusted to distinguish correctly between signals on all occasions. We want, in short, to ascertain the state of bis color-vision generally; and hence to infer his fitness or unfitness to discharge the duties of a particular occupation. For the accomplishment of this object, we do not in the least want to know what the examinee calls colors, but only how he sees them, what colors appear to him to be alike and what appear to be unlike; and the only way of attaining this knowledge with certainty is to cause him to make matches between colored objects, to put those together which appear to him to be essentially the same, and to separate those which appear to hin to be essentially different. This principle of test- ing was first laid down by Seebeck, who required from examinees a complete arrangement of a large number of colored objects; but it has been greatly simplified and improved by Professor Holmgren, who pointed out that such a complete arrangement was superfluous, and that the only thing required was to cause the examinee to make matches to certain test colors, and, for this purpose, to select from a heap which contained not only such matches but also the colors which the color- blind were liable to confuse with them. After many trials, Holmgren finally selected skeins of Berlin wool as the material best suited for this purpose; and his set of wools com- prises about 150 skeins. The advantages of his method over every other are that the wool is very cheap, very portable, and always to be obtained in every conceivable color and shade. The skeins are not lustrous, so that light reflected from the surfaces does not interfere with the accuracy of the observation, and they are very easily picked up and manipulated, much more easily than colored paper or colored glass. The person to be tested is placed before a table in good day- light, the table is covered by a white coth, and the skeins are thrown upon it in a loosely arranged heap. The examiner then selects a skein of pale green, much diluted with white, and throws it down by itself to the left of the heap. The examinee is directed to look at this pat- tern skein and at the heap, and to pick out from the latter and to place beside the pattern as many skeins as he can find which are of the same color. He is not to be particular about lighter or darker shades, and is not to compare narrowly, or to rummage much amongst the heap, but to select by his eyes, and to use his hands chiefly to change the po- sition of the selected material. In such circumstances a person with normal color sight will select the greens rapidly and without hesitation, will select nothing else, and will select with a certain readiness and confidence easily recognized by an experienced examiner, and which may even be carried to the extent of neglecting the minute accuracy which a person who distrusts his own color sight will frequently endeavor to display. Some normal sighted people will complete their seletions by taking greens which incline to yellow, and greens which incline to blue, while others will 702 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. reject both; but this is a difference depending sometimes upon imper- fect color education, sometimes upon the interpretation placed upon the directions of the examiner, but the person who so selects sees the green element in the yellow greens and in the blue greens, and is not color-blind. The completely color-blind, whether to red or to green, will proceed with almost as much speed and confidence as the color sighted; and will rapidly pick out a number of drabs, fawns, stone colors, pinks, or yellows. Between the foregoing classes we meet with a few people who declare the imperfection of their color sense by the extreme care with which they select, by their slowness, by their hesi- tation, and by their desire to compare this or that skein with the pat- tern more narrowly than the conditions of the trial permit. They may or may not ultimately add one or two more of the confusion colors to the green, but they have a manifest tendency to do so, and a general uncertainty in their choice. One of the great advantages of Holmgren’s method over every other is the way in which the examiner is able to judge, not only by the final choice of matches, but also by the manner in which the choice is made, by the action of the hands, and by the ges- tures and general deportment of the examinee. When confusion colors have been selected, or when an unnatural slowness and hesitation have been shown in selecting, the examinee must be regarded as either completely or incompletely color-blind. In order to determine which, and also to which color he is detective, he is subjected to the second test. For this, the wool is mixed again, and the pattern this time is a skein of light purple—that is, of a mixture of red and violet, much diluted with white. To match this, the color-blind always selects deeper colors. If he puts only deeper purples, he is in- completely color-blind. If he takes blue or violet,either with or with- out purple, he is completely red blind. If he takes green or gray, or one alone, with or without purple, he is completely green blind. If he takes red or orange, with or without purple, he is violet blind. If there be any doubt, the examinee may be subjected to a third test, which is not necessary for the satisfaction of an expert, but which sometimes strengthens the proof in the eyes of a bystander. ‘The pattern for this third test is a skein of bright red, to be used in the same way as the green and the purple. The red blind selects for’ this dark greens and browns, which are much darker than the pattern; while the green blind selects greens and browns which are lighter than the pattern. The method of examination thus described is, I believe, absolutely trust-worthy. Itrequires no apparatns beyond the bundle of skeins of wool, no arrangements beyond a room with a good window, and a table with a white cloth. In examining large numbers of men, they may be ad- mitted into the room fifty or so atatime, may all receive theirinstructions together, and may then make their selections one by one, all not yet examined watching the actions of those who come up in their turn, and thus learning how to proceed. The time required for large numbers eS —— —— COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS, 703 averages about a minute a person. I have heard and read of instances of color-blind people who had passed the wool test satisfactorily, and had afterwards been detected by other methods, but I confess that I do not believe in them. I do not believe that in such cases the wool test was applied properly, or in accordance with Holingren’s very precise in- structions; and I know that it is often applied in a way which can lead to nothing but erroneous results. Railway foremen, for example, re- ceive out of a store a small collectiou of colored wools selected on no principle, and they use it by pulling outa single thread, and by asking the examinee, ‘“ What color do you call that?” Men of greater scien- tific pretensions than railway foremen have not always selected their pattern colors accurately, and have allowed those whom they examined and passed to make narrow comparisons between the skeins in all sorts of lights in a way which should of itself have afforded sufficient evi- dence of defect. Although however the expert may be fully satisfied by the wool test that the examinee is not capable of distinguishing with certainty between red and green flags or lights in all the circumstances in which they can be displayed, it may still remain for him to satisfy the employer who is not an expert, the railway manager, or the shipowner, and to convince him that the color-blind person is unfit for certain kinds of employment. It may be equally necessary to convince other workmen that the examinee has been fairly and rightly dealt with. Both these objects may be easily attained by the use of slight modifications of the lights which are employed. Lanterns for this special purpose were contrived some years ago by Holmgren himself and by the late Pro- fessor Donders, of Utrecht, and what are substantially their contriv- ances have been brought forward within the last few months as novel- ties by gentlemen in this country who have re-invented them. The prin- ciple of all is the same, namely, that light of varying intensity may be displayed through apertures of varying magnitude and through colored glass of varying tints, so as to imitate the appearances of signal lamps at different distances and under different conditions of illumination, of weather, and of atmosphere. To the color-blind the difference between a red light and a green one is not a difference of color, but of luminos- ity, the color to which he is blind appearing the less luminous of the two. He may therefore be correct in his guess as to which of the two is exhibited on any given occasion, and he is by no means certain to mistake one for the other when they are exhibited in immediate suc- cession. His liability to error is chiefly conspicuous when he sees one light only and when the conditions which govern its luminosity depart in any degree from those to which he is most accustomed. With the lanterns of which I have spoken it is always possible to deceive a color- blind person by altering the luminosity of a light without altering its color. This may be done by diminishing the light behind the glass, by ncreasing the thickness of the red or green glass, or by placing a piece 704 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. of neutral tint, more or less dark, in front of either. The most inered- ulous employer may be convinced by expedients of this kind that the color-blind are not to be relied upon for the safe control of ships or of locomotives. With regard to the whole question there are many points of great interest, both physical and physiological, which are still more or less uncertain, but the practical elements have, I think, been well- nigh exhausted, and the means of securing safety are fully in the hands of those who choose to master and to employ them. The lanterns in their various forms are useful for the purpose of thoroughly exposing the color-blind and for bringing home the character of their incapacity to unskilled spectators ; but they are both cumbrous and superfluous for the detection of the defect, which may be accomplished with far greater ease and with equal certainty by the wool test alone. I have already mentioned that the examinations which have been conducted in the United States, thanks to the indefatigable labors of Dr. Joy Jeffries, have led to the discovery of an enormous and pre- viously quite unsuspected amount of color ignorance, the condition which is frequently mistaken for ecolor-blindness by the methods of examination which are in favor with railway companies and with the board of trade; and this color ignorance has been justly regarded as a blot on the American system of national education. It has therefore, in some of the States, led to the adoption of systematic color-teaching in the schools; and for this purpose Dr. Joy Jeffries bas introduced a wall chart and colored cards. The children are taught, in the first instance, to match the colors in the chart with those of the cards dis- tributed to them, and when they are tolerably expert at matching they are further taught the names of the colors. It must nevertheless always be remembered that a knowledge of names does not necessarily imply a knowledge of the things designated, and that color vision stands in no definite relation to color nomenclature. Even this system of teaching may leave a color-blind pupil undetected. TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION.* By F. REULEAUX. From the present status of the world’s culture, one can not fail to discern the significant influence of our scientific technology in qualifying us for greater achievements than the past centuries have yet witnessed, whether in connection with rapid transit by land or sea, tunneling mountains, piercing the air, making the lightning our message-bearer from pole to pole or sending our voices across the land; or whether, indeed, from another point of view we bring into our service the mighty mechanical powers, or adapt and make use of those intangible contriv- ances usually unnoticed by the world at large. Everywhere in modern life, about us, in us, with us, beside us, is felt the influence of scientific art acting as an agent and as companion, whose ceaseless service we never realize until for a moment it fails us. Commonplace though this be, still it seems to me that in the cultured world and perhaps in the narrower circles of scientific men, this truth is too slightly valued. The value of scientific technology in its trne character as producer and promoter of civilization, is too little recog- nized. This may result from a confusion of the so-called technical with the unscientific; or on the other hand, from concealment of its results under a preponderating mass of idealism, its development being cramped by ambition for gain and trammeled by social evils, which go hand in hand with industrial labor. But I will not here consider this side of the question. I would attempt a nearer approach to the inner sanctuary of technology to certain weighty questions, which appear especially deserving of present notice, as : What place, particularly in associate working, the technology of our day takes in civilization? A place not so well defined, it appears to me, as is ‘hat wé assign to less important social, political, and scientific events. Again, a question oceurs as to the chief features of the method fol- lowed by technology to attain its ends, and concerning the plan which 5 * Translated from Prometheus (Berlin), 1890, vol. I, pp. 625, 641, and 666. 706 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. must more or less underlie device and invention; a question which (especially for patent legislation) has long employed and must long continue to employ the scientist as well as the administrative practi- tioner. If we will compare our civilization with that of other nations we must understandingly glance at the people and their pursuits, which we find upon the lowest stratum; for example, those who, lacking a knowl- edge of writing, that wondrous thought transmitter, have, of course, no care for science. In this comparison one will soon encounter peoples whom a high culture has for centuries, yes, thousands of centuries, been a part. These are the peoples of eastern and southern Asia, the Chinese, Japanese, people of India, the Persians, and Arabians. Noting without prejudice their culture, we must concede them to be in a state of high development, indeed to have been highly developed, when mid- dle Europe still remained deep in barbarism. Even then science and art flourished among them, and is still advancing. For 3,000 years the Indian Vedas have devoutly proclaimed the Deity ; 2,000 years ago the Indian poets produced their odyssey the “ Mahabharata”—the great Bharata, the forerunner of many dramas, among them the tender “ Sakuntala,” the charm of which is still potent since its sentiments found their originin the heart of man. Philosophy flourished likewise, and the science of language in so great degree that the Indian grammarians of to-day can look back upon an unbroken line of predecessors, the vista terminating in Panini, whom they reverence like a god. Mathematics, too, were fostered, and to-day we write our numbers in Indian characters. In parts of India and in eastern Asia the commercial arts progressed then as now. Persia, too, was laurel- crowned among the world’s poets. Following the great Firdousi came the ‘“* Horaz” of Schiras, and in his footsteps Hafis sung his immortal songs, all of which have become a part of our literary treasure through the sesame of translation. And the Arabian literature, to which we have not yet had access in its entirety, how has it laid under tribute the Grecian inheritance, and so perfected astronomy that at the pres- ent time we name half the heavens after them. How, under the patient and studious princes of the time of Charles, did they foster the growth of arithmetical and still deeper science! How too have they surpassed our knowledge of chemistry in various substances and essences! What is then the spiritual difference which sunders their path from ours? Are we in certain arts still behind them? They are brave sol- diers, gentle and industrious citizens, wise statesmen and scholars ; honor and justice hold high rank among them. Where then, considered as men, lie the points of difference ? Or, on the other hand, do we question whether the spiritual bounda- ries lead to the good, and would we fain know whence springs our superiority over them ? How is it possible, for example, that England with a few thousand of ¢ ¢ TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 107 her own troops, rules the two hundred millions of India; how was it possible for her to remain victor in opposition to their terrific and fanat- ical revolt in 1857? How does 1t happen that we, Europeans or (not particularly to mention the European-settled America,) that the At- lantic nations alone compass the earth with railroads, surround it with telegraph lines, traverse its water girdle with mighty ships, and that to all this the other five-sixths of the earth’s inhabitants have not added a span—the same five-sixths which still, for the greater pans are grandly organized and highly cultivated ? There are different ways of explaining this astonishing fact, or rather, of at least attempting to determine it comprehensively. Senin the industrious Leipsic collector, who was a pre-historian long nae the discovery of pile habitations, has propounded the distinction between “active” and “ passive” peoples; and many to-day follow him therein. To him the Atlantic nations are the active; all others, down tothe utterly uncultivated, the passive. According to this theory we make history, they suffer it. Although this discrimination appears to have so much in its favor it does not hold. Nations can (as history teaches) be a long time active, then passive, and later again active. Activity and passivity are not to nations indwelling characteristics, but cireum- stances into which and out of which they can fall without changing their spiritual, essential position. One proof of reality the Klemm theory does not stand. Europe could, to-morrow, unyoked from Asia, be made passive without losing the character which makes railroads, steamships and telegraphs belong to her as her spiritual possession. The Arabian, on the contrary, could destroy the products of scientific technology as the pretended Omar the books, but would not be able to re-produce thei, as has many times been done in case of tne books. Others have supposed, and still believe, that it is Christianity that establishes the distinction. This however does not stand the test. Of course a considerable part ot the thinking which resulted in metamorphosed inventions and discoveries was done in the Christian empire, but by no means all. What an innovation was made by the art of printing, and yet we know that 1,000 years earlier the Chinese had found a way to this art. Gunpowder, too, that marks so decisive a step in the progress of our civilization, was used by the Arabians long before the time of the Freiburg monks. Then in mechanics we find those important power machines, the water wheels, are very old and of Asiatic origin. But passing from these examples to a genuine offspring of Europe, the steam-engine, watching its gradual development up to its actuai use—the time of the Renaissance—in Italy, Germany, France, and England, but never outside of Christendom, even this, we find, does not encounter progress, but on the contrary, its adherents often oppose it up to the last. We look further and do we not find to-day Christians living in the TOS TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. Kast, for example, in Armenia and in Abyssinia, entirely outside the contemplation of our victorious modern technology? In the past they have added naught thereto and to-day they are not its contributors. It can not be the things themselves, the inventions, but the engen- dering thought which must have produced the change, the innovation, In fact we can but ascribe this to a peculiar progress in thought precedence, a difficult, dangerous ascent to a higher, freer comprehen- sion of nature. The spell which bound us was broken by our understanding when we found the forces of nature following in their operations no capricious will—a Godly will—but working according to steadfast, unchangeable laws—the laws of nature; never otherwise. According to laws mighty, fixed, eternal, Must we complete our being’s circle breathe Goethe’s words from out the terrors of nature’s inexorable power. But according to “laws mighty, fixed, eternal” roll the worlds, the stars pursue their course, a tile falls from the roof or a drop from its cloud height. Suns wander up and down, Worlds go and come again, And this no wish ean alter. In this grand poetical form is seized the same uplifting knowledge that not the bodily but the spiritual force incloses within itself the pre- sentiment of God, that even the world’s creation consists in the immu- tability of itslaws. That it might win the knowledge, thought broke through the old barriers, but immediately drew from real life con- clusions such as these, if we may utter them quite free from secondary considerations. If we bring lifeless bodies into such circumstances that their working of natural laws answers our purposes, we may permit them instead of this labor to work for living beings. This began to be carried out with intelligence, and thereby was created our present technology. Scientific technology I must name it. When the spirit entertained the idea which sought to make natural laws a con- scious power, scarcely anything was known of these laws and they must first be wooed. Through hard battle indeed must they be won, for the learned world believed itself to have them in its possession. The reformer had therefore not simply to make the discovery, but to accomplish the gigantic task of overcoming antagonistic convictions and at the same time to support aspiritual campaign up to the heights of freer knowledge, for this march found weighty opposition in the decrees of the church, which had demanded its sacrifice. The vietory was won, and therewith our present technology gained the command. The opposing current of the time had spent itself, comprehending, per- haps, its injustice, for do not its first representatives travel as gaily upon the railroad, telephone, and telegraph as do others? Only smal] TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 709 skirmishers exist as a reserve, and this more from stubbornness than _ conviction. At all events they do not in the least retard the chief move- ment. What had happened had the reaction of that time prevailed—for it was a reaction begun in Germany more than 100 years before, Coper- nicus having lain more than 90 years in the grave when Galileo was unwillingly compelled to witness against him—what had happened in such an event is difficult to conceive; and yet not so, for we may see it exemplified in the great Arabian nation. Among this people the reac- tion had, in truth, conquered. Their Galileos, their Averrhoés, and numberless others, were defeated, together with their free convictions ; with them their entire sect, and therewith the Arabian culture, which already had lifted the hand to grasp the palm of victory of free knowl- edge, was paralyzed by the fanatical victors, and paralyzed they still lie low, already half a thousand years. Allah aalam! ‘God alone knows,” therefore shalt thou not desire to know! So sounds it since then for the pure Mohammedan; all investigation is cut off from him, forbidden and declared sinful. A noble and refined disciple of the Prophet has given expression tothe hope that the Moslem may yet be called to take up the lost leadership. Who may believe him? However, it appears certain that the overthrow of free thought in the Arabian language has become decisive for the remaining Asiatic culture. Like adam lies the spiritual-slain mass between them and us, and so has it come that we alone have entered into the development to which the pictured progress of thought led the way. The powers of nature which she has taught us to make useful are the mechanical, physical, and chemical ; to permit them to work for us requires a great outfit of mathematical and natural science. From this entire equipment we exercise a portion as a privilege. It seems necessary, in order to briefly distinguish the two directions of development, to call them by particular names. The Greeks named an artistic mechanism, an arrangement through which the unusual could be conducted, a manganon, which word goes back, according to some, to the name of the eminent race of magicians. All kinds of definite tangi- ble things which were considered skillfully and wisely thought out were so titled ; among others, a catapult for projectiles for purposes of war. With this the word comes into the Middle Ages. Then, early in the sev- enteenth century, a great machine was invented for rolling and smooth- ing the washing, and since this contrivance bore a remarkable outward resemblance to the catapult, it was also given its name, whereupon the word wandered further into the remaining European tongues, as every house-wife knows, or perhaps does not know, if she send her washing to a “mangle.” Again, for our purpose, [ would generalize that old word and name, on the one hand, that something by means of which the forces of na- ture are known in her laws, manganism, and on the other, that which 710 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. seems to stand as nature’s defender, mysteriously guarding her ways, naturism. Employing for the present these terms, we shall see the peoples of the earth divided into manganistical and naturistical, and shall notice that, on account of their full understanding of their material equipment, the former have a powerful advantage over the latter. Indeed, we dare go much further and hesitate not to assert that to the manganistical nations belongs the domination of the earth, although now, as ever, it must be battled for. Still the observer may confidently predict the vie- tory of the manganists and that resistance ean but mean either gradual overthrow or destruction. That unyielding determination makes possible the unprecedented step from naturism to manganism is shown in our time, a time so rich in culture, by the example of Japan. The chief men of this nation, having recognized the necessity, have also gained the political power for the purpose, and so transpires before our eyes the intelligent effort, towards which all their strength is directed, of systematically changing their scheme of instruction. Diffi- cult as is the attempt its beginning promises success, consisting as it does in nothing else than learning, learning, learning. Very gently in India the English have commenced to work towards manganistical education, and although all is yet in the beginning, great results are possible. It is unnecessary however to stray into distant lands to find natur- ism; in Europe itis at hand, and indeed in every human being lurks a portion of naturism. The first touch with manganism must be through education, the surrender of the uncultured mass of intellect to kind na- ture, but subject to a firm control which shall so hold her in check as to prevent the ruin which would otherwise threaten in the full contact with fate. In Spain manganism has developed but slightly. The Iberian Penin- sula has not contributed to the great metamorphosing inventions ; naturally the repression of thought advancement would occur more readily there, as at that period the new-discovered world held attention. The loss to Spain is, however, incalculable. Greece, once leading the world in arts and sciences, was at the time of the blossoming of scientific technology, so entangled in the result of her fall that the movement did not seize her. Now as a nation she seeks to raise herself out of naturism in order to resume the transmis- sion of the old spiritual activity, and we may watch with interest the experiment made upon the classical soil of this beautiful land. With- out manganism the effort must fail. Italy furnishes us with a striking illustration. For a long time de- voted thoroughly to naturism, and also desiring her share in the great scientific discoveries of the Renaissance, this highly-gifted people more or less neglected manganism, but preserved her flowers of art, and has | TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. fay therein sought and found her glory; this neglect her new form of gov- ernment has caused her to recognize, as well as the necessity for its avoidance; consequently we see the Italians exerting themselves with astonishing energy to spread among themselves manganistical indus- tries and qualities. That their rapid and significant progress in useful industries weakens their achievements in art industry can not be doubted. Like a shadow this fact flits over us, until it seems as if between the two directions must exist an opposition to which one will fall a sacrifice. But not so; art and scientific technology are not at variance; it only requires great effort for both to be developed; great firmness and spiritual insight into «wsthetical laws to counterbalance the disturbing grasp of the machine. That both may develop side by side is shown by the present move- ment in Austria and Germany. Turning now to the consideration of the inner method of manganism, I pass over an entire line of preparatory grades, but desire to note that which is common to different actions, but which seems to the outside world contradictory. Such generalizing shortens, but is necessary in order to make clearer the influx of new appearances in the technical kingdom. For the purpose of making these certain, efficient and intel- ligent, it may be permitted to employ a few simple examples: Fig. 1. The cog-wheel a, Fig. 1, catching in the usual manner in the cogs of the bar at 2, is rotated at 1 in the stationary frame ¢, in which also at 3, the cog-bar b slides, this bar, a very long one, being pulled down by a weight B. Imagining the wheel a so turned as to raise the weight B, or in such manner as to lower it, we have before us an efficient machine of a defi- nite kind, viz, one of continuous direction of motion whether forward or backward. We will call it, because of this continuous motion, a running, work (Laufwerke). As is well known, there are many running works; amoung them friction wheels, cog-wheels, beltings, turbines, 712 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. ete., in many different combinations. Opposed to this mechanism is another of a different motion; of this Fig. 2 furnishes an example. The wheel @ turns 1, in a fixed frame and has saw or similar shaped teeth in which, at 2,a ratchet catches. This ratchet hinders the wheel from following the pulling of the weight A at the margin of the wheel a. But if the wheel be turned as we wind a cord, 4, on which hangs the weight, the ratchet permits the wheel to go forward but retards it again as soon as the compelling force subsides. This arrangement is known as * obstruction” (Gesperre.) In the use just described we would call it obstructing work (Sperrwerk) ; its backward and forward motion varying, thus requiring it to be com- pletely discriminated from running work (Laufwerke),. From the given groups of mechanisms, five others are possible. If we next imagine the ratchet to be raised, through pressure upon the button at 5, the obstruction being released, the weight A falls down, taking or drawing with it the wheel a. The resulting motion can be utilized in many ways: quickly, as through a push with aram, slowly, gradually, as by a clock; also m the running work of the telegraph, changing always according to supply. Through winding on spokes, the mechanical labor can always be use- fully changed. Instead of lifting a weight A, one can also place an elastic body, @. e., a spring in a condition of tension. We will there- fore name the produced mechanism tension work (Spannwerk). ‘The crossbow was a spring tension work; there are millions of spring tension works in practical use in flint-locks. We procure a third mechanism through a slight change of the man- agement, namely, by allowing the ratchet that was previously released to be again caught. This then catches up the wheel @ and with it the fallen weight A. A sufficiently strong structure pre-supposed, one can also make the mechanism serve for catching up heavy masses, and we name it accordingly catch work (Fangwerke). The mechanisms used in mines and also in elevators for the catching of the propellers in case of rope-break, are such catch work. If one considers that the wheel teeth can be made so fine as to be invisible, whereby the circumference of the wheel a will be smooth and the obstructing ratchet simply a friction body, the obstruction changes into a friction obstruction, as one per- ceives in the brake of the railroad train. he applications of catch work are also very useful and numerous. A fourth mechanism one would secure out of the groups in question, if one attached, but on a moving arm, perhaps a second similar ratchet to the nearer one, fastened to it, the last having a swinging motion. Through this motion one can then, intermittingly, move the wheel with the intention of lifting the weight, since the first ratchet always catches the wheel when it begins to let the weight sink. The thus formed and driven mechanism is called leap work (Schaltwerk). Applications of the same are known and many. A fifth manner of conversion of the ~eCuq eee se a TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 115 groups results, if one uses perhaps a narrow, corner-shaped segment of a wheel and forms with it an obstruction for the passage between the points 1 and 2, in the fashion, I will say, of a door. Then through clos- ing the obstruction at 2, the passage can be retarded or stopped ; through loosening, it will be opened. We will name the mechanism in this form, closing work (Schliesswerk). It exists in closing doors, win- dows, closets, chests, in the form of locks, and so on in known and numerous changes. We see here the wide domains of the lock, which offers mijlions, yes millionfold variations of closing work. The sixth, and perhaps from the standpoint of the mechanic the most remarkable change of the obstruction, is the checking or check work (Hemmwerk), as we will say. It exists if we set free the obstruction by light touches upon the button at 5 and immediately closing it again. If this occur regularly the progress of the wheel a@ may serve, among other purposes, for measuring time. In clocks this check work is largely used. The regular release of the obstruction takes place by means of an even-timed body, the pendulum. Variations of check work exist in many other machines. Thus we see there are many examples of obstruction works (Gesperr- werken), as we may call them collectively, 7. e., works in which the ob- structing ratchet plays a part. But let us look still farther. It often occurs that obstruction works are combined and the action of one trans- mitted to the other. A fine example is furnished by the set-trigger of target rifles. This trigger is nothing else than a little tension work, very easily loosened, in consequence of which the firmer held tension — work of the cock is loosened, one thus working upon the other. Such a combination we may call a tension work of a higher order, or, in case of a similar combining of obstruction works we speak of an obstruc- tion work of a higher order. An illustration is furnished by the mo- tive work of a clock, where the weight and spring tension work (Gewichts-und Fedderspannwerk) drives the obstruction work (das Hemmwerk), thus working in the second order. Clearly, we have here a principle, for the transmission of motion can occur between obstrue- tion work and wheel work, and so on. For example, there is attached to the check work of the clock a cog-wheel work which moves the hands. Naming motive works in general, several examples of which we have noticed drive works (Treibwerken), the wheel work of a clock must be a drive work of the third order, consisting of tension work, check work, and wheel-running work arranged the one over the other. Having taken so broad a view in this field of observation, we turn to another quite different in aspect. If we notice our machines in practical use we find among them a number in which fluidity serves as force and motion transmitter, as the hydraulic press, the pump, spouting machines, water wheels, the tur- bines, ete. But not only liquid but gaseous fluids we similarly convert into gas motors, air machines, and especially into steam-engines. Close 714 TECHNOLOGY AND GIVILIZATION. observation shows that we have subjected all these cases, in consequence of the suitable inclosing of the liquids in channels, pipes, and vessels, to such a forced way of motion—I at one time proposed to name it ‘“‘forced-running ”—that they are able to work in mechanisms as do firm bodies, but have this advantage of conforming themselves always to their surroundings. If we introdnee something of this kind in our running work (Fig. 1), replacing the cog bar by a stream of water, then our running work becomes a water wheel, mediocre indeed, if the water is taken as the driving force. It becomes a dipping wheel or spray wheel when the wheel @ is propelling and the water b is the propelled body. The practice in machines leads to the same thought concerning ob- struction work. The obstructing ratchets are named valves when either the wheel @ or its substitute—a section of the wheel, cog bar, ete.— have been converted to liquids. The valves are in reality in every way, try them or examine them as we will, the obstructing ratchets of the liquid. One observes immediately what a new, great, yes, even grand, enlargement has been gained by the putting into use of these drive works. Examples surround us, I should say crowd around us. Our common water-pump, with the butt of the valves and the sucking valve, is a water leap work prepared exactly in accordance with the scheme mentioned before, viz, of that leap work found in Fig. 2. Also in check work we find fluids, liquids, and gates taking the place of an ascending wheel or its substitute, as in water throwing machines and not less in steam-engines. In fact, regarding these machines as drive works, they correspond to clocks which I have taken as illustrations of obstruction works, the difference being solely that in clocks a harmful resistance, in the other machines a useful resistance, is overcome. Had I more time I would prove their similarity in all points. The valves, for instance, often single, but sometimes a combination of two or more in one machine, correspond to the so-called anchor of the clock check work, to the eccentric (muschelschieber) of the steam engine, the pendulum of the clock being represented by the vibrating butt, ete. Thus the great and powerful steam-engine legitimately and with perfect ease falls in the line, taking there its rightful place. And so must it be with scientific perception which will have to do with true, logical connection only (not with sensational), performing wonders. But in dealing with this principle we must gain one more ascent in order to attain the full theoretical horizon. Let us not regret the trifling exertion which must bring abundant reward. Noting, from the common standpoint, the source of power in our steam-engine, we find within the collected mass of stored-up steam an active, communicating atom force, whichis an expansive power or ten- sion work. ‘The boiler, too, with its valves and contrivance for letting TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 2 715 off steam, is but a tension work, differing from that previously noticed in that it lodges in a physical manuer the called forth tension, making it, in truth,a physical tension work. ‘This observation carries us further, draws us on, as it were, to the casual connection by which heat is com- municated to the boiler water. This connecting link is the fire, the glowing, flaming coal which gave up chemically, in combustion, the energy stored therein. Thus fire is a chemical tension work made active through kindling, but holding latent, if we consider it in the form of coal, a heat energy stored within by nature’s slow process dur- ing millions of years and now eagerly yielded to our simple expedient. Thus we have our steam-engine complete; in the boiler fire a liberated chemical tension work; in the boiler itself a physical tension work made active by the fire; in the engine proper, consisting of stop-cocks, cylinder, and piston-work, a mechanical check work, with motive power previously supplied; consequently, as a whole, a general drive work of ithe third order whereby we slight all secondary mechanisms of per- mitted masses. But if instead of the simple steam engine with its alternate motion we consider a crank-engine, we have attached to the check work, in the form of the crank-motor, a running work, which we can and do use, in thousands of forms; but the machine thus becomes in this, its most- used variety, a general drive-work of the fourth order. Permit me to call attention to still another example taken from steam industry upon the railroad. In the locomotive just developed we have before us a drive work of the fourth order. Next come the drive wheels of the engine as run- ning work, friction-wheel work (Reibrider werk), and joining this loco- motive the train gliding over the rails, a self-moving second running work, making, as a whole, a drive work of the sixth order. But let our train be of modern form and it will have a Westinghouse brake. The reason of the great favor in which this brake is held and of its great importance our theory explains as follows: The brake itself is a catch work formed from a friction obstruction work which we formerly set in motion with the hand. Now we manage otherwise. We have with Westinghouse in the form of the air battery on the train, indeed on every car, a strong, readily- placed tension work which we can atall times easily release through a stop cock in the form of an obstructing ratchet, which the brake con- tracts. Beginning from above, if we follow the brake apparatus, we have before us: The little steam-engine, a check work; the air pressure pump, a leap work; the mentioned crank mechanism, a check work ; and the side brake itself, a catch work ; together a drive work and in- deed a mechanism of the fifth order; and if we add thereto, as we must, steam-boiler and fire, the whole results as a general drive work of the seventh order. Higher numbers of orders certainly do not be- long to usual contrivances. 716 ’ TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. We may now turn, without anxiety lest we sacrifice clearness, to the side of the most modern of all technical novelties, the electro-mechan- ical. Here we recognize in the Galvanic battery, or chain, a chemical running work, which expression can well be conceded, as it depends upon motion excitement, although it beatomical; the induced physical-elec- trical stream, the valves of which are the obstruction ratchet, the con- tact, polishing springs, ete., is used in various arts; in telegraphy it works in leap work of the second order, provides by relay for release and making fast again, and a mechanical running arrangement of writ- ing work; it results, according to circumstances, from the third to the fourth order. The usual sound-contrivances of the railroad work in the fifth order, chemically in current producers, physically leaping in the anchor pull- ing through which a mechanical tension work, that is one bent by the hand, is released ; the same drives a check work which again the little hammer tension work (Hammerspannwerke) springs, makes taut, and then releases. . Among chemical drive work, we notice that the tension works take a prominent place. Those placed here will be of the number so artis- tically prepared by chemists that they give up their tension, or expan- sive force, slowly or rapidly. Gunpowder is the most powerful tension work, which the naturistical groping Middle Age set in the place of the mechanical tension work stretched by the hand of man out of netting, bows, and sinews in large and small throwing machines. The purpose remaining exactly the same, the kind of tension work was changed. The fuse releasing the new tension work was in itself a slow running, chemical tension work, entirely separated from the larger. Later we got so far as to take the two together in a single contrivance, at first in flint-locks, then in percussion locks. There one entered the third order. The percussion cap, a chemical tension work rather easily liber- ated, is set free by a mechanical tension work attached to the guncock. The ball is thrown by a tension work of the third order, as occurs in the set-trigger in the fourth order. Allow me to say a word concerning a petty example, the match. Not two generations have we possessed it, and previous to this brief period we manganists, in point of fire kindling, were very nearly on a par with the lowest naturists. In a natural state, as we know, people, through laboriously acquired skill, kindle a fire by rubbing together two pieces of wood; in other words, they set free that tension work, heat. The old Greeks used for the purpose the pyreion, the under piece of which, called the eschara, contained a bore, in which the rubbing piece, the trypanon or borer, was inserted and then turned by twisting the hands. Ought not in some hidden corner of the Grecian mountains the pyr- eion still to be found? It would be very serviceable to bring it to light. The little fire-chests containing flint, steel, tinder, and threads dipped TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION, Wi in sulphur, which in my earliest childhood I saw used in my home, are examples which have kept their places in spite of the all-conquering mateh ; it would be well to have specimens of these preserved in ethno- graphical museums. Later came steel and flint, a physical tension work used for itself. With their help one kindled—and many still do it to-day—the tinder, an easily freed tension work, especially prepared for the purpose and consisting at that time of burnt linen. On the tinder as soon as it glimmered, was set free a chemical ten- sion work rather difficult to release, the thread dipped in sulphur, and finally with this, a thin piece of wood, but not for a time a coal. For the kindling of the wood alone one used, in succession, four distinct tension works, one physical, stone and steel, and three chemical, tinder, sulphur, and wood. We now see the match fully in the domain of the former developed principle. The little important fire tool was made by combining three, but soon after four tension works, and is a chemical tension work of the fourth order, formed from the tension works phosphorous, chloracid kali, sulphur, and wood. For the sulphur, as is known, was later sub- stituted in many ways wax or paraffine. But the principle is very plainly recognized; each one of tze tension works following one upon another, is more difficult to set free than its predecessor, but was freed definitely, and then through a very easy mechanical action upon the little tension work most highly sensitive, the hair-trigger, brought about the deliverance, as it were, of each of the four obstructions which had caused such trouble, demanding the entire force of one and frequently of two men. That the combination of the four tension works was so recently attained proves that the fundamental principle of the train of thought must have been quite difficult. We have now, at last, the manganistical principle fully before us, in a common form as well as in the greatest, the examples embracing the most powerful forces, down to the finest and smallest, and we can de- elare that the method consists: Jn the cultivation depending upon a sci- entific knowledge of the laws of nature, and the resulting higher orders, and those standing side by side, of mechanical, physical, and chemical drive work. If the foregoing is developed essentially with a consideration of me- chanical technical aims, it permits itself to turn without any compul- sion upon the precedency of chemical technology and may, therefore, be found to embrace in itself the entire problem. One has only, for ex- ample, to think of a chemical manufactory, etc., and how sulphuric acid enters as a physical and mechanical medium in the colors. As in the above both of the others are side by side with the mechanical. From the standpoint now gained, if we again consider scientific tech- nology, we shall see how its results are closely bound with our life habits, indeed, with our entire culture, We may overlook the fact that 718 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. we are directly surrounded in our dwellings by thousands of obstrue- tion works which have made our rooms safe, comfortable, and conven- ient for light, air, and warmth. We may overlook this because natur- istical labor is able to produce similar, although less perfect, results. But let us notice other things whereby our dwellings have received their character. There is the gas-light in the house, on the street, in the public building. We may thank for it a chemical tension work of the fourth order—fire, retort, gasometer, conduction by stop-cocks, passing by all intermediate works—all of them important, all ramifying through the city pipes. The water for house and street necessity, when taken: from a river-water conduit, furnishes a drive work of at least the sixth order. Upon the railroad we move by drive work of a higher order, regulate the powerful service with another, by means of drive works permit freight to be carried on the rails from place to place, from land to land, from one part of the earth to another, a thousand-fold more than a person could carry. Throughout the earth by means of physical drive work we have the messenger service, both written and spoken. How fare we in war? In millions of chemical tension works, large and small, generally of higher order, we carry the driving force to the distant battlefield and there set it free by means of a high order of drive works. Upon the ocean we are carried hundreds of miles from land, for weeks and months, by means of tension-work activity. Rich productions, such as coal, we have gained from nature. The naturistical man early found upon the high mountain range the water course, that running work subordinated to tension work, and very likely the future will bring to light other products, such as petroleum, which we may say was discovered three decadesago. This productis a highly elastic chemical tension work fitted to play its part under a clear flame. In reality it is a combination of two or more chemical tension works, each under such slight restraint as to free itself invisibly. We had, therefore, to submit this product of nature to a process of separation, according to the manganistical principle, into groups of small parts easily liberated and on which the tension work was first, transmissible and generally applicable. Police directions required that if the product were made an article of trade the obstruction (sper-. rung) should be a safe one; but how favorable has been the result. This fluid tension work discovered, as it were, ‘“‘ ready made ” in nature for purposes of illumination, has displaced those products which, by the aid of noticeable manganistical implements had previously been obtained from the seeds of plants. Let us turn to another phase of tension work. The conflagration is but an invisible liberating of a chem- ical tension work, as is well proved. The obstruction ratchet is raised in opposition to our will with ever-increasing rapidity and the powerful, liberated tension work often overleaps our control, but we bring to bear upon it for the purpose of its capture, another drive work, formerly operated by main strength only, but now usually by chemical tension- PP : TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 719 work under the application of drive works of a still higher order. We also turn a chemical tension work, the gas or chemical engine, as the Americans callit, which acts instantaneously upon the water being used. In the last case the drive work connected with the water is of a very low order; this furnishes an example of the manner in which drive works contest for the same intended motion and seek each to gain for itself the palm in lessening the number of drive works, that is, the height of the order number. Everywhere it is the manganistical thought, the manganistical principle whereby we in part preserve, in part make easier, in part defend our life, and whereby we also advance annihilatingly against others. Our industries, finally, which produce as well the necessities as the manganistical mechanisms, what have they not brought about for cul- ture advancement by means of this same manganistical principle? Here let us venture a little nearer by attempting to apply a measure. Coalserves us as an essential assistantin manganistical labor. Thisis now obtained in an abundance of over 400,000,000 tons, the greater part annually converted toindustrial purposes. Thesurplus above 400,000,000 tons suffices to cover heating necessities. So we have for each of the 300 working days of the year one and one-third million tons of coal, which are used for chemical, mechanical, and physical-technical pur- poses. If we sum up the entire labor arrived at therewith for the sake of the survey of dynamical execution, the results under this acceptation of uses of coal show 1} kilograms for horse-power in a working day of 12 hours, @. e., 44 tons per hour during the year, together with the horse. A horse-power, in round numbers, of 90,000,000, statistical numbers and taxes, in fact, would in dynamics yield 20,000,000. For every horse- power must be reckoned the working force of six strong men, which results in 540,000,000 active man-power during a day of 12 hours. It is this powerful executive force which the 250,000,000 of Atlantie na- tions entirely alone (since the other 1,250,000,000 of naturists have added nothing to it) have accomplished by man through the mangan- istical principle! When we consider that every tenth one of the 1,250,000,000 men exerts daily such labor as before contemplated, prob- ably a much too high estimate, there results an execution of 125,000,000 man-power. We Atlantic peoples, a sixth of the earth’s inhabitants, perform by our manganistic labor more than four times as much as those can execute. The superiority of the manganist over the naturist is attained and reimbursed through useful labor, and thereby also reaches, taken only humanly, its right. This so much the more as our labor execution is transmitted to each of them. I speak of the great, entire development, and not perhaps of its still existing deficiencies, to the extension and under the extension of culture and civilization, So, then, has scientific technology become the bearer of culture, the powerful, tireless laborer in the service of civilization and cultivation of the races of men, and promises for a long future to add a line of greater results than is at present attained. ; ae = rig i ‘ier eid a Ftd robe Wie ie nye ' re Oni ay Oi Hany? , vale Halsted, errr: Natt ay io etdha je ans ¢ taajipm hi beatae Wl eee Tay u "seine ae a» ss Y DeVere WAS rindi £% oh ire el i 2 SPIT } 4 heh BARS: ‘ney " at +4 AL fe ti He tuidcn fhe Crier cnt Awa ey fie ied v and Le ; - THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE.* By J. ELFRETH WATKINS, Curator, Section of Transportation and Engineering, U. 8S. National Museum. The circle is a figure that has always been found in nature. Although this simple geometrical figure has been used in inscrip- tions and for decoration from time immemorial, I have been able to dis- cover only one very early reference to a pair of compasses, or dividers. In referring to the graven images, the worship of which was forbid- den by the Jewish law, the Prophet Isaiah, in chapter 44, verses 12, 13, old version, describes the manner in which these idols were constructed, as follows: ‘‘ The smith with the tongs both worketh in the coals and fashioneth it with hammers - - -.” ‘The carpenter stretcheth out his rule; he marketh it out witha line; he fitteth it with planes and he marketh it out with a compass and maketh it after the figure of man.” In the revised version the phrase is translated— “The carpenter stretcheth out a line; he marketh it out with a pen- cil; he shapeth it with planes and he marketh it out with the com- passes and shapeth it after the figure of a man.” The Hebrew word which is here translated ‘‘ compass” or “com- passess,” is mehugah, from hug, a circle—mehug something to make a circle. Theré can, therefore, be little doubt that an instrument for drawing circles and probably similar to what 1s now known as the ‘ compasses ” was used by the Hebrew mechanics. Even if we accept the theory of a deutero Isaiah, this instrument can certainly claim the respectable an- tiquity of the sixth century B, ¢. The circle was associated with the measurement of time and the ob- servation of the positions of the heavenly bodies many centuries before the Christian era. THE SUN-DIAL AND GNOMON. The sun-dial of Ahaz, is thus alluded to in Isaiah, chapter 38, verse 8, old version, ‘ Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees, which is gone down in the sun-dial of Ahaz, ten degrees backward. So the sun returned ten degrees by which degrees it was gone down.” * Deposited in the U. S. National Museum by Dr. Henry Morton, president, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey. A. Mis. 129 46 721 722 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. By recent Biblical critics* this dial is supposed to have been an obelisk, whose shadow fell upon the steps of the palace of Ahaz, each step being called a degree. It is by no means improbable however that these degrees were marked on a plane of stone or metal. The simple records made by the Chaldean shepherds and herdsmen of the observations by which they determined the seasons and by which they were governed in the different operations of husbandry, led the early cultivators of science to devise instruments (doubtless crude in the beginning) by which they could obtain data for more accurately ascer- taining the lengths of the solar and lunar periods. Astrology and astronomy bore the closest relationship to each other at that remote period. “Tn the valley of the Euphrates there were in those days observa- tories + in most of the large cities, and professional astronomers regu- larly took observations of the heavens, copies of which were sent to the king, as each movement or appearance in the heaven was supposed to portend some evil or good to the kingdom.” Among the first instruments of which there is record is the gnomon,i with which the Babylonians were familiar, and from whom Herodotus states (11, 109) ‘the Greeks learned the use of it, together with the pole.” The comparison of the perpendicular height of the gnomon, with the length of its meridian shadow projected on a horizontal plane on the days of the summer and winter solstices, afforded the early astron- omer an opportunity to caleulate the difference of the sun’s meridian altitudes on those days. ANCIENT ASTROLABES. Ptolemy, in his “* Almagest,” written 145 A. D., describes an astrolabe or circular instrument for making celestial observations (which he calls astpohattzoy opyavov) Which consisted of a heavy circle of metal arranged so that when it was suspended the divisions which we now eall 0° and 180° would come to rest in the same horizontal plane. A diametrical bar suspended in the center of the circle and turning on a pin was furnished with disks containing slits through which any heavenly body could be seen and its altitude determined in degrees or parts thereof. Other astrolabes were constructed in early times, consisting of two graduated circles set exactly at right angles. *Compare Isaiah 38: 8, revised version: ‘‘I will cause the shadow on the steps, which is gone down on the dial of Ahaz with the sun, to return backward ten steps, so the sun returned ten steps on the dial whereon it was gone down.” t George Smith, ‘‘Assyrian Discoveries,” p. 408. t Vitruvius, who wrote in the first century B. C., gives in Book 1, chap. 6, diree- tions for using the gnomon to ascertain the north and south line in laying out the streets of a city, thus indicating that the Romans were not familiar with the magnetic needle, THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 723 BABYLONIAN SYSTEM OF DIVIDING THE CIRCLE. In a paper upon “Babylonian Astronomy,” by Sayce and Bosanquet (Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical Society, 1880, vol. xu, No. 3, ), relat- ing to the tablets of the millennial period, from 2,000 B. c. to 1,000 B. G., I find this statement: “The divisions which we find employed are 8, 12, 120, 240, 480 parts. It has been assumed that the division of the circle into 360 parts was made by this ancient people. There is how- ever no authority in the inscriptions for this assumption. It seems to have been derived originally from Achilles Tatius, and the pre-con- ceived idea thus introduced appears to have caused even those most conversant with the inscriptions to see the divisions of the circle into 360 in matters which do not involve it. THE MODERN DIVISION AN OUTGROWTH OF THE SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM. ‘“Ttis hardly doubtful that the division of the circle as practiced by Ptolemy and in modern times was an outgrowth of the sexagesimal system, but the latter does not contain the former. The numeration of the inscriptions is by two methods, the sexagesimal and the decimal. ‘¢The decimal method is in all respects comparable with our own and was used by preference in the Assyrian period. ‘In it words and signs were used which were precisely equivalent to our “ hundreds” and “thousands.” “Tn the sexagesimal method the reckoning was the same as in the decimal up to 60; 60 was 1 soss. The counting went on by multiples of 60 + number over, up to lner = 600. Then by ners 4+ sosses + num- ber over, up to 1 saru = 3,000. ‘The numbers used are always taken in this way. There is no in- stance of counting by 60, 360, 3,600. The foundation of the number 360 was not, therefore, a natural stepin the sexagesimal arithmetic of the inscriptions. TABLET FROM THE PALACE OF SENNACHERIB. “The division of the circle into 480 parts is illustrated by a tablet from the palace of Sennacherib (668-626 B. Cc.) in the British Museum, written in Accadian, which treats of the moon’s position during a month. The numbers of them or many of them are unintelligible or cor- rupt. This is partly due to the fact that the tablet is a copy of an ancient one, probably the date before 2,000 B. c.; but there is amply sufficient left to show that there was a real division of 480 parts, the moon’s mean daily motion being 16°, as it should be roughly, throughout the intelligible portions,” 124 The numbers {The word *‘ degrees Moon advances. || Day of the moon. — . ; Degrees. | Degrees. | ee EA SOS SC GOSS OO SEALE 5 eect See et he ee on ee LO ieee | RS eee ee ee 20 ‘ely Soc aeten Aah Ser WEEE coco AD Wickeme sues eg ena eee Gat ecenicciet tes BON | ae swe Gieeree ween tes ses oucsaes OGh i ssasac 25! Wien see cee tandas coins we dues fs Nr eee | Soraya anaes cases cae acces VOB roe anaes Oe Onee acs ope can wieeottes 144 | Se caee | He oe Senne acenaiocie <4 160 | Beate eee | DS Eo Cee eas A76.|Hts te eee 2 AAD ue se LOOSE POSSE OEIC 192) }).0.22. see "Uc TD atleast 208 leer ee | VF Ee eee eee Geter 1s Ween COM Wes swee ce | eet Pars oat ra ie Le hae DAO coe oe THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. of the tablet are as follows: is used to represent the units of the division of 480.] Moon advances. Day of the moon. Degrees. 16* FD CSOD CRISS OOE Sepa LT isn ntenbeteaenes coneant 208 LET cra thm apie k we te ae spice size 192 |M agheseeaco = 300 BSc ee 176 1 a ts Ss SOG coo 160 Gach take wiwaee eee ners = cece as 144 [I-A ose ce eo oto ae er 128 BR octane anne t sere ae ae 112 Ph Sc OnGSosnomce Dace anooee 96 ee esos tawatkemattire « oeleiolattee 80 DB tice nae ceeceneeee eee ack 32 24 A EAS CER USO oer 23 Pe SA aaa OC GUO E SECS 15 See al hee beh Bay BO tpen ext pesek oo ececfantaec | * The sixteenth day, for 224° of advance, it becomes obscure and retrogrades. + The thirtieth day the moon is the god Anu. FRAGMENT OF Ss. 162. OBVERSE Fig. 1.—BABYLONIAN PLANISPHERE. PLANISPHERE IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM. Degrees. Figure 1 represents a small fragment of a planisphere in the British Museum (5S, 162). It contains two compartments, each of which is char- THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 725 acterized by the name of a month. The month Marchesvan is the eighth and Cislev the ninth. The ares have at their left-hand corners the numbers shown. (Thisis a ‘‘sky aspect.” A ‘globe aspect” would be the reverse.) “This remarkable fragment is sufficient to determine the following table, in which the year is supposed to be divided into 12 mean months: No.of | Outer | Inner | month. | circle. | circle. | | 40 20 | 1 20 10 2 | | | 240 120 | | 3 | | 220 110 | 4 | | 200 | 100 | 5 | 180 90 6 | | 160 80 | ‘ 140 70 | 8 120 | 60 | 9) | 100 50 10 | 80 40 11 | 60 | 30 | 12 “To compare the longitudes of the planisphere with our own we have the following table, taking the numbers of the inner circle, 7. ¢., the division of 120: Degrees. Nonot Longitude from Name of month. month, | Degrees. | same zero with : 360°, reckoned pos- | itively. ul = ie | 20 300 IGE ac abet | RCN 545 20. UDR CE EOE CEROOREAOND OSC fd BeSSoUn pS sce yy | 10 330 IB ie 5 0hSeF 286 285 3 4- See Jue sna egeco soca eaneos a adecsess ae 2 | ms | 120 | 360 SINAN SaisaSe coco 6 Sao SOS poccRseCE Heee Es Oc eaeeaacber cncreS saqse5] 3 ; 110 30 IPSN Zea scl sec ee een elaa.a tos sateen a Safe sek sae Sone 4 | | 100 60 JE) So oe Oke Se one RE CHEE ARE ICSE bs Re as Se nae ee Sa aere 5 | 90 90 TENN TIL sae, ae ee ee ee ee need er den oO Ss eee ee aS nS | 6 | 80 120 STIS eee eee te ee oe ac x a eee De een bene eae 7 ] 70 150 MATcHCAV AIR meee t are in ek ey fee SE ee a et | 8 60 | 180 Gigle wee en! A iS 2) eee ene ns at OE ok: oe 9 50 210 REDE Geet ee ee oe cca cat Suet ae poate eeanteessens 10 | 40 240 SED ae eee rr eis tS Sia Sl eee es esetacmecartios 11 30 270 CANE eee es Hee Fos ctois mis sinie Saeaetas ee cec es seta es, 12 726 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. The late George Smith proposed to read 150 for 140, and 75 for 70.* Sayce and Bosanquet assert that “There is no foundation for this, ex- cept the pre-conceived idea that the circle ought to be divided into 36092, The numbers are imprinted on the clay with great clearness according to the sexagesimal notation.” (Monthly Notices, R. A. S., 1880.) REASONS FOR DIVIDING THE CIRCLE INTO 360 DEGREES. On the other hand, we have the generally accepted statement that the Egyptians divided the cirele into 360° from the sun’s annual course or according to the number of days, dividing the year into 12 months, and each month into 30 days and allotting 1° to each day with an inter- calary month every 6 years. The Greeks divided each month into three periods of ten days each. It will be remembered that the Jewish year contained only 354 days. It is not definitely known how theastrolabes of Hipparchus (second century B. Cc.) and Ptolemy (second century A. D.) were divided; prob- ably these graduated circles contained 360°. It is stated that the par- allactical instrument used by Copernicus (1473-1543), and by which he measured altitudes, had its limb divided by equal divisions that were the subtenses of 3/ 49/’.137 each. If an error of only 4’. was made in measuring this instrument, and if 3/.45’ was the correct reading it would indicate that each quarter of the circle was divided into 1,440, or each sixth of the circle into 960 equal parts. Many writers believe that the number 360 was selected from the fact that it admits of a great many aliquot parts, such as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9. It has occurred to me as not an unreasonable conjecture that the origin of the sexagesimal system may have resulted in some way from the fact that the circumference of the circle is divided into six equal parts by chords exactly equal to the radius in length. I do not remember to have seen this theory advanced by any previous writer. The earliest records indicate that each day was divided into six parts. In a recent paper on ‘‘ Chaldean Astronomy,” by Dr. Christopher Johnson, of Johns Hopkins University (p. 141), he asserts that ‘‘in the earliest tablets the day is divided (at least for astronomical purposes) into six watches—three day watches and three night watches.” ‘In the later tablets, however, we find a division of the day into 12 kaspu or double hours, each kaspu being divided into 60 degrees or minutes.” There is mention of an inscription on a tablet in ‘ Western Asiatic Inscriptions” (published by the British Museum, 111 51, 1), a translation of which reads: ‘*The sixth day of Nisan, day and the night were he es there were 6 a de of heels and 6 kaspu of night.” *“T amof opinion ie he Shei under the ron of Marchasyanl 140° ane 70° are errors in the Assyrian copy and should be 150° and 75°.” (George Smith’s ‘“Assy- rian Discoveries,” p, 407.) THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. (28 DECIMAL DIVISION OF THE CIRCLE ADVOCATED IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Whatever may have been the origin of the division of the circle into 360° the system has been condemned from time to time by many eminent mathematicians, among them Stevinus (1548-1620), who, in his “ Cosmography” (lib. 1, def. 6), states that “the decimal division of the circle (which he contends for) prevailed in Sceculo sapienti.”* Henry Briggs (1556-1630), Oughtred (1574-1660), and Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) constructed large tables of sines, the plan being to divide each degree into 100 minutes of 100 seconds each. Dr. Charles Hutton, in the early part of this century, published extensive tables giving real lengths of ares of various decimal degrees in terms of the radius. Some of the French mathematicians divided the quadrant into 100 degrees and then into decimals of degrees. Wil- liam Crabtree, Gascoigne,t and Jeremiah Horrocks ¢ (1619-1641) pro- jected tables with complete decimal divisions, the whole are of the circle being divided into 1,000,000 parts. (Philosophical Transactions, vol, XXVII, p. 230.) DECIMAL SYSTEM FREQUENTLY USED BY THE HEBREWS. I have taken some pains to find, if possible, some trace of the employ- ment of a sexagesimal numerical system by the Hebrews in the meas- urement of straight lines. In the description of the city and temple seen by Ezekiel in his vision and described in the fortieth and forty-second chapters, the measuring reed (qana) § of 6 great cubits, corresponding somewhat with our 10-foot rod, is mentioned in ten places. The decimal system however was more frequently used than the sexa- gesimal in noting the dimensions of the walls and courts described in these chapters. Thus the number 500 is found three times, 100 eleven times, 90 one time, 70 one time, 60 one time, 50 nine times, 30 two times, 25 five times, 20 six times, 10 three times, 5 seven times. It would seem reasonable to assume that in describing an imaginary structure the *The decimal method is in all respects comparable with our own and was used by preference in the Assyrian period. Init words and signs were used which were pre- cisely equivalent to our ‘‘ hundreds” and ‘‘thousands.” (Sayce and Bosanquet, vol. 40, Monthly Notices, Royal Astronomical Society.) +t Gascoigne is said to have invented a micrometer about 1640. { Horrocks observeé the first transit of Venus that was carefully noticed November 24, O. Ss. 1639, that predicted by Kepler in 1631 being invisible in Europe. § Ezekiel 40: 3, revised version: ‘‘ And he brought me thither, and behold there was a man, whose appearance was like the appearance of brass, with a line of flax in his hand, and a measuring reed.”’ Same chapter, verse 5: “And behold, a wall on the outside of the house round about, and in the man’s hand a measuring reed of 6 cubits long of a cubit and an handbreadth each; so he measured the thickness of the building one reed ; and the height one reed.” 728 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. dimensions given would be according to the method of enumeration in general use. In noting measurements of length in other portions of the Serip- tures three-score is used three times: 1 Kings, 6:2: “And the house which King Solomon built for the Lord, the length thereof was three-score cubits, and the breadth thereof twenty cubits, and the height thereof thirty cubits.” Ezra, 6:3: ‘ Let the house be builded, the place where they offer sac- rifices, and let the foundations thereof be strongly laid; the height thereof three-score cubits, and the breadth thereof three-score cubits.” Daniel, 5:1: “Nebuchadnezzar the king made an image of gold, whose height was three-score cubits, and the breadth thereof six cubits.” The numbers 6 and 12 are used elsewhere as follows: Ezekiel, 41:1, revised version: “And he brought me to the temple, and measured the posts, six cubits broad on the one side and six cubits broad on the other side, which was the breadth of the tabernacle.” Ezekiel, 43.16, revised version: “And the altar hearth shall be twelve cubits long by twelve broad, square in the four sides thereof.” METHODS OF DIVIDING THE CIRLE BY HAND. The most ancient figure with graduated divisions of a circle dis- covered in England, was a quadrant, marked with Roman characters, which was found on a chimney piece at Helmdon, in Northampton- shire, with the date M°133 (meaning A. D. 1133) marked upon it. Different methods of dividing a metallic or wooden circle into degrees and their subdivisons were successtully practiced by the early astrono- mers, notably by Tycho Brahe* (1546-1601), of Sweden; Johann Heveliust (1611-1687), of Dantzic, in Poland; Dr. Robert Hooke (1635- 1703), while curator of experiments of the Royal Society ; Ole Roemer (1644-1710), the Danish astronomer, of whom it is said that he may be considered ‘ the inventor of nearly all our modern instruments of pre- cision,” and many of whose ideas were adopted by astronomers a cen- tury later. In attempting to engrave and divide correctly the circles used for mathematical purposes, all of these early laborers in the field of science were compelled to depend entirely upon manual skill. The first notable example of the division of circular ares of which I have found record is the mural are, of 8 feet radius, which George Graham graduated for the English National Observatory in 1725, The * An electro replica of Tycho Brahe’s quadrant, from the original in the British Museum, is deposited in the Smithsonian Institution. Triangular diagonals are not found in this instrument. Tycho Brahe’s instruments had the advantage of long radii, which rendered any inequalities that might occur in his divisions of less value than instruments of short radii; the smallest subdivisions into which he professed to mark his spaces were 10’ each. t'The errors of Hevelius’ large sextant for 6’ radius used about 1650, amounted to 15” or 20’. THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 729 manner in which it was accomplished is described substantially as follows (see p. 332, Smith’s Opties, 1738) : “Two concentric ares of radii 96.85’ and 95.8” respectively were first described by the beam compass. On the inner of these arcs 90° was to be divided into degrees and twelfth parts of a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided into 96 equal parts, and these again into sixteenth parts. The reason for adopting the latter was that 96 and 16 both being powers of 2, the divisions will be got at by continual bisec- tion alone, which, in Graham’s opinion, who first employed it, is the only accurate method, and would thus serve as a check upon the accu. racy of the divisions of the outer are. With the same distance on the beam compass as was used to describe the inner are, laid off from 0°, the point 60° was at once determined. “With the points 0° and 60° as centers successively, and a distance on the beam compass very nearly bisecting the are of 60°, two slight marks were made on the arc; the distance between these marks was carefully divided by the hand, aided by a lens, and this gives the point 30°. The chord of 60° laid off from the point 30° gave the point 90°, and the quadrant was now divided into three equal parts. Each of these parts was similarly bisected, and the resulting divisions again trisected, giving 18 parts of 5° each. Each of the quinquesected gave degrees, the twelfth parts of which were were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as before. The outer are was divided by continual bisection alone, and a table was constructed by which the readings of the one are could be converted into those of the other. After the dots indicating the required divisions were obtained, either straight strokes, all directed towards the center, were drawn through them by the divid- ing knife, or sometimes small ares were drawn through them by the beam compass having its fixed point somewhere on the line which was a tangent to the quadrantal are at the point where a division was to be marked.” In 1767 John Bird, an English mathematical-instrument maker, graduated a quadrant of 8 feet radius. His method was that of con- tinual bisection, and is described in a pamphlet published by order of the commissioners of longitude, 1767, entitled “The Method of Divid- ing Astronomical Instruments,” by John Bird, mathematical-instrument maker in the Strand. The exact radius which he used was 95,833, inches. The radius laid off from the point 0° gave the point 60°. This are of 60° was care- fully bisected, giving the point 30°, from which the radius, that had remained undisturbed on the original beam compasses, was laid off, giving the point 90°. The chords of 30°, 15°, 10° 20’ 4° 40’, and 42° 40’ were computed and carefully laid off, each on a separate pair of beam compasses. Bird used an exact scale of equal parts, which by the aid of a magnifying glass he was able to read to one one-thousandth of an inch. 730 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. Having marked the four points 0°, 30°, 60°, and 90°, the mode of pro- cedure was as follows: The chord of 15° laid off backward from 90° gave 75°. From 75° the chord of 10° 20’ was laid off forward, giving 85° 20’, and from 90° the chord of 4° 40’ laid off backward gave the same point. 85° 20/= 5,120’ or 1,024 chords of 5/ each, and 1,024—2" (2 carried to the tenth power), so that by continual bisections the ares of 5’ were ac- eurately marked. In order to divide the circle beyond the 85° 20/ into ares of 5/ each, an are of 40’ (or eight 5’ divisions) was laid off backwards to 84° 40/, thus leaving an are of 320! or 64 ares of 5’ each between these two points. These 5’ ares were laid off by continual bisections. Thus Bird was able to check accurately the original ares of 15°, 30°, 60°, 75°, and 90°. ORIGIN OF THE DIVIDING ENGINE—CUTTING ENGINES FOR CLOCK WHEELS. To the clock-maker, more than any other mechanic, we are indebted for the origin of the dividing engine. “While the art of clock-making was in its rude state the dividing of a wheel into a number of parts and cutting away notches of spaces was done by manual operation with a file. This was not only a tedious but a very imperfect way of obtaining a desired result, since the unequal lines in the size and shape of the tools prevented it from transmitting applied force in an equable manner. “To facilitate the manual operation of cutting wheels by a file the sample platform was invented (described by Father Alexander in his book on clock-making), which was a circular plate of brass from 10 inches to a foot or more in diameter, with as many concentric circles thereon as the usual number of teeth in the wheels and pinions of clockwork required to be divided into corresponding parts ofacirele. Inthe center of this platform was fixed a stem or fast arbor, around which an alidade, ruler, or index, with a straight edge pointing to the center, turned freely into any given point of arequired circle, by means of which the divisions of any given circle were transferred to a wheel placed on the side stem under the side index by a marking point. At length a little frame was mounted on the index, which was contrived to direct and confine the file in such a way as to cut the notches of a wheel placed over the in- dex with less deviation from the truth than could be managed by mere manual dexterity. This addition, no doubt, led to the adoption of a circular file, or cutter, and of such other appendages as completed the construction of the simple cutting machine.” * It is asserted in *‘ Htrennes Chronometriques” par M. Julian le Roy, “that Dr. Hooke was the first person who contrived, about 1675, such an arrangement as could merit the name of a cutting engine (machine 4 "See Rees’ Encyclopedia, vol. u: ‘ Cutting engines,” = THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 731 fendre). The doctor’s invention, which, like many of his inventions, has proved to be of permanent and great utility in mechanics, consists of an entire transmutation of the old stationary platform, with its mova- ble appendages, into a movable platform inserted into a strong metallic frame, with stationary and additional appendages; the machine thus converted into an engine or self-acting piece of mechanism consisted of a strong frame; the sliding supporting bars of the platform or plate with a horizontal screw of adjustment for distance from the circular file; the dividing plate with a revolving arbor to receive the wheel to be cut; and the alidade fixed to the great frame in the position of a tangent line to any of the dividing circles and applying its bent and rounded point to the punched marks of division on the circle succes- sively as the plate revolving in the act of cutting the successive teeth of a wheel.” In the year 1716, Henry Sully brought to England from France a cutting engine, made by M. de la Faudriere, which has been mentioned by Julien le Roy and described by Thioutin his “ Traite d@ Horlogerie.” In 1730, M. Taillemard made further improvements in the cutting engine, particularly by introducing a tubed arbor instead of an arbor with a square hole, which had been used before. After Taillemard, his apprentice Hulot continued toconstruct engines in a superior way in France, and was succeeded by his son, whose exe- cution was deemed equal to that of his father’s. EARLY DIVIDING ENGINES. Smeaton, in a paper entitled “The graduation of astronomical in- struments,” read before the Royal Society at London, November 17, 1785, mentions an engine made in 1741, by Henry Hindley, of York, England, which indented the edge of any circle in such a way that a screw with fifteen threads acting at once would, by means of a micrometer, read off any given number of divisions, so as to answer the purpose of subdividing the circle. It would appear that this engine was better adapted for cutting toothed wheels for clock-work than for graduating circles with exact- ness. The Duc de Chaulnes, in a memoir to the Royal Academy of Science, at Paris, published 1765, referred to the difficulties in obtaining perfec- tion of the screw and notches of the rack “so that they be rendered perfectly equal, notwithstanding the unequal density and hardness of different portions of the metal so racked.” He calls his method “ the explication of the new way of dividing.” It is said that he constructed an engine which he claimed to be his original invention, but unfortunately the want of “ a perfect screw with intervals exactly proportioned to the effective radius of his quadrant, was a source of error that posterior contrivances were required to remedy.” foe THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. Ramsden’s machine for cutting the screws of his dividing engine ac- curately (which will be referred to below), reduced these errors to a minimum. JESSE RAMSDEN’S DIVIDING ENGINES. Jesse Ramsden was the son of an innkeeper, and was born near Hali- fax, in Yorkshire, in 1735. While at school in his native county his fondness for mathematics was observed. Although he served as an apprentice to a cloth maker in Halifax for some time, yet at the age of. twenty-four he had become skillful in making mathematical and philo- sophicai instruments, and his suecess was so great that he was soon able to open an extensive establishment in London. It is stated that Ramsden first had his attention called to the subject of dividing engines in 1760, by the reward which was offered by the English board of longitude to John Bird for his method of dividing. Ramsden was doubtless acquainted with what Hooke, the Due de Chaulnes, Hindley, and others had previously done, and before the spring of 1768 he completed his first engine, having in 1760 constructed a very superior sextant. This first engine had an indented plate 30 inches in diameter, and was used to divide theodolites and other common instruments, and did so with sufficient accuracy, but it was not satisfactory to Mr. Ramsden, who, in 177475, constructed the engine, with a plate 45 inches in diame- ter, which is now in the U.S. National Museum. (See Plate I, from a recent photograph.) This dividing engine, together with the cutting gear with which the screws of this machine was made, were sold by the heirs of Ramsden to Messrs. Knox and Shain, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from whom Prof. Henry Morton, president of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, purchased them about 10 years ago. Dr. Mor- ton has recently deposited these machines in the U. S. National Museum. The test of this, Ramsden’s second engine, which divided a sextant for Mr. Bird’s examination accurately, was so satisfactory ‘‘ that the board of longitude, ever ready to remunerate any successful endeavor, and to promote the lunar method of determining longitude at sea,” con- ferred a handsome reward on the inventor on condition that the engine should be at the service of instrument makers, and that Mr. Ramsden would publish an explanation of his method of making and using it. This he did in a quarto pamphlet in 1777, the preface to which was pre- pared by Nevil Maskeline, astronomer royal, dated Greenwich, Novem- ber 28,1776. In the following extract from it the reasons for publish- ing the pamphlet are given: “Mr. Ramsden, mathematical instrument maker in Piecadilly, was paid the sum of £615, by certificate from the commissioners of longitude, upon delivering to them, upon oath, a full and complete written explana- Smithsonian Report, 1590, Part |. FLATE I. RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. Deposited in the National Museum by Dr. Henry Morton. (From photograph.) Smithsonian Report, 1890, Part |. PLATE Il. RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. From original lithograph in Ramsden’s publication.) ie £15) ha THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 733 tion and description of his engine for dividing mathematical instruments (accompanied with proper drawings) and of the manner of using the same, and also of the engine by which the endless screw, being a prin- cipal part of the said dividing engine, was made, and upon agreeing and entering into articles with them for assigning over the right and property of the said engine to them for the use of the public, and engaging himself to give to the said commissioners and such other per- sons, being mathematical instrument makers, not exceeding ten, as shall be appointed by them during the space of 2 years, from the 28th of October, 1775, to the 28th of October, 1777, such instruction and informa- tion with regard to the making and using of the said engine, as may be fully sufficient to enable any intelligent workman to construct and use other engines of the same kind, and also binding himself to divide all octants and sextants by the said engine which shall be brought to him by any mathematical instrument makers for that purpose at the rate of 3 shillings for each octant and at the rate of 6 shillings for each brass sextant, with nonius divisions to half minutes, for so long a time as the said commissioners Shall think proper to permit the said engine to re- main in his possession. Of which sum of £615 paid to the said Mr. Ramsden, £300 was given him as a reward for the improvement made by him in the art of dividing instruments by means of the said dividing engine and for discovering the same, and the remaing £315 in considera- tion of his making over the property in the said engine to the commis- sioners of longitude, for the use of the public, and for the other consid- erations before mentioned. ‘In order to render this instrument more extensively useful, the com- missioners of longitude ordered the written explanations, with drawings, of the dividing engine to be prepared for publication, and it is now pub- lished accordingiy.” Plate ILis from a lithograph in Ramsden’s publication, and illustrates the machine as originally constructed. Mr. Ramsden states in his pamphlet that “ the teeth on the circum- ference of the wheel were cut by the following method: ‘“‘ Having considered what number of teeth on the circumference would be the most convenient, which in this engine is 2,160, or 360 multi- plied by 6, I made two screws of the same dimensions of tempered steel, in the manner hereafter described, the interval between the threads being such as I knew by ealeulation would come within the limits of what might be turned off the circumference of the wheel. One of these screws, which was intended for ratching or cutting the teeth, was notched across the threads, so that the screw, when pressed against the edge of the wheel and turned round, cut in the manner of asaw. Then, having a segment of a circle a little greater than 60 degrees, of about the same radius with the wheel, and the circumference made true, from a very fine center, I described an arch near the edge, and set off the chord of 60 degrees on this arch. This segment was put in the place of the 734 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. wheel, the edge of it was ratched, and the number of revolutions and parts of the screw contained between the interval of the 60 degrees were counted. The radius was corrected in the proportion of 360 revolu- tions, which ought to have been in 60 degrees, to the number actually found, and the radius, so corrected, was taken in a pair of beam com- passes while the wheel was on the lath, one foot of the compasses was put in the center and with the other a circle was described on the ring ; then half the depth of the threads of the screw being taken in dividers was set from this circle outwards and another circle was described, cut- ting this point; a hollow was then turned on the edge of the wheel of the same curvature as that of the screw at the bottom of the threads ; the bottom of this hollow was turned to the same radius or distance from the center of the wheel as the outward of the two circles before mentioned. “The wheel was now taken off the lathe, the bell-metal piece (D) was screwed on as before directed, which after this ought not to be removed. ‘From a very exact centera circle was described on the ring C, about four-tenths of an inch within where the bottom of the teeth would come. This circle was divided with the greatest exactness I was capa- ble of, first into 5 parts and each of these into 3. These parts were then bisected 4 times, that is to say, supposing the whole circumfer- ence of the wheel to contain 2,160 teeth, this being divided into 3 parts, each of them would contain 144, and this space bisected 4 times would give 72, 36,18, and 9; therefore each of the last divisions would con- tain 9 teeth. But, as I was apprehensive some error might arise from quinquesection and trisection, in order to examine the accuracy of the divisions I described another circle on the ring C,one-tenth inch within the former, and divided it by continual bisections, as 2,160, 1,080, 540, 270, 135, 675, and 533; and, as the fixed wire (to be described presently) crossed both the circles, | could examine their agreement at every 135 revolutions (after ratching could examine it at every 333); but not finding any sensible difference between the two sets of divisions, I, for ratching, made choice of the former; and, as the coincidence of the fixed wire with an intersection could be more exactly determined than with a dot or division, I therefore made use of intersections in both circles before described. “The arms of the frame were connected by a thin piece of brass of three-fourths of an inch broad, having a hole in the middle of four-tenths of an inch in diameter; across this hole a silver wire was fixed exactly in a line to the center of the wheel; the coincidence of this wire with the intersections was examined by a lens seven-tenths inch focus, fixed in a tube which was attached to one of the arms. “Now a handle or winch being fixed on the end of the screw, the division marked 10 on the circle was set to its index, and, by means of a clamp and adjusting screw for that purpose, the intersection Was set exactly to coincide with the fixed wire; the screw was then THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 735 carefully pressed against the circumference of the wheel by turning the finger-screw ; then, removing the clamp, I turned the screw by its handle 9 revolutions, till the intersection marked 240 came nearly to the wire ; then, unturning the finger-screw, I released the screw from the wheel and turned the wheel back till the intersection marked 2 exactly coincided with the wire, and by means of the clamp before mentioned, the division 10 on the circle being set to its index, the screw was pressed against the edge of the wheel by the finger-screw; the clamps were re- moved, and the screw turned 9 revolutions till the intersection marked 1 nearly coincided with the fixed wire; the screw was pressed, as before, the wheel was turned back till the intersection 3 coincided with the fixed wire; the division 10 on the circle being set to its index, the screw was pressed against the wheel as before, and the screw turned 9 revolutions till the intersection 2 nearly coincided with the fixed wire, and the screw was released; and I proceeded in this manner till the teeth were marked round the whole circumference of the wheel. This was repeated three times round, to make the impression of the screw deeper. I then ratched the wheel round continually in the same direction without ever disengaging the screw, and in ratching the wheel about 300 times round the teeth were finished. ‘¢ Now it is evident, if the circumference of the wheel was even one tooth or ten minutes greater than the screw would require, this error would in the first instance be reduced to one-two-hundred-and-fortieth part of a revolution or two seconds and a half; and these errors or in- equalities of the teeth were equally distributed round the wheel at the distance of 9 teeth from each other. Now, as the screw in ratching had continually hold of several teeth at the same time, and these con- stantly changing, the above-mentioned inequalities soon corrected themselves and the teeth were reduced to a perfect equality. “The piece of brass which carries the wire was now taken away and the cutting screw was also removed and a plain one (hereafter described) putin its place. On oneend of the screw is asmall brass circle, having itsedge divided into 60 equal parts and numbered at every sixth division, as before mentioned. On the other end of the screw is a ratchet-wheel having 60 teeth, covered by the hollowed circle, which carries two clicks that catch upon the opposite sides of the ratchet when the screw is to be moved forward. : ‘““The cylinder turns on a strong steel arbor, which passes through and is firmly screwed to the piece Y. This piece, for greater firmness, is attached to the screw-frame by braces ; a spiral groove or thread is cut on the outside of thecylinder, which serves both for holding the string and also giving motion to the lever on its center by means of a steel tooth that works between the threads of the spiral. To the lever is attached a strong steel pin on which a brass socket turns. This socket passes through a slit in the piece, and may be tightened in any part of the slit by the finger-nut. This piece serves to regulate the number of revolutions of the screw for each tread of the treadle, 736 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. ‘Several different arbors of tempered steel are truly ground into the socket in the center of the wheel. The upper parts of the arbors that stand above the plane are turned of various sizes, to suit the centers of different pieces of work to be divided. ‘¢ When any instrument is to be divided, the center of it is very exactly fitted on one of these arbors, and the instrument is fixed down to the plane of the dividing wheel by means of screws, which fit into holes made in the radii of the wheel for that purpose. “The instruments being thus fitted on the plane of the wheel, the frame which carries the dividing point is connected at one end by finger screws with the frame which carries the endless screw; while the other end embraces that part of the steel arbor which stands above the instru- ment to be divided by an angular notch in apiece of hardened steel ; by this means both ends of the frame are kept perfectly steady and free from any shake. ‘The frame carrying the dividing point or tracer is made to slide on the frame which carries the endless screw to any distance from the cen- ter of the wheel as the radius of the instrument to be divided may re- quire, and may be there fastened by tightening two clamps, and the dividing point or tracer being connected with the clamps by the double- jointed frame admits a free and easy motion towards or from the center for cutting the divisions without any lateral shake.” ENGINE BY WHICH THE ENDLESS SCREW OF THE DIVIDING ENGINE WAS CUT. The machine constructed by Ramsden for cutting the screw, and used to cut the 2,160 teeth in the circumference of the circle of his dividing engine, is of the greatest interest, for it is one of the earliest applications of the principle of changing the lateral speed of the tool in cutting a screw by differential wheels ;—the method now used in the slide rest of a lathe. Plate IIL is from a photograph of this machine deposited in the U.S. National Museum by Dr. Morton. It has not been found practicable to letter the various parts of this machine to correspond with those referred to in Ramsden’s description. it is believed however that the reader will find more interest in following the original description in the words of the celebrated mechanician than in reading an explanation of the construction of the machine couched in modern terms. Ramsden describes his machine thus: A represents a triangular bar of steel, to which the triangular holes in the piece B and C are accurately fitted, and may be fixed on any part of the bar by the screws D. HF is a piece of steel whereon the screw is intended to be cut, which, after being hardened and tempered, has its pivots turned in the form of two frustrums of cones, as represented in the drawings of the dividing engine (foot-note Fig. 5). These pivots were very exactly | I Cydvasojoyd woody) “WoORLOP, AtuOTL “aE Aq, ul lod SUI [VUOTVN “8 *f) oyu poy “1ND SY3IM ANION] ONIGIAIG NSGSNWVY SHL SO 3LV1d S3HL NO HLSS] AHL GNV M3AYOS SSSATIGNA SHL HOIHM Ad SANIHOVI|Al Ata nee aaa ea ni il tet intend vere tn so tt tn i a ‘ we vr 2 ‘ be ¢ 7 7 - Ne c¢* ‘7 n “Wee i pat aa age et voy h 2 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. | tae fitted to the half holes F and TJ, which were kept together by the screws Z. H represents a screw of untempered steel, having a pivot, 7, which runs in the hole XK. At the other end of the screw is a hollow center, which receives the hardened conical point of the steel pin 17. When this point is sufficiently pressed against the screw to prevent its shak- ing the steel pin may be fixed by tightening the screws Y. N is a eylindrie nut. movable on the screw H, which, to prevent any shake, may be tightened by the screws 0. This nut is connected with the saddle piece P by means of the intermediate universal joint W, through which the arbor of the screw H passes. tg = en 60 OLNGETS..CO-OPCRailOUN Ol sr ao ay ee see es Se oh en ee on 29 Artificial deformation of children, by Dr. J..H. Porter ___-..--__------- 80 AP LSAnG INGUSPRICS, | SLabISolcS/Ol ACCESSIONS.) 94522 22 52 2 7 of the mound builders, papers on, by W. H. Holmes -_--------------- 51 Aryans, the primitive home of the, by,A. H.. Sayee -. 2 --=2.-- 2.22. 7d Ascentolman, Dyer rami bake tesa Ae AS ok oe ay en ee, ee 447 NSSION MeN tiOLerOOMS 10m SClENGING WORK 5-5) — yee = Fee eee 21 Assistant Secretary, report of, bilbiography of Museum publications in_-_- 30 EROSTS LATTCE SALONS UU CETUS ass eee Sa Sel i le ae ee Bo mee oe 30 Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiments Stations meh lechure allot sViMSeuIMAs wo soe ee ee ee es Sk 31 YRC Sve ME CLOLOCN Oly a2. eyo ae Se age eg ee Ea ey eet OE a 172 Astronomical appartus, standard of serew threads for ------_------------ 13 bibliography by WC. WWimlock 2 fk se Se 171,173 UES UTSULTTNS THUS 5 CB) OT big OTN gee ee ae ae ies ee eee 167 TOUCH Al SuipSerlp tl Oa tO eee pe ee ee ew ge ee 2 BSOCICULES eV EPO Ue ON Seen sre eae eee 169 Astronomy, progress in, in 1886, by William C. Winlock -___------------- 79, 81 progress of, for 1889, 1890, by William C. Winlock.---------- 121 astronomers, -necrolomy) Off . = a= Sheece- pee Sie Se ee 159 polar BpEetrim +22 Sic. 2-5 asin ese aoe Ae eee 154 BOlar systeiy Soy ek et eer bt ee ey ae ee 151 Star catslooues 22s... eee eee i EE ee SE ees Sete 124 stellar parable .
  • . 2: =. 2-4 ast 131 Astro-physical investigations, building for apparatus __.----------------- 10 observatory, establishment of__+_._-.2.--2.+.-..-2.----L.- xii, 10 scope of work explained --.._--------.---=--- 12 Atlas Steamship Company, acknowledgments due -_-_-_-_--- Dae ere Se et 61 Amusivin exchange transmissions t@2. 252-2- 205-5. -=5----55--seonese5555 59, 62, 63 ‘A vifauna Italica,” presented by author -- ....--.--.----.---.--+.--.-- sae 78 B. Haven, oxebgnes transmissions te —- = a ee eee ee 59, 63 Bailey, H. B.,.&-Co;, acknowlediments @ues_-2- <= eee ee ee 61 Baird: Professor statue of se 2 ee ee en aot oe eee ee eee 20 Baker, Dr. Frank, appointed acting manager of National Zodlogical Pb) bs AD SSA A I ee --82, 41, 74 appointed honorary curator, Department of Compara- tive ‘Anatomy-.22").2 S238 See ee ae ee 32 he Ascenso: fan Ot. ee eee 447 Baltazzi, X., Consul-General, acknowledgments due_----_--------------- 61 Barber & Co., acknowledgements due..c7 2 -< - 72 22S Se ee 61 Barker, George F., report on progress in physics for 1886 __....---------- 80, 81 ‘Barn. owl-in Zoblopical Park. coe uu. Se en ee ee 64 Bascanionrconstrictor in Zodlor ical Park 22 2) seen eee 64 Basel, University of, sends complete sets of publications -__----.--.------ 6, 77 Basement under National) Museum), cost: of sae. saase s2 eee ea eee 9 Basket work of North American aborigines, by Otis T. Mason ------ Eeht 81 Batrachia of North America, paper on, by Prof. E. D. Cope-------------- 29 Patrachians, statisties-of accessions.~+< 2222 SoS ee eee ee 27 Bats:studied: by: Dr. Harrison: Allen)c2 >... 2 SS Eee eS eR eo ook Bos 30 Bavaria, exchange transmissions :te_ 2-. +4 Seen See cee 59, 63 Bean, Dr. Tarleton H., Dr. G. Brown Goode and, paper by--------------- 30 Hears-in Zodlorical Park .¢ Ns. Uo oe Sais Oe eee ee 64 Beck, Senator, death of, a loss to the Institution-----......-------------- 41 Belgium, a party to Brussels Convention \=22 222224 225 Uae 58 exchange transmissions. to. =2352245 2-560. 2 43i2- 4... 4.0 28 Ge Bell, Dr. Alexander Graham, donation to astro-physical observatory ----. 3, 12 Bequest of James Hamilton, amount of---...--.-------------------------- 2 Dr; Jerome H. Kidder 22. = 21S ee a ee oa ee 3, 11, 12 resolutions by Board of Regents. --- ---- xiii Simeon Habel, amount .Of = ..5 203. doses ee EEE ee a 2 Smithson, amount of... -.- Serer were ee Sie phi ee, Meee 2 INDEX. 779 Page Berber manuscript obtained by Talcott Williams -______..._--.--__.-___- 13 Bern, University of, sends complete set of publications __-_...___...___--- 77 Bernadou, Ensign J. B., lecture in Museum lecture hall_________________- 31 Bibliographical catalogue of the described transformations of North America’s Lepidoptera, by Henry Edwards _--..-.-....-2----.-2---__-- 29, 30 Bibliography of Anthropology, by Otis T. Mason ______.____________- ee RE SS Museum publications in, report of assistant secretary —__-- 30 Musmhorean, languages aoe 42 2s 2 ee 52 the National Museun, its officers, and others ___________- 82 Biographical memoir of Arnold Guyot, by James D. Dana ___-_-________- 80 ESRC CITE OST CALMICATIC oy 020 ete SS mee eee a ee, eet oe yay 64 Bich bESUMES CRI HCCCSS LOLS: 2 fy meena: ot gett k Np eS oe 27 eggs and nests, statistics of accessions. ._._._._.._-........-_---- 2t skeletons studied by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt__---.-...-.-_...--_._-.. 30 solic A tmericanus in ZOOlOMICAL Parke So: 6 20 Ol ee 64 Basia NCH EX DO ETM INA GIO Ui Ob Ses 1a se) Pines eater. 8. Seg ee 34, 35 paper on, by William T. Hornaday---- 30, 81 Bixby, Thomas E., & Co., acknowledgments due -_-____---.___---_______- 61 Blacktailed deer in Zoblovical Ae es See eS te A a 64 Blaine, Hon. James G., member ez officio of the eT AYER eee ee ew ix Blood corpuscles, mor pholes of the, by Charles Sedgwick Minot ----_--- 429 Board of Regents, action of, relation to death of Hon. Samuel S. Cox____- 2 BHMNVL MOC TINO OL — > Sue. e Seer See et Rp) UN ae 2 FEpor fOr 158k. bath 2. eae eee ee ee 81 1 Sel Cs pena Te ig BE Sat Soen 82 BHMUBICreMOrG AOE LOGO) tA a4 8 to Se oe ho eS i,iv JOUrAaL OLE roeeed INGe Of. aan ne Soe 2 es ee xi recommended additional Museum building ------------ 4 resolutions by --------- Xi, Xli, Xili, xiv, xv, xvi,.2, 16, 18, 44 (See, also, Executive Committee and Regents.) ~ vacancies in, filled by Congressional resolution -_--_-_- xli Board on geographical names, Smithsonian represented at____.__________ 25 ieas, Kranz, paper on the Central Mskimo: 22-2. 220-3 =f) a2 2 23. 54, 82 iBomloran Eihrary, DOOKS Sent. by... 3. foo ~~ 2 ee Q Tt Boehmer, George H. Report on exchanges for 1887_-__---__.---.._--._--- 79 Bolivia, consul-general for, acknowledgments due _-.-_-_-----_-.-_---_-_- 61 Sxciipi ve pEansMnssiONs Os Soest teen owes eet 2 OTe 59, 62 Bolometer in-astro-physical observatory --=.-.--.2- 2. _---=--+--+--------- ll Bolton, H. Carrington, report on progress in chemistry for 1886_________- 80, 81 represented Institution at installation of Dr. Low, OL. Columbia: Colleges... #2 eS a 25 Bonds, proceeds of sale, deposited in United States Treasury__-_-___.__-- 2 Bonn, University of, sends complete set of publications _____.___.__..___- Tits ipprand.§t. R., acknowledgments die 22. 22 61 Bors, C., Consul-General, acknowledgments due___-_._._._.___-__-_._._.-- 61 Botanical collections made by Telcott Williams _____.___- 2 oe ee eee 13 Gaston," cxchangyes Of. 252.22 — Paes Fe toy ee o8 se Su et 60 cropical.< Vyas iNE (Pronto ne eee Sates yor ee aa 389 Botanyot National Zoolopical Park, 62 .~...Jss- 42 ee tees 68 Botassi, D. W., Consul-General, acknowledgments due_._._._._.-----__-- 61 Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, acknowledgments due __-._-_--._----_--___-__-- 61 Boxes of specimens received by Museum. ------------ -.----------------- 28 eres wee TUG OBES oa yl as Sek 22] eo 780 INDEX. Brady, J. H., collections regelved from -_----=-----_... 22 Fe eee eee x, ul letter to. relative to money advanced on ac- count of exchanges.........--. oF ee 18 C., Cabinet officers forming the ‘‘ establishment”.-.........-..-..--..-2..---- 1 members ex officio of the establishment ------------------ ix Cacatua galerita in Zodlogical“Park ~~... -. 22.02 So ee 64 Calderon, Consul-General C., acknowledgments due-_-.------------------- 61 Caldo, Consul-General A. G., acknowledgments due ----- ppaeiarele 2/3 Ae ac 61 California, Indian vocabularies collected in -----------.------------------ 49 lingwistie work in. ..602.2.0ce ye See ee eee 49 Call, Hon. Wilkinson, introduced bill for the establishment of a Bureau Of Mine ATIC so see Se ee ee 64 CUTOUTS LOO LOST Call ar kone See ee Se ee) ee 64 Carter, R. Burdenell, color vision and color blindness______-.___________- 687 Casa Bina. model AG madesbyeCwNViIndeletiqn sta. We Mee. Shere) en 53 Grande, Arizona, report on, by V. Mindeleff ____--______- Nabe 53 ASPIZONG ViSite dys as a aoe Ramee A ne Sd We ee 43, 48 Gases shipped by Exchange Bureau: ------._-.-.---..----- Deeps Sage we 55, 56 Gage woapts li. Studied. Coleoptera: 22 s7-- + 24 hs Soe 2S ee 30 Watalosue’ entries:of National, Museums. 222-22 e225 22528 3 be ee 28, 80, 81 Catlin Indian Gallery, by Thomas Donaldson ---_----------- fee eres 81 Sia biSvles Oh ACCESSIONS — 2h. Woah es ae eee 27 CaimcmnopercanZO0lOrical: Park =) = 22.0 215 yl as ee ee 64 Cchusjatuellus m Zoolowical Park .. 222.2. 2--<_ 2.2 255-5 Up sek pe WE 64 PUMOICLENS AN AOOlOT ICAP ar le S002 ee ee aL 64 ¢egiha, English dictionary PEAS Cato as Te a) OY ee Ve re 50, 51 Wenozolw fossils, statistics fs accessiOnS/ 29) — esse ne a ee 28 GCenducrbureall, OxChanges Oh. ose se 2) Sen nr 54h See ue oe se es oe 60 Gentranldkimos paperiby bran B0as 222) 2.22 223 2. ool 5.6 oe ss 54, 82, 82 Cercopihecus callibrichus in Zovlogieal Park =... /22...-:--=.2+---------- 64 Gervis conadensisin, Zodlomical Park

    . hoes Seo ele oe ey ee ee 64 Cinlewexchaneestransmissious tOp ss mera ee eee 8 ee = DO LOL OS Ghina. exchange transmissions 403225526. sas = os ee ee HO Oe Chiriqui, Colombia, ancient art of. Paper by W. H. Holmes------------ 54, 82 Cibola, architecture of, report on, by V.Mindeleff_-_-.---..----------.--- 53 Clark, Miss MeIS., investigationssmade, by -= 25 = 2. a ee ee - 5O Clarke; b..W., report.on Prof. Morley’s:researches........_=._-=.-..-=-- 83 the meteorite collection in National Museum_-----.------ 80 Clarke’s nut-cracker in Zoédlogical Park --------------_--- Be seals betes es 64 ChHicalatGyOtmine. brain, lechure,ONia- 2 o2 te ae 21 skull, paper on, by Dr. Harrison Allen_----_.------ 15, 80 Cluss & Schulze, claims of, for plans for new Museum building ----------- xiv Coast and Geodetic Survey, codperation of ------------------------- ego 2 ex Ghan@estO fia an oe sae es ees Os ae 60 pendulum experiments by -_-_---=.----------- 21 Wa nISsSiabishi ClHOtmaccessiONS’ = 2.26 Ao ee ee 27 Colsontera.studied by: Cant. TG. Casey... ss -- + anon sence nt eenene 30 782 INDEX. Page. Collections of American Historical Association to be deposited in Smith- sonian hbiullding -. 2.255 2i 2222 SS eee oe ee eee 22 Museum, inctoase Gf22. (227. e te ee See eee 26 Color-blindness, color-vision and. By R. Burdenell Carter____--..--_--- 687 Color-vision and color-blindness. By R. Burdenell Carter ___-_----______- 687 Colombia, consul-general for, acknowle._» nents due. -_---.------------_--- 61 exchange transmissions) to>.2-2- << ee oe. eee 59, 62, 63 Commissioners for establishment of 7odlogical Park, report of ...-.------- 38, 39 Committee on the International Standards for Iron and Steel, rooms Occupied "by... = 22) isc aao 2 on ee ee ee ee ee ee 21 resolutions relative to services of Hon. S. S. Cox.._---__------ 43, 44 Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, acknowledgments due__-_---_-_--- 61 Comparative anatomy, statistics of accessions --------------------.------ 27 Comptroller of the Currency, exchanges of-__--.----222-222-1--- 2225 60 Condition of the Smithsonian fund -—->---< 5227 252-22 os Se BS Ae 2, 3, xvii Congress, action of, desired for printing annual reports -_----------_----- 16 relative to new Museum building -_---.......-____.. 4 Congress, acts by— Organization of Zodlogical Park -----. ~ts Pe SU ee cee aoe aerate eee eee 39 Purchase of Capron collection s22-222 2232272 2 Bee ee eee 23 VWorld’s: Columbian Exposition =-22222 223084 2S See 23 (See also, Congress, appropriations by.) Congress, appropriations by, for— Claims allowed by First Comptroller of Treasury --.....--.-----..--- xli Deficiency elaims:.—- —--2=22- 25-24-32 Baw ont ese Soon See ee ee xli Pxechangces for Geolopical Survey 2- =<. so ste ees ess eee, eee xli Furniture and fixtures, National Museum------...--2 2-2-2222 22222. xl Disbursemengor. 22 eet Rae See ee ee Se hk ne en 3 Fireproofing Smithsonian building: + i252 5" $2.5 See ee es 10 Heating and lighting Museum building ----.-_-_----- xxviii, xxix, xxxii, xl International exchanges 25225222202 a eee Ee Xix, Keri, xl d7soe National Museum ©2222-2222 222222222-2-ee EX1, XXVi, XXVill x eix eee, ol National Zoological Park 270. 2.2) See ee eee XX*1) XR KE oe North American ethnology ----.---- be Piped SAS we Boag? 2 a re xix) zai, Postage for National Munemra-- eee ee cee Xxviii, xxxii, xl P¥osoryation Of colecmous: -> 222 2-- 52 ves saea= eee EXi; XXIX, X¥Ndi, SF Printing for Museum >< 22-2 2.222 -< s2s das oee ee ee ee Purchase of collection of prehistoric copper implements----___-____- xli Reimbursement to Institution on account of Fish Commission -------- xli Smithsonian building, repairs toz 522.22 see ee ee eee xl Congress asked to refund money advanced for exchanges_-_-__--__-_----_- 16,18 bills for establishment of bureau of fine arts -.-.--_.-.-_-_------ 22 for extending hours for visiting Museum-----..--.-.--.-.-...-- to provide electric plant for buildings---_--_-_-- Lie EE i Sore = resolutions by, appointing’ regents: —' soo 5s- 232s ee eA to print extra copies:of reports ile 2 cee ee eee ee of Orientaliste, P. Haupt’s report one i642 ests. Consuls of foreign powers, acknowledgments due --_- --_- ee eee Contents of annual report for 1890): 2/520 oo ee toe ee eee ig ya Contributions to Knowledge----..---..-..--..---.--.-- Dave. SLi) ene Museum collections: £2... 532 2 AAG oak oc: = ee North American ‘Ethnology <--2025-- oS eee the natural history of the Cetacean, a review of the family Delphinidz, by Frederick W. True.-...--..-..- / INDEX. 783 Page. Contribution toward a monograph on Noctuide, by John B. Smith------- 30 Co-operation of departments of Government-_-_-_--------------------------- 28 Cope, Prof. E. D., the Batrachia of North America---------------------- 29 Cope, Prof. Edward D., paper on Reptilia--------- PSL S ews ee aa ee eee 15 oppoe, Wr soniye mom Gi» 2c tater. ee as iy ewe dee ee Ke Kt member of the executive committee --_------------- DG >.e.o.ain resolution of, relative to resignation of Dr. Noah Por- COT cS oe ee Seen es ee Se rn See ys ee ee xi Gores, lectureon, museum lecture, hall’: t= 2022 a5 Lae = 2S 31 CormeleUmnversity,, DOOkS' sent bys. --5--- -- =< -- ose aes eee ee 78 Corona sorieiure of the, by Davids b. Pedda.- =: 222 -<< 22-22-22 2 79 Correspondence, how conducted ------ ep tee te tree PR eo set Ae 25 of exchance bureal,. recording OL -—--- =~ - 2-82 2.22 eas 62 Correspondents of exchange bureaw=— == 22262-2222 57 Carnie ok Jc. ACKNOWICOOMeN(s hUC-..=— = oh ace e se eee ee eee 61 Cost of exchanges to Smithsonian Institution ---------------------------- 17,18 improving grounds for Zodlogical Park --_---------- -------------- 40 improvements of Museum building -_----_-----.-------.---.-4-==- 10 Costanoan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin---------------------------- 49 Gosia ticavexchanme transmissions (0 =. .< $220.21 son 32a ee eee es ee 59, 62 Conurus carolinensis intZoole@o@icaliP ark = 25 sas se aa ae 64 Cox, Hon. Samuel S., death of, action of Board of Regents respecting ---- xv,2 GSsCONhGL ce os. seeps oe eee Ghee ease 44 GUISUREY NOUCS Oloa— 42 a5—.- eno a eee 43 Cox, Mrs., presented portrait of her husband ---------------------------- 2 Cradles of the American aborigines, by Otis T. Mason _-__---------------- 80 Crain, Hon. W. H., introduced bill for extending hours for visiting the Witiseunt = 25322 ico ot ea Ie 32 to provide electric plant for Museum and Smithsonian buildings --------- 32 Criminal anthropology, by Thomas Wilson —---..--------------------+--- 617 Cuba, exchange iransmissions t0---------=+=-=---=2--_=_=_.— pie SS yee se 59, 62 CGullom. Hon. Shelby Ma regent --2-- 2-25 222. aie en a ae x, xe motion of, proposing change in time of meeting Of BOaN Gd OMiRe DCMS a ae ae eee ere XV Cunard Steamship Line, acknowledgments due -------------------------- 61 Curator ofexchanges, report Of: =. 2-2-2. 2-2-2 -_ =~ == = 5 2 en 5- == 5d, 62 Gurators of National Museum, reports. of2--._-- we _-__--2-2 22--+.--=22---- 82 papers by..252--- Ss Srl aA ant Sg eae NE es) USE chee eee 30 Curtin, Jeremiah, explorations by ----------------=---------------------- 49 THANG! SOU OW ug ess nee We eee Ses Te ee eae 14 Cyanocitta Stelleri macrolopha in Zoélogical Park ------- ga ee Ben 2S tes ee 64 Cynomys ludovicianus in Zoélogical Park ------------ pepe nee Ss 64 D. Dakota, account of sun-dance, paper by J. Owen Dorsey ------------------ 50 mounMexplorations IN -.-=2-=-==222-52-255- +229 2-22-5427. = 3 47 d’Almeirim, Baron, acknowledgments due ---_---------------------------- 61 Dana, Edward S., report on progress in mineralogy for 1886. .------------ 80, 81 Dana, James D., bibliographical memoir of Arnold Guyot ---------------- 80 Darton, Nelson H., progress in North American geology in 1886_--------- 79, 81 De Varigny, Henry, temperature and life -------------------------------- 407 Dean, Bashford, received fishes for study ----.-.------------------------- 30 784 INDEX. Page. Deer in Zoélogical Park ------ Se AR rE a a Re ee Se 64 Delphinidz, review of the family, a paper by F. W. True.---.------------ 30 Denmark, consul-general for, acknowledgments due___----__------------- 61 €xchange transmissiOns tO a. some en re ae eee 59, 62, 68 Dennison, Thomas, acknowledgments due.-_...-....--.)---------.----~-~- 61 Department or Agriculture, oxchantes Ol----22-- 2 sane en eee eee 60 Tabor, ;exchanres Ol. =o. c2- 5a. Soe a eee eae ae 60 living animals merged with Zoélogical Park ---------.---- 33 late, ,OXCNAN OCS Ol acne ee ee ee ee ee 60 the, Interior, OxChanees Ol: 225. 5s. gee a ee ee ee 60 Departments of Government, co-operation of-.--.-.-.--------------- Mee 28 DIS WOST GS kT OM SAMUI Ss ATI CO ULNLy O Le es er ere eee 2 Descriptive papers published by Museum _.--..._-.---------..----------- 30, 81 Determination of standard of length, investigations for__--.--.--.-------- 21 Devens, Judge Charles, appointed regent --..--..--.-.--------.--- 2 gone eel prevented from accepting appointment as regent. 2 Dewey, Pred Pi, PApOr ID) = ae ae ee ee ee 30 Peslon avon Ol =. - 2-525 bee ee eae ee ee ae 32 Dha-du-ghe Society of the Ponca Tribe, by J.Owen Dorsey ---- - niche ai 50 Diameter standards to ‘be adopted _.=--<-.--- ~~ GRRE 13 Dicoltyle tajacu in Zoblogical Park --------- ELE PRE eR) a on. 64 Puchionary of, indian tripal Mamesi. oe oo see ee 50 Didelphys mrginiana in Zoblogical Park. -----2--5.. -322.-s-cse eens oe 64 Diplomatic officers of the United States co-operation of_.----.------------ 28 Disbursement of Congressional appropriations -----------.-------------- 3 Disbursements by exchange bureau __..-_- a eS a eek Sf te op i 57 Distinct characters of work of astro-physic al ease Valory oc 2. ae SS 12 Distribution of duplicate specimens: .... 5. (2-2-6 )_ =e oc see see 29 OXGDANG ES: sao yee ee ae oe Ol Se ec ee 59 District Commissioners, 6xchanees Of 0 ee eee oe ee ee eee 60 Domestic entries made by exchange bureau _-_.-...-.......-.---- <== == 5), 56 individuals corresponding with exchange bureau _------------- 55, 56 packages sent by exchange urea! --2- 2-2 5- Se seen ee eee 5d, 56 socities corresponding with exchange bureau------.------------ DD. 56 Donaldson, Thomas. the George Catlin Indian Gallery --_--- --.-.----------- 81 Dorpat, University of, sends the complete set of publications ---------------- 7 Dorsey, Rev. J Owen, articles iwritten Dy 2-22-23 os ae 50 the Werina en euare oo Od ee eee 50, 51 ethnological researches of -_------------ ee ae 50 paper on Osage traditions —_—----- ae ee Pr) Douglas, Hon. J. W., Commissioner for establishment of Zablogic al Park, ROPOP WOOL os a on ts was oe ci eee om Sea a ee oe ee 39 Dove in Zoédlogical Park -_----- oe ici A aie Be Res ae ee ee 64 Duplicate specimens, distribution OF a). te: ee ee oe 29 Dutch Guiana, transmissions of exchanges to____ __--- ----- Soe bask. SD eOe K. Bacles.in: Zo0lorical Park. cacc- © osscue aan o ee eee ee eee ee 64 Karth, mathematical theories of the, by Robert 5. Woodward _--------~--- 183 physical structure of the, by Henry Hennessy -------- -------- 201 Karthworks in Lowa, by Clement L. Webster -_.--~---- bye ear? ay Sips" Economie geology. statisties of accessions - ee a d 28 Ecuador, consul-general for, acknowledgments due nS « gtaee a ancl 61 INDEX. 785 Page Monitor exchan es transmissions tO... 2nc2c.52- <2 52-222 2-55-22 5-2-_ 2S 59. 62 Edwards, Henry, bibliographical catalogue on the transformations of the NortheAnnericanvilepidOptera: ss. 2265292 = 2 oe ep eee 29, 30 Eells, Myron, the Twana, Chemakun, and Klallam Indians of Washing- bOn Nein aie esa ora e eas Sarees ee eee on eee os Se a ee 80, 81 HAclonewoOroxenane@e:- Service 2: 22g 09222 ee. ede be a ew be ES 58 Re cee Crate Es OiaeCOSSIONSS Soe ea SABE a toe i Se Wee een Se 27 ap bl Oxlade tEansmissiONS (00 = 222.2 722226 ee ae 59, 62 The ace.ol bronze in, by Oscar Montelias;~ 5222 22) 2p ee 499 Hhnilkcans vocabularies collected by Ji-(Cumbim 22=- 2-2.) 2 es 49 Electric plant for Smithsonian and Museum buildings. _--__--__-_----__-- 32 Elephant mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleff -__-__----_._-_-__-_-_-- 53 keine Zoolocicaltbark t= ayes beeen Le ee eee en Uk Sethi eee 64 Eliott, Henry W., collections undertaken by----...-----.-~4-+--+-..205- 14 faciliGeSTamOrd Cts es seen ee ae eee at Se nS 28 offered to make collections for Museum_---_--_____--- 33 Endowments to Smithsonian Institution -_-------- Fe ee ats ee ee 3 Eneimcerbureau,.U. 5. Army, exchanges Of). 25-22. 2 ese 60 Hi pineerinewstatistics Ol acCesSsiONs — 2... .2-2-25-— 6522-22-08.) ee 2 Entries made by exchange bureau -_----------------- pepe: 3 ee aa ee 5d, 56 TOA ESO CLORSOTOS Tin SAC ONO Ke bd SEOs: Boe pense SO ee ee ee eee ee 64 ManciCols©-go. Oo. Ariny, pnanks P1VEN Os: i.e oo 8 Soe eee ee jut Eskimo bows, a study, by John Murdoch-.------------ a ls Meet rig gear teens Poteet 81 Eercentnralh, papel bie Wranzpels OCS s= == nee s = ee eee 54, 82 Espriella, Consul-General Justo R. de la, acknowledgments due_----__--- 61 Establishment of the Smithsonian Institution explained -_--...----.----- 1 HMatimatetOmexCnhanves= ss. 2s 525) 2. 2 eae ee See ens ae ee ase A 18 HIS GIMATES HOM SO Os lS Olas ae Les Se ee ae eae ne 4 Bthno-Concholocy, by: Robert Ki. Ca stearns. 9825-222. 222 ee ee 81 Ethnographic collections made by Talcott Williams---------------------- 13 Ethnologie researches among the North American Indians-_----_--------- 42,47 Ethnological research, Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smithsonian Institution -------=--=-----=2--=- 3 EMMLINE HE NO Ee ee Ree ee ee ee i + Ethnological specimens from Tulalip Reservation___-—__- ne eae aoe ae 29 Hthnolory, (sea-bureal of Ethnology)... .22-.2202S202 223442. Sete sed ee 15 Etowah mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleffs_ Js. :2.-.-2 s:Leeesee ee 53 Evans, S. B., antiquities of Mexico -------.-- Boe Ae A eR Bee patos bt 80, 81 Higans a Olmnecamhl Oui ye Ol: Trainee ees Oe ee cera ee ae oe pease eres eet 2 oe 467 Examination of accounts by Executive Committee _._..-2....----+----.=- xvii IH XcavaLlonss akcheO Ogi Cal! = Sates e tes, eee ee Se pea ees eee 42, 47 Exchange accounts examined by Exec.:tive Committee -----.-------.----- xix bureau. exchanees Of-e= a= eas eas =P eee ue he Aryl wey 5 es ~ 60 istiof libraryA wore messes eke. Seeeaers ets Desay Beek ke fo ae = 20 HEOSress. OL WORK... eas ee eee eee Doan nee eee, Seed 19 Ofsofiieral documentsy= a2 essen oes ates Se eee ash Be et areas 16 imeminaol Drussels "2-2 yes oS ee ey Nes ets EU 57 Exchanges, Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smithsonian In- StuMbLlON 222 ss 2/oe oe. eo ae Soe Sees ee ee ee see 3 @oneressional appropriation foriso2sso5 57-28 Se xix Gostofs.to Smithsoniansinsiihutlonec= = as4- = 2222 2 eer 17,18 CopIMaTeNOL 2-2 32223 oweee eee Se ce oat nak nin epee =e ee 4,18 H. Mis, 129 a0 786 INDEX. Page. Exchanges, moneys advanced for, by Institution.-..--..-.......-......- 16, 17, 18 paid for, by Congressional appropriations---..--.---- 17 of the Geological Survey, Congressional appropriation for _-.-_ xi OUtline DashORy OF no octet es ee eet ee i ee re ere ee 16 repaymente by bureais— --o. 2 eee ees 17 report on, for 1887, by George H. Boehmer...-.--..--.----.-.- 79 pecretary s PeporhOn 2 =) oo 5 sae soe a en eee 16 (See also International Exchanges.) Executive Committee.of Board of Regents ..--..-..-.--...-.---.------..- x examined scem@antn. oo. Fo6 cote e ees ee ate eee xvii GAEMING VOUCHOTA <<. Sone so ee he ess ee 3,4 TODORD OF sn 28 2a i eee ae ee xvii Exhibition space in National Museum, table of ---..-.--.----------------- 9 Expenditures of Smithsonian Institutions -_..-.- 2223) 2 se soo ee xvili Expenditures for international exchanges-.----_.---22-..-.2-..-22-----. >.< North American Ethnology 2) - 22. 27 se, a UK OR Re National Museum: 2222 Ase eee XXil, xxii, xxiv, xxv, xxvi furniture and fixtures___-__-_- ESL 2 BE Dae Re 4 2 OOS DO, Ab.65p.0.0.4 heating, lighting, ete s2---- 2 ee XXVili, xxix, xxx poster... et ee A A ee ee xxix preservation of collections. ~ 25... 2ee- eee 6 IB. < RIGS. ss Sea ten ee ene Xxix National, Zotlogical Parks —2*> 22 n 2 ee ee 26.0.0! of Smithsonian Institniion,slSO0i = os eee eee 2 eee ee 3 Expenses\of exchange bureau (205 ee ee ee eee 56 ME IOV a TONS & 222 eos 5 ee eee eee re eae ee 13 promoted by. National Museum: ~ °°: -:2leioc8 eS eee 32 of mounds by Bureau of Ethnology ------------------------- 42, 47 Extermination of the-American, bison 2° 22-34 222 s5-. nese ee ee 34, 35 paper on, by William T. Hornaday - 30, 81 Extension of library contemplated <-----s- 22k os en nee eee 20 hours for:visiting the Museum ai eee 59 eliicieney of servide 20 cer eee eS eee 58 estimates for tt -. 4 SA 2 os ee eS eee 4 of official dectiimenitas 2 822 Se eee 57 Oxpendiniwes lof. tics cea cas sok acer eee terse nee xix INDEX. 791 Page farernationaliexchanrés, expense... .-25.. <5) 2522 23b2l sls pet 56 MO CHRP eee a eee ere er eT Pe ee TY Say 56 chisbursemonts | soo ieee oe 2 ge ee ae 57 covernmentall ss Sen See he eee eee oe 60 of official documents --___.-__=-__- 57 report of Secretary on_-----._--_- 16 Lb OSH CHIKOINS OS ge eS ee ee 5), 56 EEANSTNSSLONS ys ke ey eee ee 62, 65 transportation companies________- 61 Winlock, William C., curator_____ 52 (pee dixehanges),/-425._-222...5 16 standards for iron and steel, committee on, met in Gaiith=\soniam build ime. 22.22.) Sc sh 21 Invertebrates, marine, statistics of accessions --_-.-..-_--___-_-____--_--- 27 imvestivaions berun by the. Seeretary.2 22. ve22a8 a ee eee ee ek 11 OfmoundS eresulitsvole a Ae es ns ee SS ee 42,47 fnyvGices written by exchange: bureay 222 Ft si Si iosys Neen es 22 ef DD, 6 Tron, standard for committee on, used in Smithsonian building Be ae ae 21 Epi Gia proper names collected and recorded - =. 205.5 25a 527 ceo Ane 52 iroquors, relicious doctrines. ol, recorded, - 4. oS. 3245, je2 auc ko Se eee ee 49,50 italy.va party to. Beussels Convention . 2.2. ..22020h 22.5) se ssseb ee ay 58 exchange transmissions tos2 5. = 3) 652 5 fee Ss a es ON O2 G3 the primitive races of, by Cannon Isaac Taylor ----_------_-------- 489 J. 7 Japan,,exchance transmissions (02-222) 2-3! 2b 22-2262 -28 Se. Se ee 2 59 6263 Japanese religion and burials, paper by Romyn Hitchcock -------------~- 30 works of art, Capron collection of, proposed purchase of ___-_-__ 23 Jay 1 Zovlorical Park 2’. 222. oestos ole he fei «hee ariel Nae 64 Jemez: tripe sudied. by Mrs: Stevensom 722-7 22552020 h2. 2 ooo ee 82 54 Jena, University of, serids complete set of publications --_-_-_.._---------- 77 Joint resolutions of Congress appointing regents -_----------------_------ 2 Journal of Proceedings of Board of Regents, 4) 2-42 225225 2.22 Ssece ee xi K. Kansa genealogical tables prepared by J. Owen Dorsey ------------------ 50 Keliie sd scour, otanley andathemmap lOtAirica= ==. 2... 225) = eee en 277 adder. DraJserome tH. bequest Oles=s ==. ses teers eee 3 to astro-physical observatory ------------ 11, 12 of, resolutions by board of regents------- xiii Kiel, University of, sends complete set of publications --___-._._.--------- ric Kiener’s ‘‘Iconographie des Coquilles Vivantes” presented to Museum LELE SETS 2S oa ae ee a es ee ae pe Rae eee ete 31 Klamath grammar, prepared by A. S. Gatschet _-_____ -__.--------------- 51 Rolitker: rof.-Albert, books presented: by -.2.-:-._.-222-12 20 4 2-42. 78 Koenig’s Researches on Musical Harmony, by Sylvanus P Thompson --_- 335 Konigsberg, University of, sends complete set of publications -__--------- 77 Kunz, George F. The gem collection of National Museum-------~------- 80 a Oe PeomaarivisciinceOllectiOn o- 2522.4. oh ok Biss ote SEALs slo ueee week 31 Laboratories space in National Museum, table of------------------------- 9 792 INDEX. Land’ Office; exchanges of: 9225522 Sashes seas e eae ae ee selected for Zoédlogical Park —__--- ps etch ht SEL ge hp ie Fae PBs Langley, §. P., report:for 1889 .-222.--- 222 2s SEND Wks <2 oc ae ae annual report for “L000 222 622 18 Bare ile Soo, tee appointed one of the commissioners of Rock Creek Park commissioner for establishment of Zodlogical Park, report Os aa 2 OS BS eee re a ae ES ate aa eee ote ee ee eee letter to Congress submitting annual report-.--.-------- Hon. Leland Stanford, relative to new Museum Dolan eee oe eee acest ete ee a member of committee on resolutions relative to S.S.Cox Secretary of the Institution ----_---.---.------------ oe Lectures in lecture hall of National Museum_------.---------------- Saturday lechures<. 1222 2225 22 eee see eee ae eee ee ene Anthropological lectures, by Thomas Wilson----..------------------- WationalGeographic Society, -2-2 22 >- 22202 See ee en eee Lecture on clinical study of the brain, by Dr. Harrison Allen_----- ~~ ---- hall of Musuem used for meetings of scientific bodies. _----___-__- Ledger aceounts kept by exchange bureau ---....-.-2-- 2222-222. 5 EL Lee & Shepard requested use of stereotype plates_-----...--.----- BAe pesceg 5 Peech. Hon: H. O.; acknowledements dues vos oe ee ee eee Legations of foreign powers, acknowledgments due __----_.-...------_--- Legislation required for Smithsonian Institution ----.......--.----------- Leipzig, University of, sends complete set of publications --...-----.-_--- Lendenfeldt’s monograph of horny sponges presented to library ---..----- Length, standard of, investigations for determining ----...---..---------- Lepidoptera, North American, bibliographical catalogue of the transfor- mations'of, by Henry hdawardse: 22 s2dc4si sec eek bee Peer Letter of Secretary transmitting annual report for 1890 -_._.-.-.....----- from Secretary submitting annual report---------.---------------- of Secretary to Hon. Leland Stanford relative to hew Museum build- Letters received by exchange bureau -_.2-.- 22.222. 22 222. 22 ses2 eae written by, exchanee bureaus 2- = se eee nee ene oe ee Libbey, Prof. William, prepares new edition of Guyot’s tables _...--.___- progress in geography for 1886 _-....----.--.---- iiberia, Oxchanre transmissions, v0 «- 222 2-- 252 6. ee eee ee Library of Congress, exchanges Ol. ~ . + 2. 5 es eee eet? PRANSTSL On OOO MS MnO 6 222.2 nan nee dA ieee ees National: Minaeany ri oa. ie oS ie ra ne ee ee es Library of Smithsonian Institution __-___. Be ee Ie MEAS Ube oh” a Accessions to, statement of - ----- fae a 2 SIR aii sUeawe ee te: Contemplated extension of J pee OR Pee eee ates oe Exchange list of, work on_--_--- Be ye en Ups Je viet eee eee Important additions'=2--= ~~ 2-2 Shaheen Increase,.Of 2S s . e e e Megs eee hee Eee pire Agen planor a6) 32 da Le se aig ee et eh: ee oes Reorganization of, carried on------ Ag bh) Fenk 28 Report of librarian ---....-...----- aoe 2 a ee eee 2 eee A BE Secretary's report Obe-- 2 see Beers = ees eR ee ye gery = SOYISIS AO0Cd es. sie s ee a ae ee ee ee ee Rep, Se ec Universities sending complete sets of their publications. ._-_.-------- Lick observatory, grant to, for photographie apparatus ------- erent photographs of the moon to be made by --------------- 31 31 31 21 21 55, 56 24 55, 56 55, 56 15 80, 81 59, 62 60 19 31 15 19 INDEX. 793 Page fite-Saving Service, co-operation Of -_2-_---__2-- 22 see 22s. 22 ---2-5------ 28 Paohi- Louse Board, co-operation Of. _~ 2222-22 Se ee 22558 28 Bee ee AL GAUL: So bis TC ADO ae 60 Linguistic map of North America -_.-.:....-.----=+:-=-:-2<:2-=+--=s--+: 50 studies by Bureau of Ethnology --.----.------------ ey 47, 50, Dl, d2,.08 work of director of Bureau of Ethnology- -.-.------------------ 50 pemormed) by JetN--B. Mewltts.co----2- = an - ee 52 Misio. James, paper on Indian mummy ost ieee oe 22 ee) Bo ee 80, 81 List of accessions te the National Museum _-------------- Se tives Lpenlia : p SA e 80 HMIStraAnOue IN Annual PeNOrb fOr Leou =. 22. 2 2S te viii Smithsonian publications, by William J. Rhees ------------------ 15 Literature of thermodynamics, index to, by Alfred Tuckerman ~---_----- 14, 81 TebMOlOPy,, SiAbIstics Of ACCESSIONS. 2-2-2222 2 2 ee see ees 28 iin eranimals, Statiscics Ol ACCCSsIOUS =—---.—- 2-222 - eee ee 28 transierred to ZOolMoICal Parke 2: no os. Bones 33 Lodge, Hon. Henry Cabot, appointed a repent: —- =... _---_-- = 2) xi, 2 member of committee on resolutions relative to services of the Hon. S.S. Cox _-_-.--.------- 43 isgudoneoosrd\or Prades bGOk Sentipy 2-2 2.5-2-- 5 -eene Coc somae ane 78 Moomrss Mlias memoirs Of, bye AGING WiLOMe = 522 Ames aes a ee a 741 Low, Dr., installation of, Smithsonian represented at ----.-.---------_--- 25 M. McCormick, J.C., paper on mounds in Jefferson County. Tennessee --_---- 80, 81 MaciOwen, P., collections-reeerved from 22 2204. 22 2. Sa ae te 32 Mac Ritchie, David, books: presented> by =2¥.. -22: 222 Yla5 2 2 S2 78 Muckcus.cynomolgus-in, Zoological Parke 2 2850 ©. 2 ysc 2s oie Se eee 64 Macawe im Zoolomicdl Park —.--..8Gus4 Js S382 b fo OL OS ee 64 Mallory, Garrick,.study of Sign lang@iua@e: © =2- 221204 seLO Nes. Pele oe 28 50 Mammal skins, how to collect, by Wm. T. Hornaday --------------------- 80 Mammalsin,Zoblocical Park: <2.) 22.2. 2 s2ba2 eee See Lae OE 64 Nam mals: stati shies Of ACCESSIONS 3 Ysas 3 Sau eR BET Pa ee Sse 27 Man, ascent ofjby “ory WrankoBalker) sos ssi. Puede. TO eee ett ee ee 447 ANGLO LOM Oya OME Veins es sees See eee ieee Enger sees eee PEERS 467 Manitobasmoundiexplorationsinml 220 Ses esse ses ee ee ee 7 Manners and customs of the Mohawks, by George A. Allen__------_--___. 615 Mantez, Consul-General José, acknowledgments due-__-.------------------- 61 Map, aboriginal, of old Cherokee country, preparation of.-_-------------- 49 linenistic,.of North Americas oes2)s_ so 2 Sscs2 5 ot AIR EES L 50 Oly AOolOgical mark ys 5. yo. Sane Se ee ers ee bs Set rats Oe neh 38 Marburg, University of, sends complete set of publications -__-_--- wee eT: uu Marcou, Jules Belknap, report on Paleontology for 1886_______-_._- Bete get 79, 81 Marine Hospital, exchanges of---.------------- NESEY d pies GR thy eae ape 60 Marine invertebrates, statistics of accessions. -----.-.-------------------- 27 Mariposan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin---------------------------- 49 Mason, Otis T., Basket-work of North American aborigines ------_-_---- 81 Bibliographyiof Anthropology (252 s2so2. 22"). 2 e222 ue 558 Cradles of the American aborigines ---- ----------- abe ye Late 80 Progress of Anthropology in 1890 —..--..+----2+++--+2-22° 827 Report on progress in anthropology for 1886 ____- OTe 80, 81 represents Institution at Board on Geographical Names 25 The human ibeast of burden 22.02.22 ..--22- Lag? ere 81 794 INDEX. Page. Materia medica, Indian, plants used in, collection of ----_---._-..------ 42,48, 51 statistics of-apeessions .. 52 U0e oo) te See 27 Mathematical theories of the earth, by Robert S. Woodard -----_--____--_- 183 Maya codices, aid to study of, paper by Prof. Cyrus Thomas --____-_--_--- 54, 82 Measures and valuing, by J. Owen Dorsey -.-.--------------- os sae ee 50 Medals, statistics of accessions.........-..-.+---.--=.:-- eee eee nt 27 Medical. formulas ‘of Indians, collected: as - 332-2 eee Bae eee 42, 48, 51 Medicine man, practi¢e Of: - 2.22555 2225 55 Aes eee he ts Bee 42, 43, 48, 51 practice ofindian studies 22a) ep pes eae See ee 42,47, 48, 50, 51 Zunis studied by Mrs. Stevenson -.-_-----:--------- 50 Mediterranean, the, physical and historical, by Sir R. Lambert Playfair. 259 Meeting, annual, of Board of Regents ...-...2-.-.----- 1 -neco nes ----n xi, 2 change in-time pf 234) ere 2 say Le oe ee ee ee XV Meetings held in lecture hall of National Museum _-......-..-.---------- 31 imeadeniyol Seienced £22230 5 oeeee oat eek ee eR ECE ae oe 31 American: Historical. Association ...< .-eis<-c-s5.cneeqnce ee eee 22 American Institute of Mining Engineers ---.--.----------------- 15 31 Association of American Agricultural Colleges ---------------------- 31 Geological Congress Committee = 2415.52 -7 ee eee 31 National Geoprahie Socieupy ~~ 92 be ee eee 31 Meigs, Gen. Montgomery © ,, a regent = 22... O55 eS ee eee x, <5 member of the executive committee ___--- X, XXX11 resolution relative to compensation for plans for new Museum building ---_--.-.-------- xiv Mecca, photographs from, presented to Institution ----.----------------- 78 Meldola, Prof. Raphael. The photographic image ----_-.--------------- 377 WMeleugris gallopavo in Zoblogical’ Park —225cL2 = 2522-2220 cee) «64 Members et officio of the establishment: 2-4-2 2.20012. 2--4 4 cules eee ix Memoir of Arnold Guyot, by James D. Dana._-_- 2-2-2222 122-4222 ae 80 Elias Goomis, by Hi. A. Wewtane.? op.) a sebosc cba s ae 741 William Kitchen Parker?» -< 22% 42. sel eked ee eer 771 Memoirs relatingto' the solar corona; 2 25-22... =t=20c Jaa ae eae oie 14, 79 withdrawn from Library of Congreéss/o: 2. =< 2s 2 232 f eases 19 Memorial meeting of National Academy of Sciences in Museum ---------- 31 Menomoni delegation, assistance given by -------------------------.----- 51 Merchant S. L. Company, acknowledgments due --._...------------------ 61 Merrill, George P., appointed curator, Department of Geology----------- 32 hand-book on building and ornamental stones in National Mu- SOU 2 oe ae a as oN SS eS Set Pee ll Oe 30, 80 hand-book of geological collections_--......-...---.------.------ 30, 80 Mesozoic:fossils; statistics of accessions <2 22 2--- se -ses eas see eee 27 Metallurgy, statistics ofiaccessionsns. 2 ..d+ 22. sie s._ aes eee 28 Meteorite collection in National Museum, by F. W. Clarke--------------- 80 Meteorological and Physical Tables, Guyot’s, new edition of-----.-------- 14 Mexico, antiquities of, by S..B. Wivarsic. 22.2 222_ ie eS ees 80, 81 consul-general for, acknowledgments due_-..-.- ---------------- 61 exchange transmissions tori. d2222- 2b. vob a eae... Te 59, 62, 63 Meyer, Victor. The chemical problems of to-day---..-....---.---------- 361 Michelson, Prof. Albert A., aid to, in investigations _-----_...-..-------- 21 Michigan, ancient works. in; examined 2.2225 eae tee 47 Middleton, James D., explored ancient works--.:-.----------------------- 47 explorations.made bys: * £0) siseesnieet (cos oe 14 Midé'wiwin, the Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwas --..-..--.------- 48 INDEX. 795 Page Miller, George, an Omaha, assistance given by-----------.--------------- 51 Miller, Hon. W. H. H., member ex officio of the establishment-_-__________- ix Mindeleit. Cosmos modeline ofermins 5-2 5222-92 eee ae Ege 53 BarndeleiVicsornmseld stidies Of iit 25 Uhl ee Sioa Fede lye aes ee 14 report on architecture of Tusayan and Cibola_--------- 53 WaASit tO: Casa, Grande. Ani 7.4 ustne ese eels ees ete ee 48 Minerology, progress report for 1886, by Edward S. Dana -__-.--____----. 80, 81 Minerals sinhiseres Ot ACCCSSIONS == 5 328. oe Sek Bp mt se 28 Minot, Charles Sedgwick. Morphology of the blood corpuscles_____-__-_- 429 MintigsuReainexchang esi Olas seen ee ete wee 0 eae at ae AeA 60 Miceeianceus COUCE MONS... an sree teas mae soho aks she ee a 14 papers On! anthropology see ss Soe hoe Fh ees Wo Lesh ee cs a 80, 81 Missouri River, examination of ancient remains. ----~-----.--_-+.----_-.- 47 Mitchell, Hon. Charles G., member ew officio of the establishment________- ix Mitchell, S. Weir, and T. Reichert, researches upon the venoms of poison- Gas Sen PORES = Ae set em earl aet. 32h Sete EY ees oR eee ees yet ee 79 Modelling of ruins; by Bureau of Wthnology 224: 2. .---2 20.2242 25--28s2252 53, 54 Modern pottery, Statistics. of accessions: =. -_- +. 252222.) so-ce ite be Soe 27 Mohawks, manners and customs of the, by George A. Allen ___________--- 615 Moksary’s monographic chrysididarum presented to Institution ___-_-__--- 78 MMollusksyStabistics OlaccesSlONS «<= 25 oe a es ekg et a he 27 Money paid by Congressional appropriations for exchanges _____-___----- lr for tangs of Zoo loricals barks t=... 220 oe 22 ee SoS eee 37 IRTOHIRG YS ins AOU LOS IGA ary 2. ase ie oe tN Oe eek ae eee 64 Monograph on Indian personal names, by J. Owen Dorsey ---------------- 50 of noctuidz, contributions to, by John B. Smith__------_-_--- 30 Mountelias; Oscar: ‘The ave of bronze in Eoypt .------+=---=----_-_ 222 2_- 499 Moon, photographs of, ‘to be made by Lick Observatory --------------_--- 21 Mooney, James, explorations made by -¢2.- <2. 25. fac bese cee 14, 47, 48, 49 investigations of Cherokee tribes_.-_-_---..----...--.-.-- 51 Morley’s Researches, F. W. Clarke’s report on__-_...--~--=-4--2s2+--.-- 83 Morocco, ethnographic collections made in, by Talcott Williams_-_-____- 13 Morphology of the blood corpuscles, by Charles Sedgwick Minot----__--- 429 Moni lone iuistines sna Reo emitgess see sees soe eee ee en eee ee oe Digs oat introduced bill for fireproofing of portions of SMGh sontany pull Chun ee sa ee eer ee 10 resolution relative to bequest of Dr. Kidder ----- xiii Morton. GELOne me VArE.., are ON. =.= ne se aes 2 oe es oe ee x member ex officio of the establishment ________ ___- ix Mound explorations of Bureau of Ethnology -----.---2-=+-2--2=--.-2.=-=. 42, 47 PMV enti ahLOWS COSILDS Ol ase eee ke ee ee eet Se Se ee 42, 47 Mounds im lowa, by Clementi. Webster: 2.2 2.52 822 2 ea ta 80, 81 Jefferson County, Tennessee, by J. C. McCormick ------ oe 80, 81 Wisconsin, by Clement L. Webster -_----- a! Cee ee eee ee Sees 80, 81 of the Western Praries, by Clement L. Webster ..---.----------- 80, 81 MoOGesOL made. yr © eMiindele tLe s2 Ses oe ae oe ee a ee 53 Mount Kilemanjaro, collections made in region of__.--------------------- 14 enteidecr WupecloriCal Parle: ) 2) (22202 52k A 8 oon e ae eke 64 Mummy cave, model of, made by C. Mindeleff -..-.......----..---- 2 eee 53 Mujiozy Espriella, acknowledgments due --_---...-.-----:---------------- 61 Mirdoch John ltbrarian =< fer hoo. ee dee Be Se Se as ee 20 Studyon Hekimo POWs 252.2 2--5-6 5.5225 0325 22 SESS aro 81 Purray, Perris: & Co., acknowledgements due =. ...-~- .-+-----2-2-2--2-nce-0 6] 796 INDEX. 39 Page Museum building, compensation for, resolution by Board of Regents----- xiv plans for exhibited to Board of Regents-----.--------- xiii (See National Museum.) Musical harmony, Koenig’s researches on, by Sylvanus P. Thompson____- 335 instruments, statistics of accessions.--.-....--.--.----.-----.---- 27 Muskhogean lauguages, bibliography of ----- FRc. oe eee eres 52 Mythology, Indian;collection of 2/22. 50- e° 2223 Se eae 42, 48, 50, 51 of Zufiis studied ‘by Mra; Stevenson. 2-2" 22. = SU eel eee 50 Myths of the Onondagas collected by S. N. B. Hewitt ----.--------------- 49 N. National Academy, .exchanges*ofmonrh Asx oste bee ee oe ee ee 60 met:in lecture halliof;Museum ------.-222-s24--2-25- 21 Civil Service Reform Association, books presented by. _--------- 77 Geographic Society, lectures in Museum lecture hall____-__-___- 31 met in lecture hall of Museum _----..------ 31 National Museum: accounts examined by executive committee --...-.-..------------- xxi, xxix sdditional building required for %) [ioe Nae os te ee) ee 4, 26 anndal-inereasein-the colleciionse:- <<. =< 720 *s 2 ae ee 8,9 BSSistance':to StUdlenyis lee ote eee a eee ee ee 30 casement required .._...--------- es Se oe oe Ne Ot ee ee 9 eatalosue‘entries «22. <=. -+. ere Sens eee tee Oe ee eee eee 28 Congressional appropriations for... ---~---- xxi) XXVi, XXViil, xxix; XXxi1, xt Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smithsonian Institu- MON 22Soo0 ae. Cees eee ee en ee eee gown nnn nnn n nnn ‘ cooperation of Government Dspartmentss222" o--0 esse 28 department of livinoanimalpr 22? se Oe ee aa ee re es ee ee 33 display at World’s Columbian Exposition, difficulties attending ------ 23 distribution of duplicate specimens -----.-.---------------- ants are 29 estimates MOTs} s =! Oe eee ee ee ee eee ae ee eee 4 exchanpesvor #024 Rie BEL YE Ser P eB Roe = ed eta eee er eae Jab 60 expenditures... --2-~--.--- ooeRRd Exlll) £XiV/xXkV/xV1, XXVil/ Xx Vill see explorations..22 420.222 502¢ Ti degd D8p SER ATINI IE De ne tk ee eee = aes 32 extensioniof hours:for visitors. 22226 aoe shee Soe foe eee 31 increase of collections ------------ see) NEPALI OY LISS Ak area ee eee es bet: 26, 27, 28 labels 2 a2042 252082 4onb ogee 5c sacks nes FUP REM ye eee 31 HDPERY cao 3a2 8 18S Soe tee OSE eS? EOL Dh Se cee ees see ae 31 meetings:and lectures .----2-322- 252222. -2222 Sipe s Ste Seas 31 personnel -.------ ise se be ee ols RS ree eek Cee 32 publications. ..-.:-.----=- etet a PUA Shad SRE ST eee ee 15, 29 woport dor L887 {oF othe Ab nk a Se een eee 82 report of Secretary... 20> SoS De Ee ae ee ee ah eet eae ae et 26 special researches - - -- -- Eki ape LL bee £4 TE UNS eee eee 30 VISDOIS: 22=- So ae ae eee SAS oe AO Soe Le A ae 31 National Zoélogical Park, accounts examined by executive committee... xxxi animela it’ :s225) .o. 32. ee he Se eee a ae ee ix Offices, space in National Musuem, table of _._-_._..--....-----------.--- 9 Official documents, international exchange of -_-_---..--.._..-.--_----..-- 57 Olnio, ancient works injexamined 2292.60 i528 43, 4.sb ees Js eee 47 Ojibwas, grand. medicine society of the... -..-=2 3. Vases 48 Olmstead, Frederick Law, inspection of grounds for Zo}logical Park -___- 40 Omaha clothing, paper on, by J. Owen Dorsey __-.----------------------- 50 dwellings, by J:-Owen- Dorsey: -- <2 4a bes See ee 50 folklore, paper. by J:‘Owen Dorsey = 2.44. 7252 sa ee 50 genealogical tables, revised by J. Owen Dorsey ------------------ 50 Onondaga myths collected by J. N. B. Hewitt_.-.22 222.2 -- 2---22222225- 49 system of relationships studied. -....-./ <1 4-422 1425. S eet eee 49 Opossum in. Zodlopical Park... coe bo ee ke ee eee 64 Orcutt, C. R., acknowledgments due for specimens ---...--._------.----- 14 offered to make collections for Museum ------------------- 33 Ordnance Bureau, U S. Army, exchanges of____.-.-.----_--.------------ 60 Oriental antiquities, statistics of accessions --_----_.----------------_--.- 27 Orientalists, International Congress of, P. Haupt’s report on ------------ 85 Ornamental stones, handbook on, by George P. Merrill ------------------ 30, 80 Ornithology of National Zodlogical Park ..--.---.-...--....--.---.-+.--- 66 Osage traditions, paper on, by Rev. J. Owen Dorsey --.------------------- 54, 82 Osteologry, statistics of accessions ....._- 4a abies 27 Outdine hhistery ofthe exchanges’ _..-- 2:53 475 oh ie ee 16 Onis montana in Zoélogieal Park’ ._.- 2... 2) eeu ees She eS eee 64 Owls in ZoGlogical Park |... 2s 022.525 nna cos Ue ene ee eee 64 Ps Pacific Mail Steamship Company, acknowledgments due -__-_------_-_--- 61 Packages of specimens received by Museum.-----..------------------ ite 28 Packing cases for exchange bureau ------..---------------- lee ak Shae Re 57 Paints and dyes, statistics of accessions 2-~ = +... 2202-22 .--24-2-55-5-.-~6- 27 Palaihuihan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin__-.-.-------~-- See 49 Paleontology, North American, progress report for 1886, by J. B. Maroou: 79,81 Paleozoic fossils, statistics of accessions ---_-.---_-2.1--.2..0-222---------- 27 Panama Railroad Company, acknowledgments due-_-__-------------------- 61 Panther in Zodlogical Park —. >: 29 Se AO ee se 64 Paper money, statistics of accessions ---.---.-.--..------.--- Seibs aie ee Me 27 Papers written by curators of Museums).2.557.4i. 23 2a eee eee 30 Paraguay, consul-general for, acknowledgments due -___.-..-..--..------ 61 exchange transmission ‘10. 2-S2aus2sye Soe ee eee 59, 63 a party to Brussels convention, 2s «4... ssl ye Sse. Soe eae ak 58 INDEX. 7Ty9 Page iPankers William hate hen, -MemMOns Oe se) me ees 5 eee ree a TTL Parliamentary documents, immediate exchange of ________________-_-_--- 19 publications presented to institution -__._.___.___--.------ 78 AroOquetpneZOOLOmicalb ari: so. eens wate ws weed ee eee eee 64 Patents, Commissioner of, member ex officio of the establishment _______- ix Patent Office, exchanges of -.__------------ 5 ea eee ees Ae a ee 60 IRGCEATY 1nyZO0LOGdCaly Br kis! ot Boe aE SS ENS. LO Ce ae eee 64 Pefiasco Blanco, ruin of, modelled by Cosmos Mindeleff___.--___________-- 53 Pendulum experiments carried on by Coast Survey ---.__-.--_------------ 21 Perkins, Frederick S., collection of, Congressional act for purchase of--__ x li Permanent funds of the Institution in the U.S. Treasury_-_______-_____- 2 PRertyeld- naw 0., acknowledgements: dues=-52- see aan ae ee Se ee 61 Eee neotaiie leo is NuSC UI... t= eee kee. SE ESN ns Ps ee Ere ee 32 iPenu-exchanoe transmissions -tOes. 24-2) anda Se a BEDE SB) See 59, 63 Phelps Brothers & Co., acknowledgments due_-_:_-_/----------=---2------ 61 Physical apparatus in astro-physical observatory -____------------_-------- ll Standards\forme-ssassas Soe: Masts eae ea) Fees A Be 13 Hinids tics Ol ACCOSHIOM Sts Lees SIRE EI SEMIN eae 27 MEolop yy) SiavistiCs: OM aAcCeSslONSa=ss==_ => = aes aes nea nee eee 28 TepeaLchy Destine by SCErOLALY ==) = 2226s Jakes Ue Pee 11 SCIENCE; (Oran tSsinyal GeO Leese 2s ae ee ee eee 20 structure of the earth, by Henry Hennessy ---_---_----------_-2: - 201 Physics, progress report for 1886, by George F. Barker _-_-_-_--_---------- 80, 81 Photographic image, by Prof. Raphael Meldola-------------------------- 377 Photographs from Mekka presented to Institution --_---..------.-------- 78 made: by urea OF Minnelogy 22225202 Oe eel UE a 8 Se 53, 54 of the moon to be made by Lick Observatory --------------- 21 Ehotography, conditional instruction! in]? Us 2052 22502 Jb. 2. 222i fesse 21, 30 iemecorius columbianus in Zoélogical Park !PiC28: 2: 228 he ee 64 Ecolraphy imvesiieations an os a2) OF eat Pema ol) See ee Net 42. 47, 50 Pilling: james C.. bibliographical-work of: 274. 2-28 esse 52 am, Horwood és Co:, acknowledaments'due 2.2222 = 22" Us ENR eee tes ee 61 Piney Branch of Rock Creek, archeological examination of------.-------- 47 Pioneer Line of steamers, acknowledgments due----.-.._--.------------- 61 Eanwasiorincressine the Wbrary >. 2202s else os ee sees Soe nse ei 20 Plans for new Museum building presented +. 222-2. -2--2L-L----- 4 Plamisssfabistics:of accessions = + ieee ees Bey ae ee eee 28 used in Indian materia medica, collection of -_.-------- -------- 42, 48, 51 Playfair, Sir R. Lambert, the Mediterranean, physical and historical _.-. 259 Poisonous serpents, venoms of, researches upon, by Sir Weir Mitchell and Mie EVe CC 1a eee se ee ee ne ee oe ee een SM eens eee 79 ipelynesia, exchanse transmissions to. _ 20225) 5!8o. MEL eat 22 59, 63 Pomares, Consul-General Mariano, acknowledgments due---_------------- 61 Pouks and Omaha songs,'by J. Owen Dorsey -2 22222222 2222220122222 -0 82 50 genealogical tables revised by J. Owen Dorsey -------------------- 50 iPaLeeiastiy Siagisnies Of ACCESSIONS <2... 22.2 22-22-22 RE eee 27 Pecemmolin eaeorical Parks: fa2 = Sik sos eos See ewe ool. . J. Sere ee 64 Porter. Dr. J. H.. artificial deformation of:children ___.-- -._--2=-+_2=2- 80 Porter, Dr. Noah, resignation of, as regent —- == 2225222228 Sle Pt ee xi resolution of Board of Regents respecting 2 Portuguese consul-general, New York, acknowledgments due_----------- 61 Eoriucal, a.party to Brussels convention....:--=-------_--2---+-22.--=% a 58 Peano te asi sslONS tOss =. 5.2. Sse ar Bee rece eee sess 59, 63 800 INDEX. 7 Page. Hostage for exchange, bureaul...2: <2 2 2. ee eee 57 for National Museum: Congressional SEPSPOE RR [GP iis ei ea SS Sey et RL EL Expenditures 2222-28. 5.eeee Ef eee De eee 2 Bess CRT Pottery collections made in Africa “ Tale ote Williams Sees See pe SS 13 StatishiGs:Ob AcGessiOns:--22 ee one oes oe Se eet 27 Powell, J. W:., director, urea of Wthnolosy ]. 2) soles eee 42, report of Bureau of Ethnology --------.----- _..---.-438, 47, 54, 82 Reairie dopuin:Zotlopicalitrarisssese eee st oe ee ee eee Ue Pas 64 Prehistoric anthropology, statistics of accessions —____- 2 copper implements, Congressional appropriation 1 for pure chase OE A, Sa GR aE Tone ea tee eee hoe a : La races of Italy, by Canon Isaac Taylor ----.- 1 sees paces Se se LAE Preservation of collections, U. S. National Museum: Congressional appropriations for ------------------------ Xl, XREK, MRR Expenditures for <2 20 eos aes ee Xxil, XXiii, XX1V. XXV, XXVi, XXix Preservation of Museum specimens from insects, etc_-----. Boras a Je 81 President of the United States, member ex officio of the establishment —__- ix Primitive home of the Aryans, by A. H. Sayce -.---------- see 475 urn burial: by, Dr--Jd.gh-slyders os eee Le Se ate = 8609 minting for exchanre DUreaie= sa esses. 5 - eee ee eee Nee eee 57 Printing for National Museum: Congressional appropriation ------..-.------------ Jeisne? ao p RaRR Roe San Px penditures: Seok Lhe se a epee is Sie se ne ee eee pda ¢ Printing of annual reports, Congressional action desir Gd Fay ae Bak i6 extra copies of report ordered by Congress --..-.--.------- : ii Proceedings of American Historical Association printed --..---...._---_- 22 Board. of: Regents, journals ots). 2 2c= 2 44-6586 e eae Xj the National sNiuseumn se Se he Pr dsr ret Proctor, Hon. Redfield, member ex officio of the establishment--_-- =e ix Ryocior lotoranZodlosicaliPark os 2226 2p eae eee ee ee 64 Progress of Anthropology in 1890, by Otis T. Mason ___----_----_- == he De in. 1886;-by.Otis TP. Mason-..-. 2s e45- 252-22 5 XN RI RV, i (See, also, Board of Regents.) Reichert, T., S. Weir Mitchell and, researches upon the venoms of poison- RESNSH SUSICTOYS UHI gi a aha ah se se he SI Se ne eS ae ee pa RU Cr 79 Religious practices of North American Indians studied ______.__________- 47, 50 Recor anizahlonOrlibrary Carried Ole 22228. le. ness See ls aut 20 Repayments from bureaus on account of exchanges-_----..----------------- 17 Lor COL A Hr OCOMItS moma ss oes Ls isl es | Be Pee ee en, og Xvili US: Secale Wares oi y ete Ree asst ake Eee ye as 2 de vee ee el 57 Report, Annual of the American Historical Association ___.--____-- eae? 15 BoaLrdtorNese mtsiOnuls 9 eos fae see ee ee i, iv thet urea ol phnolomy 222 ee. eee ee ee Ale oe 15, 54, 82 Coe AMINO SIO Lye sae ee tee ee Sena EE Cea eye il IEE re i of acting manager of National Zodlogical Park __-----------__--- 64 assistant secretary in charge of National Museum_ ---_-_.------- 29, 82 assistant secretary, bibliography of Museum, publications in__. 30 CoOMmMmMISsionecrsion Zo0lomicall Parks sess ee ee eee 88, 39 CURAOMEOL OX CHAM OCS hae sien eee ele ars SN ee ae fe ee 50, 62 CURATORS OleN avon lplV itt Se Ur emer ee se ee ee 82 executive committee of Board of Regents __-__--------.------- xvii WN Dy SH Eee ay he eter Ia re Se a Re A De jee Be cacy OP oe ene ee 70 H. Mis. 129 51 802 INDEX. Page. Report of Maj. J. W. Powell on Bureau of Ethnology -----~- ------ -.-..48, 47.82 Secrotary for S02 Ue was eee ee ee Spee ek e 82 1890 to Board! of events: <2 -— = S322. eee 1 appendix TOk seo sa ae oe eee ee 47 Bureau of Ethnology---..-.--.----. 42 International exchanges------------ 16 brary 225 22 taf heeee ss ee eee 19 National Museum 2. -=2.0225--5_ 228 26 National Zoélogical Park--..-_----- 34 on International Congress of Orientalists___.._.-.....--...-___J_- 85 progress in anthropology for 1886, by Otis T. Mason -_----_---- 80, 81 of anthropology for 1890, by O. T. Mason-_------------ astronomy for 1886, by William C. Winlock ------- 79, 81 1889, 1890, by William C. Winlock.-. 121 chemistry for 1886, by H. Carrington Bolton ----_- 80, 81 geology for 1886, by Nelson H. Darton_------------ 79, 81 geography for 1886, by William Libbey, jr -------- 80, 81 mineralogy for 1886, by Edward S. Dana-_-_--------- 80, 81 physics for 1886, by George F. Barker-_---_-_-_---- 80, 81 seismology for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr -------- 79, 81 paleontology for 1886, by Jules Belknap Marcou___. 79, 81 vuleanology for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr------- 79, 81 zodlogy for:18386; by, Pheodore Gilly 2 > a. . ee 80, 81 Professor Morley/sirescarches 2.5) ses a me a ee 83 Smithsonian exchanges for 1887, by George H. Boehmer -~----- 79 steam transportation, by J. Elfreth Watkins --......--.----_-- 80 Representative relations of Institution. ---..........-:---_-_--.---.+<----- 25 Representatives of foreign governments, acknowledgments due ___---___- 61 Reptilia, paper on, by- Prof. Hdward' D.-Cope ---22-2- = bee eeee 2 ee 15 Reptiles in Zodlogical Park---...--..---------- bbl iid Sete ORE EERO ae eee ee 64 Siabistics Of ACCESSIONS 22-22-62 SEL oe 2 to eee a ee PA | Researches. 2) soe se segs sie See oes ee ee Oe a ee eee eee 10 byccurators of Museums 23 Sete See ee eee Bee 30 ethnologic, among the North American Indians-------------- 42, 47 upon the venoms of poisonous serpents, by 8S. Weir Mitchell aid JT. dteicherb 2. 2:22. Loch bei eecet ea eee ee ee 79 Residuary. legacy of Suiithson,; amount Of 225-28 2 eee ee 2 Resienstion of Dr.“Noah Portercs 2-6. sso 2 Te eee een eee xi Resistance box ordered for astro-physical observatory ---..---------------- 11 Resolutions by Congress. (See Congress, resolutions by.) Resolutions by Board of Regents: Appropriating anualincomie = 222222 2ao- tee 8 ae eee xii Bequestot Dry Jerome Hi: Kidderi2o2 > ssa 2 ee eee eee xiii Compensation to Cluss & Schultze .---------- SEP Be Nhe, A 25 ere Te Xiv Death of Hon. Samuel’S Cox ise ae eee ee oe ee Meetings of: Board: 2625324 2! Se ee ee ee ee ee eee XV Repayment of money advanced for exchanges --_-------------------xii, 16,18 Resignation ofr. INOGh POrter as. sn. aces eae ee ee ee xi, 2 Reulesux, F., technolocy and civilizntion’:—-- 2. os note eee eee eae 705 Review of the Family Delphinidx, by F. W. True------------------.- oe 30 Revenue marine, codperation of ------------ ae a Spe = 28 Reynolds, Henry L., assisted in work on mound explorations WEEE 52 explorations made by 2. 22c.926 4-6 2 ead ee eae 14 mound explorations by ..csnsencensannnesccnccesecne Al ~~ Vue eos INDEX. 8038 Page. Rhees, William J., chief clerk of the Institution _..............-.. -____.- ix list, of Smithsonian, publications... - 21-22 22202202 s252 15 midoway, overt, paper on humming birds. i222 ee eo 30 Rio Salado, ruins on, report on, by Victor Mindeleff ___.__....__________- 53 Rock Creek, archacolomical examination. of-. == 2... 2h eos toe ee 7 Selec ren LOM AOU LO ete Serr ke fos So 8e ek ee he oe 7 EOC bei NWewe=xplOorabious tml Mhibets2 2026 252052) once a aes 13 Rockwood, C. G., jr., report on progress in vuleanology and seismology in ; Se toe ere eee at OF eee ee ARI ie IL eet ds tg a ee 7S, 81 Romanes, George J., Weismann’s theory of heredity _..... _._.--.__..._- 433 Rocke VOUMmbalM Seep: lA OlOS i calumarke joe see ee ee Oe 64 Rooms for scientific work, assignment Of 2.2.22 - 3) 2 2 Le 21 Royal Academy of Budapest presented publications. __.._...____..________ 78 Society or London, books presented. bye 2-2-0 3s 2 Wes 78 Ruins modelled by Cosmos Mindeleff _-_-..____-____ PIRES ee CE 538, 54 PSO rE COME DV Vee pels NEN ON Gtih ae? oon k Ok oe ge ee ke 53 Ruiz, Consul-General D. L., acknowledgments due ______ __..-_-__.____-- 61 Rush, Dr. W. H., U.S. Navy, acknowledgments due for specimens _-_--- 14 offered to make collections -__..-...___.-2: 33 ae xc hana@et ran Sm SstONsntO si ee ee a eee ea eS eee 59, 63 history of geodetic operations in, by Col. B. Witkowski and Prof. Sev OwanOlG OTemn .seeker sie ear Ae ee oe oe Loe ta en 305 hydrographic publications pres2nted by Government of _________- 78 Sabaties: DAD OxGHan me sDUPeAt aso sen we ene) ee ioe a ee 57 SaLesOn PU DlUGALOnNs -Tecoipis (OMe s 240 25.2.5 i aoe ee xvili San Salvador, consul-general for, acknowledgments due__________________ 61 Sxeh ange, (ranSmussrons (Os a2. deo ee ee 59 Saturday lectures in Museum lecture hall_-----------_____- ee ies ae tk, 2H 31 Savannah River, Georgia, mound on the, explored__.-.._____.___..___-_- 47 Sakon. CxChan ie TRansSMIsslONS tO sesso. osce oa kk ee ee ee oe 59 sayce, Prof. A. H., the primitive home of the Aryans____.-..--.-_______- 475 Schliemann, Dr. Henry, requested representation at international con- FELONeOlaman GleM th O Nese csc Ae et oe cea i Rte Cee ee ee 25 Sehumacher, Ac, & Co., acknowledoments due 62222-22252 25- 22-40) ee 61 SCLOMMUChVOLK ASSloM Ment Ol OOM MOI = a ase se Sees eee 21 MerurusscOrolnens7s im ZOoLofmical Park 2. ee oe 64 AMASONTUS Any A0OlORICAl Eat ate ance ier 64 Semuropierus volucelia in-Zoblogical Parke. 2.2. 22.2) ee ue keel 64 Serew threads, standards to be adopted.__-..+ = -2.-_- <3. 5-2 eee 13 Secretary communicated to National Academy investigations upon the PiEVSEM SE 1g oa 2a Mg ol pe ej cipher od Eee 11 peeretary setver submitting annual report... -4._._ <2. .2-_22:._-2.- iii Secretary of Smithsonian Institution a member of committee on resolutions Cel auVe: Or ae: Lane Sais.) COR Sore eS Serene 48 TEROPL [Ot L880 29 so see 4 AE BNC EE a BS Cea eae Pe 82 DcChciaryaeeeDOrb, appendix tO 2... 0 Se2o2 woes at ee ee 47 Cn BUrea nO MEbnOlo ony (sae oS 8 wal pee 2 INLET MALONE CREM ANM Od so we = eee Se ee 16 ALS An genes eeepes eh ani Rea pea we Mee Rey Re 19 INABLOUSH Vi SOUMtE see Sic. Ss ey oe ee ees 26 National Zooloctes Parks 225-220 42.6 5 eae see 34 Peeraty Ghlauenor COUTTOSy Olio c nt tele dank ok hos eek weed 29 Seely, F. A., grant for purchase of archeological ODJCCISSa see eas =e 21 S04 INDEX. Page. Seismology, progress report for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr .--...--.---- 79, 81 Senate, action of, with regard to appropriation for fireproofing of part of Smithsonian building. ..:03...902eSe: ee a ee ee 10 bill relative to new Museum building .-.-.-. 2.0.22 2.22 2 -2s222c: 4 Serials.added to the library -...- 5. ee Pec a eee 75 Serpents, poisonous, venoms of, researches upon, by S. Weir Mitchell and TP Relehert .<.. 1 -.4ecipenhee aceasta pew ene eee ee omen 79 pervia, exchange transmissions to 2.9. .2305- 5.2.75 2t 22s A ee 63 a'party to Brussels convention 22222-42228 96 at 23 eee 58 Shipaulovi pueblo, model of, made by C. Mindeleff____....-.._.____.__-_. 53 Shuteldt, Dr. BR. W., studied bird g@keletonss._+ alee Wives Ser 30 Sia ‘tribe Of-Pueblo Indians, study of 5202.0 te enor: Cee eee 43, 54 Siderostat in astro-physical observatory -...-.-.--...2-22-02--- 4-042 ee 11 Sion language, investigations: ins <0) 8 2-5 Se De Dee © 42, 47, 50 menal Office, exchanres:oF .2.7% 2: si hae ee hee Se eee ee ee 60 Siletz tribes, gentile system of. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey--.-.-..-.------ 50 Sixth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology_-----..-_...-...-_---- 15, 54, 82 Sketch of plans for new Museum building presented _.........-.---.-.--- 4 Skull, clinical study of the, paper on, by Dr. Harrison Allen______.___--- 15, 80 Smith, John B., contribution toward a monograph of the insects of the lepidopterous family Noctuidze of temperate North America ____._____- 30 Smithson bequest, amount of... S22. tea Le ee 2 mprithsonian fund, "condition Olos_ 22> = aa. 2k ieee ee Been ee eee xvii accounts examined by executive committee _____._________-- Xvil annual reports for 188i andulSShe 2.20 ee se ee 15, 7$ building, continuation of fireproofing. -.......-............. 10 should be paid for by Government. ---....._.--.--- xii Contributions to Knowledges so ee ee eee eee 14,79 VOL. SR VE' poet eee ee ee ees 7 exchanges, reports on, for 1887, by George H. Boehmer __--- 7 Instinibion, Sxchanges Of,--s- 5 a kes ee eer, ee ee 60 pecretary’s report for iso). 5 ae ee L Miscellaneous Collections: ..- 22-4 Ane tes oe eee 14 publications, check lastiol-<2-6 3220-5 = tee oe eee 81 listof, by WilliamJ.. Hheess: 3-202 2-2. 15 Snakes i Zoulopical Paris) - 2 oot clic oe oa eee eee ee ee ee 64 Sayder: 35: hom anenorgiones.. i022 ot 5 hehe ore ee nee ee ee ee 80, 81 snyder, Dred... primitive umn burial 20s fece see ann see eee eae 609 Societies corresponding with exchange bureau...-..---.-..-------------- 55, 56 Solar corona, Memoirs relavimm tOpeme] sae ae oe eee eee 14, 79 South Australia, exchange transmissions to..............------------.--- 59, 63 Sonik Carolina, explorations in’ 8 2 se. 2 eee ee ee eee 47 Spain, consul-general for, acknowledgments due.-......-.---------------- 61 exchange transmissions tov s- =. 4M ene s ee ee eee eee 59, 63 a. party to Brussels convention. <2 .--Sec5-2 2. Soe ee sear 58 Sparrow hawk in Zodlogiesal Park: 053.225 6. oe oan een! 2. 64 Special researches by curators of Museum-.-..=-.+...-.----.-5-..---<4.-- 30 Specimens, packages of, received by Museum.-.........-....------------- 28 preservation of, iromanseets; Ohe. 6. sea. ease eee ee eee 81 Spectro-bolometer in astro-physical observatory .-.-.-------------------- Il Spermophilus tredecimlineatus in Zoblogieal Park --...---.-----------.---- 64 Sponges, horny, Lendenfeldt’s monograph on, presented to Institution - - - 78 Sqiurrels in Zodlocicsl Panks.c- sons ee ee ee re eee 64 INDEX. 805 Page. Standard diameters:of tubine to be adopted =-2-=2--2---- 22-22. 22.2 88s 13 of length, investigations for determining ---_----.------.------- 21 Screweplireads torbedepiede.. 222.22 2! a ee ee 13 to be ordered for Smithsonian Institution ------ antec Ee ere ae 13 (See Committee on the international standards for iron and steel). Stanford, Hon. Leland, letter to, relative to new Museum building ------_- 4,5 Stanley and the map of Africa. By J. Scott Keltie_-_.-........-.-.---_- 277 StatenBepariment, CO-OperatlOn Ob n-as2-2- 022.2222 252-452 3e toe sep se 28 CRCVAN CCR Gham ee ery eee ns een ase ae es See eae 60 Statement. om covernmentaliexchanGesoss = s2s22-2-9sce 52-5 ee oe ee 60 SisiGneryromexchanmte vounedies aa eee ae Sf ook oe ee ces 57 Slatishcalsburcauwexchunoes|Olmee=se ieee eens.) eee ri oe see 60 SA IShIC SOM ACCESSIO MS eee et ae ets town tenn Me cre See ee Se a 27, 28, 80, 81 Stal Ueno leben Ol evi eee ase a eer eet eta ea ek See ne ne ae 20 Steam transportation, report on, by J. Elfreth Watkins ---__------- map estes 80 Stearns oberteliy ©-.eubmo-conchology 2222-2540. f= 28 eee ee 81 Steel, standards for, committee on, met in Smithsonian building —__-____-_ PAL Stereotype plates stored in Smithsonian building -__.-.__----_------__-_- 24 SLOMencOl Virsa eahielaestiadlesiOne =. seen sse 20h ee ee 14,50 Stewart, Consul-General Alex. I., acknowledgments due ____---___-________ 61 Sierave space in. National’ Mgiseum, table of ...--.-....--.-5.22---<---2--- 9 Strassburg, University of, sends complete set of publications ------_____-- Ui Strix pratincola in Zoblogical Park--------- ee et tener Hee ee eee eeeie ae. & Sie 64 Structure of the corona. By David P. Todd _------_-_._--- ee ee ae ee 79 Sibecerption to Astronomical Journal... =... 4.2... 2.522222.2-8--4252 2. 21 Suisunsvocabwlaries collected by iwia Curtin 22224222220 ee 49 Sun-dance, Dakota account of. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey __-------------- 50 Surecon-General, exchanges of 2-_-.-. 0222-2 = -+=5- So sae RES cede 60 SlEVeyeo: landwtor:ZOulogicaleb anime: > Se vee sa 52 ik 2 ae oe 40 Swan, J. G., paper on the Indians of Cape Flattery, new edition ____._--.- 15 Sweden, consul-general for, acknowledgments due --_-------------------- 61 SXCMAMAS LEAN SMULSSL ONS F tO seem ane eee a oe eS en ee pee 59, 63 parliamentary publications of, presented to Institution—--------- 7 Switzerland .exchanoe transmissions ts. 2-525 2522 ete et 59, 63 a party tO DPussels COMVentiON=<- 5-2-2535 6- oes ee oe Bh 58 amuum meowuosuny in: ZOOlOCiCal Parkins 2 ences 22a ceo. sone cece ee eas 64 TS Tables, Guyot’s meteorological and physical, new edition of ---.---.------ 4 showing annual inerease in Museum collections -------.---------- 8.9 Taumania, exehange transmissions tOy 22222222222 Ue 2 estat eid ese 59, 63 PAaSiGeriny,cONGIIONALINSLEUCTION Imts oa! 98 {Seo S Lee ess oe ee 21, 30 Maylor, Canon Isaac. The primitive races in Italy -..-..---..--.----=-- 489 Wechnolosyand civilization.” By FW. Reuleawx’_-.~ 2. °...2.:..-.2-25-_--2 T05 femperatureand life. By Henry de Varigny —-...-2.--.5.22.---+------- 407 Tennessee, explorations in, by Bureau of Ethnology---------------------- 49 esiido clephamtopus in Zoolopical Park - 2222. -..2-2 22 vee. 2 eee 64 nigrita in Zoblogical Park ------------ Be Pe a sateen tek ees 64+ meton tolkdiorda: Eaper by J“Owen Dorseye. ee soos. 2s2 2585. 222 - =~ cee 50 Tetuan, pottery collections made in, by Talcott Williams ---.---.-------- 13 Tewa, pueblo of, model of, made by C. Mindeleff- ---- pc yi LL al SR TS es 53 Boston swudwmor. Paper by WH. Holmes’: -22b2223-22 20022222 54, 82 MextilessctatistiGs Of ACCESSIONS... .---.....-....-.-...-.< i eases 27 806 INDEX. Page. Thaw collection of physical apparatus in astro-physical observatory ----_- Thermodynamics, index to literature of, by Alfred Tuckerman. ----- ~~~ 14, 81 Thibet, explorations in, by W. W. Rockhill -.-.-..-.-_-:__<_-_. Be AI nomas, Cyrus, explorations Dye.) . o> 32s ee ae oe Catan MM ee paper on aid to study of Maya Codices --_..-..-.------ .. 54, 82 superintendence of mound explorations -..._....-.-_-_--- work on mound explorations. -_--------- Spa Rd Thompson, Sylvanus P. Koenig’s researches on musical harmony ----- . doa Throwing-sticks in National Museum. By Otis T. Mason_--..----------- Todd, David P. ,On-the structure of the corona: .-+- -2..2- = ee eee **Noner lecture,” by Dr. Harrisom Allen..___-__-.......- iis le ee al 15, 80 jib as elkeCernphatoey ay ecrtiay = CoWA one eee ek EA Re ee Sk Toriello, Consul-General Enrique, acknowledgments due ___-.----.-----=- Mortoise in Zoolomicail Parks «22555 2 eee oe ee ee ee Tracy, Hon. Benjamin F., member ez officio of the establishment -----_- Transactions of bureau of international exchanges-----...-..------.----- 55, 56 withdrawn from Library of Congress.....----_..------------ 19 Transfer of transactions from Library of Congress.-_----.-.--------------- 19 Transformations of North American Lepidoptera, bibliographical eata- lopue of, by: Benry, Wawards. ao. a a a ee 29, 30 Transparencies made by Bureau of Ethnology----.---.------------------ 53, 54 Transportation bills, exchange bureau _2-- 22-32 eee eee 57 companies, acknowledgments due--._---.----.-----.---_- 60 Statistics Of ‘ACCESSIONS. se. oa ee ee ae 27 Treasury Department, exchanves Of...s25-2-.- .- = 2-48) ee ee 60 free entries oranten Dwt (o.oo na 28 ‘Treaty Ol brussels. .220- 52 Sea ce See Se Se AS 4 ae 57 Trewb, ML. 2 Ac tropics!) botanical o-anc en ee ee 389 Lropical botanical garden. “By; Mi. Dreulss 222. oe ee ee 389 9 True, F. W., continues as acting curator, department of comparative | BNALOURY ae aa ee ee te a 32 contribution to the natural history of the Cetaceans, a review of the family ; Delphinitee 2220). 2 oe ee es Ss a ee 30 Tiibingen, University of, sends complete set of publications-------------- dad Tubing for apparatus, standard diameters for _-.-.-.__..-____-__-_--___-- Tuckerman, Alfred, index to literature of thermodynamics -- ------------ Tulalip Reservation, Washington, ethnological specimens from Turkey, consul-general for, acknowledgments due------------------------ exchalre transmissions 10 =o. 2 25 ee ee ee ee Turkeys in Aovlorical (Parle (a5 wee ss clack ee eee an ee ae Turtle: dovein’A00lOoiCH) Panik sss ees ee a ee ee ee a Tusayan, architecture of, report on, by V. Mindeleff -.-......-_---..--_- Twana, Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of Washington. U. United States of America a party to Brussels convention -...--..-- ------ eonsuls, co-operation ‘of: ~-2 2.2555 (oso S. eee: Pe ee ministers, co-operation of _____- a ope a 52) 2 ye Le ae 3 U.S. S. Pensacola, officers and sailors of, acknowledgments due Universities sending complete sets to library -.----..------------- Upsala, University of, books sent ‘by..-+ 220 2530.6 ee eta beeen eae eee INDEX. 807 Page Diimiauriah primitive, by Drs Paouby Gers m=. ss saci eee es te oS 609 Upgecyonvimngumianus in Zoblogical Parle -- si 2, oh et ee 64 Ursus americanus in Zoblogical Park __---------- tS LS is Bhar ots aa ree 64 RORROUESTIne AGO LOM Cale are kaeeees ee at eer pene ees i ae Oe 64 Uruguay, consul-general for, acknowledgments due -____.__---2----2------ 61 SxeMane e TAN SNTISSIONS Ose mae ees aE oe ee 59, 63 Mifare LecOrEsrussels CONVENtIOU at eaees men e0e ee ease 2 aN Ot eh 58 Utrecht, University of, sends complete set of publications---..-----.-_-.. (ifs Vis Vacancies in Board of Regents, Congressional resolutions respecting - -_-__ xli Vandentiloorn VV El. acknowledomemnts @ues-ss----4e-- 2-2-2 2 61 Wareble, Eras. .o7Co., acknowledsments due® 2220522 523.02 oe Soil e te 61 Venezuela, exchange transmissions to_.. 22. =-2 222-2222 28 202 59, 63 Venoms of poisonous serpents, researchesupon. By 5S. Weir Mitchell and Uh, LBVEST UD S10 eet Bite eA UR ate Sag Dame Fe ee es: yas hc ek ee 79 Vermont State reports presented to Institution .-....-_-.----------+-_--- 78 Mervebrate fossils, statisties:of accessions .2.2222 222. Sl al Leek 27 Vesteras Hogre Allmiéinna Liroverk, book sent by --_---------.---___-_-- 78 Wacnoria.exchance transmissions to -. 2722-22 222 2) els eee ae 59, 63 Vice-President of the United States member ez officio of the establisment- ix Vincent, Frank, jr., collection of books presented by ---------- ---------- 78 Mirco ocr i ZCOlorical bark: sso 2 0. ee ts Se ds 2 Senn eee 64 Bie nocor Na iOMaAleVUSoUAM Siiroe ene ban aoe Sooo eC Ros a 31 Wieeamulaees collected bys. @untim —- 9255.2 ce Po no- S es lee 49 Miarsss Sie yensOtta= a> a. seme eee es Se 50 Voorhees, Hon. Daniel W., proposed bill for purchase of Capron collection _ 23 Wouchermexamined py Executive Committee -+ 25.6820 2 UNE e a oe ine 3, 4 Vulcanology, progress report for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr ------_-_--- 79, 81 epee yekous AOOloricalirParke. == 220s a= essa be ses sl lst ee 64 REMraueeOOLO CICA ears tate 5 ee BU ot ee Se ee eS 64 Ww. Wagner Free Institute of Science presented Kiener’s ‘‘ lconographie des aU EMO M EN ShVATIDOS,-- So Ben aoe Oma eee wet aoe SUL hte tee Phage) wife 31 Waldstein, Dr. Charles, represented Institution at International Confer- Sitter we amelert EPO © 2 Jo eee se ee re pnme = Ue SERN) ee 25 NViallieemodelWotumadedbya@siViincdeleties se sees sae) ge Se eee ees So tee Ee 53 Wanamaker, Hon. John, member ex officio of the establishment __________- ix Warbcparimenmt, exchanges Of. = alee ee SoS ae a SRS A ok 60 Washington, Territory, ethnological specimens from ___------_---------- 29 Indians‘ors “By iyron Bells: ss = 22. 2s a= 8 80, 81 Wateree River, South Carolina, mounds on the, explored-_-_-------------- 47 Watkins, J. Elfreth, report on steam transportation _________-_______-__- 80 the Ramsden‘dividing engine _2-..--2_.22-.-.---=-- 721 Webster, Clement L., Mounds of the Western Prairies _-_---..---------- 80, 81 on/ancient mounds.in lowan2 ses ee 2 ee se 80, 81 Johnson County, lowa___--_-- 80, 81 Indian graves in Floyd and Chickasaw counties, DON yes let Sees eee he RE ee Dene ee 80, 81 NMicemindies, exchange transmissions: to 2.222. 2--2 2-222 -22.83 2022820 59 Weight of packages received by bureau of exchanges_------------ beets 55, 56 Weismann’s theory of heredity, by George J. Romanes --..--------------- 433 Weitspekan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin.........-..--..-..- Shane 49 808 INDEX. Page. Welling, Dr. James C., member of committee on resolutions relative to 4 i services of thevHonuiSy Ss. CoOxs==s--- 2) -eseeeee 43 © TOSONt 25-2500 eke ioe twee ot hee Sanne eT member of the executive committee -------.----X, xxxili resolution on appropriation of annual income --.. xii resolution on money advanced for exchanges.---. xii Wesley, William, & Son, acknowledgements due ------------------------ 60 Wheeler, Hon. Joseph, appointed regent. -----.----25---_- _ = ees bo pe eT a Sea Sy a0 oS oe Spe ae esp pe ay et Xe, Xj member of committee on resolutions relative to thevblongs-.S. Com = 225 22 be ose as eee 43 motion relative death of Hon. S.S. Cox __---_--- XV, XVi White,on. Andrew D,,, a TOPONb. — > aaa eee ee zupci White Cross Line, acknowledement duc==--—-=— "22 ee eee 61 White-headed eagle in Zodlogical Park---------------------------------- 64 Williams, Talcott, explorations in Africa_.2-=-----_..-_-------_ == 13 Walson a: Asmus, acknowledoments Guess 2 =" = = eae eee ee 61 Wilson, Thonias, criminal anthropology ----- 5 = ee 617 lectures in Museum. lecture hall -....-..--...-..-._.=5 31 Windom, Hon. William, member ez officio of the establishment-_-__-----_- ix Winlock, William C., appointed honorary curator of section of physical Sp Paras) — a Sae =e ee eee oe 32 progress In astronomy im 1680_-=-2=---- eae ee 79, 81 report on progress of astronomy for 1889, 1890_____- 12 report on international exchanges- ---------------- 55, 62 Winnebago folk-lore notes, paper by J. Owen Dorsey --------------------- 50 Wisconsin, ancient mounds in, by Clement L. Webster_------------------ 80, 81 Wishoshkan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin -----.------------- ------ 49 Withowski. Col. B., and Prof. J. Howard Gore, history of geodetic opera- tions in Russia -.-.-----------------+--+----=-----<--5+----=-5-----+-=-= 305 Woodchuck in Zoélogical Park -..--------=-------- s--+-+--<==---=--==2-~- 64 Woodward, Robert S., mathematical theories of the earth ----~---...---- 148 Work of astro-physical observatory explained -------------+------------- 12 performed in the library ------------------------------------------ Kf: Work-shops, excavations into----------------------------------------- ge A248 Work-shop space in National Museum, table of. .------------------------- 9 World’s Columbian Exposition, Congressional act relative to_------------ 23 Fair: Congressionalact respecting =~ 25-2" = se bees ep See XXXV Wright, Peter, & Sons, acknowledgments due ------.-------------------- 61 Wirtemberg, exchange transmissions to ---------- ---------------------- 59, 63 Wirzburg, University of, sends complete set of publications ------------. ri Be Vear-books, collection of, in exchange bureau-_---.----------------------- 62 Yuki vocabularies collected by J. Curtin --.---.---.----~-.~-...-------=-. 49 Z. Zenaidura macroura in Zoblogical Park -.-.------------------------------- 64 Zoblogical Park, condition of, explained by Secretary to Regents -------- xiv (See National Zoélogical Park.) Commission, rooms occupied by - - ----------------------- 21 Zodlogy, progress report for 1886, by Theodore Gill ...-.- ~----- --------- 80, 81 Zui Indians studied by Mrs. Stevenson- --------------------------------- 50 Zurich, University of, sends complete set of publications -..---.----.------ 77 ° ee Date et na - wer “eh oe ma; eee - : ted oes Pats ‘\@- 4 : - Lai s ee Hii: geitae Wad Co i a peut, 2 Y 4 eater Ee Sols ie me rad j at aT hae Et ' s nies ; os a \s Ly tr el -"T) ¥ , a a 4 . | ‘tet 4 eine. Fea i ; & ae faalas Rte F — arts/2 a halts Poa Dee Res yo NS Se » @ =! keheae - real es re uA ve. mY 9 EA aa de yeh “és “¢ freer ver ie 7 © ta Os "a te oh ee ee 7) aes a Mes Setar mega. a he Pre (4 er Fes 4 3 5, + ier 8 ys ie Weir a Tenth” a won : a ee bate miteca Ub aw es, 0. tegetee Wey tv," were ie Ai) SK ee erry ie Hee; ee ed ae. . eC ee ee ay A wig, iS We’- acs) Tie Pa re oy § ae ee ad \ - , fe OE Tiel ee Sd io tee es i OL enn wae Saree a od aes awa ’ i. gu. Boy 7 eae wal ape f eG) Se ne he en iz a a: t aa ee Tee Roe a F ‘aX a io “7 Le ar | D tam SS Er vy ats ins ’ hae eg a “in-§ i r : Si Tih ot odin ee ri = Viv ‘